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I  I' 


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v- 


presenteil  In  I  he 

IIBRARY 

I'NIVF.RSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  •  SAN  DIF.GO 

h 

FRIF.NDS  OF  THE  LIBRARY 

Dr.   Denis  Fox 


donor 


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.  .J'^.  -■'-'■     « 


'■  \-'.i'--::  ' 


IC*    "  Ir. 


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III®  4:- 


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2459  c^'JatCi  cRooJl 
Jla  ^oLLa,  Calif.  92037 


CHAMBERS'S 


ENCYCLOPEDIA 


A  DICTIO^AET 


OF 


UNIVERSAL    KXOWLEDGE 


NEW    EDITION 


YOL  y 


Friday  to  Humanitaeiaxs 


WILLIAM   &   ROBERT   CHAMBERS,   LIMITED 

LONDON   ANT)   EDINBURGH 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY,  PHILADELPHIA 

1901 


All  EiglUs  reserved 


The  following  Articles  in  this  Volume  are  Copyiighted  by   J.  ?..  Lippincott  Company  iu  thi 
Uiiitetl  States  ol  America  : 

George,  Hkmsv.  Hakte,  Francis  Bret. 

Georgia,  U.S.  Harvard  U.niver.sity. 

Grant,  Ulvs.ses  S.  Hawthorne,  Nathaniel. 

Hakkison,  Benjamin.  Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell. 


Among  the  more  iviportant  articles 

in  this  Volume 

are  the  following : 

Friendly  Societies.. 

Rev.  J.  Frome  Wilkinson. 

Gun 

W.  W.  Greener. 

Friends 

James  G.  Smeal. 

Gunnery,  &c 

Lieut.-Colonel  Dunlop,  R.A. 

Fruit;  Fungi 

Professor  Patek.k  Geddes. 

Gunpowder,  &c. 

Major-General  Arbithnot. 

Fuel 

R  E.  Anderson. 

Gunpowder  Plot 

Gymnastics 

T.  Graves  Law,  LL.D. 

FOERO. 

Fdrs 

Henry  Poland. 

Gyp.sies 

F.  Hindes  Groome. 

G;  H 

Gyroscope 

Professor  Cargill  G.  Knott. 

Gaelic        

Professor  Mackiskon. 
J.  M.  Okay. 

Hadrian's  Wall 

HAfiz 

Dr  J.  COLLiNowooD  Bruce. 
W.  A.  Clouston. 

Gainsborough 

Galland  ;  Galley.... 

Stanley  Lane-Poole. 

Hair 

Professor  D.  J.  Cukiunoham. 

Gambbtta  ;  Grey 

G.  Babnett  Smith. 

Hair  Manupactukes.. 

Alexander  Galletly. 

Gardening 

R.  D.  Blackmobe. 

Hall  Marks 

G.  E.  Gee. 

Llovd  C.  Sanders. 
R.  W.  Lowe. 

Hallam 

Hallucinations 

Francis  Watt. 
Dr  T.  S.  Clouston. 

Garrick 

Gas;  Gas-lighting.. 

Dr  Alfred  Daniell. 

Halos 

B.  T.  Omon-d. 

Professor  Ewing. 
Austin  Dobson. 

Hand;  Hip-joint 

H.vndel 

Dr  Hepburn. 

Sir  George  Grove. 

Gay;  Gold.smith 

Geog.  Distkibution  . 

.  G.  G.  Chisholm. 

Hannibal;  Hazlitt.. 

Walter  Whyte. 

Geography 

.  John  S.  Keltie,  F.R.G.S. 

Harbour 

D.  &  T.  Stevenson. 

.  Professor  James  Geikie. 

Harmony 

Franklin  Peterson. 

Geometry 

.  J.  S.  Mackay,  LL.D. 

Harrison,  Benjamin 

General  Lew  Wallace. 

George  I. -IV 

.   W.  Feaser  Rae. 

H.vsTiNGS,  Warren.... 

H.  G.  Keene,  CLE. 

George,  Henry 

.  Henry  George. 

H,vwAii;  Honolulu... 

C.  P.  Lucas,  Colonial  Office. 

Georgia,  U.S 

.  C.  Jones,  LL.D. 

Hawthorne 

George  Parsons  Lathrop. 

Georgia 

.   W.  R.  Morfill. 

Haydn 

J.  F.  Rowbotham. 

Geum  \ny 

H.VYTI         

Sir  Spenser  St  John. 

Germ  Theory 

Dr  R.  W.  Philip. 

He.vt 

Professor  P.  G.  Tait. 

Gibbon  ;  Fuller 

Thomas  Davidson. 

Hebrew 

Rev.  Professor  A.  B.  Davidson. 

Gibbons,  Orlando... 

Sir  George  Grove. 

Hegel 

Professor  Edward  Caird. 

Glacial  Period 

Professor  James  Geikie. 

Heine;  Hoffmann... 

J.  T.  Bealby. 

Glaciers;  Gey.sbbs.. 

John  Gunn. 

Hemans,  Mrs 

Robert  Cochrane. 

Gladstone,  W.  E 

Justin  M'Carthv,  M.P. 

Henry  I.-VH 

W.  Dundas  Walker. 

Glanders 

Principal  Williams. 

Henry  VIII 

P.  Hume  Brown. 

Gla.sgow 

James  Paton. 
H.  Chance. 
William  Morris. 

Heraldry 

Dr  G.  Burnett. 
Arminius  Vamb^ry. 
Joseph  Henry  Shorthouse. 

Glass  .        ... 

Herat 

Herbert,  George 

GLAS.S-STAINING 

Gnostics 

Rev.  A.  P.  Davidson. 

Heredity 

Professor  J.  Arthur  Thomson. 

Godwins;  Hook. 

F.  HlNDE-S  Groome. 

Herodotus 

F.  B.  Jevons. 

Goethe 

Professor  Edward  Dowdbn. 
C.  6.  W.  Lock. 
Charles  E.  S.  Chambers. 
Colonel  Sir  W.  F.  Butler. 

Hey  WOOD 

A.  H.  Bullen. 
Dr  Robert  Brown. 
E.  A.  Wallis  Budge. 
Duke  or  Argyll. 

Gold 

Golf 

Gordon,  General.... 

Highl.vnds 

Gorilla 

Frank  E.  Beddard. 

Hill  Forts 

Dr  Joseph  Anderson. 

Gospels 

Hippocrates 

Dr  J.  P.  Steele. 

Gothic  Abchitectore  d.  Macgibbon. 

Hittites 

Rev.  W.  Wright,  D.D. 

Goths 

governsient 

Henry  Bradley. 
Charles  1.  Elton,  M.P, 

Professor  A.  Seth  Prisoll-Pattison. 
Austin  Dobson. 

Hogarth 

GoWRiE  Conspiracy... 

LoDis  Barbe. 

Holbein 

J.  M.  Gray. 

Grail,  Holy 

Alfred  Nutt. 

HOLL.VND 

H.  Tif.deman. 

Gr\mm.vr 

Dr  John  Peile. 

General  James  Grant  Wilson. 

Hi>lothuri.\ns 

W.  E.  Hoyle. 

Dr  F.  H.  Underwood. 

Grant,  Ulysses  S 

Holmes;  Bret  Harte 

Gkavit.vtion 

Professor  A.  C.  Mitchell. 

Homer 

Right  Hon.  W.  E.  Gladstone,  M.P. 

Great  Britain— 

Homieopathy 

Dr  A.  C.  Pope. 

(leology 

Professor  James  Geikie 

Hood 

Canon  AiNGER. 

('liinatc...         ..    .. 

Dr  Buchan. 
M.  G.  Molhail. 

Hooker;  Hales 

Horace 

Thomas  Davidson. 
J.  W.  Mackail. 

Statistics 

Greece 

F.  B.  Jevons. 

Horology 

H.  >L  Frodsham  ;  J.  R.  Pairman. 

Greek  Architecture. 

D.  Macgibbon. 

Horse 

W.  E.  HOVLE. 

Greek  Church 

His  Excellency  Joannes  Gennadios. 

Horser-voinq 

W.  C.  A.  Blew,  of  the  Field. 

Greenland 

Grote 

Dr  Henry  Rink. 
G.  Barnett  Smith. 

Hospit  vls    . 

Florence  Nightingale. 
Rev.  James  Inolis. 

Howe,  John 

Guilds 

Thomas  Kirkup. 

Hugo,  Victor 

W.  E.  Henley-. 

GuizoT;  Hampden.... 

.  William  Wallace,  LL.D. 

Huguenots 

F.  F.  Hoget. 

Gi:lf  Stream 

.  Sir  John  Murbay,  K.{'.  li. 

Hull 

William  Andrews. 

Tlie  Publishers  beg  to  tender  their  thanlts,  for  rovi 

sing   the  article  '  Fungi 

,'  to  Mr  George  Murray  ;  for 

'Girton  College,' to  the  Vice-Mistress;   for  'Gray,'  to 

Mr  GosSE ;  for   '  Gregoire,'   to   Professor   Caspar   Ren£ 

Gregory  ;  for  'Green 

(J.  R.),'  to  Mrs  Green  ;  for  '  Greer 

ock,'  to  E.\-Provost  CAMPBELL  ;  for  '  Harrow,'  to  the  Rev. 

.T.   ( '.    Welldon  ;    for 

'Heredity,'  to  Francis  Galton, 

is<i.  ;   for  '  Hereford,'  to 

the   Hon.  and   Very   Rev.    Dean 

IlKUHKRT  ;  for  '  Hobbes,'  to  Professor  Croom  Robertson  ; 

for  '  Howard,'  to  Walter  Rye,  Esq.  :  for  '  lluddersfield,'   1 

tn  Mr  (1.  ]',.  N alder. 

I'own-clerk. 

A  5 


MAPS    FOE  VOL.   V. 


PAGE 

GERMANY 176 

GREAT  BRITAIN Geological 372 

Physical 373 

GREECE,  ANCIENT 384 

HOLLAND 738 


^^.i: 


CHAMBERS'S 

Encyclopedia 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE 


— — ♦<3>«* 


i 

■? 'i  .V. 

fM 

fc:?>M 

friday  (Lat.  Dies  Veneris,  Fr. 
Vcndrc.di,  Ger.  Freitaij,  Swed. 
Fredag),  the  sixth  day  of  the 
week,  takes  its  name  from  the 
uiiddess  FriKga,  tlie  wife  of 
I  )clin,  to  wliom  it  was  con- 
secrated. Tlie  word  is,  however, 
often  connected  with  Freyja, 
tlie  goddess  of  love,  to  which 
notion  the  Latin  name  is  due.  As  the  day  of  the 
week  on  ^^■hich  the  Crucifixion  of  our  Lord  took 
place,  it  lias  had  a  special  sanctity  among  most 
Christian  peoples,  and  Roman  Catholics  still  hold 
it  as  a  weekly  fast.  The  Friday  in  Holy  Week  is 
the  day  on  which  the  Passion  is  celebrated,  and 
as  such  is  the  most  solemn  of  the  fasts  and 
festivals  of  the  Christian  church.  Almost  every- 
where within  the  range  of  Christendom,  Friday  is 
a  day  of  proverbial  ill-luck,  on  which  it  is  not  wise 
to  put  to  sea,  to  marry,  or  commence  any  import- 
ant undertaking.  In  some  places  other  days  are 
unlucky  for  particular  enterprises,  but  Friday  holds 
its  character  everywhere  and  for  undertakings  of 
all  kinds.  Among  no  class  of  men  is  tliis  notion 
more  persistent  than  among  mariners,  who,  whether 
Spaniards,  Italians,  Bretons,  Finns,  or  English- 
men, alike  manifest  the  sam^lisinclinalion  to  put 


ult 


disaster  that  has  followed  some  too  greatly  daring 
crew,  the  memory  unconsciously  retaining  the 
few  confirming  cases,  while  the  many  exce|)tions 
are  easily  forgotten.  A  persistent  but  not  localised 
tradition  in  lioth  England  and  America  tells  of  a 
shij),  the  keel  of  which  was  laid  on  Friday,  that  was 
launched  on  Friday,  with  the  name  of  Friday,  and 
sent  to  sea  on  Friilay,  under  a  Captain  Friday,  but 
which  deservedly  was  never  heard  of  again.  Ship- 
ping statistics  still  show  a  smaller  number  of  sail- 
ings upon  that  than  upon  any  other  day — it  may 
be  well  for  sailors  to  be  reminded  that  Columbus 
botli  sailed  and  discovered  land  on  Friday,  and  that 
the  Pilgrim  Fathers  touched  land  on  the  same 
day. 

209 


Although  the  llussian  name  for  Friday,  Pijntnitsa 
(pyat,  'live'),  has  not  a  similar  mythological  signi- 
ficance with  Friday  or  Voidredi,  the  day  was  con- 
secrated by  the  ancient  Slavonians  to  some  goddess 
similar  to  Venus  or  Freyja.  Afaiiasief  explains 
the  Carintliian  name  Si/jnc  ilau  as  indicating  that 
it  was  once  holy  to  Siva,  the  Lithuanian  Seewa, 
the  Slavonic  deity  corresponding  to  Ceres.  In 
Chri-stian  time  the  deity  presiding  over  Friday 
became  merged  in  St  Prascovia,  and  is  now  addressed 
under  the  compound  name  of  '  ilotlier  Pyatnitsa- 
Prascovia.'  She  wanders  about  the  house  on  her 
holy  day,  and  is  displeased  to  see  sewing,  spinning, 
weaving,  and  the  like  going  on,  revenging  herself 
by  plagues  of  sore  eyes,  whitlows,  and  agnails. 
Especially  must  the  house  be  clean  of  dust  on  the 
Thursday  evening,  so  that  she  may  not  be  oji'ended 
on  her  visit  the  ne.xt  day. 

Frideswitle,  St,  the  patroness  of  Oxford,  was 

born  there  early  in  the  8th  century,  the  daughter 
of  Dida,  an  ealdorman.  She  iireferred  the  re- 
ligions life  to  marriage  with  Algar,  a  great 
Mercian  noble,  who,  coming  in  search  of  her,  w;ts 
struck  blind.  She  died  on  14th  Xovember  at 
Oxford  (q.v. ),  and  was  formally  canonised  in  1481. 
( 'atherine,  Peter  Martyr's  wife,  Wiis  buried  beside 
her  pillaged  shrine  in  \oo'2,  exliunie<l  by  Canlinal 
Pole,  but  reinterred  there  in  lotil,  when  tlie  remains 
of  the  virgin  saint  and  of  the  ex-nun  were  in- 
dissolublv  mingled  together.  See  F.  Coldie,  S.J. , 
Tin-  atur}/  of  St  Fridrsiridc  ( 1881). 

Frit'rfoilSVille,  a  small  ]iostvillage  of  Lehigh 
county,  Pennsylvania,  6  miles  SE.  of  AUentown, 
with  a  rich  zinc  mine  and  a  famous  pump,  that 
raises  nearly  30,000,000  gallons  of  water  daily. 

Fricdlnildi  a  town  of  East  Prussia,  on  the 
Alle,  '21)  miles  SE.  of  Kiinigsberg,  with  3182  in- 
habitants. It  is  famous  as  the  scene  of  Naiioleou's 
victory,  on  14tli  June  1807,  over  the  Hussian  and 
Prussian  forces  under  IJennigsen,  which  brought 
about  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit. — FuiKDL.vxi)  is  also  the 
name  of  a  town  in  the  north-east  of  Mecklenburg, 


FRIEDLAND 


FRIENDLY    SOCIETIES 


witli  5502  inhabitants,  and  of  a  iimniifacturin;; 
town  ill  the  north  of  IJohcniia,  mi  tlie  Witti^',  16 
mill's  N.  of  Keichi'iilii'i;,'  liv  rail,  willi  a  iion.  nf  4SI7. 
'I'lio  lust  ffave  name  to  tin'  (lucliy  from  wliii'li  Wallen- 
istein  (ii-v.)  took  Ills  title  of  Duke  of  rrieillaiul. 

FriedlaiHl.  \'ai.kNTIN,  a  lemarkaMe  eiliiea- 
tionist,  ^'enerally  called  Trutzciif/oif,  from  his 
lurtlii>hu'e,  near  (!orlit/.,  in  Prussian  Silesia,  wius 
horn  14th  rehniarv  14110.  At  I.einzi;^  he  studieil 
Latin  miller  I'eler  Mosellanus  and  (Jreek  under 
Hiehard  Crocus,  and  lie  lie;.'an  Ids  career  as  a  teacher 
in  the  school  at  toiilitz.  On  the  dawn  of  the 
Keformalion  he  proceeded  to  Witteiihert;,  ,aiid 
studied  under  Lutlier  and  Melanclitlion.  >Setlliii;,' 
at  (Joldliei;,',  in  Silesia,  as  rector  of  the  ^.'ymnasiiim 
there  in  KiSl,  Friedland  iiitroilueed  into  his 
school  a  novel  system  of  instruction  and  of  dis- 
cipline, which  soon  spii^ad  the  fame  of  the  institu- 
tion lliroiij,di  all  the  .ad  joining'  countries  of  Kurope. 
The  principal  feature  of  the  disci[diiiaiy  system 
wa.s  that  the  preservation  of  order  and  decorum 
was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  hoys  tlieiii.selves. 
Instruction  was  imiiarled  throii^di  the  medium  of 
academic  discussions,  coupled  with  frei|Uent  lepe 
titions  and  examinations.  Kriedland  died,  "Jfith 
Ajiril  I. ■),')(■),  at  Liej;iiitz,  whither  he  had  removed  his 
scliool  two  ve.ars  hefore.  See  the  hiographie^  hv 
Herrmann  (' 17-27),  Kniscli  (1S18),  Pinzger  (lv_',  ,, 
Kohler  (  1S4S),  and  Liischke  ( lS.-)()). 

Frirdricll.  .Ioh.vnn,  a  Catholic  tlieoro;,'ian, 
a  leader  with  D(illiii;;cr  in  the  Old  Catholic  iiiove- 
nient.  liorn  in  KrancoiiLi  in  1H3G,  he  hecanie  a 
professor  of  Tlieolo;;y  at  Munich  in  1SG.J:  assisted 
iit  the  Vatican  Council  in  1870;  and  suhsei|iienlly, 
ill  life  and  lahouis,  h.is  heen  itlontilied  with  the 
Old  Catholics  (.|.v,). 

Fricdi'irlirodil,  a  town  of  'rhiiiin^'en  in  the 
charming  .Scliilfwasser  valley,  l.'{  miles  SW.  of 
(iotha  hy  rail,  is  a  favourite  summer-re.sort,  receiv- 
inj;  some  7000  visitors  yearly.  Here  Ls  the  Duke 
of  Gotha's  heauliful  country  seat,  Keinhardshrunn, 
on  the  site  of  the  old  aliliey  of  that  name,  destroved 
in  the  IVas.aut  War.      I'op.  ( 1S!)J)  4-248. 

Friedriflisdorf,  a  town  in  the  Piu.ssian 
jU'oviiice  of  lle.sse-Nassau,  on  the  southern  slope  of 
llie  Tauiius,  .'{  miles  NE.  of  llomhiuj,'.  It  was 
founded  ill  1U87  hy  tliirly-two  llu;;iieiiot  families, 
.-ind  its  l'2ii(l  iiiliahitants  still  .speak  French. 

Fried rirlisrull,  the  ca-stleand  estate  of  Prince 
iJisiiiand^,  ill  Laueiibiu},',  16  miles  SE.  of  Hanihury. 

Fri«-ndly  Islands,  or  Tdnu.v  (iuotp,  lie 
tJ.V)  miles  KSK.  of  Kiji  (i|.v.),  numlier  .'K  inhahited 
and  aliout  l.")0  small  isl.inds,  and  consist  of  three 
.suh-gronps,  with  a  collective  area  of  only  li8os(|.  in. 
Ton^'a-taliu  ( l.-JO  .sq.  m.)  is  the  lar-jiest ;  ami  next  in 
iiu|)ortn.nce  are  Eooa,  Vavu,  Naiiiuka  and  Lefnka, 
Totoa,  Late,  and  Kao.  The  ;,'reat  majority  are  of 
coral  formation  ;  hut  some  are  volcanic  :  there  are 
several  active  volcanoes,  such  as  Tofoa(-2781  feet) 
and  Late  (1787);  and  eartliipiakes  are  fiei|uent. 
During'  a  severe  volcanic  disturhauce  in  (Jctoher 
18.Sj  a  small  island  -20  miles  north-west  of  Ilonga 
Hapai  was  upheaved,  and  named  Samllly  Island, 
after  the  f^overnment  schooner  which  first  visited  it. 
A  treaty  was  concluded  with  <!eriiiaiiy  in  1876, 
willitiie.it  lirilain  ill  I87!l:  the  conveiiliou  hetween 
I'.ritain  and  (iermaiiy  in  188(5  provideil  for  the  neu- 
tiality  of  this  archipclat;o,  and  in  18!I0  tieniiany 
renounced  all  her  ii;.'lns  lieie  in  favour  of  ISiitain. 
The  Friendly  Islands  were  discovered  hy  Tiusman 
in  1643,  hut  received  their  collective  name  from 
Cook,  who  visited  them  in  1777.  lioth  these  navi- 
gators found  the  soil  closely  and  liij;lily  culti- 
vated, and  the  people  apparently  unprovided  with 
arms.  The  climate  is  salnhiions.  hut  humid ; 
hurricanes  are  fre(|uent.  .Anion;.'  the  products  of 
the  islands  are  trojiical  fruits,  copra,  coll'ee,  sponges, 


cocoa-nutH,  and  aiTowroot.     The  imports  in  1894 

amounted  to  £82,831,  and  the  exi)orLs  to  £67,63.3. 
riie  llora  resemhles  that  of  the  I'iji  K'oiip  :  hut 
the  native  animals  are  very  few.  In  the  .south  part 
of  Tonga-tahu  there  is  an  ancient  moniiment  of  two 


Friendm 

EncliihMilt 

1        /■•                               ''* 

'fjun, 

,    ~* 

o        ao       40   _   6o       *k.  j 

1                         , 

.ft'^  Group 

-u» 

Mvt.iH.                                    ■     ■ 

IQ- 

T        , 

N..,      .  - 

•TV 

- 

V^]^J>Tongatabu 
Aeooa 

.■I- 

_>;i_                  '?4 

^~-> 

|>er])endicular  rectangular  lilocks  of  stone  ahout 
40  feet  high,  with  aslah  across  the  top,  and  thereon 
a  stone  howl.  The  stones  must  liave  heen  brought 
hy  sea. 

The  Friendly  Islands  were  lirst  visited  hy  mis- 
sionaries in  1797.  In  18-27  the  work  of  evangeli.sa- 
tion  fell  into  the  hands  of  thi'  Wesleyan  Methodists, 
and,  after  a  lengthened  and  jieiilous  struggle  with 
the  savage  paganism  of  the  inh.ahitants,  it  was 
crowned  witli  success.  Almost  all  the  islanders 
( who,  nnlike  the  Fijians,  belong  to  the  fair 
Polynesian  stock)  are  now  Christians;  many  can 
speak  English,  and  schools  are  numerous.  In 
mental  ileveloimienl,  skill  in  hoiise-huilding,  iV'c. , 
lliey  are  su|>erior  to  other  South  Sea  islanders. 
Tliev  are,  however,  decreasing  in  nuiiiliers;  once 
estimated  at  40,000  or  50,000,  they  had  dwindhcl 
to  17, .500  in  18!)3.  The  various  islands  used  to  he 
governed  hy  iiidepeiideut  chiefs,  but  in  184,5  they 
were  brought  under  the  rule  of  King  (ieoige  ( 1818- 
9."?),  who  in  18li-2  gave  the  islands  a  'constitution' 
and  summoned  a  ]>ailianient.  He  was  succeeded  hy 
his  gicat-graiidson,  Gemge  II.  See  H.  S.  Cooper's 
Coral  Islamls  ( 1880),  and  Hasil  Thompson's  JJii-er- 
sioiis  of  a  Priiiii;  Minister  ( 1895). 

Friendly  Societies.  The  prototyjie  of  the 
modern  friendly  society  has  been  found  in  the 
medieval  trade  or  craft  guilds ;  and  there  is 
some  ccmnection  hetween  the  older  specimens  of 
the  village  henelit  club  and  the.se  guilds,  which 
were  the  friendly  societies  of  their  day.  During 
the  nonage  of  Ldward  \l.  the  craft  guilds  were 
disestablished  and  disendowed  (their  revenues 
becoming  the  prey  of  greedy  courtiers);  but  there 
are  traces  in  .some  rural  districts  of  England  that 
the  convivial,  if  not  the  henelicial,  aspect  of  the 
old  guilds  survives  in  the  annual  feast  of  the  village 
club.  The  germ,  however,  of  the  present  system  of 
mutual  provident  assoc'iations  under  the  friendly 
society  form  is  contained  in  Defoe's  Essai/s  on 
Srrn-(il  Projects  (1696),  in  which  the  author  of 
liobin.son  Crusoe  advocated  the  promotion  of 
'societies  formed  hy  niutual  assurance  for  the 
relief  of  the  nieinhers  in  seasons  of  distress  .  .  .  by 
w  hicli  not  a  creature  so  miserable  or  so  jioor  but 
should  claim  subsistence  as  their  due,  not  <ask 
it  of  charity.'  Imleed,  it  would  seem  as  though 
Defoe  was  only  seeking  to  extend  the  operations  of 


FRIENDLY    SOCIETIES 


a  species  of  tlirift  institution  already  in  existence, 
since  we  find  a  London  society  founded  in  1687 
among  the  dozen  known  survi\'ois  of  benefit  clubs 
established  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  17th  and 
the  first  half  of  the  18th  century.  The  Ancient 
(Jrder  of  Free  Gardeners  is  of  considerable  antiquity 
in  Scotland,  the  oldest  known  lodge  being  that  of 
Dunferndine,  the  charter  of  which  dates  from  1715. 
This  form  of  provident  insurance  is  peculiar  to 
the  English-speaking  race,  and  is  the  invention  of 
the  inilustrial  classes  of  ( h'eat  Britain,  as  the  means 
whereby  they  have  supplied  their  economic  needs 
for  themselves  by  themselves,  '  no  man  showing 
them  the  wa}%  not  by  prescription  of  law,  not  by 
influence  of  superiors.'  In  1793  the  legislation 
first  recognised  the  e.\])ediency  of  protecting  and 
encouraging  friendly  societies,  and  enacted  '  that 
it  should  be  lawful  for  any  number  of  persons 
in  Great  Britain  to  form  themselves  into  and  to 
establish  one  or  more  society  or  societies  of  good 
fellowsliip,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  from  time  to 
time,  by  subscriptions  of  the  several  members,  a 
stock  or  fund  for  the  mutual  relief  and  mainten- 
ance of  all  and  every  the  members  thereof,  in  old 
age,  sickness,  and  infirmity,  or  for  the  relief  of  the 
widows  and  chililren  of  deceased  members  '  ( Rose 
Act).  And  a  parliamentary  committee  of  1825 
excellently  gives  the  rai.mii,  d'etre  of  the  mutual 
friendly  society  as  comjiared  with  the  individualistic 
savings-bank  :  '  Whenever  there  is  a  contingency, 
the  cheajiest  way  of  providing  against  it  is  by 
uniting  with  others,  so  that  eacli  man  may  subject 
himself  to  a  small  <le|>rivation,  in  order  that  no 
man  may  be  subjected  to  a  great  loss.  He  upon 
Avhom  the  contingency  does  not  fall  does  not  get 
his  money  back  again,  nor  does  he  get  for  it  any 
visible  or  tangible  benefit ;  but  he  obtains  security 
against  ruin,  and  consequent  peace  of  mind.  He 
upon  whom  the  contingency  does  fall  gets  all  that 
those  whom  fortune  has  exempted  from  it  have  lost 
in  hard  money,  and  is  thus  enabled  to  sustain  an 
event  which  wouhl  otherwise  overwhelm  him.  The 
individual  depositor,  not  the  contributor  to  a 
common  fund,  is  really  the  speculator.  If  no  sick- 
ness attacks  him  during  his  years  of  strength  and 
activity,  and  he  rlicA'  before  he  is  past  labour,  he 
has  been  successful  in  his  speculation  ;  but  if  he 
fall  sick  at  an  early  period,  or  if  he  live  to  old  age, 
he  is  a  great  loser,  for  his  savings,  with  their 
accumulations,  will  support  him  but  a  short  time 
in  sickness.'  What  the  Rose  Act  of  1793  was 
to  societies  that  existed  in  the  last  decade  of 
the  18th  century  the  enabling  enactment  of  1829 
(10  Geo.  IV.  cha]).  .")ti)  was  to  societies  which 
belonged  to  a  more  developed  jieriod  of  history. 
Much  of  the  erticiency  and  good  working  of  this 
act  was  due  to  the  new  departure  taken  by  its 
sponsor.  Lord  I'ortuum,  then  M. P.  for  Dorsetsliire, 
in  putting  himself  into  communication  with  re]ire- 
sentatives  of  those  bodies  for  which  he  purposed  to 
legislate.  The  Act  of  1829  '  forms  the  transition  from 
the  system  of  local  to  that  of  central  registration,' 
and  the  sup])lementary  Act  of  1834  carried  central- 
isation a  ste])  further.  Prior  to  the  date  of  the 
former  act  a  provincial  system  of  registration 
and  returns  prevailed,  each  clerk  of  the  peace  hold- 
ing the  office  of  registrar  for  his  several  ccninty, 
the  rules  being  certified  and  the  scales  of  contribu- 
tions passed  by  the  county  magistrates.  I!ut 
henceforth  three  registrars  of  co-ordinate  authority 
for  England,  Scotland,  ,'ind  Ireland  were  .appointecl. 
The  provision  requiring  justices  to  be  satisfied 
that  the  tables  of  contributions  an<l  benefits  might 
be  '  adopted  with  safety  to  all  parties  concerned ' 
was  repealed  ;  but,  in  view  of  existing  imperfect 
and  inetticient  data  in  the  matter  of  vital  statistics, 
societies  were  under  the  oblig.ation  of  making 
quinquennial  returns  of  their  sickness  and  mortality 


experience.  The  following  privileges  of  the  Act 
of  1793  were  confii-med  :  power  to  recover  funds 
from  defaulting  otticers  by  summary  ])roceedings  ; 
]iiiority  of  claims  for  moneys  on  the  a.ssets  of  any 
deceased  or  bankrapt  oHieer  or  tnistee  ;  power  to 
determine  disputes  by  arbitration,  and  of  justices 
to  enforce  compliance  with  the  ruling  of  the 
arbitrators  ;  exemption  of  stamp  <luty  on  uonda. 

The  Victorian  era  was  contemporaneous  with  the 
financial  period  in  the  history  of  the  friendly  society 
system.  Hitherto  societies  had  been  rather  benevo- 
lent than  benefit,  more  convivial  than  financial,  in 
their  .status.  But  with  Mr  Charles  Ansell  came 
tlie  dawn  of  actuarial  light  on  the  friendly  society 
world.  The  purely  scientific  principles  laid  down 
by  Mr  Ansell  were  rectified  and  extended  by  Mr 
Nelson  the  elder,  in  his  miKjnum  o/jiis.  Contribu- 
tions to  Vital  Stutitities  (1845).  Five  years  later 
ai)peared  Observations  on  the  Rate  of  Mortalittj  and 
Sirlciiess  amongst  Friendh/  Societies,  &.C.,  with  a 
series  of  tables  showing  the  value  of  annuities,  sick 
gifts,  assurance  for  death,  and  contributions  to 
be  paid  equivalent  thereto,  calculated  from  the 
experience  of  the  Manchester  Unity  of  Oddfellow's, 
by  Henry  Ratcliffe,  corresponding  secretary.  The 
outcome  was  the  famous  •  Ratclifi'e  Tables,'  subse- 
quently corrected  by  the  compiler,  and  endorsed  by 
the  Royal  Commission  of  1871-74  a.s  the  soundest 
and  most  reliable  tables  extant.  Thus  twenty-five 
years  prior  to  the  Friendly  Societies  Act  of  1875 
(which  embodied  the  recommendations  of  the  com- 
missioners), making  a  valuaticm  of  assets  and 
liabilities  compulsory,  the  late  secretary  and 
actuary  of  the  Manchester  Unity  laid  down  the 
true  principles  of  financial  security,  and  prepared 
the  way  for  a  process  of  self-reform  in  the  society 
wliich  it  would  be  difficult  to  match  in  the  history 
of  any  other  puldic  and  corporate  body.  The 
classification  of  the  various  trades  of  members 
occupied  Mr  Ratclifi'e  from  15  to  17  hours  per 
day,  and  1,321,048  years  of  life  were  brought 
un<ler  observation.  It  was  not  until  1850  that  the 
attiliated  class  of  friendly  society  received  legal 
recognition  under  a  temporary  act,  which  became, 
five  years  later,  a  permanent  measure  ( 18  and  19 
\'ict.  chap.  63).  Prior  to  this  date  they  had  been 
illegal  combinations,  coming  under  the  clauses  of 
the  Corresponding  Societies  Act  (39  Geo.  III.  chap. 
79)  and  of  the  Seditious  Meetings  Act  (57  Geo.  III. 
chap.  19).  The  legal  recognition  was,  however,  of 
little  use  to  the  affiliated  societies,  since  the  then 
newly-appointed  registrar,  Mr  J.  Tidd  Pratt,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  spirit  as  well  as  the  wording  of  the 
act,  refused  to  allow  the  registration  of  branches  of 
the  orders,  except  as  separate  and  isolated  societies 
— a  misruling  which  was  not  corrected,  so  far 
as  branches  registered  un<ler  this  act  and  not 
re^stered  under  the  Act  of  1875  were  concerned, 
till  1886  (Supreme  Court  of  Api)eal  :  Scholfield  and 
others  r.  Vause  and  others).  The  only  other  altera- 
tions of  importance  were  the  requirement  of  an  actu- 
arial certificate  in  the  ca.se  of  societies  granting  an 
annuity  or  superannuation  benefit,  and  the  abolition 
of  all  foes  for  registry.  The  Act  of  1855  failing  to 
bring  about  the  beneficial  results  hoped  for  by  its 
promoters,  in  1871  a  Royal  Commission  of  Inquiry 
was  appointed,  with  Sir  Statl'ord  Northcote  (the 
late  Lord  Iddesleigh)  for  chairman  ami  J.  M. 
Ludlow,  Esq.,  secretary.  The  laboui-s  of  the  Com- 
missioners extended  over  a  period  of  four  yeai-s,  and 
the  recommendations  of  their  final  report  (1874) 
were  eiribodied  in  the  act  now  in  fence  (38  and  .39 
Vict,  chaji.  60),  which,  owing  to  tlieabove mentioned 
ruling  of  Mr  J.  Tirld  Pratt,  had  to  be  supplemented 
by  a  short  Amendment  Act  (1876),  under  which 
societies  with  branches  (i.e.  affiliated  orders)  could 
be  registered  as  such.  The  following  are  among 
the  principal  alterations  effected  by  the  Acts  of 


FRIENDLY    SOCIETIES 


187o-"6 :  one  chief  re;;istrar  anil  three  assistants, 
instead  of  three  separate  refjistrars  for  Eii;j;laiul, 
Seothiiiil,  anil  Irelaml  with  ODonliiiate  autliDrity  ; 
spoi'ial  rlause  (.'((1)  ilealinj;  with  collertini,'  sDeieties  ; 
ile|Hisit  of  rules  hy  nnie;;istereil  sorieties  no  li)nf,'or 
alluwoil  ;  animal  auilits  rei|nireil  ;  valnation  of 
assets  anil  liahilities  rei|uireil  every  live  voars ; 
piililie  anilitoi-s  ami  valuers  to  he  appointeil  liy  the 
treiisury,  hut  their  enipliiynient  not  coniimlsory  : 
the  nuniher  of  nienihei's  who  can  ajiply  to  the 
rejjistnir  for  an  awani  of  ilissolution  rediircil  ; 
further  |iowers  j;iven  to  llie  re^'i>lraron  tlli^  point. 
Alterations  in  friemlly  soeiety  law  sii1)seiiMeMt  to 
1876  have  heen  uniniportaiit,  anil  ;.'enerally  intro- 
iluei'il  '  to  ileelare  the  true  meaning' '  of  some  rlause 
in  the  Art  of  1S75.  Note,  liowevei-,  slionlil  he 
niaile  of  .">()  anil  51  Vict.  chaj).  5ti,  whieh  empowers 
juvenile  sorieties  anil  hrancnes  to  retain  memlier- 
ship  till  the  aj,'i'  of  twenty-one  years,  the  foniier 
limit  hi'in;;  sixteen  years.  Sorieties  anil  hranclies 
consistinj;  wholly  of  memhei's  hetween  three  anil 
twenty-one  years  of  a^'e  may  he  ref^stereil,  pro- 
viiled  (1)  they  are  in  connection  with  some  adult 
society  rc{;istered  under  the  act,  or  a  hranch  of 
any  such  society,  or  (2)  in  connection  with  some 
institution  or  scliool. 

Owing  to  technical  le>;al  ditliculties,  the  registry 
otlice  is  unable  to  su]i|)ly  accurate  information  lus 
to  the  present  numerical  and  linancial  strength  of 
the  friendly  society  position  ;  hut  the  writer,  from 
returns  s]iecially  made  to  him,  is  in  a  position  to 
give  the  following  estimate  (which  will  he  found 
ai)pri)ximately  correct)  of  the  princijial  types  of 
society,  registered  and  unregistered  : 

No.  vt  Mt-rabers.  Fuuild. 

(1)  Amiint«l  S.wietie.s 2,024.000       £13,103,000 

(2)  Geni-ral  witliC'uuntySocioties...    300,000  1,600,000 

(3)  Peculiftr  Tratle  Societies— 

(a)  ItoilwayGroup 67,000  144,000 

(h)  Miners'  Permanent 

Kelief  Funds 230,000  253,000 

(4)  Local  Societies,  inclusive  of 

Dividing  Clubs 1.000,000  2,000,000 

(5)  Collecting  Societies 8,690.000  2,280,000 

(6)  Societies  of  Women 10,000 

(7)  Juvenile  Societies 200,000  190,000 

Total.... 7,411,000        £19,476,000 

( 1 )  The  affiliated  societies  are  hroadly  dis- 
tingui.->hid  from  their  comiietilors  for  public  favour 
by  lieiiig  bel'oie  all  things  '  friendly  '  fiateniilies,  in 
which  the  social  clement  is  llie  motor  of  action — 
sick  and  Imri.il  clubs,  and  something  more.  Long 
.ago  this  type  of  society  crossed  the  seas  and  accom- 
panied the  emigrant  to  his  new  home  in  '(ireater 
Britain.'  In  constitution  and  government  the 
orders,  ,as  they  are  termed,  aie  pure  democracies. 
First  comes  tlie  individual  bramh — lodge,  court. 
tent,  or  senate  — j)ossessing  an  indeiiendence  of 
management  (subject  only  to  gener.al  law),  .and 
retaining  its  own  sick  fund.  Then  succeeds  the 
district  (the  limbs,  ;ls  it  were,  of  the  body),  a 
local  gathering  of  branches  within  a  certahi  given 
area,  in  which  the  funeial  allowance  is  reinsured  ; 
and,  lastly,  the  central  liody  itself,  called  by  some 
distinctive  name  (its  Annual  -Movable  Committee, 
High  Court  .Meeting),  an  annually  or  biennially 
elected  parliament  of  delegates,  carrying  out  its 
rules  and  regulations  througli  <a  working  executive. 
The  far  ,and  away  largest  bodies  are  the  Oddfellows 
(Manchester  I'nity)  and  the  Ancient  Order  of 
Foresters,  apiiropri.ating  between  them  l,:{!."i,7'2l 
members  out  of  the  graml  total  for  the  chtss  and 
£10,4'J.j,(MM)  of  thefumls.  (lilier  ijiiportant  orders 
are  United  Order  of  (lddfellows(  l.')(),8()ti),  Teniper- 
ance  Order  of  Kechahitcs  (7'). (KM)),  Ashton  Unity  of 
Shepherds — the  strongest  order  in  Scotland — 
(71,(X)0),  and  Order  of  Druids  (58,216).  The 
average  cost  of  management  is  7  l)er  cent,  of  the 
annual  contributions.     (2)  Is  a  development  of  the 


purely  h)cal  class  to  meet  the  altered  needs  of  the 
day.  The  cla-ss  consists  of  societies  of  divers 
degrees  of  merit,  hut  all  pi>.s.ses.sing  a  common 
central  fund.  The  giant  among  them  is  the  Hearts 
of  O.ik  (l.ondon),  with  its  1I.">,'.'S4  members  .uid 
capital  of  close  on  one  million  sterling.  The 
county  societies  are  the  'old  established  houses' 
belonging  to  the  '  patronised  '  gioup.  and  aie  being 
deserted  for  the  better  known  of  the  orders.  (.I) 
This  class  is  si)ecially  devoted  to  insurance  against 
the  fatal  and  non-fatal  accidents  of  hazardous 
occupations,  and  was  used  by  umkiiien  coritiacting 
ihemselvus  out  of  the  Kmployeis'  Liability  .\ct 
(1880  ;  sMi)eiseiled  by  the  Workmen's  Com-]i(iis.atiiin 
Acts,  18'J7-1'J0U:  see  LlAiiii.iTV  oK  lvMi'i,i)Vi;i:s). 
Certain  of  the  luofessions  have  establislied 
benelit  institutions— e.g.  Medical  Sickness  and 
Annuity,  and  Clergy  Friendly  Societies,  the  former 
possessing  a  membership  of  over  1000  and  funds 
to  the  value  of  nearly  .t;2.),000.  (4)  Local  societies 
are  fiist  disap])earing  before  the  onward  nuircli  of  a 
better  class  of  Uiutual  provident  a-ssociation.  I!ut 
tlfe  low  type  of  friendly  society  which  ])eriodically 
divides  its  funds,  and  is  always  beginning  afresh  to 
run  in  the  thrift  race,  is  sadly  too  jirevalent ;  the 
increasing  liability  to  sickness  with  advaniing 
years  is  altogether  ignored  ;  a  blind  eye  is  turned 
on  the  futine.  (5)  Societies  which  gather  in  their 
weekly  or  foitnightly  pence  by  meairs  of  colleclors 
calling  from  door  to  door.  Tlie  bulk  of  memlier- 
ship  is  coniiio.-ed  of  the  most  necessitous  poor,  and 
prooably  two-thirds  are  women  or  children.  No 
l)enelit  beyond  an  insurance  at  death  is  given. 
The  actual  number  of  soeii'ties  forming  the  class  is 
a  small  one  compared  with  the  total  iiumlier;  lor 
England  only  47  out  of  about  24.0110  dillereiit  bodio 
registered  jis  societies  or  branches;  in  .Scotland  5 
out  of  900  :  in  Ireland  none  out  of  .some  400.  The 
largest  societies  are  the  Koyal  Liver  ( 1.211,2.'i9) 
and  the  Liverpool  Victoria  Legal  ( 1,00,'{,787).  The 
(expenses  of  management,  with  commissions,  range 
fiom  20  to  ."i2  per  cent,  of  the  .'Uinual  premiums.  'I'he 
numerical  incrcjise  of  the  class  is  only  sur]ias.-,ed  by 
that  of  the  Industrial  Assurance  Companies.  (6) 
Societies  of  women  .are  but  poorly  reiiresented  in 
the  volunt.ary  thrift  army,  and  the  few  that  exist 
were  mostly  established  in  an  unlinancial  age.  An 
order  which  aims  to  be  national  in  its  area  of 
membeislii|p  was,  however,  established  in  Ksso  by 
a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England  (Kev.  J. 
Frome  Wilkinson),  which  hiLs  .already  o])ened 
branches  in  several  counties  (one  in  Scotland),  and 
should  meet  the  ever- increasing  economic  needs  of 
women.  The  society  is  registered  as  the  United 
Sisters'  Friendly  Society  ( Sull'olk  Unity).  (7) 
Juvenile  .societies  are  the  thrift  '  nurseries '  of  the 
adult  societies,  and  are  mostly  conllned  to  the  allili- 
ated  class,  the  largest  number  of  branches  being  in 
connection  with  the  Foiesteis,  Manchester  I  nity, 
and  Keihabitcs.  There  is  a  steady  increa.se  in  the 
populaiity  of  juvenile  friendly  society  membershi|>. 
J't'sts  tif  FtiHiiiritil  K><rifn'fi/  and  (rood  MiiniKjt:- 
meiit. — Registration,  'not  because  registry  of  itself 
can  niake  any  society  safe,  but  because  its  iiositiou 
nurst  be  always  nn.safe  without  registry.'  Kates  of 
contribution  for  benelits,  both  sick  and  funeral, 
on  a  graduated  or  sliding  .scale,  according  to  age 
on  entry,  which  r.ates  tlieinselves  shall  be  held  by 
actuarial  .authority  sutlicient  to  carry  benelits  con- 
triicted  for.  Record  of  yearly  sickness  and  mor- 
tality experience  kejit,  so  that  the  valuer  may  be  in 
pos.session  of  siillicient  data  by  which  to  estimate 
the  society's  or  branches'  liabilities.  Yearly  .audit 
and  five-yearly  financial  overhaul  or  efiicient  valu- 
ation of  .a.ssets  .and  liabilities.  Etiect  given, 
without  undue  delay,  to  remedi.al  measures  recom- 
mended by  valuer,  should  liabilities  exceed  assets. 
The   several   insurance   funds   kept   sejjarate,   and 


FRIENDLY    SOCIETIES 


FRIENDS 


expenses  of  management  provided  for.  Sick  benefits 
insured  till  sixty-Kve,  at  wliich  age  a  pension  or 
defended  annuity  shall  commence,  and  continue  for 
remainder  of  life.  Reserve  funds  to  realise  a  clear 
percentage  of  interest,  equal  to  that  on  which 
tables  or  scales  of  contributions  have  been  cal- 
culated, generally  '.i  per  cent.  Candidates  refused 
who  cannot  'pass'  the  doctor,  or  who  have  exceedeil 
in  years  the  maximum  limit  of  forty-live,  forty 
being  preferred.  Elticient  supervision  of  sick  ]iay- 
ments  to  guard  against  '  malingering '  or  fictitious 
claims.  Society  not  to  be  of  local  isolated  type, 
dependent  solely  on  its  own  resources,  but  associ- 
ated with  other  branches  of  one  and  the  same 
organisation,  or  of  the  centralised  type.  Means  to 
be  taken,  in  seasons  of  distress  or  loss  of  work, 
whereby  membership  may  be  retained.  Provision, 
if  desired,  for  juveniles,  widows,  orphans,  and 
decayed  members. 

The  Friendly  Societies  Act,  1896,  and  the  Collect- 
ing Societies  and  Industrial  Assurance  Companies 
Act,  1896,  consolidate  the  law.  The  annual  re|iort 
of  the  Chief  Registrar  of  Friendly  Societies  includes 
Friendly  Societies  proper  with  their  branches. 
Benevolent  Societies,  Cattle  Insurance  Societies, 
AV'orking  Men's  Clal)s,  Industrial  and  Provident 
(Co-operative)  Societies,  Trade  Unions  (q.v.), 
Building  Societies  {q. v.).  Certified  Loan  Societies, 
Trustee  Savings-banks  (see  S.WIxgs-b.vnk.s),  Rail- 
way Savings-lianks,  and  certain  Scientific  and 
Literary  and  other  autliorised  societies.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  particulars  of  Friendly  Societies 
proper,  from  the  report  for  31st  December  1899  : 

No.  oj  Xo.  of  Amniint  of 

Returns.        Members.  Fimds. 

Ordinary  Friendly  Societies 7,161  2,725,633  £1.3,170,214 

Branches  of  Registered  Orders.  .21,557  2,.555,736  18,500,183 

Collecting  Friendly  Societies....  Sfl  5,555,.S27  4,832,573 

Me.lical  .Societies S7  293,477  6S,2T8 

Benevolent  Societies 7(5  21,533  291,383 

Working  Men's  Clubs 572  1S1,231  171,409 

Specially  Authorised  Societies . .  435  107,811  871,ls0 

Cattle  Insurance  societies 58  3,tjl2  i3,4S2 

29,985     11,424,810    £37,917,702 

For  further  mforniation,  the  foUowinj;  authorities  may 
be  consulted  :  \V".  Tidd  Pratt's  Law  of  FriemUii  Socie- 
ties (1881);  Dr  Baenireither's  English  Associations  oJ 
Working  Men  (1889):  the  present  writer's  Friendlti 
Society  Movement  ( 188(i  1  and  Mutual  Thrift  { 1891 ) ;  I'l  ar 
Booh  of  Friendlii  Societies  Jiegistrt/  0;^ce  ;  Annual  Me- 
ports  of  Chief  Registrar.  Also  tlatcliffe's  Experience  of  the 
Manchester  Unity ;  Mr  Francis  G.  P.  Nelson's  Foresters^ 
Experience ;  and  tlie  same  eminent  actuary's  Observa- 
tions on  the  Efficient  Valuation  of  Friendly  Societies. 

Friends,  Society  of,  the  <lesignation  proper 
of  a  sect  of  Christians,  better  known  as  tjuakers. 
Their  founder  in  1648  66  was  George  Fox(q.v.). 
In  spite  of  severe  and  cruel  persecutions,  tlie 
Society  of  Friends  succeeded  in  establishing  them- 
selves both  in  England  and  America.  They  have, 
indeed,  never  been  numerically  powerful  (having  at 
no  time  exceeded  200,000  members ) ;  but  the  puTity 
of  life  which  from  the  beginning  has  .so  honourably 
distinguished  them  as  a  class  has  unquestionably 
exercised  a  .salutary  influence  on  the  pulilic  at  large ; 
while  in  respect  of  certain  great  questions  affecting 
the  interests  of  mankind,  such  as  inir  and  slarrnj, 
they  have,  beyond  all  doulit,  originated  O]iinions  and 
tendencies  which,  whether  sound  or  erroneous,  are 
no  longer  conline<l  to  tlicniselves,  but  have  widely 
leavened  the  mind  of  Christendom.  Eminent 
Friends  have  been  (Jeorge  Fox,  Robert  Barclay, 
Thomas  Ellwood,  William  Penn,  Elizabeth  Fry, 
Mrs  Opie,  J.  J.  Curney,  Bernanl  Barton,  Dalton 
the  physicist,  John  Blight,  Birket  Foster,  iSrc.  ;  '  un- 
friendly '  Frien<ls  were  Benjamin  Robins,  who  re 
volutionised  the  art  of  Gunnery  (q.v. ),  Tom  Paine, 
and  Sir  Richard  Church. 

( 1)  Doctrine— \t  is  perhaps  more  in  the  spirit  than 


in  the  letter  of  their  faith  that  the  Society  of 
Friends  differ  from  other  orthodox  Christians. 
They  themselves  assert  their  belief  in  the  great 
fundamental  facts  of  Christianity,  and  even  in  the 
substantial  identity  of  most  of  the  doctrinal  opinions 
«hich  they  hold  with  those  of  other  evangelical 
denominaticms.  The  Epistle  addressed  by  (ieorge 
Fox  and  other  Friends  to  the  governor  of  Barbadoes 
in  167.3  contains  a  confession  of  faith  not  differing 
materially  from  the  so-called  Apostles'  Creed, 
except  that  it  is  more  copiously  worded  and  dwells 
with  great  difi'useness  on  the  internal  work  of 
Christ.  The  Declaration  of  Christian  Doctrine 
put  forth  on  liehalf  of  the  Society  in  169.3  ex- 
presses a  belief  in  what  is  usually  termed  the 
Trinity,  in  the  atonement  made  by  Christ  ffu-  sin, 
in  the  resurrection  from  the  dead,  and  in  the 
doctrine  of  a  Hnal  and  eternal  judgment ;  and  the 
Deelarat(n-y  Minute  of  the  yearly  meeting  in  1829 
asserts  the  inspiration  and  divine  authority  of  the 
Ulil  and  New  Testament,  the  depravity  of  human 
nature  consequent  on  the  fall  of  Adam,  and  other 
characteristic  doctrines  of  Christian  orthodoxy, 
adding  :  '  Our  religious  Society,  from  its  earliest 
establishment  to  the  present  day,  has  received 
these  most  important  iloctrines  of  Holy  Scripture 
in  their  plain  and  obvious  acceptation.'  It  is 
nevertheless  certain  that  uniformity  of  theological 
opinion  cannot  be  claimeil  for  the  Friends,  any 
more  than  for  other  bodies  of  Christians.  As 
early  as  1668  William  Penn  and  George  Whitehead 
held  a  public  discussion  ^^itll  a  clergyman  of  the 
English  Church,  named  Vincent,  in  which  they 
maintained  that  the  doctrine  of  a  tri-personal  God, 
as  held  by  that  church,  was  not  found  in  the 
.Scriptures,  though  in  what  form  they  accepted  the 
doctrine  themselves  does  not  ap]iear ;  and  some 
time  later  Penn  published  a  work  himself,  entitled 
the  Sandy  Foundation  Shaken,  in  which,  among 
other  things,  he  endeavoured  to  show  that  the 
doctrines  of  vicarious  atonement  and  of  imputed 
righteousness  do  not  rest  on  any  scriptural  foun- 
dation. But  in  general  the  Society  of^  Friends,  in 
the  expression  of  their  belief,  have  avoided  the 
technical  phra.seology  of  other  Christian  churches, 
restricting  themselves  with  commendable  modesty 
to  the  words  of  Scripture  itself,  as  far  as  that  is 
po.ssible,  and  avoiding,  in  particular,  the  knotty 
points  of  Calvinistic  divinity  (see  Barclay's  Cute- 
i-hisni  and  Confession  of  Faith,  published  in  1673, 
where  the  answers  to  the  questions — to  a\oid  theo- 
logical dogmatism  — are  taken  from  the  Bible 
itself).  This  haliit  of  allowing  to  each  individual 
the  full  freedom  of  the  Scriptures  has,  of  course, 
rendered  it  all  the  more  diliicult  to  ascertain  to 
what  extent  individual  minds,  among  the  Society, 
may  have  differed  in  their  mode  of  apprehending 
ami  dogmatically  exidainin^'  the  facts  of  Chris- 
tianity. Their  principal  distinguishing  doctrine  Is 
that  of  the  'Light  of  Clirist  in  man,'  on  which 
many  of  their  outward  peculiarities,  as  a  religious 
body,  are  grounded.  The  doctrine  of  the  internal 
light  is  founded  on  the  view  of  Christ  given  by  St 
.lolin,  who,  in  the  first  chapter  of  his  gospel, 
describes  Christ — the  Eternal  Logos — as  the  '  life  ' 
ami  '  light  of  men,'  '  the  true  liglit,'  '  the  light  that 
lighteth  every  man  that  cometh  into  the  world,' 
\c.  Barclay  taught  that  even  the  heathen  were 
illumined  by  this  light,  though  they  might  not 
know — as,  indeed,  those  who  lived  before  Christ 
could  not  know — the  historical  .lesus  in  whom 
Christians  believe.  In  their  ciuse  Christ  was  the 
light  shining  in  darkness,  though  the  darkness 
com])rehended  it  not.  The  existence  of  '  natural 
virtue'  (as  orthodox  theologians  term  it)  ainon<j 
the  he.ithen  wiis  denied  by  Barcl.ay,  who  reganlea 
all  such  virtue  as  Christian  in  its  essence,  and  as 
proceeding  from  the  light  of  Clirist  shining  through 


r> 


FRIENDS 


the  darkness  of  paj^n  superstition.  These  opinions 
would  seem  to  l)e  soinewliat  freer  than  those  ex- 
pressed in  the  lleneral  Kpistle  of  tlio  Society  pub- 
lished in  IB.'!!),  wlierein  they  refuse  to  aokno\vle<lKe 
'any  principle  of  siiiritual  lij,'lit,  life,  or  lioliness 
inlierent  tiy  nature  in  the  iiiiml  of  man,'  and  a;.'ain 
assert  that  tliev  '  hclieve  in  no  iirinoiple  whatso- 
ever of  spiritual  li;,'lit,  life,  or  holiness,  except  the 
influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  of  (iod  bestowed  on 
mankind  in  various  measures  and  de}0"ees  tlirou<,'h 
.losus  t'hrist  our  Lord.'  I?ut,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
a  little  treatise  published  by  the  Society  in  IStil  it 
is  alfirmed  that  '  the  Holy  Sjiirit  hius  always  been 
afforiled  in  various  ineasuic-  to  mankiml  ; '  while 
stress  is  also  laid  on  the  statement  of  St  Paul, 
that  'the  j,'race  of  (Jod  (understood  by  Friends  to 
sijjnify  the  'operation  of  the  Divine  Spirit')  that 
brin;;etli  .salvation  Inith  iipjirnred  to  all  men.' 
And  another  exponent  of  their  views,  Mr  T.  Evans, 
of  Philadelphia,  states  that  'God  hath  i;ranted 
to  all  men,  of  whatsoever  nation  or  country,  a  day 
or  time  of  visitation,  during;  which  it  is  |iossilile 
for  tlieni  to  partake  of  the  benelits  of  Christ's 
death,  and  be  save<l.  For  this  end  he  hath  com- 
municated to  every  man  a  measure  of  the  li;;ht  of 
bis  own  Son,  a  measure  of  <;race  or  the  Holy  S])irit, 
by  which  he  invites,  calls,  exhorts,  and  strives 
with  every  man,  in  order  to  sav<!  him  ;  which  light  or 
grace,  a.s  it  is  received,  and  not  resisted,  works  the 
salvation  of  all,  even  of  those  who  are  i;;norant  of 
Adam's  fall,  and  of  the  death  and  sufl'eriu'is  of 
Christ,  both  by  brinKinj;  them  to  a  sense  of  their 
own  misery,  and  to  be  sharers  in  the  sutrerini;s  of 
Christ  inwarilly,  an<l  by  makin<;  them  partakers 
of  his  resurrection,  in  becoming;  holy,  pure,  and 
righteous,  and  recovered  out  of  their  sins.'  Hence 
it  may  be  .safely  a.sserted  that  they  hold  a  broader 
( or,  as  others  would  say,  a  more  latitudinarian )  view 
of  the  Spirit's  working  than  any  other  Christian 
church  or  society.  In  America,  about  the  year 
18'27,  Elias  Hicks,  a  Friend  of  very  remarkable 
powers,  created  a  schism  in  the  Society,  by  the 
promulgation  of  opinions  denying  the  miraculous 
'Cimception,  divinitv,  and  atonement  of  Christ,  and 
also  the  authenticity  and  divine  authority  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  .Vbout  (mchalf  of  the  Society  in 
America  adojited  the  views  of  Hicks,  and  are  known 
a-  Hicksite  Friends;  their  opinions,  of  course,  are 
repudiated  by  the  rest  of  tlie  Society,  who  may 
be  described  as  Orthodox  Friends.  The  Hicksite 
schism  thoroughly  alarmed  the  latter,  both  in 
England  and  .Vmerica.  and  a  inoveinent  w.os  begun 
in  favour  of  education,  of  a  iloctriiial  belief  more 
nearly  allied  to  that  of  the  so-calleil  '  Evangelical ' 
party,  and  of  a  relaxation  in  the  formality  and 
dLscipline  of  the  Society.  The  leader  of  this  move- 
ment was  .Joseph  .John  tJurney,  of  Norwich.  This 
new  tendency,  however,  excited  considerable  oppo- 
sition among  some  of  the  Friends  in  America  ;  and 
the  consec|uence  was  a  division  among  the  Orthodox 
Friends  themselves,  and  the  formation  of  a  new 
sect,  called  '  Wilhurites,'  after  the  name  of  their 
founder,  .John  Wilbur,  wlio  are  noted  for  the  strict- 
ness with  which  they  maintain  the  traditions  and 
peculiarities  of  the  Society.  Some  slight  indica- 
tions of  theological  diU'eiences  have  manifested 
themselves  in  Englan<l  also. 

( '2)  Practice.  — \t  is  in  the  apidication  of  their  lead- 
ing doctrine  of  the  '  internal  light '  that  the  i)eculi- 
arities  of  the  Friends  are  most  apparent.  IJelieving 
that  it  is  the  Holy  Spirit,  or  the  imlwelling  Christ, 
that  alone  maketli  wi.se  unto  salvation,  illumining 
the  mind  with  true  and  spiritual  knowledge  of  the 
deep  tilings  of  God,  they  do  not  consider  '  human 
learning'  es.sential  to  a  minister  of  the  gospel,  ami 
look  with  distrust  on  the  methotl  adoi)ted  by  other 
churches  for  obtaining  such — viz.  liy  formally  train- 
ing after  a  human  fashion  a  body  of  youths  chosen 


on  no  princijde  of  inwanl  fitness.  Tliev  lielieve 
that  the  call  to  this  work  now,  as  of  old,  is  'not  of 
men,  neither  by  man,  but  by  .Jesus  Christ  and  Gml 
the  Father,'  and  that  it  is  ^)estowe<l  irresjiectively 
of  rank,  talent,  learning,  or  .sex.  Consequently, 
they  have  no  theological  li.alls,  professors  of  (livinity , 
or  da-sses  for  'students.'  Further,  as  (itne.ss  for 
the  ministry  is  hehl  to  lie  a  free  gift  of  (Iod  through 
the  H(dy  Spirit,  .so,  they  argue,  it  ought  to  be  freely 
bestowed,  in  supjiort  of  which  they  aildnce  the 
^irecept  of  the  .Saviour — '  Freely  ye  have  received, 
treely  give : '  hence  those  who  minister  among 
them  are  not  paid  for  their  labour  of  love,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  whenever  such  .are  eng.aged  from 
home  in  the  work  of  the  gospel,  they  are.  in  tin' 
spirit  of  Christian  love,  freely  entertained,  and 
have  all  their  wants  supplied  :  in  short,  the  Friends 
niaint.ain  the  abs<dutelv  voluntar\'  chanacter  of  re 
ligious  obligations,  .and  that  Christians  shmild  do 
all  for  love,  and  nothing  for  money.  It  also  follows 
from  their  view  of  a  call  to  the  work  of  the  ministry 
that  women  may  exhort  as  well  .a.s  men,  for  the 
'spirit  of  Christ'  in.ay  move  them  .as  powerfully  as 
the  other  sex.  The  prophecy  of  .Joel  as  applied  by 
Peter  is  cited  as  authority  for  the  preaching  of 
women  :  '  On  my  servants  and  on  my  iiandmaidens 
I  will  ])our  out  in  those  days  of  my  Spirit,  and  they 
sh.all  prophesy.'  They  also  adiluce  the  New  Testa- 
ment ex.imples  of  Tryph:ina,  Tryphosa,  the  be- 
loved IV'isis,  and  other  women  who  ajijiear  to  have 
labonre<l  in  the  gosjiel.  Their  mode  of  conducting 
jjublic  woislii]!  likewise  illustrates  the  entirene.ss  of 
their  dependence  on  the  '  internal  light.'  In  other 
religious  bodies  the  minister  has  a  set  form  of 
worship,  through  which  he  must  go,  whether  he 
feels  devoutly  dis]io.sed  or  not.  This  .seems  objpc- 
tion.able  to  tlie  Friends,  who  meet  and  remain  in 
.silence  until  they  believe  themselves  moved  to  speak 
by  the  Holy  (iliost.  Their  prayers  .and  nr.aises  are, 
fm'  the  most  part,  silent  and  inward.  They  prefer 
to  make  meloily  in  their  hearts  unto  God,  consider- 
ing such  to  be  more  spiritual  than  the  outward 
service  of  the  voice. 

The  doctrine  of  the  '  intemal  light'  ha.s  also  led 
the  Friends  to  reject  the  ordinances  of  Ba|itism  an<l 
the  Lord's  Siiiiper  as  the.se  are  observed  by  other 
Christians.  'I  hey  believe  the  Christian  baptism  to 
I)e  a  spiritual  one,  .and  not,  like  the  .Jewish  ami 
heathen  baptisms,  one  with  water :  in  support  of 
which  they  ([uote,  among  other  pa.ss,ages,  the  words 
of  .John  the  liaptist  himself:  '1  bapti.se  ycmwith 
water,  but  there  cometh  one  after  me  who  shall 
baptise  you  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with  fire.' 
Similarly  do  they  regard  the  rite  of  the  Eucharist. 
It  is,  say  they,  inward  and  spiritual,  and  consists 
not  in  any  symbolic  breaking  of  bread  and  drinking 
of  wine,  ))Ut  in  th.at  daily  communion  with  Christ 
thnuigh  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  through  the  obedience 
of  faith,  by  which  the  believer  is  nourished  ami 
strengthened.  They  lielieve  that  the  last  words  of 
the  dying  Redeemer  on  the  cross,  '  It  is  finished,' 
announced  the  entire  abolition  of  .symbolic  rites, 
th.at,  under  the  new  spiritual  dispens.ation  then 
introduced,  the  neces.sity  for  such,  .as  a  means  of 
arriving  at  truth,  cea.se<l,  and  that  their  place  has 
l)een  abundantly  supplied  by  the  Comforter,  the 
Holy  (Jhost,  whose  ofhce  it  now  Ls  to  le.ad  .and  guide 
men  into  all  truth.  The  true  Christian  snj>per, 
.according  to  them,  Ls  .set  forth  in  revelation — 
'  Heludd  I  stand  at  the  door  and  knock  :  if  any  man 
hear  my  voice  and  ojien  the  door,  I  will  come  in 
unto  him,  and  will  sup  with  him  and  he  with  me.' 
For  the  siinie  reason — viz.  that  the  teaching  of  the 
Sjiirit  is  inward  and  spiritual — the  Friends  ignore 
the  religious  observance  of  days  and  times,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Sfibbath. 

The  taking  or  administering  of  oath.s  is  regarded 
by  Friends  as  inconsistent  \nth  the  command  of 


FRIENDS 


Christ,  '  swear  not  at  all,'  and  with  the  exhorta- 
tion of  the  apostle  James — '  Above  all  thinj.'s,  iny 
brethren,  swear  not,  neither  by  heaven,  neither  by 
the  earth,  neither  by  any  otlier  oath  :  but  let  your 
yea  be  yea,  and  your  nay,  nay  ;  lest  ye  fall  into 
condemnation'  (see  Affirmation).  They  also 
refused  to  pay  tithes  for  the  maintenance  or  what 
they  hold  to  be  a  hireling  ministry,  believing  that 
Christ  put  an  end  to  the  priesthood  and  ceremonial 
usages  instituted  under  the  Mosaic  dispensation, 
and  that  he  substituted  none  in  their  place.  In 
conserjuence,  all  consistent  Friends  were  regularly 
mulcted  of  plate,  furniture,  or  other  goods,  to  the 
value  of  the  amount  ilue.  The  conversion  of  tithe 
into  rent-cliargc  (see  TlTHES),  however,  has,  in  the 
opinion  of  many  Friends,  largely  removed  objec- 
tions to  the  payment  to  this  ecclesiastical  demand. 
In  regard  to  the  civil  magistracy,  while  they  respect 
and  lionour  it,  as  ordained  of  God,  they  are  care- 
ful to  warn  the  members  of  their  Society  .against 
thoughtlessly  incurring  its  responsibilities,  involv- 
ing as  it  does  the  administration  of  oaths,  the 
issuing  of  orders  and  warrants  in  reference  to  eccles- 
iastical demands,  the  calling  out  of  an  armed  force 
in  cases  of  civil  commotion,  and  other  duties  incon- 
sistent with  the  peaceful  principles  of  the  Society. 
The  Friends  have  likewise  consistently  protested 
against  war  in  all  its  forms ;  and  the  Society  has 
repeatedly  advised  its  members  against  aiding  and 
assisting  in  the  conveyance  of  soldiers,  their  bag- 
gage, arms,  ammunition,  or  military  stores.  They 
regard  the  profession  of  arms  and  fighting,  not  only 
.as  diametrically  opposed  to  the  general  spirit  of 
Christ,  whose  advent  was  sung  by  angels  in  these 
words  :  '  Gloiy  to  God  in  the  highest,  and  on  earth 
peace,  good-will  toward  men  ; '  but  as  positively 
forbidden  by  such  precepts  as — '  Love  your  enemies, 
bless  them  that  curse  yon,  do  good  to  them  that 
hate  you,  and  pray  for  them  which  despitefully  use 
you  and  persecute  you  ; '  also,  '  Resist  not  evil ;  but 
whosoever  shall  smite  thee  on  thy  right  cheek,  turn 
to  him  the  other  also ; '  and,  while  they  acknowledge 
that  temporaiy  calamitie.s  may  result  from  adopting 
this  jirinciple  of  non-resistance,  they  have  so  strong 
a  faith  in  its  being  e-ssentially  the  dictate  of  divine 
love  to  the  ChrLstian  heart  that  they  believe  God, 
by  his  wise  and  onmipotent  providence,  could  and 
will  yet  make  it  '  mighty  to  the  pulling  down  of  the 
strongholds  of  iniquity.'  The  world,  they  believe, 
will  by-and-by  confess  that  the  ))eace-makers  are 
most  truly  the  children  of  God.  The  efforts  of  the 
Society  for  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  are  a 
part  of  modern  British  hlston.-.  They  may  most 
certainly  lay  claim  to  having  cultivated  the  moral 
sense  of  their  fellow-conntrjnien  in  regard  to  this 
important  question.  As  early  as  1727  they  com- 
menced to  '  censure '  the  traffic  in  slaves,  as  a  prac- 
tice 'neither  commendable  nor  allowed,'  and  gradu- 
ally wanned  in  their  opposition,  until  the  whole 
nation  felt  the  glow,  and  entered  with  enthusiasm 
on  the  work  of  abolition.  In  respect  to  what  may  be 
called  nnuor  points,  the  Friends  are  also  very  scrup- 
ulous ;  they  object  to  '  balls,  garaing-places,  horse- 
races, and  playhouses,  those  nurseries  of  debauchery 
and  wickedness,  the  burden  and  grief  of  the  solier 
part  of  other  societies  as  well  as  of  our  own.'  The 
Printed  Epistle  of  the  yearly  meeting  of  1854  con- 
tains a  warning  against  indulging  in  music,  especi- 
ally what  goes  by  the  name  of  'sacred  music,  ami 
denounces  musical  exhibitions,  sncli  as  oratorios, 
as  es.sentially  a  'profanation' — the  tendency  of 
these  things  being,  it  is  allegeil,  '  to  withdraw  the 
soul  from  that  quiet,  humble,  anil  retired  frame  in 
which  prayer  and  praise  may  be  truly  offered  with 
the  spirit  and  with  the  understanding  also.'  They 
object,  besides,  to  '  the  hurtful  tendency  of  read- 
ing plays,  romances,  novels,  and  other  pernicious 
books;'   and  the  yearly  meeting  of  1764  'recom- 


mends to  everj-  member  of  our  Society  to  discourage 
and  suppress  the  same.'  A  similar  recommenda- 
tion was  is.sued  by  the  Society  in  1851  for  the  benefit 
of  'younger  Friends'  in  particular,  who  would 
appear  to  have  been  tasting  the  forbidden  fruit. 
The  Printed  Epistle  of  the  yearly  meeting  of  1724 
likewise  'advi.ses  against  imitating  the  vain  custom 
of  wearing  orgi«ng  mourning,  ami  all  extravagant 
expenses  about  the  interment  of  the  dead,'  and  this 
advice  has  been  repeatedly  reneweil.  A  nniltitude  of 
other  minute  peculiarities,  which  it  would  be  tedious 
to  note  in  detail,  distinguish  the  Friends  from  their 
fellow-Chi-lstians,  but  one  or  two  of  these  may  here 
be  referred  to.  The  Friends  have  from  their  rise, 
by  example  and  precept,  urge<l  upon  their  members 
'plainness  of  speech,  V)ehaviour,  and  apparel,'  and 
hence,  in  the  matters  of  dress  and  address,  have 
arisen  certain  outward  peculiarities  by  which  a 
'  Friend  '  could  always  be  distinguished.  In  speech 
they  invariably  make  use  of  '  tliee  '  and  '  thou  '  in 
addressing  a  single  person,  without  respect  to 
rank,  station,  or  authority,  and  in  support  of  this 
they  plead  correct  grammar  and  the  example  of 
Scripture. 

They  also  felt  called  to  cease  from  denoting  the 
several  months  of  the  year  and  days  of  the  week 
by  the  names  usually  made  use  of  in  designating 
them.  Instead  of  Januaiy,  Febniary,  &c.,  or 
Monday,  Tuesday,  &c.,  they  adojited  '  First  Month, 
'Second  Month,'  '  Finst  I>ay,"  'Second  Day,'  Ac. 
For  their  practice  in  this  respect  they  asserted 
that  the  names  of  the  days  and  months  used  by 
others  were  given  to  them  in  honour  of  '  heathen 
deities,'  and  this  they  resolutely  refused  to  coun- 
tenance. Though  there  is  not  now  the  same  uni- 
formity of  practice  throughout  the  body  in  some 
of  the  minor  peculiarities,  they  are  to  a  consider- 
able extent  retained  and  adhered  to. 

( ,3 )  DiscipUne.  — By  the  term  discipline  the  Friends 
understand  '""all  those  arrangements  and  regula- 
tions which  are  instituted  for  tlie  civil  and  religious 
benefit  of  a  Christian  church.'  The  necessity  for 
such  discipline  soon  began  to  make  it.^elf  felt,  and 
the  result  was  the  institution  of  certain  meetings 
or  aissemblies.  These  are  four  in  number :  the  first, 
the  Piejjurative  meetings ;  second,  the  Mouthhj 
meetings ;  third,  the  Qtiarterlif  meetings ;  and, 
fourth,  the  Yearly  meetings.  The  first  are  usually 
composed  of  the  memlwrs  in  any  given  place,  in 
which  there  are  generally  two  or  more  Friends  of 
each  sex,  whose  duty  is  to  act  as  overseers  of  the 
meeting,  taking  cognisance  of  births,  marriages, 
burials,  removals,  &c.,  the  conduct  of  membere, 
&c.,  and  reporting  thereon  to  the  monthly  meet- 
ings, to  whom  the  executive  dc|)artment  of  the  dis- 
cipline is  chierty  confided.  Tlie  monthly  meetings 
decide  in  cases  of  violation  of  discipline,  and  have 
the  power  of  cutting  off  or  disowning  all  who  by 
their  improper  conduct,  false  doctrines,  or  otlier 
gross  errors,  bring  reproach  on  the  Society,  although 
the  accused  have  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  quarterly 
meetings,  and  from  these  again  to  the  yearly,  whose 
decisions  are  final.  The  monthly  meetings  are  also 
empowered  to  approve  an<l  acknowledge  ministers, 
as  well  as  to  ap])oint  'serious,  discreet,  and  judici- 
ous Friends,  who  are  not  ministers,  tenderly  to 
encourage  and  help  young  ministers,  and  advise 
others,  as  they,  in  the  wisdom  of  God,  see  occasion. ' 
Tliey  also  execute  a  variety  of  other  important 
duties.  The  quarterly  meetings  are  composed  of 
several  monthly  meetings,  and  exercise  a  sort  of 
general  supervision  over  the  latter,  from  whom 
they  receive  reports,  and  to  wlmm  they  give  such 
atlvice  and  decisions  as  they  think  right.  The 
yearly  meeting  consists  of  select  or  representative 
memijers  of  the  quarterly  meetings.  Its  function 
is  to  consider  generally  tlie  entire  condition  of  the 
Society  in  all  its  aspects.     It   receives  in  ^\•riting 


FRIENDS 


FRIEZE 


answers  to  questions  it  lias  previously  addressed  to 
the  suliorilinato  mcetin'.'s,  (IclilTcratcs  upon  tlieni, 
and  lp;rislatps  iicconlin^'ly.  To  it  exclusively  the 
le^'islative  power  lielon";s.  Thou^'h  thus  constituteil 
sDinewhat  aoeordin;,'  to  I'reshyteiian  order,  yet  any 
nieniher  of  the  Society  may  attend  and  take  part 
ill  the  proceeding's. 

Women  have  also  a  si)ccial  sphere  of  discipline 
allotted  to  them  :  they  inspect  and  relieve  the 
wants  of  the  i)oor  of  their  own  sex,  take  eo^- 
nisaiice  of  proposals  for  niarria^re,  deal  with  female 
<leliii(|uents  privately,  and  under  certain  restric- 
tions may  even  do  so  ollicially,  thoiifih  in  the 
'  testimony  of  disownment '  they  have  always  the 
assistance  of  memliers  of  the  oilier  sex. 

The  Society  of  Friends,  in  the  multitude  of  its 
re^'ulations,  has  not  forgotten  the  ])oor ;  charit.v  in 
its  narrower,  as  well  as  in  its  hroader  sense,  has 
always  lieen  a  lieaiitiful  feature  of  its  memliers. 
The  care  <if  the  poor  Wius  one  of  the  earliest  evi- 
dences which  ("liristianity  alldiiled  to  the  (^Mitili's 
of  the  superioritv  and  divine  character  of  its  ]irin- 
ciples  ;  and  it  is  honouralile  to  the  society  that  a 
similar  jirovision  for  those  united  to  them  in  reli- 
<,'ioiis  fellowshi]!  ajipears  to  have  been  one  of  the 
earlie.st  occasions  of  their  meetings  for  discipline. 
Nevertheless,  in  acconlance  with  their  ruling' jirin- 
ciple,  that  all  < 'hristi.-in  duty  should  l»>  left  for  its 
fullilment  to  the  spontaneity  of  christian  love, 
and  not  performed  under  coinpnlsion  of  any  kind, 
'the  provision  for  the  poor  is  purely  voluntary  ;' 
yet  their  litierality  is  proveiliial  tlii'oii;.'ho\it  liritain 
anil  .\merica.  Tlieir  numlier  amounted  in  1S9G  to 
107,9(18,  of  wliiim  three-fourths  belonged  to  the 
United  States. 

See  Fox's  Joaniaf ;  Sewel's  Hitttori/  »>/  tfie  Quakers 
(1722);  Besse'.s  Suffcrini/s  of  the  Qunkcrii  (1752); 
(iiirney'a  Obnrn'iitions  an  the  Peculiarities  of  the  Socictji 
of  Frirtiih  (1824);  Neale's  History  of  the  Puritans; 
Kowntrce's  Quitkcrism  Vast  and  Present  (18.~i!))  ;  Joseph 
.Smith's  Ihscriptifc  Cat'doiiuc  of  Books  hp  Friends  ( 2  vols. 
18IJ7);  Bonk  of  i'hristiaii  lJisei/>fine  of  the  Soeieti/  of 
Friends  ( 1883) ;  F.  Storrs  Tumer,  The  Quakers  :  a  Study 
(18!)0) ;  Miss  C.  F,.  Stephen,  Quaker  Sironyhotds  (IS'M)- 

Friends   of    the    People,   an    association 

formed  in  179'2  in  London  to  obtain  parli.inientaiy 
reform  by  constiliiiiiinal  means.  Aiiioiij;  its 
members  were  Lords  Lauderdale,  Kiimaird,  John 
Russell,  and  Kdward  Fitzfjerald,  and  such  com- 
moners as  <;rey.  Mackintosh,  >Lalcolm  Laiiig, 
Dudley  North,  Ei'skine,  Saniiiel  K(ij,'ers,  and 
Sheridan. 

Fries,  Eli.vs,  a  Swedish  botanist,  was  born, 
ITilli  .\iii,'iist  1794.  in  the  district  of  Fein.sjii  in 
Siiialand,  and  studied  at  Lund,  where  he  early 
tant,dit  botany.  In  18:^4  he  was  called  to  the 
chair  of  I'ractical  Kcononiics  at  I'psala,  with 
which  in  18.il  that  of  Botany  was  conjoined. 
Fries  introduced  into  Sweden  the  niorpholoi,deal 
theory  in  his  Hi/stema  Orbis  Vcgcttihilis  (182.")). 
His  Si/stciitK  Mi/ciilof/icKm  (3  vols.  IS20  ,32)  wius 
lonj;  the  standard  work  on  the  i^Iassilieation 
of  funj;i,  of  which  be  j;a-^'e  a  relatively  com- 
jilete  cataloj;iie  in  Siiniiini  ]'c</et(i/ji/iiiin  Smm/i- 
iiiiviir  (2  vols.  Stockholm,  184(i-49).  He  wrote  a 
series  of  useful  books  on  the  Hynienomycetie,  on 
lichens,  and  on  the  Uora  of  Scandinavia,  more 
particularly  of  .Sweden.  Anions  his  nionograjihs 
the  Siiniholit:  iid  llisloritiiii  llirrarioram  (l']isala, 
1848)  deserves  especial  mention.  In  1H.51  F'ries 
was  a)i]iointed  director  of  the  botanical  luusenm 
and  fjarden  at  I'jisala,  and  in  185.3  rector  of  the 
iinivei-sity.  He  resi^'ned  in  18.57,  and  died  there, 
sth  February  1878. 

Fries.  .J.\kop.  I'RiEniiirii,  the  founder  of  a 
p'iiilosii|iliic  school  in  ticiiiiaiiy,  was  born  at  IJarby, 
in  Prussian  Saxony,  2:?d  An^nist  177:^,  studied  at 
Leipzig  and  Jena,  and  in  1805  was  called  to  Heidel- 


berf;  as  iirofe.s.sor  of  Philosophy  and  Mathematics. 
In  181()  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  chair  of  Specula- 
tive Philosophy  at  .leiia,  but  was  de|irived  of  his 
profes.sorship  on  account  of  his  ]iarticipatioii  in 
the  democratic  disturbances  of  1S19.  In  1H24, 
however,  he  was  a|ipointed  to  the  chair  of  I'liysics 
and  Mathematics,  which  he  occuiiied  till  his  death, 
10th  Aiij^ist  1843.  Amongst  his  more  important 
books  are  l>i/stem  r/ir  I'/iilusop/iie,  (1804);  Aeiic 
Krilik  tier  Vcniuiift  (.3  vols.  1807);  Siistrm  dcr 
Loijik  (1811):  lUimlhiirh  drr  psijehisehrii  Anlhro- 
jitilogic  (1820-21):  l>i(  Lelinn  der  Lithe,  dcs 
0/aiilini.s,  and  dcr  //'///'HI/H7  ( 182.3):  and  (•'c.ir/iirhle 
der  I'hilo.iojihie  (1837-40).  Taking  the  Kantian 
philosophy  for  his  starting-point.  Fries  demon- 
strated that  intuitive  p.sychology  must  be  the 
ba.sis  of  all  pliiloso|ihising.  Thus,  through  inner 
experience  11  jiosteriori  we  learn  to  know  the  sub- 
jective II  priori  conditions  of  knowledge:  and 
through  intuitive  ]iiesentinient  or  faith  we  derive 
our  certainty  of  the  reality  of  things  themselves. 
From  inner  assurance  of  the  essential  worth  and 
personal  dignity  of  men  How  the  dclinilions  and 
sanctions  of  ethics,  and  from  the  same  source  origi- 
nate our  a'sthetic  and  religious  feelings.  See 
Henke,  J.  F.  Fric.i  ( 1867). 

Frieslaild.  or  Vltll-:si,.\Nn  (ancient  Frixin),  in 
its  widest  sense,  as  the  country  of  the  Frisian  race, 
included  the  iiioilein  pKivinces  of  Zealand,  North 
and  South  llullainl.  part  of  I'trecht,  Friesland 
proper,  and  (ironiiigen  in  Ilollaml,  together  with 
Prussian  Fast  F'ricsland  and  a  part  of  Oldenburg, 
the  western  coast  of  Sleswick  between  the  l-^idei 
and  the  Tondern,  and  the  islands  of  Sylt,  F'iilir, 
Nordstrand,  and  others.  The  province  of  F'ries- 
land  pro]ier  in  the  Netherlands  is  bounded  N.  by 
the  (ierman  Ocean  and  \\ .  and  S\V.  by  the 
Zuider  Zee.  It  is  sometimes  called  West  Friesland 
to  distinguish  ii  from  Ea-l  F'riesi.and.  ,\ica,  1282 
sq.  in.  ;  pop.  (187.5)  311,246;  (1894)  337,76.5.  The 
land  is  flat,  in  some  parts  below  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  is  cut  up  by  canals  and  streams.  The 
lowlands  are  ])rotected  by  arlilicial  banks  or  dykes. 
Lakes  and  marshes  are  numerous.  The  dykes, 
sluices,  and  canals  are  under  the  care  of  a  special 
board,  anil  are  kept  up  at  the  local  expense.  The 
inland  .and  sea  waters  .abound  with  lish.  Rich 
pa-stures  cover  a  third  )iart  of  the  surface.  The 
noises,  cattle,  and  sheeji  are  all  of  excellent  breeds. 
Large  quantities  of  pe.at  are  dug.  The  capital  is 
Leeuwarden,  ami  the  chief  ]iort  Hailingen,  whence 
I  .are  shipped  cheese  and  Imtter  (mostlv  to  London), 
I  horses,  cattle,  leather,  and  wool.  'I'hi-  climate  is 
I  moist  and  misty,  but  not  raw.  The  inhabitants, 
I  who  are  dcsceniled  from  the  ancient  Frisians,  s]ieak 
<a  peculiar  dialect.  The  industries  .are  unimportant. 
— jJast  Friesland,  with  an  area  of  1200  sq.  m.,  and 
a  pop.  aiiKuinting  (1885)  to  211,825,  formerly  a 
principality  of  Westphalia,  now  forms  the  ILano- 
verian  district  of  Aiiriih  ;  chief  towns,  Kiiiden  and 
Aurich.  It  is  boumled  N.  by  the  Oerman  Ocean 
and  W.  by  the  Netherlands.  Like  West  F'ricsland 
it  is  low  and  flat.  With  the  lielji  of  the  I'riissian 
government  the  moors  .are  being  reclaimed  and  cul- 
tivated. Fishing  and  agriculture  constitute  the 
chief  emplovmcnt  of  the  inli.abitants.  who  are 
Frisians.  T)iis  ]irovince  has  frequently  changed 
owners  since  1744,  when  the  family  of  Cirksena, 
in  whose  |)ossession  it  had  been  for  .'100  .years, 
became  extinct.  It  was  first  ceded  to  Prn.ssia, 
next  incorporated  by  Napoleon  with  Holland  .and 
F'r.ance ;  in  1813  it  was  restored  to  Prussia;  in 
1815  it  was  ceded  to  Hanover,  along  with  which 
it  again  forms  part  of  Prussia.  See  F'risians,  and 
H.  M.  Doughty's  y''nV.s/f(H(/ J/c;cs(1889). 

Frieze,   in   classical    architecture,   the   central 
portion  of  the  Flntablature  (q.v.).     Vitruvius  also 


FRIGATE 


FRISIANS 


calls  it  the  Zo])honis  ( '  life-bearing ')  from  its  being 
frequently  ornamented  with  sculpture.  Similarly, 
the  term  frieze  is  sometimes  applied  to  any  enriched 
horizontal  band. 

Frigate  (¥v.  frigate,  ItsX.  fregata),  formerly  <a 
long,  narrow  vessel  propelled  by  oars  and  sails,  used 
in  the  Mediterranean  on  occasions  when  speed  was 
requisite.  The  name  then  came  to  be  applied  to 
inen-of  war,  of  a  class  smaller  tlian  line-of-battle 
ships,  and  carrying  from  twenty  to  fifty  guns, 
which  were  distributed  on  the  main  and  upper 
decks.  Tliey  were  employed  in  the  great  wars  of 
the  18tli  an<l  early  part  of  the  19th  centuries,  as 
scouts  and  cruisers.  The  frigate  was  usually  swift, 
easily  managed,  and  capable  of  beating  well  to 
windward.  She  became,  therefore,  the  favourite 
ship  in  war-time,  and  bore  oft'  a  large  proportion 
of  the  prize-money.  Frigates  also  served  to  oljtain 
information  as  to  tlie  movements  of  hostile  fleets, 
and  to  guide  tlie  sailing  of  their  own ;  but  it  was 
unusual  for  them  to  join  in  the  line  of  battle,  their 
exploits  ordinarily  occurring  in  engagements  with 
single  sliips  of  their  own  class.  With  steam  and 
the  growth  of  the  royal  navy  in  later  times 
frigates  were  developed  more  tlian  any  other  men- 
of-war,  and  many  of  the  largest  shijjs  in  the  navy 
belonged  to  this  cla-ss,  such  as  the  iron-plated 
Warrior,  of  6000  tons,  tliree  times  the  burden  of 
any  ship  of  the  line  in  Nelson's  fleets.  Now,  how- 
ever, these  are  all  ships  of  the  past,  incapable  of 
contending  with  the  turreted  monsters  which  carry 
modern  artillery,  and  the  name  frigate  itself  has 
disapjjcared  from  the  Xari/  List,  the  term  '  cruiser ' 
— armoured  or  unarmoured — having  taken  its  place. 
This  is  true  also  of  the  United  States  navy. 

Frigate  Bird,  or  M.\n-of-war  Bird  (Turhij- 
petes  aqiiila),  a  tropical  marine  bird,  placed  near 
pelicans  and  cormorants  in  the  order  Stegano- 
podes.  In  flight  it  is  extremely  powerful,  and 
makes  use  of  its  swiftness  and  strength  to  force 
other  birds  to  surrender  tlieir  prey.  The  food  con- 
sists of  fish,  which,  if  not  stolen,  are  caught  at  the 
surface.  PMying-tisb  are  said  to  form  an  important 
constituent  of  its  diet.  It  may  be  seen  out  at  sea 
100  miles  from  land,  but  nests  and  breeds  on  tlie 
coasts  of  the  tropical  Atlantic  and  Pacific — e.g. 
ott'  Hondanos,  where  vast  'rookeries'  liave  been 
described.  The  bird  is  large,  measuring  about 
4  feet  in  length,  with  very  long  wings  and  tail. 


Frigate  Bird  (  Tacliii/vtes  aqiiila). 

The  beak  is  hooked,  and  almost  twice  a.s  long  a.s 
the  head.  The  prevalent  colour  is  brownish- 
black  ;  the  female  lias  a  white  breast,  and,  like  the 
young  birds,  ditt'ei's  in  minor  points  from  the  adult 
male.  In  some  parts  it  is  sai<l  to  become  half- 
tame,  and  even  to  be  available  for  lettercarrving. 


Frigga,  in  nortliem  mythology,  the  wife  of 
Odin,  who  seems  to  have  occupied  an  analogous 
position  to  that  of  Venus  in  Kcmian  mythology. 
She  was  also  the  goddess  of  the  earth  and  of 
marriage,  and  wa-s  freiiuently  confounded,  and 
latterly  quite  identified,  with  Freyja  (q.v.).  She 
wa-s  the  only  Scandinavian  <leity  placed  amongst 
the  stars;  Orion's  belt  is  called  in  Swedish  Frigga's 
distatt'.     From  her  Friilay  takes  its  name. 

Frilled  Lizard.    See  Chl.vmydosaurus. 

Friuge  Tree  (Chioncmtlius),  a  genus  of 
Oleaceic,  of  which  the  common  species  or  Fringe 
Tree  or  Snowflower  { C.  rirginim ),  found  in  tlie 
United  States  from  .39'  lat.  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
is  a  large  shnib  with  very  numerous  snow-white 
flowers  in  panicled  racemes.  The  limb  of  the 
corolla  is  divided  into  four  long  linear  segments, 
whence  the  name  fringe  tree.  The  fruit  is  an  oval 
drupe.  The  tree  is  frequently  cultivated  a-s  an 
ornamental  plant.     The  root  bark  is  narcotic. 

Friiigillidap.    See  Finch. 

Frisches  Half  ( '  Fresh-water  Bay  ' ),  a  lagoon 
on  the  coast  of  Prussia,  south-east  of  the  Gulf  of 
Danzig,  about  .50  miles  in  length,  4  to  11  miles 
broad,  and  .■532  sq.  ni.  in  area.  It  was  once  entirely 
walled  off  from  the  Baltic  by  a  narrow  spit  of 
land,  through  which  a  passage,  1247  feet  wide  and 
14i  feet  deep,  was  cut  in  1510  during  a  violent 
sto'rni.     The  Hafl'  is  10  to  16  feet  deep. 

Frisians,  a  people  of  Teutonic  stock,  who, 
Tacitus  says,  when  the  Romans  first  came  into 
contact  with  them,  occujiied  the  maritime  region 
extending  from  the  Scheldt  to  the  Ems  and  Weser. 
They  submitted  to  the  Roman  power  in  the  reign 
of  Drusus,  and  were  loyal  and  helpful  tributaries 
until  stung  into  revolt  in  28  A.D.  by  the  extortions 
of  a  Roman  provincial  officer.  From  that  time 
onwards  they  rendered  only  sullen  submission  to 
the  empire,  and  more  than  once  revolted  and 
maintained  their  independence  for  some  yeai^. 
They  were  sea-rovers,  as  well  as  herdsmen  and 
husbandmen,  and  took  jiart  ahmg  with  the  Angles 
and  Saxons  in  the  conquest  of  Britain.  We  next 
read  of  them  as  ottering  a  stubborn  resistance 
not  <mly  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  but 
also  to  the  encroachments  of  the  Fiankisb  power 
from  the  south :  in  fact,  in  spite  of  the  ett'orts 
of  Wilfriil  of  York,  the  first  missionary  among 
the  Frisians,  and  his  successors  Willibrord  and 
Boniface,  the  Christian  religion  does  not  seem 
to  have  obtained  footing  in  Frisia  beyond  the 
actual  limits  of  Frankish  dominion  until  the  com- 
plete abs(uption  of  the  Frisians'  land  in  the  em]>ire 
of  Charleniague.  In  the  meantime  they  had  waged 
an  almost  continuous  war  against  the  Franks. 
Their  king  Radbod,  although  driven  out  of  western 
Frisia  (from  the  Schehlt  to  the  Zuider  Zee)  in  689 
by  Pepin,  .'■o  far  turned  the  tables  after  the  death 
of  this  king  that  he  sailed  u]i  the  Rhine  to  Colomie, 
and  defeated  Charles  Martel,  in  716.  Their  la.st 
indepenilent  prince,  Poppo,  was  defeated  and  slain 
by  Charles  Martel  in  734,  ami  the  conquest  of  the 
Frisians  was  conqileted  by  Charlemagne.  At  the 
])artitiim  of  the  Frankish  empire  made  at  Verdun  in 
843  Frisia  became  part  of  Lotharingia  or  Lorraine. 
In  911,  however,  when  Lotharingia  seceded  from 
the  ea.'itern  to  join  the  western  Frankish  empire, 
the  districts  of  eastern  Frisia  (from  the  Zuider 
Zee  to  the  Weser)  asserted  their  independence, 
and  formed  themselves  into  a  sort  of  democratic 
confederated  republic,  until  in  the  first  half  of 
the  l.")tli  century  they  beciine  virtually  a  count- 
shi]i,  being  ruled  by  the  dynasty  of  the  Cirksena 
down  to  the  extinctitm  of  the  family  in  1744,  when 
Pnissia  took  possession  of  it.  jlean while  the 
western  half  of  Frisia  had  for  the  most  part  been 
absorbed    in   the    bishopric   of    L'treeht    and    the 


- 


10 


FRIT 


FRITILLARY 


countsliipof  Hollaml,  tlioHjjh  not  without  a  most 
!itul>l>orii  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  Frisians,  a 
resistance  wliich  liad  not  wholly  ilieil  out  hv  the 
end  of  the  l.'ith  ccnturv.  In  fact  in  U.iT  the 
Knii»Mi>r  KriMlcrick  III.  recnKnised  their  inimeiliate 
<Iei>enilen<i'  upon  the  eniiiire.  Ami  it  was  only  in 
14!),S  that  their  staunch  love  of  liherty  was  linally 
crushe.l  hy  Alhert  of  Saxony,  whom  Maximilian 
liad  appointed  here.litary  imperial  governor  of 
Frisia.  From  l.Vi,"},  when  the  },'overnoi>hip  fell  to 
ciiarles  V.,  Frisia  hecame  virtually  a  part  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  from  that  time  onwards  shared 
their  dot inv. 

The  Frisian  lanjiuane  is  a  inemher  of  the  Low 
Cerman  family,  C(unin^'  intermediate  hetweeii  Old 
Saxon     and     AnKli>Saxiin.       Its     most     striking 
iieculiarily  is  the  modilication  of  k  and  (/  into  ts 
before   the  letters  e   and    /.      The   oldest   existing' 
specimens  of  the  lauKuanc  clo  not  •;<)  hack  heyond 
tlie  Uth  and  loth  centuries,  and  consist  principally 
of  the  ohl  law  codes  and  similar  official  documents 
(cidleoted    in    Kichthofen,  /■ViV.s/Wic  ]!tr/it.sijm//eii, 
IStll).     The  celehrated  /,<-.r  Fn.iiotiii»i,  althoufih  it 
heloii^'s  prohahlv  to  the  period  of  C'harlematjne,  is 
composed  in   Latin,  and   contains   a   very   nieajrre 
sprinkling   of   Frisian  terms.     At  the  i>resent  day 
pure  Frisi.an  is  spoken  only  hy  the  peivsautry  in  the 
wot  of  Dutch  Friesland  .and  in  one  or  two  isolated 
districts     of     I'russian    East      Friesland,    an<l     is 
cultivated   hv   a  small  coterie  of   men  of   literary 
taste   in    Holland.      Corrujit  forms  are  spoken  in 
Heligoland  and  in  parts  of  .Jutland  and  Sleswick. 
(;yshert   .lapicx   occupies    the  lirst    place  amongst 
Frisian  writers,  h.aving  puhlishi-d  in  llitiS  a  volume 
of  poems  entitled  Frl.srhr  J.'ijni/ni/e.      Other  hooks 
held  in  great  esteem  hy  the  Frisians  are  a  eomeily, 
n'iiiil:e  Cribhcrtx  Jin/lUf't,  dating  from  the  hegin- 
niii"  of  the  18th  centurv,  and  the  popular  work. 
It  I.ihhen  fin   Awitjr  Ijshrinits  (1S27).     Uet  0cm 
LiiKld  liok;  of  which  an  Fnglish  editicm  appeared 
in  1S77,  though  jiurporting  to  he  of  vast  antiiiuity, 
wa~   reiillv   written   hv   a  shi|p  carpenter.   Over   ile 
Linden    (ISll-T.S).       jiesiiles  these,    ([uite   modern 
works     have    been     written     hy    E.    and    J.     H. 
llalliert.sma,     Salverda,      Posthuinns,     Windsma, 
Dykstra.  Deketh,  Van  der  Veen,  V.an  As.sen.  and 
others.    The  most  imiimtant  proiUiction  in  northern 
Frisian,   the  corrupt  dialect  of  .lutlaml   and    Sles- 
wick   is  Il.ansen's  comeilv  I)c  Giillslitih.     A  society 
was   founded  at  Franeker  in  1«29  for  the  study  of 
the  Frisian  language  and  history. 

The  most  complete  accounts  of  Frisian  literature  are 
pcrliaps  to  he  found  in  iMone,  Uebertiehl  der  nifrfer- 
Idmlhrhen  VolksliHemtiir  (illa-er  Zeit  (1838).  and 
AViiikler,  Alhirnxcn  ncilenlmlsrh  < >i  Jrieack  Vialechcon 
(1X721.  For'  the  study  of  the  lanioiajie,  see  grainmars 
liyKa.sk.  Crimni,  Heync,  and  A.  H.  C'umnuns  (2d  ed. 
I.niid  18.S,S ),  graiiniiars,  dictionaries,  kc.  hy  Kichthofen 
(ISIO),  J.  Hall)ertsma  (1874),  Cadovius  Miiller  (died 
17'.%)  Ten  Doornkaat-Koolman  (1877  85),  Dirkscn 
(18.S9'),  Outzen   (18:57),  Bendsen  (18(J0),  and  Johansen 

(i8i;2). 

Frit  {C/iloro/is  fn'l),  a  small  hlack  Diiiterous 
corntly,  common  in  North  Europe,  not  known  in 
Jiritain,  doing  great  damage  especially  to  harley 
(see  Corn  In.sects). 

Frith.    See  Fiktii. 

Frith.  John,  reformer.  wa.s  horn  aluiut  l.'>03  tit 
Westerham,  Kent,  an.l  fr(uii  Eton  pa.s..^ed  to  King's 
(College,  ("amhriilge,  whence  in  l.Vio  Wolsey  sum- 
moneTl  him  to  his  new  founilation  at  Oxfor<l.  A 
twelvemonth  later,  however,  .suspicion  of  heres^v 
drove  him  a  fugitive  to  the  young  Protestant  uni- 
versity of  Marlmrg.  anil  during  his  live  years'  stay 
here  lie  saw  much  of  Tyndale  and  Patrick  Hamilton, 
and  wrote  several  Protestant  treatises.  Venturing 
hack  to  England  in  1532,  he  was  seized  and  lodged 
in  the  Tower,  and  on  4tli  July  1533  was  burned  at 


Smithtield.     Ho  has  been  called  the  author  of  the 
Anglican  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist. 

Frith.  Wii.i.lAM  PoWKl.l.,  H..A.,  was  born  at 
Aldlield.  Yorkshire,  on  the  !Hli  .lannary  ISIR.  He 
studied  art  at  Sass's  Academy,  Lonilon,  and  in 
tlie  schools  of  the  Hoyal  Academy  ;  and  in  1S40 
exhibited  his  'Othello  and  Desi'lemona'  in  the 
liritish  Institution.  He  painted  portraits,  antl  his 
earlv  suhjectpictures  were  scenes  from  the  English 
ami  French  cla.s.sic8.  His  'Coming  of  Age  in  the 
Olden  Time'  lirst  bronght  its  jiainter  into  notice, 
anil  his  celehritv  was  increased  by  '  Itamsgate 
Sands'  ( 1854) ;  "'The  Derby  Day'  (18.->8);  and 
'The  Railway  Station'  (18(i'2).  flis  later  works 
include  'Charles  II. 's  Last  Sunday'  (1867): 
'  liefore  Pinner  at  Hoswclls  Lodgings'  (18t)8), 
which  in  1875  sold  for  t'4.'>ti7  :  the  gambling  siili- 
jects  entitleil  '  The  Hoad  to  Kiiin  '  ( 1878) ;  and  '  A 
Private  View,  a  Scene  at  the  Royal  Academy' 
(1S8.'{).  His  produc- 
tions, while  desti- 
tute of  the  liner  art- 
istic (|nalities,  have 
been  extremely  popu- 
lar on  account  of  the 
interest  of  their  sub- 
jects and  their  obvi- 
ous dramatic  point, 
and  have  become 
widely  known  by 
means  of  engravings. 
Hew.aselectedA.R.A. 
in  184t),  K.A.  in  18.V2, 
and  put  on  the  retired 
list  in  18110.  His  popu- 
lar picture,  'J'/ic  Hail- 
Vdji  Station,  sold  for 
£5'2.")0,  was  re-sold  in 
]S!M)  for  £315.  His 
Aiitoliio/fmpli;/  (3 

vols.)    was    published 
in  18S7-88. 

Frithiof.       See 

Teiinkk. 
Fritillarj    {Fri- 

tillcin'a),    a    genus   of 

the  Liliaceie,  closely  allied  to  the  lily  and  tulip, 

are  herliaceous  ami  bnlbous-rootea  plants.     Aliout 


Coiiinion  Fritillary 
{Frilillaria  mdeagrit). 


-^^ 


Crown  Imperial  [Fritiltaria  impcrialu) : 
a.  (tower  enlarged. 

twenty  .species  are  known,  all  pahearctic.     All  of 
them  have  drooping   llowers ;    some  of   them  are 


FRITILLARY 


FROEBEL 


11 


beautiful.  One  species  only  Ls  a  native  of  Britain, 
the  Common  Fritillary  (/'.  mdeugria),  also  called 
Snake's  Heail,  Chequer-flower,  iSrc. ,  which  is  found 
in  meadows  and  pastures  in  the  east  and  south  of 
England,  tloweriiif;  in  April  or  May.  They  are 
specially  plentiful  in  the  >Iagdalen  Avatermeailows, 
(J.xford.  The  flowers  are  pale  or  dark  purple, 
tcsselated  with  dark  markings,  sometimes  cream- 
white,  ilany  varieties  are  in  cultivation. — This 
genus  includes  the  Crown  Imperial  (F.  iinjicriulii), 
which  was  brought  from  Persia  to  Constantinople 
in  the  16th  centurj-,  and  thence  introduced  through 
the  imperial  garden  at  Vienna  into  western  Europe, 
where  it  soon  became  a  constant  inmate  of  the  her- 
baceous border.  The  bulb  of  the  common  species, 
but  still  more  of  this  one,  is  poisonous. 

Fritillary,  a  name  given  to  a  number  of 
butterflies  ( .\rg>nnis,  Melitrea,  &C. ),  some  of  which 
are  common  in  Britain,  from  the  resemblance  of 
the  colouring  on  the  upper  surface  of  their  wings  to 
that  of  the  flowers  of  the  common  fritillarj". 

Friull  (Ger.  Frianl,  Lat.  Forum  Jnlil),  the 
name  of  a  district  fonnerly  governed  by  inde- 
pendent dukes,  lying  at  the  head  of  the  tJulf  of 
Venice.  With  a  total  population  of  about  700,(X)0, 
and  a  total  area  of  some  3470  sq.  m.,  it  is  divided 
between  Austrian  Friuli,  embracing  the  districts 
of  (jfirz,  Gradisca,  and  Idria,  and  Italian  Friuli, 
including  the  province  of  I'dine  and  the  district  of 
Portogruaro.  Friuli  is  rich  in  com  and  wine,  and 
has  much  metallic  wealth  and  numerous  mineral 
springs.  The  inhabitants,  called  Fiir/ani,  are 
mostly  Italians,  some  of  them  speaking  a  peculiar 
dialect  containing  several  Celtic  elements.  Friuli 
constituted  one  of  the  thirty-sLx  duchies  into  which 
the  Lombards  divided  the  north  of  Italy,  and  shared 
the  vicissitudes  of  its  neighbour  states. 

FrobenillS,  J<>.\xnes,  the  learned  i)rinter,  was 
born  in  Fvanconia  in  1460,  founded  a  jirinting- 
oflice  at  Basel  in  1491,  and  published  a  Latin 
Bil)le,  editions  of  Cyprian,  Tertullian,  Hilary,  Am- 
brose, and  the  Greek  Xew  Testament  (1496). 
As  correctors  to  the  press  he  employed  such  men 
as  Qicolampadius  and  Era-smus ;  and  between  1491 
and  1527,  the  year  of  his<leath,  he  issued  300  works 
(including  all  those  of  Erasmus),  well  printed  and 
wonderfully  free  of  error. 

Frobislier,  Sir  M.artix,  one  of  the  great 
Elizabethan  seamen,  was  born  in  Yorkshire,  either 
at  Altofts  (near  Wakefleld)  or  at  Doncaster  about 
1535.  Sent  to  sea  as  a  boy,  he  traded  to  Guinea 
and  elsewhere,  aiul  seems  at  an  early  age  to  have 
become  possessed  by  his  life-long  dream  of  a  north- 
west pa-ssage  to  Cathay.  After  long  solicitations 
he  was  enabled,  chiefly  by  help  of  Warwick,  to  set 
.sail  northwards  round  the  Slietland  Islands,  7tli 
June  1576,  with  the  Gubricl  and  the  Micluicl  of  20 
tons  each  and  a  pinnace  of  10  tons,  with  a  total 
complement  of  thirty-live  men.  The  pinnace  was 
soon  lost  in  tlie  storms  that  followed,  and  the 
Mirhncl  deserte<l,  but  Frobislier  held  on  his 
adventurous  course,  was  almost  lost  on  the  coast 
of  Greenlaml,  and  reached  Labrador  on  the  '28th 
July.  From  Hall's  Island  at  the  mouth  of 
Frobislier  Bay  his  men  carried  away  some  '  black 
earth,'  which  wa-s  supposed  in  London,  whither  he 
arrived  on  October  9th,  to  contain  gold.  Next 
year  a  new  expedition  was  fitted  out  with  much 
enthusiasm,  the  queen  herself  supplying  from  the 
royal  navy  a  ve-ssel  of  200  tons.  The  country 
around  Hall's  Island  was  formally  taken  and 
named  Mcta  Iinnflnita,  and  abundance  of  the 
black  earth  was  brought  to  England.  Yet  another 
anil  well-appointed  expedition  was  despatched  in 
1578,  but  was  hara.ssed  by  storms  without  and 
dissensions  within,  and  returned  home  with  a  great 
cargo  of  the  ore,   from  which,   however,  no  more 


gold  could  be  extracted.  Of  Frobisher  we  hear 
but  little  during  the  next  few  vears,  but  in  1585 
he  commanded  a  ves.sel  in  Drake's  expedition  to 
the  \\est  Indie-s,  did  good  service  in  the  prepara- 
tory- ta*k  of  hampering  the  designs  of  Spain,  and 
in  the  struggle  with  the  Armada  covered  himself 
with  glorj-  by  his  conduct  in  the  Triumjth,  ami  was 
rewarded  by  the  honour  of  knighthood.  Frobisher 
next  married  a  daughter  of  Lord  Wentworth,  and 
settled  down  as  a  country  gentleman,  but  was  .soon 
again  at  the  more  congenial  task  of  scouring  the 
seas  for  the  treasure-ships  of  Spain.  At  the  siege 
of  Crozon  near  Brest  in  the  November  of  1594  he 
received  a  wound  of  which  he  died  at  Plymouth  on 
the  22d  of  the  .same  month.  His  Three  Voyages 
were  edited  by  Admiral  CoUin.son  for  the  Hakluyt 
Societv  ( 1867).  There  is  a  Life  bv  Rev.  F.  .lones 
(1878): 

Frobislier  Bav,  an  inlet  opening  westward 
near  the  mouth  of  DavLs  Strait  into  the  territorj- 
called  by  Frobisher  il/f^a  Incorjiiitii,  at  the  southern 
end  of  Baffin  Land.  It  is  atout  200  miles  long  by 
above  20  wxAe,  with  rugged  mountainous  shores. 
It  was  till  Halls  voyage  called  Frobisher  Sirnit, 
lieing  enoneously  regarded  as  a  passage  into 
Hudson  Bay. 

Froebel.  Friedkich  Wilhelm  Arorsx,  Ger- 
man educational  reformer,  was  born  at  Oberweiss- 
bach  in  Thuringia.  21st  April  1782.  His  studies 
at  Jena  being  internipted  by  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1802,  he  was  compelled  to  shift  as  best  he 
could  for  a  living,  until  in  1805,  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main,  he  found  his  true  vocation  in  teaching. 
The  next  five  years  he  spent  partly  at  Frankfort, 
partly  at  Yverdon  in  Switzenand,  at  the  latter 
place  in  close  intimacy  with  Pestalozzi.  Then  for 
a  couple  of  yeai^s  he  resumed  his  studies,  this  time 
chiefly  in  the  natural  sciences,  at  Giittingen  and 
Berlin.  But  again  they  were  internipted  :  the  War 
of  Liberation  l>roke  out,  and  Froebel  joined  Llit- 
zow's  corps.      Two  years  after  the  conclusion   of 

fieace  he  got  his  first  opportunity  to  realise  his 
ong-meditated  principles  of  education  ;  he  made  a 
start  at  Griesheim  in  Thuringia,  but  in  the  follow- 
ing year  (1817)  transferred  his  school  to  Keilhau, 
Avhere  he  was  shortly  afterwards  joined  by  his 
devoted  friends  and  disciples,  Langethal  and 
Middendorfl'.  At  this  time  the  characteristic  idea 
of  his  teaching  wa.s  that  the  root  of  all  educational 
development  is  action,  which  has  for  its  ultimate 
aim  not  only  mere  physical  exercise,  but  also  the 
unfolding  and  strengthening  of  the  mental  powei's  ; 
and  underlying  this  was  the  conWction  tiiat  the 
real  purpose  of  education  should  be  to  encourage 
the  child  to  grow  naturally  an<l  spontaneously, 
unfolding  all  its  powers  according  to  the  inner 
organic  la«s  of  its  being,  just  a-s  grow  plants  and 
animals  and  cnstals.  In  1826  he  expounded  his 
\iews  in  a  work  entitled  Die  Menschcnerzichuiiq. 
With  the  view  of  extending  his  system,  Froebel  in 
1831  established  a  branch  institution  in  the  canton 
of  Lucerne  in  Switzerland,  which,  however,  could 
never  make  headway  against  the  opposition  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  clergy-.  Hence,  atter  starting  an 
orphanage  at  Burgdorf  in  Bern,  where  also  he 
began  to  train  teachers  for  educational  work, 
Froebel  returned  to  the  centre  of  Germany,  and  in 
18.36  opened  at  Blankenburg,  not  far  from  Keilhau, 
his  first  Kindergarten  (q.v.)  school.  The  rest  of 
his  life  was  spent  in  the  advocacy  of  kindergarten 
schools  anil  in  organising  them  ;  but  along  with 
these  labours  he  combined  the  training  of  teachers 
to  cariT  on  the  system  he  had  devised.  He  died 
on  21st  June  1852  at  Marienthal  in  Thuringia. 
Froebel's  works  were  collected  and  published  bv 
Wichard  Lange  in  1862-63  (new  ed.  1874),  also  by 
Seidel  in   1883.     See  Autobiography  of  F.   Fruhcl 


12 


FROG 


(Loiiil.  1886);  Life  of  Fiochel,  liy  Emily  Sliirietl' 
(1,(111(1.  1H871;  anil  liis  I.ittirs,  traiislnteilliy  Mdiiie 
and  Mkliaelis  (IWKJ). 

Fro;;,  a  f^enus  (Hana)  of  tailless  Amphibians  ; 
liul  lli«  name,  usually  with  some  iirclix  or  other,  is 
often  extended  to  the  memliers  of  relate<l  f;eneia  or 
even  of  related  families — e.).'.  to  the  olistetric  frofi 
(Alytes),  to  the  tree-frojrs  ( Ilylidje).  or  to  thcpecji- 
inj;  fro'.'s  (Ilylodes).  The  common  fro^'  in  Ihilain 
is  I'd/Id  fiiii/iiinniii,  (listin>;nishcd  from  the  edilile 
froK,  J',  r.irii/nilii,  which  has  heen  introduced  into 
liritain,  liy  sli^jht  ditrerences  in  colourinf,',  l>y  the 
riresence  of  a  dark,  trian^'ulnr  patch  extendin}; 
haokwiirds  from  the  i>y(',  and  hy  the  ahsence  of  the 
dilatalile  sacs  ( at  the  hack  corners  of  the  month) 
wliich  intensify  the  croaking,'  of  the  '  ( 'amhridfje- 
shire  Ni^'htin^'ales, '  The  ;;eiieral  shape  is  an 
elon;,'ateil  oval,  of  which  the  head  (iceui>ies  ahout 
a  third  :  a  hump  on  the  hack  marks  the  end  uf  the 
distinct  vertelir:e  and  the  l>e;;iiinin;;  of  an  un- 
.sej;mented  portion  known  as  the  urostyle.  The 
tail  has  eomiiletely  disappeared,  the  younj;  animal 
havinj;  liter.illy  lived  upon  it   iluriuf;  jiart  of   its 


\ 

||> 

■jtjk'_ 

"^-            .  .)>W'r 

■^' ; 

Common  Krog  ( Rana  temporaria ). 

metamorphosis.  The  arms  .are  short,  the  linjjers 
four  and  unwehhed,  and  the  innermost  is  swollen 
in  the  males  ;  the  hind-lejrs  are  Ion;;  and  muscular, 
well  adapted  for  hoth  leajiin^;  and  swimming,  with 
an  elon^'ated  ankle,  live  wehhed  toes,  and  an 
internal  '  tarsal  tuhercle'  like  a  hint  of  a  sixth. 
The  skin  is  soft  and  ^'landular,  with  pi^'ment 
cells  .admitting'  hy  their  chan;,'(^s  of  a  sli;,'ht  altera- 
tion in  colour.  The  external  nostrils  are  situated 
near  the  tip  of  the  snout ;  the  eyes  have  a  movahle 
lower  lid  ;  the  tym|ianum  or  (Irum  of  the  ear  is 
readily  seen  somewhat  farther  hack. 

(tciicnil  Life. — The  fro^',  aijuatie  in  its  youth, 
;;enerally  remains  near  water.  In  dry  weather  it 
hides  itself,  and  K'eat  numbers  are  often  seen  to 
issue  forth  on  the  welcome  return  of  rain.  Their 
leaping  and  swimmin;,'  deftne.ss  need  no  remark. 
The  adults  feed  upon  living  animals,  insects,  and 
slugs.  These  are  caught  on  the  large  viscid  tongue, 
wliich  being  fixed  in  front  of  the  mouth  and  free 
behind,  can  be  thrown  rapidly  outwards,  and  even 
more  rapidly  retr.acted.  In  winter  the  frog  '  hiher- 
nates '  or  lies  torpid,  buried  in  the  iiiiid  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pool,  and  great  numbers  of  in- 
dividuals may  he  dug  up  in  winter  all  clustered 
together.  During  this  sea.son  certain  'fatty  bodies,' 
situated  on  the  top  of  the  reproductive  organs,  and 
ap]iarently  degenerate  portions  of  thi^  kidney,  be- 
come reduced  in  size,  being  ]iniliably  the  ovaries 
and  testes,  which  become  functional  in  the  month 
of  .March.  Then  it  is  that  the  frogs  congre- 
gate together  for  breeding  pnriioses,  and  that  the 
niale.s  with  their  vig(nous  croaking  serenade  their 
more  weakly-voiced  mates,  preceding  the  birds  in 


announcing  the  approach  of  spring.  The  titles  bull- 
frog, blacksmith-frog,  sugar-miller,  iVc,  applied  to 
certain  s|)ccies,  obviously  refer  to  their  notable 
vocal  powers. 

The  frog  generally  contains  some  interesting 
jiarasites — a  lierinaphrodite  threadworm  or  Nema- 
tode {Aiiijiosloiniim  nigrovniDsiiiii)  in  the  lungs,  a 
lliike  or  Treniatode  with  many  suckers  ( I'dliistdiinim 
ittli(firriinunt)  in  the  bladder,  and  a  ciliated  In- 
fusorianwith  many  nuclei  (O/ifilina  nimiriim)  in 
the  hindmost  part  of  the  alimentary'  canal. 

Life-Uixtorij. — The  eggs  of  the  frog  are  familiar 
to  almost  all  ;  each  is  a  little  dark  hall  enclosed  in 
a  glutinous  sheath  which  swells  in  the  water  into  a 
clear  round  globe.  The  egg  has  most  bliick  pig- 
ment in  its  u]>iier  half,  the  heavier  yolk  sinking 
for  the  most  part  to  the  lower  hemisiihere.  They 
are  fertilised  just  a.s  they  leave  the  female,  whicli 
the  male  is  at  the  same  time  embracing.  The 
divi.siim  of  the  ovum  is  complete  hut  uneiiual,  the 
upper  hemisphere  with  the  '  formative  proto|da.sm  ' 
soon  exhibiting  a  larger  number  of  smaller  cells 
than  the  lower  i>ortion,  which  chielly  consists  of 
volk  to  he  gradually  ab-sorlied  hy  the  etuhrj'O  (see 

VlMliUVOLOGV). 

IJy  the  tenth  day  after  the  eggs  are  laid  the 
head,  body,  and  tail  of  the  young  frog  may  he  dis- 
tinctly seen.  Kollowing  the  lines  of  its  ancestral 
hi>t()ry  (irloj  or  liuv  is  a  dithcult  question),  the 
animal  becomes  fish-like,  with  a  long  tail  and  with 
three  pairs  of  external  gills  on  its  neck.  About  a 
fortnight  after  the  laying  the  young  tadpoles  are 
h.itched,  and,  jerking  themselves  out  of  the  gelatin- 
ous mass,  swim  freely  in  the  water.  They  are 
still  monthless,  and  live  on  their  still  unexhausted 
capital  of  volk.  They  have  a  ]i,iircd  sucker  under- 
neath their  head,  by  means  of  which  when  tired 
they  attach  themselves  to  water-weeds  or  other 
objects.  In  a  few  days,  however,  they  gain  a 
mouth,  '  bordered  by  a  pair  of  horny  jaws,  and 
fringed  with  llesliv  lijis  ]irovi(le(l  with  horny 
papilla'.'  The  whole  arrangement  reminds  one  of 
that  of  the  lamprey.  As  the  tadpole  hungrily 
feeds  on  fresh-water  weeds  (alga-,  (.*i.c. ),  the  hitherto 
short  alimentary  canal  becomes  elongated,  furnished 
with  a  liver  and  ]>ancrea.s,  and,  when  the  animal  is 
big  enough  to  dissect,  may  be  readily  seen  coiled  up 
like  a  watch-spring.  About  the  time  when  moutli 
and  anus  have  heen  opened  the  four  gill-slits  or 
clefts,  opening  from  the  jiharvux  to  the  exterior, 
may  also  be  seen,  and  very  so(m  the  original  ex- 
ternal gills  shrivel,  and  are  replaced  by  an  internal 
set.  As  the  latter  develop,  a  fold  of  skin  grows 
over  them,  forming  a  gill-chamber  which  by-and-hy 
closes  so  much  tliat  only  a  single  exit  a|>erture 
remains,  .and  that  on  the  left  side.  Through  this 
the  water  taken  in  for  respiration  liy  the  mouth 
passes  to  the  exterior,  after  wa-shing  the  gills  on  its 
way. 

The  tadpole  thrives  on  its  vegetarian  diet,  and 
rapidly  grows  bigger  and  stronger ;  the  large  tail  is 
a  jiowerful  swimming  organ,  and  the  adhesive 
suckers  are  less  and  less  used.  The  limbs  buil 
forth,  but  the  anterior  pair,  hidden  by  the  gill- 
covers  above  referred  to,  are  longer  of  becoming 
distinctly  visible.  By  the  end  of  the  .second  month 
the  tadpole  ha.s  attained  to  the  level  of  the  double- 
breathing  fishes  or  Dipnoi  (see  FlsHE.s)  ;  in  other 
words,  the  lungs  become  useful,  the  gills  for  a 
while  persist,  but,  as  the  animals  get  into  the  habit 
of  coining  oftener  to  the  sui'face  to  breathe,  these 
latter  organs  gradually  degenerate. 

Two  or  three  weeks  more,  and  a  remarkable 
change  -a  metamorphosis — occurs,  in  which  the 
tadpole  rises  above  the  fish  level  and  becomes  a 
distinct  amphibian  (see  AMl-tlim.^,  for  figures,  (.Vc.). 
The  tadpole  cea-ses  to  feed  upon  alga',  and  begins 
to   live  at   the  expense  of  its   tail,    from    which 


FROG 


FROHSDORF 


13 


wandering  blood-cells  or  '  leucocytes '  cany  the 
nutriment  to  other  parts  of  the  body.  A  eastinj,' 
of  the  outer  layer  of  skin  takes  place  ;  the  gills  are 
iinally  lost;  'the  horny  jaws  are  thrown  oil';  tlie 
large  frilled  lips  shrink  up  ;  the  mouth  loses  its 
rounded  suctorial  form  and  becomes  much  wider  ; 
the  tongue,  previously  small,  increases  considerably 
in  size  ;  the  eyes,  which  as  yet  have  been  beneath 
the  skin,  become  exposed  ;  the  f(U'e-limbs  api)eiir, 
the  left  one  being  pushed  through  the  spout  like 
opening  of  the  branchial  chamber,  and  the  light 
one  forcing  its  way  through  the  ojjercular  fold,  in 
whicli  it  leaves  a  ragged  hole'  (Milnes  Marshall). 
As  these  momentous  changes  progress,  and  as 
the  supply  of  food  afforded  by  tlie  tail  begins  to 
be  exiiausted,  the  animal  recovers  its  ajipetite, 
but  this  time  carnivorously,  feeding  on  availa1)le 
animal  matter,  or  even  on  its  fellows.  At  tins 
stage  tadpoles  will  clean  a  skeleton  beautifully, 
and  Biickland  describes  them  as  showing  a  great 
avidity  for  animal  food,  crowding  round  a  dead 
kitten,  and  nibliling  at  the  toes  of  little  boys  wlio 
wade  in  pools  where  they  abound.  With  the 
change  of  diet  the  abdomen  shrinks,  stomach  and 
liver  enlarge,  the  intestines  Ijecome  botli  narrower 
and  shorter.  The  tail  shortens  more  and  more  till 
it  is  completely  absorbed  ;  tlie  hind-limbs  lengtheu  ; 
and  eventually  the  animal  leaps  ashore — a  tiny 
frog.  For  a  considerable  time  the  tadpole  appears 
to  be  neither  male  nor  female,  but  ditl'erences  in 
nutrition,  &c.  decide  tlie  question  of  se.\'.  In 
ordinary  circumstances  tliere  are  aliout  as  many 
males  as  there  are  females,  but  .Jung  has  shown 
that  by  increasing  tlie  quality  of  food  from  fish  to 
beef,  from  beef  to  frog  flesh,  he  coukl  increase  the 
percentage  of  females  to  about  ninety.  See  Em- 
iiKvciLdfiY,  Environment,  Reproduction,  Sex; 
while  for  details  of  life-history,  Milnes  Marshall's 
book  should  be  consulted. 

Distribution  and  Related  Species. — The  common 
Brown  Frog  ( E.  tetHporaria )  is  widely  distributed 
in  Europe  and  Asia  ;  '  it  is  the  most  northerly  of 
known  species,  ranging  in  Norway  to  beyond  the 
seventieth  parallel  of  latitude.  In  the  Alps  it  still 
fre({uents  the  waters  at  an  elevation  of  8000  feet. ' 
It  is  of  course  abundant  in  most  parts  of  Britain, 
and  is  ccmimon  enougli  in  Ireland,  where,  however, 
it  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  in  1696. 

Of  wider  distribution  is  the  Green  or  Ediljle  Frog 
{R.  escii/enta),  which  also  occurs  in  Britain,  th(mgh 
not  believed  to  be  indigenous.  Its  liabitat  extends 
from  Scandinavia  to  North  Africa,  from  France  to 
Japan.  Widely  distributed  in  the  United  States 
are  two  forms — the  Shad-  or  Leopard-frog  {li.  hale- 
cina)  and  the  Wood-frog  ( /?.  sylratiea) — which 
some  regard  as  identical  with  our  common  species. 
Tlie  common  Bull-frog  of  North  America  (R. 
cateshiana )  is  often  brought  to  European  zoological 
gardens,  has  an  appetite  big  enougli  to  engul])h  a 
sparrow,  and  a  croaking  power  proportionate  to  its 
large  size.  Like  the  edible  frog  on  the  Continent, 
it  is  not  unfrequeutly  cooked.  A  large  Indian 
species  (U.  ti(/riiiii),  anotlier  relatively  huge,  toad- 
like species  {R.  ads/icrsa)  from  tropical  -Africa,  a 
single  species  from  AVest  Australia  {R.  papiai),  and 
another  solitary  form  ( R.  krefftii)  from  the  Solomon 
Islands  deserve  to  be  mentioned.  The  genus  is 
unreinesented  in  the  southern  parts  of  South 
.\merica  ami  in  New  Zealand. 

Related  Genera. — Tlie  family  of  true  frogs  or 
Ranidic  includes  about  two  hundred  species,  ranked 
in  eighteen  genera.  They  have  always  teeth  in  the 
u|>per  jaw,  and  a  certain  technical  iieculiarity  in  the 
breastbone.  One  of  the  most  curious  forms  (which 
have  always  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw)  is  the  arboreal 
genus  Uhacophorus,  the  '  Hying  frog  '  descrilicil  by 
Wallace,  in  which  the  webs  between  both  lingers 
and    toes  are   much   developed.     The   tips  of   the 


fingers  are  dilated,  and  serve  for  attachment  to 
smooth  or  vertical  surfaces.  The  arboreal  habit  is 
a  resource  which  brings  with  it  several  physiological 
adaptati(jns,  which  must  not  be  too  much  insisted 
upon  in  classification,  for,  as  Huxley  observes,  the 
common  brown  frog  '  at  a  year  old  will  climb  up 
the  vertical  side  of  a  glass  vessel,  tiattening  out  the 
ends  of  its  toes,  and  ajiplying  its  belly  against  the 
surface  of  the  glass,  like  a  tree-frog.'  Frogs,  like 
other  am]iliiljians,  are  usually  unrepresented  in 
oceanic  islands,  but,  besides  the  species  of  Bana 
already  mentioned  as  occurring  in  the  Solomon 
Islands,  three  forms  of  Cornufer,  ranked  among  the 
Kanidie,  ought  to  be  noted  on  account  of  their 
habitat  in  the  Fiji  Islands.  The  Dendroliatiihc 
form  a  family  of  small  tree-frogs  nearly  allied  to 
the  Kanidie,  but  without  teeth.  From  one  species 
(D.  tinctoriiis)  the  savage  tribes  of  some  parts  of 
South  America  are  said  to  extract  a  deadly  poison 
for  their  arrows.  Less  nearly  allied  to  the  Kanidie 
are  the  toothless  toads  (Bufonidie),  the  h(uned  toad 
(Ceratophrys),  the  true  tree-frogs  (Hylida>),  the 
'midwife-toad'  or  obstetric  frog  {Ah/'les  obstctri- 
cans),  the  tongueless  Surinam  toad  (I'ipu  amen- 
(■«/«{),  which  are  separately  discussed  (see  To.^D, 
Tree-frog,  &c.). 

The  use  of  frogs  for  food  is  regarded  with  un- 
necessary prejudice  in  Britain,  but  is  \ery  common 
on  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  species  chiefly 
used  is  the  edible  frog  {R.  csenlenta),  which  greatly 
abounds  in  ponds  and  slow  streams  in  France, 
southern  Germany,  and  Italy.  They  are  taken  for 
the  market  by  nets  an<l  by  a  kind  of  rake,  and  are 
sometimes  specially  fattened  in  preserves.  The 
hind-legs  are  most  frequently  cooked,  but  other 
muscular  parts  may  be  utilised.  They  are  usually 
dressed  with  sauces,  and  in  flavour  ami  tenderness 
are  comparable  to  chicken.  The  African  species 
(R.  achpersus)  is  said  to  be  much  used  by  the 
native  tribes,  and  the  gigantic  Imll-frog  figures  as 
a  rarity  in  the  transatlantic  menu.  The  frog 
furnishes  a  very  convenient  vertebrate  type  to 
the  comparative  anatomist,  embryologist,  and 
physiologist,  and  is  in  this  connection  much  more 
useful  than  on  the  dining-table. 

See  Amphibia,  Bcli.-frog,  Newt,  Toad,  Tree-fkoc,  ; 
and  for  showers  of  frogs,  tsuovVERS.  See  also  St  (jcorge 
Mivai-t,  The  Common  Frofj  ('Nature'  series,  Lond. 
1874);  A.  Milnes  Marshall,  The  Frou :  an  Inlrmtuetion 
to  Atifttomi/.  Jiistolooi/,  and  Einbrijofot/ij  (3d  ed.  lS8St; 
Ecker  and  Wiedersiieiiii,  Anatomic  di.t  Frofcliei  (3  parts, 
1864,  1881,  1882;  trans,  by  Haslam,  1889);  for  figure-s, 
G.  B.  Howes,  AtJoH  of  Practical  Etcmcntarn  Biotoi/i/ 
(188.5);  Bell's  British  Bcptiles  (ISffl):  Leydig'.s  AnuVa 
Bafraehia  d:  Deutschcn  Fauna  (Bonn,  1877)  ;  Hoflinann 
in  Broiin's  Thicrrcich,  VI.  (1873-78);  British  Museum 
t'atalogue  of  Anipliibia ;  and  Hatchett  Jackson  and 
KoUeston,  Forms  vf  Animal  Life  (1888). 

Frost.  Fishing.    See  Angler. 

Frogbit  (Hi/droeharis  morsiis-rann-),  a  small 
aquatic  plant  of  the  order  Hydrocharidacea',  .allied 
to  the  water-soldier  ( Stratiotes ),  but  with  floating 
leaves. 

Froggod.  a  term  used  in  regard  to  >inifornis, 
and  a)iidied  to  stripes  or  workings  of  braid  or  lace, 
as  ornaments,  mostly  on  the  breast  of  a  coat. 

FrogUlOrO.  an  English  royal  palace  and  mau- 
soleum in  the  park  of  Winilsor,  Berkshire.  The 
palace  was  purcliased  by  tjueen  Charlotte  in  IStXI. 
The  niausoleuiu,  a  Romanesque  edifice,  cruciform 
in  shape  and  surmounted  by  an  octJigonal  dome,  is 
consecrated  to  tlie  memory  of  the  I'riuce  Consort, 
whosi!  remains  were  transferred  to  it  in  186:2;  and 
hen-  the  remains  of  Queen  Victoria  were  deposited 
in  limi. 

Frog-spit,  or  Cuckoo-spit.    See  Fkoth-ki.y. 

Frolisdorl'.  a  village  in  Lower  Austria,  30 
miles  S.  of  Vieima,  on  the  river  Leitha,  and  near 


14 


FROISSART 


FROMENTIN 


the  froiitiere  of  Hviiij;ury.  It  is  oelelnHteil  for  its 
spleinliil  ca-stle,  Avliicli  aciiuirwl  a  kiml  of  political 
iiiiliortaiiL-e  from  having'  from  1S44  till  1883  been 
the  reiiilezvous  of  the  elder  Itourboii  party  and 
the  resilience  of  the  Conit*;  ile  t'hamhonl  (4. v.). 

Froissart.  .Ikan,  was  l)orn  at  Valenciennes 
aliout  1337.  His  father  was  a  |)ainter  of  armorial 
hearin'^s.  He  was  educated  for  the  church,  hut 
spent  his  youth  in  ^'aiety  and  dissipation,  heinf;, 
liy  his  own  ciuifcssion,  a  clear  lover  of  ilances  anil 
carolling',  of  minstrelsy  and  tales  of  ;,'lee.  •  .My 
ears,'  he  says,  '  ijuiokened  at  the  sound  of  iin- 
corkinj,'  the  winetlask,  for  I  took  great  pleiusnre  in 
drinkin;;,  and  in  fair  array,  and  in  delicate  and 
fresli  cates.'  When  he  was  twenty  years  of  a^;e,  he 
he^'an,  at  the  commaml  of  his  'dear  Lord  and 
Miister,  the  Sicur  Uohert  of  Namur,  Lord  of  l!cau- 
fort,'  to  write  the  history  of  the  wars  waj;ed  durinj; 
his  days  in  France,  En;,'land,  Scotland,  anil  iSi)ain. 
The  lirst Jiart  of  his  Chronicle,  which  deals  with  the 
events  of  the  years  1326-50,  wius  priuei]ially  com- 
piled from  the  writinf,'s  of  one  .lean  le  15el,  Canon 
of  Liege.  Having  completed  this  section  of  his 
work  in  13(j0,  Krois.sart  set  out  on  his  long  travels 
in  ouest  of  adventure  and  good  company,  and  that 
hrilliant  spectacle  of  martial  and  courtly  pageantry 
in  which  all  through  his  life  he  found  unsating 
delight.  The  lii'st  country  which  he  visited  was 
Kngland,  where  he  received  a  gracious  welcome 
from  riiilippa  of  Hainault,  the  wife  of  Kdward  ML 
I'hiliiipa  appoint<'d  him  her  secretary  or  clerk  of 
her  eliamher,  a  post  which  lie  held  for  some  years, 
hut  which  he  resigned  on  account  of  a  hapless 
passion  for  a  lady  of  Klandei-s.  In  1304  he  travelled 
through  part  of  Scotland,  riding,  he  informs  us, 
on  a  grey  palfrey  with  his  valise  behind  him, 
and  having  a  white  greyhound  as  his  only  com- 
panion. His  rejmtation  jis  a  |ioet  and  historian, 
his  gay  and  courteous  converse,  secured  him  an 
honourable  recejition  in  Scotland  as  elsewhere. 
He  was  the  guest  of  King  David  ISruce,  and  was 
entertained  for  lif teen  <lays  at  Dalkeith  C.ustle  by 
William,  Earl  of  Douglas,  the  exploits  of  whose 
house  he  has  freipiently  celebrated  in  his  Chronicle. 
In  1.3()0  he  jcmrneyed  to  Ai|uitaine  in  the  retinue  of 
the  Black  I'rince,  who  would  not,  however,  allow 
hiru  to  accompany  the  Spanish  ex]iedition,  but  sent 
him  back  to  liis  patroness,  tjueen  I'hilippa.  Two 
years  later  we  lind  him  in  Italy,  where  he  was 
present,  along  with  Chaucer  and  Petrarch,  at  the 
marriage  of  Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence,  son  of 
Edward  ML,  with  Jolande  of  Milan,  the  daughter 
of  Caleazzo  Visconti.  For  a  time  he  settled  at 
Lestines,  in  the  diocese  of  Liege,  where  he  obtained 
a  curacy,  and  where  he  confesses  500  francs  very 
i|uickly  piussed  from  him  to  the  vintners.  '  It 
may  be  conjectured,' says  Sir  Walter  Scott,  'that 
tlicij  were  more  obliged  to  his  attention  than  any 
of  his  other  ]>arishioners. '  IJefore  1.384  he  had 
attached  himself  to  Wence.slas,  Duke  of  Brabant, 
whose  verses  he  collected  along  with  certain  |)ieces 
of  his  own,  under  the  title  of  Mcliadur,  ur  the 
Kniijlit  of  the.  iliildeii  Hun.  On  the  death  of 
Wence--las,  Froissart  repaired  to  the  court  of  (luy. 
Count  of  Blois,  who  persuaded  him  to  devote 
himself  to  his  Chronicle.  The  second  volume  of 
the  work  was  finished  about  1.388,  and  about  the 
same  date  its  .author  set  cmt  from  Blois  on  a  visit 
to  (J.Lston  I'hehus,  Count  de  Foi.x.  This  journey, 
of  which  he  h.xs  left  a  very  entertaining  recor<l,  he 
performed  in  the  company  of  the  good  knight 
bspaing  de  Lyon,  who  told  hinr  of  the  deeds  of 
emi>rise  that  liad  lately  been  done  at  the  various 
towns  and  castles  by  which  they  passed  in  the 
course  of  their  wayfaring.  After  making  a  long 
sojourn  at  Ortliez  with  the  Count  de  Foix.  of  whose 
court  he  hiis  left  us  a  descriiition  which  is  equally 
vivid    and    charming,    F'roissart,    about   the   year 


1.390,  settleil  feu- a  while  in  Flanders,  and  resumed 
work  on  his  Chronicle.  In  1.395  he  again  yielded 
to  the  old  roving  impulse.  He  revi.siled  England, 
was  cordially  welcomed  by  King  Hichard  II.,  and 
remained  abroad  for  about  three  months.  He  then 
returned  to  Chim.-iy,  where  he  hail  obtained  a 
canonry,  and  where  he  ended  his  days  in  1410. 

F'roissart  s  famous  book  di'als  with  the  jieriod 
between  1.3'JO  and  14(X).  Mainly  occupied  with  the 
atlaii-s  of  France,  England,  Scotland,  and  Flan<lers, 
he  likewi.se  sup]ilics  much  valuable  information 
in  regard  to  (Jerniany,  Italy,  and  Spain,  and  even 
touches  o<'casiimally  on  the  coui-se  of  events  in 
Hungary  and  the  Balkan  peninsula.  Except  in  the 
first  part  of  the  work,  he  made  little  u.se  of  the  writ- 
ings of  others.  An  historian  errant,  he  gathered  his 
materials  in  courts  and  on  highways,  from  the  lips 
of  the  lords  anil  knights,  the  si|uiresand  the  heralds 
whom  he  encountered.  The  charm  of  his  book  is 
perennial.  He  is  of  all  medieval  chroniclers  the 
most  vivid  and  entertaining.  '  His  history,'  says 
Sir  Walter  Scott  (who  called  the  work  his  liber 
eariKniiiuix),  'has  less  the  air  of  a  narrative  than  of 
a  dramatic  representation.'  He  was  a  born  story- 
teller; his  pages  glow  with  colour;  his  narrative 
glides  easily  and  gracefully  ahmg  ;  and  he  is,  on 
the  whole,  accurate  and  im]iartial  in  his  state- 
ments. '  In  certain  of  his  battle-pieces,'  says  Mile- 
main,  '  Froissart's  style  is  truly  Homeric,'  and  the 
tribute  is  justly  merited.  The  main  defects  in  his 
work  are  the  fre(|uent  repetitions  and  the  negli- 
gent arrangement  of  the  facts.  He  has  been  le- 
proachcd  for  not  having  espinised  the  cause  of  the 
French  against  the  English,  as  if  it  were  to  be 
exjiected  that  a  I-'leniish  priest,  in  his  youth  the 
favourite  and  .secretary  of  Edward  III.'s  i|ueen, 
should  share  the  burning  patriotism,  the  intense 
hatred  of  England  that  animated  such  writers  as 
Alain  Ch.artier  and  Eustache  Deschamps.  More 
plausibly  might  he  be  arraigned  for  indilierence 
to  the  sud'erings  of  the  townsmen  and  jieioant-s. 
He  is  enamoured  of  the  juigeants  of  chivalry, 
engrossed  in  the  deeds  of  nobles  and  knights.  Few 
historians  have  been  less  critical  or  so  uniformly 
delightful. 

The  chronicle  was  edited  by  Buchon  (15  vols.  1S24-26) 
and  Lucii  ( S  vols.  1809-88 ) ;  translated  by  Jolin  Bourcliier, 
second  Ijord  Berners,  1407-1.^>33  ( pubUshed  1523-2.">;  ed. 
by  Utterson,  1812,  and  nioderni.sed  by  G.  J.  Macaulay ; 
new  trans,  by  Culonel  .Johnes,  1.S03-5).  Buchon  edited 
Frois-sart's  ballades,  rondeaux,  virelais,  Ac.,  which  intro- 
duced a  Provencal  element  into  northern  French  litera- 
ture, in  1829:  MHiador  was  discovered  in  1894.  See 
monographs  by  Kervyn  de  Ijcttenliove  (Paris,  1858), 
Weber  (German,  1871),  and  Muie.  Darmcsteter  (Paris, 
1894;  trans.  1895). 

Froilie.  or  Frome  Seiavood,  a  market-town  of 
Somei-setshire,  on  the  Frome,  a  branch  of  the  Avon, 
12  miles  S.  of  Bath  ( 19  by  rail).  The  .surrounding 
country  is  very  pictnresipie,  and  the  town,  until 
modernised  early  in  the  19th  century  by  the  forma- 
tion of  two  wide  thoroughfares,  was  a  quaint  old 
place,  with  narrow,  crooked,  steep  streets.  Its 
parish  church  is  a  line  Decorated  buihling  splemlidly 
restored  by  the  late  Kev.  W.  Bennett  (q.v.),  with  a 
spire  1'20  feet  high,  stations  of  the  cross,  and  the 
grave  of  Bishop  Ken.  Frome's  specialties  are 
broadcloths  and  other  fine  woollens,  and  it  also 
produces  cards  for  dressing  cloth,  ale,  silk,  &c. 
Pop.  ( 1851 )  10,148  :  ( 1891 )  9013.  Till  1885  Frome 
returned  one  member  to  parliament.  The  once 
celebrated  fi>rest  of  Selwood  was  in  the  vicinity. 

Froiliontin.  Eioexe,  painter  and  author,  was 
born  at  La  Kochelle  in  18'20.  He  studied  under 
Cahat  the  landscape-painter  ;  and  from  1842  to 
1840  travelled  in  tlie  Ea-st,  which  is  the  scene  of 
almost  all  his  works.  His  pictures  are  admirably 
true  in  their  local  colouring,  and  reproduce  witli 


FROND 


FRONTO 


15 


great  spirit  the  free  nomad  life  of  the  Arab  and 
his  steed.  Among  his  more  important  works  are 
'  Arabs  attacked  by  a  Lioness  '  ( 1868 ),  '  Halt  of  the 
Muleteers'  (1869),  'A  Souvenir  of  Esneh '  (1876), 
and  'The  Nile'  (1876).  His  'Couriers,'  'Country 
of  the  Ouled-Nayls,'  '  Springtime  '  ( 1861 ),  and  his 
'Falconry  in  Algiers:  the  Quarry'  (1863)  are 
in  the  Louvre.  But  he  was  no  less  prolific  with 
his  ]ien  than  with  his  brush.  He  published  an 
account  of  his  travels  in  Le  Pin/a,  under  the  titles 
of  'Visites  Artistiques '  and  'Simples  Pelerinages' 
(1852-56);  and  'Une  Aunee  ilans  le  Sahel'  (1858) 
reconled  the  results  of  his  investigations  for  the 
Committee  of  Historic  jSIonuments.  He  also  ]iro- 
duced  a  succe.ssful  romance,  Doininiqiie  (186.3). 
English  translations  of  his  it'*-  Maitrrs  (VAiitirJ'ois 
(1876),  an  admirable  criticism  upon  the  Dutch  and 
Flemish  painters,  as  well  as  of  his  Life  by  Louis 
Gonse  ( 1881 ),  have  been  published  in  America.  He 
became  a  'chevalier'  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  in 
1859  and  an  'oHicier'  in  1869;  and  died  at  St 
Maurice,  near  La  Kochelle,  27th  August  1876. 
See  Gonse,  Etir/ene  Fromcntin  (Paris,  1881). 

Frond,  in  Botany,  a  term  often  used  to  desig- 
nate the  leaves  of  cryptogamous  plants.  It  was 
originally  introduced  as  distinctive  of  organs  in 
which  the  functions  of  stem  and  leaf  are  combined. 
The  term  leaf  is  now  very  generally  used  even 
of  mosses,  ferns,  &c.,  and  the  term  thiillus  is 
ap|>lied  to  liverworts  and  lichens.  In  the  case  of 
many  Alg*  the  term  is  often  used  to  designate  the 
whole  [dant  except  its  organs  of  reproduction. 

Fronde,  the  name  ( indicating  the  sling  used  by 
the  boys  of  Paris  in  their  mimic  fights)  given  to 
certain  factions  in  France  during  the  nunority  of 
Louis  XIV.,  which  wei'e  hostile  to  the  court  and 
the  nunister,  Mazarin,  and  gave  rise  to  a  series 
of  civil  dissensions  from  1648  to  1654.  The  grasp- 
ing and  despotic  policy  of  Mazarin,  to  wliom  Anne 
of  Austria,  the  ijueen-regent,  had  aljandoned  the 
reins  of  government,  had  given  oti'ence  to  all 
classes.  The  entire  nation  was  aflame  with  dis- 
content :  the  nobles  were  jealous  of  the  employ- 
ment of  foreigners  in  the  chief  oHices  of  state  ;  the 
peojde  kicked  against  the  o]i])ressive  taxation  ;  the 
parliaments  resented  the  wilful  disregard  of  their 
authority.  At  length  the  parliament  of  Paris 
refused  to  register  the  royal  edicts,  more  especially 
the  financial  measures  increasing  the  bunlens  of 
taxation.  Mazarin  in  retaliation  ordered  the  arrest 
(■26th  August  1648)  of  the  president  and  one  of  the 
councillois,  Peter  Broussel.  Thereupon  the  jieople 
took  up  arms.  The  court  fled  to  Kuel  in  October, 
Init  early  in  1649  removed  to  St  (iermain.  The 
poiiulace  and  parliament  were  joined  by  the  dis. 
contented  nobles,  Conti,  Longueville,  Beaufort, 
Turenue,  and  De  Retz.  But  the  arrival  of  Conde, 
the  champion  of  the  royal  party,  who  proceeded  to 
lay  siege  to  Paris,  soon  turned  the  tide.  An  agree- 
ment was  therefore  come  to  between  court  and 
parliament  at  Kiiel  on  1st  April  1649,  the  people 
being  released  from  the  obnoxious  taxes,  whilst 
Mazarin  and  the  foreigners  were  allowed  to  retain 
their  oflices.  This  ends  the  movement  called  the 
()ld  Fronde,  a  contest  carried  on  in  the  interests  of 
the  people.  The  New  I<"ronde  was  at  bottom  a 
struggle  between  Conde  and  Mazarin.  The  nobles, 
especially  Conde,  were  far  from  lieing  satisfied  with 
the  compact  of  Kuel,  and  opened  negotiations  with 
Spain  for  assistance  from  the  Netherlands.  But 
on  the  18th  Januarv  16.50  the  ciueen-regcnt 
suddenly  arrested  Conde,  Longueville,  and  Conti. 
Phis  arbitrary  )n-oceeding  roused  the  provinces. 
The  Duchess  of  Conde  stirred  up  the  .south  of 
France.  The  Duchess  of  Longueville  ( Con<lc's 
sister)  won  over  Turenue,  who  threatened  Paris, 
but   was    defeated    at    Rethel.       Nevertheless    the 


storm  was  so  great  that  Mazarin  was  obliged  to 
release  the  princes,  and  flee  from  the  country. 
Now,  however,  a  kaleido.scopic  movement  changed 
the  relations  of  the  principal  actors  in  the  afl'air. 
Conde  withdrew  to  (Juienne;  De  Hetz  was  bribed 
by  the  gift  of  a  cardinal's  hat ;  Turenne  went  over 
to  the  court ;  and  Mazarin  was  recalled  and  rein- 
stated in  iiower.  Meanwhile,  liouis  XIV.,  who, 
having  now  attained  his  fourteenth  year,  was 
declared  to  be  of  age,  endeavoured  to  induce 
Conde  to  return ;  but  the  latter,  mistrusting 
these  overtures,  commenced  a  regular  war  against 
the  court,  until  he  was  defeated  by  Turenne  near 
Paris  on  2d  July  1652.  Conde  found  refuge  within 
the  capital  ;  but  the  citizens,  grown  weary  of  the 
whole  business,  opened  negotiations  with  the  king, 
only  demanding  the  removal  of  Mazarin  to  return 
to  their  allegiance.  This  demand  was  comi)lied 
with  and  a  general  amnesty  proclaimed  (1653). 
Conde,  who  refused  to  enter  into  the  compact, 
repaired  to  Champagne ;  but,  finding  no  one  dis- 
posed to  take  up  arms  in  his  cause,  he  entered 
the  Spanish  service.  Shortly  afterwards  Mazarin 
was  once  more  recalled  to  Paris,  and  again 
entrusted  with  the  reins  of  government.  The 
parliament  of  Paris  was  completely  humbled,  so 
nmch  so  that  its  political  existence  was  virtually 
suspended  for  a  century  and  a  half.  Thus  the 
royal  power  came  forth  \ictorious  from  the  contest. 

See  Ste-Aulaire's  Histoire  de  la  Fronde  (2d  ed.  18G0), 
Bazin'.s  France  sous  Louis  XIII.  (2d  ed.  1846),  Fitz- 
patrick's  Great  Conde  and  the  Fronde  ( 1873),  the  work  by 
Capefigue  (1835),  and  two  by  Cheruel  (1880  and  1882). 

Frontenac,  Louis  de  Buade,  Comte  de, 
governor  of  New  F'rance,  was  born  in  16'20,  entered 
the  arm}'  in  1635,  and  at  an  early  age  became 
brigadier.  In  1672  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
the  F'rench  possessions  in  North  America,  to  be 
recalled  ten  years  later,  in  conse(|uence  of  endless 
Huarrels  with  his  intendant  ami  the  Jesuits  ;  but 
in  spite  of  his  violent  temper  he  had  gained  the 
confidence  of  the  settlers  and  the  respect  of  the 
Indians,  and  in  1689,  when  to  the  horror  of  constant 
attacks  from  the  Iroiiuois  the  misery  of  a  war  with 
England  was  added,  lie  wa.s  again  sent  out  by  the 
king,  as  the  only  man  who  could  rouse  the  despairing 
colonists  to  hoi>e  and  action.  During  the  next  nine 
years  he  loosed  his  savage  allies  on  the  defenceless 
\-illages  of  New  England,  rejiulsed  a  British  attack 
on  Quebec,  and  so  broke  the  power  of  the  Iroipiois 
that  they  were  never  again  a  terror  to  the  colony. 
He  died  at  Quebec  in  1698.  See  Francis  Park- 
man's  Count  Froitfenac  and  Xcw  France  under 
Louis  XIV.  (Bo.ston,  1877). 

FroiltinilS,  Sextus  Julus,  a  Roman  author 
and  administrator  who  flourished  in  the  second  half 
of  the  1st  century.  In  75  .\.D.  lie  was  appointed 
governor  of  Britain,  where  he  conquered  iheSilures, 
and  vigorously  maintained  the  imperial  authority. 
He  was  twice  consul  in  the  course  of  his  life,  and 
in  97  was  made  superintendent  of  the  water-works 
at  Rome.  He  died  about  104.  Several  works  are 
attributed  to  Frontinus,  only  two  of  which  are  cer- 
tainly genuine,  the  Stnitei/eiiiiitiron,  a  treatise  on 
the  Art  of  War,  in  four  books,  and  the  Dc  Aquis 
Urbis  liuina;  in  two.  His  works  have  been  edited 
by  Dederich  (Leip.  1855). 

FrontO,  M.VRri'.'^  CoHXELlf.s,  Latin  rhetori- 
cian, was  born  at  Cirta,  in  Numidia,  about  100  a.d. 
In  conse(|Uence  of  his  reputation  as  an  orator  ami 
))leader,  he  was  entrusteil  by  Antoninus  Pius  with 
the  education  of  Marcus  .Aureliiis  and  Lucius  Verus. 
In  143  he  wa.s  consul.  He  died  about  170.  The 
two  series  of  Fronto's  lettei's  to  Marcus  Anrelius. 
discovered  by  Mai  in  1815,  do  not  bear  out  the 
reputation  for  eloquence  and  intellectual  force 
ascribed  to  the  rhetorician  by  his  contemjioraries. 


IG 


FROSINONE 


FROST-BITE 


A   critical   edition   was   jmlilislied    l>y   Niebulir  in 
181G,  luiil  aiiollier  by  Naber  in  1S07. 

Frosilio  IIP  {Friisiiio  of  llie  Volscians),  a  town 
of  Italy,  GO  miles  SE.  of  Koine  by  rail,  with  re- 
mains of  an  ancient  aniphilbeatre.     Pop.  70IS. 

Frost.  Tlie  term  fn>>-t  is  nscd  to  describe  the 
coiulitiiin  of  bodies  conlainin;;  nioisttire  when  their 
tenipenitnre  is  Ixdow  :{'i  I'.,  the  freeziiij;  point 
of  wiitei-.  Wlien  the  substance  in  question  is  the 
air,  everytliiri^'  exjiosed  to  its  intluence  and  not 
otherwise  heated  p;vsses  also  below  the  freezinj;- 
point.  In  no  part  of  the  British  Isles,  within  ItKK) 
feet  of  sea-level,  is  the  avera;,'e  temiierature  at  any 
time  of  the  year  below  32';  and  then-fore  the 
frosts  experienced  in  liritain,  tliou;.'h  often  lasting 
seviral  days  or  even  weeks,  are  essentially  sporailic 
anil  of  the  nature  of  iiiterrnptions  in  the  f^eneral 
character  of  the  weather.  It  may  be  noted  in 
passini;  that  when  severe  frosts  do  occur,  covering 
the  rivers  and  lakes  with  ice,  the  weather  is  nsu.illy 
settled,  there  beinj;  a  high  barometer  and  little 
wind  :  so  that  the  air  over  the  liritish  Isles  or  tbo~e 
parts  of  tlK'Mi  where  the  frost  prevails  is  not  liable 
to  be  mixeil  with  air  from  the  warmer  regions  aliove 
the  seas  around.  Loch  Ness  is  one  of  the  few 
lakes  in  Itritain  never  known  to  freeze  :  its  great 
depth  prevents  the  cold  having  time  to  cool  the 
whole  nia.ss  of  the  water  even  in  the  longest  and 
severest  frosts  that  have  oicurreil  within  the  memory 
of  man.  Other  large  but  shallower  lakes,  such  as 
Loch  Lonumd,  on  the  contrary  get  sulliciently 
frozen  over  to  be.ar  skaters  and  curlers  during  every 
e.xceptionally  coM  winter.  A  frequent  and  dis- 
agreeable ellect  of  frost  is  the  hvusting  of  water- 
pipes,  due  to  the  expansion  of  water  in  the  act  of 
freezing.  The  breakage  is  not  usually  noticed  till 
a  thaw  sets  m  and  the  water  again  circulates  in  the 
pijie,  lieuoe  it  is  sonuHimes  erroneously  su|ipo,sed 
that  the  thaw  has  burst  the  |)i]ie. 

Local  low  temperatures  are  often  found  in  valleys 
when  the  air  at  a  little  height  up  is  considerably 
warmer,  producing  wh;it  is  known  as  an  '  up-bank 
thaw.'  This  is  caiised  by  tlw  air  chilled  by  radia- 
tiiui  from  the  sides  of  the  hills  settling  down  from 
its  greater  weight,  and  occurs  on  every  night  when 
there  is  not  enough  wind  to  mix  the  dill'erent 
layers  together.  lu  fact,  on  calm  mornings  a 
stream  of  cold  air  flows  down  valleys  like  their 
rivers,  and  often  indicates  its  |uesence  by  the  fog 
caused  by  its  coming  in  contact  with  the  damp  air 
above  the  watercourses.  In  choosing  sites  for 
houses  or  gardens  a  less  liability  to  great  cold  and 
damp  fogs  will  be  secureil  by  |ilaciug  them  on  knolls 
or  a  little  up  the  sides  of  {he  hill  than  if  thi-y  are 
iilanted  in  the  liottom  of  the  valley,  and  thus  in  the 
inlluence  of  this  cold  current.  A  position  directly 
opposite  the  month  of  a  valley  is  also  to  be  avoided. 

Frost  may  be  present  on  the  grounil  or  on  plants 
when  the  air  is  stner.al  degrees  above  the  frcezing- 
]>oiut.  This  hoar  frost  is  due  to  cooling  by  radia- 
tion (see  Hk.vt,  ]).  609) — i.e.  to  the  ground,  leaves, 
&c.  radiating  their  heat  away  fivster  than  it  can 
be  replenished  from  the  air  around.  Hoar-frost  is 
most  liable  to  occur  on  clear  nights,  clouds  acting 
a.s  a  screen  to  check  radiation,  and  is  more  common 
in  country  districts  than  in  towns,  where  the  smoke 
serves  a  similar  jnupose.  It  is  the  frost  most 
dangerous  to  vegetation— coming  as  it  does  in  clear 
weather  when  the  air  is  otherwise  warm,  the  days 
often  hot  from  strong  sunshine,  and  the  tis-sucs  of 
the  plants  full  of  sap.  It  may  sometimes  be  fore- 
told by  observing  the  hygrometer  ;  if  the  ilew-point 
(.see  Dew)  is  below  :i'2'  in  the  afternoon,  boar  frost 
m,ay  be  expected  at  night.  At  the  same  time  it  is 
frequently  a  sign  of  warm  days,  as  the  low  ilcw-point 
Indicates  that  little  moisture  is  ])resent  in  the  air  to 
check  the  sun's  rays.      Hoar-frost  being  wholly  due 


to  radiation,  it  is  a  commini  custom  to  ])rotect 
plants  by  snreailing  some  light  covering  over  them, 
or  even  i>y  burniug  leaves,  brushwood,  \c.  to  m;iki' 
a  smoke  of  snilicient  density  to  act  as  a  screen. 
This  is  usually  elleetual,  but  nuiy  fail  either  from 
the  aircocding  below  'i'2',  in  which  case  the  covering 
is  almost  \iseless  ;  or  by  injuriously  checking  the- 
circulation  of  air  and  conlining  a  small  cjuaiility 
immedi.'itely  over  the  pliints,  which,  getting  looled 
by  contact  with  the  ground  below  the  temperature 
of  the  free  moving  air  arounil,  njay  juuss  below  'A'2' 
and  allow  the  vegetation  to  be  frost-iiitten. 

A  well  known  form  of  frost,  closely  allied  to  hoar- 
frost, is  the  crystalline  dejiosit  seen  when  the  mois 
ture  in  the  air  of  a  warm  room  condenses  on  the 
glass  of  the  wiuilow.  It  takes  most  beautiful  and 
varied  fonus.  owing  to  the  tendemy  of  ice  deposited 
ill  this  manner  to  form  hexagonal  crystals. 

Another  form  of  deposition  is  fog-crystals,  which 
a))pear  whenever  a  frosty  fog  is  accompanied  by 
winil,  the  fog  clriftiug  along  and  ilepositing  sjiicnles 
of  ice  on  all  surfaces  exjiosed  to  it.  As  frosty  fogs 
ill  low-lying  ilistricts  oi-cur  usuallv  in  calm  weather 
fog  crystals  are  n<it  ofleii  observeo  ihi-ic,  but  are  of 
frei|uent  occurrence  on  bills,  where  the  ilri\  iiig  mists 
cover  all  projecting  stones,  trees,  \c.,  with  great 
masses  of  loose  feathery  crystals,  often  reaching  a 
thickness  of  .several  feet.  (Sreat  damage  is  some 
times  caused  to  trees  and  shrubs  by  rain  falling 
immediately  after  frost,  before  the  ground  and  the 
air  near  it  has  time  to  thaw.  The  rain  freezes  lus  soon 
as  it  tom-hes  any  objects,  aii<l  gradually  eiii'rusts 
them  with  solid  ice,  until  even  large  branches  of 
trees  break  down  under  the  weight.  l'"or  other 
matters  connected  with  freezing  and  its  ell'ects, 
.see  ICK,  TeMI'KI!,\TII!I-:,  TllKIl.MDMKTEIi,  tll,.\ClEK, 

II.Mi.,  Sndw,  I''hki-;zi.m;  Mlxtiuks,  \c. 

Lists  of  the  most  niemorable  frosts  on  reconl 
will  be  found  in  W.  Andrews's  J'liiiioiis  Frosts  aii<l 
I'nisl-fuirs  III  Grcul  Jiiitniti  (1887),  and  in  ('. 
Walford's  ]>aper  on  '  Famines'  in  Joiinni/  of  the 
HUdisliitd  Suriilii  (1H78).  Fairs  were  held  on  the 
ice  on  the  Thames  in  1.564,  1607-8,  1620,  168:i  84 
(es|ieciallv  celebrated),  1688-,S0,  171.">-16,  17:!!1  40, 
1788-8!),  i8i:{  14.  The  western  i>arts  of  th(^  IJaltic 
were  frozen,  and  in  most  years  ]iassable  fcu'  men 
and  hor-es,  in  12114,  129(i,  "l.-itMi,  i:!2;{,  I:i4!),  I4irj, 
14.-i!)  60,  l.")48,  16.")8,  1767.  Flanders  and  Holland 
were  visited  by  unusually  severe  frosts  in  1468, 
lo44,  1565,  loiU,  1622,  r7.'i4,  and  178.').  Besides 
these,  other  memorable  frosts  occurred  in  the  years 
and  countries  mentioned  in  the  subjoined  table  : 


101, 


Con- 
aiid 


r63-4.    Si-a.s    near 

KtjOltillOpll'. 

S&9-00.  ML-Uitcrraiiuaii 

Adriatic. 
1035.  On   .Midsiiuiiiicr    Day  iu 

Kn^laiid. 
1076-77.  England. 
1-J3-1,  Mi'dili'iram-'iiti. 
l-l'JO.  Sea  iR'ur  Coiistalitilioplc. 
143.'i.  Uiniiniiy. 
1.W4.  Adriatic  at  Venice. 
IG--.  Ili-llcspont. 
1070.  Kliinc  frozen. 
1091.  Austria. 
1IS93.  Il;ily  and  Germany. 


1737.  Italy  and  Sjiain. 

1740.  Di-n'niark  and  Prussia. 

1745.  itnssia. 

1700.  Gennany. 

1763.  (ierniany  and  France. 

1760.  Naples.  LiHl)on,  Havana, 

and  France. 
1767.  Italy  and  Xiirlli  Europe. 
1783-84.  Central  Euro|>e. 
1812.  Russia. 
ISlf).  (Janaila. 
1849.   Norway. 
1873.  France. 

18S8.   l!liz7Jird(q.v.)in  U.S. 
1895.  Great  Britain. 


Fr«8t-bite  is  caused  by  cold  depressing  the 
vitality  of  a  jiart  or  the  whole  of  the  body.  The 
frost-bitten  pail  is  at  lirst  blue  and  pnliy,  imm  the 
current  of  blood  through  it  being  much  retardeil  : 
then, should  the  cold  be  eontinneil,  it  becomes  pallid, 
anil  the  jiainfnl  tingling  gives  place  to  numbness 
and  insensibility,  ami  finally  to  actual  death  or 
mortilication,  with  a  dark  livid  appearance  of  (he 
jiart.  -Vlthough  a  sudden  violent  application  of 
cold  may  cause  death  of  the  tissues,  by  reducing  the 
temperature  to  a  degree  incompatible  with  animal 
life,  the  most  common  cau.se  of  the  destructive 
ell'ects  of  frost-bite   is  undoubtedly  the  excessive 


FROTH-FLV 


FROUDE 


17 


reaction  which  occurs  on  sudden  removal  of  tlie 
cold,  or  the  application  of  heat ;  this  is  especially 
the  case  witli  moist  cold. 

Baron  Larrey  believed  that  '  cold  was  merely  the 
predisposin;L,'  cause  of  frost-bite,  and  mentions  tliat 
after  the  battle  of  Eylau  the  French  soldiers  did 
not  experience  any  painful  sensations  during  the 
severe  cold  varying  from  10'  to  15'  below  zero  of 
Keaumur's  tliermometer;  but,  when  the  temperature 
rose  from  IS'  to  20°,  they  felt  the  first  sensations  of 
cold,  and  applied  for  succour,  complaining  of  acute 
pains  in  their  feet,  and  of  numbness,  heaviness,  and 
prickings  in  the  extremities.  The  parts  were 
scarcely  swollen,  and  of  a  dull  red  colour.  In 
some  cases,  a  slight  redness  was  |ierceptible  about 
tlie  roots  of  the  toes,  and  on  the  back  of  the  foot ; 
in  others,  the  toes  were  destitute  of  motion,  sensi- 
bility, and  warmth,  being  already  black,  and,  as  it 
were,  <hied.'  Those  of  the  men  who  indulged  in 
tlie  warmth  of  the  bivouac  fires  suffered  from  frost- 
bite in  much  larger  proportion  than  their  more 
hardy  conuades.  But  '  the  extent  of  disaster  from 
this  cause  even  in  modern  campaigning  may  be 
juilged  from  the  fact  that  in  the  French  army  before 
Seliastopol  2800  cases  occurred  in  two  nights,  and 
of  this  number  900  subsequently  died.' 

In  Great  Britain  cases  of  frost-bite  are  compara- 
tively rare.  Occasionally,  in  severe  winters,  cases 
present  themselves  at  the  hospitals  in  the  persons  of 
jiouseless,  ill-nourished  unfortunates,  whose  consti- 
tutions have  in  many  instances  been  enfeebled  by 
spirit-drinking. 

The  treatment  of  frost-bite  consists  in  coaxing 
back  by  degrees  the  vitality  of  the  part  i  this  is 
most  prudently  effected  by  rubl)ing  the  part  in  a 
cold  room,  at  first  with  snow,  then  with  water  at 
ordinary  temperature,  and  when  warmth  returns 
by  enveloping  it  in  cotton-wool  or  flannel  without 
applying  iieat.  As  the  coldness  subsides,  the  pain- 
ful tingling  returns,  then  redness  and  heat;  in  a 
short  time  the  latter  will  be  above  the  natural 
standard,  and,  if  the  reaction  is  severe,  the  part  will 

intlame,  and  perhajis 
mortify.  It  is  well 
to  remember  that 
the  part  need  not 
have  been  actually 
frozen  for  these 
symptoms  to  occur. 
The  person  with 
languid  circulation 
who,  coming  home 
with  cold  wet  feet, 
places  them  before 
the  fire,  or  in  warm 
water,  may  lie  'frost- 
bitten' to  all  intents 
and  purjioses. 

Fr«tli-fly,    also 

called  l'l;iiril-II(il'- 
I'Kl:,    FlllHMKll'rEK, 

FROG-.sriT,  common 
names  for  numerous 
insects  parasitic  on 
plants,  on  which  the 
larva'  and  pup;c  are 
found  .surrounded 
by  a  frothy  spittle. 
They  are  included 
in  the  family  t'ica- 
dellida'  in  the  order 
Homoptcra,  and  are 
related  to  the  Aph- 
ides, Cicadas,  and 
Lantern-Hies.  The 
family  is  a  very  large 
one ;  the  members 
are  all  plant  parasites,  mostly  small  in  size,  often 
210 


Bocydium 
globulare. 


Frog-hopper 

[Aphrophora  spiimaria) : 

!,  larv.i ;  b,  perfect  insect,  with  winj;- 

covers  closed  ;  c,  jxTfcct  insect,  in 

tlie  act  of  flight;  t/,  the  froth  on  a 

plant. 


verj-  beautiful  in  form  and  colour.  The  young 
stages,  which  are  verj'  like  the  adults,  excejit  in 
the  absence  of  developed  wings,  suck  their  plant 
hosts,  and  thereupon  surround  themselves  with 
the  familiar  froth  which  Issues  from  the  hind  end 
of  the  gut.  The  froth  is  popularly  called  cuckoo- 
spit  or  frog-spittle,  from  fancies  entertained  as  to 
its  origin.  It  is  sometimes  so  abundant,  on  willows 
for  instance,  that  it  drops  from  the  branches.  In 
some  cases  it  may  be  helped  by  an  exudation  from 
the  wounded  plants.  The  adults  have  long  hind- 
legs,  and  are  able  to  hop  about  with  some  activity. 
Tlie  commonest  British  species,  Ajihropliura 
spumariii,  is  a  yellowish-green  insect,  towards  half 
an  inch  long,  particularly  addicted  to  willows; 
another  com- 
mon green 
form,  Tctti- 
f/onki  viiidis, 
is  prevalent 
in  meadows ; 
Cercopis  saii- 
gtiitidciita,  in 
red  and  black, 
also  occurs; 
while  Typlo- 
cyba,  Jassus, 
and  Ledra  are 
abundantly  re- 
presented in  Europe.  In  tropical  countries  the 
C'icadellida^  are  still  more  plentiful  and  beautiful. 
The  nearly-related  family  Membracidw  inchules 
many  most  extraordinary  insects  (see  fig.) — e.g.  in 
the  genera  Bocydium  and  Ccntrotus,  with  liizarre 
outgrowths  from  the  first  segment  of  the  thorax. 

Fronde,  James  Anthony,  an  eminent  English 
historian,  was  born  at  Dartingtoii,  near  Totnes, 
Devonshire,  23d  April  1818.  The  youngest  son  of 
the  Archdeacon  ot  Totnes,  he  was  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  took  a 
second-class  in  classics  in  1840,  and  in  1842  wa.s 
elected  a  Fellow  of  Exeter  College.  He  took 
deacon's  orders  in  1844,  and  was  sometime  under 
the  s]iell  of  Newman's  influence,  but  ere  long  his 
opinions  underwent  a  fundamental  change,  as  re- 
vealed to  the  world  in  1848  in  his  outspoken  liook, 
I'hc  A^cmesii-  of  Faith,  a  work  in  which  the  solem- 
nity and  sadness  of  religious  scepticism  are  relieved 
by  a  singularly  tender  and  earnest  humanity.  The 
book  was  written  with  gi'eat  and  even  startling 
power,  and  not  only  cost  Froude  his  fellowship,  but 
also  an  educational  appointment  in  Tasmania.  For 
the  next  few  yeai's  he  employed  himself  in  writing 
for  Fraser's  Magazine  and  the  Wcstiniiistcr  licvior, 
and  in  18.56  issued  the  first  two  voliimcs  of  his 
Hislorij  of  EiKjlandfrom  the  fall  of  Wolsetj  to  tlie 
defeat  of  tlie  S/ianlsh  AniKida,  compU'tei'l  in  12 
vols,  in  1800.  In  this  work  Froude  shows  supreme 
literary  ability — no  reader  can  ever  forget  his 
narrative  of  tlie  death  of  Mary  Stuart  and  the 
disasters  that  befell  the  great  Armada.  In  the 
art  of  making  history  as  fascinating  as  fiction 
Macaulay  is  his  only  rival.  But  like  him  he  is 
a  man  of  letters  first  and  an  historian  afterwards, 
and  the  defects  of  his  merits  have  sadly  impaired 
the  permanent  value  of  his  work.  As  Ims  been 
said  with  truth,  he  taught  himself  history  by 
writing  it;  still  his  use  of  his  materials  never 
becomes  critical,  and  his  views  of  men  anil  motives 
are  always  distorted  by  being  seen  through  lOtli- 
century  spectacles,  and  these,  moreover,  spectacles 
of  his  own.  Natural  love  of  paradox  and  the 
faculty  of  seeing  easily  what  he  wished  to  see 
helped  him  to  make  a  hero  of  lloiiry  A'lII. — the 
greatest  blot  upon  his  history.  Four  volumes  of 
remarkably  brilliant  essays  and  jiapers,  entitleil 
Sliort  Stiie/ics  on  Great  Sithj'ects,  ajipeared  between 
1867  and  1882.     Froude  was  elected  rector  of  St 


18 


FROZEN    STRAIT 


FRUIT 


Antlrews  Univereity  in  18C9,  and  receive<l  the 
<le;iree  of  LL.  1).  For  n  sliurt  time  lie  wns  editor 
of  Fniscr's  Mnqnzinr.  His  next  history,  'J'hr 
English  ill  Inlniid  in  the  Eightrcnlh  C'tiiliiri/ 
(3  vols.  1871-74),  showed  the  same  nierit.s  and 
the  same  defects  as  the  ^'reater  work,  and  the 
same  may  he  said  of  his  Cnsni-:  <i  Sl.rlih  (IS79), 
a  suhject  for  the  treatment  of  which  he  possessed 
hut  one  iinalification — consummate  style.  In  1874, 
and  a;.'ain  in  1875,  Fronde  visited  the  South  African 
colonies  on  a  mission  from  the  home  ■govern- 
ment, and  piililislied  his  impressions  in  Tiro  Lcr- 
tuns  vn  Suiilli  Afrirn  ( 1880).  As  Carlyle"s  literary 
executor,  Fronde  edited  \\\^  TlcniinisccnKcs  (1881), 
Mrs  Carlyle's  Lettcr.i  (.I  v<ds.  1882),  and  Carlyles 
own  /.//■«■" (4  vols.  1882-84);  anil  hy  ^nvinj;  to' the 
world  the  cojdous  pei-sonal  criticism  and  family 
details  contanied  in  these  works,  he  suggested 
grave  douhts  as  to  his  editorial  discretion.  Later 
works  are  Occiniu  (188G),  a  delightful  account  of 
.an  Australasian  voyage  ;  (lie  Einjlin/i  in  the  JVest 
IiiiUes  ( 1888 — assailed  hy  West  hnlians  as  (juilc 
misleading) ;  The  'Two  Chiefs  of  Duntioy  ( 1889),  an 
Irish  historical  romance;  The  Divuiee  of  Catherine 
of  A  ra gun  (1891);  and  The  Spnnish  Ston/  of  the 
Armtu/ii,  and  other  Essat/.i  (1892).  Minor  works 
were  Calvinism  (1871),  Jiiiin/an  (188(1),  Luther 
(188:$),  and  Ikaconsfeld  (1891).  In  1892  he  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Modern  History  at  Uxford, 
in  succession  to  Freeman,  ami  he  died  at  Salcomhc 
in  Devonshire,  20th  Octoher  1894.  Tlie  Life  and 
Letters  of  Erasmus  (1894)  and  Lceliires  on  the 
Council  of  Trent  (189G),  hoth  delivered  a.s  lectures 
at  Oxford,  exhibit  his  uni(|ne  merits  and  his  char- 
acteristic defects — .a  |iower  and  skill  of  statement 
that  rank  him  with  the  very  greatest  masters  of 
Knglij-li  |)rose,  a  partisan  spirit  on  great  issues, 
and  a  carelessness  ahout  accuracy  in  details  and 
not  unimportant  facts.  See  Skeiton's  Table-talk 
of  Shirlrii  (1895).— His  elder  brother,  RlCHAKD 
HriiUKi.Tl  FitolDK,  a  leader  in  the  Oxfonl  Tracta- 
rian  movement,  was  born  at  Dartington,  in  Devim- 
shire,  2,")lli  March  18(t:l.  After  graduating  at  ( >xford 
in  1824  he  became  Fellow  and  tutor  of  Oriel  College. 
Tracts  9  and  (J3  were  from  his  jien.  He  died  on 
28th  February  1836.  His  lienmins  were  published 
three  years  after  his  death  hy  Kehle  and  Newman. 
—  Another  brother,  WiLl.l.VM  Fhoidk,  born  in 
1810  and  educated  at  Westminster  and  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  was  trained  to  be  a  civil  engineer, 
and  in  18.SS  became  a.ssistant  to  iirunel.  Retiring 
from  |>rofessional  work  in  184G,  he  devoted  him- 
.self,  down  to  his  death  at  the  Cape,  4th  May  1879, 
to  investigating  the  laws  of  naval  construction. 

Frozen  Strait,  an  Arctic  passage,  l.'i  miles 
wide,  separating  Southampton  Island  from  Melville 
Peninsula. 

FriU'tltlor  ('fruil-month')  was  the  name  in 
the  French  repul>lican  calendar  for  the  pcrioil  18tli 
August-lClh  September  (see  Calexd.vk).  On  the 
ISth  Fructidor  of  the  year  5  (4th  September  1797) 
there  w:us  a  roup  d'l'tat  hy  the  Directory. 

Friictilicntion.  the  reproductive  system  or  the 
'fniil '  of  cry|>togams.     See  Fixoi,  Seawkkds. 

Fnu'toso,  or  FRfiT-svGAR.     See  Sugar. 

Friliioili.  CvRLO  Inxocexzo,  an  Italian  poet, 
wa.s  liorn  at  (nuioa  in  1G92,  and  taught  rhetoric  at 
Brescia,  Genoa,  .and  IJologna,  amP  died  in  17G8. 
He  belonged  to  the  '  .\rcadian  '  group,  and  wrote 
odes,  epistles,  and  .s.atires,  and  was  faniou.s  with 
his  contemporaries  for  vei-s.atility  and  elegance,  but 
is  now  all  hut  forgotten. 

Fruit.  In  pojuilar  language,  the  tenn  fruit  is 
very  vaguely  employed.  When  extended  beyond 
the  common  limitation  of  usefulness  to  m.an  or 
beast,  it  tends  to  he  applied  to  any  plant-structure, 


phanerogamic  in-  cry|>togamic,  which  contains  the 
germ  of  the  new  individual — to  all  the  organs  of 
fructi(icati(ni  in  short.  I!ut,  lus  common  observa- 
tion deepens  into  botany,  wo  lind  ourselves  grailu- 
ally  led  to  the  more  precise  restriction  of  the  term 
frnit  to  the  ovary  of  angiosperms  (nionocotyleilons 
or  dicotyledons)  after  fertilisation  (sec  Fi.oWKU, 
Ovary).' 

The  nunu?rons  and  interesting  adaptations  of 
dillerent  frnit.s  to  the  preservation  and  distribulion 
of  the  seed  will  be  more  convcinently  outlined 
under  Seed,  while  the  periodic  rhythm  between 
vegetative  an<I  reproductive  growth  to  whiih  the 
iiuestion  of  fruit  attracts  our  attention  must  be 
<!iscus.seil  under  the  more  general  head  of  Ue- 
I'RODI'CTION.  The  special  structure  and  physiology 
of  fruits  here  remain  to  he  ccmsidered. 

Since  the  dawn  of  modern  botany,  the  multi- 
farious forms  of  fniit  h.ave  led  to  many  attempts  at 
their  cla-ssilication.  Vet  the  student  is  more  apt  to 
be  overwhelmed  by  the  resulting  disorderly  and 
redundant  nomenclature  of  the  suhject  than  im- 
pre.s.sed  by  its  systematic  clearness.  If,  however, 
we  keep  fast  hold  of  the  elementary  conce|itions 
of  vegetable  physiology,  morphology,  and  evolu- 
tion, the  dilliculty  of  enumerating  and  cla.ssifying 
the  various  forms  of  fruit  becomes  greatly  dimin- 
ished. We  must  of  coui-se  a.ssume  a  knowledge  of 
the  general  morphology  of  the  Flower  ("l-v. ). 

Starting  then  with  tlio.se  simplest  flowers  in 
which  all  the  carpels  are  sep.arate,  we  lind  the 
stigma  and  style  usually  withering  back  as  no 
longer  of  service,  and  the  ovary  enlarging,  as  the 
fertilised  ovules  grow  up  into  seeds.  Hut  in  many 
such  simide  Mowers  more  ovules  are  produced  than 
are  fertilise<l,  and  generally  .also  more  fertilised 
than  can  be  developed  up  to  maturity;  hence  the 
reduction  of  the  ovules  is  exceedingly  common. 
The  alternative  of  reilucing  the  number  of  carpels 
also  comni<mly  .appears  :  hence  in  the  same  order  of 
lianunculacea'  we  have  on  the  one  hand  the  anemone 
with  its  niultituch;  of  small  ovaries  which  only 
mature  .a  single  ovule,  .and  on  the  other  the  lark- 
spur or  monkshood  with  few  carpels,  but  these 
many-seeded.  This  ])roce.ss  of  reduction  of  the 
number  of  carpels  or  ovules,  or  of  both,  h.as  not 
only  taken  place  in  the  process  of  past  evolution  of 
the  great  ni.ajority  of  plants,  but  is  still  frei|uenllv 
to  be  observed  in  the  development  of  theimlividuai, 
as  is  well  seen  by  eoni|i,aring  the  characteristically 
one-celled  an<l  one-seedcil  acorn  with  a  section  of 
the  three-celled  and  six-ovuled  ovary  from  which  it 
actually  arose  in  spring,  or,  more  sini])ly,  by  recall- 
ing to  memory  the  abortive  ovules  ,an<l  the  corre- 
spon<ling  abortion  of  one  or  two  of  the  original 
ttiree  divisions  of  the  ovary  in  the  fruit  of  the 
horse-chestnut. 

A  second  common-sense  'principle  of  fruit- 
making,'  as  we  may  call  it,  is  reached  through 
keeping  clearly  in  mind  the  nature  and  origin  of 
the  ovary  ;  for,  however  the  upgrowth  of  the  axis 
may  in  jierigynous  orepig>nous  (lowers  conceal  this 
(.see  Flower  ),  we  know  the  ovary  primarily  to  have 
.arisen  from  one  or  more  carjiellary  leaves,  of  w  hicli 
the  indiviilual  development  has  been  so  greatly 
checked  (doubtless  throngh  the  inecocious  develo])- 
ment  of  their  si)orangia — i.e.  ovules),  that  so  far 
from  becoming  expanded  like  all  other  .append.ages, 
they  remain  closed  upon  the  ovules,  and  frequently 
even  coalesce  with  each  other  from  the  base  iipw  aids, 
so  forming  a  many -celled  ovary,  often  even  with 
united  styles  or  even  stigm.as.  Vet  the  tendency 
to  their  individual  expansion  is  not  lost ;  in  many 
monstrosities,  and  normally  a  few  types,  su<di  a-s 
the  common  mignonette,  the  carpell.ary  leaves  early 
begin  to  expand,  so  opening  the  ovary  .and  exposing 
the  seeds  long  before  ripene.ss.  Far  more  fre- 
quently, however,   this  final  development  of    the 


FRUIT 


19 


carpellan-  leaves  is  delayed  until  the  growth- 
processes  of  the  seed  and  fruit  have  ended,  and  it 
is  therefore  accompanied,  or  even  preceded,  by  their 
death  ;  the  separation  often  indicating  the  lines  at 
once  of  leaf-margin  and  leaf-fall. 

In  the  liest  developed  carpellary  leaves,  such  as 
those  of  the  more  floral  Kanunculace;e,  we  natur- 
ally hnd  the  ovaiy  'dehiscing  along  tlie  ventral 
suture ' — in  more  siini)le  and  less  empirical  lan- 
guage, the  carpellary  leaf  opening  along  the  line 
of  its  united  o%nile-bearing  margins.  This  is  what 
is  termed  a, follicle  (fig.  1,^). 

Since,  however,  the  ovules  are  on  the  united 
margins,  the  midrib  tends  to  become  mechanically 
unimportant,  and  to  interpose  little  or  no  resist- 
ance to  a  tendency  to  split  or  tear  along  its  fold,  as 
well  as  to  open  along  the  united  margins.  Such 
'  dehiscence  by  both  dorsal  and  ventral  suture ' 
gives  us  the  modification  of  the  follicle  known  as  a 
Icffiime  or  pod  (  fig.  1,  e). 

A  very  familiar  type,  which  must  not  be  confused 
with  the  pod,  is  the  siliqua  (or  when  shortened  and 
broadeneil  the  silicula)  of  Cruciferre.  Here  the 
fdacental  edges  of  two  united  carpels  develop  a 
transverse  septum  which  divides  the  truit  ( fig.  \,fl); 
and  this  is  left  when  the  lobes  split  away,  as  so 
familiarly  in  Honesty. 

Among  united  ovaries  which  readily  split  open 
at  the  united  margins  (septicklnl)  we  may  note 
that  of  Gentian  (q.v. ),  while  the  more  familiar 
three-celled  ovary  of  a  violet  (fig.  1,  h)  or  rock 
rose  with  its  parietal  placentation  gives  a  charac- 
teristic example  of  dehiscence  along  the  midribs  of 
the  united  carpels,  so  opening  the  loculi  (lomli- 
ridnl ).  In  the  (ive-celled  capsule  of  the  Geranium 
(fj.v. )  the  carpellary  leaves  separate  not  only  at  the 


Fig.  1. 

/,  follicle ;  «,  legume ;  d.  silicula ;  c,  capsule  of  henbane ; 

6,  of  violet ;  ff ,  of  poppy. 

sides  but  also  at  the  base,  so  curling  inwards  and 
projecting  the  .seed.  In  Colchicum,  white  hellebore 
(Veratrum),  and  their  allies  (Melanthacea-)  the 
dehiscence  is  characteristically  septicidal,  the 
carpels  separating  insteail  of  the  loculi  opening : 
the  remaining  majority  of  Liliacea;  are  loculicidal. 
Where,  however,  the  placenta*  remain  more  or  less 
completely  upon  a  central  column  from  which  the 
valves  are  detached,  the  dehiscence  is  said  to  be 
atptifmijal. 

In  henbane  (fig.  1,  c),  Anagallis,  &c.  the  dehis- 
cence is  circular  {circiimseissile);  the  possible  ex- 
planation of  this  as  a  disarticulation  of  the  united 
carpels  by  their  leaf-bases  is,  however,  rendered 
dillicult  through  the  separated  portion  being  a  mere 
liil.  Many-celled  capsules  are  numerous  in  which 
the  leaf-opening  or  dehiscence  is  greatly  reduced 
from  completeness,  witness  the  valvular  and  poroiiJi 
dehiscence  of  the  Lychnis  and  of  the  poppy  ( fig.  1 ,  « ) 
respectively.  Such  cases  clearly  point  us  to  those 
of  carpels  which  do  not  open  at  all.  Such  iiidv- 
/liaci'iif  fruits,  ]iroduced  from  carpels  so  persistently 
embryonic,  are,  as  we  might  expect,  usually 
short,  few  or  one-ovuled,  and,  for  the  most  part, 
little  specialised.  Thus  the  follicle  of  the  Hanun- 
culace;e  of  more  specialised  floral  character  becomes 


shortened  into  the  one-seeded  indeliLscent  achene 
of  the  anemone  or  buttercup  (fig.  "2,  c,  /).  In 
the  achene  of  the  gra.s.ses  (which  similarly  repre- 
sents the  capsule  of  the  ancestral  lilies)  the 
thin  drj'  pericarp  becomes  insei)arable  from  the 
seed-coat  (hence  the  term  caryopsU,  lig.  "2,  c,  d);  in 
many  trees  (e.g.  hazel)  it  becomes  hardened  and 
thickened  as  a  lud.  In  composites  (fig.  2,  a,  h), 
too,  the  achene  is  practically  a  nutlet,  alth<mgh 
often  (on  account  of  its  being  inferior)  termed  a 


s,>^ 


I' 


e,/,achenes  of  buttercup;  e,  d,carj'opsisof  oat ;  a,  6,achenes  with 
pappus;  g.  Momentum;'  i,  h,  nutlets  and  ovary  of  borage; 
/,  A-,  umbelliferous  type  of  schizocarp. 

c>tpsela.  Less  extremely  reduced  representatives  of 
the  various  niulticellular  ovaries  to  which  such 
fniits  correspond  are  att'ot<led  us  by  borages  or 
labiates,  in  which  the  two-celled  ovary  of  the  primi- 
tive solanaceous  type  becomes,  as  in  thorn-apple, 
&c.,  subsequently  divided  into  four  parts:  these 
(see  fig.  2,  /,  /( ).  however,  are  here  so  aiTCsted  as 
only  to  develop  a  single  ovule  in  each  locnlns(of 
which  the  sul)sequent  growth  brings  about  the 
perplexing  appearance  of  the  'gvnobasic'  style). 
Tlie  four  ripe  '  nutlets  '  into  whicli  the  four-lobcd 
ovaiT  of  these  fomis  commonly  breaks  up  were  not 
tinnaturally  mistaken  by  the  old  Imtanists  for  naked 
seeds.  In  Umbellifera;  we  have  another  charac- 
teristic form  of  schizocarp,  as  all  such  fruits  are 
termed  which  split  up  witnout  truly  cari>e!lary  de- 
hiscence, although  the  tendency  to  this  can  be  seen 
still  to  have  some  influence.  Here  the  separate 
portions  (or  mericarps),  each  resembling  an  achene 
or  nut,  are  two  in  number,  and  when  ripe  swing  oH" 
upon  the  ends  of  a  forked  carpophore  (fig.  2,  /,  /). 

In  exceptional  cases  we  have  the  pod  of  some 
Leguminos;!?  and  the  siliqua  of  some  C'rucifers — e.g. 
ratllsh,  snapping  ofl  into  one-seedeil  joints,  insteail 
of  dehiscing  longitudinally  in  the  regular  way.  This 
simply  comes  about  where  the  swellings  correspond- 
ing to  the  seeds  become  unusually  large,  leavin" 
nariowings  lietween  them,  and  thus  giving  the  pod 
a  strength  of  form  too  great  for  the  usual  tension  of 
ripeness  to  overcome  (fig.  2,  ff).  To  confuse  such 
distinct  types  of  fruit  under  a  common  term  ( lotnen- 
turn),  and  to  separate  tliem  from  the  normally 
dehiscent  capsules  to  which  they  really  belong,  and 
to  pl.ace  them  among  the  j)urely  'schizocarpous ' 
fruits  we  have  been  describing,  altlumgh  still  too 
custom.ary,  are  merely  examples  of  the  reasoned 
mistakes  inseparable  from  a  purely  descriptive 
■anatomy,  but  from  which  the  evolutionary  stand- 
point is  at  length  delivering  us. 

So  far  all  onr  fruits  have  been  dry ;  but  a  new 
physiological  '  principle  of  fruit-making '  is  neces- 
sary to  comprehend  those  in  which  the  pericaqi  is 
succulent.  For,  just  as  the  elVect  of  fertilisation  is 
seen  in  many  animals  to  extend  bevond  the  mere 
ovum  to  the  parent  organism,  and  also  in  many  of 


20 


FKUIT 


the  lowest  plants,  so  it  is  in  the  case  before  us. 
Even  in  fruits  wliich  are  <lrv  on  riiieninj;  we  have 
wen  that  the  ovaries  or  h)cnli,  on  wliioh  no  ileniaml 
is  \u:iiU:  for  the  f,'ro\vth  of  fertilised  ovnk>s,  become 
rccliiix'd  or  ilisaiipcar.  Sonictiriics  it  may  lienicrcly 
the  coats  of  the  seed  (a-s  in  tlie  pomegranate )  which 
undergo  tlie  complex  liistological  and  chemical 
changes  whicli  we  sum  iiji  as  those  of  succulence 
and  ri|)ening  :  at  other  limes  largely  their  placent^us, 
as  in  the  gooseberry  and  currant.  Yet,  a.s  in  these, 
the  innermost  tis.sue  of  the  ovary  may  become  suc- 
culent xs  well.  In  the  orange  also  the  familiar 
succulent  tissue  in  wliich  the  seeds  are  imiiier.sed 
are  the  enlarged  succulent  cells  of  the  endocarp  ; 
the  grape  too  gives  a  eharacteri.stic  example  of  soft 
endocarp.  These  may  all  be  cla.s.sed  as  berries  or 
baccate  fruits,  for  the  distinction  of  the  succulent 
liroduct  of  an  inferior  ovary  a.s  a  berry,  from  that 
of  a  superior  one,  a.s  a  iiva  or  graiie,  need  lianlly 
be  allowed  to  increase  our  nomenclature.  .\  pc/ti) 
is  merely  a  berry  in  which  the  epicarp  is  thick  ami 
tough  (e.g.  a  melon,  with  which  the  orange  and 
pomegranate  may  lie  reckoned).  Where  the  suc- 
culent change,  iusteail  of  primarily  all'ecting  the 


Fig.  3. 

0,  drupe ;  6,  oninj;e ;  c,  a  single  dnipelet  of  bramble  ;  ft,  i»ome ; 

e,  strawberry ;  /,  hip  of  rose ;  g,  capitulum  of  Domtenia ;  h,  llg. 

deeper  tissues  of  the  fruit,  and  so  producing  a  berry, 
leaves  the  endocarp  hard,  we  have  evidently  a  well- 
contra-sted  type — tlie  drupaceous  or  stone-fruit.  The 
endocarp  here  forms  a  more  or  less  complete  '  stone ' 
arounil  the  kernel  or  seed,  the  difference  from  an 
ordinary  nut  being  due  to  the  succulence  of  an 
outer  layer,  as  mcsoairp,  with  a  more  or  less 
leathery  outer  skin,  the  cpicaiji.  The  plum,  peach, 
and  nectarine  are  the  most  obvious  examples  ;  but, 
since  we  may  have  many  carpels  thus  transfornieil, 
we  may  have  an  aggregate  fruit  or  .syncarp  of  tiny 
drupes.  The  walnut  and  even  cocoa-nut  are  hence 
not  true  nuts  (see  NlT).  The  immature  succulent 
niesocarp  of  the  former  is  familiar  in  pickles,  the 
walnut  we  crack  being  merely  the  stony  endocarp 
(which  is  exceptionally  specialised  in  being  set  free 
by  the  bui-sting  of  the  niesocarp  on  ripening).  The 
familiar  cocoa-nut  fibre  is  the  tibro-va-scular  ti.ssue 
of  the  mesocai'i),  the  fruit  being  thus  broadly  coni- 
paialile  to  a  peach  which  has  wizeniMl  while  still 
young  and  stringy.  I'ut,  a-s  in  the  kin<lied  grass, 
tlie  coats  of  the  ovule  further  unite  to  the  endocarp. 
The  numerous  carpels  of  the  strawberry,  although, 
of  course,  corresponding  to  those  of  the  allied  ntsii- 
berry,  remain  mere  nuts ;  here,  however,  the  sub- 
jacent portion  of  the  tloral  axis  or  rercptaric 
becomes  succulent.  In  the  perigynous  or  epijjvnous 
llosace;e  the  same  change  may  take  place ;  lience 
the  rose-hip  is  a  succulent  .axis,  enclosing  a  multi- 
tude of  nuts.  The  apjile  or  '  pome  '  is  more  .akin 
to  the  drupe,  since  the  carpels,  here  deeply  sunk  in 
the  upgrown  lloral  axis,  ue\elop  a  hard  endocarp 
corresponding  to  the  stone  of  a  drupe. 


Fertilisation  may  even  lie  followed  by  succulent 
or  other  thickening  of  the  lloral  envelopes,  or  of  the 
(loral  axis  with  subjacent  bracts — the  various 
riipiilrs,  iLs  of  acorn,  beech,  lia/el-nut,  &c.,  being  of 
this  nature.  (Ir  we  may  have  a  spurious  fruit 
developed  at  the  expense  of  an  entire  inlloiescence, 
as  in  the  pine-apple,  Dorstenia,  and  tig.  See 
Infi.ouk.scknck. 

Friiil.s  liiijiiiitinit  to  Mtiii. — The  list  of  the  fruits 
of  any  importance  is  much  shorter  than  woiilit  at 
lii'st  be  supposed,  .o-s  may  be  seen  from  the  follow- 
ing eiiuiiieration  (practically  that  of  I'laiik),  which' 
distinguishes  tho.se  native  or  cultivated  in  northern 
Europe  ((ieriiiany  anil  Itritain )  from  the  iiKue  im- 
portant foreign  fruits,  and  of  course  employs  the 
terms  stone-fruits,  berries,  &c.  in  their  merely 
popular  .sense. 


1.  Iniliijciious  or  Ciiltiralcrl :  (1)  Apples  or  Pip- 
frill  Is.  — Ajiple  ( Pi/riis  Mains),  Pear  ( /'.  coinin  iiiiis ), 
Aledlar    [Mrspihis    gcniianka),    (Quince    {C'l/iluiiiK 


japoHicn),  Service-berries  {Sorbiis  loriiiiiialis  and 
is.  doiiicslica),  U)  which  may  be  added  Hip8(/^4rt 
caiiiii'i,  &c. )  and  Haws  ( Crataqns  0.ri/acant/M ),  also 
Cornel -berries  (  Cuniiis  masciila). 

(2)  Sloiic-friiit. — I'each  and  Nectarine  (Persira 
vii/ijitn's).  Apricot  [J'riDiiis  armciiiarti),  Plum 
{P.  iiislilitlii).  Cherry  (/^  Ccrasii.i  and  /'.  nriiim), 
D.amsim  (7'.  cloincstirfi).  Greengage  {P.  itnliai). 
Sloe  [P.  .ijiinosa).  Cherry -plum  {P.  ccrasi/cra), 
&c. 

(3)  'Berries.' — Grape  (  Vitis  vinifcra),  Strawberry 
(Frtitjorin  irscn,  ela/ior,  \c. ),  Kaspbcrry  {Riibiis 
Iilaiis),  liramble  or  Blackberiy  (It.  friiticosiis). 
Gooseberry  (llibes  drossiihiriti),  Ped  Currant  (li. 
riihriiin).  Black  Currant  (1!.  /lii/ni/ii),  Harbcrry 
{lirr/iiri.s  riilfpiris),  lilack  Mulberry  ( .)/o/».s- ;)/</;•«  ), 
White  Mulberry  {M.  tilbii).  Bilberry  or  Blaeberry 
(  I'liriiiiiiim  Mi/rtilliis)  with  its  minor  congeners. 
Juniper  (Juiiipcriis  communis). 

(■i)  A'lits  or  Shclt-friiit.  —  Hazel-nut  {Corulus 
AnI/iDKi),  Filbert  (C.  tiiOiilosa),  Walnut  (Jugiuns 
rci/iii ).     See  N  UT. 

II.  More  Important  Fruits  of  Warm,  Tcmjjerate, 
and  J'ropiiul  Regions:  (1)  Stoncfriiit. — Date 
(Phoenix  tlarlijlifcru),  Olive  (Olea  eiiropaa),  Mango 
(  Muiigifera  inilica),  Tahiti  api)le  (Sjioni/ios  diilcis), 
Mombiii  Plum  of  West  Indies  (.S'.  Mombin),  Avo- 
cado Pear  (Pcrsea  gratissima),  Icaco  or  Cocoa 
Plum  (Cliri/sobalaniis  icaco),  Sapota  Apple  {Aclirus 
Haputa ). 

(2)  licrrics  and  Berri/liKe  Fruit  (in  widest  sense 
of  succulence). — Banana  and  Plantain  (Mnsn  pnra- 
dLiiaca),  Pine-aiiide  (Anaiiassa  sativa),  Fig  [Ficiis 
Carica),  Bread-fruit  (Artorarpiis  incisa  and  integri- 
folia).  Custard  Apple  (Anona  sijnamosa,  &c.), 
Baobal)  (Adaii.wiiiii  digitnta).  Orange,  Lemon, 
I^inie,  Citron,  Shaddock,  Pompelmoose,  Forbidden 
Fruit,  Bergamot,  and  other  species  of  Citrus, 
Pomegranate  (Piiniea  granatum),  Guava  {Psidium 
jririferum),  Kose-apple  of  East  Indies  (Jambosa 
domestica  and  ruli/aris),  T.imaiind  (Tamarindus 
imlira),  Carob  or  Locust  I'ean  (Ci  ratonia  silirjiia), 
Papaw  ( Carica  Papaya ),  Pumpkin  (  Ciicurbita  Pcpo, 
&e. ),  Melon  (Cucumis  Mclo),  Water-melon  (C. 
Citrullus),  Cucumber  (C.  sativus).  Tomato  {Li/co- 
pirsii-um  escidcntum),  Lotus  (Diospip-os  lotus). 
Jujube  (Zizyphus  vulgaris),  Mangosteen  {Garcinia 
Mangostana),  Prickly  Pear  (Opuntia  vulgaris). 

(3)  Xuts  or  Shell-fruit. — Cocoa-nut  (Cocos  nuci- 
fera).  Almond  (Ami/gdtdus  communis).  Chestnut 
(Castanea  rcsra),  Litchi  or  Lee-chee  (Ncphcliiim 
Litihi)  (really,  however,  a  shelled  drupe),  Brazil- 
nut  (Bertholletia  excclsa),  &c. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Fruits.— Onr  knowledge 
of  the  chemistry  of  fruit  may  be  dated  from  the 
an.alyses  of  Fresenius  (IH.iV).  But  because  of  the 
innumerable  varieties  of  almost  every  cultivated 
fruit,    the  eflects  of    difl'erent  soils   and   climates 


FRUIT 


FRUIT-PIGEON 


21 


upon  these,  and  still  more  of  the  fluctuation  due 
to  better  or  worse  seasons,  the  results  of  any 
one  chemical  analysis  would  tend  to  convey  an 
idea  of  undue  precision.  Thus — e.g.  while  the 
ratio  of  sugar  to  free  acid  in  certain  grapes  of  an 
ordinary  wine-year  was  found  to  be  16  to  1,  in 
a  very  bad  year  it  sank  to  12,  and  in  a  very 
good  year  rose  to  24.  Hence  a  broad  outline 
may  be  of  more  general  use  than  the  statistics 
of  any  one  analysis. 

The  percentage  of  water  may  he  taken  as  vary- 
ing from  78  to  80  in  the  grape  and  cherry,  as 
from  82  to  85  in  plums,  peaches,  apples,  and 
pears,  as  82  to  87  in  brambles,  currants,  ite. ,  and 
as  much  as  9.5  in  the  water-melon.  The  proportion 
of  insolulde  residue — skin  and  cellulose,  stone  and 
seed — obviously  also  varies  greatly  with  succulence 
and  ripeness,  l)ut  may  be  taken,  one  fruit  with 
another,  at  not  less  than  from  4  to  6  per  cent. 
Unripe  fruits  may  contain  a  notable  proportion 
of  starch,  but  this  is  fermented  on  ri]>ening  into 
glucose  and  other  sugars,  fruit-sugar,  grape-sugar, 
cane-sugar,  or  (in  Sorhii'i)  sorbin.  TJie  only  fruits 
which  retain  starcli  in  important  quantity  are  those 
of  the  banana,  bread-frnit  tree,  and  baobab;  hence 
the  exceptional  nutritive  value  of  the.se.  Tlie  olive 
alone  yields  a  notable  proportion  of  oil.  The  pro- 
portion of  sugars  varies  exceedingly,  dates,  dry  figs 
(48  per  cent.),  and  raisins  (5(3  per  cent.),  again 
very  important  foods,  lieading  the  list.  Grapes 
of  course  stand  high,  from  12  to  18,  indeed  some- 
times as  much  as  26  per  cent.,  cherries  from  8 
to  l.S,  apples  6  to  8,  pears  7  to  8,  plums  6,  red 
currants  4 '75,  greengage  3 '5,  peach  and  apricot 
only  1'.5.  The  pro)iortion  of  pectin  bodies  is,  liow- 
•ever,  exceedinj;ly  notable,  esjiecially  in  fruits  such 
as  the  three  last  named.  In  unripe  fruits  (as 
also  in  roots)  we  find  pcctose,  a  body  apparently 
related  to  cellulose,  but  easily  transmuted  by  a 
natural  ferment  or  by  boiling  with  dilute  acid 
into  pectin,  C'jH^Oj,  and  its  allies.  These  are  all 
more  or  less  solulde  in  water,  with  which  they 
readily  form  a  jelly  (whence  the  peculiar  consist- 
ency of  our  fruit-preserves).  The  proportion  of 
soluble  pectin  and  gum  varies  considerably  and 
is  of  great  importance  to  the  blandness  and  agree- 
ableness  of  fruit,  the  harder  and  more  common 
apples  having  considerably  less  than  3  per  cent, 
and  the  liest  lennets  nearly  8.  The  harsh  red 
currant,  indeed,  like  berries  in  general,  has  exceed- 
ingly little  (0'25  per  cent.);  while  the  apricot 
has  as  much  as  9,  the  greengage  12,  and  the  peach 
16 — a  circumstance  which  explains  the  peculi.-uly 
melting  (|uality  of  these  fruits,  especially  the  last 
named.  The  free  acid  also  varies  greatly,  from 
■2'4  per  cent,  in  the  reil  currant,  1'4  in  tlio  rasp- 
berry, and  nearly  as  much  in  the  sourest  cherries, 
to  0'5  in  sweet  cherries  and  a  uiininuim  of  ()•!  or 
less  in  the  sweetest  pears.  That  of  apples  and 
of  grapes,  of  course,  varies  greatly,  but  both  may 
generally  be  taken  at  from  1  to  0'7;),  while  the 
apricot  and  peacli  stand  at  0"3  or  0'4.  The  acid 
is  jirimarily  malic,  but  citric,  acetic,  oxalic,  tannic, 
and  others  m.iy  also  be  present. 

The  qu.antity  of  allniminoids  is  of  course  sm.all, 
in  fact  inadequate  to  render  most  fruits  a  staple 
food.  Yet  it  is  by  no  means  inap|ireciable,  ranging 
from  nearly  -5  jier  cent,  in  tlie  majority  of  fruits  to 
■7  or  '8  in  the  grajie  (2'7  in  raisins),  and  above  1  in 
the  melon  and  tomato.  Hence  to  acquire  albu- 
minoids ecjual  to  those  of  one  egg  we  must  eat  li  lb. 
of  grapes,  2  lb.  strawberries,  2^  lb.  apples,  or  4  lb. 
pears.  To  reiilace  1  lb.  starch  =  5J  lb.  potatoes,  we 
need  5-4  II).  grajies,  fi-7  of  cherries  or  apples,  or  12'3 
of  strawberries  (see  Food). 

The  quality  of  fruits  <lepends  largely  upon  the 
proportion  of  stigar,  gum,  and  pectin  to  free  aci<l, 
largely  also  upon  the  proportion  of  soluble  to  insol- 


uble matters,  hut  in  verj-  great  measure  also  u])on 
the  aroma.  This  quality  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
characteristic  ethers,  often  accompanied  by  essential 
oils,  although  not  of  course  in  ponderable  percent- 
age. Cultivation  and  selection  operate  strongly  on 
all  three  factors. 

Kccjiinij  of  Frxit. — Many  of  the  finest  finits 
undergo  very  speedy  decomposition,  which,  as  ilis- 
tinguished  from  the  intrinsic  processes  of  ri]ien- 
ing,  is  due  to  the  attacks  of  bacteria,  moulds,  or 
yeasts  ;  and  the  jiroblem  of  their  preservation  is 
therefore  primarily  one  of  preventing  these.  In 
damp  and  .stagnant  air,  especially  with  consider- 
able or  frequent  changes  of  temperature,  these 
fungus  pests  multiply  with  special  readiness ; 
hence  a  fruit-room  nmst  be  cool  and  shady, 
yet  dry  and  airy,  and  the  fruit  carefully  gathered 
lather  before  full  ripeness,  handled  so  as  to  avoid 
in  any  way  l>niising  or  tearing  the  skin,  and 
laid  out  and  occasionally  lookeil  over  so  that 
rottenness  in  one  may  not  affect  the  rest.  Under 
these  conditions  apples  especially  may  be  kept  for 
many  months;  indeed  many  varieties  of  fruit — e.g. 
winter-pears — require  these  conditions  for  satisfac- 
tory ripening.  On  antiseptic  principles  we  see  how 
it  is  that  the  dense-skinned  and  wax-coated  grape 
can  be  so  largely  iiiqiorted  in  sawdust,  or  how  unripe 
goosebeiTies,  and  even  ^•ery  perishalde  pears  can  be 
kept  for  months  similarly  packed  in  well-sealed 
jars  in  a  cool  jdace.  The  process  of  jireserving  with 
sugar  in  jars  pronqitly  covered  up  is  similarly  an 
antiseptic  one  ;  but  in  the  systematic  application  of 
antiseptic  principles  we  may  still  look  for  consider- 
able jirogress  in  the  lueservation  and  transjiort  of 
fresh  fruit  upon  a  large  scale.  The  method  of  ilry- 
ing  fruit  has  also  been  in  use  from  remote  times, 
especially  with  dates,  tigs,  and  raisins. 

t)f  late  years  more  attention  has  been  bestowed 
on  fruit-growing  in  Uritaiii,  and  a  large  area  of  land 
is  devoted  to  fruit-cultnre.  But  difficulties  in  dis- 
tribution and  the  cost  of  transport  have  not 
infrequently  the  effect  of  glutting  the  available 
markets  in  good  years,  and  making  prices  w  holly 
unremunerative.  By  far  the  most  of  the  frui't 
grown  in  Britain  is  produced  in  the  counties  nearest 
London.  On  the  other  hand,  the  reduction  in  the 
cost  of  ocean  transit  has  largely  increased  our  im- 
ports of  fresh  as  well  as  dried  fniit,  all  of  which  are 
free  of_  duty,  save  figs,  fig-cake,  plums  preserved 
otherwise  than  in  sugar,  prunes,  and  raisins  (on 
which  the  duty  is  7s.  per  cwt.),  and  currants  (at  2s. 
per  cwt.).  The  annual  imports  of  fresh  orange.s 
and  lemons  have  a  value  of  over  £2,000,000  per 
annum;  of  currants  and  raisins,  £1,600,000;  and 
of  other  fruit,  over  £2,000,000. 

In  the  United  States,  the  extension  of  the  fruit- 
growing area  has  been  very  great ;  orange-growing 
in  Florida  and  some  other  southern  states  is  now 
a  great  industry;  and  in  California  (besides  wine- 
producing),  the  iirei)aration  of  rearing  and  growing 
of  oranges,  figs,  and  other  fruits  is  carried  on  on  a 
large  scale.  Then  the  United  States  imports 
annually— largely  from  the  West  Indies— fruits  and 
nuts  (especially  hanan.as  and  cocoa-nuts)  to  the 
value  of  §17,000,000  a  year,  while  exporting  fruits 
and  nuts  to  the  value  of  .$5,000,000.  Fruit  is  cul- 
tivated in  the  Himalayas  for  Anglo-Indian  use,  and 
apples  grow  nuagiiilicently  there. 

See  Gardening,  Okch.vrd  ;  the  articles  on  Apples, 
Pears,  Peaches,  and  the  various  fruits;  Wine,  Cider, 
&c. ;  Preserved  Provisions;  and  works  on  fruit-culture 
byflical  (newed.  1892),  Thomson  (1881),  Fisli  (18.S2), 
Burl.idgc  (1881),  Du  Brcuil  (lS8(i),  Hogg  ( 1885),  Wood 
(1880);  and  for  .\merica,  by  Downing  (1876),  Fuller 
(1881),  Roe  (1886),  and  Thomas  (1876). 

Fruit-pigeon  (Car/iopliaf/n),  a  genus  of 
pigeons,  including  about  fifty  species,  distributed 
over   tlie   whole  .Vnstralian   and  Oriental    regions. 


22 


FRUMENTIUS 


FRYXELL 


Fruit-pigcun 
(Carpuphwja  uceanica). 


but  mucli  more  aljuiulant  in   tlie   former.      They 
live  ill  forests,  are  well  ailapteil  for  arlioreal  life, 

nml  feeil  on  fruits. 
The  gajie  is  wiile; 
the  colouring.'  of  the 
jiluiiiage  brilliant. 
The  term  fruit- 
liij;e<)n  is  also  e.\- 
ii'iided  to  meiiibei-s 
■l'  other  {,'eiieia— 
I'reron,  Aleetr(en!is, 
\e.  See  I'lUKON. 
Friiiiioiitiiis. 

S  r,       aiiiiNlli-      of 

PKv^Kivi^ii  l''.thio|>i^i     anil     the 

.  '^  ^;^r|J^  \bysMnians,      born 

'  S^^JL  vtrtl^  \li^  '"  I'hoMiicia  to- 
■'^^'  Wu  ??  ^  wanls  the  be^'innin-j; 
of  the  4tli  eentuiy. 
At  a  very  early  a^'e 
lie  and  another 
youth,  named 
-lulesius,  acconi- 
iianied  their  nncle 
Aleroiiins  on  a  voy- 
aj;e  undertaken  for 
inercantile  ]>urj)oses, 
and  they  landed  on  the  coast  of  Abys>inia  or 
Ethiopia  to  procure  fresh  water;  but  the  sava;,'e 
inliabitants  made  an  onslau^jclit  upon  them,  and 
mnnlored  Meiopins  and  the  whole  crew,  sjiaring 
only  the  two  boys.  They  were  taken  ivs  slaves 
into  the  service  of  the  kin^',  and  made  them- 
selves so  beloved  that  -Edesius  was  soon  raised 
to  the  oUice  of  cupbearer,  while  Krumentius 
became  the  kin;,''s  ])rivate  secretary  and  instnictor 
to  the  youn^r  prince,  obtainin;;  ^;reat  inllucnce 
in  the  administration  of  the  state  affairs.  lie 
aidcil  the  christian  merchants  who  souf,'ht  the.se 
parts  in  founding  a  church,  and  gradually  paved 
the  way  for  the  formal  introduction  of  the  new 
creed.  In  .S2(>  he  went  to  .Mexandria,  and  was  by 
Athanasins  consecrated  liishoj)  of  Axum.  The 
new  bishop  reiiaired  to  Aby.ssinia,  and  succeeded  in 
proselytising  large  numbers.  lie  is  also  snppo.sed 
to  have  translated  the  liible  into  Ethiopian  (see 
Eriiioi'i.v).     Frumentius  died  abimt  3G0. 

FrillUeilty.  or  FinMlirV  (Lat.  fruincntinn, 
'wheat  ),  an  Knglish  dish  made  of  whole  wheat 
or  rice  boilcci  in  milk  and  .sea.soned. 

FrillHlslHTK.  tiEORG  VOX,  the  great  leader  of 
the  tlerman  landsknechle  during  the  Italian  wars 
of  the  emperors  Maximilian  and  Charles  V.,  was 
boin  in  147.'5  at  Mindelheim  in  Swabia,  and  there 
he  died  in  1.V2S.  He  fought  in  twenty  pitcbcil 
battles,  besides  sieges  and  skirmishes  without 
number;  and  the  victory  of  Pavia  (152.5)  was 
largely  due  to  him.  Two  years  later  he  was 
marching  on  Home  with  the  Constable  de  Bourbon, 
when  a  mutiny  of  liis  soldiers  brought  on  a  stroke 
of  apoplexy.  See  monographs  by  Barthold  (1833) 
and  Hcilniann  (1S68). 

FriIStlllll,  in  Ceometrv,  is  the  part  of  a  solid 
next  the  base,  left  on  cutting  oil' the  top  by  a  plane 
parallel  to  the  ba-se.  The  frustum  of  a  sphere  or 
spheroid,  however,  is  any  jiart  of  these  solids  com- 
]irised  between  two  circular  sections ;  and  the 
middle  frustum  of  a  sphere  is  that  whose  ends  are 
equal  circles,  having  the  centre  of  the  sphere  in  the 
middle  of  it,  and  equally  distant  from  both  ends. 

Fry.  Eliz.mikth,  bom  May  21,  17S0,  was  the 
third  "daughter  of  John  (lurney,  Esq.,  of  Earlhani 
Hall,  near  Norwich,  a  rich  banker,  and  a  member 
of  tiie  Society  of  Friends.  Her  mother  died  when 
she  was  twelve  years  old,  leaving  four  sons  and  seven 
daughters.  The  sisters  grew  up  attractive  and 
original.     They  dressed  gaily,  and  .sang  and  danced. 


Till  Elizabeth  was  eighteen  she  had  no  decided 
religious  opinions.  In  February  1798  a  discoui'se 
she  heard  in  the  Friends'  meetinghouse  at  Nm-- 
j  wich  by  William  Savery,  an  American  Frieml, 
made  a  deep  iiiipres.sion  on  her,  and  leil  her  to  wish 
to  become  a  'plain  F'riend.'  From  this  time  her 
natural  loving  cue  for  others  was  greater  (ban 
before.  She  worked  much  among  the  poor,  ami 
began  a  school  for  poor  children,  which  she 
managed  entirely  hei-self,  even  when  the  number 
of  scliolai"s  increased  to  more  than  seventy.  In 
August  KSIHI  she  married  Joseph  Fry,  of  l'lasln>t, 
Essex,  then  engaged  in  extensive  business  with  his 
brother  in  London.  She  lived  with  her  hnsbimil  in 
his  house  of  business,  St  Mildred's  t'ourt,  t'ily  of 
London,  till  1809,  when,  on  the  death  of  her  father- 
in  law,  she  removed  to  I'lashet.  Five  chiiilien 
were  Ixu'ii  to  her  in  I,<uidon,  and  si.x  more  at 
I'lashet.  In  ISIO  she  became  a  ])reaclier  aiinuig 
the  F'riends.  In  February  1.S13  she  visited  Newgate 
for  the  lirst  lime,  ami  saw  .'iOO  women,  tried  anil 
untried,  with  their  numerous  children,  without 
em]ilovineiit,  in  an  almost  lawless  state,  crowded 
together  in  rags  and  dirt,  with  no  bedding,  ami 
nothing  but  the  lloor  to  sleep  on.  She  could  do 
no  more  then  than  supply  them  with  clothes,  but, 
within  a  few  years,  by  her  etlorts,  a  school  and 
a  manufactory  were  established  in  the  prison,  a 
Ladies'  As.sociation  was  formed  for  'the  improve- 
ment of  the  female  prisimers,'  religious  instruc- 
tion was  regularly  given  to  them,  a  matron  was 
appointed,  and  the  women  willingly  submitted  to 
rules  for  their  well-being.  Prison  reform  now 
became  one  great  object  of  Mrs  I'ry's  life.  She 
visited  ]irisons  in  dillerent  ]);irts  of  the  kingdom 
and  on  the  Continent,  and  introduced  many  im- 
provements in  their  management  and  discipline. 
She  also  did  a  great  deal  to  improve  the  condition 
of  the  female  convicts  sentenced  to  transportation. 
Through  liei-  inlluence  libraries  were  begun  in  the 
naval  hospitals  and  the  coiustgaiard  stations,  and 
Bibles  were  supjilicd  to  them.  She  died  .it  Kams- 
gate,  October  12,  184.5,  and  was  buried  at  Barking, 
Essex.  Mrs  F"rv  was  a  true-hearted,  loving  woman, 
peculiarly  gifted  for  the  dillicult  work  she  had  to 
do  by  her  sympathy,  swift  insight,  tact,  and  charm 
of  manner.  See  the  Life  by  her  daughters  (2  vols. 
1847);  that  by  Mrs  Pitman  (1884);  and  Hare's 
Gurneijs  of  Eartltam  ( 1895). 

FryiiiK.    See  Boii.ino,  Cookeev,  Food. 

Fryxell.  .Vnders,  a  Swedish  historian,  was 
born  ttli  February  179.'),  at  Ilesselskog  in  Dalsland  ; 
studied  at  Upsala,  took  ])riest's  orders  in  1820,  and 
in  1828  became  rector  of  a  gymnasium  in  Slock- 
liolm.  From  1835  to  1847  he  was  jiarish  priest  of 
Sunna  in  \'ermland,  and  from  this  latter  ye.ir  he 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  literary  pursuits  till  his 
death  at  Stockholm,  2rst  March  1881.  His  reputa- 
tion rests  U])on  Berultelser  iir  Hvenshii  Uislurlcn 
( '  Narratives  from  Swedish  History,'  4(5  vols.  Stockh. 
1832-80).  These  narratives,  largely  biographical  in 
form,  and  distinguished  by  their  impartial  love  of 
truth,  soon  obtained  a  wide  ])o|>ularity  in  Sweden. 
Parts  of  them  have  been  translated  into  almost 
all  European  languages  ( Eng.  trans,  edited  by 
Marv  Howitt,  1844).  Another  work,  Consjiiradcs 
of  the  Sindish  Aristocrcuy  (4  vols.  Upsala,  1845- 
50),  was  intended  as  a  rejdy  to  the  accusations 
urged  against  that  cla.ss  liy  Geijer  and  others, 
and  involved  F'lyxell  in  a  keen  controvei-sy  \yitli 
the  democratic  liberal  jiarty  in  Sweden.  l!eside.s 
these  works  he  wrote  a  Contribution  to  the  lliatury 
of  the  Literature  of  fiiieden  (9  vols.  1860-02). 
Fryxell  also  laboured,  both  by  his  own  example 
anil  by  the  publication  of  a  Su-edish  Giauimar,  to 
purify  his  native  language  from  the  parasitism  of 
foreign  words. 


rUAD    PASHA 


FUCUS 


23 


Fliad  Pasha,  Mehmed,  a  Turkish  statesman 
and  litterateur,  was  bom  at  Constantinople,  ITtli 
January  1814.  He  was  the  son  of  the  celebrated 
poet,  Izzet-Mollah,  and  had  already  begun  to  make 
liimself  known  as  an  author,  when  the  exile  of  his 
father,  who  had  fallen  into  disgrace  with  the  Sultan 
Mahiinul,  compelled  him  to  choose  a  profession. 
He  studied  medicine,  and  for  some  years  was 
Adniinilty  physician,  but  in  1S35  abruptly  forsook 
mediiiiie,  and  ernployeil  himself  in  the  study  of 
diplomacy,  history,  modern  languages,  the  rights  of 
nations,  and  political  economy.  In  1840  he  became 
first  secretary  to  the  Turkish  emliassy  at  London, 
and  in  184.3  was  at  Madrid.  It  was  almost  impos- 
sible to  belie^'e  him  to  lie  a  Turk,  he  sjioke  French 
so  marvellously  well.  On  his  return  to  Constantin- 
ople he  was  a]i]iointed  to  discharge  the  functions  of 
grand  interjireter  to  the  Porte,  and  in  18.52  becaiue 
minister  of  foreign  attairs.  On  the  question  of  the 
'  Holy  Places,'  Fuad  Pasha,  by  his  attitude,  and 
by  a  brochure  very  hostile  to  the  pretensions  of 
Russia,  gave  great  dissatisfaction  to  the  czar.  In 
18.5.5  he  received  the  title  of  Pasha,  and  was  again 
appointed  minister  of  foreign  atl'airs.  From  1861 
to  1801)  he  held  the  office  of  Crand  Vizier.  He  died 
in  18(JSI.  To  him  especially  it  is  said  Turkey  owes 
the  hattisherif  of  1856.     See  Turkey. 

Flioa.  or  Ju.\N  DE  FucA,  Strait,  a  passage 
separating  Washington  State  from  Vancouver 
Island,  and  connecting  the  Pacific  Ocean  with  the 
Gulf  of  Georgia.  It  contains  several  islands,  one 
of  which,  San  Juan,  became  the  subject  of  a 
dispute  between  Great  Britain  and  the  I'nited 
States,  the  question  being  whether  it  was  to  be 
regarded  as  an  appendage  of  Washington  Territory 
or  of  British  Columbia.  In  1872  the  emperor  of 
Germany,  as  arbiter,  decided  that  the  line  of 
boundary  should  be  run  through  the  Strait  of 
Haro,  west  of  San  Juan,  thus  awarding  that  island 
to  the  United  States ;  and  it  and  several  neigh- 
bouiing  islands  now  form  a  county  of  Washington 
State,  with  a  population  of  948. 

FA-oliail.    See  FoocHOW. 

FlK'llsia— named  in  170.3  by  Plumier  after 
Leonhard  Fuchs  (1501-66),  who  with  Brunfels  and 
Bock  (see  Bot.\ny)  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
German  botany — a  genus  of  OnagraeeK  containing 


a.  Fuchsia  Eiccartoni;  b,  a  garden  variety. 

about  fifty  species,  small  shrubs  or  trees,  natives  of 
the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America,  «-hence  a  few 
have  ranged  northwards  to  Central  America,  ami 
others  to  New  Zealand.  The  usually  pendulous 
flowers  are  of  characteristic  apjiearanco  and  often 
striking  beauty  ;  they  are  very  easily  propagated  by 
cuttings  and  grow  freely,  especially  near  the  sea- 


coast.  Some,  notably  F.  discolor  and  F.  Riccartoni, 
are  capable  of  withstanding  our  winter  so  i\ell  that 
fuchsia-hedges  are  a  conjmon  ornament  of  gardens 
on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland.  Others  can  be 
treated  as  herbaceous  plants ;  and  most  if  not 
indeed  all  will  tiower  well  in  the  open  air  during 
summer.  Cultivators  recommend  keejiing  back 
l)lants,  ,so  that  when  planted  out  in  May  they 
shall  only  then  begin  to  ])ut  out  their  'leaves. 
The  commonest  species  is  usually  known  as  /'. 
corrinca  (but  is  said  to  be  only  "a  variety  of  F. 
c/lobosa,  and  this  again  of  F.  riutcrostemma ,  while 
the  true  /''.  cocritica,  with  nearly  sessile  leaves, 
is  rare);  F.  coiiica,  coral/in«,  fii/r/cns,  ffrai-ilts,  &c. 
are  also  well  known,  as  well  as  tlie  hanlier  species 
above  named,  while  the  florists'  varieties  and 
hybrids  are  innumerable.  There  are  also  many 
dwarf  species  of  characteristic  habits.  The  berries 
of  many  sjjecies  are  eaten  with  sugar  in  their 
native  countries,  and  when  they  ri])en  are  occasion- 
ally preserved  even  here.  The  wood  of  some  sjiccies 
is  also  employed  in  South  America  as  a  black 
dye. 

Fuclisiue.    See  Dveixg. 

Fiiclis's  Soluble  Glass.  See  Glaiss, 
p.  245. 

Flioilio,  Lake  of,  or  Laoo  di  Celano  (ancient 
FKciiiKu  Lacus),  a  lake  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Aquila,  with  an  area  of  61  sq.  m.,  is  situated  2172 
feet  above  sea-level.  Being  only  75  feet  deep  and 
having  no  constant  outfiow,  it  was  suliject  to 
sudden  risings,  which  on  more  than  one  occasion 
inundated  the  surrounding  regions.  To  obviate 
this  danger  the  Emperor  Claudius  cut  a  subter- 
ranean channel,  nearly  3  miles  in  length,  through 
the  solid  rock  of  Monte  Salviano,  30,000  men 
being  engaged  in  the  work  from  44  to  54  A.D. 
This  tunnel,  however,  soon  became  obstructed  and 
long  remained  .so,  notwithstanding  various  attemiits 
to  clear  it.  As  the  lake  had  been  steadily  rising 
from  1783,  a  new  canal  was  made  (1852-62)  by  the 
Swiss  engineer  De  Montricher.  By  1875  the"  lake 
was  dry  ;  it  is  now  under  cultivation. 

FllCIIS,  the  generic  name  of  the  various  .species 
of  brown  sea-wrack  which  form  the  main  vegetation 
of  rocky  shores  between  tide-marks.  Connnonest 
of  all  upon  European  coasts  (save  in  the  Meiliter- 
ranean),  and  abundant  also  in  the  North  Pacific,  is 
F.  rcsini/osKt/  { Bladderweed,  Black  Tang,  Sea- 
ware,  Kelp-ware,  \c. ),  easily  distinguished  by  its 
entire  edges  and  paired  air-vesicles.  In  scarcity  of 
better  fodder,  oxen,  sheep,  and  deer  will  eat  it  from 
the  rocks,  and  in  North  Europe  it  is  .sometimes  boiled 
for  hogs  with  a  little  coarse  flour.  On  account  of  the 
very  large  proportiim  of  ash  (up  to  23  per  cent,  of 
the  dry  weiglit ),  it  forms  a  valuable  manure,  and, 
althouj;h  very  imperfectly  utilised  in  most  ])laces, 
is  regiuarly  harvested  as  'varec'  or  '  vraic '  by  llie 
farmers  of  the  Channel  Isles  ami  their  kinsmen  of 
the  adjacent  mainland.  The  chemical  comjiosition 
also  made  it  the  stai>le  of  the  industry  of  kelp- 
burning  (see  Kelp),  once  so  important  as  a  source 
of  raw  material  to  the  soaii-boiler  and  gla.ss-maker. 
Even  more  esteemed  for  these  purposes,  although 
unfoitunately  abounding  nearer  low-water  mark, 
was  the  kindred  /'.  nmlu.in.i  (  Knobbed  Wrack )  with 
its  solitary  air-vesicles  in  the  line  of  the  ab.scnt 
midrib.  /'.  scrnitns  (Black  Wrack),  also  very 
common  and  easily  recognised  by  its  serrated 
fronds  without  air-vesicles,  was  least  valued.  AVith 
these  are  gathered  other  less  common  species,  as 
well  as  the  Laminaria  (see  Seaweeds),  exposed  by 
the  lowest  tides.  Besides  manure,  the  only  direct 
chemical  utilisation  of  the  Fuci  is  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  iodine;  and  the  imiiortant  inoporlion  of 
iodine  present  justifies  their  ancient  medicinal 
repute  in  the  treatment  of  scrofulous  diseases,  the 


24 


FUEGO 


FUEL 


Qiincim  muriiiit  of  ancient  iiliarniacy  lieiii};  F. 
sentitiis,  aii<l  tlic  .Ktliinini  iv/iiidii/ix  the  eliaiicd 
residue  of  this  aiid  its  iillics.  An  alcuhdlic  extract 
is  also  fieimeiitly  adveitised  fm-  the  treatiueiil  of 
eoiiPiileiU'e. 

'I  he  neiiiis  I''iiciis  and  a  fi'W  (doscly  allieil 
•Ceneia  (e-f,'.  I'licodiiini,  lliiiianthalia.  ( 'vstoseiia, 
and  iii)lal)ly  Sai;,'assnni,  s|ii'i-i;dly  de>ciiheil  niidci- 
Ci'Ll'  \VEi;i)),  form  tlie  family  I'ueacea',  which 
are  the  hi^;liest,  and  with  the  allied  Laniin- 
ariacea',  also  the  most  familiar  representatives 
of  the  lar^'e  alliance  of  hrown  seaweeds  (see 
the  articU?  Sk.WVKkds).  The  vej^etative  hody 
is  usually  a  thalhis,  yet  in  Sargassuin,  &c.,  a 
distinction  of  this  into  stem  and  leaves  is  very 
comjdete.  The  hrancliin;;  of  l''ncns  is  dichotom- 
ous  in  one  jilane.  Of  the  inner  or  mcdnllar^V  cells 
of  the  thalhis,  the  outer  wall  hecomes  niucda^;in- 
ous,  while  the  less  sujierlicial  of  the  rind  cells 
ilevelop  lilaments  which  i;row  inwards,  so  surround- 
ing the  inner  cells  within  a  network  of  lilaments. 
The  bladders  are  formed  hy  the  simple  separation 
of  |iortions  of  the  tissues  the  cavities  heciuniu}; 
distended  hy  air.  A  sexual  multiplication  may  he 
said  to  be  ab.sent,  but  sexual  reproiluction  is  easily 
observed.  A  large  area  at  the  end  of  the  frond 
becomes  covered  with  small  depressions,  which  are 
overgrown  until  they  are  spherical  llasks  with  only 
a  minute  oiiening  on  the  surface.  The  cells  lining 
this  tlivsk  or  cuiirc/i/iir/r  ]Moceed  to  diviile,  and 
many  form  barren  cellular  lilaments  which,  how- 
ever, instead  of  turning  inwards,  as  in  vegetative 
growth,  grow  into  the  cavity  of  the  lla.sk  or  even 
project  beyond  it  as  a  tuft  of  hairs.  Hut  many 
are  arrested  in  divisiim  while  still  only  two-celled, 
and  the  ujiper  of  these  cells  enlarges  greatly.  In 
some  forms  I  Cystoseira,  Himantlialia)  this  becomes 
the  ovum,  but  in  others  its  contents  divide  into 
two,  four,  or  in  Kiicus  eight  ova;  hence  it  is 
termed  the  oogonium.  Other  lilaments  again  not 
only  lengthen,  but  branch  freely.  Their  terminal 
cells  become  anlheridia  i.e.  their  proto])lasm 
divides  into  a  mnltitmle  of  s|>erniatozoiils.  I'er- 
tili.sation  takes  place  when  the  ripe  fertile  fronds 
are  left  bare  by  the  tide,  the  change  of  specilic 
gravity  through  evaporation  doubtless  being  of 
imi)ortance  in  aiding  the  escape  of  the  sexual 
products.  The  outer  niend)rane  of  the  oogonium, 
like  that  of  a  medullary  cell,  becomes  mucilaginous 
and  gives  way,  and  the  groujis  of  eight  ova,  still, 
however,  enclOsed  within  the  inner  wall,  escape 
from  the  conceptacle  ;  the  antheridia,  too,  break  oil' 
and  escape  to  the  opening  of  the  C()nce])tacle  ( per- 
hajis  helpcil  by  the  slight  contraction  of  the  volume 
of  this  which  evaporation  nmst  tend  to  jiroduce). 
When  the  tide  returns,  both  ova  and  s]iermat«zoiils 
break  comidetely  free  and  fertilisati<m  takes  place. 
Cross  fertilisation,  always  possible  even  where,  a.s 
in  /'.  pldti/air/iiix,  the  same  conceptacle  develops 
ova  ami  spermatozoa,  becomes  perfect  in  the  more 
familiar  species,  of  which  tlu^  greater  prevalence 
thus  becomes  more  intelligible.  The  fertili.sed  ovum 
soon  develops  a  wall,  becomes  attached,  and  pro- 
ceeds to  divide  anil  lengthen,  .soon  forming  a  root- 
like attaclnnent  at  one  end,  a  growing  point  at  the 
other.  See  Sii.vwEliDS  ;  also  si>eci;i,l  articles  above 
luentiiuied. 

Flicgo,    Tii;itRA     DEL.        See     Tikt!RA     del 

FlE(iO. 

Fuel.  The  chief  nioile  of  artilicially  i)roducing 
that  condition  of  matter  which  is  called  heat  is  by 
liurning  certain  substances  in  air.  These  substances 
contain  carbon  and  hyilrogen,  which  during  the 
chemical  change  implied  by  liurning  unite  with  the 
atmospheric  oxygen,  and  ;vs  the  tem|ierature  rises 
emit  light  as  well  ;is  heat.  Since  these  two 
elements  are  \ery  widely  distributed  in  nature,  the 


cla-ssification  of  all  the  comiKuinds  whicli  may  be 
termed  fuels  is  somewhat  dillicult.  After  using 
wood  for  long  ages  men  at  last  laid  the  mineral 
kingdi>m  umler  reipiisition,  but  the  fuels  thence 
derived  were  soon  recogniseil  to  be  undoubtedly 
of  vegetaljle  origin.  Some  writers  include  all  these 
under  the  term  natural,  and  distinguish  such 
derivatives  as  coke,  charcoal,  and  conilinstilile 
giLses  JUS  artilicial.  I'opniaily,  fmls  are  a  l.nge 
cla.ss  of  compounds,  all  of  vegetable  origin  except 
the  animal  oils  and  fats,  which  produce  heal  and 
light  when  raised  to  '  kimlling  temperature.'  Thus, 
besides  coal  and  coke,  woitd  and  i'harcoal,  and  [teat 
or  turf,  we  nuist  reckon  tallow,  wax,  alcohol,  coal 
and  other  gjises,  petroleum,  crea.sote  or  'dead  ciil,' 
aTid  others  as  futds.  'I'o  be  exhaustive,  we  should 
further  refer  to  a  sub-class  called  '  patent '  finds. 

The  ordinary  .solid  fuels  fall  under  two  heads  : 
those  containing  water  in  a  large  proportion — e.g. 
wood,  tnrf,  and  most  coals— and  therefore  pro- 
ducing, when  burned,  hydrogen  as  well  as  carbon  ; 
and  secondly,  those  w  liiidi  aie  purely  carbonaceous 
— c(d<e,  charcoal,  and  anthracite.  In  recent  times, 
since  metallurgy  has  assiime(l  Mich  proportions  in 
all  countries,  and  especially  since  the  apjilicatioii  of 
steam-])ower,  the  coking  of  coal  has  been  more  and 
more  perfected,  in  order  to  concentrate  the  carbon 
and  present  a  fuel  callable  of  producing  a  higher 
temperature.  Wood  lus  a  fuel  is  either  light  and 
soft,  a-s  deal,  or  heavy  and  hard,  as  oak  ;  but 
neither  kind  is  now  applied  in  nietabwoiking, 
unless  in  the  concentrated  form  of  charcoal,  ^\'ood 
contains  so  large  a  iiroporlion  of  water  as  to  reduce 
its  heat-giving  quality  both  in  i|Uantity  and  in- 
ten.sity,  and  contains  less  than  half  its  weight  of 
carbon  (see  table). 

Charcoal  is  formed  by  comlensing  the  carbon  of 
wood  and  exiiclling  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  just 
as  coke  is  a  concentration  of  coal  by  an  analogous 
process.  When  the  wood  has  been  pai  ked  ami  so 
closed  in  a-s  to  )irevent  access  of  air,  by  raising  the 
whole  to  a  teni|ierature  of  about  300  ,  the  watery 
and  ga.seous  jiartides  arc  entirely  expelled,  and  a 
mass  of  almost  pure  carbon  remains.  Similarly  from 
coal  we  have  coke,  prepared  by  'dry  distillation  '  or 
imperfect  combustion,  so  ;is  to  retain  the  carbona- 
ceous jiart  in  a  concentrated  state  and  set  free  the 
volatile  ingredients  and  [lart  of  the  sulphur.  A 
sjiecial  ]iro]ierty  of  coke  for  metallurgy,  as  comjiared 
with  coal,  is  that,  when  exiiosed  to  high  temjiera- 
tures  as  in  iron-blast  furnaces,  it  does  not  become 
pii-sty. 

Turf  or  jieat  is  an  agglomeration  of  decayed 
vegetable  matter,  such  as  is  fiec|iiently  found  on 
the  sites  of  ancient  forests.  It  is  remarkeil  that 
no  instance  of  its  formation  occurs  within  the 
tropics;  though  Lyell  describes  the  Great  Dismal 
Swamp  between  Virginia  and  North  Caiolina  to 
be  a  nia.ss  of  black  jieat  like  matter,  15  feet  deep. 
Some  iiealy  sediment  has  also  been  noted  in  a 
Ca-slimere  lake.  From  holding  so  small  a  percent- 
age of  carbon,  turf  is  of  little  use  in  the  arts  ;  but 
in  Havana  it  has  been  utili.sed  for  locomotive 
engines  after  being  compres.sed  into  bricks,  and  in 
some  districts  it  has  been  convei-ted  into  a  species 
of  charcoal. 

Superior  to  the  peat  fuels,  though  still  inferior  in 
carbon  to  coal  proper,  are  the  lignites  or  brown 
coal,  which  occur  in  geological  (le|iosils  of  inore 
recent  formation  than  the  true  coal-measures.  The 
lignites  contain  a  larger  projiortion  of  water  than 
coals  properly  so  termed;  and  are  of  so  many 
varieties  as  gradually  to  pass  into  the  bituminous 
class,  which  are  known  by  their  smoky  flame  and 
derive  their  name,  not  from  any  bitumen  in  tlnir 
composition,  but  from  the  wcdlknown  tars  which 
they  produce.  With  the  bituminous  must  be 
reckoned  the  'coking  coal'  and  the   '  cannel  (i.e. 


FUEL 


FUERO 


17"( 


candle)  coal.'  The  last-mentioned  variety,  more- 
over, inclurles  the  Edinlmrf;h  'parrot  coal'  (so 
named  from  its  crackliii<j;)  and  the  'horn  coal'  of 
South  Wales,  which  is  characterised  by  a  smell 
like  that  of  burnt  horn.  At  the  head  of  this  class 
of  fuels  is  the  anthracite  coal,  hohlin<,'  over  90 
per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  tlierefore  of  special  value 
for  some  purposes  in  metallurgy  and  otherwise. 
Anthracite  is  very  compact,  somewhat  brittle, 
and  does  not  stain  the  hngers  like  ordinary  coal. 

For  comparing  as  fuels  some  leading  types  of 
coals  the  following  table — which  is  an  abstract 
from  various  returns — will  be  of  use,  presenting  the 
percentage  of  carbon,  of  hydrogen,  and  the  ash  left 
after  combustion  : 

Fuel.  Carbon.  Hydrogen.       Ash. 

Welsh  coal 91-3  3-3  16 

MayeiHie 907  3'9  '9 

Pennsylvania 89-2  2-4  4-7 

Newcastle 86-8  6'2  1-4 

GlasKOW 830  33  61 

Laneasliire 82-6  5*7  2'6 

Fifesliire 81-2  3-8  4-6 

Blanzy 75-4  6-2  2-3 

Ayrsliire 73'4  2-9  o'O 

Lignites  (E.  France) 691  62  30 

AspliaUuln  (Mexico) 78-1  9-3  28 

Peats  (France) 572  5-8  S'O 

Wood  (average) 45-49-6  5-8  2-0 

In  primitive  times  the  scarcity  of  wood  in  some 
parts  of  Egypt  and  India  suggested  the  use  as  fuel 
of  sun-dried  cakes  of  the  dung  of  camels  and  oxen. 
A  similar  practice  exists  to-day  in  the  trackless 
step])es  of  Central  Asia ;  and  so,  too,  in  various 
countiies  of  Europe  much  refuse,  especially  of 
a  vegetable  nature,  is  utilised  which  in  coal  or 
wooil  producing  disti'icts  is  rejected  as  absolutely 
worthless.  In  eastern  France,  for  example,  and 
(ierniany  all  the  spent  bark  from  tanneries 
is  formed  into  cakes  for  fuel,  and  estimated 
as  worth  about  three-fourths  the  same  weight  of 
wood.  Where  coal  is  not  found  or  cannot  profit- 
ably be  conveyed,  the  preseivation  of  forests  is 
of  manifest  importance  ;  and  in  certain  parts  of 
Europe,  for  example,  trees  are  sj'stematieally 
^danted  in  hedgerows  and  ntlicrwise  to  provide 
tucl.  For  the  same  reason  pollarding  is  resorted  to, 
the  branches  being  regularly  cut,  and  the  trunk 
left  to  grow  fresh  fuel.  The  scientific  world,  with 
as  good  a  reason  as  the  primitive  races,  have  recently 
f(mnd  means  to  largely  supplement  tlie  natural 
supply  of  vegetable  and  mineral  fu<'ls  by  tluid  or 
gaseous  substances.  Thus,  in  smelting  iron,  for 
example,  the  carbonic  oxiilc,  which  formerly  was 
carried  off  in  the  smoke  from  the  blastfurnace,  is 
now  sometimes  collected  anil  conveyed  in  pipes  to 
be  utilised  as  fuel  under  steam-boilers.  Natural 
gas  has  also  been  used  to  good  purpose,  notably 
in  Pennsylvania,  United  States,  where  in  .sever.al 
instances  it  has  been  transferred  for  several  miles 
for  heating  furnaces.  In  the  same  clistrict  petro- 
leum is  a  recognised  liipiid  fuel,  as  well  as  naphtha, 
its  derivative.  Another  liciuid  fuel  is  creasote-oil, 
derive<l  from  coal-tar,  which  is  reporte(l  to  possess, 
weight  for  weight,  at  least  twice  the  power  of  coal 
for  raising  steam.  The  United  States  cluMuists  and 
metallurgists  are  agreed  that  not  only  is  a  '  higher, 
steadier.and  moreeven  hcat'produceii  bvliquiil  fuel, 
lint  that,  for  heating  iron  more  especially,  a  smaller 
<|Uantity  and  shorter  time  suffice  to  obtain  the  same 
results.  Baku  petroleum  is  used  as  fuel  for  locomo- 
tives and  steamers  in  South-east  Russia.     See  G.\s. 

Under  this  head  we  subjoin  some  figures  from  a 
report  of  a  Royal  Commission  drawn  up  in  1S71  by 
Professor  liankine.  The  first  column  ( A  )  shows  the 
(|Uantity  of  heat  units  generated  by  the  fuel  ;  the 
second  (1!)  the  pounds  of  water  heateil  from  60° 
to  '212°,  and  then,  of  course,  converted  into  steam; 
and  the  third  column  (C)  gives  the  comparative 
temperature  of  the  fire  or  flame  : 


Fuel.                              A.  B.             c. 

Petroleum 20,000  15  4646 

Paraflin-oil 20,000  15  4(i40 

Oil  from  coal 20,000  15  4C48 

Crcasote 16,626  13  4495 

P^„,                                       (  from  13.890  8-95  2600 

^'"" (    to     14,833  9-67  2600 

The  three  points  noted  in  testing  a  fuel  chemi- 
cally are  the  intensity  of  the  heat,  the  quantity  of 
heat  developed  in  combustion,  and  the  luminosity. 
The  last  of  these,  however,  aflbrds  but  an  imi)erfect 
measure  of  the  temperature,  because  it  is  mainly 
due  to  the  presence  of  solid  particles.  Instead  of 
the  second  some  writers  use  the  term  '  calorific 
power.'  In  ordinary  coal  combustion  there  are  two 
steps  of  the  process  :  ( 1 )  the  carbon  is  separated 
from  the  hydrogen  in  light  particles,  which,  unless 
burned,  apjiear  as  soot  or  smoke  ;  (2)  the  liydiogetL 
becoming  ignited  heats  up  the  carbon  particles, 
which  therefore  appear  as  name.  For  the  complete 
combustion,  therefore,  of  a  typical  hydrocarbon  we 
rcjuire  not  only  air  in  sufficient  quantity,  but  also 
intensity  of  heat  above  the  fuel.  In  a  good  furnace 
the  supply  of  coal  .should  by  mechanical  contrivance 
be  rendered  as  regular  and  uniform  as  that  of  air ; 
and  the  body  of  the  furnace  should  be  so  protected 
from  the  boiler  surface  and  other  cooling  agents  as 
to  steadily  maintain  a  temperature  sufficient  for 
thorough  ignition  of  the  flaiiie. 

What  are  called  '  patent  fuels '  arise  mainly  fiom 
the  desire  to  utilise  the  refuse  arising  from  the  pro- 
duction or  wasteful  use  of  coal.  Such  artificial  fuel, 
however,  is  by  no  means  an  entirely  modern  device, 
since  the  Chinese  have  for  ages  been  accustomed 
to  mix  coal-dust  with  clay  and  bitumen,  so  much 
.so  as  to  constitute  a  large  luanch  of  industry.  Tlie 
most  common  form  of  'patent  fuel'  is  a  mixture  of 
the  small  coal  which  accumulates  at  the  pit  mouths 
with  sand,  marl,  or  clay,  or  of  some  liituminous  or 
resinous  substance  with  sawdust.  A  second  kind 
has  dried  and  compressed  j)eat  as  its  basis,  and  is 
sold  in  the  form  of  a  dense  brown  solid.  Another 
is  an  attempt  to  utilise  small  coke  and  the  refuse 
'breeze,'  which  is  well  known  in  charcoal  burning. 
The  '  charlion  de  Paris  '  is  a  combination  of  the  dust 
of  anthiacite  charcoal  and  similar  refuse  with  coal- 
tar,  so  as  to  form  a  paste  and  be  moulded  into  small 
cylinders  of  about  4  inches  in  length.  Biiquettes 
(q.v. )  are  compounds  of  waste  coal-dust  and 
pitch. 

See  Eeport  of  Eoyal  Coimuission  on  the  Coal  of  the 
United  Kingdom  (1871 ) ;  Report  on  the  Coals  suited  to 
tlie  Steam  Navy  (1848) ;  Runiford's  Works,  vols,  ii.,  iii.  ; 
Williams,  Fuel :  its  Combuxtion  and Economii  { 3d cd.  1 8.SG ) ; 
Phillips,  Fiieh  :  their  Analysis  and  Valuation  (18'JO). 

Flieilte  Alamo,  a  town  of  Spain,  20  miles  S. 
of  Murcia.     Pop.  7900. 

Flieilte  OveJHlia.  a  small  walled  town  of 
Spain,  4.')  miles  NW.  of  Cordova.     Pop.  7937. 

Fiieiiterrabia.    See  Font.\p..\bi.\. 

Flieiltos  de  Onoro,  a  small  village  of  Sala- 
manca, Spain,  on  the  Portuguese  frontier,  15  miles 
WSW.  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  was  the  scene  of  an  im- 
portant battle  of  the  Peninsular  war  on  the  oth 
iSIav  ISll,  when  Wellington  defeated  Mas.sena. 
The  English  lost  2000,  the  French  5000. 

Flioro  (Span.  ;  Pcntuguese,  fural,  foracs ;  Cali- 
cian,  Jiirn  :  Gascoun,  fors ;  Lat.  fonim),  a  term 
used  in  difl'erent  senses.  ( 1 )  The  title  of  a  law  coile, 
Fiicro  Jiizrjd,  the  so-called  legislation  of  the  Gothic 
kingsof  Spain  ;  Fttero  Real,  &<:.  (2)  The  municipal 
charters  of  privileges  granted  by  kings,  lords,  and 
monastic  bodies  to  inhabitants  of  towns — Leon 
(10'20),  Najera  (1035),  Sahagun  (1085).  i'v-c,  espe- 
cially to  towns  deserted  or  recaptured  from  the 
Moors,  or  those  used  for  frontier  defence — e.g. 
Oloron,  in  liearn  ( 1080).  Sometimes  these  chartei-s 
were  offered  especially  to  foreignei's,  Ftieros Framus. 


26 


FUKRO 


FUGGER 


Cliartci's  "rantetl  to  attract  settlers  and  those 
{^iveii  1>y  tlie  royal  power  must  lie  clistiiij;uislietl 
Iroin  others  ;  fiieros  lia.soil  on  le^tishitioii  long  aiite- 
ceileiit  and  llourishin^j,  e.^'.  those  of  Lerida  (  122SI, 
were  eoiiipileil  'ile  statutis  serijitis  et  non  scriptis,  et 
inorilius  et  usaticis,  etiaiii  le;;il)iis  Gutieis  et  Korn- 
anis.'  The  term  is  also  apiilied  to  the  capitulations 
■rranteil  to  Mooi-s  auil  Jews,  the  oldest  of  which  is 
that  of  Huesca  (1089).  (3)  Modes  and  tenures  of 
properly,  succession,  &c.,  nearly  oijuivalent  to  the 
French  continues,  iinif/rs,  or  customary  law — CR. 
Kl  I'uro  lie  G(i/iriii,  Lus  Fors  et  CosIhdius  ih 
Ileiini,  &c.  Tlie  date  of  the  writing  down  of  this 
class  of  fueros  is  no  measure  at  all  of  their  real 
antiiiuity.  (4)  The  whole  iKjdy  of  le^'islation  and 
the  constitution  of  certain  practically  autonomous 
states  and  communities  in  northern  Spain  and 
simth-western  France — c.^.  the  fueros  ot  the  pro- 
viucias  Viusconjjadas,  Biscay,  Alava,  and  (luipuzcoa: 
in  a  sli;^htly  less  degree  of  autonomy,  the  fueros  of 
Navarre  ;  and  of  a  still  less,  those  of  Aragon,  of 
Beam,  &c. 

Groups  1  an<l  2  \vc  may  pass  over  to  he  studied  in 
the  documents  special  to  each  case.  (Iroui)  3  is  of 
far  greater  imi)ortance.  In  it  we  lind  traces  of 
customs  and  tenures  which  have  long  disappeared 
from  other  codes,  ami  the  origin  of  which  lielongs 
to  the  tribal  or  pastoral  condition  of  society.  There 
are  also  anomalies  not  to  lie  fully  explained  hy  our 
present  knowledge,  as  the  (Icrccho  coiisiictudituirio 
of  Ujiper  Aragon,  identical  with  the  house  com- 
miuiiti/  of  the  southern  Slavs,  though  there  is  no 
aiijiarciit  racial  or  other  connection  with  the  Slavs. 
In  the  chief  region  of  those  fueros,  from  the  borders 
of  Catalonia  to  Santander,  there  is  no  trace  in 
the  foral  legislation  of  Gothic  or  Teutonic  inlln- 
ence.  Within  the  states  of  class  4,  and  outside 
tlicta  in  the  same  region,  were  various  kinds  of 
auton<imies,  or  local  self-governments,  nmni- 
cipalities,  federations  of  towns,  valleys,  districts, 
communes,  each  with  its  own  special  fuero.  The 
term  rejni/jliras,  rcjiiib/ii/iies  was  often  applied  to 
these  communities  in  transactions  between  them- 
selves, a-s  also  by  the  kings  of  Spain  in  the  Cortes 
of  Xavarre,  to  the  Bascpie  jirovinces,  and  to  the 
separate  valleys  and  communes  down  to  the  French 
lievcdution. 

Th(!  chief  ]irovision  of  the  fueros,  whereby  these 
cominunities  preserved  their  autonomy,  was  a  freely 
electeil  legislative  liody,  chosen  according  to  the 
methods  customary  in  each  district,  meeting  at  a 
given  place  at  given  times.  This  a.ssemlily  was 
called  the  Junta  in  the  sejiarate  Ij.asi|ue  inovinces, 
with  the  Junta  tJeneral  meeting  at  the  oak  of 
(luernica  in  Biscay,  Cortes  in  Navarre,  Etats  in 
Beam,  Bilziuir  in  the  Labounl,  Cort,  Tilliabet,  &c., 
in  the  les.ser  conimuuities.  In  these  assemblies  the 
right  of  taxation  was  jealously  guardeil.  The  con- 
tribution to  the  king  was  the  last  vote  taken,  after 
ill!  grievances  had  been  redressed  and  petitions 
heard,  and  then  only  as  a  voluntary  gift.  The 
repartition  of  ta.\es  t<i  individuals  was  in  the  hands 
of  e.ach  separate  community.  Freedom  of  com- 
merce existed,  with  few  or  no  customs  duties.  The 
levy  and  command  of  the  military  forces  of  the 
states  remained  in  their  own  power ;  the  number 
of  soldiers  was  tixeil,  with  no  compulsion  to  serve 
beyond  the  conlines  of  the  province,  unle.ss  with 
consent  of  the  juntas,  v'src,  and  for  ]iayment  guar- 
anteed. This  dill  not  prevent  voluntary  .service  of 
individuals.  Jurisdiction  of  all  kinds  was  in  their 
own  power.  In  all  mattei-s  relating  to  imiperty, 
land-tenure,  inheritance,  &c.,  even  in  particular 
families,  the  local  customs  or  fueros  overrode  both 
the  general  fueros  and  the  general  laws  either  of 
Spain  or  of  France  ;  only  the  nobles  or  Infanzones 
were  subject  to  these.  Under  this  constittitioii 
the  Basque  provinces  flourished,  and  supported  the 


largest  population  per  square  mile  in  Spain,  with 
tlie  exception  of  Galicia,  until  the  middle  of  the 
present  century.  On  the  <le<'ilh  of  Ferdinand  \'ll. 
(1833),  the  liberal  regency  hesitated  to  contirm  the 
fuero.s.  Don  Carlos,  the  late  king's  brother,  raised 
the  standard  of  revolt.  The  .seven  years'  war  was 
ended  by  the  Convention  of  Vergara,  30th  August 
1839,  and  Isabella  conlirmed  the  fueros.  l>on 
Carlos,  grandson  of  the  lirst,  headed  the  second 
Carlist  war  ( 187'2-7li ).  It  resulted  in  the  loss  of  the 
fueros  of  the  provinces,  which  will  grailually  become 
assimilated  to  the  rest  of  Sjiain.  In  France,  .save  for 
the  management  of  the  communal  property  in  some 
parishes,  the  /ors  were  swept  away  by  the  liexolu- 
tion  and  the  Code  Napoleon,  though  some  traces  still 
remain  in  the  habits  and  customs  of  the  people. 

See  tlie  article  Basques,  and  the  following  special  liouks  ; 
Maricli.ilar  y  Manrinue,  HiMorin  itr  In  Lfiji»tarion  Ciril 
(II  Esiiiuiu  (vol.  ii.  5(1  ed.  Madrid,  1.'<(X);  jiurtuzy  Kivero, 
Cotcectoii  tli  /'(/(rojt  J/«iji>i'yKi/fi(  (  Madrid,  1847);  Cntaltnjo 
de  FueroH  ij  Carlas-PueUas  tic  Esjmiia  (  K.  Acadeuiia  de 
Historia,  Madrid,  18.52)  ;  Mazurc  et  Hatoulct,  Fnrs  de 
Bairn  (Pau,  1842);  G.  B.  de  Lagrcze.  Lit  Auvarre 
Frinn-aisc  (  Paris,  1881 )  ;  the  last  editions  of  the  sejiarate 
Fuerus  published  in  each  province  at  Zaragoza,  Pam- 
plona, Tolosa,  Bilbao. 

FlIKKT.  a  remarkable  Swabian  family,  which 
rising  by  industry  and  commerce  founded  lines  of 
counts  and  even  jirinces.  The  ancestor  of  the 
family  was  John  rugger,  master- weaver,  born  in 
l.'?48  at  Graben,  near  Augsburg.  His  eldest  .son, 
John  Fugger,  acipiired  by  marriage,  in  1370,  the 
freedom  ot  Augsburg;  he  died  in  1409.  But  the 
real  founder  of  the  house  was  .lohns  second  .son, 
.lacob  Fngger,  who  died  in  14(i!l,  and  wa.s  the  lirst 
of  the  Fuggers  that  had  a  house  in  Augsburg,  and 
carried  on  an  already  extensive  commerce.  Of  liLs 
seven  sons,  three,  L'lrich,  George,  and  Jacob  II., 
by  means  of  industry,  ability,  and  integrity,  ex- 
tended their  business  to  an  extraordinary  degree, 
and  laid  the  foundation  for  the  palmy  days  of  the 
family.  They  married  into  the  noblest  houses, 
and  were  raised  by  the  Emperor  .Maximilian  to 
the  rank  of  nobles.  The  emperor  mortgaged  to 
them,  for  10,000  gidd  guldens,  the  county  of  Kirch- 
lierg  and  the  lordshiii  of  Weissenhorn.  l'lrich 
Fugger  (1441-1510)  (levoted  himself  specially  to 
commerce  with  Austria.  Jacob  Fugger  (14,"i9- 
152.5)  farmed  the  mines  in  Tyrol,  accumulating 
immense  wealth  ;  he  lent  enormous  sums  to  various 
potentates,  and  built  the  magnilicent  castle  of 
Fuggerau,  in  Tyrol. 

But  it  was  under  Charles  V.  that  the  house 
attained  its  greatest  splendour.  Jacob  having  died 
ehildle.ss,  and  the  family  of  l'lrich  Ix-ing  also 
extinct,  the  fortunes  and  splendour  of  the  house 
rested  on  the  sons  of  George  Fugger,  who  died 
in  1.506.  His  two  younger  sons,  Baimund  and 
Antony,  carried  im  the  business,  and  became  the 
founders  of  the  two  chief  and  still  flourishing  lines 
of  the  house  of  Fugger.  The  two  lirothers  were 
zealous  Catholics,  and  with  their  wealth  supported 
Eck  in  his  opposition  to  Luther.  During  the  diet 
held  by  Charles  V.  at  .\ugsliurg  in  1.530  the 
emperor  lived  in  .Xntony  Fugger  s  s]ilendid  house 
in  the  Wine  Market.  On  this  occa-sion  he  raised 
both  brothers  to  the  rank  of  counts,  and  invested 
them  with  the  still  mortgaged  properties  of  Kirch- 
berg  and  Wei.ssenhoni  ;  and  a  letter  under  the 
imperial  seal  conferred  on  them  the  rights  of 
princes.  The  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.  raised  the 
splendour  of  the  house  of  Fugger  still  higher  by 
confeiring  great  additional  privileges  on  the  two 
oldest  of  tlie  family,  Counts  John  and  Jerome. 
The  Fuggers  continued  still  a.«  nobles  to  cany  on 
their  commerce,  and  further  increa.sed  their  im- 
mense wealth.  They  attained  the  highest  jmsts 
in  the  empire,  and  several  princely  houses  prided 


rUGITATION 


FUGUE 


themselves  on  their  alliance  with  the  house  of 
Fu^'ger.  They  possessed  the  most  extensive  libra- 
ries and  art  collections,  inaintaineil  jiainters  and 
musicians,  and  liberally  encouraged  art  and 
science.  Their  houses  and  gardens  were  master- 
pieces or  the  architecture  and  taste  of  the  times. 
While  thus  indulging  in  splendour,  they  were 
not  less  bent  on  doing  good.  Jacob  (the  second 
of  the  name)  bought  houses  in  one  of  the  suburbs 
of  Augsljurg,  pulled  them  down,  and  built  108 
smaller  houses  (called  the  'Fuggerei'),  which 
he  let  to  poor  citizens  at  a  low  rent.  The  race 
is  still  continued  in  the  two  principal  lines  of 
Kaimund  and  Antony,  besides  collateral  branches. 
The  domains  are  chiefly  in  Bavaria.  See  Kleiu- 
schniidt,  Augsburg,  Xiiriiberg,  tind  ihrc  Handels- 
furxtcn  ( 1881 ). 

Flisitation.  the  Scottish  equivalent   of  Out- 
lawry ( ([.  V. )  in  England. 
Fiiiiitive  Slave  Law.     The  constitution  of 

the  United  States  of  America  having  recognised 
slavery,  or  '  service,'  as  it  wa-s  termed,  provided 
that  persons  held  to  service  or  labour  in  one  state, 
under  the  laws  thereof,  and  escaping  into  another, 
should  l)e  delivered  up,  on  claim  of  the  party  to 
whom  such  service  or  laljour  might  be  due.  An 
act  passed  by  congress  in  179.3,  providing  for  the 
reclamation  of  fugitives,  was  superseded  by  a  more 
stringent  act  in  18.50,  containing  many  obnoxious 
Iiriivi-i<ms ;  a  larger  fee,  for  instance,  was  paid  to 
the  judicial  officer  when  the  person  arrested  was 
adjudged  to  be  a  slave  than  when  he  was  declared 
free;  and  all  citizens  were  required,  when  called 
u]ion,  to  render  the  officers  personal  assistance  in 
the  performance  of  their  duties.  Any  assistance 
rendered  to  a  fugitive,  or  obstruction  ofl'ered  to 
his  arrest,  was  penal,  and  many  persons  were  re- 
manded under  the  act ;  but  the  increased  hostility 
to  slavery   which  it  engendered    actually  led  to 


assistance  being  given  in  a  larger  numljcr  of 
escapes  than  ever  before,  mainly  through  the 
organisation  known  a-s  the  '  underground  railroad.' 
The  act  was  repealed  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
civil  war ;  and,  since  slaveiy  has  been  abolished, 
the  constitutional  provision  has  lost  all  imi)ortance. 
Fngleiliail  (Ger.  fliirjelmam),  'a  man  placed 
at  the  end  of  a  file;'  iio\n  flUrjel,  'a  wing'),  an 
intelligent  soldier  posted  in  front  of  a  line  of  men 
at  drill,  to  give  the  time  ami  an  example  of  the 
motions  in  the  manual  exercises. 

Fllglie  is  the  form  of  musical  composition  in 
which  all  devices  of  countcrjioint,  or  the  art  of 
combining  independent  iileas  in  music,  find  their 
most  fitting  use.  The  laws  which  go\ern  it  are  as 
strict  as  numerous,  and  can  only  be  veiy  generally 
summarised.  The  '  subject '  chosen  as  the  basis  of 
the  composition  should  present  a  complete  and  dis- 
tinct individuality,  which  to  be  readiJy  recognised 
in  its  permutations  should  lie  well  marked.  It  is 
given  out  by  any  one  part,  and  inmiediately  taken 
up  by  a  second — its  follower  or  jmrsncr  (J'liga,  '  a 
tlight ' ).  This  '  answer,'  as  it  Ls  called,  is  identical  in 
form  with  the  subject,  or  slightly  modified  in  accord- 
ance with  a  rule  which  requires  the  upper  division  of 
the  octave  ( G  to  C  in  the  scale  of  C )  to  correspond 
to  and  'answer'  the  lower  (C  to  G).     During  the 


Answer. 


^^ 


Subject. 

'  answer '  the  first  part  supplies  an  accora]>animent 
or  '  counter-subject,'  which  should  be  a  figure  of  con- 
trasted character,  and  interesting  enough  to  enable 


Bach. 


Subject.  Counter-subject. 

Subject  in  notes  of  double  length. 
I  I 


— ■— 

© — , 

Modified  form  o 

= (L 

E  subject. 

m  0        f 

— •-= 

1 

-P 

k^i^v- 

-=v- 

-• 1 1-<— P — 

=^=^ 

1 

_U^'- 

Subject. 

it  to  play  its  important  part  in  the  subsequent 
develo]]ment.  A  third  jmrt  joins  by  enouncing  the 
subject,  while  a  fourth,  fifth,  even  a  sixth  part  mav 
be  added,  entering  alternately  with  the  answer, 
subject,  and  answer.  The  introduction  of  all  the 
parts  constitute.s  the  first  section,  an<I  is  called  the 
'exposition.'  During  the  development,  which  finds 
its  i>lace  in  the  second  section,  the  composer  should 
show  his  skill  in  the  use  of  imitation,  canon,  I'tc, 
aiul  so  arrange  his  material  that  the  intricacy  and 
interest  gradually  increase.  Before  the  conclusion 
of  the  fugue  he  should  present  a  strctto,  in  which 
the  parts  press  on  and  overlap  each  other  in  their 
enunciations  of  the  subject. 


Subject. 


28 


FUHNEN 


FULHAM 


A  '  pedal  point ' — a  liass  note  lielil  while  the 
upper  parts  move  in  as  ^^kilflll  a  ooni|>lication  as 
the  coinposer  can  ilevise — usually  precedes  the 
linal  cailenco.  '  Kpisoiles,'  or  matter  connected  or 
in  character  witli  the  subject,  niav  he  introduced 
throu^'hout  the  development  to  athird  variety,  Imt 
these  must  he  short,  and  must  not  he  allowed  to 
distract  the  attention.  When  two  or  three  sub- 
jects are  treated  simultaneously  the  fugue  is  called 
<louble  or  triple. 

Formulated  early  in  the  history  of  moilern  music, 
the  vocal  fujfue  wius  ehiliorated  durin;.'  the  '{jolden 
age  of  counterpoint'  in  the  eml  of  the  lOtli  century. 
A  new  world  w.is  opened  to  it  hy  Krcsccdialdi,  who 
freed  it  from  the  limitiitions  of  the  human  v<iice, 
and  lirst  wrote  instrumental  fugues.  Seh;vstian 
liach,  in  his  voc.il  ami  instrumental  fuj;ues, 
shows  a  jicnius  which  has  never  been  rivalled. 
Mendelssohn  was  peculiarly  gifted  in  lliLs  branch  of 
■  •(imposition,  and  many  vocal  fu;,'ues  with  most 
brilliant  and  ellective  inslrumeiit.il  accompani- 
ments are  to  be  found  in  his  oratorios. 

AUlio\if;h  fu;;ues  in  composition  and  performance 
have  .alwavs  been  more  or  less  '  caviare  to  the 
fxeneral,'  tlie  opinion  of  .sound  musicians  in  the 
present  ivs  well  as  the  \nist  is  un;inimou.s  as  to 
their  value,  interest,  and  the  beauty  of  those  by 
the  stamlaril  writers.  Details  in  construction  have 
continually  chanfjed  and  developed  durinj^  the 
three  centuries  of  the  existence  of  tuques,  and  text- 
books are  iis  numerous  as  teachers.  Those  hv  Sir 
F.  liore  Ouseley  ( prescribed  at  Oxford  I'nivei-sity ) ; 
Jail.a-ssohn  and  his  predecessor,  Uichter,  of  Leipzig 
Conservatorium  ;  and  l)r  Higgs"  Primer  are  prob- 
ably of  more  use  to  ihiy  than  the  famous  works 
of  .\lhreclitsberger,  Keicha,  iS:c.  IJ.achs  Ait  of 
fiii/itc  is  a  collectiim  of  lifteen  fugues,  four 
canons,  &c.  on  one  subject— a  practical  and  in- 
valuable illustration  from  the  hand  of  the  greatest 
master  of  co\interpoint.  See  arti<'le  'Fugue'  in 
Stainer  and  li.urett's  Diclionarij  of  Musical  Terms. 

Fiilliu-Il.     See  FuNEN. 

Flljj-.sail.     See  Fisiy.vMA. 

Fii-kiail.  or  Fil'-cmiiN,  an  ea.stem  maritime 
province  of  t'liina  (q.v.). 

FlliilllS,  also  Ffl.BE,  F^LL.WI,  FeLL.\TA,  and 
I'Kll.lls,  a  people  of  the  Soudan,  extending 
from  Seneg.at  in  the  west  to  Darfur  in  the 
east,  anil  from  Timbuktu  ami  IIauss,a  in  the 
north  to  .loruba  and  Adam.awa  in  the  .south. 
Their  ethnographic  riOalions  are  not  yet  delini- 
tively  settled,  .som<^  allyin;;  them  with  the  Soudan 
negroes,  some  with  the  Nuba  of  the  Nile  region, 
others  reganling  them  as  an  isolated  race.  We 
first  read  of  them  about  the  beginning  of  the 
14th  century  in  .Mimed  Habas  Hi.ston/  of  Soiiddii. 
After  that  century  large  bands  of  them  left  their 
home  on  the  confines  of  Senegambia — i.e.  Futa- 
Jallon — and,  proceeding  e.a-stwards,  s]iread  them- 
selves over  the  greater  portion  of  the  Soudan.  There 
appear  to  be  two  distinct  branches,  a  dark  skinned 
division,  having  its  centre  in  Bornu  and  Adamawa, 
and  an  olive  skinned  division,  occurring  chiefiy  in 
Sokoto.  All  are  strong  and  well-built,  with  long 
hair  and  regular  Caucasian  features.  They  are 
very  intelligent,  have  a  frank,  free  bearing,  are 
trustworthy,  possess  considerable  self-resjiect  and 
decision  of  character,  and  are  devoutly  religious. 
They  proliably  number  7  to  S  millions  altogether. 
The  I'ulahs  are  a  coni|uering  rarr,  not  a  homo- 
geneous nation  :  and  have  founded  several  king- 
iloms  throughout  central  and  southern  Soudan, 
as  tlio.se  of  Si'ikoto,  tiando,  .Ma-ssina,  and  Adani- 
aw.a.  The  numerous  tribes  belonging  to  their 
stock  are  generally  divided  into  four  grou]>s  or 
families — the  Jel,  the  IJ'aii,  the  So,  and  the  Beri. 
Most  of  them  l)ecame  converted  to  Mohamniedan- 


isin  alM)nt  the  middle  of  the  18tli  century :  in 
1802,  under  the  Imiini  Otliman,  they  comnii'iiced 
a  religious  war  on  the  surrounding  pagans,  «  hidi 
terminated  in  the  establishnient  of  the  great  Fiilali 
empire  of  Sc'ikoto.  The  Fulahs  are  an  industiious 
people  :  they  practise  agricnilnre,  rear  cattle,  and 
carry  on  triide ;  they  also  work  iron  and  silver, 
manufacture  with  great  neatness  artidi's  in  woimI 
and  leather,  and  weave  various  ilnrabic  fabrics. 
They  have  mosques  and  schools  in  almost  all  their 
towns.     Sec  Cro/als,  /,« /VhM*  (  Paris,  188.S). 

Flllrrillll.  in  Mechanics,  is  the  jirop  or  fixed 
point  on  which  jv  lever  moves.     See  LKVEIi. 

Flllda.  a  town  of  the  Pnissian  province  of 
Hesse-Na.s.sau,  67  miles  NE.  of  Frankfort  on  the. 
Main  by  rail,  and  on  the  river  Fiilda,  is  an 
irrcgiilarlv  built  old  town,  still  partially  sur- 
roundcil  \>\  its  ancient  walls.  It  is  principally 
celebrated  for  its  Jienedictine  abbey,  foiiinlcd  by 
St  Boniface  (<|.v.),  the  'Apostle  of  (Sermany,'  in 
the  8th  centurv,  which  snbseipicntly  became  a  great 
centre  of  missionary  enterpri.se  a-s  well  <a.s  a.  notable 
.seat  of  theological  learning.  Towards  the  eml  of 
the  loth  century  its  abbot  was  made  primate  of  all 
the  abbeys  of  (iermany.  Having  become  corrupted 
and  subject  to  iiuany  abuses,  the  monastery  \\jus 
thoroughly  reformed  in  the  early  part  of  the  loth 
century  by  the  introduction  of  new  monks  fioni 
abroad.  The  cathedral,  six  times  destroyed  by 
fire,  was  rebuilt  in  1704-1'2  on  the  ]ilan  of  St 
Peter's  at  I'ome.  It  is  ;{'24  feet  long,  ami  covers 
the  crypt  of  .St  Uoniface.  The  lloniaiiesi|ue  chinch 
of  St  .Michael  (182ii)  was  restored  in  1854.  In  the 
library  is  Boniface's  cojiy  of  the  Gospels,  besides 
other  valuable  M.SS.  and  early  ])rinted  books. 
The  town  has  maimfaetuies  of  various  textiles, 
with  ilveing,  t.anniiig,  and  the  making  of  wax 
candles".  I'op.  (l.S7.->)  10,7iHt ;  (I8!)0)  l.l.Ii"). 
Fulda,  which  owed  its  existence  to  the  abbey, 
was  created  a  town  in  l'J08,  and  from  the  10th 
century  onwards  had  a  very  eventful  history,  being 
taken  in  the  Peasants'  "VVar,  the  Thirty  Yeare' 
War,  and  the  Seven  'i'eara'  War.  From  1734 
to  1804  it  posse.s.sed  a  university.  During  the 
Kultiir/.iiiiiji/  it  was  one  of  the  strongholds  of 
the  (ierman  lltramonlane  jiarty.  See  works  by 
Uegcnbaiir  ( 1874  )  and  Schneider  '( 1881 ). 

FlllilliritCS  (Lat.  fiilgiir,  'lightning"),  tubes 
due  to  the  action  of  lightning.  They  have  been 
most  frequently  idiserved  in  loo.se  sandhills,  but 
have  often  been  detected  also  in  more  comjiact 
rock.  They  are  formed  liy  the  actual  fusion  of 
the  materials  through  which  the  lightning  jiasscs. 
The  internal  surface  of  the  tubes  met  with  in  s.ind- 
hills  is  completely  vitrified,  glos.sy,  and  smooth — 
the  thickness  of  the  wall  varying  from  jV.tli  to  iV.tli 
of  an  inch,  while  the  diameter  of  the  tubes  ranges 
nji  to  'lii  inches.  They  usually,  but  not  always, 
descend  vertically  from  the  surface,  sometimes 
dividing  and  subdividing,  and  rapidly  narrowing 
downwards  till  they  disap|iear.  J'ulguntes  have 
often  been  detecte<l  on  mountain-tops.  In  some 
ca.ses  the  rocks  att.acked  by  lightning  have  the 
appearance  of  being  covered  with  a  black  scoria- 
ceous  iilaster,  which  looks  .as  if  it  had  '  run  '  or 
driiiped.  In  other  ca.ses  the  rocks  are  de.scribcd 
as  being  drilleil — the  holes  produced  by  the  light- 
ning being  lined  internally  with  dark  gla.ssy  sub- 
stance. Fulgurites  were  fii>t  observed  in  1711 
by  the  pa-stor  Herman,  at  Masscl,  in  Silesia,  .and 
have  since  been  found  in  many  ]>laces  ;  biii  their 
orig^in  was  first  pointed  out  by  Dr  Hentzen  in  Iso.'i. 

Flllliaill.  formerly  a  village,  but  now  a  suburb 
of  Loiulon,  in  the  .south  of  Middlesex,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Thames,  4i  miles  SW.  of  Charing 
Cross.  Here  since  1141  has  l)cen  the  p.alace  of  the 
bishops  of   London,    but  the   present   building  is 


FULGENTIUS 


FULLER 


29 


mostly  not  inoie  than  a  ceiitiiiy  olil.  The  church 
contains  the  tombs  of  many  of  the  hisliops  ;  and 
till'  place  also  has  menioiies  of  Bodley,  Klmio, 
Kidiaulson,  Hallani,  Crotch,  and  Albert  Smith. 

FlllsentillS  (468-533),  bishop  of  Kuspe  in 
Nuniiilia,  was  banished  to  JSanlinia,  and  there 
wrote  against  Arians  and  Pelagians. 

Fuller,  Andrew,  an  eminent  liaptist  tlieo- 
loj;ian  and  controversialist,  was  born,  the  son  of  a 
small  farmer,  at  Wicken,  Cambridgeshire,  P'ebru- 
ary  6,  17.54.  He  had  his  education  at  Soham  free 
school,  but  at  an  early  age  had  to  turn  to  farm- 
work.  In  his  seventeenth  year  he  became  a  mem- 
lier  of  a  Baptist  church  at  Sohani,  and  soon  began 
to  speak  with  such  acceptance  that  in  ITT.j  he  was 
chosen  pastor  of  a  congregation  there.  His  small 
stipend  of  t''2l  per  annum  he  endeavoured  to  in- 
crease by  keeping,  first  a  small  shop,  and  then  a 
school.  In  1782  he  removed  to  a  pastorate  .at 
Kettering,  in  Northamiitonshire.  His  treatise,  Tlic 
iiusprl  worllitj  of  all  Acceptation  (1784),  involved 
liim  in  a  warm  controversy  with  the  ultra-Calvin- 
ists,  l)ut  showed  him  already  a  theologian  of  rare 
s,ag.'icity  and  insight,  and  still  rarer  fearlessness 
and  sincerity.  On  the  formation  in  1792  of  the 
Baptist  Missionary  Society  by  Dr  Care\'  and  others, 
he  was  api>ointed  its  secretary,  and  he  devoted 
henceforward  the  whole  energies  of  liis  life  to  its 
atl'airs.  His  controversial  treatise,  The  Calvinistic 
anil  Sociiiiun  Systems  examined  and  compared  as  to 
t/ir/r  Moral  Tcndenc;/  (1793),  was  attacked  by  I)r 
Toulmin  .and  Mr  Kentish  ;  but  Fuller  replied  vigor- 
ously in  his  Sucinianism  IndcfcHsi/jlc  (1797).  Other 
works  are  The  Gospel  its  own  Witness  (1797),  an 
onslaught  on  Deism,  and  Expository  Discourse  on 
tlie  Bool:  of  Genesis  (1806),  besides  a  multitude  of 
single  sermons  and  pamplilets.  He  died  May  7, 
18I.>.  His  complete  works  were  collected  in  1831, 
and  re-issued  in  1845  with  a  memoir  by  his  son. 

FlllleTa  <!ei>ri;e,  an  American  artist,  was  born 
in  Deerlielil,  Massachusetts,  in  1822.  As  early  as 
1857  his  work  attracted  attention,  and  during  the 
Last  years  of  his  life  his  pictures  were  warndy 
admired  by  many  for  their  richness  of  tone  and 
peculiar  handling,  though  they  never  apjiealed  to 
till-  popular  ta.ste.  He  died  2ist  JIarch  1884.  An 
exhibition  of  his  paintings  was  held  in  Boston  in 
that  year,  and  a  costly  memorial  work  on  bis  life 
and  genius  was  published  there  in  1887. 

Fuller,    S.\R.\H    Margaret,    Marchioness 

Ossdi.i,  author,  was  born  at  Cambridgeport, 
;\I.is-.:icbusetts,  May  23,  1810.  She  received  much 
of  her  early  education  from  her  father,  Timothy 
Fuller,  a  haril-working  lawyer  and  congressm.an, 
after  whose  death  (1835),  intestate  and  insolvent, 
she  assisted  her  family  by  school  and  priv.ate  teach- 
ing. In  Boston  the  leaders  of  the  transcendental 
movement  were  her  intimate  friends ;  here  she 
edited  Tlic  Dial,  translated  from  the  German,  and 
wrote  Summer  on  the  Lakes  (1843).  In  1844  she 
puldished  Woman  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  and 
in  the  same  year  she  proceeiled  to  New  York,  on 
the  invitation  of  Horace  Greeley,  then  editor  of 
the  Tril)unr,  and  contributed  to  that  journal  a 
series  of  miscellaneous  articles,  which  ,afterwar<ls 
appeared  in  a  collected  form  as  Papers  on  Litera- 
ture and  Art  (1846).  In  184G  she  went  to  Europe, 
where  she  made  the  acquaintance  of  many  eminent 
people  ;  and  in  1847,  at  Rome,  she  met  the  Marcpiis 
Ossoli,  to  whom  she  was  married  in  December  of 
that  year.  She  entered  with  enthusiasm  into  tlie 
struggle  for  Italian  independence.  In  1849,  during 
the  siege  of  Kome,  she  took  the  charge  of  a 
hospital  :  and  on  the  capture  of  the  city  by  the 
French  she  and  her  huslian<l,  after  a  period  of 
hilling  in  the  Abruzzi,  and  a  few  months  at 
Florence,  sailed  with   their  infant  from   Leghorn 


for  America,  May  17,  1850.  Tlie  vessel  was  driven 
on  the  shore  of  Fire  Island,  near  New  York,  by  a 
violent  gale  in  the  early  morning  of  July  16  ;  the 
child's  body  was  found  on  the  beach,  but  nothing 
was  ever  seen  afterwards  of  Margaret  Fuller  or  her 
husband.  Her  Autobiography,  with  memoirs  by 
Emer.son,  Clarke,  and  Channing,  appeared  in  18.52 
(new  ed.  1884)  ;  there  are  also  lives  by  .Julia  Ward 
Howe  (1883)  and  T.  \V.  Higginson  (Boston,  1884, 
'  American  Men  of  Letters  '  series). 

Fuller,  Thomas,  divine,  liist<uian,  and  wit,  was 
born  in  1608  at  Aldwinkle  St  Peter's,  Northampton- 
shire, elder  son  of  the  i>ainful  preacher,  its  rector  and 
prebendary  of  Saruni,  and  of  liis  wife,  .luditli  Dave- 
nant.  At  his  ba|itism  (.June  19)  his  godfathers 
were  his  two  uncles,  Dr  Davenant,  |)resident  of 
(.Queens'  College,  Cambridge,  and  DrTownson,  both 
of  whom  became  in  succession  bishops  of  Salisbury. 
The  boy  early  showed  striking  promise,  and  Mas  in 
1621  entered  at  Queens'  College,  Candiriilge,  where 
he  graduated  B.A.  in  1625,  and  M.A.  in  due  course 
three  years  later.  Being  unaccountably  passed  over 
in  an  election  of  fellows  of  his  college,  he  was  trans- 
ferred in  1628  to  Sidney  Sussex  College,  aiul  in  1630 
leceived  from  Corpus  Christi  College  the  curacy  of 
St  Benet's,  where  he  preached  those  Lectures  on  the 
Book  fjf  Jfjl}  which  lie  published  in  1654.  Next 
year  his  uncle  gave  him  a  prebend  in  Salisbury,  iu 
16.34  he  w.as  a|)pointed  to  the  rectory  of  Broad- 
winsor  in  Dorsetshire,  and  in  1635  he  proceeiled 
B.D.  Already  in  1631  he  had  published  his  first 
work,  an  ingenious  but  inditl'erent  poem  of  124 
seven-lined  stanzas,  in  three  parts,  entitled  Darid's 
Heinous  Sin,  Hearty  Re/ientanrc,  and  Heavy  Punish- 
ment:  and  here  he  fullilled  faithfully  the  duties  of 
a  parish  priest,  married  happily,  and  compiled  his 
first  andjitiiuis  work,  the  cliaractcristically  bright, 
vigorous,  and  quaint  History  of  the  Holy  \\'ar 
(1639),  embracing  the  story  of  the  Cru.sades,  as 
well  as  Tlie  Holy  and  Prophane  States  (1642),  a 
unique  collection  of  essays  and  characters,  full  of 
shrewdness,  wisdom,  and  kindliness,  lightened  up 
on  every  page  by  the  most  unexpected  humour,  and 
by  nuirvellous  felicity  of  illustration.  In  1640  Fuller 
sat  as  proctor  for  Bristol  in  the  Convocation  of 
Canterbury,  and  was  one  of  the  select  committee 
appointed  to  draw  up  canons  for  the  better  govern- 
ment of  the  church.  In  the  same  year  be  published 
his  Joseph's  jiarti-coloured  Coat,  a  comment  on  1  <  'or. 
xi.  18-30,  with  eight  sermons  full  of  the  true  Fuller 
flavour.  Soon  after  he  removed  to  Londim  to  become 
an  exceedingly  popular  lecturer  at  the  chapel  of  St 
Mary  Savoy.  In  the  exercise  of  his  function  he 
strove  to  allay  the  bitterness  of  party-feeling,  but 
when  the  inevitable  war  broke  out  he  adhered  with 
fearless  iirmne.ss  to  the  royal  cause,  and  shared  in 
its  reverses.  Yet  his  characteristic  moderalion  of 
tone  offended  the  more  hot-headed  among  the  royal- 
ists, who  misread  his  temperance  into  lukewarmiu>ss. 
He  saw  active  service  as  chaplain  to  Hoidon's  men, 
and  printed  at  Exeter  in  1645  for  their  encourage- 
ment his  Good  Thouqlits  in  Bad  Times,  a  manual  of 
fervid  and  devout  sliort  prayers  ami  meditations, 
which  was  followed  in  1647  by  a  .second,  Better 
Tliouyhts  in  Worse  Times,  and  by  liis  twenty-one 
short  dialogues.  The  Cause  and  Cure  of  a  Wounded 
(.'onscienee.  In  the  same  year  he  began  again  to 
lueach,  at  St  Clements,  Eiustcheap,  but  was  soon 
suspended.  His  enforced  leisure  he  gave  with  in- 
domitable industry  to  study  and  compilation,  being 
helped  the  while  by  p.atrons  who  knew  his  merit. 
One  of  the  kindest  of  these  was  the  Earl  of 
Carlisle,  who  made  bim  his  chaplain,  and  presented 
liim  to  the  curacy  of  Walthaiii  .\bbcy,  which  Fuller 
managed  to  kceji  throughout  the  troubles  by  pa.'^s- 
ing  tlie  ordeal  of  Cromwell's  Tryers.  In  16.50  he 
published  his  great  survey  of  the  Holy  Land,  full  of 
maps  and  engravings,  ..-1  Pisgah-sight  of  Palestine, 


30 


FULLER 


FULLER'S    EARTH 


wliere  for  once  geo^jraphv  liecanie  a  iie^  whereon  to 
liaii^'  alternate  wit,  wisiloni,  and  eiiilication.  The 
very  nieks  and  deserts  are  fertilised  l«y  his  fancy,  and 
not  one  iif  his  SU()  pa^jes  is  dry  or  tedious.  In  l(j.'>l 
ajipeareil  Alut  llci/iririix,  a  collection  of  reli^'ions 
liio;,'rapliies,  of  which  Fuller  himself  wrote  seven. 
Ills  lii-st  wile  had  lieen  alreaily  deail  ten  years  when 
in  l(i.'>l  he  married  a  sister  of  Koper,  \iscount 
Itallin^'liuss.  In  Iti.V)  he  puldished  in  a  folio  volume 
his  lonj^'-projected  Vliiinli  Jlixtori/  of  Iliitiiin,  from 
the  hirth  of  fhrist  till  the  year  1I)4S,  <livided 
into  eleven  hooks — a  twelfth  hein;;  a  lli.-ilonj 
of  the  I'liircr.iili/  iif  Cdnihriilije.  The  early  books 
are  ilivideil  into  centuries,  the  later  into  sec- 
tions, and  in  hoth  the  paraj;raphs  are  duly  lalielled 
anil  numliered  with  nuicli  ostentation  of  method, 
despite  the  perpetual  dijjressinns  into  heraldry 
and  the  like  'for  variety  and  diversion.  .  .  to 
<livert  the  wearied  reader.'  Kacli  hook  is  dedicated 
to  some  nohlo  patron,  and  .a  dedication  is  ]>relixed 
to  eveiy  century  or  section.  AIto;,'etlier  there  are 
no  fewer  th.in  7.")  dedicatory  epistles,  addressed  to 
Sii  patrons  or  )>atronesses,  of  whom  many,  he  tells 
us,  '  inviteil  themselves  on  ])urpose  to  encour,a<;e 
my  endeavours.'  The  work  w.os  hitterly  as-sailed 
hy  Dr  IVtcr  Ileylin  with  no  loss  than  2.37  sever.al 
'  Animadversions'  in  XixaEjaiiiin  Jlistnricuiii  { IfioO), 
its  a  rhajisocly  rather  than  a  history,  full  of 
'  impertinencies'  as  well  as  errors,  and  still  worse 
inarre<l  hy  partiality  to  Puritanism.  Kuller  at 
once  replied  in  T/ic  A/i/icn!  of  Iiijiiral  Iniii/rrnrc, 
in  whic^i  he  ^'ives  his  aniniadvertor's  own  words 
in  their  entirety  followed  by  his  own  replies 
siriiitiin.  Nowhere  is  his  strong  sense  sharpened 
into  bright  ami  stinging  wit  more  eonsidctious 
than  here.  Moreover,  broa<l,  o|)en-minded  can- 
dour ;iiid  large  toleration  to  all  honest  opinion 
and  f.-iir  .argument,  wedded  to  intense  jiei-sonal 
loyalty  to  his  own  church,  are  characteristic 
notes  throughout,  while  it  would  he  dillicult  to 
liriil  a  nobler  e.xamjde  in  our  liter.ature  of  mag- 
n.uiimous  Christian  charity  tremulous  with  iiathos 
than  the  concluding  epistle  to  his  antagonist, 
lii^hop  Nicolson.  in  Tlie  Eiujlixli  Histiiriral  Lihrurij 
('id  ed.  1714),  tailing  with  imeeyed  vision  to  see 
that  he  had  before  him  an  English  cla-ssic,  and 
one  aid  ijcntrts  moreover,  laments  the  hack  of  '  the 
gr.avity  of  an  historian,'  and  the  weakness  for 
'a  pretty  story'  and  for  'pun  and  ()uibble,'  yet  in 
his  superior  manner  .admits  th.at,  'if  it  were  pos- 
sible to  reline  it  well,  the  work  would  be  of  good 
use,  since  there  are  in  it  some  things  of  moment 
hardly  to  be  had  elsewhere,  which  may  often 
illustrate  dark  passages  in  more  .serious  writers.' 

Kuller  had  been  jiresented  by  Lord  lierkeley  in 
16.')8  to  the  rectory  of  Cranford  in  Middlesex,  and 
at  the  Restoration  he  was  reinstateil  in  his  former 
preferments.  In  that  year  he  jiublished  his  MiH 
Cuiitettiplo-tiona  in  Jirtfrr  Tittw.t,  was  admittc<l  D.  1). 
at  Cambridge  by  royal  mainlate,  and  a|ipointed 
chapl.ainin-extraordinary  to  the  king.  Apparently 
also  he  would  have  been  m.ade  a  bishop  h.ad  he 
lived.  He  died  in  London  after  a  few  days'  illness 
of  the  'new  disease' — a  kind  of  typhus  fever,  16th 
.\ug'ust  Ititil,  and  was  buried  in  the  chancel  of 
Cranford  church.  The  Latin  epitaph  inscribed  on 
a  nuir.al  Lablct  there  is  not  so  brief  as  his  own 
suggestion — '  Here  lies  Fuller's  earth,'  but  contains 
a  c(mceit  wtntliy  of  his  own  l>en,  how  th.at  while 
he  was  labouring  to  give  otliei's  immortality  he 
obtained  it  himself.  His  great  work,  T/ic  Worthies 
of  Eiiij/diit/,  left  nnlinisheil,  was  editeil  by  the  pions 
care  of  Ills  son,  and  published  in  166'2.  Fuller  tells 
us  elsewhere  of  his  '  delight  in  writing  of  histories,' 
and  we  know  th.at  the  preparation  of  his  greatest 
work  covered  nearly  twenty  years  of  his  troubled 
life.  At  the  outset  he  sets  forth  his  live  ends  in 
the  book — each  one  sufficient  in  itself  :   '  to  gain 


some  Rlory  to  (Jod,  to  ])ie8erve  the  niemorie.s  of 
the  dead,  to  ])re»ent  examples  to  the  living,  to 
entertain  the  rciuler  with  delight,  and  to  jirocure 
some  Ininest  luolit  to  myself.'  The  lirst  four  were 
most  to  Fulli'r,  and  all  these  he  g.ained.  The 
Worthies  is  a  m.ignilicent  miscell.inv  of  fails  about 
the  counties  of  Englaml  and  llieir  illnstiiiius 
natives,  lightened  up  by  unrivalleil  origiiialily, 
spontaneity,  and  felicity  of  illustration,  ami  aglow 
with  the  pure  fervour  of  patriotism— the  very 
apotheosis  of  the  gazetteer. 

The  earliest  and  anonymous  biographer  of  Fuller 
tells  us  that  his  stature  was  somewhat  tall,  'with 
a  i)roportionable  bigness  to  become  it,'  his  counlen- 
ance  cheerful  and  ruddy,  his  hair  light  and  cuily, 
his  carriage  .such  as  ciuild  have  been  calle<l  '  majes- 
tical '  but  for  his  complete  lack  of  iiride,  his  dejiort- 
ment  'much  according  to  the  old  English  guise.' 
Such  also  is  the  Hcrkelev  j>ortrait,  reproduced  in 
Hailey's  Life.  His  genial  disnosition,  the  chaini  of 
his  comiiany,  and  bis  m;uvelli)\is  feats  of  memnry 
;ire  mentioned  by  Pepys  and  all  who  have  since 
written  of  him. 

Of  the  judgments  passed  npon  liis  genius,  best 
known  ami  h.ardly  exagger.ated  is  that  of  Coleridge  : 
'  Wit  was  the  stull'  .and  substance  of  Fuller's  intel- 
lect. It  was  the  element,  the  earthen  base,  the 
material  which  he  worked  in  ;  and  this  very  circum- 
stance has  defrauded  him  of  his  due  praise  for  the 
[iractical  wisdom  of  the  tlioughts,  for  the  be.-uity 
,and  variety  of  the  truths,  into  which  ho  shajicd  the 
stulV.  Fuller  was  incomparably  the  most  sensible, 
the  least  prejudiced,  great  m.an  of  an  age  that 
bo.asted  a  galaxy  of  great  men.'  His  wit  is  f.ist 
wedded  with  wisdom  and  strong  sense,  and  willi  all 
its  freedom  is  never  unkindly  or  incveient  he 
'  never  wit-wantoned  it  with  the  majesty  of  (iml.' 
He  lays  a  s|>ell  of  ouite  a  jicculi.ar  kind  upon  his 
reader,  who  will  either  return  to  him  often  or 
neglect  him  altogether.  His  style  shows  admirable 
narrative  faculty,  with  often  a  nervous  brevity  and 
point  almost  new  to  English,  and  a  homely  direct- 
ness ever  shrewd  and  never  vulgar;  while  '  his  wit,' 
says  Charles  Lamb,  '  is  not  always  a  /iiiiieii  sieriim, 
a  dry  faculty  of  surprising;  on  the  contrary,  his 
conceits  are  oftentimes  deeply  steeped  in  liuiiian 
feeling  and  passion.'  The  pen  that  desciilx'd 
negroes  as  '  the  images  of  (iod  cut  in  ebony '  w as 
that  of  a  good  man  as  well  as  ,a  great  writer. 

See  tlie  fine  ITth-century  anonymoua  eulogy  reprinted 
in  vol.  i.  of  .J.  S,  lirewer's  edition  of  the  Chtirrh  Hintorit 
(Clarendon  Press,  G  vols.  1S4.t)  ;  Eev.  Arthur  T.  Itussill's 
Mcmmials  of  Vr  Fuller's  Lift  and  Works  ( 1844 ) ;  }leiiry 
Kopcrs'  Selections  and  Essait  (18,5t>);  J.  E.  IJailey's  Life 
of  Thomas  Fuller  ( 1874 ),  his  article  in  Fnei/clojttr'lta 
Britajuiiea,  and  hi.s  edition  of  the  Culleelcd  •Serntmis 
(IS'.ll);  the  Life  by  Rev.  .Morris  Fuller  (2il  ed.  ISSd); 
and  Jessopp's  selections  (181*2).  Bailey's  unique  collec- 
tion of  books  relating  to  Fuller  was  ac({uired  by  the 
Manchester  Free  Library  in  18,80. 

Fuller's  Enrtll.  a  mineral  consisting  chiefly 
of  silica,  alumina,  ami  water,  with  a  little  mag- 
nesia, lime,  and  peroxide  of  iron.  The  silica  is 
about  .53,  the  alumina  10,  and  the  water  '24  )ier 
cent,  of  the  whole.  It  is  regarded  as  essentially  a 
hydrous  bisilic.ate  of  alundna.  It  occurs  in  beds, 
a-ssociated  with  chalk,  oolite,  &c.  ;  is  usually  of  a 
greenisli-brown  or  a  slate-blue  colour,  sometimes 
white  :  has  .an  uneven  earthy  fracture  and  a  dull 
apjiear.ance  :  its  specihc  gr.avity  is  from  CS  to  2 '2  ; 
it  is  soft  enough  to  yield  re.a<lily  to  the  nail  ;  is 
very  gre.a-sy  to  the  touch  ;  scarcely  adheres  to  the 
tongtie  ;  f.alls  to  pieces  in  water  with  a  hissing  or 
putting  sound,  but  does  not  become  iil.ostic.  It  has 
a  remarkable  ])ower  of  absorbing  oil  or  gre.a.se  :  ami 
w.o-s  formerly  very  much  used  for  fulling  doth  ( see 
WooLLK-V  .NiANiFACTlIii;),  for  which  jiuriHise  it 
was   considereil   so   valuable  that  the  exportation 


FULLER'S    HERB 


FULTON 


31 


of  it  from  England  was  prohibited  under  severe 
ppiialties ;  it  is  still  used  to  a  considerable  extent. 
Tlie  annual  consumption  in  England  is  said  to 
liave  at  one  time  exceeded  6000  tons.  It  is  found 
at  Nutfield,  near  Reigate,  in  Surrey,  in  cretaceous 
strata,  where  it  forms  a  bed  varying  in  thickness 
from  less  than  8  feet  up  to  12  feet  or  inore.     The 

)\vin^'  t 

bull'- 


lower  yia.it  of  this  bed  is  lilue,   but,  owing  to  the 
peroxidation   of  iron,   the   upper   portion 
coloured — the  change  being  brougfit  about  by  the 


iron,  the  upper  portion  n 
.'lit  a' 
inliltration  of  water.  It  is  also  found  in  Hedford- 
sliirc,  Nottinghamshire,  Kent,  Surrey,  and  else- 
wliere.  There  is  a  considerable  deposit  of  it  at 
Batli,  wliere  the  group  of  associated  blue  an<l 
yellow  clays  and  marl  has  reoeivc<l  the  name  of 
'  the  Fuller's  Earth  Series,'  belonging  to  the  Jurassic 
system.  It  is  also  found  at  Maxton  in  Scotland, 
and  at  various  places  on  the  Continent,  as  in 
Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  near  Aix  la-Chapelle. 

Fuilor's  Herb  or  Teasel.    See  Teasel. 

Filllfl'toil,  Lady  Geokgiaxa,  writer  of  reli- 
gious novels,  daughter  of  the  first  Earl  firanville, 
was  l)orn  at  Tixall  Hall,  Staffordshire,  23(1  Septem- 
ber 1S12,  and  in  I83.S  married  Alexander  Fullerton. 
Two  years  after  publishing  her  first  story.  EUoi 
Mi(/d/eton  (1844)  she  became,  under  the  inlluence 
of  the  Tractarian  movement,  a  convert  to  Catholi- 
clsni.  The  rest  of  her  life  was  devoted  to  charitable 
works  and  the  composition  of  religious  stories : 
Grtnitlei/  Manor  (1847 ),  Constmicc  Sherirood  ( 1864), 
A  Sti.niui  Life  (1864),  Mrs  Gerald's  AVere  ( 1871 ), 
Gold-diiiiicr  and  other  Verses  (1872).  Slie  died  at 
liiiurnemouth,  19th  January  1885.  See  her  Life  by 
Father  Coleridge,  from  the  French  of  Mrs  Craven 
(1888). 

Fulmar,  or  Fulmar  Petrel  (Fidmams),  a 
genus  of  sea-birds,  in  the  family  Procellariida?, 
beside  the  albatro.ss,  the  storm  petrel,  and  the 
puthn,  and  near  the  gulls  (Laridte).  The  genus 
includes  some  forty  species,  which  are  widely  dis- 
tril)uted  and  strictly  oceanic.  The  members  agree 
in  general  features  with  the  petrels  proper  ( Procel- 
laria),  and  all  possess  strong  hooked  bills.  Tlie 
general  appearance  is  gull-like  ;  the  wings  long  ami 
the  flight  powerful ;  the  tail  short ;  the  hin<l-toe 
reduced  to  a  sharp  clawed  wart.  They  are  said  to 
defend  themselves  from  attack  by  disgorging  an  ill- 
tlavoiued  oily  secretion  from  the  alimentary  canal. 

Tlie  best-known  species,  the  common  Fulmar 
{F.  rjlacialis),  frequents  the  northern  seas  in  num- 
bers   so    immense    that    Darwin    awards    it    the 


Fulmar  [Fulmarus  glacialh), 

somewhat  unveriliable   credit    of   being   the   most 
abuiulant  of  birds.    It  is  a  rarity  on  British  or  indeed 


European  coasts,  but  nests  or  at  least  used  to  nest 
in  St  Kilda,  Skye,  Barra,  and  Foula,  and  is  common 
farther  north  in  the  I'arocs,  Iceland,  Spitzbergen, 
and  similar  localities.  The  bird  is  alxmt  the  size 
of  a  duck,  has  the  general  C(douring  of  the  common 
gull  (Larus  i-auus),  and  is  well  known  as  the 
Greedy  Molly-mawk,  which,  with  beautiful  gliding 
flight,  follows  whalers  and  other  vessels  after  they 
get  north  of  Shetland.  It  feeds  on  fishes,  molluscs, 
jelly-fish,  on  the  oft'al  of  the  Newfoundland  cod- 
fisheries,  on  the  debris  thrown  from  the  successful 
whalers,  and  is  in  fact  an  indiscriminately  car- 
nivorous bird,  with  a  preference  for  lilubber.  On 
a  dead  whale  they  are  said  to  glut  themselves  tiU 
they  are  unable  to  fly,  and  s.ailois  not  unfre(|uently 
catch  them  with  lines  and  hooks  baited  with  fat. 
From  living  whales  they  are  said  to  pick  the  Cirri- 
pedes  parasitically  imljedded  in  the  skin.  They 
breed  on  rocky  shores,  but  there  is  no  nest  wortli 
mentioning.  Altliough  the  individuals  are  so 
numerous,  there  is  only  a  single  egg,  which  has  a 
white  colour. 

The  gieedy  fulmar  is  of  no  little  use  to  the 
natives  of  the  regions  where  it  abounds.  Both 
eggs  and  young  are  collected  and  eaten,  and  the 
birds  are  also  valued  for  their  down  and  oil.  In 
St  Kilda  the  quest  for  fulmars  used  to  be  an 
important  and  extremely  perilous  means  of  liveli- 
hood, while  it  is  said  that  in  a  single  little  isl.and, 
Westnianreyjar,  south  of  Iceland,  over  20,000  of 
the  strong-smelling,  uninviting,  young  fulmars  are 
.salted  every  summer  for  winter  fare.  The  oil, 
which  is  obtained  from  the  flesh  and  stomach,  is 
amber-coloured,  and  has  a  peculiar,  persistent,  and 
unpleasant  smell.  From  tlie  Pacilic,  F.  paeljieus 
is  usually  distinguisheil ;  and  the  large  /'.  f/iffantciis 
from  southern  regions  is  also  worthy  of  note.  See 
Petrel. 

Flllllliliate.S.  This  term  is  applied  to  it  class 
of  salts  having  the  same  percentage  comiiosition  as 
the  cyanates  (see  Cyanogen),  but,  unlike  them, 
exploding  violently  when  heated  or  struck.  Like 
Guncotton  (q.v. )  and  Dynamite  (q.v. )  these  salts 
contain  the  group  of  atoms  represented  l)y  the 
formula  NO;,  and  which  seems  to  confer  explosive 
properties  in  so  many  cases.  There  are  many 
fulminates  corresponding  to  the  difl'erent  metals, 
but  it  will  suffice  if  attention  is  drawn  to  fulmin- 
ating mercury  and  silver.  Ftdminathig  mercury  is 
prepared  by  heating  mercury  with  aUoh(d  and 
nitric  acid,  and  after  purification  it  is  obtaine<I  in 
white  .silky  crystals,  which  have  a  sweetish  taste 
and  are  soluble  in  water.  When  moist  these 
crystals  may  be  handled  without  risk  of  explosion, 
but  when  dry  they  detonate  violently  on  being 
struck  or  when  a  spark  falls  on  them.  This  .salt  is 
largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  percussion  caps, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  mixed  with  nitre,  sulphur, 
I've.  Fahninaiinej  silver  is  prepared  by  heating  a 
soluthiii  of  nitrate  of  silver  with  nitric  aciil  and 
alcohol.  It  forms  small  white  needles  having  a 
bitter  taste  and  poisonous  properties.  It  explodes 
more  readily  than  the  mercury  salt,  and  the  greatest 
care  is  requisite  in  its  manufacture.  It  is  used  in 
making  crackers  and  other  detonating  toys. 

The  fulminates  should  never  be  prepared  by 
amateurs,  as  accidents  veiy  readily  occur. 

Flllliek.  a  town  of  Moravia,  10  miles  NNAV. 
of  Neiititscliein.  with  a  Capuchin  convent,  and 
manufactures  of  silk,  cloth,  and  fezes.  Pop. 
.'1692.  Fulnek  was  formerly  a  principal  seat  of  the 
Jloraviaii  Brethren,  and  gave  its  name  to  Fulncck 
in  Yorkshire,  5i  miles  E.  of  Bradford,  where  a 
Moravian  settlement  was  established  in  1748. 

Fulton.  PoiiERT,  a  celebr.ated  American  en- 
gineer, was  liorii  of  Irish  parents  in  176.">  in  what 
is  now  Fulton  township,  Pennsylvania.     The  yeai-s 


32 


FUM 


FUNCTION 


ITfii  f^o  were  spent  in  I'liila<lelp)iia,  wliere  lie  tle- 
viiU'il  liiniself  to  the  piiiiitin^'  of  niini;itiirc  ]>oi- 
traits  anil  lanilscajics.  In  17HG  he  [iroceeded  to 
Lonilon,  wliere  for  several  years  lie  stiulieil  under 
West ;  hut  some  |iaintinj;s  which  he  ])rodueed  in 
Devonshire  having;  <;ained  him  the  ]iatrona^'e  of 
the  Duke  of  I!riclj,'e«ater  and  Karl  Stanhope,  he 
ahandoned  art  and  applied  his  energies  wholly  to 
nierhanies,  for  whiih  he  ha<l  earlv  shown  a  stron;,' 
bent.  In  17!M  he  olitaini'<l  from  the  British  <;overn- 
nient  a  |>atent  for  a  doulileinclined  plane,  the 
ohjei't  of  which  was  to  set  iiside  the  use  of  locks  ; 
and  in  the  same  year  he  invented  a  mill  for  sawin;^ 
and  polishinj;  niarlde.  He  afterwards  prepared 
l>laiis  for  the  construction  of  cast-iron  aiineilucts 
and  liridges,  and  patented  in  Ent;land  a  machine 
for  spinnin;;  llax,  a  dredginyniacliine,  and  several 
hoats.  He  was  received  as  a  civil  engineer  in  I"'.'"', 
and  pnhlished  a  treatise  advocating  small  canals. 
In  17'J7  he  pioceeded  to  I'aris,  where  he  remained 
for  several  ycai~s,  devoting  himself  to  new  projects 
and  inventions,  amongst  which  was  a  sulimarine 
boat,  intended  to  be  used  in  torpedo  warfare,  hut 
neither  the  French  nor  the  liritisli  government, 
which  he  next  tried,  could  be  induced  to  take!  his 
invention  up,  although  commissions  were  appointed 
in  lioth  cases  to  test  its  value.  Having  failed  in 
this  matter,  he  next  turned  his  attention  to  a 
subject  that  had  occupieil  his  mind  as  early  as 
17!).'{— the  apiilication  of  steam  to  navigation.  In 
ISICi  he  launched  on  the  Seine  a  small  steamboat, 
which  immediately  sank;  but  a  trial-trip  was 
made  by  a  second  boat  soon  after,  though  without 
attaining  any  great  speed.  In  KSOti  he  returned  to 
New  York  and  pursued  his  exjieriments  there.  He 
Jierfected  his  Torpedo  (ipv.)  system,  though  it  was 
never  actually  adopteil  ;  and  in  1S07  he  launched  a 
steam-vessel  upon  the  Hudson,  which  niaile  a 
successful  start  on  the  11th  August,  and  accom- 
ipli-hcd  the  voyage  up  the  river  (of  nearly  150 
miles)  to  Albany  in  thirtv-two  hours.  From  this 
period  steamers  (for  the  construction  of  which 
Fulton  received  a  patent  from  the  legislature) 
came  into  jiretty  gener.al  use  upon  the  rivers  of 
the  I'liited  States.  Although  Fulton  wa.s  by  no 
means  the  lii-st  to  apjily  steam  to  navigati(m,  yet 
he  was  the  lirst  to  ajipiy  it  with  any  ilegree  of 
practical  success  (see  Siiil'lMlLDlNG ).  His  re- 
]iutation  was  now  lirmly  established,  and  he  was 
employed  by  the  I'nited  States  government  in  the 
execution  of  various  projects  with  reference  to 
canals  and  other  works.  In  181-i  he  obtained  the 
a.ssent  of  the  legislature  to  construct  a  steam 
war-ship,  which  was  launched  in  the  following  year, 
but  never  tested  in  warfare.  Though  the  labours 
of  Fulton  were  attended  with  such  great  success, 
various  lawsuits  in  which  he  was  engaged  in  refer- 
ence to  the  use  of  some  of  his  patents  kept  him  in 
constant  anxiety  and  tended  to  shorten  his-  days. 
He  ilied  at  New  York,  24th  Februarv  1815.  See 
his  Life  by  Colden  (New  York,  1817);  Roljert 
Fitllon  and  Steam  Xariffatioii,  by  Thos.  SV.  Knox 
(1886),  and  the  article  Sl'B.M.viiiSE  Navigation. 

Film,  or,  more  properly,  Ffxo,  the  riiinese 
I'honix,  one  of  the  four  symbolical  animals  sup- 
liosed  to  preside  over  the  destinies  of  the  Chinese 
empire.  Its  amiearance  indicates  an  age  of  uni- 
versal virtue,  tlie  influence  of  which  has  extended 
throughout  creation.  It  is  .supposed  to  have  the 
forepart  of  a  goose,  hind-ciuartei-s  of  a  stag,  neck  of 
a  snake,  lish's  tail,  fowl's  forehead,  down  of  a  duck, 
dr.agon's  marks,  the  h.ack  of  a  tortoise,  face  of  a 
swallow,  and  beak  of  a  cock,  with  claws  and 
feathers  of  various  colours,  re<l  crest,  and  gohlen 
beak.  It  is  about  .six  cubits  high,  and  comes  from 
the  IJist. 

Fiiiuase.    See  Heakth-mosey. 


beautiful  i 

and  easily  extirp; 


Common  Fumitory 
{Fumaria  officiiialiii). 


FlllliariarPSi'.  an  order  of  dicotyledonoiiR 
herbs,  allied  to  I'apaveracea',  of  which  they  may 
be  regardeil  as  .sjieci- 
alised  forms.  'I  here 
are  about  a  hundred 
species,  mostly  pahe- 
arctic,  and  mostly 
weeds,  but  some  of 
great  beautv  (see 
DiCENTKA).  Several 
species  of  Fumaria  „ 
and  t'orydalis  are  ^i 
natives  of  Britain. 
The  Common  Fnmi- 
torv  ( Fumaria  offici- 
tialis)  is  ,a  very  com- 
mon annual  weed  in 
gaiilens  and  corn- 
liehls.  rank,  yet  of 
rather    delicate     ami 

'ul  a]ipearance,  «. 

^ily  extirpati'd.  "if 
It  was  formerly  much 
emploved  in  nieili- 
cine,  !is  also  in  dye- 
ing, and  a.s  a  source 
of  potash. 

Fiiiiiario    A«-id. 

H.^CjII..!  >j,  oocnrs  in  many  plants,  espcciallv  in 
Corydalis  and  Fumitory.  It  is  of  interest  from  a 
chemical  point  of  view  as  being  isomeric  with  malic 
acid. 

Finn iifat ion  (l.nt.  fumiijatio,  from  fiimiis, 
'smoke  '),  the  cleansing  or  medicating  of  the  air  of 
an  apartment  by  means  of  vajiours,  iMiiployed  chielly 
for  the  purpose  of  ilelaching  infectious  poisons  from 
clothing,  furniture,  iK:c.  Most  of  the  methoils  of 
fumigation  formerly  employed  have  little  real  value, 
and  are  to  he  looked  on  chielly  as  grateful  to  the 
senses,  a-s,  for  instance,  the  burning  of  frankin- 
cense, camphor,  \c.  The  really  active  processes 
are  noticed  under  the  article  Disinkectant.s.  See 
also  I)i;i)iicii;isi;ns,  Co.ntagiox,  Infection,  Gekm 

TllKoKV,    I'.V.STI1,I-E.S. 

Flinarisi,  a  genus  of  Mosses,  of  which  one 
species  common  on  (dd  walls  and  ilry  barren  soils, 
F.  hiKirumftrica,  is  of  particular  interest  on  account 
of  the  bygrometric  twisting  of  its  fruit-stalk. 

FlIIK'lial.  the  cajiital  of  the  island  of  Madeira 
(q.v.).  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  island,  is, 
in  si)ile  of  its  exposed  harbour  and  nnsatisfactoiy 
roadsteail,  the  chief  ]iort  and  commercial  town 
of  the  island.  I'op.  »),tj06.  It  attracts  a  few 
hundred  visitors  every  year  b.v  the  .s.alubrionsnoss 
of  its  climate,  and  has  a  consumptive  hospital,  a 
cathedral,  Anglican  and  I'resbylerian  churches, 
and  ail  ICnglish  club. 

FlIlM'tion.  the  technical  term  in  physiology  fu- 
tile vital  cactivit.v  of  organ,  tissue,  or  cell.  Thus 
it  is  the  dominant  function  of  the  pancrea-s  to 
secrete  cligestive  juice,  of  a  mn.scle  to  contract, 
of  a  sensory  cell  to  receive  and  p.ass  on  ex- 
ternal stimulus.  The  cla,ssification  of  the  various 
functions  or  vital  pioees.ses  presents  considerable 
dilliculty,  though  it  is  easy  enough  roughly  to 
catalogue  the  most  important;  (I)  contractility 
(by  muscular  cells,  tissues,  and  organs);  (2)  irii- 
tability  to  sensory  stimulus,  transmission  of  nervous 
stimulus,  'automatic'  origin  of  nervous  impulse 
(  by  sensory  organs,  nerves,  brain,  iV'c. );  (3)  secre- 
tion and  excretion  (by  glandular  cells,  or  complexes 
of  these);  (4)  res]iiration  (by  skin,  gills,  lungs, 
Ac.,  or  necessaril.v  in  every  actively  living  cell); 
(5)  nutrition,  digestion,  assimilation  (in  the  mani- 
fold wav.s  in  which  the  income  of  energy  in  the 
form  of  food  is  received  and  worked  u]i  into  living 
matter).     Somewhat  apart  from  these,  and  of  mcue 


FUNCTION 


33 


periodic  occurrence,   are   tlie    great    processes    of 
growtli  and   reproduction.     Or   the   various  vital 


phenomena  may  be  thus  arranged  in  diagrammatic 
fashion  : 


H 


o  o 

S 


Reception  of  Food 


Sensory  and  Nervous. 

Muscular  or  Contractile. 

Glandular  or  Secretory. 


Assimilation 


Digestion 


ujA 


y    Excretory. 
Storage  of 

waste 
products. 


Respiration. 
Income.  Expenditure. 

Growth.  Reproduction. 


Exit  of  waste 

products, 

heat,  &c. 


In  a  single-celled  organism,  such  as  an  Anircha, 
all  the  vital  processes  take  place  within  narrow 
limits,  and  just  because  of  the  simplicity  of  .struc- 
ture there  must  he  great  complexity  of  function 
com]iared  with  what  occurs  in  a  single  cell  of  one 
of  the  higher  organisms.  For  here  division  of 
labour  is  possible,  and  in  the  difi'erent  cells  special 
functions  predominate  over  the  others.  Thus,  a 
muscle-cell  is  contractile  but  not  strictly  nervous, 
and  a  glandular  cell  is  secretoi-y  without  being 
definitely  contractile.  With  the  division  of  labour 
and  resultant  complexity  of  structure  in  a  higher 
organism,  various  functions  appear  which  are  only 
foreshadowed  in  a  protozoon.  Such,  for  instance,  is 
the  circulatory  function,  establishing  nutritive  and 
respiratory  communication  between  the  distant 
parts.  But  such  a  multiple  process  can  readily  be 
.seen  to  be  the  sum  of  several  more  fundamental 
functions.  It  must  also  be  noted  that,  while  a 
cell,  tissue,  or  organ  may  have  one  dominant  func- 
tion, it  may  at  tlie  same  time  retain  several  sub- 
functions. 

Another  fact  of  general  importance  is  the  change 
of  function  which  may  be  exhibited  by  the  same 
organ  in  the  course  of  its  history — that  is  to  say, 
through  an  ascending  series  of  animals,  or  even  in 
the  development  of  an  individual.  Thus,  what  is 
a  mere  bladder,  of  little  apparent  accoimt,  near  the 
hind  end  of  a  frog's  gut,  becomes  the  respiratory 
and  sometimes  nutritive  Allan tois  (q. v.)  of  reptile 
and  bird,  and  an  important  part  of  the  Placenta 
(q.v. )  in  pliicental  mamniiils.  The  importance  of 
this  iu  relation  to  the  general  theory  of  evolution 
has  been  emphasl'ted  by  Dobrn  in  what  he  terms 
the  principle  of  functional  cliange. 

Ftindamentally,  the  functions  of  organs,  the 
properties  of  tissues,  the  activities  of  cells,  are 
reducible  to  cliemical  changes  in  the  living  matter 
or  protoplasm.  To  the  constant  change  in  the 
protoplasm  the  gener.al  term  '  metabolism '  is  ap- 
[ilicd.  while  this  is  ag.ain  subilivided  into  processes 
of  upliuilding,  construction,  chemical  syntliesis,  or 
'anabolisni,'  and  reverse  processes  of  down-break- 
ing, chemical  disruption,  or  '  k.atabolism,'  See 
Amosb.^,  BioLociv,  Cell,  Phv.siology,  Proto- 
plasm, and  the  various  functions,  DroESTloN, 
&c. — In  speakingof  disease,  'functioniil'  is  opposed 
to  '  organic. ' 

FlIIK'tioii.  When  two  quantities  are  so  related 
that  a  change  in  tlie  one  jiroduces  a  cm-responding 
change  in  tlie  other,  the  latter  is  termed  a  fiinctioii 
of  the  former.  For  example,  the  area  of  a  triangle 
is  a  function  of  the  base,  since  the  area  decreases  or 
increases  with  the  decrease  or  increase  of  the  base, 
the  altitude  remaining  unchanged,  .■\gain,  if  «  = 
(i.r-  +  hx  +  r,  where  (i,  li.  and  c  are  constant 
i[uantities,  .and  /(  and  ./■  variables  :  then  ii  is  said  to 
be  a  function  of  a,  since,  by  assigning  to  j:  a  .series 
211 


of  different  values,  a  corresponding  series  of  values 
of  H  is  obtained,  showing  its  (/cjietidcnre  on  the 
value  given  to  x.  Moreover,  for  this  reason,  3'  is 
termed  the  indrpnidcnf,  ii  the  ilr/inidrnt  \ariable. 
There  may  be  more  than  one  independent  variable 
— e.g.  the  area  of  a  triangle  depends  on  its  altitude 
and  its  base,  and  is  thus  a  function  of  two  vari- 
ables. Function.ality,  in  algebra,  is  denoteil  by  the 
letters  F,  /,  0,  <j>,  tlC-e.  Thus,  that  u  is  a  function 
of  :r  may  be  denoted  by  the  equation  u  =  F(x)  %  or, 
if  the  value  of  ii  depends  on  more  than  one  variable, 
say  u[ion  .r,  y,  and  z,  then  by  u  =  /'(.'''.  2/>  ^)- 

Functions  are  primarily  classilied  as  algebraical 
or  transceiideidal.  The  former  include  only  tho.se 
functions  which  may  be  expressed  in  a  finite 
number  of  terms,  involving  only  the  elementary 
algebraical  operations  of  additi(m,  subtraction, 
multiplication,  division,  and  root  extraction.  Several 
terms  are  employed  to  denote  the  jiartictilar  nature 
of  such  functions.  A  rational  function  is  one  in 
which  there  are  no  fractional  powers  of  the  variable 
or  variables  ;  iideffral  functions  do  not  include  the 
operation  of  division  in  any  of  their  terms;  a  homo- 
aoicous  function  is  one  in  which  the  terms  are  all  of 
the  .same  degree — i.e.  the  sum  of  the  Indices  of  the 
\ariables  in  each  term  is  the  same  for  every  term. 
For  example, 


is  a  rational,  integral,  homogeneous  function  of  the 
fourth  degree  in  x  and  y.  Trattsccndcutal  fnnction.s 
are  those  which  cannot  be  expressed  in  a  finite 
number  of  terms;  the  principal  tyjies  are  (1)  the 
exponential  function  c,  and  its  inverse,  log  x; 
(2)  the  circular  functions,  such  a.s  sin  .t,  cos  x, 
tan  X,  &c.,  .and  their  respective  inverses,  sin  "'^, 
cos  -'.}■,  tan  "'.r,  (.Vc. 

Functions  are  also  distinguished  ,as  contiiiuoiis  or 
discoritiiiuoKs.  Any  function  is  said  to  be  continu- 
ous when  an  infinitely  small  change  in  the  value  of 
the  independent  variable  produces  only  an  infinitely 
small  change  in  the  dependent  variable  ;  and  to  be 
discontinuovis  when  an  infinitely  small  change  in 
the  independent  variable  makes  a  change  in  the 
depen<lent  vari.able  either  finite  or  infinitely  great. 
All  purely  algebraic  expressions  are  continuous 
functions ;  a-s  are  also  such  transcendental  functions 
as  r',  log  X,  sin  x,  cos  x. 

Haniiijin'r  or  prrindii-  functions  are  those  ^^•llose 
values  lluctuate  regularly  between  certain  assigned 
limits,  passing  through  all  their  possible  values, 
while  the  independent  vari.able  changes  by  a  certain 
amount  known  as  llie  period.  Such  functions  are 
of  great  im|iortance  in  the  theory  of  sound,  ,as  well 
as  in  many  other  branches  of  matheiu.atical  physics. 
Their  essential  feature  is  that,  if  /'(.i)  be  a  periodic 
function  whose  period  is  a,  then  f(x  +  ha)  = 
f(x  -  ha),  for  all  values  of  x. 


34 


FUND 


FUNFKIROHEN 


Tlie  term  derived  funrlioii  is  used  to  denote  the 
siici-essive  coetticients  i>f  the  iiowei's  of  h  in  the 
expansion  of /(a-  +  It),  wliero  A  is  an  increment  of 
jt.  If  X  becomes  jt  +  /i,  tlien  f(r)  changes  to 
f(x  +  h),  and  it  may  be  siiown  tliat  f(x  +  h)  = 

J[x)  +f(x)h  +/'V),''.'  +/"(-')f|^  +  &c-  :  A^), 
f"{x),f"{x),  &c.  are  the  first,  second,  third,  \c. 
derived  fiinrtions  oif\j).  It  is  the  primary  object 
of  the  ditterential  calcnhis  to  find  the  value  of  these 
for  diflereiit  kinds  of  functions. 

FiiihI,  Sixking.    See  Sinking  Fund. 

Fundi,  or  FUNDL'NGI  [Pasfmlum  exile),  a  kind 
'•i  j,'riiiM  jillieil  to  the  millets,  much  cultivated  in  the 
west  of  .\frica.    See  Millet. 

FiiihIs.    See  National  Dkbt. 

FlIIHly.  B.\Y  OF,  an  arm  i>f  the  Atlantic,  separat- 
ing,' Nova  Sooti.'V  from  New  lirunswick,  and  branch- 
ing at  its  head  into  two  inlets,  Chiijnecto  Bay  and 
Minivs  I5a.sin,  « liich  are  separated  by  narrow  necks 
of  land  from  the  Gulf  of  St  Ijawrence.  It  has  an 
extreme  breadth  of  4.')  miles  and  a  length  up  to 
Chignecto  Bay  of  140  miles;  it  receives  the  St  John, 
the  principal  river  of  New  Brunswick,  and  the  St 
Croix,  which  separates  that  province  from  Maine. 
The  navigation  is  rendered  jjeiilous  by  the  tides, 
which  rush  in  with  impetuous  force,  and  have  a 
range  of  53  feet  (not  100  feet),  as  at  Chepstow. 

FUllon,  or  Fi'HNEN  (Dan.  Fi/en),  the  large.st  of 
the  U.inish  Islands  after  Zealand,  is  separated  from 
Sleswick  and  .lutlan<l  on  the  \V.  by  the  Little  Belt, 
and  fiom  Zealand  on  the  K.  by  the  (Ireat  Belt. 
With  the  islands  of  Langeland,  Arii,  Taiusinge,  v<:c., 
it  forms  the  two  administrative  districts  of  Odense 
and  Svendborg.  Area  of  Fiinen,  ll.'i.'>s(i.  m.  ;  pop. 
( 1890)  -221,084.  The  coast  is  for  the  most  part  flat 
and  sandy  ;  on  the  mutli  it  is  indented  by  the  deep 
Odense  Fjord.  The  interior  is  Hat,  except  towards 
the  south  and  west,  where  there  is  a  range  of  hills 
rising  to  alxmt  420  feet.  The  land,  which  is  well 
watered  by  several  small  streams,  is  fruitful  and 
well  cultivated,  producing  abundant  crops  of  cereals. 
Barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  rye,  llax,  hemp,  honey, 
horses,  and  a  line  breed  of  horned  cattle  are  ex- 
iiortcd.  The  island  is  cro.ssed  by  several  railway 
lines.  The  principal  towns  are  Oilense  (q.v. ;  pop. 
over  30,000),  Svendborg  (7500),  and  Nyborg  (5500). 

Flllioral  Rites,  the  customs  attending  the 
burial  i)r  other  disposal  of  the  bodies  of  the  dead, 
the  various  practical  methods  of  which  are  discussed 
un<lcr  the  article  BflilAL.  The.se  ceremonies  of 
course  vary  with  the  method  preferred,  whether  of 
burial  in  the  earth,  eximsure  upon  the  to|)s  of  trees 
and  towei-s  as  ]iractise(l  by  the  1  ai^sees,  or  of  burning 
in  the  usage  of  the  ancient  (Ireeks  and  later  also 
the  Romans.  The  eti'ect  of  Christianity  was  to  aild 
a  new  sanctity  to  the  Ijody  from  the  belief  in  its 
resurrection  in  a  glorified  form,  hence  the  burial  in 
places  specially  set  apart  for  that  purpose  with 
more  or  less  elaborate  religious  cereimuiies,  the 
washing,  anointing,  stretching,  an<I  swathing  of 
the  body  in  white  rol)es(once  in  Kngland  only  in 
woollens),  the  strewing  of  the  cothn  with  palms 
and  rosemary  rather  than  cy])ress,  ami  its  position 
in  the  grave  with  face  u])ward  and  feet  to  tiie  east, 
towards  the  second  coming  of  the  Lonl.  Nowadays 
in  Britain  and  America  there  are  few  distinctive 
customs  beyond  the  religions  rites,  the  wearing 
iif  black  a-s  ,a  mourning  colour,  and  the  accom- 
panying the  body  to  the  grave,  expressive  of 
respect ;  but  formerly  many  customs  were  in 
use,  a-s  the  ringing  of  the  passing  bell  to  drive  ort' 
demons  who  might  be  in  waiting  for  the  newly- 
released  soul  ;  the  constant  watching  with  the 
dead  betwixt  death  and  burial — the  lykeivake — 
once  universal,  and  still  surviving,  with  degrading 
circumstances  and  without  meaning,  in  the  Irian 


wake;  setting  a  |>late  of  .salt  upon  the  breast  of 
the  body  an<l  lighted  candles  at  its  hea<l  ;  and  the 
serving  of  profuse  repasts  of  meat  and  drink  to  all 
and  sundry,  as  well  as  special  doles  of  food  and 
clothing  to  the  poor.  Aubrey  in  his  Uoimiiiex  of 
Gentilisinr  and  .Jiii/aisme  tells  us  of  a  singular 
custom  as  having  been  formerly  practLsed  in  Here- 
fordshire, of  a  man  eating  a  hiaf  of  bread  and 
drinking  a  bowl  of  beer  over  a  dead  Imdy,  and 
thereby  symbolically  taking  upon  himself  the  sins 
of  the  tleceased.  The  analogy  is  obvious  between 
the  sin-eater  and  the  scapegoat  of  the  ancient 
Jewish  Day  of  Atonement. 

Funeral  rites  symboli.se  affection  .ind  respect  for 
the  deceased  and  grief  for  his  loss,  or  they  may  be 
attempts  to  ileprecate  the  ill-will  of  a  now  power- 
ful ghost.  The  belief  in  the  continuance  of  life 
beyonrl  the  grave  is  a  universal  human  ]>ossession, 
and  most  savages  attach  ghost-.sonls  also  to  animals 
anil  even  inaiumate  cdijecls,  which  may  accompany 
the  souls  of  men  into  the  spirit-worlil  as  in  life. 
Hence  the  meaning  of  the  North  .American  Imlians 
burying  bow  and  arrow  with  the  dead,  the  old 
Norse  warrior  having  his  horse  and  :iniiour  laid 
beside  him  in  his  barrow,  the  Hindu  widow's  in- 
veterate desire  to  be  burnt  hei-self  to  death  together 
with  her  husband's  body,  the  headhunting  of  the 
Dyaks  in  order  that  a  man  may  not  be  unprovided 
with  slaves  after  his  death,  the  burying  of  money 
together  with  the  corpse  and  even  the  oholiis  for 
Charon's  fee  anu>ng  the  ancient  (!reeks,  as  well  as 
such  a  survival  as  our  own  leatting  the  trooper's 
horse  behind  his  majBter's  bier  instead  of  burj'ing 
him  in  bis  grave. 

The  funeral  rites  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  were 
most  elaborate,  but  it  is  .scarcely  safe  to  claim  their 
preference  for  embalndng  as  conclusive  proof  of 
their  belief  in  a  resurrection  of  the  body,  as  they 
embalmed  animals  as  well  as  men,  and  did  not 
preserve  some  of  the  most  important  internal  parts 
of  the  human  bodies  they  embalmed. 

See  the  articles  A>'CESTOR-wousHii>,  BURIAL,  Egypt, 
and  E.MB.M,Mi.NG  ;  for  the  relijjious  significance  of  funeral 
rites  in  Herbert  tSpenccr's  theory  of  religion,  his  Prin- 
riplfg  of  Soriofogi/,  but  for  a  safer  guide  to  interjiretation, 
Tylor's  Primitive  Culture  (vol,  ii. );  also  for  the  facts, 
Feydeau,  Hist,  ffSnirale  des  Vsmjex  fun^hres  et  des  aepul- 
lurti  tics  Peiiples  ancinii  (3  vols.  Paris,  18.'>8) ;  De  Guber- 
natis,  Storia  popotavc  drtjli  usi  fuiicbri  Indo-Europei 
(1873):  Tegg,  Tlir  Last  Act  (1870);  and  Somitag,  I)ic 
TodUnbestattutuj  (1878). 

Funeral  Expense.s,  in  Law.  If  limited  to 
the  degree  and  quality  of  the  deceased  and  the 
estate  he  has  left,  funeral  ex|>enses  are  a  privilege<l 
debt,  allowed  before  all  other  debts  antl  charges, 
both  in  England  and  Scotliind.  If  the  parties 
iirimarily  liable  neglect  the  duty  of  giving  decent 
ourial  to  the  dead,  a  stranger  may  do  so,  and  claim 
reimbui-sement  out  of  his  ell'ects.  In  Scotland  it  is 
held  that  moderate  and  suitable  mourning  for  the 
widow  and  such  of  the  children  of  the  decea-scd  as 
were  present  at  the  funeral  is  a  valid  chaige  ;  but 
the  revei-se  is  the  case  in  Kngland,  it  having  been 
decide<l  that  the  widow  has  no  claim  for  mourn- 
ing either  against  the  executor  or  the  creditors  of 
her  husband. 

FlllirhnilS,  a  suburb  of  Vienna  lying  SW.  of 
the  city.  Its  population  is  principally  engaged  in 
weaving,  wood  turning,  and  building. 

Filllfkirclieil  ('Five  Churches,'  from  five 
mosques  built  during  the  Turkish  occupation,  in 
the  16th  centurj-;  Hungarian,  Pec.i),  a  free  town  of 
Hungarj',  capital  of  the  county  of  Baranya,  on  the 
vine-clail  southern  slope  of  the  Mecsek  Mountains, 
139  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Pesth  by  rail.  Its  bishopric 
was  founded  in  1009,  and  it  i.s'one  of  the  oldest,  as 
well  as  one  of  the  most  plea-santly  situated  and 
beautiful  towns  of  Hungary.    It  formerly  possessed 


FUNGI 


35 


a  university.  The  most  imijoitant  of  its  buildings 
are  the  Komanesque  cathedral  (1136),  the  bishop's 
])alace,  the  town-house  and  hospital,  and  tlie 
county  buildings.  Its  manufactures  include  leather, 
woollens  and  flannels,  oil,  brandy  and  liqueurs,  and 
a  famed  majolii-a  ware  ;  it  produces  wine,  fruit, 
and  tobacco,  and  has  coal-mines  and  marble- 
quarries,  and  a  HonrishiuK  trade  in  hogs  and  gall- 
nuts.     Pop.  (1890)  34,(167. 

Fungi.  The  early  botanists  '  considered  the 
fungi  to  be  /i/siis  natura-  and  no  plants  at  all,' 
and  regarded  their  strange  and  fitful  appearance 
without  Howev  or  api)arent  seed  as  the  strongest 
argiinient  for  spontaneous  generation.  The  bland 
wliolesomeness  of  some,  yet  frightful  poisonousness 
or  destrnctiveness  of  many  others,  with  their  con- 
sequent world-old  association  witli  that  crude  and 
fanciful  pharmacy  in  which  ancient  medicine  and 
witchcratt  were  so  inseparably  intermingled,  not  a 
little  enhanced  these  mysteries.  Hence,  although 
in  Sterbeeck's  Theatinim  Fiingorum  (1675),  the  first 
published  liook  entiiely  devoted  to  cryptogamic 
plants,  there  is  an  excellent  account  and  many 
figures  of  fungi,  it  w,as  not,  and  indeed  could  not 
lie,  until  after  that  ]irimary  task  of  natural  science 
initiated  by  Linn;eus — the  compilation  of  the  'Sys- 
tem of  Xature,'  the  orderly  descrijitive  catalogue' of 
natural  things — had  made  considerable  progi'ess  in 
almost  all  other  directions,  that  its  chapter  dealing 
with  the  fungi  was  fully  commenced.  From  about 
1780  onwards  we  have  illustrated  cryptogamic 
Horas  essentially  of  the  nuidern  type,  which  not 
only  soon  reached  tolerable  completeness  for  the 
more  obvious  forms,  but  with  the  introduction  and 
improvement  of  the  microscope  even  made  rapid 
progress  with  that  description  of  the  multifarious 
minor  forms  which  is  even  now  far  from  ended.  It 
thus  became  known  that  some  were  produced  from 
reproductive  cells  or  spores,  just  like  a  plant  from 
its  seed  ;  hence  for  tliis  Linnean  school,  whose  central 
monument  is  the  works  of  Fries,  each  new  form 
was,  naturally  enough,  simply  a  new  species  to  be 
described.  The  identification,  however,  of  the 
fern  and  its  protluallus  (see  Ferxs)  as  phases  of  a 
single  life-history,  and  the  thorough  reinterpreta- 
tion  of  the  higlier  cryptogams  and  their  iinificatiou 
with  the  lloweriiig  plants  thereupon  effected  by 
Hofmeister,  naturally  gave  a  fresh  impetus  to  the 
study  of  the  remaining  lower  groups  of  algoe  and 
fungi.  For  fungi,  this  new  movement  was  headed 
by  Tulasne,  who  from  I8.')l  onwards  .showed  that 
many  of  the  dill'erent  form-species  hitherto  described 
were  actually  notliing  more  than  the  phases  of  a 
single  protean  life-Iiistory.  Tula-sne  essentially 
relied  upon  the  actual  anatomical  continuity  of 
difterent  adult  forms,  upon  finding  reproductive 
structures  hitherto  regarded  as  specifically  distinct 
on  one  and  the  same  vegetative  body  or  mycelium  ; 
while  De  Uary  confirmed  and  extended  these  results 
by  the  complementary  method  of  cultivation  from 
the  spore.  Tulasne's  new  doctrine  of  '  the  pleomor- 
phism  of  the  fungi '  aroused  storms  of  controversy  ; 
but  the  bigoteil  conservatism  of  the  systematists  in 
the  defence  of  their  results,  and  the  exaggerated 
speculation  and  )iractical  blundering  of  the  younger 
school  in  the  reinterprotaticm  of  theni,  gradually  sub- 
sided as  the  just  claims  of  each  obtained  niutual 
recognition  ;  and  thanks  to  many  workers,  but 
especially  to  tlie  exact  labours  of  f)e  Bar\-  and  his 
many  pupils,  the  classification  and  morphology  of 
fungi  have  thereafter  been  in  h.armonious  progress. 

It  was  long  before  any  satisfactory  definition  of 
fungi  was  jjossible,  their  a.ssociaticm  with  alg:e 
(themselves  scarcely  better  known)  at  fii-st  resting 
merely  upon  the  negative  ch.aracters  which  ex- 
cluded both  fnuu  the  higher  plants.  Their  physio- 
logical pecnliarities,  however,  were  more  apparent  ; 
and  their  definition  as  a  'natural  order'  (or,  as  it 


gradually  appeared,  a  vast  class)  wa.s  accepted  as 
'embracing  all  Thallophytes  which  do  not  vege- 
tate by  means  of  intrinsic  chlorojihyll.'  The  pro- 
gre.ss  of  research  demonstrated  the  remote  dis- 
tinctness of  some  types  of  these  from  others,  and 
the  intimate  relationship  of  certain  fungi  to  parti- 
cular alga-  of  which  they  seeme<l  to  be  merely  the 
colourle.ss  forms.  Hence  it  was  argued,  especially 
by  the  physiologist  Sachs,  that  such  forms  were  no 
more  entitled  to  separate  classification  apart  from 
the  algfe  than  were  the  veiy  various  types  of 
flowering  plants — e.g.  dodder  and  broom  rape — 
which  merely  agree  in  having  lost  their  chlorojAyll 
through  para-sitism,  apart  from  the  ordinary  green 
plants  to  which  they  are  respectively  akin.  "  Aban- 
doning, then,  the  physiology  of  the  vegetative 
system,  he  proposed  a  classification  of  tlie  algie 
and  fungi  according  to  their  degree  of  reproductive 
development  (.see  Alo.-e).  This  was,  however, 
going  too  far,  and  systematists  have  returned  to 
the  more  conser\ative  proposals  of  De  Barj-,  who 
excludes  entirely  from  tlie  fungi  tlie  Bacteria  (q.v.) 
and  the  Myxomycetes,  ami,  while  recognising 
that  certain  fungi  are  doubtless  merely  the  colour- 
less representatives  of  particular  algal  groups,  yet 
vastly  simplifies  the  subject  by  insisting  upon  'an 
Ascomycetous  series  or  main  series  of  fungi,'  albeit 
with  more  or  less  doubtfully  related  outlying  forms. 

At  the  outset  of  this  great  series  are  usually 
described  two  orders  (sometimes  united  as  Oomy- 
cetes),  both  closely  related  in  vegetative  and  repro- 
ductive type  to  such  simple  alg.-e  as  Vaucheria 
(see  ALii.s).  The.se  are  the  Peronospoiea",  in- 
cluding such  well-known  moulds  of  living  plants 
as  Phytophtlxora  infextatts  (see  PoT.ATO,  p.  356), 
Cystopus  condidvs  (White  Rust  of  cruciferous 
plants),  also  Pythium  and  Peionospora.  The 
allied  Saprolegnia  ( see  S.\LMON )  gives  its  name  to 
the  other  family. 

Of  the  Zygomycetes  the  commonest  type  is 
Mucor  mnvcdo,  the  common  white  mould  of  dead 


Fig.  1. — White  Mould  ( Mucor  mucedo) : 

a,  ripe  sporangium  with  few  spores  represented  to  show  internal 
septum  ingrown  as  columella;  ft,  beginning  of  conjugation 
between  two  adjacent  hyphie  ;  r,  rf,  e,  later  stages  of  the  pro- 
cess ;  /,  germination  of  the  thick-walled  resting  spore,  with 
short  vegetative  and  immediate  reproductive  h>'pha. 

organic  matter,  particularly  horse-dung,  a  form 
ea.sily  cultivated  and  in  e\eiy  way  peculiarly  suit- 
able for  beginning  the  study  of  fungology.  Start- 
ing with  a  spore,  this  germinates  into  a  filament  or 
ht/jiha,  which  remains  unicellular  like  that  of  the 
preceding  forms,  and  grows  ami  br.incbes  rapidly 
through  the  nutrient  material  or  solution,  the 
^^■llole  growth  of  liypluc  being  termed  the  mycelium. 
Soon  erect  liyplue  begin  to  bud  fnuu  the  older 
hyplue  of  the  mycelium  ;  the  tips  of  these  enlarge 
into  splierical  heails,  which  become  seiiiirated  oil' as 
distinct  cells,  the  future  sporangium,  by  a  partition 
which  grows,  however,  inwards,  into  the  interior  of 
the  enlarging  spherical  head,  as  the  nilumclhi.  The 
proto]ilasm  of  the  sporangium  is  meantime  dividing 
into  a  multitude  of  tiny  cells,  which  surround 
themselves  with  cell-walls  as  spores,  while  the 
mineral  waste  products  of  this  active  change  are 
deposited  in  the  common  sporangial  wall,  rendering 
it  excecilingly  brittle.  This  reailily  break?;,  scatter- 
ing the  spores,  which  immediately  recommence  the 
same  development. 
Sooner  or  later,  however,  a  more  evolved  process 


36 


FUNGI 


of  roproiliiction  is  iioedeil,  ami  two  ailjiiueiil  liyiiliu- 
conjugate  mueli  an  in  fSpirogyia  (soo  H}?.  1,  l> — c,  and 
Al.<;.E,  tij;.  4).  The  resuliant  zvftospore  after  a 
period  of  rest  KP'''ninates  witli  only  a  rudimentary 
mycelium,  ancl  immediately  reproduces  the  char- 
acteristic lusexual  spor!inj;ium.  Ennmsa,  of  which 
£.  HiKAOp  is  largely  fatal  to  house  llies  in  autumn, 
is  the  ty|ieof  the  analogous  order  Kntomo|>htlioreii'. 
The  Chytridiace.e  are  an  order  of  minute  fungi  of 
which  the  life  history  Is  fumlamentally  Himilar  to 
that  of  the  I'rotococcace.-e  among  alga-. 

The  Ustilagine;e  are  a  large  family,  i)arasitic 
on  phanerogamous  ])lants.  Their  mycelium  rami- 
fies through  the  intercellular  spaces  of  the  host,  ami 
forms  also  tlensely- woven  masses  of  spore-hearing 
liypha',  which  show  various  degrees  of  dillerentia- 
tion  as  roiiijioKiid  sporu/ilitires,  so  foreshadowing 
those  of  higher  fungi.  These  spores  produce  a 
short  mycelium,  of  which  the  hranches  conjugate 
in  pairs,  while  the  new  myeelia  thereafter  arising 
re-enter  the  plant  and  in  time  produce  new  ase.xual 
spores.  Some  are  formidahle  i)ests  of  agricul- 
ture ( Ustilago,  Tilletia). 

A.scoMYCKTKs  jiro|)cr. — The  mycelium  is  always 
composed  of  niutlicellular  hyplnc,  which  in  tJie 
higher  forms  interweave  into  the  stroma  or  tliallus, 
which  a.ssumes  various  characteristic  forms  and 
hears  the  short  reproductive  hyplne,  which  in  turn 
hear  the  si)ore-mother  cells  or  nsri.  These  are 
u.sually  tubular,  and  on  reaching  full  size  their 
protoplasm   collects  at  the  top,  and   the  nucleus 


Fig.  2a.— Yeast 
[Saccharomycfs  cercfisifc) : 

A,  (t,  h,  r,  d,  early  sU^esof  bud- 
iiiK ;  e.  Interstages ;  /f,  starved 
yeast  cell,  dividing  at  a  iit 
form  four  ascospores  at  b ;  r, 
Mtibspquent  gerinination  on 
retuni  to  nutritive  Huid. 


Fig.  2.— Periza: 
a,  nsci,  witi)  barren  lllanient.s 
( paniphyses ) ;  h,  section  of 
fructitication  surface  {h\timti- 
iiiHi);  f,  i)re[ianitions  for  the 
sexual  pnjcess  which  jireccles 
the  development  of  the  fun- 
gus-body; d,  fertili.sation,with 
upgrowth  of  an  enveloping 
tissue,  the  incipient  sporo- 
carp. 

divides  repeatedly,  usually  producing  eirfit  nuclei, 
which  collect  i)rotoplasm  around  them,  and,  develop- 
ing cell- walls,  become  perfect  iiscos/ioirs.  In  all  save 
a  few  of  the  lowest  forms  ( Kremascus,  Exoascus, 
&c.,  which  aie  accordingly  grouped  as  CJymnoasci) 
the  fructification  is  in  distinctly  developed  s/iuro- 
carps.  In  the.se,  besides  the  ascogenous  hyphie 
witii  their  asci,  there  is  an  envelope  derived  from 
distinct  hyph;e  of  the  stnmia,  which  also  .send  in 
amongst  the  asci  a  multitude  of  barren  filaments, 
the  paraphiiscK.     The  aggregate  of  a.sci  and  para- 

ihy.ses  is  termed  the  hvmeniiim  (see  fig.  2,  a,  h). 

["ulasne  and  l)e  IJary  liave  shown  with  toleralile 
certainty  ( despite  the  doubts  of  Van  Tieghein  and 
Brefeld)  that  the  whole  fnictification  arises  in 
consequence  of  a  conjugation  of  similar  hyph.-e 
in  the  lowest  forms  ( Erema-scus),  or  the  .sexual 
union  of  dissimil.ar  one.s  in  higher  forms  (e.g. 
I'eziza,  fig.  2,  c,  il). 

\  brief  systematic  enumeration  of  the  orders 
and  leadinij  illustrative  forms  of  Ascomycetes  will 
be  found  ot  service  : 


\ 


(1)  Cii/iiiiiuiinci. — Asci  not  forming  definite  sporo- 
CArps  with  envelope  (Erema-scus,  Exoa-scus). 

(2)  Disiomyrctca  (SOO  species). — ISporocarp  with 
envelope,  but  hymenium  completely  uncovered,  at 
least  at  maturity.  The  most  important  genns  is 
Peziza,  of  which  the  shallow  cup-like  sporocarp 
is  oi)en  from  the  beginning,  though  in  the  allied 
Ascobolus  the  envelope  encloses  the  hymeniimi 
during  development  and  bursts,  scattering  the 
spores.  IJulgaria  resembles  this,  l)ut  is  gelatinous. 
In  Dermatia  the  cup  is  leathery  or  horny.  In 
Stictis  the  hymenium  is  almost  withdrawn  into 
the  stroma,  while  in  I'hacidium  the  sporocarp  only 
breaks  out  and  o])ens  when  ripe.  In  a  second 
but  less  important  family  the  sporocarps  are 
leathery  and  black,  elliptical,  linear,  or  winding; 
of  these  Ilysteriie  the  commonest  is  liliyti.sniii 
ftrcriinim,  which  forms  the  large  black  spot.s  that 
appear  upon  almost  every  leaf  of  the  common 
maple  towanls  autumn.  The  Helvellacei  represent 
an  opposite  type  of  development ;  the  large  s])oro- 
carps  are  stalkeil,  with  club  or  hat  shapeil  hymenia, 
open  anil  uncovered  by  the  envelope  from  the  be- 
ginning. Many  are  important  as  esculent,  notal)ly 
the  morels  {jMttrrhclht  e.sriifeiitff^  dfi iriosti ^  *.^'c. ),  also 
Jleli-rlla  esculenta.  The  mycelium  of  llfvsleria 
Injpoijiiti,  found  on  dead  and  diseased  vine-roots, 
is  the  '  pourridie  de  la  vigne  '  of  wine-growers. 

Amcmg  the  Discomycetes  the  life-history  is  often 
rendered  more  complex  by  the  mycelium  constrict- 
ing oti'  wru.ipiires  from  the  lips  of  erect  filaments, 
these  acrospores  readily  reiiroducing  the  mycelium. 
TliLs  stage  of  Pe:izu  Hickelinita  was  fomierly 
known  a-s  liutrytis  cinerra :  and  many  other  acro- 
soore-bearing  moulds  still  await  similar  identifica- 
tion. Vegetative  liypha'  also  freciuently  interweave 
into  dense  resting  ma.sses  or  .irierotin,  as  also  in 
the  species  just  named,  and  those  may  either  re- 
develop acrosporebearinL'  liypha"  or  (after  a  winter) 
give  rise  to  true  hynienial  cups.  Acrospores,  too, 
may  be  developed  either  upon  isolated  hypha'  or  in 
psemlo-liymenial  groups,  which  may  be  open  or 
tlask-shaned  (pxjenitliii).  Nor  are  the  in.any  possi- 
bilities of  '  pleomorphic '  variation  thus  opened  uj) 
by  any  means  confined  to  the  Discomycetes. 

(.3)  I'l/rniomi/rctcx. — This  is  a  large  order  of  .small 
and  inconspicuous  fungi,  in  all  re.si>ects  represent- 
ing a  fuitlier  differentiation  of  the  Discomycete 
type,  priniarily  in  the  <leepening  of  the  shallow 
cup-sbapeil  hymenium  into  a  deep  lla-sk  with  minute 
apical  o|ieiiiiig  {peritlieciiim ),  but  also  in  a  more 
varied  development — the  most  extreme  among  fungi 
— of  ])leoniorphism  or  alternation  of  generations. 
The  nuniliei  of  species  is  hence  very  uncertain. 
Besides  the  important  Ergot  (Cliiinccpx  piirjmred, 
see  Ekgot  ),  and  it.s  curimis  ally  CoriIycei>s,  which 
attacks  caterpillars,  moths,  wa.sps,  &c.,  with  its 
fructificatiim,  thus  forming  the  extraordinary 
'  animal-plants  '  and  '  vegetating  insects  '  whicli 
so  perplexed  the  early  naturalists,  any  of  the 
common  forms  into  which  the  old  (and  mice  all- 
comprehensive)  genus  Spliaria  has  been  broken 
up  will  serve  as  type,  conveniently  Nectria,  com- 
mon in  red  jiatches  upon  dead  wood.  Some  form 
parasitic  patches  within  lichens. 

(4)  I'crhjiurhtcca: — In  these  the  perithecia  are 
completely  closed  ca)>sules  which  fall  to  pieces  on 
ripening  ;  there  are  no  paraphyses.  The  mycelium 
is  thread-like,  and  acrospores  are  frequent.  Of  the 
100  species  some  are  notable  pests,  witness  Erysiphe 
and  others,  commonly  grouped  as  Mildew  (q.v.), 
Oiditim  Tiic/ceri,  a  ])estilent  vine  disease,  &c. 
Easily  distinguislied  by  the  dark  or  inconspicuous 
mycelinm  are  the  species  of  Fumago.  To  this 
group  also  belongs  hurotium,  of  whicli  the  com- 
mon Bread  Mould  (A'.  AspcrfiiUiixffhniru.i)  is  a 
type  commonly  put  before  the  botanical  student, 
from  the  comparative  facility  with  which  the  sexual 


FUNGI 


sr 


E! 


process,  which  sets  in  after  prolonged  multiplication 
'ly  acrospores,  can  be  observed,  with  its  resultant 


Fig.  3. — Eurotiura  Aspergillus-glaucus  : 
tty  a  geniiination  of  S(K)re  in  tltree  pliases  ;  «'.  liea<I  of  reproduc- 
tive hyphte-bearinH  spores ;  6,  c,  appearance  of  conjugating 
lilanients;  d,  e,  growth  of  enveloping  coat,  complete  in/;  (/, 
first  appearance  of  asci  (two  buds) ;  A,  a  ripe  ascus ;  i,  spores 
lying  loose  and  ready  to  be  set  free, 

development  of  the  perithecium  and  its  asci  (see 
tig.  3). 

(.5)  Tuheracei. — In  this  group,  as  in  the  preceding, 
tlie  hymeniuiu  is  permanently  without  e.vtertial 
opening,  but  the  chambei's  become  narrow,  coiled, 
and  branched,  and  the  whole  coniple.x  spoiocarp 
thus  attains  an  extreme  complexity.  Most  are 
subterranean,  and  are  best  represented  by  the 
important  genus  Tuber  (see  Truffle).  With  this 
(or  sometimes  in  the  last  group  near  Elapho- 
myce.s)  is  to  be  reckoned  the  verj-  common  mould 
of  jam,  bread,  &c.  {Pcnicilluim glaiicum);  it  rarely, 
however,  attains  full  development  beyond  the  acro- 
spore-hearing  form. 

(6)  Lkhriies. — As  the  majority  of  lichen-forming 
fungi  belong  to  the  Ascomycetes,  the  lichens  are 
very  commonly  now  described  under  this  head  by 
recent  writers.  Yet  not  only  the  time-honoured 
distinctness  of  this  group,  but  its  remarkable 
variety  and  interest  make  separate  treatment  still 
expedient,  hence  see  Lichens. 

Besides  the  large  number  of  forms  in  which  the 
existence  of  an  acrosporous  phase  as  yet  rests  upon 
analogy  alone,  De  Bary  reckons  as  '  doubtful 
Ascomycetes'  such  forms  as  Laboulbenia,  Exoas- 
cus,  and  also  the  important  species  which  excite 
alcoholic  fermentations,  Saccharomyces  (fig.  2a). 
See  Ye.vst,  Fermentation. 

From  forms  in  which  the  characteristic  mode  of 
repro<luction  of  the  Ascomycetes  is  oidy  doubt- 
fully represented  we  readily  pass  to  those  in  which 
it  does  not  appear  at  all,  but  in  which  nmltiplication 
occurs  only  by  acrospores  or  basidiospores,  which 
may  be  of  various  forms.  One  group,  however, 
we  have  to  consider  in  which  the  sporocarp,  here 
termed  an  a'cit/ium,  so  closely  resembles  that  of  an 
Ascomycete  as  to  induce  De  Bary  and  most  writei-s 
to  reckon  it  with  these  rather  than  with  the  follow- 
ing series. 

(7)  The  Urrdineii:  or  yEckliomi/cetcs. — These  are 
the  ilust  fungi,  a  remarkable  series  of  parasitic 
moulds,  formerly  associated  with  the  Ustilagineii", 
which  they  somewhat  resemble  in  habit,  but  from 
which  they  differ  in  structure  and  life-history.  The 
alternation  of  generations  is  remarkably  complete 
and  well  differentiated,  the  different  forms  having 
constantly  been  reckoned  in  distinct  genera,  which 
are  as  yet  by  no  means  fully  criticised.  The  most 
familiar  case  is  that  of  the  Rust  of  wheat  (Pucciuin 
qrumiiiii),  in  which  the  generation  found  on  the 
1)arberry  was  deseriljed  as  .'Ecidiiim  berberidis. 
Other  important  forms  are  known  as  Urcdoan.  &c. ; 
to  this  group  is  also  reckoned  the  coffee  disease 
of  Ceylon,  Ucinilcia  vastntrix.  The  life-history 
of  the  group  will  be  understood  by  reference  to 
Bust. 


BASIDIOMYCETE.S. — We  now  come  to  the  Basidio- 
mycetes  proper,  which  derive  their  name  from  the 
haxUlin  which  segment  off  or  'abjoint'  the  spores 
(fig.  4,  d).  The.se  are  usually  non-parasitic  and 
have  generally  large  and  well-developed  sporocarps  ; 
they  are  divided  into  two  main  groups. 

A.  HvMEXOMYCETES. — Hymenium  exposed  upon 
the  surface  of  the  sporocarp. 

(a)  2'rrmelliyu. — (Jelatinous  with  ba,sidia  each 
bearing  only  one  spore,  often  arising  laterally — 
Auricularia  (Jews  Ear),  Tremella  (q.v.). 

(6)  H nmcnomycetes  jiroper,  not  gelatinous,  two  to 
six  spores  arising  on  each  basidinni  (lig.  4,  « — (/). 


Fig.  4. 
(',  vertical  section  of  an  agaric  ( HjfTmnomycetes) ;  b,  section  of 
three  'gills;'  c.  section  of  tip  of  gill,  showing  couree  of 
hyphjE-bearing  basidia,  of  which  five  bear  spores ;  d,  portion 
more  highly  magnified  :  e,  young  Phallus  '  Gasteromyceles);  /, 
the  same  at  ntoment  of  ruptiu-e  of  ijeridiuin ;  y,  more  ftlUy 
opened  (the  same  figure  on  a  smaller  scale). 

In  the  simplest  forms  the  sporocarp  is  erect  or 
branched,  and  bears  a  hymenium  over  its  whole 
surface.  Of  this  small  group  of  ( 1 )  Clavarinei  many 
species  of  Clavaria  are  common. 

(2)  In  the  allied  Thelephorei  the  hymenium  forms 
also  a  simple  sujooth  surface,  but  is  restricted  either 
to  the  upper  or  under  surface  ;  in  the  latter  ca.«e  the 
fungus  may  be  sessile  or  stalked,  and  have  a  distinct 
'hat'  or  pileus  (Thelephora,  Stereum,  &c.). 

(3)  In  the  Hydnei  the  hymenium  Ijecomes  differ- 
entiated in  various  irregular  and  discontinuous 
forms,  which  may  be  warty,  bristly,  or  comb-like. 

(4)  In  the  Poly  porei  the  hymeninm  is  continuous, 
but  with  many  more  or  less  tubular  depressions. 
Here  belong  several  important  genera,  notably 
Boletus  (q.v.).  Polyponis  (see  AMADOU),  Fistulina 
(q.v.),  as  well  as  the  pestilent  Merulius  lachry- 
luans  (Diy  Rot,  q.v.). 

(5)  In  the  immense  group  of  Agaricini  (1200 
European  species)  the  series  culminates,  the  hy- 
menium being  arrange<l  in  regular  radiating  lamella; 
or  gills.  Most  imjiortant  of  coui-se  is  the  genus 
Agaricus  and  Mushroom  (q.v.),  which  is  broken 
up  into  many  subgenera  (Amanita,  Armillaria, 
&c. ).  Cortinarius,  Hygrophorus,  Russula,  Lac- 
tarius,  Coprinus,  Cantharellus  (  chantrelle),  Maras- 
niius  are  also  important.  Many  of  these  are  edible, 
othere  again  poisonous. 

B.  Gasteromvcetes. — Here  the  spores  arise 
quite  as  in  I!asidiomvcet«s ;  but  the  hymenia  are 
completely  enclosed  within  the  fnngusboily.  Of  this 
the  outer  layer  (peridinm)  becomes  diHerentiated 
from  the  deeper  substance  (qlebu).  Both  layers 
may  undergo  verj"  remarkalile  histological  and 
anatonncal  modiHcations,  and  these  changes  of 
ripening  often  result  in  the  sudden  aci)uirement  of 
the  most  extraordinary  forms.  Hence,  although  the 
species  arc  by  no  means  so  numerous  (ab<iut  r>50), 
there  are  70  genera.     These  are  mostly  large  fungi. 


38 


FUNGI 


often  edible,  at  least  in  the  young  istate ;  few  are 
positively  poisonous. 

(1)  Of  tlie  mostly  subterranean  iiiul  Irullle-like 
Hymenofjaatrei,  one  },'enus,  (>autiera,  atlorils  an 
interesting  Iraiisilion  from  the  Hyinenomycetes, 
its  hynienial  ileprossions  reiiiaiMing  open  and  un 
covered  by  any  diULMcntiali'd  iieridi\im.  In  llii' 
remaining  types  ( llymenogasler,  \c.)  the  glelia 
contains  many  closed  internal  hvmenial  clianibcrs, 
but  remains  continuous  with  tlie  simple  peridial 
coat. 

(2)  The  Scleroderniei  dilfer  little  from  the  pre- 
ceiling,  save  in  the  more  differentiated  peridiuni, 
from  wlik'li  the  gleba  dries  away  in  a  l)rillli'  net 
work,  lining  the  chambers,  which  become  hlled 
with  spores.  SclerodcniKt  culgarc  is  sometimes 
used  ivs  an  aiUilterant  of  trullles,  but  is  commonly 
regarded  a.s  inedible. 

(3)  In  the  simplest  Lycoperdinei  or  jJufV-balls 
the  gleba  may  remain  uncliambcred,  but  the  tissue 
of  the  gleba  usually  breaks  up  into  a  woolly  nniss 
of  dried  hyplia';  hence  the  peridium  when  broken 
on  ripening  disclo.ses  a  dusty  nniss  of  threads  and 
spores  (  Lycoperdon,  Hovista).     See  I'i'KF-isam.. 

(4)  In  another  series,  the  Phalloidei  in  the  widest 
.sense,  we  have  a  very  singular  series  of  forms. 
This  begins  with  the  simple  earlh-star  ((ieaater), 
which  is  essentially  a  pull-liall  with  outer  ami  inner 
peridium,  of  which  the  outer  oiicns  into  radiating 
lobes.  In  Hatarrea,  the  glelia,  covered  with  the 
inner  peridium,  becomes  raiseil  upon  a  long  stalk  ;  in 
Phallus  (see  lig.  4,  c,/,  g)  the  outer  peridium,  librous 
<mtside,  becomes  gelatinous  within,  while  the  stalk 
pushes  the  glelia  through  the  inner  peridium  also, 
as  a  naked  cap  from  which  the  sjiores  drop  away  ; 
while  in  (_'latfnns  it  is  the  inner  peridium  which 
expands  as  a  large  network. 

(3)  In  the  hist  series,  that  of  Nidulariei,  the 
external  peridium  opens,  disclosing  several  separate 
'  periilioles,'  each  containing  a  hynienial  tissue, 
which  breaks  down  into  a  nuiss  of  spores.  These 
are  the  'birds-nest  fungi'  (Cyathus,  Nidnlaria, 
&.C.).  The  origin  of  the  (iasteromycete  sporocarp 
from  its  mycelium  appeals  to  be  without  any 
sexual  process,  but  by  a  process  of  direct  growth  and 
diU'eientiation  of  an  upgrowth  upon  its  mycelium. 
In  Ilymenomycetes  a  sexual  ]>i"ocess  has  been  some- 
limes  described,  but  not  with  absolute  certainty. 
We  know,  however,  how  constantly  the  abundant 
nutrition  of  an  organism  leads  to  the  relapse  from 
sexual  to  asexual  multiplication. 

As  an  appendix  to  this  outline  of  classilication, 
it  is  necessary  to  note  that  we  not  unfreiiuenlly 
find  sterile  mycelium  forms,  to  which  any  dehnite 
systematic  position  frequently  cannot  be  given. 
Such  are,  for  instance,  the  well-known  liaeodiiim 
lellare  of  wine-cellars.  There  has  been  much  dis- 
pute over  the  nature  of  the  complex  strands  of 
Uhizoniorpba,  now  regarded  as  belonging  for  the 
most  part  to  Aijariiiis  incllciis,  while  the  old  genus 
.Sclerotiuni  has  long  been  recognised  as  a  resting 
state  of  many  diverse  forms — e.g.  Ergot. 

Gennimttion. — Most  spores  are  cap.able  of  im- 
mediate germination  :  such  are  most  acrospores 
{i/(jiii(/i(i),  almost  all  acrospores,  and  most  spores  of 
Hymenoniycetes.  Some,  however,  require  a  period 
of  rest  :  such  are  most  oosjiores,  zygospores,  winter 
spores,  iVc.  Although  some  spores  perish  almost 
immediately,  many  others  exhibit  considerable 
powers  of  resistance  to  heat,  cold,  drought,  &c.  ; 
those  of  some  moulds  have  been  germinated  from 
herbarium  siiecimens  three  to  ten  years  ohl.  Kor 
germination  we  rei|nire  a  reasonable  temper.ature, 
varying  with  the  species,  with  sujiply  of  oxygen 
and  moisture;  nutritive  matter  may  also  be  neces- 
sary. Many  spores,  however,  ha\e  nevei-  as  yet 
been  observed  to  germinate  at  all,  notably  those 
of  the  truffle  and  some  otiier  Asconiycetes,  of  most 


Gasteroniycetes,   and   of    a   few   Hymenoniycetes, 
including  even  the  common  mushroom. 

Nutrition  and  Mode  of  Life.— 'Vhc  characteristic 
absence  of  chlorophyll  renders  the  fungus  unable 
to  decompose  carbonic  aniiydiide.  Hence  it  must 
depend  upon  organic  cninpounils  already  formed. 
.\lmiist  any  soluble  ciilioii  i'ojij|>iiuiid,  not  loo 
poi.soninis  or  too  fully  oxiilised  (such  as  formic 
or  oxalic  acid,  urea,  \c. ),  will,  however,  serve  for 
this,  and  similarly  with  most  nitrogen  compounds, 
even  urea.  The  constituents  of  the  ash  can  also  be 
obtained  from  a  wide  range  of  substances.  I'eni- 
cilliiim  grows  best  in  a  solution  of  pioteiil  (  peptone  ) 
and  sugar,  yet  can  be  grown,  of  course  with 
diminishing  vigour,  ujion  a  whole  series  of  poorer 
solutions,  down  lo  ammonium  acetate.  All  of 
couise  give  otl'  carbonic  acid  in  respiration,  and  n 
few  are  rennirkably  phospliorescent. 

Such  facts  belli  us  more  clearly  to  understand  the 
wide  range  of  habitat  presented  not  only  by  the 
dillerent  members  of  the  grouii,  but  by  the  same 
species.  Those  fungi  which  normally  obtain  their 
organic  matter  from  the  dead  oiganic  mattei  of 
decaying  bodies  arc  termed  siijuiipliijte.s,  while 
tho.se  which  obtain  them  from  living  plants  or 
animals  are  ienwiaX  jiarnsitcs.  The  former  is  doubt 
less  to  be  regarded  as  the  primary  state  of  things, 
and  includes  the  great  majority  of  fungi,  yet  many 
normal  saprophytes  exhibit  '  facultative  parasil- 
ism,' and  con\ei.sely  normal  parasites  may  exhibit 
'facultative  sapro|ihytisni.'  Many  saiirophytcs  re- 
quire a  specilic  substratum — e.g.  dung,  feathers,  &c. 
— just  its  many  parasites  have  only  a  single  host  ; 
others  again  have  a  very  wide  range  of  habitat. 
The  chemical  ellects  of  the  growth  of  fungi,  with 
which,  for  iihysiological  |inrposes,  we  may  also 
reckon  the  liactcria  (ii.v. ),  upon  organic  substances 
are  outlined  under  Flii:Mii.NT.VTli).\  and  I'UTKE- 
FACTION.  The  relation  of  siiecilic  parasites  to 
their  hosts,  besides  mention  in  the  various  speci.al 
articles,  such  as  Ergot,  Mii.dkw,  and  llu.sT,  is 
more  generally  treated  under  l'l..\  NTs  ( I  )iska.si;s  ov  ) 
and  PAltASiTic  I'I.ANTS;  the  pathological  bearings 
(the  GehM  Tiikiii:v)  at  (iKIt.M,  and  articles  there 
cited.  That  reniarkable  adjustment  of  fungus  and 
host  which  rises  beyond  the  pathological  level  into 
the  healthy  anil  permanent  mutual  adaptation 
known  as  Si/nihiuni^  (q.\". )  is  desi-ribeil,  loi-  the 
a.ssociation  of  fungus  and  alga,  under  LlcilK.SS ; 
that  of  fnngus-mycelia  «ith  tlie  roots  of  phanerog- 
.anious  trees  is  the  so-calleil  .Mycoihiza. 

Uscji  of  Fnnyi. — Of  species  used  in  medicine,  the 
only  one  now  of  iniporlance  is  Kigot  (i|.v. ):  the 
narcotic  use  of  the  Siberian  fungus  has  also  been 
described  under  Amanita.  Am.adou  (q.v. )  ami 
Moxa  (q.v.)  are  old  sources  of  tinder,  and  I'di/- 
punts  squumusu.i,  cut  in  slices,  was  much  used  for 
razor-strops.  JJul  the  chief  use  of  fungi  is  for  food 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  Ketchup  (q.v. ). 

Although  few  fungi  are  used  as  food,  and  most 
popularly  legarded  as  |ioisonous,  the  |iositively 
dangerous  species  are  really  by  no  means  very 
numerous.  Vet  the  risks  of  incautious  gathering 
must  not  be  understated,  since  not  only  are  some 
edible  fungi  liable  lo  be  confounded  willi  poisonous 
forms,  liut  some  normally  wholesome  forms  ac(|uiie 
poisonous  properties  under  pai  ticularcircumslaiices, 
although  whether  this  be  ilue  to  dehnite  variation 
or  to  the  chemical  changes  of  incipientdecomposition 
remains  doubtful.  Hence  <mr  comnmn  mushroom 
is  excluded  from  the  Italian  markets.  There  is  no 
certain  rule  which  can  superseile  the  need  of  ex- 
perience and  c.'Uition  in  discriminating  wholesome 
from  niiwliolesome  forms,  the  popular  beliefs — e.g. 
that  the  latter  only  will  discolour  a  siher  spoon  if 
stirred  with  it  while  being  cooked,  or  that  they  are 
more  readily  deliquescent— being  without  founda- 
tion.    Nor  does  colour  or  odour  afford  any  certain 


FUNGIBLES 


FURLOUGH 


39 


test,  for,  altliougli  most  forms  of  gaudy  exterior  or 
readily  changeable  internal  colour  may  be  sus- 
pected, and  all  fetid  ones  of  course  avoided,  some 
poisonous  ones  are  quite  inconspicuous  and  in- 
offensive. Ai^ain,  some  winch  are  puni,'ent  and 
acrid  while  raw  become  bland  and  wholesome 
when  cooked  ;  nuiceration  in  vinegar  or  brine  pro- 
duces a  similar  ett'ect. 

The  importance  of  fun<;i  as  an  article  of  diet  is 
naturally  minimised  in  Britain  through  the  pre- 
vailing ignorance  and  the  consecjuent  excessive  dis- 
trust ;  in  France,  and  especially  in  Italy,  they  are 
of  much  greater  importance.  The  culture  of  the 
Mushroom  has,  however,  of  late  years  become 
increasingly  frequent,  while  on  the  Continent 
that  of  a  number  of  other  species  has  long  been 
practised  with  more  or  less  success,  as  notalily  of 
Agaricus,  Boletus,  Ike,  and  more  recently  of  the 
truffle.  The  leading  edible  fungi  have  already 
been  noted,  and  are  also  in  most  cases  the  subject 
of  separate  articles ;  it  may  suffice  therefore  here 
to  bring  together  the  most  important.  Besides 
the  Mushroom,  its  immediate  congeners,  and  its 
closer  allies,  such  as  the  Chantrelle  (Canthardlu.'i 
ribarius),  we  have  among  the  Hymenomycefces  a 
number  of  species  of  Boletus  and  of  Polyponis,  also 
Fistiitina  /ii'/uitira,  and  several  species  of  Lactariiis, 
Hydnum,  and  (,'lavaria,  with  Alarasmius  oreacics. 
Among  Gasteromycetes,  the  puff-balls  {Lycoperdou, 
Bovista),  in  the  young  state.  Of  Ascomycetes,  the 
Morel,  Helvella,  with  Verpa,  some  of  Peziza,  &c., 
and,  of  course,  above  all  others,  the  Truffle.  Cytfaria 
iJanriiiii,  which  grows  on  beeches  in  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  forms  an  important  article  of  native  diet. 

PolsijituiisElf'ittsiDidTrcatincnt. — Noxious  species 
may  produce  sometimes  irritant,  sometimes  narcotic 
effects.  The  effects  appear  soon  after  the  meal, 
and  may  be  manifested  by  giddiness,  dimness  of 
sight,  and  debility.  The  person  may  seem  intoxi- 
cated, and  there  may  be  singular  illusions  of  sen.se, 
while  even  spasms  ami  convulsions  may  appear  in 
tlie  most  serious  cases.  In  most  cases,  however, 
recovery  takes  place,  especially  if  vomiting  be  early 
induced.  Hence  emetics  should  be  administered 
as  promptly  as  possible,  and  castor-oil  also  given 
freely. 

For  general  accounts  of  fungi,  see  the  leading  text- 
hooks  of  botany,  notably  Gocbel's  Outlines  of  Classijication 
(Oxford,  l.s.^7),  and  those  of  Van  Tiegheni  and  Luerssen  ; 
or,  very  conveniently,  Bennett  and  Murray's  Cri/jtto(/amir 
Botany  ( Lond.  1889).  The  central  work  is  De  Bary's 
Vomp.  MorpkoL  and  Biol,  of  Funr/i,  &c.  (Eng.  trans.  Ox- 
ford, 1887 ).  Systematic  information  must  be  souglit  in 
works  such  as  .Saccardo's  Si/llofje  Famjoruni,  and  the 
various  cryptoganiic  floras,  such  as  M.  C.  Cooke's  Hand- 
book of  British  Funiji  (2d  ed.  1887),  his  Illustrations  of 
British  Fiimji  ( 2(1  ed.  ij  vols.  1884-88),  or  Stevenson's  Mi/co- 
logia  .Srotiea  and  Hiimi  iiDnnicetcs  Britannici,  Leunis, 
Synopsis  der  Pfianu  nknn<lt\v\A.  iii.,  is  also  of  service.  For 
esculent  fungi,  see  Badliam,  Hscuknt  Func/uscs  of  Enr/land 
(IStiS);  W.  G.  Smith,  Mushrooms  and  Toadstools  (1879). 

Fungibles  are  movable  effects  wldch  perish  by 
being  used,  and  which  are  estimated  by  weight, 
number,  and  measure,  such  as  corn,  wine,  money. 
Things  are  fungible  when  their  place  can  be 
adequately  sui)plie<l  l>y  other  individuals  of  the 
same  class,  as  where  a  sum  of  money  is  repaid 
by  means  of  other  coins  than  those  in  whicti  it 
was  received.  Thus,  jewels,  paintings,  and  works 
of  art  are  not  fungibles,  because  their  value  ditVers 
in  each  individ\ial  of  the  species  without  possessing 
any  common  standard. 

Fundus  ( Lat. ,  '  a  mushroom  ' )  is  a  term  apjilied 
in  pathology  ami  surgery  to  exuberant  granula- 
tions or  ulcerating  tumour-growths  when  they 
project  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  mushroom  above 
the  surface  of  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane  where 
they  are  situated.     The  conditions  giving  rise  to 


this  appearance  occur  especially  in  connection  with 
the  testicle  and  the  brain.  Tumours  in  which  it 
occuis  are  frequently  cancerous.  The  name  also 
occurs  in  pathology  in  its  true  botanical  sense; 
for  Actinomycosis,  Favus,  Ringworm  (q.v.),  &c. 
are  produced  by  parasitic  fungi. 

Fungus  )Ielitensis.    See  Cyxomorium. 

Funkia.  so  called  after  a  Pnissian  botanist  and 
herbalist  (1771-1839),  and  sometimes  known  in 
English  as  Plantain-lilies,  a  genus  of  Liliaceie  allied 
to  the  day-lilies  (Hemerocallis).  Since  their  in- 
troduction from  China  in  1790,  the  five  or  si.\ 
species  have  been  largely  and  increasingly  cul- 
tivated, not  only  in  greenhouses,  but  in  shrubberies 
and  borders  or  rockwork,  on  account  of  the  remark- 
able beauty  of  their  masses  of  large  broadly  ovate 
or  cordate,  often  variegated  leaves.  They  are 
easily  propagated  by  division  of  the  tulierous  crown, 
and  thrive  best  in  deep  soil  well  manured. 

Funny  Bone  is  really  the  ulnar  nerve,  which 
is  in  most  persons  so  little  protected  where  it 
passes  behind  the  internal  condyle  ( the  projection 
of  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus  at  the  inner  side) 
to  the  forearm,  that  it  is  often  affected  by  blows 
on  that  part.  The  tingling  sensation  which  is  then 
felt  to  snoot  down  the  forearm  to  the  fingers  has 
given  rise  to  the  name. 

Fur.    See  Furs. 

Fur  is  the  term  applied  to  the  incrustation 
which  is  formed  in  the  interior  of  vessels  (tea- 
kettles, boUers  of  steam-engines,  &c. )  w  hen  calca- 
reous water  has  been  for  a  considerable  time  boiled 
in  them.  Many  spring  waters  contain  carbonate  of 
lime  held  in  solution  by  carbonic  acid.  When  this 
water  is  boiled,  the  acid  is  exi)elled  and  the  car- 
bonate is  deposited,  often  in  association  with  a 
little  sulphate,  forming  a  lining  more  or  le.ss  coher- 
ent upon  the  sides  of  the  vessel.  In  steam-boilers 
this  may  be  prevented  by  the  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  sal-ammoniac  (ammonium  chloride)  to 
the  water ;  carbonate  of  ammonia  is  formed  and 
volatilised,  while  chloride  of  calcium  remains  in 
solution.  This  chloride,  however,  attacks  the  iron 
more  or  less  according  to  its  (juantity  and  the 
other  .saline  constituents  of  the  water ;  therefore 
many  substitutes  are  ottered,  some  patented,  some 
sold  as  secret  preparations.  The  carcass  of  a  pig 
that  has  died  of  disease  has  l)een  found  eftectual. 
It  appears  to  act  by  greasing  the  particles  of 
carbonate  of  lime  as  they  precijntate,  and  thus 
forming  a  loose  and  easily  renu)vable  powder  instead 
of  a  coherent  deposit.  Any  other  refuse  fatty 
matter  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  writer 
strongly  reconmiends  this  simple  mode  of  treat- 
ment, combined  with  frequent  cleansing. 

Furfuramide  is  closely  related  to  FVRFIKINE 
and  FuRFUROL,  and  all  three  subst.ances  may  be 
prepared  from  wood.  When  this  is  heated  with 
water  under  jiressure  for  some  time,  and  the  re- 
sulting liquor  distilled,  fnrfnrol,  CjH^O;,  anarom,atic 
oil,  with  an  odour  resembling  cinnamon  anil  bitter 
almonds,  is  obtained.  By  treatment  with  ammonia 
this  is  converted  into  furfuramide,  CijHioN.jOj,  a 
neutral  cryst.alline  body.  By  boiling  this  a^ain 
with  a  soiution  of  i>otash,  furfurine,  an  alkaline 
bast"  having  the  same  composition  as,  and  isomeric 
with,  furfuramide  is  produced.  These  substances 
are  of  little  industrial  importance. 

Fnrie.s.    See  Eumf.nides. 

Furlong  (i.e.  a  furrow  long),  a  mea-'^ure  of 
length,  the  eighth  part  of  a  mile  or  '220  yards. 

Furlough,  a  military  term  signifying  tem- 
porary leave  of  absence  from  service.  Non-com- 
missioned oHicers  and  private  soldiers  on  furlough 
must  be  provided  with  a  p.a.-w,  or  they  are  liable  to 
be  seized  and  dealt  with  as  deserters. 


40 


FURNACES 


FUUNKS 


Fliruuccs.  Kurnaees  i>ci'foriii  one  of  tlitj  most 
iniportanl  of  functions,  an<l  on  them  largely 
ileiienil  llii-  power  ami  economical  eliiciency  of  the 
steamenjrine.  Orwil  care  ami  skill,  combineil 
with  an  intimate  knowleilye  of  the  laws  which 
regulate  combustion,  must  he  exercised  in  the 
ilesigning  and  construction  of  furnaces  for  steam- 
boilers.  They  ma>'  be  considered  as  divided  into 
three  parts.  ( I )  The  fire-chamber,  where  combus- 
tion begins,  the  fuel  is  split  up  into  its  constituent 
ga-ses,  and  the  remainder  consumed.  (2)  The  com- 
uustion-clianilMjr,  where  combustion  of  the  gsises 
is  completeil,  and  the  heat  applied.  (3)  The 
arrangements  for  the  supply  of  air,  and  its  mixture 
with  the  heated  gases.  In  the  comljustion  of  fuel 
there  are  two  leading  conditions  to  be  observed — 
viz.  to  obtain  as  complete  combustion  of  the  fuel 
with  as  little  waste  of  heat  as  po.s.sible,  and  to 
apply  as  much  of  the  lieat  as  is  practicable  to 
those  parts  of  the  boiler  where  evaporation  will 
be  greatest.  These  two  conditions  are  somewhat 
difficult  to  realise  in  a  furnace,  and,  while  the  best 
method  of  applying  heat  is  well  known,  the  portion 
available  out  of  a  given  ijuantity  bears  but  a  verj- 
small  proportion  to  what  is  lost  or  wasteil  under 
the  most  tavonralile  circumstances.  The  suiijily  of 
air  is  a  most  important  factor ;  too  much  liius  the 
eftect  of  chilling  and  diluting  the  ga-ses,  reducing 
the  temperature  of  the  furnace,  and  diminishing 
the  force  of  the  draught ;  while  too  little  causes 
the  ga.ses  to  escape  unconsumed,  and  results  in 
great  waste.  The  projier  supply  of  air  is  therefore 
a  very  difficult  matter  to  accomplish,  esjjecially 
when  there  is  an  ever-varying  demand  for  it,  a-s  is 
the  ca.se  with  solid  fuel.  Liijuid  or  gaseous  fuel 
does  not    present    the    same    variation.       It    has 


Fig.  1. 

been  found  that  the  best  elTect  is  obtained  from 
furnaces  with  forced  draught — i.e.  sending  a  steady 
flow  of  air  under  pressure  through  the  incandescent 
fuel  l)y  means  of  a  fan  or  other  mechanical  contriv- 
ance. With  the  ordinary  chimney  draught,  the 
heateil  products  of  combustion  must  be  allowed  to 
escape  at  a  high  temperature,  say  600°,  and  at  a 
speed  of  about  .'JO  feet  ner  second,  in  order  to  main- 
tain an  ellective  draught.  With  artificial  draught, 
the  heat  can  be  retained  in  the  furnace  a  much 
longer  time,  and  a  Ijalance  established  between  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  heat  inside. 
Also  the  waste  heat,  instead  of  rushing  away  at 
great  velocity,  may  be  made  to  do  work  in  heating 
the  air  for  the  furnace  or  the  feed-water  for  the 
l>oiler ;  and  is  thus  allowed  to  escape  only  when 
deprived  of  its  power  of  doing  useful  work.  The 
difference  in  efficiency  is  sai<l  to  exceed  25  per  cent, 
in  favour  of  artificial  draught. 

A  good  furnace  ought  to  be  able  to  bum  a  large 
quantity  of  coal  on  a  small  are.a  of  fire-grate.  The 
amount   of    fuel   consumed   in   different   kinds    of 


lurnaces  varies  greatly,  and  shows  the  power  that 
forced  draught  gives.  A  land-lmiler  furnace  bums 
about  14  lb.  of  coal,  a  marine  furnace  Iti  to  24  lb., 
and  a  locomotive,  with  the  draught  increased  by 
the  escaping  steam,  from  80  to  200  lb.  on  the  square 
fiM)t  of  fire-grate  in  one  hour.  The  great  objects  to 
be  desired  in  f\irnace  management  are  the  exact 
apportionment  of  air  to  the  varying  wants  of  the 
fuel,  so  as  to  convert  all  the  carbon  to  carlnuiic  acid 
and  the  hyilrogen  to  water,  an  e(|ual  and  high 
temi>erature  of  the  furnace,  and  that  the  grate- 
bars  l>e  always  covered  with  fuel.  Granted  these 
conditions,  and  we  obtain  the  best  effect  from 
the  furnace,  without  smoke.  Smoke  may  be 
caused  by  too  much  as  well  as  too  little 
air,  especmlly  with  a  low  temperature  in  the 
furnace.  Too  much  air  reduces  the  heat  of  the 
furnace  and  gases  below  the  temperature  for 
combustion,  and  so  smoke  is  formed.  The  same 
result  comes  from  a  deficient  supply  of  air  to  take 
up  all  the  carlH)n,  a  portion  of  which  e.scapes  as 
smoke.  At  the  same 
time,  with  a  liii/lt  tem- 
perature in  the  furnace, 
insuHicient  air  iloes  not 
cause  smoke  ;  carbonic 
oxide  instejul  of  car- 
bonic acid  is  formed, 
and  one-half  of  the  lie.at 
is  wasted.  In  practice, 
<leficient  boiler  power 
is  a  fertile  cause  of 
smoke,  from  having  to 
tirge  the  fire  beyond 
its  capacity.  Self- 
feeding  furnaces  are 
more  economical  and 
efficient  than  those 
which  are  fed  by  hand. 
l''ig.  1  shows  one  of 
the  most  successful. 
A  large  hopper  fixed 
in  front  of  the  boiler 
contains  a  supply 
of    fuel    for    a    stated 


Fig.  2.— Plan  of  Furnace. 


period,    and    requires    no 
further  attendance  until  its  contents  are  consumed. 
There  is  an  opening  at 
the  level  of   tlie  grate, 
through  which  the  coals 
are   thrown   on    to   the 
bars.     It  is  claimed  for 
this  self-feeding  furnace 
that  it  more  nearly  ap- 
proaches   in    regularity 
firing  by  hanil  than  any 
other  in  use,  but  there 
is  no  smoke  when  once 
in  operation,  and  a  .sav- 
ing of   10  per  cent,   in 
fuel.       Fig,s.    2    and    .3 
show  the   best  arrangement  of  flues, 
on   leaving  the  grate   jKO-sse 
tube 


t 

\^h 

Fig.  3. 
Section  through  AB,  fig.  2. 


The  flame 
through  the  central 
descends  and  returns  along  the  Imttom  to 
the  front,  where  it  splits  and  pxs-ses  on  both  sides 
to  theclnmney.  For  IJlast -furnaces,  vVrc,  see<;i,.\SS, 
Iron,  Copper,  Le.vd,  Stkel,  Kevkrukhatory 
FuRN.\CE,  Electric  KfuvACK ;  also  15oiler, 
Heat,  Ove.n,  1'otterv,  Steam-e.ngi.ve. 

FurneailX  Islands,  a  group  of  barren  islands 
in  liivss  Strait,  between  Australia  anil  Tasmania, 
Flinders  Islainl  being  the  largest.  About  .300 
people  of  nuxed  breed  capture  seals  and  sea-birds. 
Tobias  Fumeaux,  one  of  Cook's  captains,  discovered 
the  group  in  1773. 

Flirncs,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  West  Flanders, 
16  miles  by  rail  K.  by  X.  of  Dunkirk,  has  tanneries 
and  linen  manufactures.     Pop.  0322. 


FURNESS 


FURS 


41 


Furness*  a  district  in  the  north-west  of  Lan- 
cashire, forming  a  peninsula  between  Morecanibe 
Bay  and  tlic  Irisli  Sea.  The  chief  town  is  Barrow- 
in-Kurness  (i|.v.).  The  ruin  of  Furnes-s  Abbey, 
2  miles  from  Barrow,  is  one  of  the  finest  examples 
of  the  transition  Norman  and  Early  EnglLsh  archi- 
tecture in  the  countrj'.  Founded  in  1127  for  the 
Benedictines,  it  afterwards  became  a  Cistercian 
house.  It  was  long  one  of  the  wealthiest  abbeys 
in  the  kingdom.  The  civil  jurisdiction  of  the 
princely  abbots  of  Furness  extended  beyond  the 
aistrict  of  Furness.  See  Richardson's  Furness  ( 1880), 
and  Barber's  Furness  and  Cartmel  Notes  ( 1895). 

Flirilivall.  Frederick  J.\me.s,  a  laborious  and 
enthusiastic  student  of  early  Englisli,  was  born  at 
Egliani  in  Surrey,  Felnuary  4,  1825,  and  educated 
at  private  schools.  University  College,  London, 
and  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  lie  graduated 
B.A.  in  1846,  M.A.  in  1849.  He  was  called  to  the 
Bar  in  1849.  In  early  life  he  associated  himself 
in  philanthropic  work  with  Frederick  Maurice, 
&c.,  taught  in  the  Working  Men's  College  ever}' 
term  for  ten  years,  and  was  for  the  same  period  a 
captain  in  its  rille  corps.  He  has  devoted  himself 
to  English  philology,  and  with  characteristic  energy 
has  succeeded  in  founding,  for  the  publication  of 
texts,  'The  Early  English  Text  Society,'  1864  ( with 
the  'Extra  Series,'  1867):  'The  Chaucer  Society' 
(1868);  'The  Ballad  Society'  (1868):  the  'New 
Shakspere  Society '  ( 1874 ) ;  '  The  Browning  Society ' 
(1881,  with  Miss  Hickey);  'The  Wyclif  Society" 
(1882);  and  'The  Shelley  Society '"( 1886).  He 
has  been  honorary  secretary  of  the  Philological 
Society  since  18.54,  while  he  edited  for  some 
yeare  the  Society's  great  Englisli  Dictionary,  the 
tirst  part  of  wliicli  saw  the  light  under  the  super- 
vision of  Dr  Munay  in  1884.  Through  these 
societies  he  has  raised  and  expended  upwards 
of  £.30,000  in  printing  early  MSS.  and  rare  books, 
and  has  thus  placed  in  the  hands  of  thousands 
of  students  cheap  and  accurate  te.xts,  some  score 
of  these  well  edited  by  himself.  His  Robert 
of  Brunne's  Hitndhjnfi  Syniie  and  Chruiiirh  were 
edited  for  the  Koxburghe  Club  and  Rolls  Series. 
His  most  valuable  work,  however,  ha.s  been  his 
splendid  edition  of  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Ta/e,i: 
'  A  Six-text  Print  of  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales  ' 
(7  parts,  1868-75),  being  an  exact  print  (with 
the  Tales  in  their  proper  order  and  groups )  of  six 
of  the  seven  most  important  MSS.  ;  the  seventh 
he  has  since  printed  by  itself,  besides  all  the  MSS. 
of  Cliaucer's  Minor  Poems.  This  work  has 
given  a  new  impulse  to  early  English  scholarship, 
and  will  always  remain  a  monument  of  the  noble 
and  patient  enthusiasm  of  its  editor.  For  the 
New  Shakspere  Society  he  has  edited  several  books 
of  worth  in  its  '  Shakspere's  England  Series,'  speci- 
ally Harrison's  Description  of  England  (1577-87) 
and  Stubbes's  Aiiatomi/  of  Abuses  in  luirj/inid 
(158.'{).  Of  his  introduction  to  the  Leopold  S/xi/:- 
spere,  describing  the  plays  and  poems  in  chrono- 
logical order,  over  100,000  copies  have  been  sold. 
He  and  a  friend  liuilt  the  first  narrow  wagerboat 
in  England  in  1845,  and  he  first  introduced  sculling 
fours  and  eights  in  1884  and  1885,  and  was  in  the 
winning  crews  of  the  first  races  ever  sculled  in 
these  boats.  Furnivall  was  granted  in  1884  a 
Civil  List  pension  of  f  1.50.  On  his  sixtieth  birth- 
day the  university  of  Berlin  conferred  on  him  its 
honorary  Ph.D.  In  1881  he  prepared  a  bililiograpliy 
of  Browning  :  and  in  1.S88  he  edited,  with  bis  medi- 
cal son  Percy,  the  first  English  book  on  anatomy 
(by  Vicary,  1.548).  Forty-three  facsimiles  of  the 
quartos  of  Shakspere's  Plays  «erc  edited  by 
Furnivall  and  other  scholars.  In  1892-97  he  edited 
two  volumes  of  Hoccleve.  In  19(X)-1901  there  w.as 
a  presentation  to  liini  and  other  courtesies,  in 
lionour  of  his  seventy-fifth  birthday. 


Fiiruival's  Inn.    See  Inns  of  Court. 
Fiirriickabad.    See  Farukhabad. 

Furs.  Under  the  name  of  furs  may  be  included 
the  skins  of  almost  all  those  animals  which,  for  the 
sake  of  jirotection  against  cold,  have  for  a  covering 
an  under  layer  of  a  soft,  woolly  or  downy  texture, 
through  which  grows  in  most  instances  an  upper 
one  of  a  more  oristly  or  hair\'  nature ;  some  by 
nature  possess  more  of  the  under  coat,  and  others 
more  of  the  upper,  the  proportion  varying  consider- 
ably in  diti'erent  animals  and  countries.  In  winter 
the  fur  becomes  thicker  in  its  growth,  thereby  im- 
proving the  quality  and  value  for  commercial  pur- 
poses ;  young  animals  too  possess  thicker  coats 
than  full-grown  ones.  In  some  instances  the  under- 
fur  alone  is  used  in  manufacturing,  whilst  the 
upper  hairs  are  removed — e.g.  in  the  fur-seal. 

The  more  general  use  of  furs  in  all  civilised 
countries  has  made  the  fur-trade  of  the  i)resent  day 
of  even  gieater  importance  than  in  those  flourishing 
days  when  the  fur-traders  were  the  chief  pioneers 
of  the  North  American  continent :  the  quantities 
of  many  fur-bearing  animals  haye  vastly  increased, 
especially  of  those  rather  small  mammals  which 
seem  to  thrive  and  breed  quickly  in  the  proximity 
of  settlements  ;  the  larger  ones,  on  the  other  hand, 
such  as  bears,  beavers,  &c. ,  will  in  course  of  time, 
if  not  protected,  become  generally  reduced  in 
numbers,  a  fate  which  seems  to  have  overtaken  the 
buffalo  or  North  American  bison. 

The  chief  supply  of  furs  is  obtained  from  Siberia 
and  the  northern  parts  of  North  America,  and,  as 
these  tracts  are  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
frostbound,  the  fur-bearing  animals  enjoy  a  com- 
jiaratively  unmolested  life ;  the  fur,  therefore, 
grows  thickly  during  the  winter  season,  and  is 
in  its  best  condition  when  the  animal  is  trapped  in 
the  spring  ;  large  quantities  also  of  the  smaller 
sorts  are  found  in  the  L^nited  States  ;  Europe  pro- 
duces immense  nunibere  of  common  furs,  such  as 
rabbits,  hares,  fo.xes,  &c. ,  besides  the  more  valu- 
able stone  and  bauni  (tree)  martens,  though  the 
larger  animals  have  almost  disappeareil  as  the 
countries  have  become  more  and  more  cleared  and 
inhabited  ;  South  America  yields  nutrias  and  chin- 
chillas ;  whilst  Australia  exports  rabbits,  opossums, 
and  kangaroos,  and  Africa  monkey  antf  leopard 
skins.  Nearly  all  fur-skins  are  brought  to  the 
market  in  the  raw  or  undressed  state. 

The  two  leading  companies  are  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company  (q.v.),  established  in  1670,  and  the  North 
American  Fur-sealing  Company  since  1890 ;  the 
Fur  Comjiany  of  New  York,  the  North-west  Coni- 
])any,  and  the  Russo-Ameiican  Company  of  Mos- 
cow once  held  im]>ortant  positions,  but  they  have 
long  since  been  broken  up  or  amalgamated.  The 
Skinners'  Company  of  London,  one  of  the  city  com- 
panies or  guihls,  formerly  possessed  many  ancient 
privileges  and  rights  in  connection  with  the  fur- 
trade,  but  these  are  now  in  abeyance.  The  collec- 
tions of  furs  of  the  two  first-named  companies, 
together  with  large  quantities  consigned  from 
numerous  pri\ate  traders,  are  annually  oflered  in 
London  for  public  auction  in  .lanuary  and  March, 
with  a  smaller  sale  in  June  :  periodical  sales  during 
the  year  are  held  besides  of  Australian,  African, 
and  other  fur-skins.  Many  important  fairs  take 
]dace  on  the  Cimtinent  .and  in  Asia,  of  which  the 
chief  are  at  Leipzig  in  (iermany  (at  Ea.ster  and 
Michaelmas),  Nijni  Novgorod  and  Irbit  in  Russia, 
an<l  smaller  ones  at  Fmnkfort  (Germany),  Ishim 
and  Kiakhta  (both  in  Siberia). 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  fur-producing 
animals,  with  a  few  of  the  most  interesting  and 
important  facts  in  connection  with  them  with 
regard  to  the  fur-trade  :  the  values  are  those  for 
the  raw  skins  in  the  yeare  1890-95  : 


42 


PURS 


Ba<lger  (Taxideit  americana). — Tlie  Kne-liaireil 
kinil,  useil  for  fur  |iiir|>o8e.s,  comes  from  North 
AmeriL-a— value,  (id.  t<p'2'Js. ;  wliilst  tlie  coarse  Itrislly- 
liaired  skins  (Mihs  l<i.i:tni),  utilised  for  brushes,  are 
imported  from  Itiissia,  liosnia,  and  Bul<;uria ; 
value,  is.  U)  "is.  (id. 

Black  Bear  (  Ursiis  fimciicaiitis)  yields  tlie  well- 
known  fur  which  is  seen  on  the  fieadyear  of  the 
(iuards;  also  much  esteemed  a-s  a  general  fur,  as 
it  is  long.  Mack,  glossy,  and  thick.  Ahout  14, (KX) 
skins  are  iiu|>iM'teil  annually  from  Canada,  Alaska, 
and  iiart  of  the  United  States,  values  ranging  from 
'2s.  for  very  common  to  lus  much  as  iU  for  l)est. 
The  Brown  or  Isaliella  Bear  is  a  variety  of  the 
above,  the  value  consiilerably  higher,  and  iiuantity 
imi)orted  much  less.  The  Russian  Bear  (UrsKx 
iirrtijs),  the  Grizzly  Bear  (  U.  hoiiibilis)  from 
North  America,  and  the  white  I'olar  Bear  ( V. 
iimritiiiiu.s)  from  the  .Vrctic  regions  likewise 
possess  skins  of  consideral)le  value. 

Beaver  (Castor  canadensis)  has  a  rich  brown  fur, 
but  i.s  more  generally  known  in  its  '  plucked '  or 
>'unhaired'  state  (with  the  long  hairs  removed); 
the  most  valuable  are  quite  black  in  colour  ;  the 
fur  has  besides  a  good  ai)pearance  when  dyed.  In 
former  times  beaver  fur  Wits  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  hats,  but  is  now  almost  superseded  by 
silk.  E.\ported  from  North  .Vmerica  in  quantities 
of  about  150,00(J  skins  annually.  Value,  from  (is. 
to  tiOs.,  according  to  quality. 

Chinchilla  (CUinchilla  lanigcra).  —  'Real'  chin- 
chilla is  the  finest  and  most  delicate  of  all  furs, 
extremely  soft  to  the  touch,  and  the  colour  bluish- 
gray  ;  the  best  come  from  I'cru,  a  good  skin  being 
worth  4()s.  '  Bitstard  '  cliinchillas  are  less  valuable, 
and  only  worth  from  (id.  to  is.  apiece. 

Ermine  (Miistula  cnuineus). — Colour  of  fur  white 
(in  its  winter  coat),  with  the  exception  of  the  tip 
of  the  tail,  which  is  black.  The  animal  is  widely 
distributed  ;  the  chief  supplies  from  Siberia.  The 
fur  is  no  longer  restricted  to  royalty  as  in  olden 
times.  Value,  about  Is.  Miniver  is  ermine  fur 
with  black  spots  of  lambskin  sewn  in. 

Fisher  or  Pekan  [Murtcs  pcnnanti). — A  North 
American  fur ;  value,  13s.  to  70s.  Used  almost 
exclusively  by  the  Russians. 

Fitch  or  Polecat  (Miistela  jiutorius),  from  Ger- 
many, Holland,  and  Denmark.  Used  in  England 
for  civic  robes.     Value,  is.  to  5s. 

Blue  Fo.v  (  I'li/pcs  lrii/(i/iiis). — Colour,  a  more  or 
less  brownish-blue,  or  (leep  slate  at  its  best.  About 
30(XJ  skins  are  imported  annually  from  North 
Ameiica.     Value,  45s.  to  2(X)s. 

Cross  Fox  {Cam's  /ulcus). — Similar  to  the  silver 
fox,  but  redder  in  hue,  and  there  is  generally  a 
darker  shade  of  cohmr  across  the  shoulilei"s,  forming 
a  sort  of  cross,  whence  the  name  is  derived.  This 
fur  too  is  mostly  worn  in  Russia.  Yearly  collec- 
tion about  7(XK) ;  prices,  from  9s.  to  Ills. 

Gray  Fox  ( C.  virf/iniaHus),  Kitt  Fox  (C.  vcloi). 
— Both  of  a  grayish  colour,  and  from  North 
America,  the  former  from  the  United  States; 
value,  lid.  to  4s.  9d.,  ami  importation  30,000. 
Value  of  the  kitt  fox  about  'is. 

Red  Fox  (C.  fidriis). — (Jeneral  hue,  of  a  sandy 
red,  although  a  few  from  Minne.sota  are  quite  light 
in  colour,  almost  white,  others  again  from  Kam- 
chatka are  of  a  brilliant  red.  Chiefly  worn  as  a 
fur  in  Turkey  and  eastern  countries  of  Europe ; 
about  (i(),0(KJ  to  SO,()(M)  skins  are  collected  annually 
in  North  .Vmerica  and  Kamchatka;  prices  range 
from  3s.  to  .30s.  Some  l(X),(HK)  of  a  similar  but  le.ss 
valuable  variety  are  caught  in  Europe. 

Silver  Fox(C  .fulvus),  the  rarest  of  the  three 
varieties  of  the  American  fox  (in  some  districts 
red,  cross,  and  silver  foxes  are  found  in  the 
same  litter),  is  principally  obtained  from  Alaska, 
Columbia,  and  the  Hudson  Bay  Territory.      The 


colour  is  silvery  black,  occasionally  brownish,  the 
tip  of  the  tail  always  white  ;  a  perfectly  black  skin 
(sometimes  termed  Black  Fox)  will  fetch  up  to 
£170,  a  silvery  one  from  £1 1  to  £20.  The  majority 
are  bought  by  Russia,  the  annual  iin|>ortation  into 
London  being  only  about  '2(liK)  skins. 

White  Fox  (  Vutpcs  laijupus)  is  in  natural  his- 
tory the  same  animal  as  tlie  Itlue  Fox,  and  like- 
wise an  expensive  fur ;  a  pure  white  is  its  finest 
colour  ;  the  <li.scoloured  are  used  for  dyeing  black, 
brown,  silvery  black,  and  slate  blue,  the  last  two 
in  imitation  of  silver  and  blue  fox  fur.  \'alue, 
undvcd,  4s.  to  34s.  (Quantity  annually  imported, 
600()  to  17,000. 

Wiut^  { I.cpus  europrens). — The  ordinary  gray  are 
from  all  ]>arts  of  Europe  and  largely  used  for  felting 
purposes  ;  in  high  latitudes  the  fur  becomes  a  pure 
white  in  winter-time,  and  a  large  quantity  of  this 
sort  is  exported  from  Russia,  some  of  which  are 
dyeil  to  imitate  other  more  valuable  fure. 

Koala  or  Australian  Bear  (P/iuscularctus  cine- 
reus),  a  comnnm  woolly  fur,  used  for  rugs,  \-c. 

Kolinsky  (Mustela  sibiricus),  a  species  of  marten 
from  Siberia,  the  tails  of  which  are  very  valuable 
for  artists'  brushes  (known  ;is  red  saule).  The 
colour  of  the  fur  is  light  yellow. 

Lambs  (Uris  (/nVs).— Persian  lamb,  naturally 
black,  but  dyed  the  same  colour  to  hide  the  white 
leather  underneath,  is  worn  by  la<lies  and  on 
gentlemen's  coat  collars,  and  often  wrongly  termed 
Astrakhan,  which  is  a  greatly  inferior  sort  of 
lamb,  chielly  worn  in  Canada,  worth  only  from  Is. 
to  "is.  (id.,  whereas  a  Peivian  lamb  fetches  from  7h. 
to  2'2s.  when  dyed.  The  collection  of  the  latter  is 
about  200,0(X),  and  is  imported  from  Persia  ;  the 
Astrakhan  is  from  Astrakhan  in  Russia  ;  a  similar 
skin  to  the  Persian  lamb,  though  commoner,  is 
called  Shiiaz,  from  Shiraz  in  South  Persia  ;  Bok- 
harens  come  from  Bokhara,  Ukrainer  lambs  from 
the  Ukraine  district,  and  gray  (.'rimmers  from  the 
Crimea.  Large  numbers  of  white  lambs  from 
western  Europe  and  Buenos  Ayres  are  used  for 
glove  and  boot  linings  ;  the  white  Iceland  lanil) 
as  a  children's  fur. 

Leo|)arils  {Fclis  pardus)  are  imported  from 
Africa  and  India  for  rugs,  &c.  (value,  10s.  to  ,35s.  ) ; 
tigers  too  fr(un  India  (a  gOinl  skin  worth  about 
£4);  more  valuable  and  thicker  furred  varieties  of 
both  animals  are  fo\incl  in  China,  values  about  £7 
to  £12  and  £10  to  £(iO  respectively. 

Lyn.x  (/•'.  canadensis). — The  fur  is  of  a  light- 
brown  colour,  with  a  liglit  silvery  top  cm  the  back, 
that  on  the  under  ]>art,  long,  .soft,  and  spotted  ; 
about  30,(XX)  to  80,000  are  imported  yearly  from  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  California,  and  Alaska. 
Both  the  annual  importation  and  market  price 
(luctuate  considerably.     Value,  from  10s.  to  ,348. 

Marten  ( j1/((Wtvi  amcricanus). — A  good  and  old- 
fashioned  fur,  now  slowly  recovering  its  value.  The 
general  colour  is  a  rich  brown,  some  skins  nearly 
black,  othei-s  again  quite  pale;  the  fur  is  light  and 
soft,  and  generally  considered  one  of  the  1>est  for 
wear,  appearance,  price,  and  durability  ;  the  tails 
are  bushy  and  much  u.sed  for  mufis,  &c. ,  a  few 
utilised  for  line  artists'  brushes.  About  100,000 
are  trapped  in  North  America,  the  finest  in 
Labrador,  East  Maine,  &c.  Prices  vary  from  Gs. 
to  70s.  for  very  choice ;  an  average  price  is  about 
20s.  to  30s.  Large  quantities  of  Stone  Martens 
(Muslcia  foina)  and  Baiim  or  Pine  Martens  (.)/. 
Martcs)  are  collected  in  Euro]ie. 

Mink  {Mn.ilcla  J'ison),  a  water  animal  inhabiting 
Canada,  the  United  States,  and  Alaska;  its  fur  is 
brown  and  short,  though  quite  dark  in  colour  and 
fine  in  .some  districts,  such  as  Labrador,  Nova 
Scotia,  iltc,  but  light  lirown  and  coarse  in  others. 
Annual  imiMirtation,  about  .3(X),000  to  400,000; 
value,  from  Is.  to  268.  for  very  prime. 


FURS 


43 


Black  Monkey  (Colobus  vellerosus)  possesses  a 
long,  black,  silky  fur,  its  present  value  being  from 
3s.  to  10s.,  a  fairly  bigb  price  oonipareil  witli  its 
usual  worth.  About  oO.CXX)  to  100,000  are  imported 
every  year  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  The 
Gray  Monkey  (Cercopithecus  diaiui)  and  a  few 
othere  come  as  well  from  Africa. 

Musk-rat  or  Musquash  ( Fiber  zibethimts),  a  North 
American  fur,  about  tliree  millions  of  which  are 
imported  yearly,  and  used  in  nearly  all  countiies, 
either  'natural'  or  'plucked'  and  dyed,  when  it 
makes  a  common  imitation  of  seal.  The  fur  was 
formerly  used  for  felting  purposes.  A  black 
variety  found  in  Delaware  is  also  used  as  a  fur, 
but  in  smaller  quantities.  Value  of  former,  6d. 
to  Is.  9d. 

Nutria  orCoypu  Rat  (Myopotanuis coypus),  from 
South  America  ;  tlie  fur,  when  '  unhaireu,'  forms  a 
cheap  substitute  for  beaver.     Value,  8d.  to  Is.  9d. 

Australian  (Jpossum  (Fhalaiifiista  ruljniia),  a 
fur  much  in  vogue  on  account  of  its  cheapness  and 
bluish-gray  natural  tint  ;  many  are  manufactured 
when  dyed  various  shades.  .Some  '2,0it0,000  are 
imported  every  year.     Price  from  6d.  to  "is.  3d. 

American  Opossum  {Didd/jhi/s  viir/iniana),  an 
entirely  difi'erent  fur  from  the  foregoing,  with 
longer  upper  hairs  of  a  silver-grav  colour.  Impor- 
tation, '200,000  to  300,0<X) ;  value  Id.  to  2s.  5d. 

Sea  Otter  (Enhi/dra  Lntria),  so  abumlant  some 
years  ago,  has  now  sadly  diminished  in  numbers 
owing  to  indiscriminate  slaughter  in  former  yeare, 
only  a  thousand  or  two  being  now  taken  annually 
at  or  near  the  Aleutian  Islanils.  Its  skin  brings 
the  highest  individual  price  of  all  furs,  and  even 
as  much  as  £'2'25  has  been  paid  for  a  single  skin; 
ordinary  values  are  from  £20  to  £70.  The  fur  is 
dense,  rich,  rather  long,  and  fine,  of  a  dark-brown 
colour,  the  most  highly  valued  skins  possessing 
silvery  hairs.     Chiefly  worn  in  Russia. 

Otter  (  Ltttra  canadensis)  is  characterised  by  the 
stoutness  and  density  of  its  fur,  which  is  somewhat 
short  like  seal ;  used  in  most  countries  either  in 
the  natural  state  or  'unhaired,'  ami  sometimes 
dyed.  The  general  colour  is  from  light  to  dark 
brown  or  almost  black  ;  the  hnest  skins  come  from 
Nova  Scotia  and  Labrador  :  about  16,000  are  im- 
ported annually  from  North  America,  though  otters 
are  found  nearly  all  over  the  world.  Prices  range 
from  9s.  to  9os.  fin-  best. 

liahhit  {Lepiis  cunictdiis),  from  its  vast  quanti- 
ties (probably  about  ten  to  twenty  million  skins 
are  used  annually),  is  the  most  widely  known  fur 
in  all  countries,  in  all  shapes  and  forms,  both 
'  natural '  and  dyed  ;  when  clipped  and  dyed  it 
forms  an  inferior  imitation  of  fur-seal.  The 
greater  jjortion  of  the  Australian  importation 
(about  6000  bales,  containing  each  about  "200 
dozen)  is  used  for  felting  in  tlie  manufacture  of 
hats,  &c. ;  the  fur  when  cut  oft'  for  this  purjjose  is 
termed  '  coney- wool. ' 

Raccoon  (Procyou  lotor)  yields  a  serviceable  fur  ; 
price  from  Is.  (id.  to  7s.  per  skin,  the  best  dark 
coloured  from  10s.  to  20s.  The  colour  is  gray  or 
dark  gray,  often  with  a  brownish-yellow  tinge ; 
the  fur  is  widelv  used  in  both  '  natural  '  and  dved 
states.  About  400,000  to  .")00,0()0  skins  are  yearly 
importe<l  from  the  United  States. 

Russian  Sable  ( Mnslela  zibellina ),  the  most 
costly  of  all  furs,  consirlering  the  small  size  of  the 
skin ;  the  quality  extremely  line.  The  darkest 
are  the  most  valuable  :  the  usual  colour  an  umber 
brown  and  less  red  than  marten  fur.  Some  of  the 
finest  Yakutsk  skins  have  realised  up  to  £45 
apiece  ( whole.«ale  price),  but  a  more  ordinarv  value 
is  from  40s.  to  90s.  About  .'jIIOO  to  6000  are  sold 
every  year  in  London,  of  which  many  come  from 
Kamchatka  and  Okhotsk. 

Fur-seal     (Callorhinus    ttrsintts).  —  The     chief 


supply  of  the  Alaska  seal  is  from  the  Pribylov 
Islands  in  the  Rehring  Sea,  and  the  take  is  now 
regulated  by  a  treaty  of  1894  between  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  which,  after  years  of  acrid 
disputing,  settled  a  close  time  and  the  number 
of  seals  to  be  taken  by  either  party  to  the 
arrangement.  Japan  and  the  adjacent  .seas  pro- 
duce fur-seals  ;  many  are  also  taken  at  Cape 
Horn  and  Lobos  Island,  but  the  former  great  fisli- 
eiies  in  the  South  Seas  are  nearly  e.\bau'-ted  ;  the 
Antarctic  skins  (of  which  8.34  came  to  London  in 
1892,  45  in  1893,  and  none  in  1894)  are  still 
reckoned  the  best  (see  Seal).  In  the  salted 
state  they  are  very  unsightly  and  dirty  ;  the  tii'st 
process  in  their  preparation,  which  is  almost 
entirely  carried  on  in  London,  is  'blubbering' 
(removing superfluous  fat,  <S.c. ),  and  the  subsequent 
ones,  washing,  'unhairing'  (i.e.  removing  the  long, 
coarse,  or  '  water  '  hairs ),  leathering,  dyeing,  shav- 
ing the  pelt,  and  machining,  which  last  takes 
away  all  trace  of  the  'water'  hairs,  leaving  the 
soft  velvety  under-fur  so  well  known  and  justly 
apjireciated. 

Various  other  seals,  such  as  the  Common  Seal 
{P/ioca  vilulina),  Greenland  Seal  (P.  greodundica). 
Fetid  Seal  (P.fetida),  and  Hooded  Seal  (Cystu- 
phora  cristcda),  though  chielly  caught  for  the  sake 
of  their  oil  and  hides,  are  made  use  of  in  the  fur- 
trade,  under  the  names  of  Spotted  Hair  Seals, 
Bluebacks,  and  Whitecoats,  the  two  last  named 
when  dyed.  The  Greenland,  Fetid,  and  Hooded 
seals  are  taken  in  large  numbers  by  the  Dundee 
whalers  on  the  ice-floes  near  CMeenland  and  New- 
foundland, and  it  has  been  a  common  delusion 
that  these  are  fur-seals,  which  are,  however,  gener- 
ally killed  on  land. 

Skunk  {Mephitis  mephitictis)  has  greatly  in- 
creased as  an  article  of  commerce  in  the  tiade 
since  1880,  whereas  forty  yeai-s  before  it  was  hardly 
known  to  fur-traders,  being  considered  of  little  or 
no  value  from  the  great  drawback  in  its  powerful 
odour,  but  this  has  now  to  a  great  e.xtent  been 
overcome.  The  colour  varies  from  almost  wliit« 
to  a  rich  black,  according  as  the  two  white  stripes 
are  more  or  less  pronounced.  About  500,0(X)  to 
600,000  skins  are  trapped  in  the  central  jiarts 
of  the  United  States,  a  small  quantity  in  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.     Value,  6d.  to  lis.  6d. 

Squirrel  {Sciiirus  vti/yaris). — About  three  mil- 
lions are  collected  yearly  in  Siberia  and  in  part  of 
Russia  in  Europe  :  the  chief  trade  for  dre.-^sing  the 
skins  and  making  them  into  the  well-known  cloak 
linings  is  at  \YeissenfeIs  in  (ierniany.  The  tails 
fetch  an  enormous  price  for  nuiking  into  boas  ;  a 
few  too  are  used  for  artists'  bru>lK's.  Values  vary 
from  a  few  i)ence  to  abimt  Is.,  though  the  skins  are 
sold  in  the  trade  by  the  hundred. 

Wolf. — The  finest  and  largest  { Can  is  lupus  ocri- 
denialis)  come  from  Labiador  and  the  Churchill 
district  ;  the  colour  of  these  is  sometimes  white  or, 
blue,  besides  the  ordinary  grizzled  colour.  Value, 
7s.  6d.  to  105s.,  and  much  esteemed  for  sleigh 
robes.  A  smaller  species,  the  Prairie  AVolf  ((.'. 
/atrans),  is  found  in  larger  ([uantities  in  the  Uniteil 
States  ;  worth  only  4s.  6d.  to  8s.  A  large  numVier 
of  the  lar"e,  coai-se  Russian  Wolf  (C.  lupus)  are 
used  as  well  in  the  fur-tra<le. 

Wolverine  (  Gulo  Inscus],  a  good  fur, from  Canada, 
.Alaska,  and  Siberia,  of  a  rather  long,  coaree 
descriptiiin,  with  a  large  more  or  less  deep  brown 
'  saddle  '  mark  on  its  back  in  the  centre  of  a  paler 
band,  with  deej)  brown  ,igain  beyond.  Value,  Ss.  6d. 
to  36s.  ;  quantity  annually  imported,  about  .30(Xi. 

The  usual  mode  of  dressing  furs  is  by  steeping 
t'nem  in  liquor  for  a  short  time,  after  which  the 
pelts  are  '  fleshed  '  over  a  shari)  knife  (to  get  I'iil  of 
the  excess  of  fat,  &c. ),  ,ind  subsequently  dried  oft  ; 
they  are  next  trodden  by  the  feet  in  tubs  of  warm 


44 


FURST 


FUSE 


sawdust  and  common  butter,  by  which  means  the 
pelt  or  Icatlier  is  rendered  sup|)le  ;  tlie  skin  is 
iinislicd  iu  dry  »a\v<liist,  ami  beaten  out. 

("ertain  furs,  such  as  lieavorlnow  to  a  limited 
extent),  nutria,  hare,  and  laliliit,  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  nf  hats  and  other  felted  fabrics,  for 
which  purposes  the  underfur  alone  is  retaineil  ; 
it  is  cut  oil'  from  the  i>elt,  separated  from  the 
upper  hair,  and  felted  together  by  means  of  various 
machinery  (see  Uat). 

Filrsf.    See  Prince. 

FiirsI,  .Jri.ius,  German  Orientalist,  was  born  of 
.Jewish  i)arcnta^e,  l'2th  May  180,1,  at  Zerkowo,  in 
I'osen.  Educated  on  the  strictly  orthodox  rabbin- 
ical and  Hebrew  literature,  he  felt  coiistnuMi'<l,  iin 
proceedinj,' to  licrlin  tostuily  uricnta)  hiii;;ii,i^'cs  ;inil 
thcoliigvin  1H2.'),  to  discard  the  intelleclual  paliuluni 
of  his  fathers  for  the  more  stimulatiuj;  results  of 
modern  scientihc  investigation.  In  l.s:i;t  he  settled 
as  privattlornit  at  Leipzig',  and  in  18(34  In'came 
professor  of  the  .Vramaic  and  'ralnnnlic  I.an^ruaj^es, 
a  ]iost  he  held  down  to  his  death  on  !lth  February 
1873.  Amonj;  his  numerous  ami  useful  writinjjs 
may  be  mentioned  Lr/iri/t'bftttt/c  t/cr  Aruiniiiat'lu'n- 
Itliome  ( IS.'i.j) ;  a  praiseworthy  edition  of  Huxtorf's 
Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Concordance  (18;i7-40):  Die 
Jiuiischen  liel igiousphiloHimheH  des  Millc/altcrs 
(1845):  Gc^chu/itc  (ler  Jiii/ni  in  Asien  (1849); 
liihliotlieiii  Jiidaira  (1849  ().'});  Hchriiisrhcs  uiiU 
Chiildiiisi'his  Ilciiidicijrtrrliiii'h  (18.31-54  ;  translateil 
by  I)r  S.  Davidson,  5th  ed.  1885);  ami  Gcschichte 
iter  Biblisehen  Lilcratiir  iind  dcs  JiidisrhHcllen- 
isfhen  Schriftlhiims  (\%ir,-10). 

FUrstOllwaide*  a  town  of  Prussia,  on  the 
Spree,  30  miles  SE.  of  Berlin.  There  are  important 
breweries,  a  large  maltingdiouse,  &c.  Pop.  (1875) 
9688;  (1890)  12,9.34. 

Filrtlla  a  manufacturiuf;  town  of  Havaria,  is 
situated  at  the  continence  of  the  Rednitz  and  the 
Pegnitz,  5  miles  NW.  of  Nuremberi,'  liy  the  earliest 
(!ern]an  railway  (1835).  It  is  famous  for  its  unrrors, 
bronze  coloui's,  tinsel,  lead  pencils,  conilis,  optical 
instruments,  metal  toys,  wares  of  lieaten  gold, 
silver,  and  other  leaf-)netal,  turnery  wares,  furni- 
ture, .stationery,  and  chicory.  The  town  luus  also 
some  large  breweries,  and  an  extensive  foreign 
trade.  Pop.  ( 1875)  27, .360  ;  (1890)  43,20(>,  of  whimi 
871  5  were  Catholics  and  3175  .lews.  The  town  w.as 
burned  to  the  ground  in  16,34  and  1680.  It  fell  to 
Havana  iu  1806. 

Fury  and  ll«'cla   Strait,  in    70    \,   lat., 

separates  .Mi-lvillc  Peninsula  from  t'ockburn  Island, 
and  connects  l-'ox  Channel  with  the  (!ulf  of 
Hoothia.  It  w.as  discovered  by  Parry  in  1822,  and 
named  after  his  ships. 

Furze  (Ulex),  a  European  genus  of  veiy 
branched  and  thorny  slirubs,  with  linear  sharply- 
l>ointed  leaves,  solitary  tlowers,  and  two- lipped 
calyx,  belonging  to  the  order  Legununo.sa',  sub- 
order Papilionacea'.  The  Common  Furze  ( U. 
europtrns),  also  called  Whin  and  Gorse,  is  common 
in  many  nf  the  southern  parts  of  Europe  and  in 
Hritain,  altliougli  not  reaching  any  considerable 
elevation,  and  often  suliering  from  the  frost  of 
severe  winters  ;  whereixs  in  mild  .seasons  its  tlowers 
may  be  seen  all  winter,  hence  the  ohl  proverb, 
'  Love  is  out  of  season  when  the  furze  is  out 
of  blossom.'  It  is  hence  .scarcely  known  in  any  of 
the  northern  parts  of  the  Continent  :  and  Linn;eus 
is  said  to  have  burst  into  exclamations  of  grateful 
rapture  when  he  lirst  saw  Wimbledon  Common 
covered  with  furze  bushes  glowing  in  the  pro- 
fusion of  their  rich  "olden  tlowers.  Furze  is 
sometimes  planted  for  iieilges,  but  occupies  great 
breadth  of  ground  without  re.-ulily  acquiring  suf- 
ticient  strength ;  nor  is  it  thickened  uy   cutting. 


It   aBurds  a   wholesome   fodder,   especially   when 
young,  or  when  its  thorns  are  artificially  bruised; 


'Common  Furze  (Ulex  europtFus). 

it  is  al.so  useful  for  sheep  in  winter,  and  on 
this  account  is  burned  ilown  to  the  ground  by 
sheep-farmers  when  its  stems  be- 
come too  high  and  woody,  so 
that  !i  .sui)plv  of  green  succulent 
shoots  may  ^>e  secured.  F'urze 
is  also  esteemed  as  a  cover  for 
rabbits,  foxes,  &c.  A  double- 
llowering  variety  is  common  in 
garilens.  A  very  beavitiful  variety 
called  Irish  Furze  (  U.  strict  us  of 
.some  botanists )  is  remarkable  for 
its  dense,  compact,  and  erect 
branches;  the  Dwarf  Furze  (U. 
nrtutis)  Ls  perhaps  also  a  mere 
variety. 

The  seedling  whin  is  of  interest 
as  bearing  two  or  more  teniate 
leaves  just  after  the  cotyledons. 
Tlie.se  are  followed  by  simi)le 
leaves,  as  in  a  shoot  of  broom, 
and  thereafter  the  characteristic 
spiny  leaves  and  branches  soon 
liegin  to  aiipear  (see  tig.  2,  and 
compare   tliose    of    seedlings    in 

AC.\CIA). 

Flisail  or  PUSAN,  a  port  of  Corea,  on  the  SE. 

shore  of  the  |ieninsula,  c.inie  from  the  16th  century 
onwards  more  and  more  under  .lajiane.se  inlluence. 
In  1876  it  was  fornuilly  o|iened  to  .Japanese  trade, 
and  soon  after  lo  all  nations.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  between  .Jaiian  and  China  (1894-95)  the 
bulk  of  the  ]iopnlation  (6000)  were  .Jajianese,  who 
still  (though  liussi.an  iidliience  begins  to  tell )  have 
the  trade  in  their  liaixls.  The  imjiorts  (chieHy 
Manchester  goods,  salt,  and  .lapanese  wares)  have 
an  annual  value  of  over  1,000,000  dollars ;  the  ex- 
ports (rice,  beans,  hides,  &c. ),  of  1,.300,0(X)  dollars. 

Flisaro,  Lake  or.  a  small  lake  of  Italy, 
II  nnles  W.  from  Naples,  called  by  the  Romans 
Achcrtmia  Palus:  it  is  near  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Cuma",  and  during  the  Roman  empire  its  banks 
were  studded  with  vill.as.  Numerous  remains  of 
massive  Imildings,  houses,  ami  tombs  are  still  to  be 
seen  in  the  neigld)ourliood.  The  water  of  the  lake 
is  brackish.  Oysters  have  been  cultivated  here 
since  the  time  of  the  Romans. 

Fuse,  Fusee.    See  Fuze. 


Fig.  2. 
.Seedling  Furze  : 
,  cotyledons ;  /», 
Ilrstpairof  leavpa, 
terliate ;  c,  suc- 
ceeding leavea, 
simple. 


FUSEL    OIL 


FUSUS 


45 


Fusel  or  Foiisel  Oil,  known  also  as  Potato 
Spirit,  is  a  frequent  impurity  in  spirits  distilled 
from  fermented  potatoes,  barley,  rye,  vS;c.,  to  which 
it  comnumicates  a  peculiar  an<l  otlensive  odour  and 
taste,  and  an  unwholesome  property.  Beinj;  less 
volatile  than  either  alcohol  or  water,  it  accumulates 
in  the  last  portions  of  the  distilled  liquor.  It  is 
principally  formed  in  the  fermentation  of  alkaline 
or  neutral  liquids,  but  does  not  occur  in  acidulous 
fermenting  lluids  which  contain  tartaric,  raceniic, 
or  citric  acid.  It  mainly  consists  of  a  substance  to 
which  chemists  have  given  the  name  of  amylic 
alcohol,  whose  composition  is  represented  by  the 
formula  CrJi^.O.  It  is  a  colourless  limpid  fluid, 
which  has  a  persistent  and  oppressive  odour  and  a 
burning  taste.  It  is  only  sparingly  soluble  in 
water,  but  may  be  mixed  with  alcohol,  ether,  and 
the  essential  oils  in  all  proportions.  Any  whisky 
which  produces  a  milky  appearance,  Mlien  mixed 
with  four  or  five  times  its  volume  of  water,  may  be 
suspected  to  contain  it.  Fusel  oil  is  used  for  mak- 
ing pear-e.ssence  (amylic  acetate — for  the  so-called 
'pear-drops'),  essential  oils,  and  patent  varnishes, 
and  as  a  solvent  for  barks.    See  Alcohol,  Whi.sky. 

Fll'.seli.  Hknrv,  or  more  properly  Johann 
Heinrich  Fiissli,  a  portrait-painter  and  art-critic, 
was  born  at  Zurich,  7th  February  1742.  In  the 
course  of  a  visit  to  England  he  became  acquainted 
in  1767  with  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  who  encouraged 
him  to  devote  himself  to  painting.  Accordingly 
he  proceeded  to  Italy  in  1770,  where  he  remained 
for  eight  years,  studying  in  particular  the  works 
of  Michael  Angelo,  and  enjoying  the  .society  of 
Winckelmann  and  Mengs.  After  bis  return  to 
England  he  was  elected  in  1790  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  where,  nine  years  later,  he  l,>e- 
came  )irofessor  of  Painting.  He  died  at  Putney, 
near  London,  16th  April  1825.  His  paintings, 
some  200  in  number,  include  'The  Nightmare' 
{ 1781 ),  and  two  series  to  illustrate  Shakespeare's 
and  Milton's  works  respectively.  As  a  painter 
Fuseli  was  bold  in  conception,  his  imagination 
reaching  up  to  the  loftiest  levels  of  ideal  inven- 
tion ;  his  figures  were  full  of  life  and  energy ; 
and  his  pictures  were  often  wrought  under  the 
poetic  inspiration  of  the  mystery  of  the  super- 
natural. They  are,  however,  too  frequently  defi- 
cient in  careful  workmanship,  the  execution  having 
been  hurried  and  rash.  His  LcctiircD  on  I'uhitcrs 
(1820)  contain  some  of  the  best  art-criticism  in 
the  English  language.  His  literary  works,  with 
a  narrative  of  his  life,  were  published  by  Knowles 
(3  vols.  Lond.  18.31). 

Fusible  Itletal.  an  alloy  which  melts  at  a 
temperature  below  that  of  boiling  water.  It  con- 
sists of  a  mixture  of  several  metals,  of  which 
bismuth  is  the  most  important.  The  following 
are  examples  : 

Cctmimsitiun.  Meltn  at 

4  biamiith.  2  leiul,  1  till,  and  1  cadmium  .  ..60'5'  C.  (141°  P.). 

6  bismuth,  3  iMid,  .iiicl  1  tin 91-6°  C.  (197"  F.). 

8  liisiiiutli,  5  lead,  and  3  tin 94V  C.  (202'  F.). 


Both  on  account  of  its  melting  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture and  of  its  propertv  of  expanding  as  it  cools, 
fusible  metal  is  \alua1ile  for  several  purposes  in 
the  arts.  It  is  useil  in  stereotyping,  in  taking 
casts  of  medals  and  of  woodcuts,  and  in  testing 
the  finish  of  dies.  It  has  also  been  employed  for 
making  anatomical  casts,  and  a  peculiar  kind  of 
it  \vas  used  for  making  safety-plugs  for  steam- 
boilers.  For  the  latter  purpose  it  nudts  when  the 
pressure  of  the  ste.am  becomes  dangerously  bigli. 
It  was  f<mnd,  however,  that  the  alloy  underwent 
some  change,  by  being  kept  long  heated  to  near 
its  melting-point,  which  rendered  il  unsuitable. 

Fusiliers  were  formerly  soldiers  armed  with  a 
lighter  fusil  or  musket  than  the  rest  of  the  army  ; 


but  at  present  all  regiments  of  foot  carry  the  same 
pattern  of  rifle.  Fusilier  is  therefore  simply  an  his- 
torical title  borne  by  a  few  regiments  of  the  British 
army — viz.  the  Northumberland,  Royal,  Lancashire, 
Royal  Scots,  Royal  Welsh,  Royal  Inniskilling, 
Royal  Irish,  Royal  Munster,  Royal  Dublin,  besides 
regiments  in  the  native  army  of  British  India. 

Fusion,  Fusibility.    See  Mklting-poixt. 

Fusiyania  (properly  Fuji-.smi),  a  sacred  vol- 
cano, the  loftiest  mountain  of  Japan,  stands  on  the 
main  island,  about  60  miles  SW.  of  Tokio,  and 
rises  some  12,400  feet  above  sea-level,  with  a  crater 
.^OO  feet  deep.  Its  last  eruption  was  in  1707. 
The  cone  is  free  from  snow  only  in  .July — .Sep- 
tember, when  thousands  of  white-robed  Buddhist 
pilgrims  make  the  ascent  easily  enough. 

Fust,  JoH.\NN,  with  Gutenberg  and  Schiifler 
formed  the  so-called  '  ( irand  Typographical  Trium- 
virate '  at  Mainz  between  1450  and  1466.  Pr  Faust 
(q.v. )  has  sometimes  been  confounded  with  him. 
See  Feinting. 

Fustel  de  €ouIanges,  Numa  Denls,  was 
born  at  Paris  18th  March  18.30,  and  after  filling 
chairs  successively  at  Amiens,  Paris,  and  Stras- 
burg,  was  transferred  in  1875  to  the  Kcole  Normale 
at  Paris,  and  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  in 
the  same  year.  He  died  September  12,  1889.  His 
earlier  writings,  Memoire  siir  I'ilc  de,  Chio  (1857) 
and  Pobjhr,  on  la  Gricc  conqvisc  par  les  Romains 
(1858),  had  hardly  prepared  the  reading  public  for 
the  altogether  exceptional  importance  of  his  bril- 
liant book  La  CM  antique  (1864;  lOtli  ed.  1885), 
which  threw  a  flood  of  fresh  light  on  the  social 
and  religious  institutions  of  antiquity.  The  work 
was  crowned  by  the  French  Academy,  as  was  also 
bis  profoundly  learned  and  lumyious  Histoire  des 
Iiistitutiuns  politiqnes  de  I' ancienne  France  (vo\.  i. 
1875). 

Fustian  is  a  name  given  to  certain  kinds  of 
heavy  cotton  fabrics,  including  moleskin,  velveret, 
velveteen,  beaverteen,  corduroy,  and  other  varieties. 
They  are  chiefly  used  for  men's  apparel,  and  are 
nearly  all  of  the  nature  of  velvet,  lint  in  the  case  of 
corduroy  the  loops  forming  the  pile  are  uncut. 
Fustian  cloth  with  a  velvet  pile  is  first  woven  on 
the  loom,  after  which  the  surface  weft  threads  are 
successively  cut,  brushed,  or  teazled,  and  singed  on 
a  hot  iron  cylinder.  The  cloth  is  then  bleached 
and  dyed.  According  to  the  particular  kind  of 
fustian,  the  face  is  cropped  or  .sdiorn  either  before 
or  after  it  is  dyed.     See  VELVET. 

Fustic.  The  dyestuft'  sometimes  termed  Old 
Fustic  is  the  wood  of  Madura  tinctoria,  but  the 
tree  is  also  called  Morns  tinctoria.  It  is  a  native 
of  Brazil,  Me.xico,  and  the  West  Indies.  Formerly 
this  dye-wood  or  its  extract  was  largely  used  for 
dyeing  wocd  yellow,  or  for  the  yellow  portion  of 
compound  colours,  but,  like  most  other  vegetable 
dyes,  its  importance  lias  declined  owing  to  the 
preference  now  given  to  coal-tar  colours.  The 
name  Young  Fustic  is  occasionally  given  to  the 
wood  of  R/ius  cotinus,  the  twigs  and  leaves  of 
which  yield  a  yellow  dye,  but  are  much  nioi-e 
exiensivelv    used    as    a    tanning    material.      See 

SfMAClI,  I)YKIN(i. 

Fhsus,  or  SPINDLE-.SHELL,  a  genus  of  Gastero- 
pods,  usually  referred  to  the  Murex  family.  The 
elevated  s|iire,  the  large  last  whorl,  the  canal  for 
the  res^iiratory  sijihon,  are  familiar  in  the  'roaring 
bnckie  (F.  or  ^ejitunca  antiquus),  to  which,  as 
^Vordswortll  tells  u.s,  the  curious  child  applies  his 
ear  and  listens  for  the  sonorous  cadences  of  the 
native  sea.  This  common  sjiccies  is  often  dredged 
with  oysters,  \c.,  and  used  tor  bait,  or  even  eaten. 
The  shell,  ge'iieially  about  G  inches  long,  is  or  was 
used   for  a  lamp  iii  the  cottages  of  the  Shetland 


46 


FUTA   JALLON 


FYZABAD 


tiHiicrnien.  The  nests  or  ejjg-cases  are  curious,  like 
those  of  the  Wlielk  (q.v. ).  F.  colosseus  is  ahout  a 
foot  long :  /'.  tiirtoni,  from  Scarl>oroiigh,  is  ii 
trea-siire  of  conchologist*. 

Fllta  Jallon,  a  large  area  under  French  pro- 
t<>oticiii  lyin;;  NE.  of  Sierra  Leone,  and  forming  the 
'  hinterlaml '  to  the  French  coast-colony  of  Hiviores 
ilu  Sud.  The  area  is  given  at  30,000  scj.  ni.,  ami 
the  pop.  (who  are  Knlahs)  at  GOO.OiX).  It  is  a 
hilly,  healthy  country,  lying  ronnil  a  lofty  moun- 
tain mass,  anil  contains  some  of  the  head-streams 
of  the  Gamliia,  the  Senegal,  and  the  Niger. 
Fnteliffiinja:e,  «S:c.  See  Fatehganj,  &c. 
Fiitiirr  State.  See  EscH.ATOi.or.v. 
FlI7.C<  a  means  of  igniting  an  explosive  at  the 
required  instant,  whether  it  is  used  in  Masting 
operations,  military  ilemoliti<ms  and  mines,  or  as 
the  bursting- charge  of  a  shell  or  Honih  (q.v. ).  In 
the  former  cases  electricity  would  generally  lie 
u.sed,  hut  for  hasty  military  denmlitions  IJickford's 
fuze  is  employed  in  the  IJritish  army.  It  is  of  two 
kinds — 'instantaneous"  and  'ordinary,'  the  first 
burning  at  .SO  feet  a  second,  the  otlier  at  .'{  feet  a 
minute.  The  '  ordinary  '  consists  of  a  train  of  gun- 
powder in  layers  of  tape  covered  with  jjutta-percha ; 
m  the  'instantaneous,'  which  is  ilistinguislied  by 
crossed  threails  of  orange  woreted  outside,  ipiick- 
niatcli  takes  the  place  of  the  gunjjowder.  Powder 
hose  is  sometimes  use<l  when  no  other  fuze  is  avail- 
able. It  is  made  of  strips  of  linen,  forming,  when 
lilled  with  powder,  what  is  called  a  'sausage,'  A  to 
1  inch  in  diameter. 

The  fuzes  used  for  shells  are  of  a  totally  different 
cliaracter  and  of  many  patterns.  They  are  of  two 
cliis.se.s,  those  which  depend  for  their  action  upon 
the  rate  of  burning  of  the  coni|)osition  in  them, 
called  '  time  -fuzes,  ,ind  those  which  burst  the 
shell  on  its  striking  the  target,  ground,  or  water, 
called  '  percussion  -fuzes.  In  the  British  army 
time-fuzes  are  hollow  truncated  cones  of  Iwech- 
wood,  carrying  a  column  of  fuze- 
3  composition  which  liurns  at  a  fixed 
i;ite — marks  and  figures  on  the 
iiilside  .show  twentieths  of  a 
>icond  or  les.s,  and  indicate  where 
the  hole  must  be  made  by  a  fuze-, 
borer  in  order  that  the  Hame  may 
have  acce.ss  through  it  to  the 
bursting-charge,  and  .so  open  the 
shell  at  tlie  ilesired  instant  during 
its  Higlit.  They  are  chielly  used 
with  Shraiinel  Shell  (q.v.)  and 
mortars.  Their  length  varies  from 
3  to  6  inches,  and  they  are  fixed 
in  to  the  head  of  the  sliell  before 
firing.  The  thickness  of  iron  wouhl 
prevent  the  pa.s.s,age  of  the  Hame 
through  the  hole  made  by  the  borer 
in  the  shorter  fuzes,  and  therefore 
Fig.  1.  two  or  more  powilcr  channels  are 

made  in  them,  parallel  to  the 
fuze-composition,  to  communicate  its  Hame  to  the 
bursting-charge.  In  guns  having  windage  the 
fuze  is  Ignited  bv  the  flame  of  the  cartridge  en- 
veloping the  .shell,  .and  (juickmatch  is  placed  on 
the  top  of  the  fuze  to  facilitate  this.     .\  metal  cover 


protects  the  quickmatch  until  the  last  moment, 
and  is  then  torn  off  by  means  of  a  tape  provideil 
for  that  purpose.  In  guns  having  no  wiiulage  a 
percussion  arrangement  is  placeil  in  the  bi'.ad  of  the 
fuze,  so  that  the  shock  of  ilischarge  may  ignite 
the  fiizecomposition.  Fig.  1  shows  a  section  of 
the  common  time-fuze,  tlirough  one  jiowder  channel. 
A  sectiim  of  the  |>ercussion  fuze  designed  in 
the  Koyal  Laboratory  at  AVoolwicli  is  shown 
in  fig.  ',!.  It  is  a  hollow  gun-metal  cylimler,  n, 
arranged  so  .is  to  screw  into  the  head  of  the 
shell.  Inside  is  a  movable  jif/lrl  or  ring.  A,  of 
white  metal  driven  with  fuze-composition  like  a 
tul)e,  and  cirrying  a  percussion-cap.  It  has  four 
J'cathcr.t  or  shoulders  projecting  from  its  sides,  and 
al>ove  tlie.se  a  gun-metal  r/iKird,  r,  (its  round  the 
pellet  loosely,  so  as  to  prevent  the  cap  of  the  pellet 
i-oming  into  contact  with  a  steel  jiin  which  projects 
downwards  from  the  toii  of  the  fuze.  A  safetv  pin, 
(/,  goes  through  the  f^iize  with  the  same  object, 
but  is  removeil  before  firing,  and  a  lead  pellet,  c, 
then  closes  the  aperture  left  by  its  removal.  On 
discharge  the  shock 
causes  tlie  guard  to  shear 
off  the  fe.athei"s,  and  set 
back  with  tlie  pellet 
against  the  bottom  of 
the  fuze.  The  shock  of 
impact  on  the  target  or 
ground  causes  the  pellet 
to  set  forward,  bringing 
the  cap  ag.iinst  the  pin, 
igniting  the  fuze-coiu 
position,  and  bursting 
the  shell.  Percussion- 
fuzes  are  chiefly  used  with  'common'  Shell  (o.v.). 
Very  many  othei-s  are  in  use,  chiefly  modifica- 
tions of  these  two  types — e.g.  the  'delay'  action 
fuze  has  both  a  percussicm  .and  time  arrangement, 
so  as  to  burst  the  shell  an  instant  after  impact. 
All  are  delicate  and  apt  to  deteriorate  hopelessly 
with  age  or  exposure  to  damp.  In  the  .\merican 
pneumatic  dynamite  gun,  the  shell  contains  an 
electric  battery,  .and  the  circuit  is  completed 
by  the  shell  striking  either  water  or  the  target. 

Fylfot.     See  Cros.s. 

Fj  lie.  Loch,  a  sea-loch  of  Argyllshire,  ninning 
40  miles  northward  and  north-eastward  from  the 
Sound  of  Bute  to  beyoml  Inver.aiay.  It  is  1  to  5 
miles  broad,  and  40  to  70  fathoms  deeji.  On  the 
west  side  it  sends  off  Loch  Gilp  (2|  >:  ]J  miles) 
leading  to  the  Crinan  Canal.  Loch  Fyne  is  cele- 
brated for  its  herrings. 

Fyrd.  the  old  English  Militia.     See  MiLITIA. 

Fyzahad  (better  Faizrtbad),  a  city  of  Oudh, 
on  the  (Jogra,  78  miles  E.  of  Lucknow  by  rail. 
Built  on  ]iart  of  the  site  of  Ajodhya  (  q.v. ),  it  was 
the  capital  of  Oudh  from  1760  to  1780,  but  is  now 
greatly  fallen  from  its  old-time  splendour,  most  of 
its  Mohammedan  buildings  l)eing  in  decay.  It 
maintains,  however,  a  trade  in  opium,  wheat,  and 
rice.  Pop.  (1891 )  including  cantonments,  78,921. — 
The  area  of  Fyzabad  district  is  1728  sq.  m.,  with 
1,216.9.')9  inhabitants;  of  Fyzab.ad  r/ii-isioii,  12,177 
sq.  m.,  with  a  jiop.  of  6, 794, '272.  For  the  capital  of 
Badakhsban.  see  Faizabad. 


G- 


Is  the  seventh  letter  in  the 
Roman  alphabet,  and  in  the 
modern  alphabets  derived  from 
it.  For  the  liistory  of  the  char- 
acter, and  its  ditferentiation  out 
of  C,  see  Alphabet  and  letter 
C.  The  earliest  inscription  in 
which  G  is  found  is  the  epitaph 
on  Scipio  Barbatns,  which 
Kitschl  considers  was  inscribed  not  later  tlian  234 
B.C.  The  substitution  of  G  in  the  Koman  alphabet 
for  the  disused  letter  Z,  which  occupied  the  seventh 
place  in  the  old  Italic  alphabet,  is  believed  to  have 
l)een  effected  in  the  school  of  Spurius  Carvilius,  a 
fjranmiarian  who  lived  at  the  close  of  the  3d  cen- 
tury B.C.  In  our  minuscule  g,  wliicli  is  derived 
from  the  Caroline  script,  tlie  two  loops  do  not 
lit'long  to  the  maju.scule  form  G,  of  which  the 
little  crook  at  the  top  of  g  is  the  sole  survival. 
In  Latin  the  sound  of  g,  as  in  gaudeu,  f/ciiux, 
a(/e,  was  always  hard,  a-s  in  the  English  got ;  our 
soft  sound,  wiiich  is  heanl  before  c  and  *  in  gist, 
generous,  and  gentle,  did  not  come  into  use  in 
Latin  before  the  6th  century  A.V.  In  English  this 
soft  sound  is  confined  to  words  of  foreign  origin, 
such  a-s  gem  and  gender,  and  is  due  to  French 
influence.  An  initial  g  in  words  of  English  origin 
is  always  hard,  even  before  c,  i,  and  g,  as  in  gave, 
get,  give,  and  go. 

'The  Normans  could  not  sound  our  u;  and  substi- 
tuted for  it  gii.  Hence  we  have  such  doublets  as 
giiurdian  and  irarden,  guarantee  anil  narrantg. 
Conversely  a  Freneli  g  sometimes  becomes  «•  in 
English.  Thus  the  old  French  gauffrc  has  given 
us  our  word  uafer.  G  is  often  softened  to  y,  e,  i, 
or  n.  Thus  Old  English  genoh  is  now  enough, 
gelic  is  alike,  git  is  yet,  geong  is  young,  hand- 
geweorc  is  handiwork,  sa:lig  is  silly.  A  final  or 
medial  g  often  becomes  w  or  oir ;  thus  the  Old 
English  fiigol  is  now  fowl,  maga  is  man;  sorg  is 
sorrow,  lagn  is  lair,  elnboga  is  elbow.  Sometimes 
g  disappears  altogether,  as  in  the  Old  English  gif, 
which  is  now  if;  is-gicel,  which  is  icicle ;  or  magister, 
which  is  nutster  and  mister.  Before  n  we  occa- 
sionally have  an  intrusive  q,  as  in  the  words 
foreign,  feign,  sovereign,  ancl  impregnable.  An 
Old  English  k  sometimes  becomes  gh,  and  then 
lapses  to/,  as  in  enough  and  draught.  In  the  case 
of  many  words,  such  as  gate,  get,  and  again,  we 
owe  to  Caxton,  under  ilercian  influences,  the 
restoration  of  the  Old  English  g,  which  for  three 
hundred  years  had  in  Wessex  been  gradually 
Lapsing  into  y. 

tlabbro  (Ital.),  a  rock  consisting  e.s.sentially 
of  the  two  minerals  plagioclase  Felspar  (q.v. ) 
and  Diallage  (q.v.).  It  shows  a  thoroughly 
crystalline  granitoid  texture,  with  no  trace  of  any 
base.  The  plagioclase  is  a  basic  variety — lalirador- 
it€  being  commonest,  but  anorthite  is  also  some- 
times present  in  abundance.  The  diallage  may 
usually  be  noted  by  the  pearly  or  nietalloidal  lustre 
on  its  cleavage-planes.  It  is  usu.ally  either  brown- 
ish or  <lirty  green  in  colour.  Olivine  is  also  often 
met  with  as  a  constituent  of  gabbro,  and  some 
apatite  is  almost  invariablv  present.  In  certain 
kinds  of  gabbro  other  varieties  of  pyroxene  appear; 


and  amongst  other  minerals  which  occasionally 
occur  in  gabbro  may  be  mentioned  hornblende, 
magnesia-mica,  magnetite,  ilmenite,  quartz.  The 
rock  is  of  igneous  origin,  and  occurs  in  association 
with  the  crystalline  schists  as  large  amorphous 
masses  or  bosses.  Sometimes  also  it  appears  in  the 
form  of  thick  sheets  and  bosses  associated  with 
volcanic  eruptive  rocks. 

Gabeleutz,  H.\ns  Coxon  von  der,  German 
philologist,  was  born  at  Altenburg,  13th  October 
1807.  Even  whilst  still  a  student  at  Leipzig  and 
Giittingen  he  spent  a  large  part  of  his  time  in  the 
study  of  Chinese  and  Arabic.  He  then  began  to 
study  the  Finno-Tartaric  languages,  and  published 
in  1833  his  Elements  de  la  Grammaire  Mandschoue. 
He  had,  moreover,  a  share  in  the  establishment 
(1837)  of  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  Kunde  des  Morgen- 
landcs,  a  journal  devoted  to  oriental  science,  and 
contributed  to  it  some  interesting  papers  on  the 
Mongolian  and  Mordvinian  languages.  Along  with 
J.  Liibe  he  published  a  critical  edition  of  the 
Gothic  translation  of  the  Bible  by  L'Ifilas,  with  a 
Latin  translation,  and  with  a  Gothic  glossary  and 
grammar  appended  (1843-46).  Besides  a  gram- 
mar of  Syrjan  (a  Finnish  dialect,  1841),  he  fur- 
nished contributions  to  periodicals  on  the  Swahili, 
Hazara,  Formosan,  and  Samoyede  languages. 
His  most  important  work  on  the  science  of  lan- 
guage is  Die  Mclanr^ischen  Sprachen  (2  vols. 
1860-73).  Beitrtige  zur  Sprachenkunde  (1852)  con- 
tains Dyak,  Dakota,  and  Kiriri  giamniars,  whilst 
Ucher  das  Pa.ssivum  (1860)  is  a  treatise  on  uni- 
versal grammar.  In  1864  he  published  a  Manehu 
translation  of  the  Chinese  works,  Sscchu,  Shu- 
king,  and  Shi-king,  along  «ith  a  glossary  in 
German.  Gabelentz  knew  upwards  of  eighty  lan- 
guages. He  died  3d  September  1874. —  His  son, 
Hans  Geor§  Conon  (1840-93),  held  the  chair  of 
Eastern  Asiatic  Tongues  in  Leipzig  University, 
anil  wrote  many  books  on  Chinese,  Melanesian, 
Basque,  and  Berber,  &c. 

Gabelle  (derived  through  Low  Lat.  gabulum 
from  the  Old  Ger.  gifan  or  tJothic  giban,  '  to  give'), 
in  France  a  word  sometimes  used  in  a  general 
way  to  designate  every  kind  of  indirect  tax,  but 
more  especially  the  tax  ui)on  salt.  This  impost, 
first  levied  in  1286,  in  the  reign  of  Philippe  IV., 
wii-s  meant  to  be  only  temporary,  but  was  declared 
perpetual  by  Charles  ^■.  It  varied  in  the  different 
provinces.  It  was  unpopular  from  the  very  first, 
ami  the  attempt  to  collect  it  occasioned  frequent  dis- 
turbances. It  was  finally  sup^)ressed  in  1789.  The 
word  also  indicated  the  liiagazine  in  which  salt  was 
stored.  The  name  gabelou  is  still  given  by  the 
common  people  in  France  to  custom-house  officers 
and  tax-gatherers. 

Gabelsberger.  Fr.vnz  X.wer,  the  inventor 
of  the  system  <if  shorthand  most  extensively  used 
in  Gerinan-speaking  countries,  was  born  9th 
Febniary  1789  at  Munich,  and  entered  the  Bavarian 
civil  service,  acting  as  ministerial  secretary  in  the 
statistical  office  of  the  finance  ilepartment  from 
1S26  to  the  date  of  his  death,  4th  January  1849. 
The  summoning  of  a. parliament  for  Bavaria  in 
1819   led   Gabelsberger    to    adapt    the    shorthand 


48 


GABERLUNZIE 


GACHARD 


Kyslciii  whicli  lie  had  invcnteil  for  liis  own  privato 
u»e  to  the  purpose  of  reiiortiiif;  the  ])iooeeiliii},'s  <if 
the  parliament.  I  HsoardiiiK  strai>;ht  lines  and  .sharp 
angle.-i,  he  enileavoureil  to  eonstniet  a  scrie.s  of 
siftns  which  should  conform  a.s  closely  a.s  |io.s.sihle 
to  the  written  si;,'ns  of  (lerman,  and  for  his  models 
went  hack  to  the  majuscule  forms  of  the  so-called 
Tironian  si;;ns  employed  in  Latin.  His  system  is 
now  used  for  reportinj,'  parliamentary  procei'diii^'s 
in  most  of  the  countries  in  which  (iernuvn  is  tlie 
official  lan^'uajje  ;  and  it  lia.s  also  heen  adapted 
to  the  langua^je.s  of  several  countries  cmtside  of 
Germany,  (iahelsl)erger  puhlished  an  account  of 
his  system  in  Aiilritiing  :iir  Deiitschcn  licdczcicheu- 
kitii.ll  oilrr  StiiiiMirdphir  ('2il  ed.  18.")0).  See llerber, 
GaOf/sljcrr/ns  I.ihoi  mid  Strvhni  (1H6S). 

(•aberllllizir.  an  <dd  Scotch  term  for  a  heggar, 
from  his  wallet.  The  word  is  no  douht  originally 
of  the  same  origin  as  the  English  ijabiirdiiic,  '  a 
cloak,' from  the  Spanish  gnbnn  :  the  second  part 
the  same  a.s  loiti,  the  part  on  which  the  wallet  rests. 
There  is  extant  a  line  oM  liallad  of  a  young  lover 
who  gained  access  to  his  mistress  through  a(loi)ting 
the  <lisguise  of  the  gaherlunzienian. 

C>nbes.    See  Cvuks. 

Ciilbioil  {  Ital.  gahhia,  related  to  Lat.  cavea, 
'  hollow  ' ),  a  hollow  cylinder  of  hasket  work,  3  feet 
high  and  "2  in  dianuder,  employed  in  fortification 
for  revetting  purpo.ses  -i.e.  to  retain  earth  at  a 
steep  slope.  A  miji-rol/cr  consists  of  two  concentric 
gabions,  one  4  feet,  the  other  2  feet  8  inches  in 
diameter,  the  space  between  being  weilged  full 
of  jiickets  of  hard  wood,  so  as  to  form  a  mo\'- 
ftble  protection  for  the  men  working  at  a  saphead. 
See  MiNK.s. 

dahirol.    See  Avkkduon. 

4>ab]4'.  the  triangular  jiart  of  an  exterior  wall 
of  a  building  liclween  the  t^iji  of  the  side-walls  and 
the  slopes  of  the  roof.  The  gable  is  one  of  the 
most  common  and  characteristic  features  of  (iotliic 
architecture.  The  end  walls  of  diissic  buildings 
had  Pediments  ((|, v.),  which  followed  the  slope  of 
the  roofs,  but  these  were  always  low  in  ])itch.  In 
medieval  architecture  gables  of  every  angle  are 
used  with  the  utmost  freedom,  and  when  covered 
with  the  moulded  and  docketed  copes  of  the  richer 
periods  of  the  style,  they  give  great  variety  ami 
beauty  of  outline. 

Gab/cl.s,  or  small  gables,  are  used  in  great  pro- 
fusion in  connection  with  the  more  decoiati\c 
parts  of  (Jotliic  architecture,  such  as  canopies, 
pinnacles,  &c.,  where  they  are  introduced  in  end- 
le.s»  variety  along  with  tracery,  crockets,  and  other 
enrichments. 

The  towns  of  the  middle  ages  had  almost  all  the 
gables  of  the  houses  turned  towards  the  streets, 
producing  great  diversity  and  picturesijueness  of 
eHect,  a.s  may  still  be  seen  in  many  towns  which 
have  been  little  modernised.  'flie  t<iwns  of 
Bel";iuni  and  (lermany  especially  still  retain  this 
medieval  arrangement.  In  the  later  (lothic  an<l 
the  Kenaiss,anc4'  pt-riods  the  simple  outliiii'  of  the 
gable  became  stepped  anil  broKcn  in  the  most 
fantastic  manner.  This  method  of  linishing  gables 
lias  again  become  popular,  all  sorts  of  curves  ami 
twists  being  adopted.     See  CoRBlE  STEPS. 

(>abI«HIZ,  a  t<iwn  of  the  north  of  Bohemia, 
6  miles  SK.  of  Keichenberg,  celebrated  for  its 
gla.ss  manufactures.  The  town  has  also  textile 
industries  and  porcelain-painting.     Fop.  14,653. 

Gaboon,  a  French  colony  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  middle  Congo. 
Its  north  bounilaiv  touches  the  (fermaii  colony  of 
the  Camerooiis  ;  its  south  boundary  touches  Fortu 
guese  Kabinda  ami  the  Congo  State;  and  to  the 
east   the   teiTitory   stretches   along    the    Mobaiigi 


( Ubanghi )  to  the  British  sphere,  and  northward, 
behind  the  (Cerman)  Cameroon  country  to  Lake 
Tsad.  Area,  300,000  sq.  m.  Inlets  into"  the  coa-st 
are  Corisco  Hay  and  the  estuaries  of  the  (J.iboon 
and  Ogowc  (y.v. ),  which,  with  the  Kwilii,  are 
the  ])rincipal  rivers  of  the  colony.  The  (iaboon,  10 
miles  wiife  at  its  entrance,  penetrates  40  miles 
inland,  with  a  width  varying  between  li  and  12 
niile.s.  On  the  north  bank,  which  is  tolerably  high, 
is  the  European  settlement  of  Libreville  :  the  south 
bank  is  low  and  marshy.  Its  chief  altluents  are 
the  Como  or  Oloinbo  fi(Uii  the  east  and  the  Heniboe 
from  the  south.  Besides  these  the  Licona,  Aliiua, 
and  Leliiii,  about  which  but  little  is  known.  How 
eastwards  into  the  Congo.  The  cliiiiate  on  the 
coastal  strip  is  extremely  unhealthy  ;  mean  annual 
temperature,  K3°  V.  t)n  the  inland  plateau  (2000 
feet  above  sea-level)  it  is  better.  The  interim' 
has  not  yet  been  fully  explored  ;  certain  jiarts,  as 
the  ba.sln  of  the  Ogowi^,  the  region  around  the 
scmrees  of  the  l-icona,  the  Kwilu  region,  and  the 
coast-lands,  are  fertile  and  lii'li  in  natural  resources. 
Amongst  the  exports  ligure  timber,  gum,  ivory, 
giitta-])erclia,  palm  oil  ami  kernels,  earih-niits, 
sesamnm,  and  malachite  ;  other  products  arc  brown 
hematite,  uuicksilver,  sugarcane,  cotton,  and 
bananas.  The  principal  imiiorts  are  salt,  spirits, 
gun])owder,  guns,  tobacco,  cotton  goods,  and  iron 
and  brass  wares.  All  agricultural  operations  are 
performed  by  women.  The  coast  tribes  engage  in 
tr.ide,  which  is  ]iarticularly  active  around  Loango 
in  the  south-west  and  on  the  (Jaboon.  The 
people  belong  for  the  most  jiart  to  tribes  of  the 
Bantu  stock,  the  mon-  imiiortant  being  the 
Mpongwe,  the  Fans,  Hakele,  Bateke,  iVc.  Sheep 
and  goats  are  numerous,  but  the  former  yielil  no 
wool.  This  part  of  Africa  was  discoveieil  by  the 
Spaniards  in  the  l.'ith  century.  The  Fieiich  maile 
their  lirst  settlement  on  the  C.abooii  esluary  in 
1842  :  twenty  years  later  they  extended  their  sway 
to  the  Ogowc.  But  they  seem  never  to  have 
attached  any  importance  to  the  colony  until  after 
Savorgnan  i\r  Hrazza  (q.v. )  began  to  explore  it  in 
1S76-SI).  With  the  Ogowc  ((|.v.)  territory,  the 
(iaboou  is  now  called  French  Congo.  Franceville 
is  the  iirincipal  station  in  the  interior.  See  books 
on  the  region  by  Dubreuil  ile  Uliins  ( ISH")),  Barret 
(1887),  besides  the  works  on  the  French  Colonies. 

Gaburiail.  Smile,  the  great  master  of  'police 
novels,'  was  born  in  183.5  at  Saujcm  in  Charente- 
Inferieure,  and  Wius  only  saved  from  mercantile 
life  by  a  timely  discovery  that  he  could  write.  He 
ha<l  alreaily  contributed  to  .some  of  the  smaller 
Parisian  papers,  when  he  leaped  into  fame  at  a 
single  bouiiil  with  his  story  J.'AJI'iiiic  Leiouge 
( IStili)  in  the  feuilleton  to  Le  Pays.  It  was  quickly 
followed  by  Lc  Dossier  113  (1867),  Le  Crinie 
d'Orciml  { 1868 ),  Monsieur  Lccoq  ( 1869 ),  Les  Esclaves 
de  Paris  ( 1869),  /-"  Vie  Infenmlc  ( 1870),  Ln  Clique 
Doric  (1871),  L'l  Cordc  iik  Coii  (1873),  V Argent 
dcs  A  litres  (1874),  and  La  Degriiigolailc  (1876). 
(liilxuiau  died  suddenly,  28tli  September  1873. 

<>ubriel  (Heb.,  '  man  of  God  ')  is,  in  the  Jewish 

angelology,  one  of  the  seven  archangels  ( .see 
Angel).  The  Mohammedans  hold  (labriel  in  even 
greater  reverence  than  the  Jews  ;  he  is  called  the 
spirit  of  truth,  an<l  is  believed  to  have  dictated  the 
Koran  to  Mohammed. 

(•arhard.  Louis  Puosi-ek,  writer  on  the 
history  of  Belgium,  was  born  at  Paris,  12th  March 
1800.  He  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  as 
keeper  of  the  archives  at  Bnis.sels.  He  died  24tli 
December  18.8").  He  edited  from  the  national 
archives  of  Belgium  and  .Spain  the  concspcmdence 
of  William  llieSilent(  1847-58),  Philip  II.  ( 1848  .59), 
Margaret  of  Austria  (1867-81),  and  Alba  (18.50); 
and  wrote  Les  Troubles  de  Gand  sous  Charles  V. 


GAD 


GADWALL 


49 


(1846),  and  Rctmile  et  Mart  de  Charles  V. 
( lS.")4-5,5).  besides  otliei-  books  dealing  with  the 
lii>tiny  of  Belgium. 

Iwild.  the  seventh  son  of  Jacol)  by  Zilpah,  the 
hanilniuid  of  Leali,  and  founder  of  an  Isiaelitish 
tiibe  nuiiiberiug  at  the  exodus  from  Egypt  over 
40,000  fighting-men.  Nomadic  by  nature,  and 
])ossessing  large  herds  of  cuttle,  tliey  preferred  to 
reniain  on  the  cast  side  of  .Jordan,  and  were  re- 
luctantly allowed  to  do  so  by  Joshua,  on  condition 
of  assisting  their  countrymen  in  the  coiuincst  and 
sulijugation  of  Canaan.  Their  territory  lay  to  the 
north  of  that  of  Reuben,  and  compriseil  the  moun- 
tainous district  known  as  Gilead,  through  which 
Mowed  the  brook  Jabbok,  touching  the  Sea  of 
(ialileeat  its  northern  extremity,  and  reaching  as 
far  east  as  Kalibatli-Aiamon.  The  men  of  Gad 
were  a  stalwart  lighting  race — eleven  of  its  heroes 
joined  David  at  his  greatest  need.  Jephthah  the 
Gileadite,  Barzillai,  Elijah  the  Tishbite,  and  Gad 
'the  seer'  were  in  all  probability  members  of  this 
tribe. 

(■adnilies.  or  more  accurately  Gn.iD.VMES  (the 
Cijihiinus  ^ii  the  liomans),  is  the  n.ame  of  an  oasis 
and  town  of  Africa,  .situated  on  tlie  northern 
border  of  tlie  Sahara,  in  30'  9'  N.  hit.  and  9' 
17'  E.  long.  The  entire  oasis  is  surrounded  by 
a  wall,  which  protect.s  it  from  the  .sands  of  the 
desert.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  dark,  being 
covered  in  to  shield  tliem  from  the  sun's  rays.  The 
gardens  of  Gadames,  which  grow  dates,  tigs,  and 
a))ricots,  owe  their  fertility  to  a  hot  spring  (89' 
K. ),  from  which  the  town  had  its  origin.  '  The 
climate  is  dry  and  healthy,  though  very  hot  in 
sunnner.  The  town  is  an  entrepot  for  manufactures 
and  foreign  goods  from  Tripoli  to  the  interior,  and 
for  ivory,  beeswax,  hides,  ostrich-feathers,  gold, 
\c. ,  from  the  interior  to  Tripoli.  The  slave-trade 
is  now  conijjletely  abolished.  Pop.  between  7000 
and  10,000.  mostly  of  Berber  descent,  and  in  re- 
ligion devoted  Mohammedans. 

tiad'ara,  formerly  a  tlourishing  town  of  Syria, 
in  the  Decapolis,  a  few  miles  SE.  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  but  now  a  group  of  ruins.  It  was  the 
cajiital  of  Pertca,  and  in  all  probability  the  chief  town 
in  the  New  Testament  'country  of  the  Gadarenes' 
( cf.  .Mark,  v.).  It  endured  sieges  by  Alexander 
.Iann;rus  and  Vespasian,  but  fell  into  decay  after 
the  ^lolianimedan  conquest. 

Uaddi.  the  name  of  three  Florentine  jiainters. 
(I)  (;,\r)Iii)  G-Vlil)|,  born  about  12.59  at  Florence, 
where  he  died  about  1332.  None  of  his  paintings 
have  survived,  unless  four  of  the  frescoes  in  tlie 
upjier  church  at  Assisi  are  from  his  han<l.  Of  his 
nios.-iics  there  reniain  specimens  in  S.  Maria 
M.vggiore  at  Kome. — (2)  T.vddeo  G.\ddi,  son  and 
]iupil  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1300  in 
Florence,  and  dieil  there  after  1366.  A  disci|ile  of 
liintto,  he  jiainted  frescoes  repre.senting  the  life  of 
the  \'irgin  in  the  Baroncelli  Chapel  of  the  church 
of  the  Holy  Cross  at  Florence  ;  a  triptych  of  the 
Virgin  and  Child,  now  at  Berlin  ;  another  similar 
one  at  Naples ;  and  otiier  frescoes  at  Pisa  and 
Florence.  As  a  painter  he  jiosse.ssed  little  original 
inspiration.— (3)  AiiNoi.i)  Gauiii,  son  and  pupil  of 
'I'adilco.  born  about  13,30,  died  in  t)ctober  1396. 
At  Frato  he  executed  a  scries  of  frescoes  depicting 
the  history  of  the  Virgin's  Sacred  (iirdle,  and  in 
the  church  of  the  Holy  Cross  at  F'lorence  another 
series  showing  the  history  of  the  (.'ross.  Besides 
these  he  Jiainted  some  aitarpieces.  Later  in  life 
he  -ettled  at  Venice,  and  devoted  himself  to  com- 
mercial pursuits. 

<»ad«',  Niels  Wiliiei.m,  musical  composer,  born 

at    Copenhagen    22d    F'ebruary    1817.      He   became 

known  by  his  Eclioca  of  Ossi'iin  (1841),  studied  at 

Lei|i/ig.  and  became   Alendelssolm's   successor  as 

212 


leader  of  the  fJewandhaus  concerts  there.  In  1868 
lie  was  appointed  master  of  the  Chapel  Royal  at 
Copenliagen.  Author  of  .syni|)lionies,  the  Erl  King's 
Dumjhii'i-,  tkc,  he  died  21st  December  1890. 

(liados.    See  Cadiz. 

Ciiad-fly.    See  BoT. 

Ciad'ida*  (Cod-lishes),  an  imjiortant  family  of 
bony  lislies  in  the  sub-order  Anacanthini  ( ^ee 
Bony  Fishe.s),  including  many  of  the  most  im- 
Jiortant  food-flshes,  such  as  cod,  haddock,  w  biting, 
and  other  species  of  Gadus,  the  hake  (Mer- 
luccius),  the  freshwater  Imrbot  (Lota  I,  and  the 
ling  (Molva).  The  general  characters  will  be 
readily  gathered  from  the  articles  on  these  fishes. 
Most  of  the  Gadida'  are  littoral  and  surface  fishes, 
but  not  a  few,  such  a.s  Chiasmodus  (figure<l  under 
Fishes),  Halargyrens,  the  deep  black  .Melanonus 
discovered  by  the  CliuUencjer,  and  Haloporphyrus, 
inhaliit  the  deep  sea.  while  a  few  species  (e.g. 
burl>ot)  li\e  in  fresh  water.  They  vary  greatly  in 
size,  from  giant  cod,  hake,  and  ling  four  feet  or  so 
long  to  the  dwarf-fi^h  ( Brcgmaceros)  of  tropical 
seas,  which  measures  only  aliout  three  inches.  See 
Cod,  and  similar  articles. 

dadsdt'll.  CHRlSTOrnEK,  an  American  jiatriot, 
born  in  (/harlcston,  South  Carolina,  in  1724,  was 
educated  in  England,  and  became  a  successful 
merchant  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  first  Continental  congress  (1774),  rose  to  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general  during  the  revolution, 
was  lieutenant-governor  of  South  Carolina,  and 
suH'ercd  nearly  a  year's  imprisonment  bv  the 
British.  He  died  28th  August  1805.  — His  grand- 
son, J.\MES  G.ADSDEX,  bom  in  Charleston,  loth 
May  1788,  served  as  lieutenant-colonel  of  engineers 
in  the  war  of  1812,  and  as  Jackson's  aide  against 
the  Seminole  Indians.  In  1853  he  was  ajipointed 
minister  to  Mexico,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  under 
which  the  L'nite<l  States  i)urchased  a  large  section 
of  territory,  'the  Gadsden  Purchase,' now  forming 
p.art  of  Arizona  (cj.v.)  and  New  Mexico.  He  died 
25th  December  1858. 

Gadsliill.  3  miles  N\V.  of  Rochester,  commands 
a  splendid  prosjicct,  and  was  the  scene  of  Falstall's 
famou.s  encounter  with  the  growing  number  of 
'rogues  in  buckram  suits.'  Gadsliill  Place,  an  ohl 
fashioned  red-brick  house  here,  which  Dickens 
coveteil  as  a  boy,  was  bought  by  him  in  1856.  and 
was  his  permanent  residence  from  1860  till  his 
death  in  1870. 

liadMall  (Anaa  sirqicru),  a  species  of  duck, 
not  i|iiite  so  large  as  the  mallard,  a  rare  visitant 
of  Britain,  but  aliunrlanl  in  many  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  and  ecjually  so  in  Asia  and  in 


Gadn-all  ( Anat  atrepera ). 

North  America.     Being  a  bird  of  pa.s.sage,  it  occure 
also  in  tropical  regions — e.g.  the  nortli  of  Africa. 


50 


G.^A 


CAKLIC    LANOTACK 


It  l»reeils  in  inarslies,  and  lays  from  seven  to  nine 
eggs.  Its  voice  is  louil  anil  harsh.  It  is  nuicli 
esteemed  for  the  tahle,  and  is  common  in  the 
LoM'lon  market,  being  imported  cliiellv  from 
Holland. 

(■;ra.  or  Ck,  in  ClrwU  M\  thology,  the  godile.ss  of 
the  earth,  apiiears  in  llesiod  as  the  lirst-born  of 
Chaos,  and  the  mother  of  Lranusand  Pontus.  She 
also  bore  the  Titans,  Cyclopes,  Erinyes,  Cjinnts,  iV:c. 
As  the  vajioni^  which  were  snpposed  to  produce 
divine  inspiration  rose  from  the  earth,  tla-a  came 
to  be  re^;ardfd  as  an  oracular  divuiity  ;  the  oracles 
at  Uelphi  and  Dlymjiia  were  believeil  to  have  once 
belon;;ed  to  her.  ller  woi-ship  c.vtcndcil  over  all 
(.ireecc,  black  female  lambs  being  ollcred  on  her 
altars.  She  was  also  the  goddess  of  marriage,  and 
again  of  ileath  and  the  lower  world.  .\t  Kome 
Ga'a  was  worshipped  under  the  name  of  Tcllits. 

C;iirkw;ir.    See  (Uicow.m!. 

Gaelit*  Laiiifiiaifo  and  Litoratiirr. 

Gaelic  is  the  lang\iago  of  the  (loidcl  or  (lael.  The 
term  inclmles  Irish  and  Manx  as  well  ivs  Scottish 
Gaelic,  though  popular  irsage  frequently  restricts 
its  application  to  the  last  alone.  The  tribes  who 
spoke  this  langn.age  were  known  to  the  Homans  ;us 
Sfdii :  and  native  authors,  especially  when  they 
wrote  in  Latin,  sometimes  m.atle  use  of  the  M'ord  to 
designate  the  |ieople.  Their  principal  home  was  in 
Ireland,  and  accordingly  with  writers  like  Adamnan 
Seotiii  is  'Ireland,'  and  liiitjiin  Sc/fini,  'Gaelic' 
About  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century  a  fresh 
colony  of  these  Scots  settled  in  .\rgyllshire,  and 
founded  the  sub  kingdom  of  Dalriada.  They  were 
followed  some  sixty  yeai-s  later  by  Coluniba's 
mission  to  lon.i.  The  people  prospered  in  their 
new  home,  and  by  the  ndddle  of  the  9tli  century 
Kenneth  Mac.Mpin,  erne  of  their  race,  became  king 
of  I'ictlaud  as  well  as  of  Dalriada.  In  after-years 
the  names  Scutin  and  liiiyim  Srotifti  followed  these 
successful  colonists,  and  Scotlanil  became  the  name 
of  the  kingdom  founded  by  them.  .\t  a  later 
period  Sent  and  Sroltis  touuij  were  applied  to  the 
Teutonic  tribes  settled  in  Scotland  aiul  their  s])eech, 
and  then  it  became  customary  to  speak  of  Gaelic 
as  Irish,  or  corruptly  lu-srh  ,ind  Er.-ic.  I5ut  to  the 
iieo|de  themselves  such  designations  are  unknown. 
\Villi  them  Scotland  has  always  been  Allm,  A/liuiiiii, 
as  distinguished  from  Eirimi,  '  Irelaml,'  and.s'«.v»HH 
(Saxon  ),  '  England  ; '  and  a  Scotsman,  whether  Celt 
or  Teuton,  is  Albaiimtch.  Thev  themselves  are 
Gaid/icil,  'Gaels,'  in  contradistinction  to  Gai//, 
'strangers,'  a  word  applied  of  old  as  a  general  term 
to  the  Norwegian  ami  Danish  invaders,  but  now  to 
the  Lowland  Scot ;  their  territory  is  Guiillwallin-lul, 
'Gaeldom,'  .as  distinct  from  Gullilailul  or  'Low- 
lands ; '  and  their  speech  G(iiilhlii),  '  Gaelic,'  in  con- 
trast to  Bciirhi,  formerly  lifhc,  a  word  originally 
signifying  'language'  simply,  afterwards  an  'un- 
known '  or  '  foreign  tongue,'  and  now  annuig  High- 
landers restricted  to  the  foreign  tongue  best  known 
to  them — '  English.'  When  it  becomes  neces.sary 
to  dill'erentiate,  they  spe,ak  of  Gnidlilig  AtbaiiiKirli, 
'Scottish  Gaelic:'  Gnklhlig  Eirioiinarh,  'Irish 
G.aelic;'  and  Gnidlilig Mhuntiniiiich,  'Manx  (iaelic' 
What  the  lanjjnage  of  the  tril>es  occupying  the 
north  of  Scotlanil,  and  collectively  spoken  of  by  the 
Homans  ,is  I'icts,  w.as,  is  not  definitely  a.scertained. 
As  in  their  blood,  so  in  the  speech  of  these  peojile, 
there  w.as  probably  a  clash  of  pre  Celtic.  That  the 
language  was  largely  a  Celtic  di.alcct  is  proved  by 
such  n.aines  as  Cit/iy/unin,  the  root  of  which  we  have 
still  in  cui//,  in  origin  as  in  meaning  the  eijuivalent 
of  /lo/z  :  C/otti,  now  Cliiiiiilli,  'the  Clyde,'  a  word 
equated  by  Whitley  Stokes  with  cliiere,  '  to  wash  ; ' 
Oirndex,  ' isles  of  ore ,• '  or,  restoring  initial />,  'isles 
of  pore' — i.e.  'pigs'  or  '  whales '—a  whale  being 
still  in  Gaelic  a  'sea-pig.'     The  idioms  of  Pictland 


in  those  (lavs  seem  to  have  lieen,  in  so  far  as  Celtic, 
more  closely  allied  to  the  IJryllionic  than  to  the 
(Joidelic  dialects  (see  Cki.Ts);  but  the  I>aliiads, 
powerfully  backed  by  the  Columban  clergy,  after- 
wards made  (iaelie  the  ruling  s|iecch  over  the  «  hole 
king<lom.  It  was  the  langu.age  of  the  court  until 
Malcidm  Canmore's  day.  The  political  and  ecclesi- 
iustical  ideas  which  Queen  Margtiret  fav<nired  were 
hostile  to  Gaelic,  which  from  her  time  has  been  retir- 
ing steadily  though  slowly  north  and  west.  We  get 
a  glimpse  now  and  again  of  its  retreating  footsteps. 
Gaelic  wius  the  vernacular  of  Ihwhan  in  the  iL'lli 
century,  probably  much  later.  The  ability  to  speak 
the  language  is  oneof  the  accomplishments  credited 
to  .lames  I\'.  by  the  distinguished  Spanish  ambas.s- 
ador,  Don  I'edro  I'ueblo.  It  was  spoken  in  Gallo- 
way in  Queen  .Marv's  reign,  and  tlio  echoes  of  I  he 
old  tongue  lingereil  in  the  uplands  of  (^lalloway  and 
Carrick  down  to  the  IStli  century.  It  wxs  the 
mother- tongue  of  George  Huchanan,  Scotland's 
greatest  scholar,  born  at  Killearn  in  Slirlingshire. 
Captain  Burl  mentions  that  nnlil  shortly  before 
the  Union,  when  the  farmers  of  I'ife  sent  their 
sons  as  apprentices  to  the  Lothians,  it  was  maile 
a  condition  of  indenture  that  the  boys  should  l>e 
tau;,'lit  Ejjglisli.  The  swee|iing  measures  taken  to 
]>nnisli  the  Clans  who  took  part  in  the  ri'bellinn 
of  171.5  ;  the  introduction  of  stieep  fuming  into  the 
north  ;  the  spread  of  education  ;  facilities  ol  com- 
munication by  steam  and  rail  ;  the  extension  of  the 
sufl'r.ige— all  have  in  their  w.ay  been  the  means  of 
introducing  the  use  of  the  P'o'dish  tongue  into  even 
the  remoter  parts  of  the  HijjhTands,  though  without 
largely  contracting  the  Gaelic-speaking  area.  This 
venerable  language  is  still  spoken  over  the  wlmle 
of  Arran,  .\rgvll,  Inverness,  Hoss,  and  Sutherland  ; 
in  considerable  portions  of  I'ertli  and  Caithness; 
and  in  the  upland  corners  of  Dumbarton,  Stirling, 
.•Aberdeen,  and  lianfl'.  Acconling  to  the  census  of 
IS91  the  number  of  persons  «ho  spoke  Gaelic  only 
in  Scotl.md  was  4:{,73S,  while  -2111,677  spoke  boih 
Gaelic  and  English.  Emigrants  from  the  High 
lands  carried  their  mother-tongue  to  America  ami 
Australia.  In  the  end  of  last  century  Gaelic  took 
root  in  Carolina;  but  the  use  of  it  in  the  I'niled 
States  and  in  Australia  is  largely  on  the  wane. 
The  language  is,  however,  preached  to  large  and 
Honrishing  congregations  throughout  wide  tracts 
of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  "Through  the  exer- 
tions of  I'rofessor  ISlackie  a  Celtic  chair  was 
founded  in  1882  in  the  univei'sity  of  Edinburgh  :  and 
by  the  deed  of  foundation  the  professor  is  bound  to 
make  '  provision  for  a  practical  cla-ss  in  the  n.ses 
and  graces  of  theliaelic  language,  so  long  !us  that 
language  shall  be  a,  recognised  nieilium  of  religious 
instruction  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotlaml.' 

From  the  Dalri.ailic  immigration  until  the  Nor- 
wegian and  Danish  invasions,  a  perioil  of  ."WM)  yeais, 
Ireland  and  Gaelic  Scotland  may  be  looked  njion 
as  one.  The  langn.age  and  literature  of  both  were 
the  same.  The  Norwegian  settlement  caused  a. 
temporary  dislocation.  The  Hebrides  were  ]ilaced 
under  one  government  with  the  Isle  of  Man.  and 
to  this  d.ay  a  Manxman  tinds  Caelic  more  intel- 
ligible than  Irish.  During  this  period  Scottish 
(Iaelie,  se|)arateil  from  the  parent  tongue,  ami  sub- 
jected on  the  one  side  to  Norse,  on  the  other  to 
I'ictish  influence,  developed  certain  characteristics 
which  are  still  traceable.  Hut,  when  things  .settleil 
down,  the  olil  ecclesiastical  and  literary  relations 
between  the  Highlands  and  Irel.anil  were  resumed, 
and  maintaineil  until  the  Hefcirniation.  A  com 
mon  literature  checked  the  tendency  of  the  two 
dialects  to  diverge.  .•Vcconlingly,  the  diflerences 
between  Scottish  and  Irish  CJaelic  may  be  regarded 
as  mere  variations  of  dialect,  which  in  the  spoken 
tongues  shade  into  each  other.  In  point  of  lan- 
guage Ulster  is  as  far  removed  from  Munster  as  from 


GAELIC    LANGUAGE 


51 


Islay.  Again,  an  I.slayiiian  feels  as  iiiucli  at  lioiiie 
in  Antrim  as  in  Assynt,  ami  liis  putuia  ilifleis  less 
Iioni  eitlier  tlian  that  of  LidilesJale  dilleis  fmni 
Uueiian.  Tlie  piinteil  books  show  greater  vaiia- 
tions,  hut  these  are  mure  in  a|>|>earance  than  in 
reality.  Manx  is  wiitteii  iihonetically,  auJ  to  a 
(■aelic  reader  the  jiage  looks  sliange  at  lirst  sight. 
Irish  is  '.vritten  as  a  rule  in  the  ohl  characters, 
and  as|iiration  is  marked  hy  a  dot  over  the  letter 
allected.  (laelic,  on  the  other  hand,  has  adopted 
the  Unman  alphabet,  and  aspiration  is  indicated, 
e.\cepi  in  the  case  of  infected  /,  h,  /',  by  the  addi- 
tion of  the  letter  /(.  Irish  writers  make  a  liberal 
use  of  archaic  and  obsolete  foims,  while  the  aim  of 
Highland  authors  is  to  bring  the  written  language 
and  the  spoken  tongue  more  into  line.  In  both 
there  has  been  great  loss  of  inlle.\ion  in  noun  and 
veib;  but  on  this  down  grade  Scottish  Gaelic  ha-s 
[irogressed  even  more  rapidly  than  Irish.  But  in 
all  essential  features  the  two  are  one  language, 
with  a  co|iious  vocabulary,  the  native  stores  being 
laig(dy  suiiplemented  from  foreign  sources,  especi- 
ally Latin  and  English,  and  with  probably  an  in- 
fusion from  a  pre  Celtic  non-Aryan  speech.  The 
distinctive  Celtic  law  which  places  two  words  that 
are  in  close  grammatical  relation  under  one  main 
accent,  and  treats  them  for  the  time  being  phoneti- 
cally as  one  word,  holds  true  in  all  the  Celtic 
dialects,  lirythonic  and  Goidelic  alike.  Under 
this  law,  initial  aspiration,  due  to  vocalic  auslaut, 
follows  the  same  rules  in  Irish  ami  Scottish  Gaelic; 
but  while  the  nasal  (iitsUiut,  technically  termed 
eclipsis,  proceeds  in  written  Irish  with  all  the 
regularity  of  the  multiplication  table,  in  spoken 
(iaelic  this  |ihouetic  change  apjiears  only  sporadic- 
ally, and  native  grammarians  have  ignored  it  alto- 
gether. 

Among  the  more  noticeable  dili'erences  between 
Irish  and  Scottish  Gaelic  are  the  following.  In 
botli  the  accent  or  stress  is  on  the  root-syl- 
lalile  of  the  word,  but  Scottish  Gaelic  e.\hibits  a 
tendency  to  follow  the  English  fashion  of  throw- 
ing the  accent  as  far  back  as  possible.  Besides, 
in  the  case  of  complex  substantives,  such  as 
diminutives,  &.C.,  which  have  usually  a  principal 
ami  subsidiary  accent,  while  Irishmen  place  the 
main  accent  on  the  terminal  syllable,  Highlanders 
(and  here  Ulster  joins  them)  keej)  the  principal 
accent  on  the  root-syllable.  Irish  cnocdii,  'a 
hillock,'  from  cnoc,  'a  hill,'  is  in  Scotland  ciiocun  ; 
Irish  tlitillrui),  'a  lealiet,'  from  duHle,  'a  leaf,' 
Gaelic  tli'titUa;/,  &c.  Scottish  Gaelic,  under 
Xorse  inlluence  it  may  well  be,  takes  in  many 
case^  the  broiid  sound  of  «,  where  Iiish  adheres 
to  the  older  o:  ens,  'foot,'  is  in  Scottish  Gaelic 
cu-i:  foiyi/,  '  vocal  is,' /««(/.  In  the  north  High- 
lands the  practice  is  carried  further  than  in  the 
south  ;  /">/,  'kiss,'  is  jjtti/  in  Sutherland.  Even  so 
the  open  long  e,  sometimes  al.so  long  i,  is  in  the 
north  Highlands  dipthongi.sed  into  iu,  where  south 
Ar;;yll,  like  Ireland,  is  satislied  with  the  old 
souuil :/(>(/•  (m-J'iiii-,  'gra.ss;'  iiiiil  for  imi/,  'cloiul;' 
>ii  Jiitii  tin- Jioii,  '  vinuni,' &c.  With  the  exception 
of  masculine  osteins,  the  nominative  plural  of 
nouns  in  Scottish  Gaelic  ;ussumes  a  linal  «,  while 
Irish  abides  by  the  old  vocalic  ending  :  Scottish 
Gaelic  vnsim,  'feet,'  Irish  Ciaelic  rosa  ;  Scottish 
Gaelic  IciiUcaii,  'shirts,'  Irish  Gaelic  Uiule,  ice. 
In  the  verb,  Highlanders  use  the  analytical  form  in 
some  Ciuses  where  Irisiimen  have  preserved  the 
synthetic.  Because  of  the  loss  of  inHexion,  aux- 
iliary verbs  in  Gaelic  as  in  English  have  con- 
tinually to  be  called  iu  to  form  mood,  tense,  and 
\oice.  Except  in  the  ca.se  of  is,  la,  bheil,  all 
ilill'erent  roots  forming  the  substantive  verb,  there 
is  no  separate  fcuin  for  the  present  tense  in  Gaelic. 
The  i  future  still  survives  in  both  ilialects,  but  the 
characteristic    consonant  /'  has   disap[>eared   from 


Scottish  Gaelic,  and  has  hardly  left  its  ghost 
behind  :  the  Irish  cuiijidh  is  now  simply  cuiriilh 
in  the  Highlands. 

Gaelic  literature  in  Scotland  dates  from  St 
Columba.  The  great  missionary  was  an  ardent 
student  and  an  accomplished  .scribe  ;  and  succeed- 
ing abbots  of  lona  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  the 
illustrious  founder  of  the  mouiustery.  Ecclesia-stics 
wrote  in  those  ilays  for  the  most  part  in  Latin.  It 
was  a  i)eiiod  of  great  literary  activity  as  well  as  of 
missionary  enterprise.  But  of  the  many  wcuks 
produced  at  this  time  few  survive.  AVith  all  his 
passion  lor  his  native  saga,  the  Norseman,  in  his 
Iieathen  days,  made  short  work  of  the  books  and 
bells  of  priests.  During  the  Danish  invasions, 
monks  Hed  in  huge  numbers  to  the  Continent, 
.sometimes  taking  their  MSS.  along  with  them. 
So  we  lind  that  while  little  more  than  a  dozen 
books  written  by  Gaelic  scholais  before  the  lOtli 
century  are  to  be  found  iu  the  British  Isles,  there 
are  over  '200  MSS.  of  this  period  preserved  in 
Austria,  Italy,  Switzerland,  Germany,  France, 
ami  Belgium.  Many  of  the.se  may  have  been 
written  in  Scotland;  two  certainly  were.  A  copy 
of  Adamnan's  Life  of  Culioiibu,  wiitten  in  lona 
before  713  .\.D.,  is  now  in  the  public  library  of 
Schairiiausen.  The  Book  of  Deer,  a  MS.  of  the 
9th  century,  is  in  Cambridge.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  some  half-dozen  JISS.  in  the  university 
of  Edinburgh,  in  the  library  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries,  and  in  private  hands,  all  the  MS. 
literature  of  the  Gael  preserved  in  this  country 
has  been,  mainly  through  the  inlluence  and  patiiot- 
isni  of  Dr  Skene,  deposited  for  pieservalion 
and  reference  in  the  libraiy  of  the  Faculty  of 
Advocates,  Edinburgh.  This  collection  consists  of 
sixty-four  separate  parcels,  many  of  them  being 
several  MSS.  bound  together  for  the  convenience 
of  the  owner.  A  large  number  of  them  were 
written  within  the  hust  '250  yeai-s  ;  a  few  are  500 
years  old.  Many  aie  mere  tattered  scraps  of  paper, 
illegible  through  damp,  decay,  and  neglect ;  several 
are  beautiful  vellums  of  exquisite  workmanship,  ;is 
fresh  as  in  the  day  they  were  written.  About  half 
of  the  total  number  are  the  moperty  of  the  Highland 
and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland.  Thirty-two 
MSS.,  including  nearly  all  the  oldest  parchments, 
are  know  n  to  have  once  belonged  to  the  MLachlans 
of  Kilbride,  in  Nether  Lorn,  Argyllshire.  This 
portion  was  long  sujiposed  to  have  formed  a  part  of 
the  lost  library  of  lona. 

The  greater  number  of  the  oldest  of  these  MSS. 
are  indistinguishable  from  the  Irish  MSS.  of  the 
same  date.  Since  Norse  days  Scottish  Gaelic  has 
had  a  se|>arate  individuality,  but  of  this  the  MSS. 
take  little  or  no  account.  The  centre  of  Gaelic 
learning  and  culture  was  in  Ireland  and  Dalriada. 
.•\ccordingly,  we  hear  comparatively  little  of  the 
Pict,  his  language,  beliefs,  and  traditions.  The 
men  of  the  Isles  fought  and  fell  at  Bauuockburn 
and  Flodden  ;  but  though  liish  and  Nurse  heroes 
are  household  words  with  Ilebridean  banls,  Bruce 
and  Wallace  are  unknown  to  them.  In  the  middle 
ami  north  Highlands  the  iiolitical  sympathy  with 
the  central  government  was  not  perhaps  much 
stronger  than  in  the  west,  but  the  linguistic  ami 
literary  connection  with  Ireland  was  much  less 
close.  Accordingly,  we  lind  in  the  MS.  of  the 
Dean  of  Lismure,  written  by  a  native  of  Glenlyon 
in  Perthshire,  between  l.'>12  and  lo.SO,  and  at  a  later 
periwi  in  the  Fernaig  MS.,  written  by  Duncan 
M'Hae  in  Kintail  in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th 
century,  a  wide  departure  from  the  traditions  of 
(laelic  scholars.  Highlandmen  and  their  affairs 
obtain  prominence ;  the  langinige  is  not  merely 
Scottish  Gaelic,  but  frequently  the  provincial  idiom 
of  the  scribe;  the  writing  is  in  the  current  Scottish 
hand  and  character  of  the  day  ;  and  the  orthography 


52 


GAELIC   LAXCiUAtiE 


OAETA 


is  more  or  less  iilionctic,  a.  iiictlioil  nilopteil  partly 
licrliaps  in  i^cnoniiioo,  |>artly  frmii  iiiiiKitienoe,  of 
till'  stiiit  and  lii^'lily  aililiiial  nik-s  of  tlie  schools. 

Tlif  MSS.  ill  tlie  Scottish  collection  frccpiently 
sii|>[ily  valiialile  variants,  soinctinio  welcome 
ndilitions,  to  the  lar^'e  Irish  collections.  The 
suliject matter  of  several  is  relijrious— lives  of 
saints,  sncli  as  Coluniha  and  St  Mar;;aret  ;  jdissions 
and  lioinilles,  snch  as  are  found  in  the  Liiihhiir 
Breac,  or  'Speckled  Book.'  In  MS.  I.  (Skenes 
catalogue)  is  the  Passion  of  our  Lord  as  revealed 
to  Anselni,  written  down  in  U67  hy  Dugald.  son 
of  the  son  of  I'aul  the  Scot,  a  treatise  not  to  he 
found  in  the  'Speckled  IJook.'  A  few  deal  with 
philology  and  kindred  niattei's.  In  MS.  I.,  for 
exainjile,  is  preserved  a  copy  of  the  Books  of 
Primers  ( U miecrht  mm  Eiijeis),  as  in  the  Book 
of  Ballymote.  Several  MSS.  contain  translations 
of  portions  of  the  heroic  history  of  (Ireece  and 
Koine  :  the  destruction  of  Troy,  the  lahoiirs  of 
Hercules,  the  expedition  of  .Ijvsoii ;  also  the  wars  of 
Poinpey  and  Caesar.  The  genealogies,  tales,  mythi- 
cal and  legendarv,  of  the  pei>ples  and  races  that 
inhahited  Ireland,  and  of  Lmhlaniitiieli  or  Scandi- 
navians, are  endless.  The  most  imaginative 
pieces,  snch  as  the  voyage  of  Mitchliiiit  and  the 
adventures  of  Cuiui/I,  are  in  prose,  with  verse 
interspersed.  Several  historical  documents  and 
even  caleiidai"s,  such  as  that  of  Oengus  the  Culdee, 
are,  on  the  other  hand,  thrown  into  the  form  of 
verse.  (Gaelic  poetry  is  all  lyric,  the  epic  and  the 
drama,  ius  literary  forms,  heiiig  unknown  to  the 
pcoiile.  The  line  as  a  rule  is  smooth  and  Mowing, 
with  an  e.xceeiling  richness  and  variety  of  verse. 
In  poetry  as  in  prose  the  style  is  freijuenlly  in- 
llaled  ;  and  the  language,  whether  ot  prai.se  or 
hiamo,  unmciusurcd,  exaggerated.  The  literature 
shows  that  the  Scottish  Gael  is  witty  rather  than 
hninoidus,  and  that  his  perception  of  the  beauti- 
ful in  external  nature  is  ever  lively  and  true. 

Tlie  most  characteristic  features  of  the  Scottish 
collection  are  the  almost  total  absence  of  annals, 
and  the  great  richness  of  the  medical  section.  Two 
folios  relating  to  Irish  events  (  13(i()-  140'2)  hounil  up 
ill  MS.  II.,  and  the  history  of  the  Macdonaldsof  the 
Isles  (MS.  I,.)  are,  apart  from  genealojjies,  pretty 
nearly  all  that  deal  with  all'airs  within  historic 
times.  That  reccnds  were  written  in  (iaelic  we 
know  from  various  sources,  though  the  memoranda 
in  the  Book  of  Deer  and  the  Islay  Charter  of  1408 
are  almost  all  that  survive.  On  the  other  hand, 
fully  a  third  of  the  whole  Scottish  collection  is 
medical  or  qua'^i-nieilical.  These  MSS.  consist  of 
treatises  on  anatomy,  physiology,  botany,  and 
pharmacy.  Several  are  translations  with  coni- 
iiientaries  of  portions  of  Aristotle's  works,  of  Galen, 
Hippocrates,  Bernanlus  Gm'doniis,  Averroes,  Isidore, 
v'cc.  ;  but  the  strictl.v  medical  discu.ssi<m  frequently 
branches  oH"  now  to  metaphysics  an<l  theology,  now 
to  astrology  and  alchemy.  The  greater  part  of 
tiiese  scientific  documents  were  at  one  time  the  pro- 
perty of  the  M'lilieaths  or  lieatons  or  Bethunes, 
lor  many  generations  family  physicians  in  Islay, 
Mull,  and  Skye.  These  medical  books  may  not 
perhaps  claim  to  be  of  great  scientific  value  ;  but 
tliey  are  of  high  interest  and  importance  as  a  most 
reliable  piece  of  evidence  regarding  the  state  of 
learning  ami  culture  in  the  West  Highlands  during 
wh.it  we  cinnplacently  call  the  dark  ages. 

The  lirst  book  printed  in  a  Gaelic  dialect  was 
John  Kno.x's  Liturgy,  translated  into  Gaelic  by 
Bishop  Carsewell  of  .Vrgyll,  and  published  in 
Kdinburgh  in  lolJT.  V\i  to  the  middle  of  the  18tli 
century  not  more  than  twent.v  Gaelic  liooks  were 
printed,  and  these  consisted  mainly  of  successive 
editions  of  the  Psalms,  Shorter  Catechism,  and 
Confession  of  Faith.  The  number  of  separate  pub- 
lications  now    amounts   to   several    hundreds       A 


vcrj-  complete  and  accurate  account  of  Gaelic  Imoks 
printed  before  183'2  is  given  in  Beids  Bihliotlirrn 
Scutu-Celtica.  Professor  Itlackie,  in  his  Liiiiiiitiii/f 
mill  Litiniliire  itf  tin:  Sinlllsli  /lii//i/iiiii/s  (  IS7G), 
has  given  ailmirable  translations  of  the  best  eltoils 
of  miHlern  Gaelic  authors.  These  consist  for  the 
most  part  of  a  succession  of  lyric  jioels  who  have 
tlourisheil  during  the  last  3(KI  veal's.  I'oiemosl 
anumg  llieiii  are  Mary  MacLeod  (iiiii/i'ii  Alnxliiir 
Ituiiiilh  ),  who  was  horn  in  Harris  in  l,>G9  or  tliere- 
alxmts,  aixl  attaineil,  so  tradition  relates,  to  the 
great  age  of  lOo  years;  .lohii  Macdoiiald  {liiui 
Loin)  of  the  Kepjioch  family,  who  witnessed  the 
battle  of  Inverloehy  in  l(i4.">,  and  survived  Killie- 
erankie ;  Alexander  Macdonald  {Miir  Mlaiiijli.slii- 
Aliixlnir),  the  celebrated  Jacobite  ])oel,  born  about 
ITtXt,  received  a  university  education,  became 
schoolma-ster  in  Ardnaimirclian,  and  afterwards  an 
ollicer  in  Prince  Cliailes  Stuart's  army,  pnhlisheil  a 
(iaelic  vocabnlarv  in  1741.  ami  a  v<dume  of  poi'ins 
in  1751;  John  SlacCodrum,  a  native  of  S'orlli 
Cist;  B<d.ert  Mackay  i  J.'uli  /li,iiii,  1714  78).  the 
Beay  ('oiinlry  bard  ;  Dugald  Biichannan  of  Bannoch 
(1710-1)8),  leligicms  poet  and  evangelist;  Ihiiican 
Ban  M'lntyre  ( 17'24-I81'2),  the  famous  iioet  game 
keeper  of  liciiiti-duiuiii,  fought  at  I'alkirk  in 
174G,  and  in  his  ohi  age  was  a  member  of  the 
city  guard  of  Edinburgh  ;  William  Bo.ss  (I7t)'2-90|, 
school m.'ister  in  Gairloch ;  Allan  MacDongall 
{Ai/enii  Dull,  17.")0-18'29):  Ewan  M'Lachlan  of 
Aberileen  ( 1 775- 1 8'2'2 ),  scholar  and  poet;  and 
William  Livingstone  ( 1808-1870),  the  Islay  bard. 
t)f  (piile  recent  (iaelic  poets  may  be  mentioned, 
among'  othei-s,  the  veteran  Kvan  M  'Coll  of  Kingston, 
Canada:  John  Campbell  of  Ledaig  ;  Mrs  ^lary 
Mackellar;  and  Neil  Macleod.  Of  late  years  the 
most  notable  Gaelic  works  published  have  been  The 
licaiitka  of  Gaelic  Poetr;/,  edited  liv  Jidiii  .Mac 
kenzie  ;  Cttraid  iiiiii  (.iiiid/ieiil,  being  a  .selection  of 
dialogues  and  articles  contributed  by  l)r  Norinan 
Macleod  the  elder,  the  best  of  (iaelic  lu'ose  writers, 
to  several  periodicals  and  books;  J.  r'.  CampbcH's 
Tu/ai  of  the  )\\vl  J/iifh/iinih  (4  vols.  18GO-6'2),  and 
the  same  author's  Lcabhar  na  Fiinnc  or  '  Ossianic 
Ballads'  (187'2);  the  liool.of  the  Dean  of  Lismore, 
edited  by  l)rs  M'Laiichlan  and  Skene  (18(j'2); 
and  SherifV  Xieolson's  Gaclir  Prurerbs  ( 1881 ). 
Scholarly  clergvmen  of  a  |iast  generation— the 
Stewarts  of  Killiii,  Luss,  and  Dingwall,  and  Dr 
Smith  of  Cam)ibeltowii — made  an  excellent  trans- 
lation of  the  Scriptures  into  Gaelic.  'I'hegrammai's 
of  Stewart  and  Munro,  an<l  the  dictionaries  of 
Armstrong  ( IS'25)  and  the  Highland  Society  ( 18'28), 
though  requiring  to  be  rewritten  in  the  light  of 
modern  science,  are  works  of  great  merit.  Among 
the  most  prominent  of  recent  scholars  in  the  field 
of  Scottish  i;aelic  were  Dr  Thomas  M'Lauehlan  of 
Edinburgh,  Dr  Archibald  Clerk  of  Kilmallie,  and  Dr 
Alexander  Cameron  of  Brodick.    See  Celts,  Pkt.s, 

O.S.SIAS,   lltELASD,  DEEK. 

(■acta  ( Lat.  Caieta),  a  strongly  fortified  mari 
time  town  of  southern  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Caserta,  is  picturesijuely  situated  on  a  lofty  pro- 
montory projecting  into  the  Mediterranean,  50 
miles  N\\.  of  Naples.  On  the  summit  of  the  ]>ro- 
montory  stands  the  circular  Roland's  tower,  .saiil 
to  be  the  mausoleum  of  Lucius  Munatius  Plancus, 
the  friend  of  Augustus.  The  beauty  of  the  bay  of 
Gaeta,  which  almo.st  rivals  that  of  Naples,  ha.- 
l>een  celebrated  by  A'iigil  and  Horace.  On  tli<' 
dismemberment  of  the  Boman  em]dre,  Gaeta  be- 
came an  independent  centre  of  civilisation  and 
commercial  prosiierity.  The  town  liius  been  be 
sieged  on  several  occasions,  as  by  Al)>honso  V.  of 
Aragon  in  1435,  by  the  Austrians  in  1707,  by 
Charles  of  Naples  in  1734,  by  the  French  in  ISOti, 
by  the  Austnans  in  1H15,  and  by  the  Italian 
national   ]iarty   in   ISGl.      In    1848-49   it   was  the 


GAETA 


GAINSBOROUGH 


53 


refuse  of  Pope  Pius  IX.  ;  in  1860-61  of  Francis 
II.  of  Naples.  The  vicinity  of  (iaeta  abounds  in 
remains  of  Roman  villas,  \-c.  The  citadel,  wliic-h 
i-  i)f  threat  strength,  contains  in  its  tower  the  tomb 
lit  tlie  Constable  IJourbon.  killed  at  the  taking  of 
Home  in  lo-27.  The  inhabitants,  16,848  in  1881, 
are  chietly  engaged  in  lisliing  and  in  the  coasting 
trade  in  corn,  oil,  wine,  and  fruits. 

Ciactii.  MoL.A.  Di.    See  Forjiia. 

Ciil'tlllin,  an  ancient  country  of  Africa,  situated 
south  of  Mauritania  and  Numidia,  and  embracing 
the  western  part  of  the  Sahara.  Its  inhabitants 
belonged  in  all  probability  to  the  aboriginal  Berber 
family  of  north  and  north-western  Africa ;  they 
were  not  in  general  black,  thougli  a  jxirtion  of 
them  dwelling  in  the  extreme  south,  towards  the 
Niger,  had  approximated  to  this  colour  through 
intermixture  witli  the  natives  and  from  climatic 
causes,  and  were  called  Mclnno/jirtnli,  or  '  Black 
(Jtetulians.'  The  G;etulians  were  savage  and  war- 
like, and  paid  great  attention  to  the  rearing  of 
horses.  They  first  came  into  collision  with  the 
Itomans  during  the  Jugurthine  war,  when  they 
served  as  lightlioi-se  in  the  army  of  the  Numidian 
king.  Cossus  Lentulus  broke  them  to  Koman  rule, 
obtaining  for  his  success  a  tiiumph  and  the  surname 
of  (Ja'tulicus  (6  .\.D. ).  The  ancient  l!a>tulians  are 
believed  to  be  represented  by  the  modern  Tviareg. 

Ciilff.  in  a  ship  or  boat,  the  spar  to  which  the 
hea<l  of  a  fore-an<l-aft  sail  is  bent,  such  sail  having 
its  foremost  side  made  fast  by  rings  to  the  mast, 
•uid  its  lower  edge,  in  most  instances,  held  straight 
by  a  boom.  The  thick  end  of  the  gafl"  is  con- 
structeil  with  'jaws'  to  pass  half  round  the  mast, 
the  other  half  being  enclosed  by  a  rope.  A  gatt- 
topsail  is  a  small  sail  carried  on  the  topmast  aliove 
the  gaff. — For  tlie  gaff  or  hook  of  the  fisherman, 
>ee  AxfiLiSG. 

tinge.  See  G.woe;  and  for  GREENGAGE,  see 
Plim. 

C>age.  Thomas,  an  English  general,  was  born 
in  17'21,  the  second  son  of  the  first  Viscount  Gage. 
In  1755  he  accompanied  Braildock's  ill-fated  ex- 
pedition as  lieutenant-colonel,  and  as  brigadier- 
general  became  in  1760  military  governor  of  Mon- 
treal, and  in  176.3commanderin-ciiief  of  the  British 
forces  in  .America.  His  inflexible  character  led  the 
government  to  regard  him  as  well  fitted  to  end  the 
disturbances  in  the  American  colonies.  In  1774  he 
was  nominated  governor  of  Massachusetts,  a  post 
of  ])eculiar  ditliculty,  and  his  enforcement  of  the 
rigorous  deci'ees  of  parliament  brought  matters  to  c. 
climax.  On  the  night  of  18tli  .Vpril  1775  he 
despatched  an  expedition  to  seize  a  nuantity  of 
arms  which  had  been  stored  at  Concord  ;  and  next 
d.ay  took  jilace  the  memor.able  encounter  of  Lexing- 
ton, which  announced  that  the  Kcvolution  had 
begun.  The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  (q.v.)  made 
him  unjiopular.  For  a  short  time  he  was  com- 
mander in-chief  in  America,  a  post  he  soon  resigned 
to  return  to  England,  wheie  he  dieil,  '2d  April  1787. 
tine  of  his  sons  became  third  viscount. 

CiaKcrn,  IIeixrich  Wilhelm  August,  Frei- 
iiEliU  voN.  Cierman  statesman,  wa.s  honi  at 
liaireuth.  '20th  August  1799.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  student  movement  (Ihirschcnselwft) 
of  1815-19.  After  holding  ottice  nnder  the  govern- 
ment of  Hesse-Darmstadt  down  to  1848,  he  became, 
in  that  year,  one  of  the  leailing  politicians  of  the 
Frankfort  parliament,  of  which  he  was  elected 
president.  In  that  capacity  he  endeavoured  to 
carry  his  views  that  the  new  central  government 
for  all  tJerniany  should  be  establisheil  on  the  basis 
of  monarchical  constitutionalism,  and  that  the 
king  of  Prussia  was  the  most  fitting  monarch  to 
be   elected    to  the  dignity  of  emperor.       But,  ilis- 


couraged  by  the  lukewarinness  of  Prussia,  and 
repelled  by  the  violence  of  the  extreme  democratic 
party,  Gagern  resigned  his  position,  20tli  May 
1849,  and  shortly  afterwards  retired  into  private 
life.  But  from  1859  he  again  took  part  in  the 
grand-ducal  politics,  as  a  strong  partisan  of  Austria 
against  Prussia.  Pensioned  otl'  in  1872,  he  died  at 
Darmstadt,  '2'2d  May  1880. 

Ciaillac,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Tarn,  on  the  river  Gaillac,  .32  miles  by  rail  NE.  of 
Toulouse.  The  abbey  church  of  St  Michel  dates 
from  the  12th  century.  Its  6368  inhabitants  are 
engaged  in  wine-gi-owing,  coopering,  and  spinning, 
anil  trade  in  clover,  coriander  seeds,  plums,  and 
wine. 

Caillard,  Ch.'vteau.    See  Axdely.s. 

tiaiusboroiigh,  a  market-town  of  Lincoln- 
.shire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Trent,  21  miles 
above  its  embouchure  in  the  Hunil)er,  and  16  miles 
by  rail  NW.  of  Lincoln.  The  parish  church,  with 
the  exception  of  a  fine  old  tower,  dating  from  the 
12th  century,  was  rebuilt  in  17.36.  Tlie  Manor 
House,  built  by  John  of  Gaunt,  now  forms  part  of 
the  corn  e.xchange.  The  giammar-school  w.as 
founded  in  1589.  Vessels  drawing  12  feet  of 
water  can  a.scend  the  Trent  to  (jainsborough, 
which  ranks  as  a  sub-port  of  Grimsby.  The 
town  manufactures  linseed  cake  and  oil,  malt, 
cordage,  and  machinerv.  Pop.  ( 1S51  )  7506  :  f  1891 ) 
14,37'2.     See  the  history  by  Stark  (2d  ed.  1843). 

Gainsborough.  Thomas,  portrait  and  land- 
.scape  painter,  one  of  the  greatest  of  English  artists, 
was  born  at  Sudbury,  Surtblk,  in  1727,  tlie  day  of 
his  baptism  being  the  14tli  of  May.  His  father,  a 
well-to-do  clothier  and  crapeniaker,  had  him  edu- 
cated at  the  grammar  school  of  the  place,  where 
Mr  Burroughs,  the  boy's  uncle,  was  master :  and, 
as  he  was  never  happy  but  when  sketching  the 
rustic  scenery  around  him,  he  was  sent  to  London, 
at  the  age  of  fourteen,  to  study  art  under 
Gravelot,  the  excellent  French  engraver  and  de- 
signer of  book-illustrations,  under  Frank  Hay- 
man,  and  in  the  St  Martin's  Lane  Academy.  He 
returned  to  his  native  county  about  1744,  estab- 
lished himself  as  a  portrait-painter  at  l|iswich,  and 
in  1745  married  Margaret  Burr,  a  lady  with  tl'2(K) 
a  year.  He  was  patronised  by  Sir  Philip  Thick- 
nesse,  the  governor  of  Landguard  Fort,  a  view  of 
which,  afterwards  engraved  by  Major,  he  was 
commissioned  to  paint.  Through  the  advice  of 
his  friend,  he  removed  in  1760  to  Bath,  where 
Thicknesse  had  infiuence,  and  where  there  was  a, 
iromising  opening  for  a  skilful  portr.ait-painter. 
Here  he  won  the  public  by  his  portrait  of  Eail 
Nugent  ;  numerous  connnissions  followed,  and  in 
1701  he  began  to  exhibit  with  the  Society  of  .Vrtists 
of  Great  Britain,  in  Spring  (iardcns.  London,  a 
body  which  he  continued  to  support  till  1768, 
when  he  became  a  foundation  memlierof  the  Koy.al 
Academy,  from  which  he  afterwards  practically 
retired,  owing  to  what  he  considered  the  unworthy 
place  that  had  been  a.ssigned  to  his  group  of  '  The 
King's  Daughtei-s'  in  the  exhibition  of  1784.  In 
1774,  after  a  deadly  quarrel  with  Tliicknes.se.  he 
removed  to  London,  estalilishing  his  studio  in  a 
portion  of  Schomberg  House,  Pall  Mall,  and  there 
jirosecuted  his  art  with  splendid  success,  being  in 
portraiture  the  only  worthy  rival  of  ReynoMs. 
and  in  landscape  of  Wilson.  In  1788,  while 
attending  the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings,  in  West- 
minster Hall,  he  caught  a  chill  from  .an  open 
window,  a  cancerous  tumour  developed  itself,  and 
he  died  on  the  2d  of  August,  and  wa-s  buried  in 
Kew  churchyard.  Personally,  Gainsborough  pos- 
sessed all  the  enthn.sia.sm,  the  airy  vivacity,  the 
hot  impulsiveness,  that  we  commonly  associate 
with  the  artistic  temperament.     He  was  devoted 


5t 


GAIRDNKR 


GAIUS 


to  art  in  every  form.  Fond  of  ODnipany,  lie  love<l 
to  a--isiici:itc  with  iilayer^i  ami  nnisicians  ;  lie  was 
liini^icll  a  ]icrfonii('r  on  various  insuiniicnt-i,  and 
for  liini  (iariick  was  '  tlio  {freato-^t  creature  living', 
in  every  respeet,  worth  studyiuK  in  every  action.' 
Quick  of  temper,  he  was  also  rij;ht  nenerons  liotli 
of  hand  and  heart  ;  and  when  tlie  lonfj-estran^'ed 
lleynolds  visited  him  on  his  deathheil,  (iains- 
horou;,'li  parteil  fi-oiii  him  with  the  often-quoted 
words  of  perfect  hrotlierhood  :  '  We  are  all  ^foinj,'  to 
heaven,  and  Van  l>yck  is  of  the  coni|):iiiy.' 

The  art  of  (lainslKuoiiKh,  compared  willi  th<at  of 
his  ";reat  contemiioiarv  Iteyiudds,  is  less  scholarly 
and  more  instinctive  ;  his  portraits  show  less  deep 
insi;,'lit  into  character  than  those  of  his  rival,  hut 
they  have  perliajis  even  more  of  ;;race,  ^;ive  perhaps 
even  more  viviil  ;;liuipses  of  the  shifting'  ^'esture 
.and  expression  of  the  lurunent.  (I.ainshorou^di 
never  stmlied  ahroad,  never  left  his  native  country  ; 
and  though,  at  various  times,  he  copied  from 
Ituliens,  Teniers,  Vandyke,  and  Kemlnandt,  he 
(lid  so  with  no  mendy  imitative  aim.  Nature  her- 
self was  always  liefoie  his  eye,  and  nature  he 
interpreted  in  a  manner  most  indi\  iiliial.  His 
ejulier  works  are  lirmly  and  directly  liandled, 
with  delinite  comliinaticuis  of  jiositive  ccdourinj; ; 
hut  <as  his  ,art  },'ained  in  jiower  he  souj;hl  more 
and  more  for  liarniony  of  total  ell'ect,  fiU'  fjifulation 
and  jilay  of  subtly  interwoven  hues  ;  painting'  his 
llesh  thinly,  but  with  jiieat  certainty  of  touch, 
with  e\rpiisite  relinement  of  modelling',  and  with 
till'  mo~t  delicate  transp.arency  in  the  shadows; 
and  relii'vini;  it  by  the  sliiflin^j;  sheen  of  his 
dr.iperics,  .and  by  backjrrounds  of  swiftly  struck, 
loosely  touched  folia^'e,  and  of  softly  blendin;^ 
tints  of  sky.  While  his  landscapes  were  unduly 
preferred  to  his  i>ortraits  by  the — perhaps  not  un- 
l>rejiidiced  —  jn<l<;inent  of  Reynolds,  they  too 
]iosscss  admirable  artistic  f|Ualities.  in  their  free- 
dom of  handling;  .'irid  harmony  of  colour  and  ell'ect. 
Tliouj,'li,  as  .Mr  Uuskin  has  truly  noted,  they  are 
'  rather  motives  of  feidinj;  and  colour  than  e.arnest 
studies,'  they  have  still  value  ;is  taithful  records  of 
a  distinctly  liersonal  im|iiession  of  nature;  and 
while  iiichard  Wilson  developed  with  dedicate  skill 
the  traditions  of  Claude,  (lainsboroujrli  may,  in 
some  sense,  he  regarded  as  the  forerunner  of 
Constable,  as  the  found(^r  of  the  freer  and  more 
individual  landscape  art  of  our  own  time. 

(Jainsborontjh  is  excellently  representeil  in  the 
National  (iallery,  London,  by  fourteen  works,  in- 
cliidine  |)ortraits  of  'Mrs  Siddons,' of  'Orpin  the 
Parisli  Clerk,'  and  of  '  U.ilpli  Schoiiiberj;,  M.P.,' 
and  'The  Market  Cart,'  and  'The  Watering- 
place;'  in  the  National  I'ortrait  (Jallery,  I.onrlon, 
ny  live  works;  in  the  Dulwich  CJallery  by  si.\ 
works,  incliidiiif;  the  portraits  of  'Mrs  Sheiid.an' 
anil  'Mis  Tickell;'  and  in  the  Nalioii.al  Callery 
of  Scotland  by  the  portrait  of  the  'Hon.  Mrs 
(iraliani.'  An  exliibition  of  over  2(i0  of  his 
works  w.i.s  held  in  London  in  l.SS.").  'The  Market 
Cart '  fetched  -JoCM)  guineas  in  1N94.  '  The  Countess 
of  Mulgiave,'  sold  in  1S80  for  £1(W0,  brought 
i'10,0(X)  in  1895. 

See  Life  by  Fulcher  (If'SC),  Wcdmore's  Sludrg  (187C), 
Brock-Arnold's  Uuins'ioroUfjh  and  Conilahlc  (18.S1),  the 
Ctiliilo'iiic  by  Home  ( 1S9I  ),  Armstrong's  I'lirtfoiin  mono- 
graph '( l.S'.itJ),  iuid  the  book  by  Mrs  Uell  ( 18'J7). 

Gnirdiior.  .Sir  Wii.i.i.vji  Tkxn.\nt,  K.C.B., 
w.o.-^  liorn  in  ls-24,  M)n  of  Dr  .John  Cairdner  ( ITfK)- 
ISTfi),  and  iiejdiew  of  William  Gairdner  (1793- 
1867),  both  of  whom  were  born  near  Ayr  and 
studied  in  Kdinbiiigh — the  latter  (who  wrote  on 
gout)  settling  in  London.  He  graduated  M.D.  at 
Edinburgh  in  1S4.">,  becoming  K.I'.C.P.  in  18.50,  and 
afterwards  LL.U.  of  Kdinbnrgb,  and  in  1898 
K.C.B.  From  186-2  till  his  retirement  in  19(M) 
he  occupied  the  chair  of   Practice  of  Medicine  in 


fJl.osgow  Vnivei-sity,  was  President  of  the  Medical 
.Association  there  in  18,S8,  and  is  ]ihysician  in 
ordinary  to  the  (^ueen  for  Scotland.  He  ha~  con- 
trilmted  many  valuable  iiapers  to  the  ^pl■l•ial 
medical  jimrnals,  .and  w;us  an  esteemed  contributor 
to  the  first  edition  of  this  Kncyclop:edia.  .Among 
his  hooks  are  I'litholugiral  Aiitituiii;/  nf  hiumlutU 
<iml  lUstii.sfs  uf  the  Limffs  (ISoO),  ^'otr.toit  J'frintr- 
i/ilis  (  18()1  ),  Clhiiral  Mrdirhii-  ( 186'2),  J'lilj/ir  U,i,llh 
ill  ir/(ilii»i  to  Air  (iiitl  ll'iitcr  (ISO'2),  On  .v«/;ic 
Modem  AKjieefa  of  Jnsiiniti/,  Leetiiies  1o  I'lin- 
titioncrs  (in  conjunction  with  Dr  J.  Coats,  1888), 
J'/ie  I'hysieiini  as  Niiliiralixt  ( 1889).— .l.\Mi:s 
(I.VIItnNKIt,  historian,  a  brother  of  the  foregoing, 
w.as  born  at  Kdinhnrgh,  March  2'2,  18'28.  attended 
lectures  in  the  university  there,  and  at  eighteen  as 
a  clerk  entered  the  Public  ]{ecord  ollice  in  London, 
where  he  became  a.ssistant-keeiier  in  l.S.")9.  He  has 
di-;|inguished  himself  by  the  rare  combination  of 
profound  erndition,  patient  accuracy,  and  judicial 
temper  which  he  has  shown  in  the  editing  of 
a  long  series  of  historical  docunients  :  Meiiioiiol.i 
of  JJiiiri/  the  Serrtith  (l.S.")8);  Letters  (ohI  J'tijters 
ill  list  rtit  ire  of  the  Jlri/iiis  of  Jiirhriril  III.  iiiiil 
Ihiirij  Vll.  rz  vols.  18(il  63),  in  the  Hidls  series; 
the  continuation  from  vol.  v.  onwards  of  the  late 
Professor  IJrewer's  t'd/eiuhir  of  Letters  riml  J'liners, 
Foreign  am/  Domestie,  of  the  lleiqu  of  iteiiry 
Vllt.  (9  vols.  1862-86);  and  llisiurienl  Co/lee. 
tioiis  of  a  Lom/oti  Citizen  (187l>),  and  Three  I'if 
teeutht'eiitiini  Vhronielcs  (1880),  for  the  Camden 
Society  series.  Ki|ually  valuable  are  the  books 
.addressed  to  a  wider  .audience  :  .an  edition  of  the 
J'aston  L^etters  in  Professor  A rber's  series  (3  vols. 
187'2-7o)  ;  'J'he  Housei  of  Laneaster  and  York,  in 
'  Epochs  of  Modern  History  '  ( 1874) ;  the  /,//"(■  ir)id 
licijin  of  liiehard  in.  (1878)  ;  JCnr/land  in  'Early 
Chroniclers  of  Europe'  (1879);  Studies  in  ICni/lis/i 
llistiirii  (1881),  .a  series  of  essays  written  in  con- 
junction willi  Spedding;  nnd  Lleiiri/  VII.  ('Slates- 
men  '  serie.-,  188!) .1.     He  was  made  ('.  1!.  in  1900. 

<>ail'l<>4'll,  an  inlet  of  the  .sea  on  the  west  coa.st 
of  Ko.-s  shire,  U  miles  in  length,  which  gives  name 
to  a  parish  and  village.  See  J.  H.  IJixon,  Tlie 
(lairlveh  (1888). 

<anist°or<l.  Tiiom.as,  P.P.,  a  distinguished 
cl.a-ssical  scholar,  was  born  in  1780  at  llford,  ^\llls. 
He  graduated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1804. 
Hejiublished  an  elaborate  edition  of  the  Knehiridion 
of  Heiihastion,  was  ]iublic  examiner  1809  10.  and 
in  1811  was  ajipointed  regius  ]irofessor  of  Creek 
at  Oxford.  Prom  1819  to  1847  he  w.as  rector  of 
Westwell,  Oxfordshire.  In  1831  he  became  dean 
of  Christ  Cliurcli.  He  died  in  18.").'>,  and  in  his 
memory  a  (!reek  prize  w.as  founded  at  Oxford. 
Among  his  cl.a.ssical  publications  are  an  edition  of 
the  Lexieon  of  Suidiis  ( 1834),  and  the  Ktijiiioloijieon 
Mai/niim  (1848). 

<>aillS.  a  lionian  jurist,  who  nourished  between 
l.'iOand  180  A.M.  Of  his  iiersonal  history  next  to 
nothing  is  known,  liefore  the  revision  of  the 
Itoman  laws,  and  the  reform  of  legal  studies  by 
.Justinian,  the  Institutes  o{  Gains,  as  well  as  four 
other  of  his  treatises,  were  the  received  text-books 
of  the  schools  of  law.  His  Institutes,  moreover, 
formed  the  groundwork  of  the  Instilntes  of  .Jus- 
tinian. The  other  works  of  Gains,  of  which  we 
have  little  more  than  the  titles,  were  largely  used 
in  the  compilation  of  the  /iii/est.  which  contains  no 
fi-wer  than  ;').3.")  extracts  from  his  writings.  The 
Insfitiifrs  wjvs.  like  the  others,  almost  conijdctely 
lost,  until  in  1816  Niehuhr  discovered  it  at  \  eron.a, 
under  a  palimpsest  of  the  Kin'.stles  of  .leronie.  This 
discovery  threw  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  history 
of  the  ej'uly  development  of  Konian  law,  especially 
upon  the  foi  iiis  of  ]uocednre  in  civil  actions.  The 
first  book    treated  of  status  and  f.amily  rel.-iliniis  ; 


GALABAT 


GALASHIELS 


55 


the  second,  of  tilings  and  of  how  possession  of  tlieni 
may  he  acr|inred,  including  the  law  relating  to 
wills  ;  the  third,  of  intestate  succession  anil  ohliga- 
tions  ;  and  the  fourth  and  last,  of  actions.  Alaric 
II.,  king  of  the  West  Goths,  promulgated  in  506, 
for  the  use  of  his  Roman  suljjects,  tlie  code  known 
as  Jlrriy'arii/m  Alaric/',  which  contains  cojiions 
e.xcerpts  from  Gains.  Of  numerous  editi<ms  of  the 
Iiiatititli-s  puhlislied  since  1817,  may  he  mentioned 
those  in  fac-simile  hy  Hocking  (Leip.  1800)  and 
Studemund  (Leip.  1874),  and  with  an  English 
translation  hy  E.  Porte  ('2d  eil.  (Jxford  Clarendon 
Press,  187-5)  and  James  Muirhead  (Eilin.  1880). 

Caillahat.  a  small  repuhlic  of  Negroes  from 
Dar-I'iir  and  Wadai,  situated  near  the  western 
frontiers  of  Abyssinia.  The  people,  some  20,000 
in  number,  and  fanatical  Molianimedans,  trade 
with  Abyssinia  in  coffee,  cotton,  hides,  and  bees- 
wa.v. 

Gnlnotodendroii.    See  Cow  tree. 

<>iila«'tometer.    See  Lactometeu. 

C>alacz.     See  (Ialatz. 

<>alaao.  a  genns  of  large-eared,  long-tailed, 
African  Lenuns  (q.v.),  arboreal  and  nocturnal  in 
habit,  living  on  fruit  and  insects.  They  vaiy  from 
the  size  of  a  rabbit  to  that  of  a  rat,  are  covi-red 
with  thick  soft  woolly  fur,  have  somewhat  bushy 
tails  longer  than  the  body,  and  hind-legs  longer  and 
stronger  than  the  arms,  with  two  of  the  Snkle  bones 
(calcaiicum  and  iiKficiihir)  greatly  elongated.  The 
head  is  round  like  a  cat's  ;  the  eyes  are  large  with 
oval  jiupils  contracting  in  dayliglit  to  vertical  slits; 
the  ears  are  naked  and  very  big,  expanded  during 
activity,  but  rolled  together  when  the  animal  rests. 
The  digits  are  strong  and  well  adapte<l  for  grasping 
the  branches ;  all  bear  nails  except  the  second  on 
the  hind-foot,   which    is    clawed.      The  dentition 


Galago  Monteiri. 

suggests  insectivorous  rather  than  vegetarian  diet. 
The  female  is  said  to  bear  one  young  one  at  a  birth, 
and  often  carries  it  about.  Soft  ne.sts  are  also  made 
in  the  branches.  The  Galago  proper  ( G.  xnicfja/- 
iHsix  !»■  (Itnlirniiii  (!(i/<r/jr>)  is  a  pretty  animal  witli 
woolly  fur,  grayisli  fawn  above,  whitish  lieneath.  It 
seems  to  bf  distributcil  throughout  tropical  Africa, 
ami  is  known  in  Senegal  as  '  the  gum  animal '  from 
its  frc(|ui'nt  habitat  in  mimosa  or  gum-acacia  forests, 
and  from  its  alleged  liabit  of  gum-chewing.  They 
sleep  with  bowed  head  aiul  tail  curled  round  them 
during  tlie  day,  but  at  night  tliey  are  as  active  as 
birds,  watching  for  moths  and  small  iinimals,  on 
which  they  spring  with  great  adroitne.-i.s.     They  are 


said  to  form  a  fav<rarite  article  of  food  in  Senegal. 
The  largest  s]iecies  {(J.  or  O.  rrassiraialatus)  meas- 
ures a  foot  in  length,  not  including  the  bu^hy  tail, 
which  is  15  or  10  inches  more.  'In  Zanzib.ar  the 
Konilia  (  G.  or  0.  iKjisiimhaiiiis)  is  said  frequently  to 
make  itself  intoxicated  with  palm-wine,  so  that  it 
falls  from  the  tree  and  gets  caught. '  It  is  reailily 
tamed  and  utilised  to  catch  insects  and  mice  in  the 
houses.  There  are  numerous  siiecies,  sometimes 
distriliuted  in  sub-genera. 

tialaliad.    See  Grail. 

CialailS'alC  {Alpinia  r/nlanrfn ;  not  to  be  con- 
fused with  'tlie  slender  galingale,' see  Galinoale), 
a  genus  of  Zingiberacea^  cultivated  in  the  Eastern 
Archipelago,  and  much  used  in  the  Ea.st  for  the 
same  jiurposes  as  ginger. 

Cialaiitliiis.    See  S^•o^vDEOl^ 

Galaita'i!;O.S  (Span.  Galdjiiigos,  from  rjalii/i'if/o, 
'a  tortoise),  a  grouji  of  islands  of  volcanic  forma- 
tion, lying  on  the  equator,  about  GOO  miles  \V.  of 
Ecuador,  to  which  they  belong.  The  archipelago 
derives  its  name  from  the  enormous  land  tortoises 
formerly  found  tliere  in  great  numbers  :  but  the 
individual  islands  all  possess  names  of  English 
origin — probably  bestoweil  by  the  buccaneers  who 
made  them  a  sort  of  head(|uarters  during  the  17th 
century.  The  group  consists  of  seven  principal 
islands,  with  about  half-a-dozen  of  lesser  size,  and 
innumerable  islets  and  rocks;  the  area  is  estimated 
at  244(1  si|.  m.,  of  which  Albemarle  Ishiml  embraces 
over  half.  Kising  to  a  heiglit  of  nearly  5000  feet,  and 
with  a  climate  dry  and  somewhat  tempered  by  the 
cool  Peruvian  current,  the  islands  are  co\-ered  with 
a  dense  vegetation  on  the  southern  side,  which 
absorbs  the  moistiire  cariied  by  the  traile-win<l ; 
on  the  northern  .side  they  are  barren  and  forbidiling 
in  aspect,  the  lower  parts  covered  entirely  with 
ashes  and  lava  or  with  prickly  scrub.  Darwin  piits 
the  nundierof  craters  in  the  grouji  at  2000;  s(une 
appear  to  be  not  yet  extinct.  The  (.Jalapagos  possess 
both  a  Hora  and  fauna  peculiar  to  themselves;  over 
a  hundred  s]iecies  of  plants  have  been  noted  that 
are  met  witli  nowhere  else,  and  the  sjiecies  of 
animals  dilVi'r  greatly  even  in  the  various  islands. 
Tlie  archi]iel,ago  was  annexed  by  Ecuador  in  18.S2, 
and  attempts  were  made  to  colonise  it.  of  wliicli 
the  only  remaining  result  is  the  so-called  'wild 
cattle.'  Charles  Island  w,as  used  as  a  jienal  .settle- 
ment for  some  years,  but  it  and  Chathaiu  Island  are 
now  occnpieil  by  agricultural  colonists,  the  chief 
crop  being  sugar.  Cotton,  vegetables,  and  most 
cereals  are  also  raiseil,  and  molasses,  ruin,  hides, 
and  .\irhil  (q.v.  )  are  exjiorted.  Pop.  (18U5)  400. 
See  Darwin's  J'oi/aifr  of  the  llca(jh',  and  a  paper  by 
Captain  Markham  in /'roc.  lio)/.  Gcog.  Soc.  (1880). 

Oalaslliols,  the  chief  .seat  in  Scotland  of  the 
Scotch  tweed  manufacture,  occupies  2^  miles  of 
the  narrow  valley  of  the  Gala,  immediately  above 
the  junction  of  that  river  with  the  Tweed.  Till 
1891  situated  partly  in  Hoxburghshire  and  jiartly 
in  Selkirkshire,  for  judicial  purposes  it  had  lieen 
fixed  by  an  act  jiasscd  in  1807  as  within  the  county 
of  Selkirk.  It  is  SM.  iiiilcs  SSE.  of  Edinburgh, 
and  4  WiS'W.  of  Melrose.  In  the  loth  century  it  is 
spoken  of  as  'the  forest -steading  of  (Jalashiels ;' 
and  its  tower,  dem<dished  abimt  1814,  was  then 
occupied  by  the  Douglases.  In  1,50!)  it  was  made  a 
burgh  of  barony,  having  then  400  inhabitants,  .\s 
early  as  15S1  wool  wa>  ln're  manuf.-ictured  into  cloth, 
an<l  in  17'.I0  the  value  of  the  cloth  so  manufactured 
was  £1000.  So  great,  however,  has  been  the  pro. 
gress  of  the  woollen  trade  of  the  town  during  the 
present  century,  that  in  1890  the  estimated  value  of 
tweeds  manufactured  was  no  less  than  one  million 
and  a  ipiartcr  sterling.  I'y  the  lli'form  Act 
of  l.SOS  it  was  made  a  |iailianient;iry  burgh,  and 
along  with  Hawick  and  Selkirk  sends  a  member  to 


56 


GALATA 


GALATZ 


iiarliaiiient.  A  local  aot  of  inirliaiiient  was  obtaiiieil 
III  IsTIi,  iiiuler  wliicli  tlio  limimls  i>l"  llio  l>ui-t.'li  were 
I'stcnileil  tor  iiinnu-iiial  [.uriMisps,  ami  a  watcrsupiilv 
iiitriMhiceil.  t;al;u<liiels'  eliief  claim  to  notice  is 
its  iiiaiiufacturiii';  eiiterprise.  It  lias  23  woollen 
factories  coiitaiiiiiit,'  \'20  'setts'  of  canliii^  eii;;iiies, 
with  UH),.')(i2  spimllcs.  The  ^r'xxl-*  iiiaiiiil'actiireit  are 
almost  exclusively  the  wellkiiowii  woollen  clotli 
callcil  Scotch  tweeil.  The  mills  are  almost  entirely 
ilepciiileiit  on  steam  for  motive  power.  The  town 
has  also  the  largest  ami  hcstappointed  skiniiery  in 
Scotlaiiil.  Its  valuation  rose  from  £29,838  111  1S72 
to  ft)2,t;iJ7  in  1S89.  I'op.  (  1831  )  2209  :  ( Istjl  l  (U33: 
(1S7I)  111.312:  (I8SI)  15,330;  (1S9I)  17,.367,  of 
whom  17.2.">2  were  Avithin  the  extemletl  luii'ih.  See 
T.  Ciai-  Hiowns  HUtonj  of  ^clhirkshirc  (1886). 

4>alata.  a  suhml)  of  Constantinople  (<i.v.). 

<.alal4>n.    See  Aci.s. 

fialalia.  also  G.\LLO-(;i{.Kcr.v,  in  ancient  j,'CO- 
;;raphy,  a  country  of  Asia  .Minor,  separated  from 
liilhyiiia  ami  Pa]ilila;,'oiiia  on  the  N'.  by  the 
<tlyni]ius  raii;,'e  ( AlaD.a^'h)  ami  the  river  Halys, 
ami  lioumleil  on  the  V..  Iiy  I'ontus,  on  the  .S.  hy 
Cappadocia  and  Lycaonia,  and  on  the  W.  liy 
l'lii\;,'ia.  The  country  is  an  elevateil  plateau, 
2<MM)  to  3000  feet  above  sea-level,  consisting  for 
the  most  part  of  a  rolling  gra-s.sy  region,  that 
alloids  excellent  pastur.ige  for  sheep  and  goats. 
The  western  half  of  Halalia  is  watered  by  the 
Sangarius.  whilst  the  Halys  traverses  it  in  the 
miildle  and  northeast.  The  climate  is  ona  ine- 
seiitiiig  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  The  boundaries 
of  (lalatia  have,  however,  varied  at  dill'erent  epochs 
of  history.  Originally  it  foriiie<l  part  of  Phrygia. 
The  name  fJ.alatia  it  received  from  a  boily  of  tiaiils 
who,  bieaking  oil"  from  the  army  of  Hrennus,  when 
that  chieftain  invaded  (Jieccc,  entered  .Vsia  Minor 
aliout  27S  ii.r. ,  and  were  liiially  defeated  in  a  great 
battle  by  .Vttalus.  king  of  I'ergamus,  in  2.3."),  who 
thereupon  compelled  them  to  settle  in  (iaiatia. 
Itemainiiig  independent,  however,  they  proved  for- 
midable foes  to  the  Komaiis  in  the  w.ars  of  the  latter 
.against  the  kings  of  Syria  :  and  although  subdued 
by  the  Itoman  general  Cii.i'Us  .Manlius  in  189,  they 
still  continued  to  govern  themselves,  latterly  under 
a  single  king.  These  (iauls,  who  became  Hellenised 
shortly  after  settling  in  their  new  country,  although 
they  clung  to  their  native  Language  down  to  the 
4th  century,  extended  their  power  iluring  the 
1st  century  li.C.  over  I'onlus,  part  of  Arnieni.a, 
Lycaonia,  Isiiuria,  an<l  other  districts.  But  on  the 
death  of  King  Amyiit;vs  in  2.5  li.C.  the  country  was 
made  a  Uoiiian  province,  which  w.as  further  diviiled 
by  Theodosius  the  Great  into  (iaiatia  Prima,  with 
.Vncyr.a  (.\ngora)  for  its  caintal,  and  Galatia 
Seciimla,  witli  Pessinus  as  chief  town. 

(■alatiaiis.  Tiik  Ki'Isti.e  to  the,  an  epistle 
dirccii'd  by  the  .apostle  Paul  'to  the  churches  of 
(lalatii.'  According  to  Lightfoot  it  was  written 
from  .Macedonia  or  Achaia  in  the  winter  or  spring 
of  the  yeai-s  57-58  .\.l).  Others  place  it  at  the 
end  of  .")5  or  the  beginning  of  ,56,  on  the  ajxistle's 
journey  to  Ephesus  or  in  the  early  part  of  his 
sojourn  there.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
the  four  epLstles  which  are  iimloubtedly  from  the  ' 
hand  of  Paul,  and  was  written  to  counteract  the  1 
inlluence  of  the  .ludaisers  who  h.ad  Jippe.ared  among 
the  (lentile  Cluistians  of  the  churches  of  Galati.i. 
Those  churches  had  been  founded  liy  Paul  during 
the  secoml,  ami  revisiteil  liy  him  during  the  third, 
of  his  missionary  journeys  (cf.  .Acts,  x\n.  6,  and 
xiiii.  '23).  .\t  his  first  visit  the  ])eonle  received  him 
•as  'an  angel  of  God,'  and  he  was  iietained  among 
them  by  sickness  for  <a  considerable  time.  It  is 
disputed  whether  the  pa-«sages  i.  9.  iv.  16- '20,  and 
V.  7,  12  show  tr.aces  of  the  .lud.iising  leaven  even  at 
the  time  of   his  seconil  visit,  or  whether  i.  6,  iii.  1, 


and  v.  7,  8  are  suMicient  to  prove  that  they  diil  not 
appear  till  after  his  ilepartiire.  As  the  lioman 
province  of  (iaiatia  fornieil  in  '17^  ii.c.  incluileil  also 
Isaiiria,  Lycaonia,  and  parts  of  Pisidia  and  I'hrvgia, 
some  think  that  the  'churches  of  tialatia  '  inay 
have  extended  to  those  regions,  but  it  is  more  prcdi- 
able  that  the  tJalatia  of  Paul  w.as  confined  to  the 
upper  biusins  of  the  Halys  ami  Sangarius.  Bar- 
barian honles  of  iliiltili  m-  ddllnriiirri  had  settled 
there  in  the  .'iil  century  li.C,  and  in  the  larger  towns, 
like  Taviiim,  Pessinus,  and  Aneyra,  adopted  (iieck 
speecli  and  manners,  while  the  country  [leople,  down 
to  the  time  of  Jerome,  spoke  a  language  '  almost 
identical  with  that  of  tiie  Trevcii.'  Lightfoot 
concludes  from  liiselalH)iate  investigations  tiiat  the 
Galatian  settlers  belonged  to  the  ('ymric  branch 
of  till-  Celtic  race.  Though  the  population  in- 
cluded also  aboriginal  Phrygians,  .as  well  .as  (Ireck, 
Uomaii,  and  .lewish  immigrants,  the  chaiacti'ii~lic 
vitality  of  the  Celts  maintained  the  iire<lomiiiaiiee 
of  th.at  race,  wlio.se  proverbial  impressibility  and 
lickleiiess  are  so  clearly  illustrated  in  the  epistle  to 
the  (iaiatians.  The  'troublers'  maintained  that 
every  one  who  entereil  into  (iod's  Covenant  must 
be  circumcised,  and  keep  the  whole  law,  whose  dis- 
cipline was  a  moral  necessity  for  all  men.  and 
on  whose  observance  the  promises  of  the  Olil 
Testament  were  dependent,  (iaiatiaiis  is  the  only 
ei>istle  of  P.aul  which  has  no  wind  of  praise  tin-  its 
recipients.  ■  It  at  once  plunges  pa.ssioiiately  into  the 
immediate  practical  (piestion— why  they  .are  'so 
soon  removed  .  .  .  unto  another  gospel,'  and  fioiii 
lieginning  to  end  has  no  tidings,  messages,  or  ;:reet- 
ings.  The  body  of  the  epistle  is  commonly  di\  ided 
into  two  part.s — (1)  tiieoretical  (i.  6— v.  12)  and 
(2)  practical  (v.  13— vi.  10).  Holsten  and  others 
prefer  the  following  division  of  the  argument:  (1) 
the  divine  origin  of  Paul's  gospel  pii>ved  by  a 
historical  demonstration  of  the  impossiliility  of  its 
opposite  (i.  6— ii.  21):  (2)  the  full  right' of  the 
believing  Gentile  to  the  lile.ssing  of  the  Messianic 
]iroiiii.se  proved  by  a  confutjilioii  of  the  assertion 
that  the  Me.ssianic  salvatiim  is  in  .any  way  de- 
]>eiident  on  circumcision  and  legal  observances  ( iii. 
1 — iv.  11);  (3)  the  believer's  righteousness  of  life 
proved  to  be  the  fruit  or  outward  expression  of  the 
Spirit  bestowed  upon  him — in  contradiction  of  ihi; 
supposed  necessity  of  a  righteousne.-s  of  life  which 
should  be  brought  about  by  subjection  to  circum- 
cision .and  law  (iv.  P2 — vi.  10). 

The  chief  commentaries  on  Calatians  are  those  of 
Luther  (1.510;  Kng.  trans.  Lond.  1810);  'Winer  (INJI; 
4th  ed.  18.5'J),  Kuckert  (l,s:«).  ^^chott  (WM\,  De  Wttte 
(1.S41;  :M  ed.  by  AV.  Jloller,  18W);  ■\Vindisclni.an 
(Catholic,  1843).  HilKCnfcld  (1852),  Ellicott  (18.54;  4th 
ed.  1867),  Jowctt  (18,t(;),  W'ieiseler  (1859),  Hofniann 
(1863;  •2d  ed.  1872),  Lightfoot  (ISfio;  5th  ed.  18^01, 
Eadie  (1X09 ),  Brandcs  ( IW.I),  O.  Schnioller  <  lK7o).  Mover 
(0th  ed.  by  F.  Sieffert.  1880),  Holsten  in  the  I'm- 
UntniiUiihihd  (3d  ed.  1879;  Eng.  tians.  by  F.  H.  Jones, 
18S3)  and  in  Dae  Eiamiclium  dm  Pauluf  (vol.  i.  1N«)), 
.•ichaflr  (1881),  Womcr"(1882|,  Philippi  (1884),  Kohler 
(1884  I.  Liet  ( 1885),  and  Kiiidlay  ( 1888). 

Galatilia.  a  town  of  Italy,  13  miles  SW.  of 
Lecce.  It  has  a  church,  erected  in  1384,  with 
antique  sculptures  and  fine  tombs  of  the  Halzo- 
Orsini  family.     Pop.  87'20. 

(■alatz,  or  G.\L.\CZ,  a  river-port  of  Moldavia, 
the  centre  of  the  commerce  of  the  Konmani.an 
kingdom,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
I);inube,  3  miles  below  the  inllux  of  the  Seietli, 
and  85  from  the  .Sulina  mouth  of  the  Danube, 
whilst  by  rail  it  is  166  XE.  of  Bucharest,  ami  '2.59 
S\V.  of  Odes,sa.  It  occn|iies  the  shn)e  of  a  hill 
overlooking  the  river,  and  is  divided  into  an  ( lld 
.and  New  'Town,  the  former  consisting  of  irregularly 
built  streets,  the  latter  built  more  after  the  fashion 
of  western  Europe.      Its  dockyard,  its  large  baz.inr. 


GALA    WATER 


GALEX 


57 


its  giainstoies,  its  magazines  of  oriental  wares, 
and  its  banking  establishments  deserve  notice. 
The  chief  objects  of  industry  are  iron,  copper, 
wax  candles,  and  soap.  The  exports  consist  of 
maize,  wheat,  wheat-flour,  barley,  rye,  and  timber. 
The  iujports  include  timber,  grain,  fish,  fniits,  oil, 
chemicals,  iron,  steel,  and  cotton  goods.  The  town 
has  been,  since  1856,  the  seat  of  tlie  International 
Danube  C'ommi.«sion.  Tlie  population,  a  medley  of 
various  nationalities,  has  risen  from  36,000  in  1869 
to  .37,460  in  1895.  Galatz  has  frequently  been 
taken  in  the  wars  between  the  Russians  and  Turks 
since  1 789.      It  cea.sed  to  be  a  free  port  in  1883. 

Gala  Water,  a  stream  of  Edinburgh,  Selkirk, 
and  Roxburgh  shires,  rising  among  the  iloorfoot 
Hills,  and  winding  21  miles  south-south-eastward, 
past  Stow  and  Galashiels,  till,  after  a  total  descent 
of  800  feet,  it  falls  into  the  Tweed,  a  little  below 
Abbotsford,  and  "24  miles  W.  of  Melrose.  In  its 
valley,  the  ancient  Wedale,  Skene  locali.ses  one  of 
.Arthur's  battles  ;  its  '  hraw,  braw  lads'  are  famous 
in  song. 

Galaxy  (Gr.  ijalu,  'milk'),  or  tiie  Milky- way, 
is  tlie  great  luminous  band  which  niglitly  stretches 
across  the  heavens  from  horizon  to  horizon,  and 
which  is  found  to  form  a  zone  very  irregular  in  out- 
line, but  completely  encircling  the  whole  sphere 
almost  in  a  great  circle,  inclined  at  an  angle  of 
63'  to  the  equinoctial.  At  one  part  of  its  course  it 
opens  up  into  two  branches,  one  faint  and  inter- 
rupted, the  other  bright  and  continuous,  which  do 
not  reunite  till  after  remaining  distinct  for  about 
l.jO'.  Its  luminosity  is  due  to  innumerable  multi- 
tudes of  stars,  so  distant  as  to  be  blended  in  appear- 
ance, and  only  distinguishable  by  powerful  tele- 
scopes. How  a  collection  of  stars  can  assume  such 
appearances  as  are  presented  in  the  Galaxy  is 
explained  in  the  article  St.\R.s  (q.v. ).  The  in- 
vestigation of  this  subject  was  largely  the  work  of 
Sir  William  Herschel.  The  origin  of  the  current 
figurative  use  of  galaxy,  as  in  'galaxy  of  beauty,' 
'  galaxy  of  wit,'  is  sutiiciently  obvious. 

Galba,  Servius  Sulpicrs,  Roman  emperor 
from  luiie  08  .\.D.  to  January  69,  wa-s  born  •24th 
December  3  B.C.  He  was  raiseil  to  the  consulship 
in  33  .\.n.,  and  conducted  the  administration  in 
Aquitania.  Germany,  .\frica,  and  Hispania  Tarra- 
conensis  with  courage,  skill,  and  strict  justice.  In 
68  the  (Jallic  legions  rose  against  Xero,  and  pro-  ' 
claimed  Galba  emperor.  I!ut  <Jalba,  now  an  old 
man,  soon  made  himself  unpopular  by  placing  him- 
self in  the  hands  of  greedy  favourites,  by  ill-timed 
severity,  and,  above  all,  ))y  his  avarice.  Shortly 
afterwanls  he  Wivs  assassinated  by  the  pr^torians 
in  Rome.  I 

Galbauuill,  a  gum-resin,  used  in  medicine  in  I 
the  same  ca.ses  as  a.saf<ctida.  It  is  met  with  in 
hardened  drops  or  tears,  usually  compacted  into  a 
ma-ss,  of  a  brown  to  light-green  translucent  colour, 
and  possessing  an  aromjitic  odour  and  bitter  allia- 
ceous tiuste.  (iaibanum  contains  about  7  per  cent, 
of  volatile  oil,  besides  resin  and  gum.  It  is  applied 
as  a  plaster  to  indolent  swellings,  and  occasionally 
.administered  as  a  stimulating  expectorant,  and  in 
amenorrluea  and  chronic  rheumatism.  .Mtliougli 
known  from  earliest  times,  and  used  ,as  an  incense 
liy  the  Israelites  (Ex.  xxx.  .34),  under  the  name  of 
ilii'lhriiah,  its  source  has  alw.ays  been  uncertain. 
There  seems  to  he  little  doubt,  liowever,  that  it  is 
ol>tained  from  the  Fiiiilti  (Jtilhiiiiifliin  and  /".  ricbri- 
'yiii/it:,  umlielliferous  plants  found  in  Persi.a. 

Galclias.  a  collective  name  given  by  I'jfalvv 
to  a  grouii  of  tribes  inhabiting  the  highlands  and 
upland  valleys  of  Kerghana.  the  Zarafshan,  and  the 
Uxus.  They  are  closely  akin  to  the  peoples  of  the 
Iranic  stock,  and  in  speech  are  near  the  T.ajiks  and 
Pei-sians.     They  are  Sunni  Mohammedans. 


GahKis,  Renito  Perez,  Spanish  novelist,  was 
born  in  1849  on  the  Canary  Islands,  but  settled  in 
Madrid.  His  earlier  works  ( Trojalffor,  Bailen, 
&.C.)  were  historical  romances:  the  later  ones 
(Morutiiela,  Leon  liuch.  Lady  Perfeitn,  &c. )  give 
realistic  pictures  of  social  condition.s.  Many  liave 
been  translated  into  English. 

Gale,  Sweet.    See  Bog  Myrtle. 

Gale,  TiiEOPHlLUS  (1628-1678),  divine,  was 
fellow  and  tutor  of  Magdalen  Colle''e,  Oxford,  and 
preacher  in  Westminster  Cathedral;  wa-s  ejected 
for  nonconformity  after  1660,  and  sul)sequently 
was  tutor  and  preacher  in  London.  He  wrote 
The  Court  of  the  Gentiles  (1669),  and  other 
works. 

Gale,  Thom.as  (1635?-1702),  fellow  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  head-master  of  St  Paul's  and 
dean  of  York,  edited  cla.ssics.  publishi-d  Ojnisrulii 
on  mythology,  and  works  on  early  English  liislory. 

Galekas,  a  Bantu  tribe,  occupy  the  part  of  the 
Transkei  'Territory  (q.v.)  just  beyond  the  great 
Kei  River.     They  are  also  called  Amaxosa  Katiirs. 

Galen,  or  C'L.iUDIV.S  G.\I.esis,  a  celebrated 
Greek  physician,  was  born  at  Pevgannis,  in  Mysia, 
131  .\.D.  In  his  nineteenth  year  he  began  the 
study  of  medicine,  fii-st  at  Pergamus,  afterwards 
at  Smyrna,  Corinth,  and  Alexandria.  On  his 
return  to  his  native  city  in  1.58  he  was  at  once 
appointed  physician  to  the  school  of  gladiators. 
But  six  yeai-s  later  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
stayed  for  about  four  yeai"s,  and  gained  such  a 
reputation  that  he  was  oft'ered,  though  he  declined, 
the  post  of  physician  to  the  emperor.  Scarcely, 
however,  had  he  returned  to  his  native  city  wljcn 
he  received  a  summons  from  the  Emperors  M. 
Aurelius  and  L.  Verus  to  attend  them  in  the  Ven- 
etian territory,  and  shortly  afterwards  he  accom- 
panied or  followed  them  to  Rome  ( 170).  There  he 
remained  several  yeai's,  though  how  long  is  not 
known  precisely :  at  all  events  he  attended  M. 
Aurelius  and  his  two  sons,  Commodus  and  Sextns, 
and  about  the  end  of  the  2d  century  w<-is  employed 
by  the  Emperor  Severus.  If  the  statements  of 
one  of  his  Arabic  biogiaphers,  Abu-'l  Faraj,  be 
correct,  he  must  have  died  in  Sicily  about  the 
year  "201,  though  the  exact  place  ami  date  of  his 
death  are  not  known  with  certainty. 

tialen  was  a  voluminous  writer  not  only  on 
medical,  but  also  on  philosophical  subjects,  such  as 
logic,  ethics,  and  grammar.  The  works  that  are 
still  extant  under  his  name  consist  of  83  treatises 
that  are  acknowledged  to  be  genuine;  19  whose 
genuineness  has  been  questioned  ;  45  und<mbtedly 
spurious;  19  fragments:  and  15  commentaries 
on  different  works  of  Hippocrates.  His  nuist 
important  anatomical  and  physiological  works 
aie  Dc  Anntomlcis  Administrationibiis,  and  De 
I'liii  I'ariuim  Corporis  Ihimani.  As  an  jinato- 
mist,  he  combined  with  patient  skill  and  scdier 
observation  as  a  practical  dissector — of  lower 
animals,  not  of  the  human  body— accuracy  of 
description  and  clearness  of  exposition  as  a  writer. 
He  gathered  up  all  the  medical  knowledge  of  his 
time  and  fixed  it  on  such  a  firm  foundation  of  truth 
that  it  continued  to  be,  as  he  left  it,  the  authori- 
tative account  of  the  science  for  centuries.  His 
physiology  does  not,  according  to  modern  ideas, 
■attain  to  the  same  level  of  scientific  excellence  as 
his  anatomy.  He  is  still  dondnated  by  theoretical 
notions,  especially  by  the  Hippocratic  four  elements 
(hot,  cold,  wet,  and  dry)  and  the  Hippocratic 
humours.  His  therapeutics  are  also  inlluenced  by 
the  same  notions,  drugs  having  the  same  four 
elemental  qualities  as  the  human  bo<ly :  and  he  was 
a  believer  in  the  principle  of  curing  diseases  trace- 
able, according  to  him.  to  the  maladnnxture  of  the 
elements,  by  the  use  of  drugs  possessing  the  oi>po- 


58 


GALENA 


GALIANI 


site  eleiiientary  qualities.  His  patliol(i;,'y  also  was 
very  speculative  ami  inipprfeot.  In  liis  iliaf^uosis 
.luii  iirii;.'ii«isis  he  laiil  ;,'reat  stress  on  the  pulse,  on 
Hliich  suhjeot  he  may  he  consiilered  as  the  lirst  and 
;;reatest  authority,  "  for  all  sulisequeut  writers 
a<lo]itecl  his  system  without  alteration.  He  like- 
wise placed  ^'reat  conlidence  in  the  doctrine  of  criti- 
cal days,  which  he  helieveil  to  he  iulluenced  hy  the 
moon.  In  materia  medica  his  authority  was  not 
so  hi^h  a-s  that  of  Uioscorides.  Numerous  iii^xre- 
diiuts,  many  of  which  were  prohahly  inert,  enter 
into  most  of  his  prescriptions.  He  seems  to  place 
a  mine  implii-it  faith  in  amulets  than  in  ine<licine, 
anil  he  is  suppo.sed  hy  Cullen  to  be  the  ori;,'inator  of 
the  anodyne  necklace  which  wa.s  so  Ion;;  famous 
in  En^daiid.  The  sul>sec|uent  Creek  ami  Koman 
medical  writers  were  mere  comjiilei-s  from  his  writ 
in^'s :  and  as  .soon  .v  his  works  were  translated  (in  \ 
the  iUh  century)  into  .Vnaliic  they  were  at  once  ' 
ailopted  throu;ihout  the  E:ist  to  the  exclusion  of  I 
all  others. 

G.\LE.sic.\L,  G.XLESI.ST,  are  words  liaving  refer- 
ence to  tlie  controversies  of  the  j)eriod  of  the  re- 
vival of  letters,  when  the  authority  of  (laleu  was 
strongly  asserteil  against  all  innovations,  and  par-  | 
ticularly  a;,'ainst  the  introduction  of  chemical,  or 
rather  .ilchemical  ideas  and  methods  of  treatment 
into  medicine.  The  tialenists  ailhered  to  the 
ancient  formula-s,  in  which  dru^.'s  were  )irescrihed, 
either  in  sulistance  or  in  the  form  of  tinctures  ami 
extracts,  &c.  ;  while  the  chemists  professed  to 
extract  from  tlieiu  the  essences  or  quintes.sences 
[i/iiiiit'i  cs.soitifi,  the  ////(  essence,  SHppo.se<l  to  l>e 
particularly  pure,  as  reciuiring  five  processes  to 
extract  it)— i.e.  substances  in  small  bulk,  pre 
suincd  to  contain  the  whole  virtues  of  the  original 
dru^s  in  a  state  of  extreme  concentration,  or  puri- 
fied from  all  gross  and  ])ernicious  or  supcrrtuous 
matter. 

Tliure  have  Iwcn  numerous  edition^  of  Galen's  writings, 
or  parts  of  tlicin  :  tlic  most  accessible,  as  well  as  prob- 
a'.ly  the  best,  is  that  of  C.  G.  Kiilm  (20  vols.  1,><21  33). 
I'oi-  a  general  account  of  bis  anatomical  nnd  ]iliysio- 
logical  kno»led,'c,  see  KiiUl  in  voL  vi.  of  Tnnis.  Pro- 
viiiCHil  Med.  and  Surii.  Asuvc.  (1H,S7);  Darenibcrg,  Dca 
Cniiiirii.i<nuceH  di  Galicn  (  Paris,  1S41 ) ;  and  the  epitome 
in  Knglish  by  J.  R.  Coxe  (I'liila.  1»4C). 

Galena,  or  LEAD-oi..\xrE,  a  mineral  which  is 
essentially  a  sulphiile  of  le,a<l,  the  proportions  being 
l:!-4  snl|iliur  ami  SGG  lead  ;  but  usually  containing 
a  little  silver,  anil  sometimes  copper,  iron,  zinc, 
antimony,  or  selenium.  It  hits  a  hardness  erjual  to 
•2>.  :i,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  7 '2-7  0.  It  is  of  a 
lead-gray  colour,  with  a  metallic  lustre,  is  found 
massive,"  or  sometimes  granular,  or  crystallised  in 
cubes  or  octahedrons.  It  is  very  easily  broken, 
and  its  fragments  are  cubical.  It  occui's  in  veins, 
beds,  and  iiubeilded  mas.ses,  often  accompanying 
other  metallic  ores,  such  as  zinc-blende,  in  the 
older  stratified  rocks,  but  most  of  all  in  what  is 
known  as  the  carboniferous  or  iiiouiitaiu  limcstcme. 
It  is  fouiul  very  abundantly  in  some  parts  of 
Britain,  ami  in  many  other  countries,  as  in 
Sweden,  tiennany,  Switzerlaml,  Hungary,  France, 
the  Uniteil  States,  itc.  Almost  all  the  lead  of 
commerce  is  idjtained  from  it.  It  sometimes  con- 
tains .so  much  silver  that  the  separation  of  that 
metal  is  prolitably  carried  on.  The  Le.id  (q.v.) 
is  cxtr.icted  from  it  by  a  very  simple  process. 

(•aU'Ua.  a  city  of  Illinois,  on  the  Fevre  River, 
li  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  .Mississippi, 
and  133  miles  WXW.  of  Chicago  by  rail.  flie 
river  runs  here  between  high  limestone  bluffs,  and 
the  town  is  built  on  a  series  of  terraces.  It  con- 
t.ains  a  custom  house,  and  a  number  of  mills, 
foumlries,  and  furniture  factories,  and  exjiorts  a 
large  ciuantitv  of  lead  (niineil  and  smelted  in  the 
vicinitv  )  and"zinc.      Pop.  ( ISSO)  U4.J1 ;  i  ISiXi)  jt>;j.y 


<ial«'rl  U'S  {ijalertis,  'a  cap'),  a  genus  of  fossil 
sea-urchins,  peculiar  to  ami  abuinlaiit  in  the  Creta- 
ceous System.  The  generic 
name,  as  well  as  that  popu- 
larly given  to  them  in  the  din- 
tricts  where  they  abound — viz. 
'.Sugar-loaves,'  is  descri|>tive 
of  the  elongated  and  more  or 
less  conical  shape  of  their 
shell.  The  body  in  breadth 
is  nearly  circular  or  polygonal. 
The  under  surface  is  entirely 

tlat,  and  liiis  the  mouth  placed  G»l.  i  .1.  lu.,. 

in  its  centre,  with  the   vent 

near  the  margin.  There  are  five  avenues  of  pores 
reaching  from  the  mouth  to  the  summit.  These 
fossils  are  often  found  silicilied.  The  species  figured 
is  one  of  the  most  abundant;  it  has  receiveil  its 
specific  name  from  its  resemblance  to  the  white 
ca])s  worn  by  the  priests  of  Jupiter. 

Galorilis.  Galerius  Valerius  Maximianus,  a 
Roman  emperor,  was  born  of  humble  (larentage, 
near  Sardica,  in  Dacia.  Entering  the  imperial 
army,  he  rose  r.apidly  to  the  highest  ranks.  In 
2tl2  Diocletian  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Ctrsar, 
.and  gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  In  "JIIG  7 
he  cimdiicted  a  campaign  .ag.ainst  the  IVi-siaiis,  in 
which,  though  not  at  fii-st  successful,  he  decisively 
defeated  their  king,  Narses.  On  the  abdication  of 
Diocletian  (30,^)  he  and  Constantius  Chlorus  be- 
came joint-rulei-s  of  the  Roman  emjiiie,  (Jalerius 
taking  the  e.astern  half.  When  Const.antius  died 
at  York  (30G)  the  troops  in  I'.ritaiii  aiidtlaul  im- 
mediately tiansfeneil  their  allegiance  to  his  .son, 
Constantine  (.afterwards  Constantine  the  Great). 
Calerius,  however,  ret.ained  possession  of  the  east 
till  his  death  in  311.  Galerius  wa.s  a  brave  soldier 
and  a  skilful  commander  ;  but  he  is  believed  to  have 
forced  Diocletian  to  is.suc  his  famous  edict  of  pei-se- 
ciition  ag.ainst  the  Christi.ans. 

dalcsblirs.  a  city  of  Illinois,  .53  miles  WNW. 
of  I'coria  by  rail,  the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural 
district.  It  has  several  foumlries,  niacliine-shops, 
and  agiicultural  manufactories,  and  is  the  seat  of 
the  Lombard  University  (  rniversalist,  185")  and 
of  Knox  College  (Congregational,  1841).  Pop. 
(I860)  4050;  (1880)  11,437;  (1890)  1.->,2(H. 

Galesville.  a  jiost  village  of  Wisconsin,  15 
miles  KNK.  of  Winona,  with  a  Methodist  uni- 
versity (l.S.Vi).     Pop.  410. 

Cial^arilS,  the  name  Tacitus  gives  to  the 
Caledonian  chief  who  olfered  a  desperate  resistance 
to  the  northward  march  of  .-Vgricola  (Hti  -\.l).),  and 
was  at  length  disastrously  defeated  in  the  great 
battle  of  the  (nampians. 

tialiaili,  Fekdinando,  an  Italian  writer  on 
political  economy,  was  born  in  t'hieti,  in  the 
Neapolitan  jirovince  of  Abruzzo  Citeriore,  on  2d 
December  17-28.  Although  educated  for  the  church, 
his  favourite  studies  were  philosophy,  history, 
archaology,  and  more  especially  political  economy. 
He  early  g.ained  a  reputation  as  a  wit  by  the  pub- 
lication of  a  volume  paroilying,  in  a  series  of  dis- 
coui-ses  on  the  death  of  the  public  executioner,  the 
princijial  Neapolitan  writers  of  the  day.  About 
the  s.ame  time  he  wrote  his  first  work  on  political 
economy,  entitle<l  LIcI/k  Moiietu,  the  leading  prin- 
ciple of"  which  is  that  coin  is  a  merchandise,  and 
that  its  v.alue  and  interest  ought  to  1*  left  free, 
H.S  in  other  goods.  His  appointment  as  secretary 
of  leg.ation  at  Paris  in  17.i9  brought  him  into 
j  contact  with  the  Encyclop.rdlsts  and  the  economic 
writers  of  that  capital.  Five  years  later  he  pub- 
lished Ditiliifihisiil  Cumiiiercio del  Griinu  ( 'Dialogues 
upon  the  Trade  in  Corn'),  in  whiidi  he  argues 
.against  both  the  extreme  protectionists  and  the 
jmre   free-traders.      After  his  recall  to  Naples  in 


G  ALICIA 


GALILEE 


o9 


ITfiO  lie  Ijecame  successively  cimiicillDr  of  the 
triliunal  of  commerce  and  (1777)  minister  of  the 
royal  domains.  He  died  at  Naples,  30th  October 
17s7.  See  liis  Correspondanre  with  Mdme.  D'Epinav, 
Holliacli,  Grimm,  Diderot,  &c.  ( 1818  ;  new  ed.  1S81 ). 

(•aliria.  formerly  a  kingdom  and  afterwards  a 
jiioviiice  ill  tlie  northwest  of  Spain,  bounded  N. 
ami  W.  liy  the  Atlantic,  S.  hy  Portugal,  and  E.  liy 
I, eon  and  Asturias,  with  an  area  of  11,340  sq.  m., 
has  been  ilivided  since  1S33  into  the  minor  pro- 
vinces of  Corufia,  Lugo,  LIrenso,  and  Pontevedra, 
whose  joint  population  in  1896  was  1,919,841).  The 
country  is  mountainous,  being  travei'sed  by  offsets 
of  the  Astiirian  chain,  rising  in  their  highest  peaks 
to  about  6jOO  feet.  The  westeramost  spui-s.  Capes 
Ortcgal  an<l  Finisteire,  project  into  the  Atlantic. 
The  numerous  short  but  rapid  rivers  form  small 
estuaries  which  afl'ord  secure  havens  and  roads. 
Tlie  principal  river  is  the  Minho,  which,  with  its 
feeder  the  Sil,  is  navigable  for  small  vessels  on  its 
lower  course.  Galicia  is  one  of  the  most  fraitful 
portions  of  Europe,  and  has  a  mild,  nourishing 
climate;  but  agriculture  is  in  a  backward  con- 
dition, capital  is  scarce,  roads  are  bad,  and  railways 
are  few.  Rich  meadows  and  dense  forests  occur 
evei->  where,  but  the  soil  is  more  suited  to  the 
cultivation  of  gaiden-produce  than  of  corn.  Jlines 
of  leatl,  tin,  copper,  and  iron  ))yrites  are  worked. 
The  inhabitants,  called  Gallegos,  are  a  robust, 
vigorous,  industrious  race.  Great  numbers  of 
them  annually  visit  central  and  southern  Spain 
and  Portugal,  where  they  find  einplovment  a.s  liar- 
vestei's,  water-carriers,  porters,  &c.  Chief  exports, 
live  cattle,  pieserved  meat,  eggs,  minerals,  fish, 
fruits,  and  grain  ;  imports,  coal,  oil,  hides,  spirits, 
sugar,  and  tobacco.  The  principal  towns  are 
Santiago  di  Compostella  and  the  two  stnmgly 
fortified  seaports  Coruna  and  Ferrol.  Galicia  was 
a  kingdom,  under  the  Suevi  from  411  to  .38.5,  and 
again  from  1060  to  1071,  at  which  date  it  was 
finally  incorporated  with  Leon  and  Ca-stile. 

Cialicia  (Polish  Halicz),  a  crown-land  lielong- 
ing  to  the  Austrian  monarchy,  incluiling  the 
former  kingdoms  of  Galicia  and  Lotlomeria,  the 
duchies  of  Auschwitz  and  Zator,  and  the  giand- 
duchy  of  Crivcow,  lies  between  the  Carpathians  on 
the  S.  and  Russian  Polaml  on  the  X.,  ami  between 
Silesia  on  the  W.  and  Russia  on  the  E.  Area, 
3n,.300  sq.  m.  :  pop.  ( 1890 )  6,607,816.  'With  the  ex- 
ception of  '2.30,000  Germans  ami  770,600  Jews,  the 
inhabitants  are  of  Slavonic  race,  the  western  jiart  of 
Galicia  being  occupied  mainly  hy  Poles,  the  eastern 
by  Rutlienians.  In  religiim  aljout  "JA  millions, 
mostly  ItiitluMiians,  belong  to  the  Greek  Church, 
aii<l  nearly  'I'l  millions,  chietly  Poles,  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  The  southern  portion  of  the 
country  is  a  high  terrace,  fianking  the  northern 
face  of  the  Carjiathians.  Thence  the  land  slopes 
away  north«arils,  through  a  low  hilly  region,  to 
the  deep  plains  of  the  Dniester  and  the  \'Lstula. 
There  are  many  larw  rivers — those  in  the  west 
being  feeders  of  the  Vistula,  those  in  the  east  of 
the  I)anube  and  Dniester.  The  climate  of  Galicia 
is  colder  than  that  of  any  other  portion  of  the 
Austrian  empire,  as  it  is  freely  ex|>osed  to  the 
north  and  north-east  winds.  Yearly  mean  of 
temperature  at  Lemlierg,  464'  F. :  mean  of  July, 
669' ;  of  .lanuary,  ioi  ;  annual  rainfall,  aliout  28 
inches.  The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  fertile,  and 
I>roduces  oats,  rye,  ami  barley  in  sutiicient  quan- 
tity for  export.  Wheat,  llax,  hemp,  tobacco,  and 
oil  plants  are  likewise  cultivated.  Fruit-grow- 
ing and  market-gardening  are  prosecuted,  also 
bee-kee]iing.  Horses,  cattle,  anil  slieei)  are  raised 
in  considerable  numbers.  Wolves  and  l>eai"s  are 
still  found  in  the  mountainous  districts.  One- 
fourth    of    the    surface    is    covered    with    forests. 


which  yield  large  quantities  of  timber  for  export. 
Salt  is  the  most  inipoi-t.uit  mineral.  Rut  coal, 
inm  ore,  sulphur,  lead,  zinc,  and  [letroleum 
are  also  extracted.  The  annual  product  of  the 
petroleum  springs  is  about  90,000  tons.  There  are 
about  thirty-five  mineral  springs,  most  of  them 
containing  sulphur.  The  industries  are  few,  and, 
except  the  manufacture  of  cloth  and  the  distilling 
of  brandy  and  of  petroleum,  not  important. 
Trade,  however,  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews, 
is  pretty  active.  Lemberg  and  Cracow,  the  prin- 
cipal towns,  have  each  a  university  ;  the  former 
is  the  capital  of  the  crown  land.  Galicia  is  ruled 
by  an  Austrian  governor  and  an  indepemlent 
diet ;  to  the  imperial  diet  it  .sends  sixty-three 
members.  Galicia  takes  its  name  from  the  old 
fortress  and  town  of  Halicz,  on  the  Dniester. 
The  original  Slavonic  inhabitants,  the  Ruthenes, 
were  in  the  9tli  century  conquered  by  the  Russians 
of  Kietr.  The  western  jioition  of  the  countiy  wa-s 
dependent  on  Poland,  and  afterwards  on  Hungary. 
In  1382  it  was  definitely  restored  to  Poland,  and 
continued  to  belong  to  that  countiy  till  the  parti- 
tion of  1772,  when  Galicia  became  one  of  the  crown- 
lands  of  Austria.  In  1846  Cracow,  with  the  terri- 
torj-  belonging  to  it,  was  given  up  to  the  emperor 
of  Austria,  and  by  him  (1849)  annexed  to  the 
crown-land  of  Galicia. 

Galicz.    See  Halicz. 

<>alisiiani.  John  Anthony  and  Wiluam, 
Parisian  iiublishers,  were  born  in  London,  the 
former  13th  October  1796,  the  latter  lOtli  March 
1798.  Their  father,  an  Italian,  founded  an  English 
library  at  Paris  in  1800,  and  tlieie  published  an 
English  Monthly  Reyicrtury,  and  in  1814  the  famous 
newspaper,  Galignani's  Messeiii/er.  The  Messtiiyer 
was  much  improved  by  his  sons,  who  made  it 
an  important  medium  for  advocating  cordiality 
between  England  and  France.  The  brotliers  founiled 
at  Corbeil  near  Paris  a  hospital  for  ilistressed 
Englishmen  ;  and  in  1889  the  Galignani  Home  for 
decayed  membei-s  of  the  printing  and  bookselling 
trades  was  opened  at  Xeuilly.  The  elder  brother 
died  30th  December  1873,  and  the  younger  12tli 
December  1882. 

Galilee  (Heb.  GaUl,  a  'circle"  or  'circuit'),  a 
name  latterly  applied  to  one  of  the  four  Roman 
divisions  of  Palestine,  originally  referred  only  to  a 
district  of  the  tribe  of  Xaiihtali.  In  the  time  of  our 
Lonl,  Galilee  embraced  the  «  hole  northern  portion 
of  Palestine  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Jordan. 
The  district  was  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower 
f^alilee,  the  former  being  hilly  and  well  wooileil, 
the  latter  level  and  very  fertile.  At  that  time  it 
was  mainly  inhabiteil  by  Syrians,  Phonicians, 
Arabs,  and  Greeks,  with  a  few  Jews.  The  juin- 
cipal  towns  were  Tiberias  and  Sepphoris ;  those 
that  figure  in  the  gospels  are  Caiia.  Capernaum, 
Nazareth,  and  Nain.  The  Jewish  inhabitants 
were  held  in  low  estimation  by  their  brethren  in 
Judu-a,  on  account  of  their  less  rigid  sentiments 
in  regard  to  religion.  After  the  destniction  of 
Jerusalem  the  despised  Galilee  bocaine  the  refuge 
of  the  proud  doctors  of  Jewish  law,  and  the  city  of 
Tiberias  the  seat  of  Rabl)inical  learning.  The 
ruins  of  many  fine  synagogues  are  still  extant  in 
this  region.  Galilee  now  forms  part  of  the  pa.shalic 
of  Dama.«cus,  in  the  Turkish  province  ot  Syria, 
and,  as  of  yore,  is  remarkable  fiu-  its  beauty  and 
fertility.  It  still  has  a  considerable  nunilier  of 
Jewish  inhabitants.  See  Dr  S.  Merrill,  Gulilee 
in  the  Time  of  Christ  (new  ed.  1885). 

The  Sea  of  CJalilee,  called  also  in  the  New 
Testament  the  Lake  of  Gennesoret  and  the  ^V(r  of 
Tiberias,  ami  in  the  Old  Testament  the  Sea  nf  Chin- 
iierctli  or  Ciniieroth,  a  large  lake  in  the  northern 
half  of  Palestine.     Lying  682  feet  below  sea-level, 


60 


CAMLHK 


GALILEI 


it  is  13  miles  lout;  by  6  tirond,  ami  820  feet  deep. 
It  oooii]iics  tlie  Tiottoni  iif  a  ;;ieiit  luisin,  ami 
i-i  iiii(limlil<'illy  (it  Vdkanio  mi^'in.  Allli<iii;;li  the 
.Ionian  riin-i  into  it  red  and  tiirliiil  from  the  north, 
and  many  warm  and  liraekisli  sprinj^rs  also  liml 
their  wav  thither,  its  waters  are  cool,  clear,  ami 
sweet.  Its  shores  on  the  cast  and  north  sides  are 
l)are  and  rocky  ;  on  the  west  sloping  ^T.adnally, 
and  luxuriantly  covered  with  ve^'elalion.  The 
surronndin",'  scenery  is  hardly  lieantifnl,  Iml  its 
a.s.sociations  are  the  most  .sacred  in  the  world.  It 
is  eiionjih  to  menti(m  the  names  of  some  of  the 
towns  on  its  shores,  Hethsaida,  Capernaum, 
Ma^'dala,  and  Tilieria.s.  In  the  time  of  .Icsns 
the  re^'ion  round  abont  was  the  most  densely 
populated  in  (lalilee;  now  even  its  lisheries  are 
almost  entirely  ne^'lected. 

(aillih'O.  the  name  applied  to  a  porch  or  eha])el 
attached  to  a  church,  in  which  penitents  stood, 
]irucc.ssii>ns  were  formed,  .ind  corpses  ilcpo^ited  for 
a  time  pix'\ious  to  intci'iiicnt.  In  si)me  relij^ions 
houses  the  j^alilee  was  the  only  jiart  of  the  cluirch 
accessible  to  w<nnen :  the  monks  came  to  the 
Kalilee  to  see  their  female  relatives — the  women 
bein;,'  tidd  in  the  words  of  Scripture,  '  He  {{oelh 
before  you  into  Galileo :  there  shall  you  see  him' 
(Matt,  xwiii.  71.  A  [lortion  of  the  nave  w,is  some- 
times marked  oil' by  a  step,  or,  ,as  at  Durham,  by  a 
line  of  blue  m.-irblc,  to  mark  the  boundary  to  which 
women  were  limited.  There  are  jjalilees  in  the 
cathedrals  of  Lincoln  (on  west  side  of  south  tran- 
sei>t),  Kly  (at  west  end  of  nave),  and  iMuham 
(west  end  of  nave). 

(•alilc'i.  (i.M.It.E'o,  one  of  the  fathers  of  experi- 
mental s<ience,  w.is  born  at  I'isa  on  the  IStli  of 
I'eliruary  l.'i('>4.  Uy  the  desire  of  his  father,  the 
descendant  of  an  ancient  I'lorentine  family,  (lalileo 
directed  his  early  -tmlics  to  medicine,  and  of  cotirse 
the  prevailin;;  .Viistotcli.in  philnso|iliy  ;  hut  the 
ilo;,'nias  of  this  last  he  soon  ventured  to  disbelieve 
and  despise.  Kntering  the  university  of  I'isa  in 
l.j.si,  he  made  there  two  years  later  one  of  his  most 
im|>orlant  iliscovcries.  lla]ipenin^'  to  observe  the 
oscillations  of  a  bronze  lamp  in  the  cathedral  of 
I'isa,  he  was  struck  with  the  f.'ict  that  the  oscill.a- 
tions,  no  matter  what  theii'  r.'in;.'('.  seemed  to  Ik; 
accomplished  in  efpial  times.  The  correctness  of  this 
observation  he  at  imce  proceeded  to  test,  and  then, 
comparing'  the  beat  of  his  own  jiulse  with  the  .action 
of  the  pendulum,  he  concluiled  that  by  means  of  this 
ei|ualily  of  oscillation  the  simple  pendulum  nMf;ht 
be  mailc  an  invaluable  a;.'cnt  in  the  exact  measure- 
mi'ut  of  lime,  a  discovery  which  he  utilised  some 
lifty  years  later  in  the  construction  of  an  astro- 
nomical clock,  .\bout  this  time  his  irrepressible 
bias  towards  mechanical  constructicms  and  experi- 
mental science  received  a  ni'w  impulse  from  his 
introduction  to  the  principles  of  mathematics.  The 
first  fruit  of  hi>  ardeul  imrsnits  of  the  new  stuilies 
was  the  invention  of  .-i  hydrostatic  balance  .and  the 
eompor-ition  of  a  treatise  on  the  specilic  jjravity  of 
solid  bodies.  These  .ichievenients  seciireil  him  the 
appointment  of  professor  of  Mathematics  in  the 
university  of  I'isa,  where  he  propounded  the  novel 
theorem,  that  all  falling  bodies,  <;reat  or  small, 
de.seeml  with  ecpial  velocity,  and  proved  its  correct- 
ness by  several  experiments  maib'  from  the  summit 
of  the  leanin;.;  tower  of  I'isa.  This  provoked  the 
enmity  of  the  Aristotelians,  whose  bitterness  w.as 
ex.icerbated  by  the  cuttinj,'  sarcasms  of  the 
successful  demonstrator.  Nevertheless  tJalileo  in 
1591  deemed  it  prudent  to  resii;n  his  chair  at  Pis,a, 
and  retire  to  Horenee,  tlion),di  another  cause  luus 
been  assi<;ned  for  his  resifxnation  —viz.  th.at  he 
riiliculed  the  mechanical  jiretensions  of  Giovanni 
de'  Me<lici.  son  oi  t'o*^mo  I. 

In  the  foUowiii''  vear  he  was  nominated  to  the 


chair  of  Mathematics  in  the  university  of  I'adua, 
where  his  lectures  attracted  crowds  of  pupils  from 
all  ]iarls  of  Kurope.  Here  he  tau;.dil  and  worked 
for  ei^rhteen  years,  from  \'tK  to  HilO.  It  may  be 
remarked  ]iaienthetically  that  he  w.is  the  lii>*t  to 
ad.apt  the  Italian  idiom  to  jjhilosophical  instruc- 
tion. Anion;;  the  various  discoveries  with  which 
he  enriched  science  may  be  noticed  a  spc<'ies  of 
thermometer,  a  |iro]iortional  compass  or  sector, 
and,  more  important  thiin  all,  the  refraitiM^'  tele- 
scope for  justronomical  investi^'ation.  This  la-t, 
however,  he  seems  not  to  have  invented  entirely 
indepenilently  :  an  account  of  an  instrument  for 
enlaif^ing  distant  (dijects,  invented  by  a  I  )utchnian, 
seems  to  have  reacheil  him  whilst  on  a  visit  to 
Venice  in  M;iy  1()()9:  thereupon  settiii;,' his  invent- 
ive wits  to  wcuk,  he  const nieted  an  a]ipai.ilus 
invidviu^' the  principles  of  the  telescope,  liapidly 
impiovin;;  the  eonstrnction  of  his  ori;;inal  insliu- 
meiit,  (Jalileo  now  be;,'an  a  series  of  .istromnnical 
investigations,  all  of  which  tended  to  convince  him 
still  more  of  the  correctness  of  the  Copernican 
heliocentric  theory  of  the  heavens,  of  the  truth  of 
which  he  seems  indeed  to  have  been  early  iicr- 
su.aded.  He  comduded  that  the  moon,  instead  of 
bein;;  a  self  luminous  and  perfectly  smooth  sphere, 
owoil  her  illumiiiatioii  lo  rellection,  and  that  she 
luesenled  an  niie(inal  surface,  diversilied  by  valli'vs 
and  mount.iins.  The  Milky-way  he  iironouneed 
a  track  of  countless  separate  stars.  Still  more 
important,  however,  was  the  series  of  observ.i- 
tions  which  le<l  to  the  discovery  of  the  four  satel- 
lites of  .lupiter  (m  the  ni^dit  of  the  7th  of  .l.-innary 
Kilo  (thou;,'h  it  was  not  till  the  l.'ith  of  the  same 
month  that  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they 
were  satellites,  and  not  fixed  still's),  which  he 
named  the  Meiliccan  stars,  in  honour  of  his  |iro- 
tectors,  the  Medici  lamily.  He  also  lirst  noticed 
movable  spots  on  the  disc  of  the  sun,  from  which 
he  inferreil  the  rotation  of  that  orb.  In  this  year 
he  was  recalled  to  l''loience  by  the  Grand-duke  of 
Tuscany,  who  nominated  him  his  philosopher  and 
mathematician  extraordinary,  ;;ave  him  a  ^'ood 
sal.arv,  and  exacted  from  him  no  duties  save  those 
of  prosecuting.' his  scienlilic  investi^'ations  nnlram 
melled.  At  T'lorence,  conliniiin;;  his  astronondcal 
(diservations,  he  discovered  the  tiijdi'  form  of 
Saturn  and  the  ph.oses  of  \eiiiis  and  of  Mars. 

In  Kill  Galileo  visited  Rome  and  was  received 
with  "treat  distinction,  bein^'  enndled  a  member  of 
the  Lincei  Academy.  Yet  the  publication,  two 
years  later,  of  his  Di.sscrlfitinii  an  tin'  Suhir  S/m/.i.  in 
which  he  o]ienly  and  ludilly  professed  his  adhesion 
lo  the  ( '(j|ierriican  view,  provokeil  af,'aiiist  him  the 
censure  and  warning'  of  the  ecclesiastical  anthori 
ties.  Hut  this  he  jiarlly  bron;;ht  upon  himself  by 
his  a^'^'iessive  attitude  towards  the  champions  of 
orthodoxy  ancl  even  towards  the  Scri]itiiii's.  whose 
astronomical  system  he  hesitated  not  to  challen^'<'. 
(ialileo,  however,  iiromised  (2<)lh  Febriiiiry  Kill!)  to 
obey  I'oiie  I'anl  V.'s  injunction,  thenceforward  not 
to  '  holit,  teach,  or  defeinl '  the  c(]ndemne(l  doc- 
trines. After  that  he  seems  to  have  been  a^'ain  taken 
into  favour  bv  the  pope  and  other  hi;;h  di;.'nitaric>s 
of  the  chnrcli  :  indeed  personally  he  seiMiis  never 
to  have  lost  their  esteem.  I!ul  in  Mi'.i'l,  i^'iiorin^ 
his  pled^'e,  he  published  the  iJitdiif/n  .lu/ira  i 
line  iiui.i.simi  Sisteiiii  ilil  Motiiln,  ,a  work  written  in 
the  form  of  a  di.alo^'iie  between  three  fictitious 
interlocutors,  the  one  in  favour  of  the  Goiieinican 
system,  the  second  an  a<lvocate  of  the  I'tolemaic, 
and  the  thinl  a  well-meaning'  but  stu]iid  supporter 
of  the  Aristotelian  school.  Hardly  had  the  work 
been  issued  when  it  was  ^dven  over  to  the  jurixlic- 
tion  of  the  Ini|uisition.  I'ope  I'rban  VIII.,  iirevi- 
onsly  Cardinal  I'arberini,  a  friend  and  admirer  of 
tialileo,  was  led  to  believe  that  Galileo  hail  satirised 
him  in   this  work  in  the  person  of  the  third   inter- 


GALINGALE 


GALL 


61 


locutor,  as  one  wlio  was  careless  about  scientiKc 
tiutli,  iuid  who  timidly  adlieied  to  the  rigid  tradi- 
tions (if  aiitii|uity.  In  spite  of  his  seventy  years 
and  heavy  iiilirniities  Galileo  was  siininioned  before 
the  Inrniisitioii,  and,  after  a  wearisome  trial  ami 
incarceration,  was  condemned  to  abjnre  by  oath  on 
his  knees  the  truths  of  his  scientitlc  creed.  Since 
the  year  1701  alej^eml  has  been  cnrri'iit  to  tlie  eU'ecl 
that  on  concluding;  his  recantation  he  exclaimed, 
sutto  rorr,  'E  pur  si  muove'  (Nevertheless  it  does 
in(jve).  The  question  whetlier  be  was  put  to  the 
torture  or  no  has  given  rise  to  a  keen  controversj', 
ill  whicli  neither  side  can  justly  claim  to  have 
oM'ered  eviilence  that  is  linally  conclusive.  He  was 
certainly  subjected  to  the  c.camcn  i/r/nruniiin,  the 
last  stage  of  which  is  actual  torture,  lint  the 
(illicial  accounts  of  the  trial  make  no  mention  of 
this  last  stage  having  been  reached.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  has  been  asserted  that  the  records  of  his 
trial  have  been  tampered  with.  Galileo  was  further 
sentenced  to  an  indefinite  term  of  imprisonment  in 
the  dungeons  of  the  Inquisition  :  but  this  was 
commuted  by  Pojie  Urban,  at  the  request  of  Ferdi- 
nand, Duke  of  Tuscany,  into  permission  to  reside  at 
Siena,  and  linally  at  Florence.  In  his  retreat  at 
Arcetri,  near  Florence,  he  continued  with  untlagging 
ardour  his  learned  researches,  even  when  hearing 
grew  enfeebled  and  sight  was  extinguished.  Just 
before  he  became  totally  blind,  in  1637,  he  made 
yet  another  astronomical  discovery,  that  of  the 
moon's  monthly  and  annual  lilirations.  He  died  on 
the  Hth  of  January  1642,  and  was  interred  in  the 
cliurch  of  Santa  Croce,  the  pantheon  of  Florence. 
His  disposition  was  genial  ;  he  enjoyed  the  social 
wit  and  banter  of  his  chosen  friends ;  and  the 
readiness  with  which  he  oft'ered  or  accepted  atone- 
ment modilled  a  somewhat  irascible  disposition. 
The  great  deliciencies  in  his  character  were  a  want 
of  tact  to  kee]i  out  of  ditticulties,  and  a  want  of 
moral  courage  to  defend  himself  when  involved 
in  them.  His  biting  satirical  tongue,  more  than 
his  physical  discoveries,  was  the  cause  of  his  mis- 
fortunes. He  loved  art,  and  cultivated  esjiecially 
music  and  poetry.  Ariosto  he  knew  almost  by 
heart,  and  apjireciated  keenly  the  beantii's  of 
this  classic.  Tasso,  on  the  other  hand,  he  unduly 
depreciated,  and  severely  criticised  him  in  Coiixiih'- 
ritzidiii  (il  TdsHu.  His  own  style  is  nervous,  llowing, 
and  elegant.  In  addition  to  the  discoveries  and 
inventions  already  recor<led  we  owe  to  the  genius 
of  Galileo  the  formulation  of  the  law  of  uniformly 
accelerated  motion  in  tlie  case  of  bodies  falling  freely 
towards  the  earth,  the  determination  of  the  para- 
bolic jiath  of  projectiles,  the  theory  of  virtual 
velocities,  anil  the  law  that  all  bodies,  even  invisible 
ones  like  air,  have  weight.  The  best  edition  of 
Galileo's  collected  works  is  that  by  Alberi  ( 16  vols. 
Flor.  1842-56). 

See  'Viviani's  Life  of  Galileo  (1(154);  Henri  Martin's 
Galilee  (1808);  H.  de  I'Epinois  in  Revue  ties  Questions 
Historiques  (18G7),  and  Les  Pieces  ila  Proces  de  Galilee 
(1S77);  Gebler,  Galileo  and  die  Rbiuiseh-e  Cwri'e  (187(i); 
Burti,  Copernico  e  Hiatema  Coperiiieano,  and  //  Proeesso 
Oriiiinalcdi  Galileo  (U16);  Wnlilwill,  1st  Galilei i/cfolterl 
xeordeu?  (1877);  Favaro,  Galileo  Galilei  (2  vols.  Flor. 
1882) ;  Wegjj-l'rosser,  Galileo  and  his  Jml;ics  (1889). 

taillillifcllo.  a  name  often  applied  to  the  tnbers 
of  (_'iii>eriis  lniH/its\  and  sometimes  to  the  whole 
plant.  The  tubers  are  of  ancient  medicinal  reiiute, 
and  are  sometimes  still  eaten  as  a  vegetable  in 
Greece.     See  Cyperi'S. 

(•alioil.  a  town  of  Crawford  county,  Ohio,  at 
the  junction  of  several  railways,  oS  miles  N.  by 
E.  of  ("olnmbus,  with  several  cigar-factories  .and 
machine-shops,  two  railroad-shops,  and  a  foundry. 
Top.  .■iti.'i.'i. 

C(Ulii»ea.    See  Angostur.v  V>.\uk. 


linlitzill,  also  G.\LI.ITZIX.  (;.\I,VZIX,  or  GdLY- 
ZIN,  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  distinguished 
Kussian  families,  whose  members,  too  numerous  to 
catalogue,  have  been  equally  ]irominent  in  war  and 
diplomacy  from  the  16th  centuiy  downwanls. — 
Va.SILI,  surnamed  the  Great,  born  in  l(i4:i,  w.os 
the  councillor  and  favourite  of  Sophia,  the  sister  of 
Peter  the  (_!ieat,  and  regiMit  during  his  minority. 
His  great  aim  was  to  bring  Russia  into  contact 
with  the  west  of  Europe,  and  to  encourage  the  arts 
and  .sciences  in  Russia.  His  design  to  marry 
Sophia,  and  plant  himself  on  the  Russian  throne, 
miscarried.  Sojihia  was  placed  by  her  brotlier  in 
a  convent,  and  Vasili  banished  (  1680)  to  a  spot 
on  the  Frozen  Ocean,  wheie  in  1714  he  died. — 
DlMITEI  (1735 — 1803),  Itussian  ambassador  to 
France  and  Holland  and  intimate  friend  of 
V'oltaire  and  Diderot,  and  the  Eneyclopiedists, 
owes  the  preservation  of  his  name  mainly  to  his 
wife,  the  celebrated  Amai.ii;,  I'lilNCKss  Gai.itzin 
(1746-1806),  daughter  of  the  Prussian  general, 
Count  von  Schmettau.  She  was  rcmarkalde  for 
her  literary  culture,  her  grace  and  amiability  of 
disposition,  her  sympathetic  relations  with  scholars 
and  poets,  but,  above  all.  for  her  ardent  piety,  which 
found  in  Catholicism  its  most  congenial  sphere. 
Having  separated  from  her  husband,  she  took  up 
her  residence  in  Miinster,  where  she  gathered  round 
her  a  circle  of  learned  companions,  including  for 
a  longer  or  shorter  time  Jacobi,  Hemsterhuis, 
Hamann,  and  Count  Stolberg.— DlMiriii  Aiia's- 
TINE,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  at  the  Hague, 
December  22,  1770.  He  became  a  Roman  Catholic 
in  his  seventeenth  year  ;  and,  through  the  inlluence 
exercised  over  him  liy  a  clerical  tutor  during  a 
voyage  to  America,  he  resolved  to  devote  himself 
to'  the  priesthood.  In  1795  he  was  ordained  a 
jiriest  in  the  United  States  by  P.ishop  Carroll  of 
Baltimore,  and  betook  himself  to  a  bleak  region 
among  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, where  he  was  known  as  'Father  Smith' 
( Smith  being  originally  a  corruption  of  Schmettau  ). 
Here  he  laid  the  foundation  of  a  town,  called 
Loretlo,  where  he  died  6tli  May  1841.  He  declined 
to  return  to  Russia  on  his  father's  death,  and  as  a 
Catholic  priest  was  adjudged  to  have  lost  his  right 
of  inheritance.  He  was  for  some  years  vicar-general 
of  the  diocese  of  Philadelphia.  He  was  austere  in 
his  mode  of  life,  Imt  liberal  in  the  highest  degree 
to  others,  and  an  affectionate  and  indefatigable 
liastor.  He  wrote  various  controversial  works, 
inclmling  a  Defence  of  Catliolie  Piiiieijites  (IS16), 
Letter  to  a  Proicstant  Fricitd  ( 1S20),  and  Aji/jea/  to 
the  Protcstriiit  Fiihlie  (1834).  See  the  Lives  by 
Heyden  and  by  Brownson. 

Ualiillll.    See  EED.STHAW. 

(■all.  A  synonym  for  Rile  (q.v.),  the  secretion 
of  the  Liver  (q.v.)."   See  also  Galls. 

(•all.  Fuanz  Joseph,  the  founder  of  jdireno- 
logy,  was  born  at  Tielenbronn,  near  Pforzheim,  on 
the  borders  of  Baden  and  Wiirtemberg,  ilth  March 
1758.  He  studied  medicine  at  Strasburg  and 
Vienna,  and  settled  in  the  latter  city  in  1785 
as  a  physician.  From  his  boyhood  he  had  been 
attracted  by  the  problems  arising  out  of  the  rela- 
tions between  the  powers  of  miml,  the  functions 
of  the  brain,  and  the  external  characters  of  the 
cranium.  In  17iKi  he  began  to  give  courses  of 
lectures  on  Phrenologv  (q.v.)  in  'V'ieuna  ;  but  the 
lectures  were  prohibited  in  1802  by  the  Austrian 
government  as  being  subversive  of  the  .accepted 
religion.  Along  with  Simrziieim  ((|.v. ),  who  be- 
came his  associate  in  1S04.  (lall  quitted  Vienna  in 
1805,  and  beiian  a  lecturing  tour  through  (Jernuuiy, 
Holland.  Sweden,  and  Switzerland.  He  reached 
the  height  of  his  f.ame  when  in  1807  he  settled  as  a 
physician   in  Paris.     On  14th  March  1808  he  and 


62 


GALL 


GALLATIN 


S|nir/.lK'im  iiicsfiiteil  U 
iiR'nioir  of  llii'ir  iliscove 


il  to  ihe  Iiistitiilc  of  France  ii 


of  the  mcmlxTs  of  that  body  ( iiidiuliii;,'  I'iuel, 
I'oiial,  ami  I'liviur)  iln-w  u|>  an  inilavourablu 
Ji'ijiijit.  Therfiipon  Hall  ami  Si)uizlii-iin  imblished 
their  memoir,  Intruilitctiun  mi  fours  ile  I'hy.iwloijie 
dii  Verceuii ;  tliLs  was  siil>siM(iieiitly  followed  hy 
licrherclKs  siir  le  Systt-me  ^crfiiix  (1809),  and 
liy  Anutuinie  ct  I'/ti/siuloijie  tin  Siistimc  Sereeiijc 
(i  vols.  ISIO-IH),  with  an  atlas  of  l(Kt  |)lates. 
Itiit,  the  two  ]dn(iiolo;;ist.s  haviii;,'  iiarled  in  1S13, 
tin-  name  of  Gall  alone  is  prefixed  to  vols.  :j  and  4  ; 
and  it  alone  is  home  hy  a  reprint  of  the  phvslo- 
lo'^ieal  portion  of  the  work,  entitled  .!>'»/•  les  Fonc- 
tioii.s  i/ii  Ccrvcaii,  et  siir  relics  dc  c/iuciiiic  de  scs 
Parties  (0  vols.  18'2,i).  In  1811,  in  answer  to 
accusations  of  materialism  and  fatalism  liroiit;lit 
aj;ainst  his  system,  (lall  pulilished  J>ts  Oisiujsitiuiis 
Iiiiiies  dc  r Aiiic  ct  lie  rEs/irit.  He  continued  to 
practise  medicine  and  pui-sue  his  researches  at 
Slontronge,  near  I'aris,  till  his  death,  2-2d  August 
IS-JS. 

iJall.  St.     See  St  C.u.l. 

<»nllsiit,  Lulls,  a  Hel^ian  historical  |)ainter, 
was  liorn  at  Tonrnay  in  1S12,  and  made  himself 
famous  liy  ]iiclnrcs  on  subjects  from  the  hisiory  of 
the  Low  Countries,  such  its  'The  .\bdication  of 
Charles  V.'  (1S41  ),  '.\lva  viewinj;  the  dead  bodies 
of  K;,'mont  and  Horn'  ( l.S,')l ),  and  'The  l'laj;ue  of 
Tournay '  ( ISS'i),  which  hust  the  llrnssels  .Museum 
purcha-sed  for  i"4St)0.  He  died  ISth  November 
1887. 

<>allaild,  AXTOISE,  a  French  orientalist  and 
arcliaolo;.'ist,  was  bom  -Ith  April  1046,  at  Rollot, 
near  Montdiilicr,  in  I'icardy.  Attadicd  in  1(570  to 
the  French  embiussy  at  Constantinople,  be  three 
years  later  accompanied  the  ambassailor  He  Xointel 
to  Syria  and  tlie  Levant.  In  1(170.  and  a;;ain  in 
1679,  he  maile  other  visits  to  the  Fust,  w  liere  he 
gathered  valuable  collections  of  antiipiities,  and 
acipiired  a  ;,'ood  knowledge  of  oriental  languages. 
In  17<ll  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  .\c,idiinie  des 
Inscrii>tions,  ami  in  171)9  professor  of  .\raliic  in  the 
College  lie  France.  He  died  at  I'aris,  19tli  February 
171.").  The  greatest  |)art  of  (ialland's  writings  relate 
to  archicological  subjects,  especiallv  to  the  numis- 
matics of  the  Ea.st ;  but  the  work  w  liicli  ha-s 
secured  him  the  greatest  re^)Utation  is  his  transla- 
tion of  the  Arabian  yii//its  in  12  vols.  (  /,<■.<  Millc  et 
Cue  Xiiits,  Paris,  1704-8),  the  first  translatiim  of 
the.se  stories  maile  into  any  language  of  Christen- 
dom (see  Al!.\m.\N'  Nil  Mil's).  Among  his  other 
writings  we  may  mention  I'arulcs  Hcinan/iiablcs, 
Huns  Mots,  et  Ma.cimes  des  Orientaux  (1694),  and 
I.cs  Contes  et  Fahles  Iridiciiiics  dc  Bid/jai  ct  dc 
I.ul.man  (2  vols.  I7'24).  Hee  nho  Journal  (fAnloiiie 
Galland  /lenilant  son  srjour  a  Constantinople,  107,'- 
73,  editeil  by  Ch.  Schefer  (2  vols.  1881 ). 

Ciallll  Ox,  or  S.VNiiA,  a  remarkable  siiccies  or 
variety  of  ox  inhabiting  .Abyssinia.  'Ihe  chief 
peculiarity  is  the  extraordin.iry  size  of  the  horns, 
which  rise  from  the  forehead  with  an  outward  and 
then  an  inward  curve,  producing  a  very  perfect 
ligure  of  a  lyre,  and  (inaliy  curve  a  little  outwards 
at  the  tip,  to  which  they  taper  gradually. 

Cialla.s.  a  race  of  jicople  inhabiting  that  part  of 
.Africa  which  lies  to  the  simth  and  west  of  Harar 
and  south  of  Shoa,  between  9°  and  3'  S.  lat.  .and 
34"  and  44^  F.  long.  Their  racial  allinities  are  not 
yet  conclusively  settled  ;  the  liest  authorities 
regard  them  as  belonging  to  the  Ethiopic  branch 
of  the  Hamites,  and  their  language  as  .a  descendant 
of  the  ancient  Geez  of  Abyssinia.  Individually 
they  are  of  average  stature,  with  strong,  well-made 
limbs,  skin  of  a  light  chocolate  brown,  hair  frizzled 
but  not  woolly.  Though  cruel  in  war,  tliey  are 
of  frank  disposition,  and  faithfully  keep  their  pro- 


mises and  obligations.  They  are  distinguished  for 
their  energy,  both  pliy.sical  and  mental,  especially 
those  tribes,  to  the  .south  and  .southwest,  which 
pui-sue  pa-storal  avocations,  notably  the  breeding  of 
horses,  iLsses,  sheep,  cattle,  and  camels,  and  those 
which  live  by  hunting,  especially  the  elephant. 
These  same  tribes  are  mostly  still  heatliens,  though 
Mohammedanism  is  rapiilly  making  way  amongst 
them.  The  more  northerly  tribes  w  ho  ilwell  about 
Harar  )  rofess  a  crass  form  of  Christianity,  ileriveil 
from  .\byssinia,  and  for  the  most  part  priuliso 
agriculture,  raising  cotton,  duira,  sugar,  and 
coll'ee.  The  total  (_ialla  populatiim,  who  call  them- 
selves Argatta  or  C'romo,  is  approximativi  ly 
estimated  by  Keclus  at  3|i  millions;  the  northcni 
tribes  are  nut  by  I'aulitschke  at  1^  million. 
I'olilically  they  are  divided  into  a  great  number 
of  separate  tri1ies(ltu,  .\russi,  N<de,  .lais.so,  .\la, 
Fniiia.  Walanio,  liorana,  Ac),  which  are  Ire- 
ciuenlly  at  war  with  one  another.  But  their  inveter- 
ate century-long  foes  are  the  Somali  on  the  north- 
east anil  eitst,  who  have  gradually  ilriven  back  the 
Gallas  from  the  shores  of  the  lied  Sea  and  Ihe 
extremities  of  the  Som.ili  peninsula.  re;;ions  which 
were  occupied  by  ibcm  in  the  lOth  century,  jusi  as 
on  the  other  side  the  Abyssiniaiis  and  Shoans  have 
beaten  them  back  .southwards.  The  country  they 
now  inhabit  is,  generally  speaking,  a  jilateau  that 
slopes  south  eastward  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  Iuls 
a  hilly,  well-timbered  surface.  (In  the  north,  from 
Harar  to  the  Hawash,  stretches  the  watershed 
dividing  the  rivers  that  How  to  the  Hed  Sea  and 
(X\i\i  of  Allen  from  those  thai  drain  south  eastwards 
to  the  Indian  Gcean,  and  culminating  in  two  lime- 
stone nuLssifs  ( 7'2.')0  feel ),  called  Concuda  and  Gara 
Mulata.  The  watershed  scjiarating  the  rivers 
Webi  (with  its  tributary  the  I'.rer)  and  Wabi  (also 
called  .luba),  which  How  south  eiusl  to  the  Indian 
Ocean,  from  the  feeders  of  the  Ipjier  Nile  region, 
skirts  the  western  side  of  the  Galla  territory.  This 
region,  with  plenty  of  rains  and  running  streams,  a 
rolling  surface  ilivei>^itied  with  hill-chains,  and 
abundant  vegetation,  is  well  cultivated,  and  yields 
wheat,  barley,  beans,  sorghum,  sweet  potatoes, 
llax,  lentils,  cotton,  and  coll'ee.  Its  average  eleva- 
tion is  7'2I)0  feet.  Amongst  all  the  western  tribes 
inhabiting  this  region  slavery  is  a  recognised 
institution.  See  I'aulitschke,  Ethnographic  unit 
Anthrojjuloijic  dcr  Honial,  Galla,  and  Ilarari 
(Leip.  1886),  and  in  Globus,  1889,  and  Cecclii,  Fra 
Zcila  alle  Fronticrc  del  Cajj'a  (2  vols.  l{ome,  188.")). 
faallatill.  Al.liKltT,  linancier  and  statesm;in, 
was  born  at  Geneva  in  1761,  and  graduated  at  the 
un'iyersity  there  in  1779.  In  1780  he  went  to  the 
Unitetl  States,  where  he  engaged  in  trade,  and  was 
for  a  time  teacher  of  French  in  Harvard  College. 
Afterwards  he  piirch,a.sed  land  in  \'irginia  and 
l'eiin.sylv;inia,  and  made  his  entrance  into  political 
life  in  the  latter  state  in  1789.  In  1793  he  w;us 
elected  to  the  liiited  States  senate,  and  in  1795 
entered  congress.  In  1801-13  he  was  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  in  which  post  he  was  of  signal  -service 
to  his  adojjted  country,  and  showed  himself  one  of 
the  tirst  liii,inciei-s  of  his  day.  He  took  an  ini 
portant  part  in  the  negotiations  for  peace  wiili 
England  in  1814,  and  signed  the  treaty  of  Ghent. 
From  ISl.'j  to  1823  he  was  minister  at  Paris,  and 
in  l.S'26  he  was  sent  to  London  ,xs  anlbai^.sado|■- 
extraordinary.  On  his  return  in  IS'27  he  settled 
in  New  York,  and  devoted  much  of  his  time  to 
literature,  being  chielly  oecu|)ied  in  historical  and 
ethnological  researches.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  and  the  first  |)resident  of  the  Ethno 
logical  Society  of  America;  and  from  184.3  to  his 
death  he  wjus  president  of  the  New  York  Historic;il 
Society.  He  died  August  12,  1849.  His  works 
include  publications  on  finance,  politics,  and  eth- 
nology ;  among  these  last  are  Tlie  Indian.  Tribes 


GALLAUDET 


GALLEY 


63 


east  of  the  Eockij  Mountains,  &c.  (1836),  ami  Xotes 
on  the  Hemi-cicilised  Nations  of  Mexico,  Yueatan, 
ami  Central  America  (1845).  See  tlie  Lives  by 
Heiin-  Adams  (1879)  and  J.  A.  Stevens  (in  tlie 
'American  Statesman'  seiies,  1883). 

Galliiiidet.    See  De.\f  .\nu  Ul.mb. 
<;all-bladder.    See  Li\  ek. 

Ciilllo,  or  Point  de  G.\lle,  a  fortified  town 
and  .seaport  of  the  south-west  e.xtremity  of  the 
ishmd  of  Ceylon,  stands  on  a  low  rocky  promontory 
of  the  same  name,  and  has  a  <;ood  liarhour,  formed 
l>y  a  small  hay.  It  has  lost  its  former  imiiortance 
as  a  coaling  and  transhipping  station  for  the  great 
lines  i;f  steamers  from  Europe  to  .\ustralia  and 
Cliina  since  the  completion  of  the  breakwater  at 
Colombo  (q.v.).  It  is  the  capital  of  the  southern 
province    of    Ceylon.     Pop.    (IStll)    33,505.      See 

CliVI.ON. 

CialU'^O,  one  of  the  principal  affluents  of  the 

Eliro  (q.v.). 

tialleon  ( Spanish ),  a  large  ship  formerly  used 
by  the  Spaniards  to  carry  home  tlie  gold,  silver, 
and  other  wealth  contributed  by  the  Mexican  and 
South  .Vmerican  colonies.  They  were  armed,  and 
had  usually  three  or  four  decks,  with  bulwarks 
tliree  or  four  feet  thick,  and  stem  and  stern  built  | 
up  high  like  castles.  They  had  a  particular  fascin- 
ation for  Drake  and  other  Elizabethan  rovers,  who 
so  contrived  tliat  many  of  them  never  reached  the 
ports  of  Si>ain. 

Ciallory,  a  woid  with  several  applications  in 
architecture.  A  long  passage  or  corridor  is  called 
a  gallery.  .-V.  long  room,  such  as  Is  freiiuently 
used  for  e.\hibiting  pictures;  a  raised  Uoor  in  any 
apartment,  supported  on  pillars  ;  a  long  passage  in 
the  thickness  of  the  wall,  or  supported  on  canti- 
levers (as  the  Whispering  Gallery  of  St  Pauls) — all 
tliese  are  called  galleries.  They  were  of  frequent 
use  in  the  buihlings  of  the  middle  ages.  The  Kood- 
loft  (see  KooD)  is  a  gallery  running  across  a 
church  at  the  entrance  to  the  choir,  and  supporting 
a  large  cross.  Organ  galleries  are  also  frequent, 
either  in  the  position  of  the  roodloft,  or  at  one  end 
of  the  nave  or  transept,  or  corbelled  out  from  the 
side-wall.  In  old  baronial  halls  the  end  ne.\t  the 
door  was  usually  screened  oil'  as  an  entrance 
pa-ssage,  and  above  the  screen  was  almost  invari- 
ably a  gallery  for  musicians.  In  Scottish  castles 
such  a  gallery  was  frequently  constructed  in  the 
thickness  of  the  wall.  In  the  older  German  and 
French  churches  the  side-aisles  were  divided  into 
two  stories — the  upper  forming  a  gallery  said  to  be 
for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  women.  The  arrange- 
ment of  galleries  in  tiei"S  one  over  the  other,  now  so 
mucli  used  in  churches,  theatres,  itc,  is  entirely 
modern,  dating  from  the  17th  century.  For  gal- 
leries in  the  military  and  raining  connection,  see 
Mines. 

tlalloy,  a  long,  narrow  row-boat,  carrying  a  sail 
or  two,  ijut  dependent  for  safety  and  movement 
maiidy  upon  oars.  These  boats  were  called  galleys, 
galleots,  and  brigantines  (or  frigates)  according  to 
their  size  :  a  galleot  is  a  small  galley,  while  a 
brigantine  is  still  smaller.  The  numlier  of  men 
to  each  oar  varieil  according  to  the  ves.sers  size  :  a 
galley  had  four  to  si.\  men  working  side  by  side  to 
each  oar,  a  galleot  but  two  or  three,  and  a  brigan- 
tine one.  A  galley  was  180  or  liK)  spans  (of  9  to  10 
inches)  long,  and  its  greatest  beam  was  25  spans 
broad.  Such  a  vessel  carried  two  masts — the 
albcro  maestro  or  mainmast,  and  the  trinchetto  or 
foremast,  each  with  a  great  lateen  sail.  The 
Genoe.se  and  Venetians  set  the  models  of  these 
vessels,  and  the  Italian  terms  were  generally  used 
in  all  Europe.an  navigation  till  the  northern  nations 
took  the  lead  in  sailing  shijis.     These  sails  were 


often  clewed  up,  however,  for  the  maiiiier  of  the 
16th  century  was  ill-practised  in  the  art  of  tacking, 
and  very  fearful  of  losing  sight  of  land  for  long,  so 
that  unless  he  had  a  wind  fair  astern  he  preferre<l 
to  trust  to  his  oars.  A  short  deck  at  the  prow  and 
poop  served,  the  one  to  carry  the  lighting  men  and 
trumpeters  and  yardsnien,  and  to  provide  cover  for 
the  l(mr  guns ;'  the  other  t«  accommodate  the 
knights  and  gentlemen,  and  especially  the  admiral 
or  captain.  Detween  the  two  decks,  in  the  ship's 
waist,  was  tlie  propelling  power— say  lifty-four 
benches  or  banks,  twenty-seven  a  side,  snp[iortii!g 
each  four  or  Uve  slaves,  whose  whole  business  iu 
life  was  to  tug  at  the  fifty-four  oai-s.  If  a  Christian 
vessel,  the  rowers  were  either  Turkisli  or  Moorish 
captives,  or  Christian  convicts  ;  if  a  Barbary  cor- 
sair, the  rowers  would  all  be  Christian  prisoners. 

Sometimes  a  galley-slave  worked  as  long  as  twenty 
yeai-s,  sometimes  for  all  his  miserable  life,  at  this 
fearful  calling.  The  poor  creatures  were  chained 
so  close  together  on  their  narrow  bench  that  they 
could  not  sleep  at  full  length.  Sometimes  seven 
men  (on  French  galleys,  too,  in  the  IStli  century) 
liad  to  live  and  sleep  in  a  space  10  feet  by  4.  IJetwcen 
the  two  lines  of  rowers  ran  the  bridge,  and  on  it 
stood  two  boatswains  armed  with  hmg  whips,  which 
they  laid  on  to  the  bare  backs  of  the  rowers  with 
merciless  severity.  Biscuit  was  made  to  last  si.x 
or  eiglit  months,  each  slave  getting  28  ounces 
thrice  a  week,  and  a  spoonful  of  some  mess  of  rice 
or  bones  or  green  stutl'.  The  water-cms  umler  the 
benches  were  too  often  fiml.  The  full  cmiiplemeiit 
of  a  large  galley  included,  besides  270  rowei-s  and 
the  captain,  chaplain,  doctor,  scrivener,  boatswains, 
and  master  or  pilot,  ten  or  fifteen  gentlemen  adven- 
turers, friends  of  the  captain,  sharing  his  mess,  and 
lierthed  in  the  poop,  twelve  helmsmen,  >i.x  foretop 
able-bodied  seamen,  ten  warders  for  the  caiitives, 
twelve  ordinary  seamen,  four  gunnei-s,  a  carpen- 
ter, smith,  cooper,  and  a  couple  of  cooks,  together 
with  fifty  or  si.xtv  soldiei-s,  so  that  the  whole  enui- 
page  of' a  fightinj'  galley  must  have  reached  a 
total  of  about  four  liundred  men. 

SVhat  is  true  of  a  European  galley  is  also  gener- 
ally applicable  to  a  Barbary  galleot  of  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  oai^,  except  that  the  latter  was  gener- 
ally smaller  and  lighter,  and  had  commonly  but  one 
mast  and  no  castle  on  the  prow.  The  crew  of  about 
two  hundred  men  was  very  ilensely  packed,  and 
about  one  hundred  soldiei-s  armed  with  muskets, 
bows,  ami  scimitars  occupied  the  pool).  The  rowers 
on  Barbary  galleys  were  generally  Christian  slaves 
belonging  to  the  owners,  but  when  these  were  not 
numerous  enough  other  slaves,  or  .-^rabs  and  .Moors, 
were  hired.  The  complement  of  soldiei-s,  whether 
volunteei's  or  Ottoman  janissaries,  varied  with  the 
vessel's  size,  but  generally  was  calculated  at  two 
to  each  oar,  because  there  wa.-  just  room  lor  two 
men  to  sit  beside  each  bank  of  rowel's.  They  were 
not  paid  unless  they  took  a  prize,  nor  were  they 
sui)plied  with  anything  more  than  biscuit,  vinegar, 
and  oil — everything  else  they  found  themselves. 
Vinegar  and  water  with  a  few  drops  of  oil  on  the 
surface  formed  the  chief  drink  of  the  galley-slaves, 
and  their  food  was  moistened  biscuit  or  rusk  and 
an  occasional  mess  of  gruel. 

.\  galleass  was  originally  a  large,  heavy  galley, 
three-masted,  and  fitted  with  a  nidder,  since  its 
bulk  compelled  it  to  trust  to  sails  a.s  well  .-us  oars. 
It  wa-s  a  sort  of  transition-ship  lietween  the  galley 
and  the  galleon,  and  iis  time  went  on  it  became 
more  and  more  of  a  sailing  ship.  It  had  high 
bulwarks  with  loopholes  for  muskets,  and  tbeie 
was  at  least  a  partial  cover  for  the  crew.  The 
Portuguese  g.illeys  in  the  Spanish  .\rmiida  mounted 
each  110  soldiei-s  and  222  galley-slaves;  but  the 
Neapolitan  galleasses  carried  700  men,  of  wlnuu 
130  were  sailoi-s,  270  soldiei-s,  and  300  slaves  ot  the 


64 


GALL-FLY 


GALLICAN    CHURCH 


oar.  In  France  tlio  convict  fiallcvs  wore  fjrailiially 
sii|icrseilc<l  from  1748  \>y  tlie  IJa'.'nes  ((|.v. ).  John 
Knox  lalioiireil  lor  ei;,'lilccn  nionlli-  at  the  oar,  and 
St  Vincent  ile  I'anl  |i|.v.)iliil  ninch  loi  the  };alley- 
slaves.     See  also  TlilUK.Ml';,  Sllll'lilll.I)IX(i. 

Furttcnbacli,  Aivliilirtiira  ymalis :  S.  Lnnc-rcxilc, 
I'he  liarharii  Corsairs  ('Stor.v  of  the  Nations');  anJ  M. 
Uli]ienlR'ini,  in  UtntUiiian's  Maijnziiie  (ISSTj). 

tiall-fly.  or(;.M.I.-\V.\sp,  names fienerallyaiiiilied 
to  any  inemher  of  a  large  family  (('ynipiihr)  of 
Ilyiiieno|>teroiis  insects,  most  of  the  females  of  which 
lav  their  c^';;s  in  plants  and  hy  the  as.sociated  irrita- 
tion iircxlnce  fialls.  The  insect.i  are  not  nnlike 
little  wasps,  with  straifiht,  threadlike  antenna', 
laterally  compressed  abdomen,  and  Ion;,'  wings. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  the 
leaves,  twigs,  roots,  &c. 
of  plants,  which  the 
niothei-s  pierce  with 
their  ovipositors.  The 
irritaticin  of  the  wound 
and  of  the  iiitniilcd  and 
rapidly  clcveloping  eggs 
results  in  pathological 
excrescences  or  galls. 
Within  these  the  larva- 
feed  an<l  grow,  ami 
,,  either  eat  their  way  out 
>/  while  still  grulis  or  re- 
main till  the  iiui)a  stage 
is  past  and  emerge  ius 
adolescent  insects.  A 
gall  nniy  c<mtain  a 
single  egg  ami  larva  or 
many,  and  hoth  exter- 
nal form  and  internal 
structure  vary  wiilely. 
Each  gall-fly  luis  its  favourite  or  exclusive  host, 
and  usually  restricts  its  egg-laying  to  some  sjiecial 
part  of  the  plant.  While  most  proilnce  true  galls, 
some  memliers  of  the  family  act  like  cuckoos  and 
utilise  galls  already  formed  hy  other  genera.  ( >thers 
again  depart  more  widely  from  the  general  hahit 
and  deposit  their  ova  in  other  insects.  The  genera 
Cynips,  .\pliilotrix.  .\ndricus,  Xeuroterns,  Spathe- 
gaster,  Biorhiza  all  form  galls  on  oaks  :  lihodites 
is  the  cause  of  mossy  excrescences  on  rose  hushes. 
Among  those  which  utilise  alreaily  formed  galls 
Synergus  an<l  Aulax  are  important  genera  :  while 
Il>alia,  Figitcs,  Kueoila,  and  the  minute  species  of 
Allotria  are  in  their  youth  parasitic  on  other  insects 
such  as  llii's  and  plant  lii'e. 

The  reproductive  lelation.s  of  gall-llies  are  very 
interesting:  in  many  cases  parthenogene.sis  un- 
doubtedly occurs  ;  in  .some  species— e.g.  of  Hliodites, 
no  males  have  ever  been  found  ;  in  other  forms  the 


Fis 


].  —  I'udt'guar  Gall  of 
Wild  Kose. 


a,  oak  Rail  pro<lucp<l  by  Cynips  (jurrcus-folii :  b,  section 
of  gall ;  c,  gall-insect  (Cynips  quercus-folii). 

males  when  they  occur  are  very  few  in  proportion 
to  the  females.  It  must  be  emphasised  that  many 
gall-wasps  distinguished  by  entomologists  a.s  sepa- 


rate .species  or  even  referreil  to  ilillerent  genera 
have  turned  out  to  be  the  i>arthenogemlic  and  the 
sexual  forms  of  (me  species.  A  common  lite  histiuy 
is  a-s  follows:  (»)  Out  of  a  summer  gall  male  and 
female  forms  emerge;  (i)  the  females  lav  their 
fertiliseil  eggs  and  give  origin  to  winter-galls  in  so 
iloing  ;  ('•)  from  these  winter-galls  there  arise  par- 
thenogenctie  females  which  in  their  egg  laying 
produce  the  summer-galls  from  which  we  started. 

.Among  the  common  gall-vjisps  Ci/iiiits  tptrrrt/s- 
fiilii  makes  the  cherry-galls  of  oak  leaves;  (,'. 
tiiirliiriii  produces  the  well  known  ink-gall  of  the 
Levantine  oak  :  UIhhIHix  romr  forms  the  curious 
and  familiar  '  Hedeguar'  (q.v. )  on  wild  roses. 

Sec  G.M.I.S,  Ink,  Insect,  rAUTHENOOENE.si.s.  For  the 
life-histories,  see  Adler,  Zeilsch.  f.  kiss.  Zoiil.  (  ISSI  ),  and 
his  Altcrnaltii'i  (•'tniriitioiis  :  a  Stiidii  of  (lull-flits  (trans. 
18U4);  Annuls  uwl  Miiijiizinc  of  Nalurul  Histurp  (Titli 
series,  vol.  viii.l;  Bassett,  Cunutl.  KnIomoloiiisI  (1873-75, 
p.   '.II  ■;   \\  .  K.  Itrooks,  //(;-fi/i(.«  ( lialtiniore,  1883). 

<>alliillMK  the  name  of  a  lively  dance,  the  same, 
according  to  Itrossard,  a.s  the  lioDininsni,  a  favourite 
dance  with  tlie  Italians.  The  air  is  mostly  in  '^  i>r 
j'  time,  but  sometimes  also  in  ;  or  \  timi'.  'i'he 
tempo  is  also  i|uick  and  lively,  with  a  (lowing 
melody.  .Many  galliard  tunes  are  still  extant, 
distinguished  by  such  names  as  T/ie  Kin;/  of  Dm- 
miir/.'.i  (liillidril.  The  liinl  of  Essex's  diilliard,  and 
the  like.  The  wind  is  due  to  the  Spanish  i/ii//iin/<i, 
of  dubious  origin  ;  Diez  refuses  to  connect  it  with 
i/ii/ii  and  iiiilhiiil  (Span,  r/u/iiiile)  on  account  of  the 
iloulilc  /  and  the  French  form  ijiiillard,  itself  most 
likely  of  Celtii'  origin. 

4;silli<-  -Irid.  II<-11,(),„H/),  is  an  acid  which 
exists  in  small  (luantity  in  gall-nuts,  in  valonia 
(the  acorn-cup  of  (,iiierciis  (iifi/ujis),  in  divi-divi 
(tlie  pod  of  Cirstiljiiiiid  coriiiriii),  in  sumach,  and 
other  vegetables.  It  is  usually  jireiiared  from  gall- 
nuts,  which,  in  addition  to  gallic  aiid,  contain  a 
large  pro|>orti()n  of  tannin  (tannic  acid  or  gallo- 
tannic  aciil ).  When  the  gall-nnls  arc  digested 
with  w.-itcr  for  some  weeks  fcrm<ntation  takes 
nlace,  and  the  tannic  acid  is  gradually  converted 
into  gallic  acid.  The  same  result  is  obtained  more 
ipiickly  if  sulnhuric  acid  be  present.  To  obtaJTi 
))ure  gallic  acid  the  gall-nuts  are  boiled  with  water, 
and  the  hot  liijuor  separated.  On  cooling  g.-illic 
acid  ciystalliscs  out,  and  is  fuilher  pnrilicd  by 
solution'  in  hot  water  and  treatment  with  animal 
charcoal. 

It  forms  delicate,  silky,  acicular  crystals,  nearly 
colourless,  and  having  a  sourish  taste.  It  issidnble 
in  .3  parts  of  boiling  water,  but  oidv  in  KMi  of  c<dd 
water,  and  on  this  account  it  can  lie  readily  |iuri 
lieil  liy  recrystallisation.  With  scdution  of  inui 
salts  ( fi-rric  I  it  produces  a  blue-black  colour,  ami 
linally  yields  a  bhudc  precipitate  on  exposure  to  the 
air.  Hence  it  nnvy  be  used  in  the  jiroduction  of 
ink,  for  which  purpose  it  has  some  a<lvantages  over 
taiuiiu  or  g;ill  nuts,  When  the  crystals  are  strongly 
heated  jiyrogallic  acid  is  ]iro<luccd  and  sublimes 
over.  Ciillic  acid  is  a  useful  astringent.  .As  it 
rloes  not  coagulate  albumen  it  is  readily  absorlied 
into  the  blood,  ami  in  this  way  it  is  ellicacious  in 
Urighl's  disease.  Where  a  decided  local  astringent 
cfl'ect  is  desired  tannic  ucid  is  much  more  jiowerful. 
(;allH-SIII  <'lllir<-ll.  the  designation  aj.plied  to 
the  Catlndic  Church  in  France,  in  respect  of  the 
more  or  less  independent  attitude  which  it  formerly 
occupied  toward  the  Koman  see. 

Flonrisliing  Christian  communities  already  ex- 
isted at  Lynns  and  Vicnne  at  the  time  of  the 
per-secutionunder  Marcus  Anrelius,  when  the  ageil 
lii.shop  I'othinus  was  martyred  (177).  The  origin 
of  these  churches  is  traced  luincipally  to  Asia 
Minor,  where  Irena?us  (q.v.)  was  born,  and  they 
were  in  intimate  connection  with  Smyrna  and 
other  chuiches  of  the  East.     The  historian  Gregory 


GALLICAN    CHURCH 


65 


of  Touis  {6th  century)  Ki)eak.s  of  seven  missionary 
bLshops  sent  to  Gaul  from  Kome,  of  whom  Satur- 
ninus  settled  at  Toulouse,  Dionysius  at  Paris,  ami 
Troiiliimus  at  Aries.  I'lobahly  his  acctmnt  is  a 
combination  of  various  local  traditions  of  the  tirst 
bishops  of  imiiintaut  towns  with  a  much  earlier 
narrative  of  the  martyrdom  of  Saturuinus  under 
Decius  CJoO).  Althouj;h  sharinj^  in  the  general 
literary  inferiority  of  Western  ecclesiastics  durin" 
the  early  period,  the  church  of  Gaul  nunibei-s  several 
eminent  names  in  the  literature  of  the  3d,  4th,  and 
5th  centuries.  The  works  of  Irentfus,  Sulpicius 
Severus,  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Hilary  of  Aries,  Vincent 
of  Lerins,  Prosper,  Victor,  Eucherius,  Salvian,  and 
Grejj'ory  of  Tours  combine  to  form  a  body  of  litera- 
ture of  whicli  tlie  later  French  Churcli  is  not  un- 
reasonably proud.  The  hierarchical  or<j;anisation 
of  the  church  in  Gaul  was  from  an  early  perioil 
among  the  most  complete  and  regular  in  western 
Christendom  ;  and  in  the  council  held  at  Aries  in 
31-1  we  may  recognise  the  titles  of  many  bishops  of 
sees  which  are  still  rei)resented  in  the  episcopate  of 
France. 

But  the  history  of  the  Galilean  Church,  so  far  as 
regards  the  development  of  tliose  peculiar  principles 
which  have  acquired  the  distinctive  name  of  '  Galli- 
canism,'  begins  at  a  much  later  period.  From 
circumstances  wliich  are  difl'erently  viewed  by  the 
opposite  schools  of  theology,  the  papacy  began, 
from  tlie  very  date  of  the  establishment  of  the 
Western  Empire,  to  e.xercise  a  large  intluence 
over  the  civil  as  well  a.s  ecclesiastical  att'airs  of  the 
seveial  European  kingiloms.  On  the  other  hand, 
owing  to  the  intimate  connection  between  the 
church  and  slate  in  most  of  these  kingdoms,  and 
especially  to  the  feudal  relations  between  the 
crown  and  the  church  dignitaries,  the  crown  also 
asserted  a  correlative  claim  to  certain  privileges  in 
respect  of  ecclesiastical  aflairs.  The  satLsfactoiy 
adjustment  of  these  conllicting  claims  was  the 
great  problem  of  medieval  polity  ;  and  the  alterna- 
tions of  the  struggle  between  them  form  the  staple 
of  medieval  history.  In  the  cliurch  of  France  the 
l)arty  maintaining  the  prerogatives  of  the  French 
crown  and  the  jirivileges  of  the  national  chnrch  of 
France  against  the  advei'se  claims  of  the  Roman 
see  gave  to  the  principles  which  they  professed 
the  name  of  (iallicanism.  This  name  has  come 
to  designate,  in  general,  that  system  iu  Koinan 
Catholic  theology  which,  while  it  recognises  the 
]iriniacy  of  the  Uoman  pontitf,  V>y  clivine  right,  over 
the  universal  churcli.  yet  a.s.serts  the  independence 
of  national  churches  in  many  details  of  self-govern- 
ment anil  of  local  discipline,  and  limits  the  papal 
|)rerogatives  by  canons  and  decrees  of  general  coun- 
cils and  by  the  laws  of  the  universal  church.  It 
must  be  addeil  that,  while  the  Gallicau  theory  t<i 
this  extent  cUiims  exemption  from  the  authority  of 
tlie  pope,  it  ac(|uiesces,  to  an  almost  proportionate 
degree,  in  the  assumption  of  ecclesiastical  authority 
on  the  part  of  the  state. 

We  can  recognise  the  working  of  these  principles 
in  the  ojipositiou  which  the  so-called  Isiilorian 
decretals  (see  C.\xi)N'  L.wv )  encountered  in  France. 
They  were  emliodied,  during  the  reign  of  St  Louis, 
in  the  Pragmatic  .Sanction  of  1209,  which  ]irovided 
that  the  administration  of  the  church  should  lie  in 
conformity  «ith  '  the  common  law,  the  cjinons  of 
Councils,  and  the  statutes  of  the  ancient  Fathei's.' 
They  were  carried  to  tlieir  extreme  extent  by 
Philippe  le  IJel  in  his  contest  with  IJoniface  VIH. 
The  C(mtlicting  claims  of  the  rival  popes  in  the 
Western  schism  tended  still  more  to  weaken 
the  papal  authority  :  and  the  expedient  of  con- 
vening a  general  council  to  pronounce  upon  these 
claims  gave  nrominence  to  one  of  the  leading 
dogmas  of  (iallicanism — the  superiority  in  point  of 
authoritv  of  a  general  council  to  the  pope.  The 
■213 


disciplinary  enactments  of  the  councils  of  Constance 
and  Ba-sel  were  mainly  directed  towards  the  limita- 
tion of  the  papal  authority  in  the  exerci.se  of  church 
patronage  ;  and  these  enactments  were  in  the  main 
embodied  in  the  French  law  by  the  celebrated 
PragTiiatic  Sanction  (q.v.)  of  Bourges  in  1437. 

The  Pragmatic  Sanction  was  superceded  in  1516 
by  the  Concordat  of  Bologna  between  Leo  X.  and 
Francis  I.  This  treaty  gave  the  nomination  of 
bishops  to  the  crown,  and  the  right  of  instituting 
them  to  the  pope,  but  it  was  with  the  greatest 
reluctance,  and  only  'at  the  express  command  of 
the  king,'  that  the  Parlement  of  Paris  registered 
(1518)  the  ))apal  bull  that  condemned  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction.  The  purely  Galilean  princi]des  of 
the  councils  of  Pisa,  Constance,  and  Basel  still 
remained  the  standard  expression  of  I'rench  con- 
victions as  to  the  rightful  position  of  the  church. 
The  great  jurists  Pithou  and  Dupin,  in  iisserting 
the  liberties  of  the  church,  eiiually  enforced  the 

iirivileges  of  the  crown.  It  was  a  contest  betw  een 
>ouis  XIV.  and  Innocent  XL  regarding  the  so- 
called  right  of  Kegalia — the  right  claimed  by 
kings  of  receiving  the  revenues  of  a  bishopric 
during  a  vacancy,  and  of  presenting  to  benelices 
pending  a  new  appointment— that  led  to  the  famous 
Declaration  of  the  F'rench  Clergy  in  1CS2,  which 
has  since  been  regarded  a.s  the  charter  of  Gal- 
licanism.  This  formulary  emanated  from  an  e.xtra- 
ordinary  assembly  of  .35  b)sho|)S  and  35  other 
clergy  convened  by  royal  auth(jrity  at  Paris,  19th 
March  1682.  It  was  drawn  up  by  Bossuet,  and 
consists  of  four  articles.  The  first  declares  that 
'  the  jurisdiction  of  St  Peter  and  his  successors 
in  the  Roman  see  as  vicars  of  Christ  on  earth, 
although  divinely  bestowed,  is  confined  to  things 
spiritual  and  aiipertaining  to  salvation,  and  does 
not  extend  to  civil  or  temporal  ad'airs.'  The 
article  therefore  declares  '  that  princes  are  not 
subject  in  temporal  things  to  any  ecclesiastical 
authority;'  that  they  cannot  be  deposed  'either 
directly  or  indirectly  by  the  power  of  the  keys,  and 
that  tlieir  sulijects  cannot  be  dispensed  from  their 
subjection  or  relea,sed  from  their  allegiance.'  The 
second  article  renews  the  declaration  of  the  Council 
of  Constance  with  regard  to  the  superiority  of  a 
general  council  over  the  pope,  and  declares  that 
that  article  is  not  to  be  restricted  in  its  application 
to  a  period  of  schism  such  as  existed  at  the  time  of 
the  council.  The  third  a-sserts  that  the  authority 
of  the  pope  is  '  to  be  restricted  by  the  canons  of  the 
universal  church,'  and  that  '  the  rules,  customs, 
and  institutions  of  the  Galilean  kingdom  and  church 
remain  in  full  force.'  This  is  the  article  which 
asserts  the  celebrated  'Galilean  Liberties.'  The 
fourth  article,  w  hile  it  ct)ncedes  to  the  i)ope  '  the 
chief  part  in  questions  of  faith,'  and  ])rofesses  that 
•  his  decrees  extend  to  each  and  every  church,' 
nevertheless  maintains  '  that  his  judgment  is  not 
irreformable,  unless  it  shall  have  been  confirmed  by 
the  consent  of  the  entire  church.'  The  chief  rules, 
customs,  and  institutions  of  the  (Jallican  Church 
referred  to  in  the  third  article  are,  that  the  tJallican 
Church  does  not  receive  all  the  decrees  of  councils 
and  of  pojies  in  mattei-s  of  discipline,  and  that  those 
only  are  in  force  which  are  so  received  ;  that  the 
( iailican  Church  holds  itself  free  to  receive  or  reject 
the  rules  of  the  Roman  chancery  :  that  the  Roman 
pontitr  cannot  levy  any  impost  from  the  French 
•dergy  without  their  own  consent ;  that  he  cannot 
bestow  of  his  own  motion  on  a  foreigner  any  benefice 
within  the  French  Church  ;  that  neither  he  nor  his 
legates  can  hear  French  causes  in  'the  first  instance,' 
and  that  in  cases  of  .ippeiil  he  is  bound  to  assign 
native  judges  to  hear  the  a|ipeal,  even  if  the 
ap|>ellant  should  be  a  metropolitan  or  primate  ;  that 
the  French  bishops  shall  not  be  required  to  attend 
any  general  council  except  with  the  permission  of 


66 


GALLIENUS 


GALLIPOLI 


tlie  crown.  The  last  of  these  'cuwtuiiis,'  a«  also 
those  whicli  make  tlie  receiviiij;  or  not  reeeivinf;  the 
KciR'ial  oiiiioiis  (if  iliscipliiie  oiitional  in  France,  am! 
which  practically  throw  the  decision  into  the  hands 
of  the  civil  ])ower,  have  lieen  with  much  show  of 
reason  <lenominateil  the  'Slaveries'  rather  than 
the  '  Liherties'  of  the  (iallican  Chnroli. 

This  Declaration  was  slrenuously  enforce<i  for 
the  next  ten  years  hv  l,onis  XIV.  It  was  condemned 
hv  I'ope  AiexaiKh'r  \'III.  in  Itiill),  liy  Clement 
XI.  in  170(j,  and  a^'ain  by  I'ins  \I.  in"  17!t4;  hut 
lH)th  the  accept.ance  of  the  articles  and  their  con- 
ilenmatiou  were  unilerstooil  to  be  with  certain 
reservations.  The  (iallican  Church  underwent 
very  extensive  niodihcations  at  the  close  of  the 
IHlli  ami  the  hefjinnin;;  of  the  IKtIi  century. 
The  enactment  in  17!'()  of  the  'civil  constitution 
of  the  cl(M;,'y  '  iijtroduccd  a  larjje  infusion  of  the 
democratic  element.  The  church  was  lirst  secu- 
larised, and  then  swept  away,  till  lionaparte,  as 
First  Consul,  restored  it  in  a  fresh  concordat  with 
the  |)o|ie  (1801).  Yet  the  conllict  with  Koine 
still  continued,  and  in  ISKI  a  decree  of  the  emperor 
maile  the  declarations  of  llisj  imce  more  the  l.-iw  of 
France.  I'ius  \'II.  was  forccil  liy  circumstances  to 
enter  into  the  conconlat  of  Fontainehleau  (KSKJ), 
in  which  his  ri^dit  to  the  institution  of  liishops  w.-us 
not  recoj,'uised,  hut  on  the  advice  of  his  carilinals 
his  acceptance  of  this  treaty  was  speedily  recalled. 
After  the  IJestoration  the  kin;,'  a^jreed  to  a  new 
concordat  with  the  jiopi'  (1S17),  supcrscdinj;  the 
a;;reement  of  1801,  and  returuinj,'  to  that  of  1.")1G; 
hut  this  ';;liost  of  the  ]iast'  fouml  little  favour 
with  the  French  people,  and  in  ls-2ti  was  met  Iiy  a 
solemn  declaration  of  all  the  hishojis  that  they 
still  adhered  to  the  propositions  of  IG8'2.  In  1830 
the  relations  of  church  and  slate  were  aj;ain  revised, 
and  the  freedom  of  .-ill  confessions  wjus  declared. 
The  constitution  of  4th  Novemher  1848  ffu.aranteed 
])ayment  hy  the  state  to  the  clci^v  of  all  relijfions 
reco^^nised  hy  the  state  then  or  at  a  later  time. 
Under  the  Second  Kmpire  the  influence  of  Koine 
steadily  increa.seil,  spite  of  the  ambiguous  attitude 
of  the  emperor. 

Within  the  19tli  century  the  opinions  of  the 
French  <dcigy  un<lerwent  a  decided  change.  The 
(■allican  doctrines  were  much  U>s  commonly  held, 
and  in  a  less  extreme  form,  and  fell  into  great 
discreilit  with  the  church  party.  The  climax  of 
this  reaction  was  seen  in  the  conduct  of  the  French 
hishops  at  the  Vatican  Council  (1809-70),  in  which 
a  great  lioily  of  them  were  foremost  in  renouncing 
the  (iallican  .arti(des  ami  accepting  the  doctrine  of 
papal  infalliliility ;  and  even  tljosewho,  like  Bishop 
l)upanloui>  of  (irieans,  contended  for  the  opposite 
view,  in  tne  end  ac(|\iie.sced  in  the  decision  of  the 
majority.  In  France  at  the  jiresent  day  the  old 
theological  divergences  seem  to  ha\'e  passed  out 
of  view  in  presence  of  the  conflict  hetween  the 
modern  .state  and  Ultramontanism. 

The  chief  authorities  are  I'itliou,  Leu  LiberUs  de 
VEijlhe  GttUicanc  (l."i!)4,  2  vol;,,  fol.  1039);  Dupuy, 
Preurea  lies  LiberUt  de  V£ijlise  Gallicunc  {l(i38);  and 
Bossuet,  Defen^io  Declaration  is  (Luxemburg,  2  vols. 
1730  ;  B'rencii  trans.  2  vols.  Paris,  1735).  See  al.so  De 
Maistrc,  lie  I'Efiiiac  Gatlicaiic  and  Da  Papc  (2  vols. 
1820);  Dupin,  Les  Liberies  dc  V£'f/lisc  Gallicunc  {Varis, 
1824;  new  ed  18(i0(;  BorJa.s-L)cnioulhi,  Les  Pouvoirs 
Conslitutifs  dc  V^tjlise  (1855);  Huet,  Lc  Gallicanismc,  son 
jKisse^sa  situation  prtscnte  (185.51;  Puyul,  Etudts  sur  la 
Rinovation  dii  Gatlicanigmf  (2  vols.  187fj)  ;  M*.  H. 
Jervis,  History  of  the  Church  nf  France  from  the  Con- 
cordat of  Bolor/na,  1516  A.D.,  to  the  Revolution  (2  vols. 
L>nd.  1872),  and  its  sequel.  The  Oallican  Church  and 
the  Rcr;lutioii  ( 1882 ). 

Gallirillis,  Pculiis  LiciNirs,  Koman  emperor 
from  '2(i0  to  2()8  .\.  n.  His  father,  A'alerian,  had  made 
him  CO  regent  with  himself  in  '253,  but  his  reign 
ended  when  he  was  taken  jirisoner  by  the  Persians 


seven  veai-s  later.  The  authority  of  (iallienus  was 
limitei^  almost  entirely  to  Italy,  for  throughout  the 
provinces  the  legions  for  the  nmst  part  revolted, 
and  raised  their  connnanders  to  the  dignity  of 
Ca-sars.  Hence  the  jieriod  is  known  in  history  as 
the  Time  of  the  'i'hirty  Tyrant.s.  In  the  Fast  the 
honour  of  the  Koman  arms  w.e^  maintaiiieil  by 
Aurelian,  I'robus,  and  others,  who  found  a  useful 
ally  in  Odenathus,  ruler  of  I'almyra,  and  his  wife 
Zenobia,  to  whom  (iallienus  entrusteil  the  care  of 
the  war  against  the  Persians.  In  the  AVest,  how- 
ever, dangers  thickened  about  him.  Aureidus  was 
proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legicms  of  Illyricnm, 
anil,  having  marched  into  Italy,  lieseized  Milan,  and 
proceeded  towards  Kome.  The  war  between  the 
two  was  c;irried  on  for  some  time  with  undecided 
success,  but  ( iallienus,  while  besieging  his  adversary 
in  Mediolannm  (.Milan),  was  murilered  by  sonje 
of  his  otiicers,  268  A.D.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Claudius  II. 

<>:illillil4'4'4»IIS  Kirds  (Lat.  i/n/lns,  'a  cock'), 
or  l!.\s(iiii;s  (  Lat.,  '  .scrapeis  '),  an  old  order  of  birds, 
including  the  Fowls,  Sand-grouse,  Ilemijiods — e.<'. 
Turnex,  and  often  also  the  Pigeons.  .  The  title 
(iallina-  is  often  still  used  to  include  the  pheasant 
family  (  Ph:t'-i.inid;e),  the  grouse  (Tctiaunidj-),  the 
sand-grouse  (Pterocli(he).  the  Turnicid:c,  the 
mound-makers  (Mi'ga]ioiliida>),  the  curassows  and 
guans  (Craciilrt^),  the  rinamcms  (Tinamiihe),  alto- 
gether over  4(K)  species  and  abiiut  fourscore  genera, 
.■md  including  forms  of  high  anticjuity.  Interesting 
analogies  have  been  jiointed  out  between  this  order 
of  birds  and  the  order  of  I'nminants  among  .Mam- 
mals, in  the  comjilcxity  of  the  digestive  organs, 
bulkiness  of  the  frame,  low  intelligence,  easy 
domestication,  usefulness  to  man,  and  jironeness 
to  variation  from  the  inlluence  of  external  cir- 
cumstances, giving   rise   to  dilFerent  breeds.     See 

Pdl   I.ll;\  ,  CjtOlSK,   PllKASANT. 

Oallilllllc.     See  W.VTIiK  HEX. 

ftiallio,  .llNirs  ANX.Kfs,  the  Koman  mo- 
consul  of  Achaia  under  Claudius  when  St  Paul 
wa.s  at  Corinth,  53  A.D.  He  was  brother  of  the 
famous  Sem-ca,  ami  had  ]u-ocured  his  name  by 
■adoption  into  the  family  of  (iailio  the  rhetorician. 
He  resigned  the  government  of  .\chaia  owing  to  ill- 
health,  and  later  is  .said  to  have  been  put  to  death 
by  Nero.  The  narrative  in  the  Acts  tells  how, 
with  regard  to  the  clamour  of  the  .lews  against 
Paul,  he  was  'not  minded  to  be  a  judge  of  these 
matters,' ami  how  'tJallio  cared  for  none  of  these 
things;'  hence  his  name  has  become  a  synonym 
for  a  careless,  easy-going,  and  in<lill'erent  man 
who  keeps  himself  free  from  trouble  and  re-jionsi- 
bility. 

(■alliot.  a  Dutch  ves.sel  carrying  a  main  and 
a  niizzen  njast,  and  a  large  gall'-mainsail.  (Galliots 
— strong-built,  Hal-bottomed  shijis — of  4(X)  to  500 
tons  burden,  were  fornunly  used  also  as  bomh- 
ves.sels.  The  word  is  ultimately  a  diminutive  of 
Low  I-at.  i/i'f'ja,  '  a  galley. ' 

<>alli|t'oli  (the  Kiil/i/iii/ia  of  the  Greeks),  a 
town  of  SoutluMii  Italy,  is  built  on  a  steep  insu- 
lated rock  in  the  (iulf  of  Taranto,  connected  with 
the  maiidaml  by  a  bridge,  and  is  59  miles  by  rail  S. 
of  Itrimlisi.  The  harbour  is  protected  by  a  mole 
anil  fortilied.  Tlu^  town  contains  a  handsonje 
cathedral,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  oil-tanks, 
excavated  in  the  solid  rock,  in  which  olixeoil  is 
dejiosited  for  exportation.      Pop.  8083. 

Gallipoli.  a  seaport  of  Turkey,  on  the  jieiiin- 
sula  of  tne  same  name  (the  ancient  Tliraci.in  Cher- 
sonesus),  at  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the 
Dardanelles.  90  miles  S.  of  Adrianoplc,  and  1.10 
AVSW.  of  Constantino]ile.  The  ancient  A'»'////<'///4, 
of   which    some  ruins  remain,  it  wna  formerlv  the 


GALLIPOT 


GALLOWAY 


67 


most  iiriportant  coiiiniercial  town  on  tlie  Hellespont, 
and  still  retains  considerable  trade.  There  are  two 
harl)0ur8,  extensive  bazaars,  and  some  manufac- 
tures, (ialliiioli  is  the  headouarters  of  the  Turkish 
fleet,  and  the  seat  of  a  (Jreek  bishop,  and  contains 
numerous  mos(|ues  ami  fountains.  The  population 
is  sli<,'htly  over  l.j,tK)0.  The  town  was  taken  by 
the  Turks  in  1.35(5,  and  foiined  their  earliest  Euro- 
pean possession  ;  ami  here  the  allies  dLsembarked 
durin;,'  the  Crimean  war. 

dallipot,  the  name  given  to  a  pot  painted  and 
glazed,  commonly  used  for  medicine.  The  word  is 
a  corruption  of  tlie  Old  Dutch  glei/pot,  and  already 
appears  in  15ea\iniont  and  Fletcher,  r/Zcy  being  the 
same  as  the  North  Friesic  gldii,  '  shining,'  and 
cognate  with  (ler.  ijlatt  and  Eng.  ijlad. 

(^allitzill.     See  (Jalitzin. 

Gallilllll  (sym.  (ia,  eij.  69-8)  is  a  metal  dis- 
covered by  M.  Lecoi(  de  IJoisbaudran  in  187.5  in  a 
zinc-blende  found  in  the  Pyrenees.  It  has  also  been 
found  in  blendes  from  Asturia  and  from  IJensberg. 
Strange  to  say,  its  properties  and  its  salts  were 
predicted  before  its  existence  was  known  by 
Mendeleetf,  in  virtue  of  liLs  Periodic  Law  (see 
Atomic  Theory,  Vol.  I.  p.  552).  Gallium  is  of  a 
bluisli-wliite  colour,  and  has  a  specitic  gravity  of 
59.  It  possesses  the  remarkable  property  of  fusing 
at  .SO'T  C.  (76'  F. ),  and  remaining  liquid  when 
cooled  down  even  to  0".  If,  however,  the  globule 
of  molten  metal  be  touched  with  a  fragment  of 
solid  gallium,  it  at  once  solidities.  Heated  to 
briglit  redness  in  contact  with  air  gallium  does 
not  volatilise,  and  only  a  very  thin  coat  of  oxide 
is  formeil  on  the  surface.  tJallium,  which  has  no 
industrial  importance,  dissolves  readily  in  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  in  caustic  potash  with  evfdution 
of  hydrogen.  It  forms  one  oxide,  (jajO^,  which  is 
insoluble  in  water,  but  siduble  in  potash  and 
ammonia.  The  chloride,  nitrate,  and  suli>hate  are 
all  very  soluble  in  water  ;  the  sulphate  combines 
with  annnonium  sulpliate  to  form  an  ahim. 

iialloiiiaiiia.    See  Anglomania. 

(walloil,  the  standard  unit  of  measure  for  liquids 
throughout  the  United  Kingdom.  It  has  existed 
as  a  measure  from  the  earliest  times,  and  in  con- 
se(iuence  has  umlergone  many  changes.  The  oldest 
exchequei'  standards  preserved  in  the  Stantlai'ds 
Office  include  a  Winchester  corn  gallon,  of  a 
capacity  of  11\\  cubic  inclios,  constructed  by  order 
of  Henry  VII.  ;  Queen  Elizabeth  added  a  standard 
ale  gallon  in  1601  of  '282  cubic  inches,  and  t,)ueen 
Anne  added  in  1707  a  standard  wine  gallon  of  231 
cubic  inches.  All  these  standard  mea,sures,  how- 
ever, were  abolished  in  1824,  when  the  present 
im]ierial  gallon,  containing  10  lb.  of  ilistilled  water, 
weighed  in  air  (the  barometer  being  at  30  inches, 
and  the  thermometer  at  62"  F. ),  was  made  the 
standard  of  capacity  for  licjuid  measures.  This 
gives  277 '274  cubic  inches.  The  United  States 
gallon  is  that  of  231  inches,  so  that  59  imperial 
gallons  are  equal  to  71  United  States  standard 
gallons.     See  \VKliiHTs  AND  .Mkasure.s. 

<iallotailIlicAoi<l,anameof  Tannic  Acid  (q.  v.). 

Ciallowav.  an  extensive  district  in  the  south- 
west of  Scotland,  once  somewhat  larger,  but  now 
entirely  com|U'ised  iu  the  shire  of  Wigtown  and 
stewartry  of  Kirkcudbright.  It  enjoys  a  remark- 
ably mild  climate,  an<l  has  long  been  famous  a.s  a 
pastoral  country,  its  breed  of  small  horses  and  of 
large  hornless  bhu'k  cattle  being  well  known 
centuries  ago;  but  the  enormous  imi)rovement  of 
agriculture  under  the  fostering  care  of  two  genera 
tions  of  singularly  ]>ublics|iirited  landlords  luis 
made  dairy-farming  now  the  most  important  in- 
dustry. The  province  is  about  70  miles  in  length  by 
40  at  its  utmost  breadth,  and  contains  the  greatest 


diversity  of  scenery — mountain,  lake,  and  stream, 
as  well  as  dreary  waste  and  almost  pathless  moor. 
There  is  no  mineral  wealth  and  hardly  an  industry, 
hence  the  inhabitants  are  almost  entirely  con- 
cerned with  the  primitive  occupations  of  man — 
tilling  the  .soil,  sheep  and  cattle  rearing,  and  lish- 
ing.  They  are  simple,  honest,  and  hosjiitable, 
with  almost  every  virtue  pro]ier  to  a  peasantry  sa\e 
severe  morality.  A  more  detailed  account  of  the 
country  and  its  productions  will  be  given  under 
the  heads  Ku!lvCUDiiKH;HT  and  WicToWN. 

The  province  owes  its  name  to  the  fact  that 
the  natives  were  called  tjall-tiael,  or  foreign 
(iaels,  at  first  because  of  their  falling  under  the 
foreign  rule  of  the  Anglians ;  but  a,s  the  Picts 
of  Galloway  they  cimtinued  to  be  known  so 
late  as  the  Battle  of  the  Standard  in  11.38.  Their 
geographical  position  had  shut  them  oH  from 
their  northern  congeners,  and  they  continueil  under 
their  ancient  names  a  distinct  people  till  the 
12th  century,  and  [ireserved  their  language— which 
was  substantially  identical  with  (jaelic — till  the 
lUth,  when  it  'finally  disappeared  before  the 
Refornuition  and  the  use  of  Lowland  Scotch  in  the 
parish  churches  and  schools,  leaving  only  a  rich 
crop  of  place-names  W(mderfully  similar  to  those 
of  Ireland  and  the  south-western  Highlands  of 
Scotland.  The  earliest  inhabitants  are  styled  by 
Ptolemy  the  Novimtir,  to  the  west  of  the  Nith, 
with  two  towns,  Liicophihiii  at  Whithorn  and 
licrifioiiiiiin  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Loch  Ityan  ; 
and  the  Sclr/anc,  covering  Dumfriessliiie,  with  the 
towns  Trimoiitiiiiii,  U:rclliim,  Cunhi,  and  (_'"/•■ 
Ijaiitoriijmn,  the  sites  of  which  are  placed  by  Mr 
Skene  on  Birrenswark  Hill,  on  Wardlaw  Hill,  at 
Sanquhar,  and  at  the  moat  of  I'rr,  between  Nith 
and  Dee.  Tacitus  tells  us  that  Agricola  concentrated 
a  force  in  that  part  of  Britain  which  looks  on 
Ireland,  and  most  aiithorities  identify  this  with 
Galloway  rather  than,  as  Mr  Skene,  with  the 
modern  county  of  Argyll.  This  view  is  borne  out 
by  the  discovery  of  Koman  forts  in  Wigtownshire 
and  the  Stewartry  in  situations  corresjionding  with 
those  of  the  towns  of  the  Novanta-  described  by 
Ptolemy  as  existing  in  the  time  of  Hadrian. 
Galloway  was  subdued  by  the  Northumbrian 
Anglians  of  Bernicia  during  the  7th  century,  and 
governed  by  them  for  about  two  hundred  years, 
and  it  was  to  this  period  api)arently  that  the 
modern  name  is  due.  After  about  three  centuries 
of  more  (u-  less  complete  independence,  interru]ited 
only  by  Norse  ravages  and  at  length  by  a  period  of 
Norse  supremacy,  it  was  recovered  by  Alalcolm 
Canniore,  granted  as  an  earldom  in  1 107  to  his 
youngest  son  David,  and  on  his  accession  to  the 
throne  in  1124  fcuinally  united  with  Scotland. 
Of  the  native  lords  of  (ialloway  w-e  read  of  a 
doubtful  'Jacobus,  rex  Galwalliie'  as  one  of  the 
eight  tributary  [uinces  who  waiteil  on  Edgar  at 
Cliester  in  973.  A  more  historical  ligure  is  Fergus, 
appointed  first  Earl  of  (Jalloway,  after  the  fall  of 
Ulgrie  and  Dnvenald,  lords  of  the  Galivenses,  at 
the  Battle  of  the  Standard.  With  Siunerled  he 
made  an  unsuccessful  revolt  against  Jlalcolm  IV., 
and  was  obliged  to  give  his  lordship  to  his  sons, 
Uchtred  and  (iilbert.  who  in  their  turn,  when 
William  the  Lion  was  taken  prisoner  at  Alnwick 
iu  1174,  atteuipted,  but  in  vain,  to  throw  oil'  the 
Scottisli  yoke,  even  ollering  fealty  to  England. 
Uolaud,  a  son  of  Uchtred,  did  homage  to  Henry  II. 
of  England,  and  his  son  Alan,  who  succeeded  in 
I'JOO,  was  one  of  the  barons  who  forced  John  to  sign 
Magiui  Charta,  but  seems  later  to  have  returned 
I  tolas  Scottish  allegiance.  At  the  dispute  for  the 
Scottish  crown,  which  opened  in  1'291,  the  lordship 
of  (Jalloway  through  descent  and  marriage  was  in 
I  llie  hands  of  John  Baliol,  Alexander  Gomyn,  and 
I  two  others;  con.se(|uently  the  Galwegians  re.-isted 


J8 


GALLOWAY 


GALT 


Holiert  IJiiice  in  Ills  stni},'t;'<'  "'tli  Kn^rlnnd  for  tlie  I 
Sooltisli  i-roHii.  The  provime  «ii»  tr.ivei-sol 
siicct'ssively  1)V  Wiilliue.  Kilwiuil  I.,  aiul  liiiici-, 
ami  was  at  K'lij^tli  miIhIiumI  for  liis  l>i<itlier  by 
Kilwaril  Biiioe  in  i:iiis.  A^raiii  in  l.'i.'M  it  wiu-  I 
scizeil  by  Eilwaiil  U.-iliol,  Imt  his  ]>i)«it  Wit-*  at  | 
liMii,'tli  iiviTlliiiiwii,  ami  ill  l.'WJ  the  ciuslfiii  part  iil 
Cialloway  was  •;iantf<l  bv  tlie  crown  to  Aicliiliald 
Diiujjlas,  Miriiaiiifil  llie  (niiii,  who  built  liiiiiM'll 
tlie  slroiijjliolil  of  Tliii'avc  ('a.stle  on  a  Kiiiall  islaiul 
in  the  Dei'.  His  liani;lity  ami  turbulent  (li'scemlants 
built  up  a  iiower  so  foniiiilable  as  to  tliii'atcii  tli<' 
crown  it.-i-ll',  until  tlicy  I'cll  liiially  in  14.").j,  wbi'ii 
the  liiiilsliip  of  (lalloway  w.us  attaclicil  to  the 
crown.  These  aj;es  of  troubles  liiul  ^'eiieratecl  a 
turbulent  spirit  aiiion<,'  the  (Jnlwettians,  .and  it  was 
lonj;  before  they  settled  down  iiit<i  peaceful  ami 
industrious  citizens.  They  achieved  a  more  honour' 
able  eminence  by  their  devoted  loyalty  to  the 
Covenant,  which  they  had  embraced  with  all  their 
ancient  ardour.  Not  all  the  infamous  cruelties 
carried  out  at  the  biildin;;  of  a  corrupt  •;overiiment 
by  Turner,  (iiierson,  anti  Claverliou.se  could  crush 
the  spirit  of  tliesie  'wild  we.stem  Wliijps'  \vlio.se 
maityr-^raves  are  scattered  over  the  moors  of 
Galloway. 

See  Syiiison's  Desrription  of  flalloicap,  J6S4  ( 182;? ) ; 
Murray's  Literary  HiMonf  of  Oalfovxiti  (1822);  Mac- 
kenzie's HiM'trti  Iff  fiiif/otrai/  (2  vols.  Kirkc.  I>*41);  Sir 
Andrew  Agncw's  Hiittorii  of  Ihr  HeritiUary  S/icri^s  of 
Oallnicufi  {new  eil  1S9:J)  ;  M'Kerlie'.>i  History  of  the 
LanJx  and  their  Owners  tn  (lullomii/  (5  voU.  1870^78)  ; 
and  fia/foimij  in  Ancient  anti  Miyiern  Times  ( 1891  ) ; 
Sir  H.  v..  Maxwell's  tiludiet  on  the  Tojmijraphii  of  Hallo- 
Kail  ( 1887  ). 

Ci<lllo>vay>  Mi'l.l.  OK,  a  Ixild  headland  of 
precipitous    rock,    the   southern    extremity  of   the 

^leninsiila  calleil  the  lihiiins  of  (ialloway,  in 
kVijitownshire,  and  the  most  soutliern  point  of 
Scotland.  It  is  1 }  mile  lonj;,  and  |  of  a  mile  broail, 
and  rises  to  a  liei;rht  of  '210  feet  at  its  ejustern 
extremity,  on  which  stands  a  lijjlitliouse  tiO  feet 
lii-jli,  whose  intermittent  lij;ht  is  visible  at  a 
distance  of  2.'i  nautical  miles.  The  summit  of  the 
lij^lithouse  commands  a  ma;;nilicent  juospect  of 
sea  and  sky,  extendini;  to  the  Isle  of  Man,  "i.'t  miles 
to  the  south,  to  the  coa-st  of  Ireland,  '2(>  miles  t<i 
the  west,  and  sometimes  even  to  the  (iimbrian 
mountains,  more  than  ,")0  miles  distant.  The  .Mull 
is  part  of  the  parish  of  Kiikm.aiilen,  ami  is  o  miles 
from  Drumore  ami  "2.3  south  of  Stranraer. 

(■alloWiflass,  a  heavy  armed  footstddier  in  the 
ancient  Irish  wars.  They  are  f;roupe<l  with  Icenies 
in  Shakespeare's  Marhith  ( I.  ii.  13)  as  coming  from 
the  western  isles  of  Scotland.  The  word  is  of 
coui'se  Irish,  formed  from  i/inl/n,  'a  man-servant,' 
and  co^n.ale  with  the  well-Kiiown  iiillie. 

Galls  (when  larfie,  dry,  and  nut  like  often  called 
(;.\L1,-M  TS,  also  Nutiiiill.i  and  On/,  n/i/ili.t)  are  the 
abnormal  vegetative  growths  proiliiced  in  various 
plants  throu^th  the  intriMlnction  of  the  e^ijcs,  .and 
the  develoMiiient  of  the  larva'  of  the  varicms  (,'all- 
insects.  '1  he  economic  usefulness  ami  eoiise(iuent 
commerci.al  importance  of  so  iii.any  of  the  larger 
forms,  e.s,sentiaily  due  to  the  jiresence  of  a  lar{;e 
quantity  of  tannic  acid,  is  noticed  at  T.\NNIX.  .See 
also  <;  \1.1.KLV,  Gai-lic  Aciu,  LEATIIKI!. 

Gall-stone.    See  Calculu.s. 

Galllis.  C.  CiiUNEI.irs.  a  Roman  poet,  l«>ni  at 
Forum  .lulii  (mewl.  Krejus),  in  (laul,  alMuit  6(>  n.r. 
He  lived  at  Koine  in  intimate  friendship  with  \'irf,'il. 
Asinius  I'ollio,  Varus,  and  Ovid,  and  w.-us  appoint«il 
by  Aii^rustus  prefect  of  Ej;ypt,  but  fell  deservedly 
into  ilisfavour  and  was  banished,  whereupon  he 
emleil  his  dLsijrace  with  his  own  sword  about  the 
year  26  B.C.  (iallus  wa.s  leckoneil  the  founder  of 
the  Koiiian  eleiry.  from   his  four  books  of  elegies 


upon  his  mistress  Lycoris,  of  which  but  a  few  sli^dit 
fraj;ineiits  have  come  down  to  us.  His  name  was 
luiopted  by  W.  A.  IJecker  as  the  title  of  his  well- 
known  picture  of  Koman  domestic  life:  (iii/liis, 
lloimsrhc  Sznten  ami  <ler  Zeit  Aiij/iiistx  (  1H:<8).  See 
N'iilker,  t.'oiiiinentntiu  de  V.  lialli  vita  el  scrijilis 
(1840  44). 

Gilllus,  TliKHiiNIASfs,  Hoiiian  emperor  (2.->l- 
•2.y.i  A.li. ),  was  the  succes.sor  of  the  ill-fated  Decius, 
and  is  memorable  only  from  the  dishonourable  peace 
which  he  |>urcliitsed  from  the  (!oths,  followed  by 
a  dieiulful  pestilence  in  Italy.  His  end  wa.>  to  lie 
miirileied  by  his  own  sohliers. 

Galop,  a  lively  kind  of  <lance  of  Cernian  ori^nii, 
somewhat  resembling  a  waltz,  danceil  in  ij  time. 
See  llAMlNi;. 

Galslon.  a  villajje  of  .\yi-sliire,  5  miles  SK.  of 
Kilmarnock  by  rail,  with  iiianuf.actures  of  muslins 
and  lace.  There  is  coal  in  the  neiglibuurliuoJ. 
I 'op.  4085. 

Galt<  a  town  of  Canada,  province  of  Ontario, 
slanils  on  the  (iraiid  Hiver,  2o  miles  by  rail  E.  by 
N.  of  }lamillon.  The  environs  of  the  town  are 
noteil  for  their  beauty.  The  chief  imliistries  are  the 
inaniifacturc  of  Hour,  machines,  cist  iron,  pajier, 
soap,  woollen  ware,  axes,  ami  leather.  tJall  was 
loiimleil  ill  l.slii.  I'op.  (|s,sn  .-)187  ;  ( 18!>1 )  7.'>35, 
the  m.-ijorily  being  of  Scotch  descent. 

Galt«  -lollN,  Scotch  novelist,  was  born  at  Irvine, 
in  Ayrshire,  May  2,  1779.  His  father,  who  was 
captain  of  a  ship  in  the  West  Indian  traile,  left 
.Ayrshire  in  1789,  and  lixed  lii>  residence  in 
(JreeiKM'k.  Ill  that  town  Gait  received  his  eiiiica- 
lion,  and  w.as  then  jilaced  in  the  ciistotii  house. 
He  remained  there  till  1.S04,  when,  jiaiiting  for 
literary  distinction,  he  tuoceeded  to  Loinlon  with 
an  epic  poem  on  the  battle  of  l.args  in  his  portman- 
teau. On  reachiiif;  the  metropolis  he  printed  his 
epic,  but,  bciiiminj,'  dissatislied  with  its  merits, 
ultimately  witlnliew  it  from  the  market.  Altera 
few  years  his  health  be;;aii  to  fail,  and  lie  was 
obliged  to  seek  relief  in  a  more  genial  climate.  At 
(iibraltar  he  made  the  aciiuaintance  of  Lord  Byron 
and  his  friend  Hobhouse,  and  the  three  travellem 
iK'came  fellow -voyagers:  but  soon  after  ( Jalt  separ- 
ated from  his  new  friends  to  visit  Sicily,  then  Malta, 
and  liiially  Creece,  where  lie  again  rcin'wed  his 
aci|uaintance  with  Hymn,  and  liail  an  interview 
with  .Mi  I'asha.  He  next  iiroceeded  to  Constant- 
inople, and  afterwards  to  tlie  shores  of  the  Black 
Sea.  On  one  occasion  when  detained  by  i|uaran- 
tine  he  sketched  six  dramas  Avliich  were  allerwjirds 
given  to  the  world.  On  his  retuni  he  published 
with  considerable  success  his  Litters  frniii  the 
Leraiil,  but  first  displayed  distinct  and  indiviilual 
power  in  T/ic  Ai/rsAirc  Lei/ntns,  which  ajipeared  in 
ji/iirLiiuoe/'.t  Miiijuziiic  in  18'20.  Its  successor,  The 
Annals  of  the  I'arisli  ( 1821 ),  met  with  unquestion- 
able success,  and  remains  liisnuisterpiece.  Having 
hit  <m  the  tnie  vein  he  worked  it  as.siduously,  and 
produced  in  quick  succession  .*>'//•  Amlmr  W'l/lie, 
The  Entiill.  The  Steaiiiljuiil,  and  The  I'rnro.st.  He 
then  diverged  into  the  walk  of  historical  romance, 
and  ])ublislied  lUiiijau  Gilhaize,  a  tale  of  the 
Covenanlei^^ :  The  S/Hteiiife,  liothclan,  and  The 
Omen.  These  works,  although  full  of  striking 
scenes  and  really  good  writing,  were  not  so  success- 
ful as  his  earlier  and  less  ambitious  jici-formances. 
Call,  whose  hands  were  always  eipially  full  of 
literary  an<l  ciuiimercial  umlertakiiigs,  w.-is  now 
busily  engaged  in  the  formation  of  the  •  aiiada 
Conij>.any  ;  but  before  he  left  England  for  his  dis- 
t.aiit  scene  of  labour  he  gave  to  the  world  The  Last 
of  the  Lairth. 

He  departed  for  Canada  in  1826,  but  three  years 
later  returned  to  England  a  mined  man.  and  at 
once  recommenced   his   literary   laboui-»   with  Ms 


GALTEES 


GALVESTON 


69 


nsnal  rapidity-  His  lirst  novel  was  Luwrie  Toild, 
wliich  wasfolloweil  hy  So iif/ir!inrt7i,  a  romance  of  tlic 
ilays  of  (^ueen  Mary  ;  and  tliis  by  a  Li/e  of  Loril 
Bi/ron,  \vliicli  ran  tliroii«,'h  several  editions,  l>iit 
which  was  roiigldy  handled  by  the  critics.  In  183+ 
he  published  his  Litcrari)  Life  iind  Miscellanies  in 
three  volumes.  He  now  returned  to  Scotland, 
utterly  broken  in  health  and  spirits,  and  died  at 
Greenock,  11th  Ajiril  1839.  While  some  of  his 
productions  arealreaily  forgotten,  othei-s  will  perish 
only  with  the  lanijua-^e.  A  voinniinous  and  un- 
ei|ual  writer,  he  had  rich  humour,  genuine  |iatlios, 
and  a  rare  mastery  of  the  Scots  dialect ;  in  delineat- 
ing; the  life  of  small  Scottish  towns  and  villages  he 
was  without  a  rival.  See  an  edition  of  his  works, 
wiih  introduction  by  Crocket  t(  1H96);  MrsOllidiant  s 
William  Bldrlnrtmd  ct  .SV;/;.s  (  1897  )  ;  Sir  (J.  Douglas, 
The  Blackvnod  Croup  (  1897  ). 

Sir  Alexandkr  Tiluxii  C.ai.t,  his  son,  born  at 
Chelsea,  6tli  September  1817,  was  elected  to  the 
Canadian  parliament  in  1849,  and  was  tinance 
minister  in  18.58-6-2  and  1864-GG.  In  1880-83  he 
was  High  Conmii.ssioner  for  Canada  in  Britain  ; 
ami  he  serveil  on  the  Wa.shington  Treaty  ami 
Halifax  Fisheries  Commissions.  A  G.C'.M.G.,  he 
died  19th  .September  189.3. 

tialtees.    See  Tippep.arv. 

tialtoil,  I'"P..\NCis,  F. U.S.,  granilson  of  Dr 
Erasmus  Darwin,  and  cousin  of  Charles  Darwin, 
was  born  at  Dudileston  in  18"2'2,  and  educated  at 
King  Edward's  School,  Birmingham.  He  studieil 
medicine  at  the  Birmingham  Hosi)ital  and  King's 
College,  London,  and  graduated  from  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  in  18-14.  Having  in  1840 
travelled  in  North  .Vfrica,  he  explored  in  18.50 
lands  hitherto  unknown  in  South  Africa,  pub- 
lishing his  experiences  in  his  Narrative  of  nn 
Erplorer  in  Tropical  South  Africa,  which  ob- 
tained the  gold  medal  of  the  Koyal  Geogrtvphical 
Society,  and  in  Art  of  Trarcl,  which  pa-ssed  through 
live  editions  between  18,5.5  and  1872.  His  investi- 
gations in  meteorology  are  recorded  in  Meteoro- 
i/ran/iicfi,  published  in  1863.  .\  member  of  a  Mete- 
orological Committee  of  the  Boanl  of  Trade,  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  committee  entrusted  with  the 
p.arliainent.ary  grant  for  the  Meteorological  Otlice. 
Latterly  he  h.os  specially  devoted  himself  to  the 
problem  of  heredity,  publishing  Hcreditari/  Genius: 
its  Lairs  atiil  Couscinicnres  ( 1869) ;  Experiments  in 
Panijcnesis  (1871);  English  Men  of  Science :  their 
Nature  and  Nurture  (1874);  Life-histori/  Alhmn 
(1884);  Natural  Inheritance  (1889),  &c.'  He  was 
general  secretary  of  the  British  .Association,  1863- 
68  :  President  of  the  Anthropological  Sections,  1877 
and  188,5;  Pre.sident  of  the  Anthropological  Insti- 
tute, 188.5-86. 

Gnlvaili.  Lrior,  a  famous  anatomist,  was  born 
at  Bologua,  9tli  September  1/37,  studied  thcidogy 
and  subsei|uently  medicine  at  the  university  there, 
and  in  1762  wa.s  elected  professor  of  Anatomy.  His 
lectures  enjoyeil  much  popularity,  .and  among  other 
writings  two  treatises  on  the  organs  of  hearing  and 
(Ui  the  genitourinary  tr.act  in  birds  added  consider- 
ably to  his  reputation.  But  Galvani  owes  the  wide 
celebrity  attached  to  his  name  to  his  discoveries  in 
animal  electricity.  The  story  of  the  c(mvulsivi> 
nniseular  movements  produce<l  in  a  skinned  frogliy 
a  chance  contact  with  a  scalpel  lujiy  be  dismissed 
as  unfounded ;  there  is  evidence  that  Galvani's 
views  were  based  on  experiments  patiently  con- 
ducted for  many  years  before  the  publication  of  his 
De  inribus Eleetricitntis in  Molit  ilusculari Commcn- 
tarius  ( 1791 ).  He  w,as  removed  for  a  time  from 
his  post  because  of  his  refusal  to  take  the  o.atlis 
prescribed  by  the  Cis,alpine  Republic,  of  which 
Bolognii  then  formed  a  part :  but  he  w;us  ,afterw,ards 
reinstated,  and  died  4th  December  1798,  in  Bologna, 


where  liis  statue  was  erected  in  1879.  Most  of 
his  writings  were  published  in  a  quarto  edition  in 
1841-42  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  his  native 
city  ;  but  several  manuscript  treatises  by  him  were 
discovered  there  in  April  1889. 

(;.\LV.\Nl.SM  is  one  of  the  names  of  a  particular 
branch  of  the  science  of  electricity,  given  in 
honour  of  Luigi  Galvani,  from  whose  observations 
and  experiments  the  historical  ileveloi)nient  of 
current  electricity  dates.  The  term  itself  is  rarely 
used  now  ;  and  the  subject  will  be  found  treated 
under  Electricity.  There  are,  however,  other 
expressions  which  have  been  derived  from  the  same 
source,  anil  which  are  in  common  u.-ic.  Such  are 
galvanic  (miTent,  galvanic  cell,  galvanic  batterj-, 
anil  galvjinometer.  Voltaic  may  be,  .and  verj" 
often  is,  used  in  place  of  ijalranii-  in  the  lirst  three 
expressions  ;  but  galvanometer  is  the  one  name  for 
an  instniment  which  mea-sures  the  strength  of  an 
electric  current  by  means  of  its  eli'ect  upon  a 
neighbouring  magnet.  The  gradual  disuse  of  the 
term  galvanism  is  probably  due  to  the  recognition 
in  the.se  later  times  of  the  fact  that,  although 
Galvani's  experiments  were  the  beginning  of  the 
new  era  in  electricity,  it  is  to  Volta  that  we  are 
specially  indetited  for  the  development  of  the 
science  along  purely  physical  lines. 

Galvanised  Iron.  This  name  is  given  to  iron 
which  h.as  lieen  coated  with  zinc  to  prevent  its  rust- 
ing. The  iron  is  simjily  dipped  in  the  melted 
zinc,  and  the  name  does  not  imply,  a.s  might 
be  supposed,  that  any  definite  galvanic  process 
is  undergone.  Galvanised  iron  first  came  into 
use  alxmt  1837,  when  iron  cooking-vessels  were 
treated  in  this  way.  Since  then  tinneil  iron 
has  come  into  use  for  cooking  ve.s.sels,  and  galvan- 
ised iron  is  now  employed  chietly  for  roofing  pur- 
poses, buckets,  telegraph  wire,  chains,  &.c.  The 
process  of  manufacture  is  very  simple.  The  zinc  i> 
melted,  and  diy  sal-ammoniac  poured  (m  the  top. 
This  fuses  .and  forms  a  jirotecting  layer,  kee|iing 
the  surface  of  the  metal  clean.  The  iron  plates  oi 
vcs.sels,  having  been  carefully  clean.sed  by  means  ol 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid  anil  scrubbing  with  sand, 
are  now  introduced  into  the  molten  zinc,  which 
immediately  forms  an  alloy  with  the  iron,  and  ren- 
ders it  incapable  of  rusting.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  immerse  the  iron  for  too  long  a  time,  for  the 
alloy  of  zinc  ami  iron  melts  ,at  a  comparatively  low 
temperature,  and  there  is  a  d.anger  of  destroying 
the  vessel  which  is  being  galvanised.  (Jalvanised 
iron  is  not  so  tough  as  iron  itself,  but  still  the  free- 
dom from  rusting  makes  it  specially  applicable  for 
many  ])urposes.  Gahanised  iron  water-pipes  are 
now  much  employed  in  houses,  but  steam-pipes  of 
this  material  are  unsatisfactory  :  when  exposed  con- 
tinuously to  a  moist  steam  )ieat,  galvanised  iron 
seems  to   become  corroded,   .and  sm.all  holes  make 


their  appear.ance.  Galvanised  iron  is,  of  course, 
unsuitable  where  any  acid  is  present,  and  any  pre- 
paration containing  vinegar  will  assume  a  disagree- 
able t.aste  if  placed  in  a  galvanised  ve-ssel. 

Galveston,  a  seaport  of  Texas,  and  third 
largest  city  of  the  state,  is  situated  on  Galvestoi: 
Island,  at  the  opening  of  the  b.av  of  the  same  nanu 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  214  miles  ESE.  of  .Austin 
by  rail.  The  island  is  a  low  strip  of  land,  some  .3( 
miles  long  by  3  liroad  ;  the  bay  extends  northward 
from  the  city  to  the  mouth  of  the  Trinity  Hiver,  p 
distance  of  .3.5  miles,  and  has  a  bre.adth  of  from  li 
to  18  miles.  The  city  contains  a  Catholic  cathedral, 
the  Catholic  University  of  .St  Mary,  and  the  Texa- 
Medical  College;  and  it  h.as  several  foundries, 
tlour  and  planing  mills,  ami  machine-shops.  Its 
harbour  is  the  best  in  the  state,  protected  since 
1887  by  a  breakwater  ;  and  steamers  nuike  regular 
p.a.ssages   to   New   Orleans    and    the    Gulf    ports, 


70 


OALWAY 


GAM  A 


HiiMiiia.  New  V'oik,  ami  Liverpool.  Coltiiii  and 
CDttoiiseed  oil  form  the  j,'rcat  ImlU  of  tlip  fmcigii 
exports,  which  have  a  total  animal  value  of 
S;{(j,0(J),OfK).  (lalvestoii  is  tlie  liiNt  port  of  the 
state,  and  llcinl  of  the  cotton  ports  of  the  world. 
Since  189.")  iiarlioiir work-'  have  (h'epcned  I  he  access 

throntjh    tlie   har    to    IS    fi'ct.      On    !»th    Sept her 

litlH)  ;i  fearful  hurricane  di'stroyed  the  <;realer  ]i;irt 
of  (lalvestoii  ;  her<'  and  in  the  nei;,'hhourhoo(l  4IHH) 
lives  were  lost,  ;ind  daiiiaf;e  done  to  the  anioiiiit 
of  SKi.dOO.OtK).  Top.  (1S.-.I))  4177;  (IHVO)  i;),81S; 
( 18S(I  I  •.>'>,S4H  :   ( 1890)  '_'9,I)H4. 

Villway.  in  ('oniiaii;,'lit,  is,  after  f'cnl;,  the 
largest  of  all  the  Irish  counties;  area,  I ,r)(>9,.">()."i 
acres.  I'op.  (1831 )  414,(184  :  (  1871 )  248,4.')8  ;  (1881 ) 
241,lif)2:  (1891)  2l4,7.')t>  (  L'()8,(l|  1  Catholics).  It  is 
watered  ill  the  ea.st  liy  the  Shannon  ami  its  feeders; 
in  the  west  are  Loughs  Mask  and  Corril).  In  the 
south  JVie  the  .Slieve-I!aii;.'hta  Mimiitaiiis  ;  and  in 
the  west  are  the  .Maani  Turk  .Mouiitains,  and  the 
well-known  Twelve  I'ins,  a  striking  inoiintain 
jiroup.  culinlnatiiix  in  Itenhauii  (239.")  feet  |.  This 
western  portion  of  the  count v  is  wihl  and  romantic; 
the  hills  are  separated  hy  picturesi|ne  ;;lens,  anil  hy 
secluded  and  beautiful  IouljIis.  South  west  from 
Loiil;!!  ( 'orrili  to  tlie  sea  is  tlie  clistrict  called  ( 'onne- 
inara,  which  contains  vast  ho;;s.  moors,  lakes,  and 
mora.sses,  and  juesents  a  pi'culiarly  hlcak  and 
dreary  itspect.  Nortliea-st  of  ('oiinemivra  is  Joyce's 
Country,  and  southeast  of  it  is  lar-Coiinau^'ht,  or 
Western  ('onnau};ht.  The  shore  is  much  broken, 
oflerini;  many  bays  that  ser\e  as  h.irbours  for 
lari,'e  vessels,  and  is  frinf^ed  with  numerons  islands. 
The  climate  is  mild  and  humid,  but  in  low-lyin;; 
localities  is  sonietiiiies  nnheallhy.  The  richest 
soil  occui's  in  the  district  between  the  head  of 
(lahvay  JJ.iy  and  the  Shannon.  .X-iiieiilture  and 
lishin;,'  are  the  most  general  pui'suits.  The  lakes 
and  lou^'hs,  as  well  as  the  coasts  of  (lahvay,  are 
well  stocked  with  lish.  The  county  abounds  in 
ancient  remains  of  the  C(dtic  as  well  as  of  the 
Kn^rlish  period.  Kaths  and  cromlechs  .are  nunier 
oils;  there  are  seven  round  towers  ;  whilst  of  many 
monastic  ruins  the  liiiest  is  that  of  Knockinoy,  near 
Tuaiii.  Since  188.->  (ialway  county  has  returned 
four  menihei's  to  narli.imeiit. 

(i.M.w.w  1!av  is  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  between  the  counties 
of  (Ialway  and  Clare.  It  is  a  noble  sheet  of  water, 
and  olfers  };reat  facilities  for  an  extended  com- 
nierce — lieinj;  30  miles  in  len;,'tli  from  west  to  east, 
with  an  averaj;e  bre.ailth  of  aViout  10  miles,  and  is 
sheltered  by  the  -Irian  Isles. 

faillway.  a  nmnicipal  and  parllanientar>' 
borouj;li  of  Ireland,  a  .seaport,  and  county  of  itself, 
stands  at  the  month  of  the  river  Corrib,  on  the 
north  shore  of  (ialway  Hay,  .V)  miles  NNW.  of 
l.inieiick,  ami  127  \V.  of  Dublin  by  rail.  The  ohl 
t<nvn  of  (i.alway  is  ))ooily  built  .mil  iric;;iilar.  In 
the  wall  of  .a  luiiise  here  is  the  '  Lynch  Stiiiie,'  hear- 
in;;  a  skull  and  crossbones,  and  commenioratin;;  a 
mayor  of  (ialway,  James  I^ynch  Kitzstephen,  com- 
monly called  'Mayor  Lynch,'  who,  in  149.3,  like 
Brutus  of  old,  condemned  his  own  son  to  death 
for  the  murder  of  a  Spaniard,  and  to  jirevent  his 
bein;;  rescued,  actually  caused  him  to  be  han;,'ed 
Iroiii  a  window  of  the  old  prisun  on  that  site. 
Hence  some  have  derived  Lynch  Law  (ipv. ).  The 
new  town  consi.sts  of  well  planned  and  s])acioiis 
streets,  and  is  built  on  .a  risiiig-f;rinind  which 
slopes  gradually  tow.ard  the  sea  and  the  river. 
A  snhurb,  called  Cl.-uldagli,  is  inhabited  by 
fishermen,  who  exclude  all  strangers  from  their 
society.  ( Ialway  is  the  see  of  a  Catholic  bishii]i, 
but  is  in  the  Protestant  Kpiscopal  dioce.se  of  Tn.ani. 
The  principal  buildings  are  tlie  cruciform  church 
(Episcopal)  of  St  Nicholas  (1320),  St  Augustine's 


Catholic  Church  ( 1809),  moinusteries,  nunneries,  the 
county  court-house,  liarracks,  prison,  inlimiary, 
itc.  (.Queen's  College  (1849)  has  eighteen  jiro- 
fessors  and  about  a  hundred  students  ;  its  (|nad- 
rangular  buildings  are  si>aeious  and  liandsiime. 
(ialway  has  llonr-mills,  a  distillery,  a  fouiidry, 
extensive  .salmon  and  sea  lishing,  a  good  harbonr, 
with  docks  that  admit  vessels  of  .'i()()  tons,  and  a 
lighthouse.  During  IS.'iS  ti4  a  line  of  steamers 
jilied  between  (Ialway  and  the  I'nited  Slates. 
The  exports  consist  mainly  of  agiiciiltnral  produce, 
wool,  and  black  marble.  (iaiwav  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.  I'op.  ( 1851  )'2n,fi8(i ;  ( 1881 ) 
15,471  ;  (1891)  13,74()  (nine  tenths  ale  Catholics). 

(Ialway  was  taken  by  llicliard  dc  Ihiigli  in  1232, 
and  the  ancestors  of  many  of  the  leading  families 
now  resident  in  this  ipiarter  settled  here  about 
that  time.  From  the  13tli  till  the  middle  of  the 
I7tli  century  the  place  continued  to  rise  in  com- 
mercial importance.  In  Ki-Vi  it  was  taken  by  Sir 
Charles  Coote  after  a  blockade  of  several  months; 
and  in  .liily  I(i91  it  w.is  coiiiiielled  to  surrender  to 
(Icneral  (linkcll.  Sec  Ilardiniairs  Jlixfory  of  the 
'Junii  mill  Ciiiiiiti/  of  (Idlviiji  (L)ublin,  1820). 

(■ailia,  Va.SCo  I>A,  the  greatest  of  I'ortugne.se 
navigatoi-s,  was  horn  about  1469,  of  good  family, 
at  Sines,  a  small  .seaport  in  the  province  of 
Alemtejo.  lie  early  distinguished  himself  as  an 
intrepid  mariner,  and,  after  the  return  of  Jiar- 
tolomeu  Diaz  in  1487  from  his  venturesome  voy.age 
ji.ost  the  Cape  of  Storms  bad  deteiiiiined  King 
.loAo  to  make  exiilorations  farther,  was  appointed 
by  his  successor,  Manuel  the  Fortunate,  to  com- 
mand an  expedition  of  four  ve.s.sels,  manned  with 
\Gi)  men.  At  the  same  time  he  was  furnished 
with  letters  to  all  the  iiotentates  he  wa-s  likely  to 
visit,  among  them  the  mythical  '  I'rester  .lolm,' 
then  snp]iiiscd  to  be  reigning  in  s)deniloiir  some- 
where in  the  e.ost  of  Afiicu  The  little  Meet  left 
Lisbon  8th  July  1497,  but  was  vexed  hy  tem- 
pestuous winds  almost  the  whole  way,  and  was 
lour  months  in  reaching  St  Helena  I!ay.  After 
loiiniling  the  Caiie.  in  spite  of  dreadful  storms  and 
mutinies  among  his  crews,  he  iiiaile  Melinda  early 
in  the  following  year.  Here  he  found  a  skilful 
Indian  iiilot.  next  steered  eastwards  across  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  arrived  at  Calicut,  in  India,  on 
the  20th  of  May  1498.  The  zamorin  or  ruler  of 
Calicut  was  at  lirsl  merely  suspicions,  but  soon 
became,  at  the  instigation  of  the  jealous  Arab 
nierchants,  actively  hostile,  until  at  length  Da 
(lania  had  to  light  liis  w.ay  out  of  the  harbour. 
In  Sciitember  1499  he  cast  anchor  at  Lisbon,  and 
was  received  with  gieat  distinction,  and  created 
a  noble. 

King  Manoel  immediately  despatched  a.siiuadron 
of  thirteen  ships,  under  I'edro  Alvarez  Caoral,  to 
establish  I'ortiigniese  settlements  in  India.  Sailing 
too  far  westwards  he  discovered  the  unknown  coast 
of  Brazil,  and,  after  losing  half  his  ships,  at  length 
made  Calicut,  where  he  founded  a  factory.  Here, 
after  Cabial's  departure,  the  forty  I'ortiignese  who 
had  been  left  behind  were  murdered  by  the  natives. 
To  avenge  this  insult  and  .secure  the  Indian  Oce.ui 
commerce  the  king  litted  out  a  new  si|nailriin  of 
twenty  ships,  which  .set  sail  under  Da  flama's 
command  in  1.5f)2,  founded  the  I'orlngnese  colonies 
of  Miizambii|iie  and  Sofala,  bonibarded  Calicut, 
destroyed  a  lleet  of  twenty-nine  ships,  and  ex- 
torted a  peace  with  suitable  indemniricalion,  and 
reached  the  Tagns  with  thirteen  richly-laden  vessels 
before  the  close  of  December  I.")0.'^.  Da  Gaina 
had  efTected  his  purpose  with  marvellous  ilesiiatcli, 
but  not  without  cruelties  that  have  left  an  iniiclible 
stain  ujion  his  name.  Koi  the  next  twenty  years 
he  lived  inactive  at  Evora,  while  the  I'ortiignese 
conquests  in  India  incrca-sed,  jiresided  over  hy  live 
successive   viceroys.      The   fifth   of   these   was  so 


GAMALIEL 


GAMBETTA 


71 


unfortunate  that  King  Joio  III.,  the  successor  of 
Manoel,  was  compelled  in  1524  to  summon  Da 
Gama  from  liis  seclusion  ami  despatch  him,  with 
the  title  of  viceroy  and  a  fleet  of  thirteen  or  fouiteen 
vessels,  to  the  scene  of  hLs  former  triumphs.  His 
firmness  and  courage  succeeded  in  making  Portugal 
once  more  respected  in  India,  but  while  engaged  in 
his  successful  schemes  he  was  surprised  by  death 
at  Cochin  in  December  152.5.  His  body  was  con- 
veyed to  Portugal,  and  buried  with  great  pomp  at 
A'idigueira.  The  great  achievement  of  A  a.sco  da 
Oama  is  one  of  the  mo.st  important  points  in 
the  history  of  modern  civilisation,  second  only 
in  im])()i-tance  to  the  discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus  but  a  few  yeare  before.  His  storj'  gave 
its  impulse  to  the  enthusiasm  of  Canioens,  whose 
Liisimla  would  alone  have  given  the  subject  immor- 
tality. See  the  Three  loyar/es  of  J'aseo  da  Gama, 
trans,  by  Lord  Stanley  of  Alderlev  for  the  Hakluyt 
Society '(1869). 

(■ailialiel  (Gmnli'e!,  'my  rewarder  is  God'),  a 
Helirew  name,  the  most  celebrated  bearer  of  which 
is  CJamaliel  I.,  or  the  Elder  (so  called  to  distin- 
guish him  from  his  giandson ),  probably  the  one 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  at  whose 
feet  St  Paul  learned  the  'law.'  Both  here 
and  in  the  Talmudical  writings  he  appears  only 
in  his  capacity  of  a  teacher  of  the  law  and  a 
|irominent  Pharisaic  member  of  the  Sanhedrim ; 
of  the  circumstances  of  his  life  we  know  little 
but  that  he  taught  early  in  the  1st  century,  and 
that  he  interposed  on  behalf  of  the  apostles  of 
Christianity.  He  was  the  son  of  Simeon,  and 
grandson  of  Hillel  (q.v.).  Laws  respecting  the 
treatment  of  the  Gentiles,  due  directly  or  in- 
directly to  Gamaliel's  influence,  show  unusual 
breailth  and  toleration.  The  Gentile,  it  was  en- 
acted, should  henceforth,  like  the  .Jew,  be  allowed 
the  gleanings  of  the  harvest-field  :  of  his  jjoor 
the  same  care  was  to  be  taken,  his  sick  were 
to  be  tended  exactly  as  if  they  belonged  to  the 
Jewish  community.  Tolerant,  peaceful,  as  free 
fiom  fanaticism  on  the  one  hand  as  on  the  other 
from  partiality  for  the  new  sect,  he  seems  to  have 
placed  Cluistianity  simply  on  a  par  with  the  many 
other  sects  that  sprang  up  in  those  days  and  dis- 
appeared as  fjuiekly  ;  and  he  exhorts  to  long-surter- 
ing  and  good-will  on  .all  sides.  When  Gamaliel 
died  (about  seventeen  years  liefore  the  destruction 
of  the  Temple )  '  the  glory  of  the  law '  was  said  to 
have  departed.  The  story  of  his  conversion  to 
Christianity,  we  need  scarcely  adil,  is  as  devoid 
of  any  historical  foundation  as  that  oi  the  trans- 
mission of  his  bones  to  Pisa.  Yet  his  name  has 
been  jilaced  on  tlie  list  of  Christian  saints,  his  day 
being  the  .3d  of  August. 

Gniiiha.  Viol  da.    See  Viol. 

<^aillbetta.  Lkcix  Michel,  French  statesman, 
was  liorn  at  Cahoi-s,  of  Genoese-.Jewish  extrac- 
tion. October  30,  1S3S.  After  studying  law,  he 
l>ecame  a  member  of  the  Paris  bar  in  18.59.  He 
soon  attracted  attention  by  his  advanced  libeial 
views,  and  in  1868  acquirect  still  greater  celebrity 
Ijy  his  striking  speech  in  the  Baudin  case,  aiul  his 
denunciations  of  the  arbitrary  measures  of  Louis 
Xa]iideon.  In  1869  he  was  elected  deputy  by  the 
Ineconcilables  for  both  Marseilles  and  Belleville, 
and  took  his  seat  for  the  former  constituency. 
Early  in  the  session  of  1870  he  protested  against 
the  imprisoument.of  his  friend  Hocbefort,  attacked 
the  ministrj-  of  Emile  Ollivier,  and  predicted  the 
approaching  advent  of  the  Republic.  Upon  the 
surrender  of  Napoleon  III.  at  Sedan,  Gambetta 
proposed  the  deposition  of  the  imperial  dynasty, 
and  he  was  one  of  the  proclaimers  of  the  Republic, 
September  4.  On  the  5th  he  became  minister  of 
the    Interior    in     the     Government    of    National 


Defence,  and  at  once  took  vigorous  measures  for 
opposing  the  Germans  and  defendin"  Paris.  The 
capital,  however,  was  invested,  and  in  October 
he  escaped  in  a  balloon  in  order  to  join  his  col- 
leagues at  Tours.  Here,  'and  subsequently  at 
Bordeaux,  he  assumed  the  general  conduct  of 
public  afl'airs,  and  for  five  months  was  Dictator 
of  France.  With  manellous  energy  and  un- 
daunted courage  be  called  army  after  army  into 
being,  and  sent  them  against  the  tiernian  hosts, 
but  in  vain.  The  trumpet-tones  of  his  appeals 
were  heard  throughout  the  whole  of  France,  and 
at  one  moment  it  seemed  as  though  success  must 
attend  the  ett'oi-ts  of  the  indefatigable  minister ; 
but  the  surrender  of  Metz  by  Bazaine — which 
Gambetta  denojinced  as  an  act  of  treason — crushed 
all  hopes  of  deliverance  for  France.  Nevertheless, 
Gambetta  continued  the  struggle,  and  even  when 
Paris  succumbed  to  the  invaders  he  demanded 
that  the  war  should  be  carried  on  «  I'oiifraitce,  and 
that  an  assembly  should  be  elected  for  that 
purpose.  AVhen  his  colleagues  in  the  capital 
had  concluded  an  armistice,  and  called  upon  the 
electors  without  regard  to  party  to  elect  a  con- 
stituent assembly,  Gambetta  issued  a  decree  at 
Boideaux,  Januaiy  31,  1871,  disfranchising  all 
functionaries  of  the  Empire  and  all  members  of 
royal  dynasties.  This  decree  was  repudiated  by 
the  government  at  Paris,  whereupon  Gambetta 
resigned,  and  for  some  months  retired  into  Spain. 
But  he  became  more  popular  than  ever  with  the 
masses,  and  was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly 
by  ten  dejiartments.  He  took  no  part  in  the 
earlier  sittings  of  the  Assembly  or  in  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Commune.  In  July  he  was  re-elected 
for  the  departments  of  the  Seine,  Var,  and  Bouches- 
du-Rhone,  and  took  his  seat  for  the  last-named 
department.  The  Reimblique  Francaise  appeared 
in  Novemlier  1871  as  his  representative  organ. 

The  second  part  of  Gambetta's  political  career 
began  after  the  fall  of  the  Comnuine,  when  he  was 
accepted  as  the  chief  of  the  advanced  Republicans. 
Early  in  1872  he  traversed  the  south  of  France, 
exciting  the  enthusiasm  of  the  poi)ulace,  and  in 
the  ensuing  September  he  formulated  the  Repub- 
lican programme  at  Grenoble,  severely  attacking 
M.  Tliiers  and  the  National  Assembly,  and 
ilenianding  the  removal  of  the  government  from 
Versailles  to  Paris.  He  had  now  become  the  most 
prominent  Frenchman  of  the  time.  The  National 
Assembly  voted  the  republican  form  of  constitu- 
tion in  February  1875,  and  two  months  later 
Gambetta  delivered  his  famous  speech  at  Belle- 
ville, defending  the  Republicans  from  the  attacks 
of  the  Irreconcilables.  The  'fun  /iirieiix'  of  M. 
Thiei's  now  developed  into  the  leading  exponent 
of  Opportunism.  He  opposed  the  vote  of  the 
Assemtdy  establishing  scruthi  irarrondissemcnt, 
and  after  the  elections  of  1876  became  president 
of  the  budget  committee.  A  constitutional  con- 
flict arose  in  May  1877,  when  the  Due  de  Broglie 
took  office  in  the  hope  of  restoring  the  monarchy. 
-V  civil  war  seemed  imminent,  but,  owing  chiedy 
to  the  zeal  and  activity  of  Gambetta,  such  a 
catastrophe  was  averted,  and  the  Republic  firmly 
established.  The  chamber  censured  the  ministry 
by  .363  to  158  votes,  and  a  dissolution  wa-s  ordered. 
Gambetta  exclaimed,  '  We  go  out  363,  and  363  we 
shall  return,'  and  his  prophecy  w.as  fulfilled  to  the 
letter.  Marshal  Mac>Iahon  refrained  from  pushing 
matters  to  an  extremity,  and  the  royalist  contest 
was  abandoned.  Gambetta  wa-s  summoned  before 
the  Eleventh  Conectional  Tribunal  of  Paris  for 
having  declared  respecting  MacMahon  at  Lille, 
'  //  faiidia  ou  sc  soumcttre,  oti  sc  dei)iettrc.'  He 
was  comlenmcd  on  October  24  to  three  montlis' 
imprisonnu-nt  and  a  fine  of  4000  francs.  Two 
months  later  he  was  re-elected  for  lielleville.     Tha 


72 


GAMBIA 


GAMBLING 


contest  lietween  the  (li'|uity  anil  the  prpsiilcnl 
endfd  in  tlie  triumph  of  (iiunlietta — wlio  <li<l  not 
CO  to  prison — anil  the  resiprnation  of  MacMalinn. 
M.  Grcvy  was  elected  presiiU-nt,  but  (ianiln'tta 
was  regarileil  as  the  saviour  of  the  Uepiihlic. 
Tliongh  now  the  most  powerful  statesman  in 
France,  anil  tlie  maker  ami  unmaker  of  caliincts, 
he  (leclineil  to  take  oliice,  on  tlie  jrrouiul  that 
no  strong  noveniment  was  possible  until  the 
elective  scriitin  de  Uste  hail  lieen  a<lo|>teil.  In  1S7S 
(iambetta  fi)H<;lit  a  duel  with  M.  de  Kourtou,  an 
ex-minister,  whom  he  h.id  ihar;,'ed  with  falsehooil, 
but  the  hostile  encimiiter  had  a  harmless  termin.a- 
tion.  Shortly  afterwards  (iambetta  arrepted  the 
presidency  of  the  chamber,  a  po>t  wliidi  he 
lield  till  the  autumn  of  ISXO.  In  November  of 
that  year  the  Ferry  ministry  resijjned,  beinj,'  dis- 
credited by  the  niismana^'ement  of  the  Tunis 
expedition.  Gambetta  was  called  unon  to  form 
a  cabinet,  and  succeeded,  after  mucli  dlllioulty. 
But,  as  it  was  practically  a  fjovernnient  of  one, 
opposition  to  the  new  premier  set  in,  and  when 
he  produced  his  scheme  for  the  revision  of  the 
constitution  in  . January  18.S2  the  chamber  rejected 
the  sniititi  lie  liste  proposal  by  ,'iO.")  to  110  votes, 
and  Gambetta  immediately  resigned.  He  after- 
wards .acteil  a.s  chairman  of  the  military  committee, 
but  took  little  part  otherwise  in  public  all'aii-s. 

On  Setli  November,  as  he  w;is  handlin};  a  revolver 
at  his  residence  at  \'ille  d'.Vvray,  the  weapon  acci 
dentally  went  otl',  and  the  buMet  entered  the  palm 
of  his  haiul  and  c.ame  out  at  the  wrist.  A  report 
subsequently  prevalent  a.s.serted  that  the  wound 
was  inllicteu  by  a  woman's  hand.  In  any  case,  no 
serious  consequences  were  a|>preliendeil,  and  in 
spite  of  sinister  rumours  he  wa.s  reported  conval- 
escent on  l.'itli  December.  The  wound,  however, 
took  an  unfavourable  turn  ;  internal  inllammation 
set  in,  and  the  patient  sutlered  terrilde  aj;ony. 
Yet  he  wa.s  conscious  and  self-possessed  until  the 
end,  ami  expired  on  the  bust  day  of  the  year  188'2, 
being  only  forty-four  yeai-s  of  a^'e.  He  was  buried 
at  Nice,  France  mournin<^  for  him  as  one  of  the 
(^eatest  of  her  patriots  and  sons,  and  a.s  one  who, 
by  his  dauntless  will,  ener^ry,  and  eloquenee,  had 
indelibly  inniressed  himself  upon  one  of  the  darkest 
periods  of  her  national  history.  Keinach  has  edited 
his  Disroiirs  l'a/itif/ii>\i  (10  vols.  1880-84),  and 
written  ,i  l.ile  of  him  ( 1884). 

Gaillbia.  a  river  of  Western  Africa,  the  more 
soutlierly  of  the  two  j^eat  streams  of  Senesambia, 
enters  the  Atlantic  after  a  course  estimated  at  over 
1400  miles,  by  an  estuary  which  in  some  parts 
measures  nearly  "JT  miles  across,  but  contracts  to 
little  more  tlijin  "2  at  the  mouth  (Bathui-st.  13  24' 
N.  lat.,  16°  36'  W.  long.).  It  is  navigable  from 
June  to  November  for  vessels  of  150  tons  uj)  to 
Barraconda,  about  400  miles  from  the  sea.  The 
whole  of  the  lonvr  river,  extending  to  Georgetown, 
180  miles  from  Bathurst,  is  British  watei-s.  Below 
Barraconda  the  river  overllows  its  banks  in  the 
rainy  season,  and,  like  the  Nile,  leaves  a  fertile 
deposit  of  mud. — The  British  settlement  of  Gambia 
occupies  the  Itanks  of  the  river  as  far  up  as  George- 
town, though  not  continuously.  Us  actual  area  is 
about  G!(  .so.  m.,  embracing  St  Mary's  Island,  a 
sandbank  about  :i\  miles  long  by  IJ  broad,  mostly 
covered  with  low  swamps,  but  containing  Bathurst 
(q.v.):  British  Combo,  on  the  mainland  opposite  : 
Albrida,  on  the  north  bank  ;  the  Ceded  Mile ; 
and  M'Carthy's  Island,  with  Georgetown.  The 
climate  isotticially  described  as  only  '  fairly  healthy 
during  the  drj'  months.'  Besides  the  weaving 
of  cotton  into  native  cloths,  there  are  manu- 
factures of  vegetable  oils  and  bricks,  and  some 
boatbuilding.  The  staple  product  is  the  ground- 
nut, which  is  exported  to  the  so\ith  of  Europe  for 
the  extraction   of    oil,    although    this    trade   has 


declined  since  1858.  Other  products  are  hides, 
rice,  cotton,  lioeswax,  kola  nuts,  and  india-niblier, 
and  there  is  an  active  entrepot  trade  with  the 
neighbouring  French  settlements  in  cotton  gooils, 
8|)irits,  rice,  kola  nuts,  and  hardware.  The  imports 
have  an  annual  value  of  from  fl,')ll,(HKl  to  tl75,(KlO ; 
the  exports  from  iI20,(K)o  to  £2(Ki,()0ii.  The  trade 
is  mainly  in  French  liamU.  The  revenue  (not 
always  covering  the  expenditure)  lluctuates  from 
£'2.i,m)  to  £30,000.  Formerly  a  dependency  of 
Sierra  Leone,  the  settlement  was  created  an  inde- 
pendent colony  in  184;i,  and  became  a  portion  of 
the  West  African  Settlements  in  1876;  in  1888  it 
was  made  .a  separate  government.  The  settlement 
is  connected  with  Kurope  by  telegraph  cables,  and 
the  Liverpool  mail-steamers  call  fortnightly.  Pop. 
(1894)  14,978,  including  62  Europeans,  2385  native 
Christians,  and  o3>K)  Mohammedans.  Except  for 
the  British  strip  (total  area,  2700  sq.  m.,  pop. 
50,000),  the  ba-sin  of  the  Gambia  is  I'jench  terri- 
tory.    See  Seseo.vmiiia. 

tiambior,  G.vmiiir,  or  P.\le  Catechu,  is  an 
important  article  of  commerce,  used  to  a  small  ex- 
tent medicinally  as  an  .'istringent,  but  \ery  largely 
in  tanning  and  dyeing.  It  is  an  e.irtby-lookin^, 
light-brown  substance,  often  in  small  cnlies  or  in 
comp.act  ma.s.ses.  It  possesses  no  odour,  but  has 
a  bitter,  astringent  taste,  subsequently  becoming 
sweetish.  I'mler  the  microscope  it  is  seen  to  con- 
sist of  small  acicular  crystals.  It  is  prepared  in  a 
very  rude  manner  from  the  young  leaves  of  the  I  ii- 
rtiria  liaiiihir,  a  native  of  the  countries  l>ordering 

[  the  Straits  of  Malacca.  As  the  plant,  which  grows 
to  8  or  10  feet,  constantly  produces  young  leaves, 

i  the  manufacture  is  carried  on  throughout  the  year. 
The  leaves  are  boiled  in  water,  squeezed,  and  the 
ile<'oction  evaporated  to  .a  thick  consistence,  when 
it  is  ]ioured  into  buckets,  and  treated  in  a  curious 
manner.  The  workman  t.akes  a  stick,  which  is 
moved    ui)  and   down   in   the   mass,   and,   as   the 

1  gambler  dries  on  it,  it  is  scraped  oil'  and  allowed  to 
harden.  It  is  as.serted  that  stirring  the  nuiss  does 
not  produce  an  equally  good  article. 

(■aillltier,  Jamks,  Bakon,  .Vdmiral,  was  bom 
in  tlic  Baliamas,  IStli  October  1756,  entered  the 
navy,  ami  oil'  I'shant  fought  with  distinction  .as 
commander  of  the  Drfiiicc  under  Lord  Howe  in 
1794.  -As  admiral  he  commanded  the  British  lleet 
at  the  bombardment  of  Copenhagen  in  IS07,  and 
was  rewarded  with  a  peerage.  At  the  battle  of 
.Aix  Koads  in  ISO!)  he  refused  to  .act  on  the  advice 
of  Lord  Cochrane  (see  DfXDOSAl.I)),  w.as  tried  by 
court-martial,  and  'most  honourably  acquitted.' 
He  attained  the  high  rank  of  .Vilmiral  of  the  F'leet 
in  1,8.30,  and  died  19th  Anril  1833.  The  Memoiinh 
of  him  ( 1861 )  by  Lady  Chatterton  has  no  value. 

Ganibier  Islands,  or  Mangakeva,  a  Poly- 
nesian group  of  six  larger  and  several  smaller 
islands,  under  a  I'rench  protectorate,  in  23'  15'  S. 
lat.  and  1.35  W.  long.  Area,  15  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  4.'iO, 
all  Catholics. 

«;aml»H'r-Parry.    See  .Miuai,  Decoration-. 

C^aillbit.     See  (  11  ESS. 

Ciambling.  or  (jaminc,  may  be  defined  as  the 
practice  of  playing  for  a  money  stake  games 
depending  .soleiy  on  chance,  like  ruii/clfr,  for 
instance,  or  tho.se  other  games  into  which  the 
element  of  skill  entei-s,  as  in  the  cases  of  whist  or 
billiards.  Gambling  was  not  countenanced  by  the 
Roman  law ;  but  a  curious  exception  seems  to 
have  been  made  when,  by  the  temis  of  the  wager, 
the  loser  liail  to  provide  refreshment  or  hospitality 
for  the  winner.  Before  the  pas-sing  of  an  enact- 
ment for  the  restriction  of  games  and  g.aming,  all 
games  like  cards  and  dice,  and  all  exercises,  were 
legal  at  common  law  so  long  as  they  were  indulged 
in  for  recreation  and   played   fairly   and    without 


GAMBLING 


cheating ;  and  the  reason  assigned  for  the  favour 
which  gambling  finds  with  the  majority  is  not 
in.aptly  stated  hy  a  writer  in  tlie  time  of  (^ueen 
Anne.  He  says:  'I  cannot  attrihute  it  to  a  prin- 
ciple of  mere  avarice  in  many,  thougli  in  most  I 
fear  it  is  so,  but  rather  think  tlie  contingency  of 
winning  and  losing  and  the  expectations  therefrom 
are  diverting.  I  conceive  there  would  be  no  plea- 
sure properly  so  called  if  a  man  were  sure  to  win 
always.  It's  the  reconciling  uncertainty  to  our 
desires  that  creates  the  satisfaction.'  Among  the 
old  writers  the  subject  of  gaming  appeai-s  to  have 
taken  a  wide  scope,  and  to  have  been  mixed  up 
with  games  which  might  more  properly  be  rankeil 
under  the  head  of  athletic  exercises,  a,s  well  as  with 
what  o\ir  ancestors  were  plea,sed  to  regard  as  sport : 
and  the  same  classification  appeal's  to  have  taken 
place  in  some  of  the  older  statutes.  Statutory 
restrictions  upon  games  and  gaming  go  back  as  far 
as  the  12th  year  of  the  reign  of  liichaid  II.,  and 
these  were  followed  by  the  17th  of  Kdward  IV.  and 
otliers  which  made  certain  games  illegal ;  but  in 
giving  an  outline  of  the  chief  statutes  connected 
with  gaming  it  Ls  unnecessaiy  to  go  further  back 
than  the  year  1.541,  as  the  comprehensive  Act  .33 
Henry  V'tll.  chap.  9  prohibited  tallies,  tennis, 
dice,  cards,  bowls,  dash,  loggats,  and  other  unlaw- 
ful games  when  pla}"ed  under  certain  conditions. 
This  statute,  however,  like  one  of  Edward  11 1,  s 
proclamations,  had  for  its  immediate  object  the 
encouragement  of  archery,  and  professes  to  have 
become  law  in  consequence  of  a  petition  being  pre- 
sented by  the  bowmen  of  this  country  and  those 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  implements  of 
archery. 

For  some  time  there  was  no  material  alteration 
in  the  laws  affecting  gaming;  but  Charles  11. 
desiring  to  prevent  liis  subjects  from  becoming 
'  lewil  and  dissolute,'  an  act  was  passed  (16  Car. 
11.  chap.  7)  to  put  down  'deceitful,  disorderly,  ami 
exces.sive  gaming.'  The  statute  enacted  that  all 
persons  winning  by  fraud  over  certain  games  ami 
amusements  therein  specified  were  to  forfeit  treble 
the  value  of  their  winnings  ;  that  every  one  losing 
more  than  £100  on  credit  at  the  games  liefoie 
nientione<l  wa-s  to  be  discharged  from  the  obliga- 
tion to  pay  it ;  that  all  securities  given  for  the 
debt  were  to  be  void  ;  and  that  the  winner  was  to 
forfeit  treble  the  sum  he  won  in  excess  of  £100. 
This  act  of  Charles  II.  s  is  said  to  have  been 
pa.ssed  in  conseijuenee  of  the  vast  sums  of  money 
won  anil  lost  over  a  match  on  the  turf  in  which 
two  hoi-ses  belonging  to  Mr  Tregonwell  Framptoii 
and  Sir  Charles  Strickland  respectively  wore  the 
competitors.  Before  the  match  came  ott'  Krani])- 
ton's  trainer  meeting  Hesletine,  who  had  charge  of 
Sir  C.  Strickland's  hoi-se,  proposed  to  run  a  i>rivate 
trial,  and  at  Sir  Charles's  directions  Hesletine 
assenteil.  Each  jockey  at  the  instigation  of  his 
master  carried  7  lb.  more  than  the  specified  weight 
umler  the  ide<a  that  he  h,ad  stolen  a  march  on  his 
opponent.  I'rampton's  hoi-se  won  the  trial  after  a 
close  race,  and  his  party  argued  that  as  he  won 
with  the  worst  of  the  weights  he  would  achieve 
an  e.osy  victory  at  even  weights.  The  other  side 
argued  that,  as  their  horse  was  beaten  so  little 
when  handicapped  with  an  extra  7  lb.,  he  would 
turn  the  tables  in  the  race,  which,  however,  ended 
as  the  trial  hail  done.  So  much  money  changed 
hands  that,  as  already  mentioned,  the  above  act 
was  passed.  I'assing  over  for  the  present  the 
statutes  aimed  at  unlawful  games,  it  is  sufficient 
to  notice  that  by  the  first  licensing  act  (25  Ceo.  II. 
chap.  36)  gaming-houses  are  foibiilden  ;  Imt  during 
the  long  reign  of  George  III.  the  government  does 
not  appear  to  have  troubled  itself  much  about  gam- 
ing and  gamesters,  and  we  may  pa.ss  on  to  the  S  and 
9  Vict.  chap.  109,  the  ISth  section  of  which  renders 


void  all  contracts  bv  way  of  gaming  and  wagering. 
The  16th  and  17th  Vict,  put  down  i>etting-lioiises  ; 
and  the  31st  and  32il  Vict.  chap.  .52  (the  Vagr.ant 
Act)  enacts  that  ever)-  person  l>etting,  wagering,  or 
gaming  in  any  open  or  public  place  with  any  table 
or  instrument  of  gaining  shall  be  deemed  a  rogue 
and  vagabond,  and,  upon  conviction,  shall  be 
punished  a.s  the  act  directs.  It  was  under  this  act 
that  the  proprietoi-s  of  the  '  Fari-mutuel '  were 
punished  (see  Bettim;).  In  spite  of  the  statutes 
forbidding  gaming-houses  they  have  been  carried 
on,  and  during  the  year  IHHO,  besides  several  other 
ca.ses,  the  police  made  raids  upon  the  Field  Club, 
in  Fark  Place,  St  .James's,  and  another  in  Maiden 
Lane,  Strand,  the  proprietors  of  which  were  fined 
£500  each,  substantial  penalties  being  also  inflicted 
upon  some  of  the  officials. 

It  has  been  mentioned  above  that  the  statute  of 
Henry  VIII.  made  certain  games  illegal  ;  and  so 
long  ago  as  the  time  of  Edward  IV.  certain  other 
games,  like  '  Holy  Bowls,'  were  unlawful.  In  161S, 
however,  .James  I.  made  a  declaration  that  the 
dancing  of  men  and  women,  leaping.  May  games, 
and  some  other  forms  of  amusement  should  be  iier- 
i  initted,  and  Charles  I.  allowed  fea.sts  of  dedications 
'  of  churches,  called  wakes,  to  be  indulged  in  :  but 
the  18th  Geo.  II.  chap.  '.H  put  .a  stop  to  Koulet.  or 
Iioly-poly,  a  game  wliicli  could  have  no  connection 
with  modem  roulette,  because  the  act  si)eaks  of 
Roulet  '  or  any  other  game  with  cards  orilice.'  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  statute  pa.ssed  in  the  time 
of  Henrv  VIII.  was  not  repealed  at  the  time 
Queen  \  ictoria  came  to  the  throne,  .and  it  was  not 
1  until  the  year  1845  that  bowls,  ipioits,  tennis,  .and 
many  other  games  of  skill  could  legally  be  played 
'  in  any  public  alley  or  ground.  In  1845,  howe\er, 
j  it  appears  to  have  struck  the  ruling  powers  that  it 
was  a  little  incongruous  to  retain  in  the  st.atute- 
book  an  act  which  botli  prohibited  g.ames  of  skill, 
and  ordered  people  to  shoot  «ith  bows  and  .arrows, 
so  in  that  year  the  8th  and  9th  Vict.  chap.  109  w.as 
passed,  and  a  great  de.al  of  the  act  of  Henry  Nil  I. 
was  repealed;  and,  to  sum  up,  it  may  lie  pointed 
out  th.at  racing  of  all  kinds,  what  are  known  as 
athletic  sports,  all  games  like  cricket,  croipiet, 
quoits,  &c. ,  all  of  what  are  known  as  '  ]iailour 
pastimes,'  and  most  games  at  cards  are  now  legal. 
The  exceptions  are  Ace  of  Hearts.  Hassett,  Dice 
(except  Backgammon),  Hazard,  Fhar.aoh  (or  Faro). 
Passage,  Koly-poly.  It  will  be  observed  that 
neither  phaying  cards  for  money  nor  betting  are 
illegal  perse:  they  only  become  so  when  iiidulged 
in  under  certain  conditions.  There  is  nothing  un- 
lawful in  pl.aying  cards  in  .a  private  house,  or  whist 
in  a  club  ;  but  to  frequent  a  gaming  house  is  not 
.allowed.  Ag.ain,  a  nuui  does  not  lire.ak  the  law 
because  he  makes  .a  liet  on  credit  in  his  house,  on  a 
racecoui-se,  or  at  Tattersall's  if  he  is  taken  to  be  a 
member ;  but  should  he  stake  his  money  and  m.ake 
his  bet  at  the  bar  of  a  public-house  or  on  the  street 
he  renders  himself  liable  to  be  ])roceedpd  ag.ainst. 

Lotteries,  which  are  first  heard  of  in  Engl.and  in 
1569,  were  for  some  time  legal,  and  at  last  so  many 
private  .and  cheating  ones  liec.ame  mixed  up  with 
the  more  honour.able  affairs  that  legislation  became 
neces-sary,  and  the  lOtli  and  lltli  William  III.  chap. 
17  w.as  passed  for  the  puriiose  of  suppressing  them 
by  declaring  them  public  nuisances:  though  there 
was  still  a  loophole,  for  lotteries  might  be  carried 
on  '  under  colour  of  patents  or  grants  under  the 
great  seal.'  This  act,  however,  did  little  or 
nothing  to  check  the  evil,  nor  do  subsequent 
enactments  appear  to  have  lieen  more  erticacioiis. 
State  lotteries  were  altogether  put  an  end  to  in 
1826,  from  which  year  we  hear  very  little  of 
lotteries,  iis  the  Laws  against  them  are  now 
strictly  enforced.  K.alfies  and  sweeps  are  illegal, 
being  nothing  more  than  lotteries  ;  yet  every  club 


74 


GAMBOGE 


GAME-LAWS 


lias  its  Dolby  swwii ;  ami  when  CoiivocatiDii  iiift 
ill  the  suiiinierof  1H8!),  and  denonnced  the  tcndeiiey 
of  all  classes  towards  indnl^rin;;  in  liettinj;  and 
gaininK,  one  or  two  of  the  speakers  sjioke  in  ex- 
tenuation of  lotteries  and  rallies  at  fancy  fairs 
orfianised  for  charitalile  or  religious  objects.  Art 
unions  are  specially  exeniplcd  from  the  <)]ieration 
of  the  statutes  a^;ainst  lotleiies  by  tlic  !llh  and  KUh 
Vict.  chap.  4.S,  which  dechires  that  vohiiitary  asso- 
ciations for  acijuirinK  works  of  art  which  are  after- 
wards distrihnteil  l>y  lot  are  to  be  deemed  lei;al 
after  a  royal  charter  lias  been  obtained.  (Iamblin<; 
which  takes  the  form  of  speculatiuf;  in  stocks  and 
shares  has  Ion;;  bi'cn  comiiioii,  but  at  present 
a  certain  number  of  outside  binkers — m<>n,  ihal  is 
to  say,  H  ho  are  not  mcmlii'is  of  the  Stock  Kxchange 
— ale  oU'eiinj,'  every  facility  to  those  desirous  of 
indnl^jin;;  in  the  hazardous  pastime.  Hy  stakinf^ 
with  the  broker  (uie  per  cent,  of  the  amount  it  is 
determined  to  nominally  expend,  the  investor  can 
jrive  his  orilers.  'I'liiis.  in  the  wonls  of  the  adver- 
tisements, C")  (c.allcil  'cover')  comniands  £.V)0  of 
stock.  Should  the  stock  fall  sullicicnlly  to  exhaust 
the  cover,  the  tran.saction  is  at  an  end  ;  the  investor 
loses  his  cover,  which  <;oes  into  the  ]iocket  of  the 
broker.  If  the  stock  ri.ses  in  the  market  the  in- 
vestor can  claim  the  difl'erence  between  its  present 
value  and  the  price  at  which  he  boujjht.  or  nomin- 
ally bou<;lit,  for  no  stock  clian^;es  hamls  in  these 
transactiims.  No  biokeva^re  is  char^-ed.  and,  a.s 
palatial  olliccs  are  occupieil,  it  would  appear  that  a 
very  ;,'i('at  majority  of  s]ieculators  lose  tlicir  money. 
This  system  when  analysed  is  neither  more  nor  less 
than  liettinj;  ujion  tlie  rise  ami  fall,  the  broker  being 
to  .'ill  intents  :ind  purposes  a  boid<maker. 

In  the  I'liilcd  States,  keejiin;;  a  jramblinjjhonse 
is  iiulictable  at  common  law  as  injurious  to  inor.ils  ; 
an<l  most  states  ami  territories  have  passe<l  laws 
aj;ainst  j,'aiiildin;;,  in  some  of  them  severe  and 
strin;;ent.  Vet  till  1880  j;amblint;  was  exceed- 
inffly  common  and  open  tlirouf,diont  the  United 
States  ;  and  it  was  left  to  societies  for  the  supples 
sion  of  vice,  especially  in  New  Vork,  to  stir  up  the 
authorities  to  put  tlie  laws  in  force.  In  1881-84 
|iioseculiiiiis  and  convictions  were  very  numerous  ; 
111  188.')  almost  all  the  chief  cities  in  the  I'nion 
followed  the  example  of  New  Vork.  Prussia, 
Saxony,  Brunswick,  Mecklenburg- Schwcrin,  and 
Hambuig  still  have  state  lotteries. 

Sec  liKTTiNG,  Mo.NACo,  Badkn-B.\den,  and  articles 
on  the  variou.s  rjoiics  ;  also  Frederick  Urandt,  Games, 
<ltimin<i,  and  Gdiiicfl'r's  Liiw  (new  ed.  1873) ;  an  article 
in  the  Quurtci-lii  for  January  1880;  a  bibliogiaphy  of 
books  on  gainlWing  in  Notes  anil  Queries  ( 1889) ;  and  John 
Ashton's  Hiatal  II  of  Kwitish  Lotteries  (1894). 

<>aillho$;«'.  or  t'.v.MUOtiK,  a  gum-iesin,  used  in 
medicine  and  the  arts,  the  produce  chietly  of  Gar- 
eiiiiii  Murella  {Gditihoi/iii  e/Kt/n  or  llilintdenilriiii 
(/iiiiil/i/r/iiti//t!.i),  a  tree  of  the  order  (nittifene  (sub- 
order Clusiacea'),  a  native  of  Cambodia  (hence 
the  name),  Ceylon,  Siani,  i\;c.  The  gamboge-tree 
attains  a  height  of  40  feet,  has  smooth  oval  leaves, 
small  polygamoua  flowers,  and  clusters  of  sweet 
and  e<lible  fruits.  When  the  bark  of  the  tree  is 
wounded  the  gamboge  exudes  as  a  thick,  viscid, 
yellow  juice,  which  hardens  by  exposure  to  the  air. 
It  is  generally  ccdiected  in  a  joint  of  bamboo,  and 
a  single  tree  will  yield  siillicient  to  lill  three  joints 
20  inches  in  length  and  IK  inch  in  diameter.  From 
this  cause  it  is  f<Mind  in  commerce  in  the  form 
of  sticks  or  cylindei's  having  the  markings  of  the 

baiiil >n  the  outside.     When  of  good  i|iiality  it  is 

of  a  rich,  orange-brown  tint,  and  should  not  sjiow  a 
rough  granular  surface  when  liroken.  Since  yellow- 
is  a  colour  .sacred  to  Uuddha,  gamboge  is  in  much 
request  iu  Singhalese  temples,  alike  for  vestments 
and  decorations.  The  tinest  gamboge  comes  from 
Siani. — American  gamboge,  which  is  very  similar, 


and  is  used  for  the  same  purposes,  is  obtained  from 
Vismitt  quiitncnsis,  and  other  species,  nhruhs  of  the 
order  Hfypericina;.     Gamboge  occurs  iu  commerce 


\ 


Gamboge  (Oaroinia  Morelta). 

in  three  forms  :  ( 1  )  in  rolls  or  soliil  eylhtders ;  (2) 
in  pijics  or  lirjl/ow  ci/Ziin/crs  ;  and  (3)  in  cakes  or 
amorjihoti.i  masses.  The  lirst  two  kinds  are  the 
imrest.  (lood  gamboge  contains  about  70  per  cent, 
of  resin  and  H)  per  cent,  of  gum,  the  remainder 
being  made  U])  of  woody  libre.  fecula,  anil  moisture. 
Me<licinally  it  acts  as  .a  violent  purgative,  seldom 
administeied  alone.  It  is  employed  in  water-colour 
painting,  in  the  staining  of  wood,  and  in  the  for- 
mation of  a  golden  lacipier  for  brass.  It  can  be 
readily  brniseil,  forming  a  brilliant  yellow,  slightly 
inodorous  powder,  and  ]io.s.sesses  a  disagreeable 
acrid  taste. 

OaillbrillllS,  a  mythical  king  of  Flanders,  to 
whom  is  ascribed  the  invention  of  beer.  His  figure 
is  familiar  in  Cerman  beer-cellars,  often  seated 
astride  a  cask,  a  foaming  tankard  in  his  hand. 

ClilllK'-lnws.  Since  primeval  days  man  has 
been  a  carnivorous  animal,  and  has  depended  for 
his  sustenance  largely  upon  the  llesh  of  the  beasts 
of  the  field.  At  liis't,  doubtless,  the  only  thought 
was  of  the  c.ipluie  and  destruction  of  animals 
whose  llesh  was  agreeable  to  the  taste,  not  of  their 
preservation  and  juotection  for  future  u.se.  Hut  it 
IS  probable  that  at  a  very  early  age  domestication 
was  resorted  to  in  order  to  meet  the  scarcity  caused 
by  the  depletion  of  the  forests  and  the  inci'ea.sed 
wariitess  of  the  animals.  There  are,  however, 
many  aidiuals  which,  though  suitable  for  food, 
cannot  readily  be  domesticated,  and  these  still 
remained  the  objects  of  the  chase  in  their  natural 
wild  condition.  Doubtless  for  a  time  these  latter 
were  .still  mercilessly  bunted  down,  but  grailually 
the  necessity  came  to  be  recognised  of  hiishaniling 
the  stock  even  of  wild  animals  against  the  future. 
The  analogy  of  the  animal  kingdom  suggests  that 
the  ]deasiires  of  the  chase  were  just  as  keen 
among'st  the  nomad  tribes  in  the  jirimeval  forests 
as  amongst  modern  liiitish  sportsmen ;  but  the 
primary  object  then  was  not  the  enjoyment  of 
sport,  i)Ut  the  c(dleclion  of  a  su]i]ily  of  fooil,  and  the 
value  of  the  wild  animals  was  tiiainly  an  economic 
one.  lint  gradually,  as  civilisation  advanced,  as 
cultivation  increased,  and  other  sources  of  food- 
.supply  were  multiplied,  the  value  of  wild  animals 
.as  food  diminished,  and  protection  came  to  Ije 
accorded  to  them  rather  as  objects  of  sport  than 


GAME-LAWS 


75 


as  a  valuable  food-provision.  This  condition  had 
already  been  reached  in  England  with  regard  to 
birds  and  quadrupeds  when  the  Forest  Laws  were 
first  promulgated,  but  the  economic  as  superior  to 
the  sporting  value  of  fresh-water  fish  long  held  its 
ground,  and  indeed  still  does  so  to  a  certain  extent 
in  the  case  of  some  of  the  larger  rivers.  Notwith- 
standing, however,  the  small  value  of  game  as  an 
article  of  food  in  proportion  to  its  value  as  an 
object  of  sport,  there  is  still  a  utilitanan  instinct  in 
the  pursuit  of  many  kinds  of  game  ;  the  edibility  of 
the  animal  is  a  condition  of  the  enjoyment  of 
sport ;  nothing  "rieves  a  sportsman  more  than  to 
lose  an  animal  Tie  has  killed ;  and  no  sportsman 
wovild  go  out  to  shoot  old  rooks  or  blackbirds, 
although  these  would  supply  just  as  difficult 
shooting  as  partridges  and  pheasants. 

Uy  the  common  law,  both  of  England  and  of 
Scotland,  following  tl-.at  of  Rome,  wild  animals  in 
a  state  of  nature  are  common  to  mankind,  and  are 
not  proper  subjects  of  private  ownership.  But  at 
an  early  stage  it  was  recognised  that  a  free  rigdit  of 
Imnting  was  incompatible  with  the  preservation  of 
game  in  such  numbers  as  to  afi'ord  ample  sport  to 
the  monarch  and  the  nobles.  Accordingly  a  series 
of  laws  known  as  the  F<n-est  Laws  (q.v.)  were 
enacted,  whereby  certain  districts  of  country  were 
set  apart  for  sport  to  the  sovereign  and  his  donees  ; 
and  ettective  provision  was  made  to  reserve  the 
exclusive  right  of  pursuing  game  within  the  jiro- 
tected  areas.  But  the  increase  of  jiopulation  and 
the  enclosure  of  large  parts  of  the  country  remlered 
protection  necessary  tor  the  areas  outside  of  the 
royal  forests  if  the  game  was  not  to  be  totally 
extirpated,  and  the  result  has  Ijecn  a  series  of 
enaetuients  known  as  the  Game-laws. 

'Ciame'  includes  hares,  pheasants,  partridges, 
grouse,  black-game,  ptarmigan,  and  bustards,  lint, 
in  adilition,  there  are  a  number  of  animals  to  which 
one  or  other  of  tlie  game-statutes  extends  pro- 
tection. These  are  rabbits,  deer,  roe,  woodcock, 
snipe,  (piail,  landrails,  and  wihl  duck. 

.Uthough  there  is  no  private  property  in  wild 
animals,  it  is  now  fixed  partly  by  statute,  partly  by 
consuetudinary  law  a-s  interpreted  by  the  decisions 
of  the  courts,  that  the  right  to  pursue  or  take  game 
is  .a  i)rivate  |uivilege.  In  the  absence  of  express 
stipulation  this  privilege  belongs  in  England  to 
the  occupier,  in  Scotland  to  the  owner  of  the  soil. 
It  lias  sometimes  been  represented  that,  although 
a  wild  animal  is  not  private  property,  the  moment 
it  is  taken  or  slain  it  becomes  the  property  of  the 
person  on  whose  land  it  is  taken  or  slain.  This  is 
not  strictly  accurate,  for  if  it  were  so  then  the 
poacher  who  picks  up  the  ])artridge  he  has  shot 
would  be  guilty  of  theft,  which  in  the  present 
slate  of  the  law  he  certainly  is  not.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  occupier  or  owner 
of  the  soil  is  entitled  to  recover  the  >;ame  from  the 
jioacher.  The  law,  therefore,  would  seem  to  be 
most  accurately  expressed  by  the  statement  that 
the  occupier  or  owner  of  the  soil  has  a  right  to 
claim  any  garni'  taken  or  slaiu  n\nm  bis  land. 

The  statutory  jnovisions  with  reference  to  game 
are  of  four  kinds — viz.  ( 1 )  laws  for  the  iiunisliment 
of  poaching  ;  (2)  close  time  ])rovisi(ms  fm-  the  pro- 
tection of  game  iluring  certain  seasons  of  the  year  ; 
(3)  provisions  to  enable  farmers  to  protect  their 
crops  against  the  ravages  of  grounil-game ;  (4) 
revenue  and  license  laws  imiH>^ing  government 
duties  upon  the  exercise  of  a  right  to  take  or  to 
deal  in  game. 

( 1 )  ronfhiii(f. — The  most  important  of  the  acts  at 
present  in  force  against  poaching  are  the  Dav  Poach- 
ing .Vet,  1831  (Scotland,  183'2):  the  Night  Poaching 
Acts,  KS2S  ,and  1844  ;  and  the  Poaching  Preven- 
tion Act,  1862.  These  statutes  im)iose  penalties 
for  trespass  by  night  or  by  day  in  pursuit  of  game. 


and  for  the  illegal  possession  of  game  ;  and  contain 
stringent  provisions  for  the  detection  and  punisli- 
ment  of  oHenders.  Night-poaching  Ls  treated  a.s  a 
much  more  serious  offence  than  day-poaching,  the 
reason  being  that  night-poaching,  especially  by 
iar"e  bands,  is  apt  to  lead  to  acts  of  serious 
violence.     See  the  article  Poaching. 

(2)  t'tosc  2VwH\— This  is  regulated  in  England  by 
the  Day  Trespass  Act,  1831,  and  in  Scotland  by  the 
Preservation  of  Game  Act,  1772.  The  close  time 
in  England  is,  for  partridges,  from  1st  February  to 
1st  September;  for  pheasants,  from  1st  February  to 
1st  October;  for  black-game,  from  10th  December 
to  20th  August  (1st  September  in  Somerset,  Devon, 
and  the  New  Forest);  for  grouse,  from  lOtli  Decem- 
ber to  r2th  August  ;  and  for  bustards,  from  1st 
March  to  1st  September.  The  seasons  in  Scotland 
are  the  same,  except  that  bustards  are  not  men- 
tioned in  the  act.  By  the  Day  Trespass  Act 
(adopted  for  Scotland  by  the  Game  Certificates 
Act,  1860)  it  is  also  made  illegal  to  deal  in  game 
more  than  ten  days  after  the  commencement  of 
close  time.  It  was  recently  held  that  this  does  not 
apply  to  game  imported  from  abroad. 

(3)  Prutcdion  of  Crops. — By  the  Ground  Game 
Act  of  1880  an  inalienable  right  to  destroy  hares 
and  rabbits  found  upon  his  land  is  given  to  the 
occupier.  In  order  to  minimise  the  interierence 
with  legitimate  sport,  it  is  provided  that  steel  traps 
shall  not  be  used,  except  in  ralibit  holes;  that  the 
occupier  shall  not  be  entitled  to  delegate  the  right 
to  shoot  to  any  person  other  than  one  member  of 
his  household,  speciallj'  authorised  by  him  in  writ- 
ing ;  and  that  the  occupier  of  moorlands  shall  be 
entitled  to  take  hares  only  between  lUli  December 
and  31st  March. 

(4)  Ilci-emte  and  License  Lairs. — The  difl'erent 
duties  and  licenses  in  connection  with  taking  and 
the  dealing  in  game  are  embodied  in  a  series  of 
revenue  statutes,  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  enumer- 
ate. A  game-license  for  the  «  hole  year  costs  i'3 ; 
but  a  license  may  be  taken  for  half  a  year  to  1st 
November,  or  for  half  a  year  thereafter  at  £2  :  or  a 
license  may  be  taken  for  a  period  of  f(mrteen  con- 
tinuous days  at  £1.  A  gamekeepers  license  costs 
£2.  Dealers  in  game  must  annually  obtain  a 
license  from  the  justices,  upon  production  of  which 
and  ii.ayment  of  £2  of  dnty  they  obtain  an  Inland 
Kevenue  license  to  deal  in  game. 

Strong  exception  is  taken  to  the  game-laws  by 
many.  It  is  urged  that  the  provisions  for  the 
detection  of  poachers  are  harsh  and  inc|uisitorial, 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  difficulty  of 
detecting  this  offence  (arising  mainly  from  the 
impossibility  of  identifying  the  articles  taken)  has 
led  to  the  enactment  of  certain  provisions  of  a  very 
stringent  character.  Although,  however,  the  pro- 
visions are  harsh  on  their  face,  it  may  l>c  doubted 
if  it  has  often  hapiiened  that  any  peiscm  who  had 
come  properly  in  possession  of  game,  and  wa.s  able 
to  give  an  honest  account  of  it,  has  been  subjected 
to  serious  inconvenience  by  the  operation  of  these 
laws.  A  much  more  fonuiilable  objection  is  that 
the  laws  are  out  of  harmony  with  the  general  sense 
of  a  large  section  of  the  community  ;  that  in  the 
eyes  of  many  respectable  persons  and  of  most 
poachei-s  poaching  is  no  crime  ;  and  that  many 
men  have  by  the  operation  of  these  statutes  been 
made  criminals  who  would  .scorn  to  stoop  to  any 
act  of  ordinary  dishonesty.  There  is  force  in  this 
objection,  for  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  whatever 
be  tlie  explanation,  poaching  is  looked  u|ion  by 
many  in  quite  a  difl'erent  light  from  any  other 
oHence.  Prison  governors  and  chaplains  tell  that 
they  never  find  a  poacher  penitent  or  willing  to 
admit  that  he  has  done  wrong.  The  community  of 
the  right  to  game,  either  as  a  luimitive  tradition  or 
as  a  legal  theory  handed  down  from  the  Koman 


76 


GAMING 


GANGES 


law,  ]>revail»  sin''uliirly  enoiifili  in  tlie  [(ojiiilfir 
niiinl  contrary  to  tlie  constant  piactice  of  centuries. 
The  f^anie-Iaws  are,  on  the  other  han<l,  defended 
on  tlie  Kioumi  of  vesteil  |iro|irietarv  interest,  to 
which  great  coinniercial  value  now  attaches,  and  as 
allordinj;  (irotertion  a;.'ainst  tresjiass,  whiih  wmild 
lessen  the  a;,'ri<ultural  value  and  the  amenity  of 
property.  Itut  the  strongest  plea  in  favour  of  the 
laws  ati'ording  protection  to  jjaine  is  that  without 
such  protection  ^jaine  would  soon  cea.se  to  e.xist. 
In  an  encloseil  and  thicklysettleil  country,  aniicUt 
a  crowded  population  devoted  to  sport,  };anie  would 
.soon  lieconie  extincl  if  the  pulilic  enjoyeil  a  free 
right  to  i>ursiie  it.  In  Switzerland,  where  the  only 
protection  is  a  clo.se  time,  notwithstanding  the 
numerous  natural  retreats  for  wild  animals,  garni' 
is  all  hut  e.xtinet :  indeed,  it  is  considered  a  good 
ilay's  sport  for  a  larg(>  jiarty  if  a  single  hare  is 
killed.  Again,  the  c<ince.ssion  to  the  occ\ii>ier  of  aji 
inalienahle  right  to  ground  game  hy  the  Act  of  ISSd 
h;i.s  already  led  to  the  hare  hecoming  virtually 
extinct  in  many  parts  of  (Ireat  liritain.  In  the 
opinion  of  some,  no  douht,  the  total  extir|iatiim  of 
game  would  he  a  henelit  to  the  country  ;  hut,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  urged  that  not  only  does  the  pur- 
suit of  game  give  zest  and  variety  to  rural  life,  and 
all'onl  healthful  enjoyment  in  the  autuirin  to  a  coii- 
.sideral)le  .section  of  the  community,  many  of  whom 
are  engaged  in  sedentary  occujiations  for  the  greater 
[lart  of  the  year,  hut  that  it  also  leads  to  the  ditVu- 
sion  of  nuicli  wealth  throughout  the  poorer  distriits 
of  the  country,  and  keeps  a  great  deal  of  money  at 
home  which  would  otherwise  he  spent  ahroad. 

In  the  I'nited  States  any  one  is  free  to  capture  or 
kill  wild  animals,  suhject  to  the  laws  of  tres]>a.ssing; 
save  where,  a-s  in  several  states,  laws  have  heen 
p-T-ssed  protecting  game  during  certain  seasons,  so 
as  to  prevent  it-s  e.\tir|)ation. 

Perliaps  the  most  feasihle  suggestion  which  has 
yet  heen  made  for  .a  reform  of  the  game  laws  with- 
out withdrawing  protection  from  game  is  that  all  the 
statutes  against  poaching  should  he  repealed,  and 
a  simiile  provision  ^nhstituti'd  whcrehy  game  should 
he  declared  to  he  the  jiroperty  of  the  person  on  whosc\ 
lands  it  is  found.  The  ell'ect  of  this  would  he  to 
render  the  taking  of  game  theft,  and  trespa.s.s  in 
pursuit  of  game  an  attempt  to  steal.  It  is  urgeil 
in  favour  of  this  change  that  it  would  simplify  the 
law,  remove  many  harsh  and  anomalous  provisions 
from  the  statute  hook,  and  tend  to  di.sahu.se  the 
popular  mind  of  that  theory  of  the  common 
right  to  take  game  which  creates  disaffection 
with  restraining  law.  In  an  unenclo.sed  and 
sparsely-peopled  country  wild  animals  roam  at 
freeilom  and  care  for  themselves,  n.ni\  they  are  not 
therefore  ap|>ropriate  suhiects  of  luivate  ownei-ship. 
But  in  an  enclosed,  highly-cultivated,  and  thickly- 
peopled  country,  game  is  just  a-s  much  dependent 
tor  its  existence  as  are  Mocks  ami  herds  upon  the 
protection  and  care  of  the  ownei"s  or  occupiers  of 

the  soil,  and  may 
therefore,  it  is  said, 
appropriately  he 
made  tlie  suhject  of 
private  property  of 
those  who  maintain 
it.  SeeAlex.  Porter, 
T/ie  Ganiehccper'x 
Marninl  ('2d  ed. 
Edin.  ISSni. 


I.aiiiiiis. 

.VMIU.INC. 


See 


Fresh-water  Shrimp  {Gammcirm 
puffx),  magnified. 


Gam  mariis.  a 

genus  of  .Vmphiiiod 
Crustaceans,  includ- 
ing numerous  fresh-water  and  marine  species. 
One  species  (Gammariis  pulcx),  sometimes  called 


the  'freshwater  shrimp,'  is  extremely  common 
in  quickly-llowing  hrooks.  It  is  a  tiny  creature, 
ahoiit  half  an  inch  long,  hnt  so  aliundant  that  few 
can  have  missed  seeing  it.  It  generally  kee|is  near 
the  liottom,  .swims  on  its  side,  with  a  kind  of 
jerking  motion,  and  fi'cds  on  dead  lishes,  \c.  In 
(|Uiet  water  (f.  /tiiriiili/i.s  is  ciunmon,  and  (I. 
Iiirn.slii  is  very  ahunilant  annuig  seaweeils  along  all 
Kuidpean  coasts.  IJlind  siiecies  of  the  allierl  genus 
Niphaigns  are  found  in  many  caves  and  wells. 

Gamriiii.    See  (!oMnnoos. 

Gamut,  a  name  for  the  musical  scale — see 
Mi  sn\  ScAi.K  ( Mfsic.M,).  Guido  of  Arezzo,  in 
the  11th  century,  marked  the  Inst  of  the  series  of 
notes  in  his  musical  notation  with  a  </  or  the  (Ireek 
letter  7  {ifdiniiid  )^  the  name  of  whii-h  came  to  he 
use<l  for  the  whole  scale — often  in  a  Kiencli  form 
ffrimme.  Gamut  is  coni]ioiinded  of  this  word  ami 
lit,  the  heginning  of  a  Latin  hymn  used  in  singing 
the  scale.     Sec  SoLKKCtMO. 

Gaiul.    See  (;iii-:nt. 

Gaiulak  (the  Gimt  Gandnl: :  the  Little  Tiandak 
heiiig  an  unimportant  trihutary  of  the  (Jogra),  a 
river  of  India,  rises  in  thi'  Ncjial  Iliinalavas,  in 
:«)' .■>ri'  N.  lilt,  and  711  ;■  K.  long..  Mows  s.>nihwest 
to  Ihitish  tcnilorv,  and  then  southeast.  I'orming 
for  some  ilistance  the  houndary  hetween  the  North- 
west Provinces  ami  Bengal,  and  entei-s  the  (langes 
opposite  Patna.  Its  hanks  rise  ahove  the  level 
ot  the  plains  it  pa.sses  through,  anil  iuundatiims  are 
frequent. 

iiaildailiak.  a  village  of  Afghanistan,  hetween 
C'al'ul  .irul  I'l'shawur,  where,  during  the  retreat 
from  Kahid  in  1S4'2,  the  last  remnant  of  the  Hritisli 
force  was  mjiss.acred,  only  one  man  making  his 
escai)e.  Here  also  a  treaty  was  signed  with  Vakuh 
Khan  in  ls7!l.      See  Al-iniASI.ST.AN. 

Gail4lor.slH'im«  a  small  town  of  2."i07  inhahit- 
ants  in  Ihunswick,  .'«)  miles  N.  of  (Jottingen  hy 
rail.  Its  famous  .ahhey,  dating  from  S.V2,  con- 
tinued even  after  the  Keformation  to  give  the 
title  of  ahhcss  to  the  danghtei-s  of  (lerman  princes, 
ami  iintil  ISO."!  was  itself  a  principality.  Its  ahhess, 
Ilidtswilhaor  Koswillia  ('■.  932- 1002),  wrote  a  series 
of  curious  dramatic  works.  See  lM{.\M.^(p.  S3), 
iind  an  article  hy  Hudson  in  the  Entjlish  Historical 
Ecricw  (\m^). 

GaiHlia.  a  walled  town  of  Spain,  on  the  .-Meoy, 
2  mill's  irom  the  sea,  and  47  miles  SSK.  of  Valencia 
by  rail.  It  contains  the  old  palace  of  the  dukes  of 
Ganilia,  and  has  some  coast  tra<le.     Pop.  7(504. 

Gando.  a  Pnlah  state  of  the  western  Sondan, 
lying  west  of  Sokoto  ( to  which  it  is  trihutary  ),  and 
on  hoth  sides  of  the  Niger  north  of  licugii ;  it  is  now, 
like  Sokoto,  and  the  minor  states  of  florin,  Nupe, 
&c.,  inclniled  in  (Uritish)  Northern  Nigeria. — 
G.vxno.  .50  miles  S\V.  of  the  town  of  Sokoto,  is 
the  capital  ;  the  chief  trading  town  is  Kgg.a  ("pv. ). 

Gaildoiro.    See  f.\sTEL  C.xndoi.fh. 

GaiK'sa.  the  most  popular  among  the  P>rah- 
manic  gods  of  the  seconil  rank,  the  special  deity  of 
pnidence,  invoked  at  the  commencenient  of  every 
enterprise,  and  with  whose  name  eveiy  hook  hegins 
(iiaiiio  Gaiirrih/a,  '  honour  to  (ianesa).  He  is  the 
son  of  Siva  liy  Parvati,  and  the  leader  of  his 
father's  train.  He  is  repri'sentcd  with  an  elephnnt's 
liead.  riding  upon  a  rat.  and  his  (igure  is  found  in 
almost  all  temples,  and  also  in  houses  where  he  has 
taken  the  )>lace  of  the  Vedic  Agni  as  <lomestic 
guardian.— t;.\NES.\  is  also  the  name  of  the  author 
of  a  inthcentury  commentary  to  the  Liiif/'ijnu/ina 
(Bomh.ay,  1858). 

Gaiisa.    See  Sand-grouse. 
Gansrs,  the  great  river  of  northern  Inilia,  pro- 
minent alike  in  the  religion  and  in  the  geography 


GANGES 


GANGRENE 


77 


of  the  East,  rises  in  Galiiwal  in  30'  56'  4"  N.  lat. 
and  79'  6'  40"  E.  long.,  issuing,  under  tlie  name  of 
the  Blia;,'iiatlii,  from  an  iee-cave  8  miles  above 
(iangotri  and  13,S(W  feet  above  the  level  of  tlie 
sea.  A  few  miles  below  Gan^'otri  it  receives  [ 
the  Jalinavi,  and  133  miles  from  its  source  the  : 
Alaknanda,  from  which  point  the  united  stream 
i>  known  as  the  (;an;^es.  From  Suklii,  where  it  I 
liursts  through  the  Himalayas,  it  Hows  south-west 
to  Hardwar,  and  from  thence,  by  a  tortuous  but 
generally  southeast  course,  to  Allahabad,  where  it 
is  joined  by  the  Jumna.  From  the  sacreil  tongue 
of  land  where  the  two  streams  meet  the  great  river 
rolls  on  in  a  wide  Hood,  past  the  holy  city  of 
Benares,  and  across  the  )iiains  of  Behar,  fed  by  the 
Son.  the  Gandak,  and  the  Ku^i.  It  then  turns 
sharply  to  the  southward,  ami,  about  20  miles 
farther  on,  begins  to  throw  out  the  branches  which 
enclose  the  level  delta,  at  a  point  2'20  miles  in  a 
straight  line  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  main 
ch.annel,  called  the  Farlma  or  Padda,  nins  south- 
east to  (ioalanila,  where  it  is  met  by  tlie  main 
stream  of  the  Brahmaputra,  and  the  vast  conHuence 
of  watei's  Hows  in  a  ljroa<l  estuary,  the  Meghna, 
into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  near  Xoakhali.  Between 
this  most  easterly  and  the  Hugli,  the  most  westerly 
mouth,  lies  the  delta,  with  a  multitude  of  mouths 
and  channels.  The  Hugli  or  Hooghly  (q.v. )  is 
the  great  channel  of  navigation  (for  ma]),  see 
C\LCITT.\).  The  delta  in  its  upper  angle  is  very 
fertile,  but  in  the  south,  towards  the  sea,  the 
country  is  a  desolate  waste  of  swamps  (see  Sux- 
I).\I!li.\Ns),  intersected  by  a  network  of  canals. 
The  Ganges  has  a  total  length  of  1.5.57  (by  the 
Hugli  mouth,  1,509)  miles;  its  drainage  ba>in  em- 
braces over  390,000  sq.  m.,  lying  lietween  the 
Himalaya  and  Vindhya  ranges,  and  e.xtending  east 
to  the  mountains  which  separate  Burma  from 
Bengal.  Xot  one  of  the  other  rivers  of  India  so 
deserves  the  gratitude  and  homage  of  the  Hindus. 
In  spite  of  the  shoals  and  rapids  that  lie  above 
Allahab.ad,  it  is  in  some  -iense  navigable  from  the 
point  where  it  enters  the  lowlands,  near  Hanlwar ; 
anil  its  stream,  which  never  fails  in  the  hottest 
summer,  distributes  fertilit.v  throughout  its  course, 
and  even  its  inundations  spread  over  the  fields  a 
rich  top-dressing  of  alluvial  silt.  The  ruined  or 
decayed  cities  near  its  banks,  however,  bear  mute 
witness  to  the  loss  inflicted  l)y  the  constant  changes 
which  take  place  in  the  river-bed,  altering  the 
whole  f.ice  of  the  country,  as  the  river  deserts  olil 
channels  for  new.  I'.ut  the  Ganges  is  still  one  of 
the  most  frequented  waterways  of  the  world  :  ocean 
ami  coast  steamers  carry  goods  to  Calcutta,  and 
above  this  city  thousands  of  native  bo.ats  are  em- 
])loyeil,  even  since  the  development  of  railways,  in 
transporting  heavy  goods  in  bulk,  such  ;is  timber 
and  bamboos,  stime,  grain,  and  <'otton. — The 
Hindustani  name  (ritiiifii,  'stream,' is  according  to 
Max  Miiller  an  instance  of  early  Aryan  reduplica- 
tion, from  the  verb  to  go — 'go-go.' 

The  Ganges  excels  all  the  great  rivers  of  India  in 
sanctity :  from  the  source  ilown  to  the  sea  every 
foot  of  '  .Mother  Ganga's'  cimrse  is  holy  ground,  to 
bathe  in  her  watei-s  will  wash  away  sin,  to  die  ami 
be  b\iried  on  her  banks  secures  free  entry  to  eternal 
bliss.  Gangotri,  Hardwar,  Allahabad,  Benares,  and 
Sagar  Isl.aml,  the  most  sacred  spots,  are  vi.sited  liy 
thousands  of  pilgrims  every  year  ;  the  great  hiiiiMi 
fair,  wliii-h  is  liehl  every  twelve  years,  drew  nearly 
1.0(K).(HM)  persons  to  Alhahabad  in  1S8'2— and  these 
of  all  Hindu  sects,  for  in  the  legend  of  the  (Janges 
the  three  supreme  deities  of  the  Hindu  pantheon 
ha\e  part.  The  earliest  form  of  the  legend  occui-s 
in  the  Ht'imiiijdiiii,  where  (iangfi  is  ilescribed  as  the 
daughter  of  the  Himalayas,  whom  Bhagirathi,  a 
prince  of  Ayodhya  (mod.  Oudb),  after  more  tha-. 
twice  .30,000  vears"  solicitation  bv  his   father   .md 


grandfather,  induces  Brahma  to  cause  to  descend 
from  heaxen,  that  his  ancestors,  who  had  been  re- 
<luced  to  ashes  by  Vishnu,  might  be  sprinkled  with 
the  sacred  waters,  and  their  souls  rise  to  heaven. 
The  ice-cavern  whence  the  river  springs  is  made  the 
matted  hair  of  the  god  Siva.  The  story  admits 
of  numerous  variations,  and  the  Vulinu-Purana, 
which  assigns  the  .source  to  the  nail  of  the  great 
toe  of  A'ishnu's  left  foot,  sums  up  the  river's  jjro- 
perties  in  this  sentence  :  '  This  sacreil  stream, 
heard  of,  desired,  seen,  touched,  bathed  in,  or 
hymned  day  by  day,  sanctifies  all  beings ;  and 
those  who,  even  at  a  distance  of  a  hundred  leagues, 
exclaim  "  Ganga,  Ganga,''  atone  for  the  sius  com- 
mitted during  three  previous  lives.' — Ganga  is  also 
considered  as  the  mother  of  the  god  of  war, 
Karttikeya  (q.v.). 

The  Ganges  Canal.  oi)ened  in  1854,  Ls  an  im- 
p(jrtant  irrigation  work  and  navigable  channel, 
extending  originally  on  the  right  of  the  Ganges, 
from  Hardwar  to  Cawnpore  and  Etawah.  Surveyed 
and  begun  in  1830-48,  and  opened  by  Lord  Dal- 
housie,  it  has  since  been  greatly  extended  and  im- 
proved ;  and  with  its  700  miles  of  main  channels 
and  3000  miles  of  branches,  irrigates  great  part 
of  the  Doab  (between  the  Jumna  and  Ganges,  with 
both  of  which  rivei-s  it  connects ),  and  has  been  of 
the  greatest  service  in  distributing  famine  relief. 
.■^onie  500  miles  aie  available  for  navigation.  The 
Lower  Ganges  Canal,  an  extension  of  the  original 
canal  (now  known  as  the  Upper  Ganges  Canal)  to 
Allahabad,  was  i)lanned  in  18tiG  and  begun  in  187.3. 
Its  weir  and  headworks  at  Narora  include  a  solid 
wall,  3800  feet  long,  with  forty-two  weir-sluices, 
founded  on  huge  square  blocks.  The  ultimate  cost 
of  the  entire  Changes  Canal  was  calculated  not  to 
exceed  about  5  millions  sterling. 

Gangi.  a  town  of  Sicily,  18  miles  SSE.  of 
Cefalii.     Pop.  11,935. 

Ganglion.  See  Brain,  Xervois  System.  In 
Surgery,  the  name  is  giveu  to  an  encysted  tumour 
on  a  tendon. 

Gangotri.  a  square  temple,  aljont  20  feet  high, 
erected  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges  (q.v.), 
which  here  forms  a  small  bay,  al)out  10,319  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  This  spot  is  reganled 
by  pilgrims  as  the  source  of  the  holy  stream, 
here  called  the  Bhagirathi,  which,  however,  rises 
8  miles  higher  up.  The  water  here  is  iieculiarly 
sacred,  but  few  pilgrims  come  so  far,  and  the  only 
dwelling-house  in  the  locality  is  occupied  by  the 
otllciating  Brahnians.  by  whom  Hasks  of  the  holy 
element  are  sealed  for  conyeyance  to  the  plains. 

Gangl'ene  (Gr.  iinnyraina,  'a  gnawing'),  or 
MoKTIKICATION,  is  the  death  of  a  part  of  the 
body,  whether  external  or  internal.  It  is  most 
common  in  the  extremities,  especially  the  feet. 
Its  immediate  cause  is  always  arrest  or  impairment 
of  the  sujiply  of  blood  to  the  affected  i>art.  This 
may  be  produced  in  various  ways  :  ( 1 )  by  direct 
mechanical  injury,  or  by  extreme  heat  (bum)  or 
cold  (Frost-bite,  q.v.) :  (2)  by  severe  septic  inMam- 
mation,  usually  following  injury,  or  attacking  a 
wound:  (3)  by  disease  of  the  bloixl-vessels  of  the 
]iart,  in  coniliination  perhaps  with  weak  heart 
action.  The  second  group  includes  the  most 
dangerous  and  fat.al  forms  of  ganj^rene  :  ("ancrum 
Oris  (q.y.),  phageda?na,  and  lios]>ital  gangrene,  now 
happily  much  less  common  than  they  once  were. 
The  tlurd  includes  gangrene  occurring  as  a  result 
of  poisoning  by  ergot  of  rye,  of  diabetes,  old  age, 
&c. 

The  symptoms  and  appearances  attending  gan- 
greiie  vary  greatly  in  different  cases.  Its  onset 
lua.y  lie  sudden  or  gradual  ;  it  may  at  once  l>econie 
limited,  or  it  may  have  a  constant  tendency  to 
extend  ;  it  may  be  preceded  and  accompanied  by 


78 


GANGS 


OANNET 


great  i)aiii,  or  may  only  l>e  observe<l  in  ooii»ei|Ueiir(! 
of  tlie  locfil  loss  of  feelinj;.  ISut  in  all  ea-scs  tlic 
loss  of  vitality  is  acviunpanieil  liy  loss  of  natural 
warnitli,  of  sensibility  ana  of  motion  in  the  atlected 
])art,  anil  liy  a  clianjje  in  its  apiiearance.  It  may 
either  l>ecome  moist  ami  swollen,  or  dry  ami 
shrivelleil ;  and  its  colour  may  be  either  dark 
I>ur])le  or  jLjreenish,  or  at  least  at  lirst  ]iale  ami 
waxy.  The  constitutional  symptoms  are  ei|ually 
variable  :  if  the  part  alieeted  be  small  and  not 
vital,  anil  the  "an^rene  limited,  the^v  may  be 
sll;;ht  ami  of  little  importance;  otherwise  there  is 
tjenerally  ;;reat  depression,  with  rapid  feeble  pulse, 
foul  ton^'ue,  and  other  si^'us  of  alanninf;  illness. 

If  the  Ki'^'W'^'"'  '"^  limited,  a  separation  takes 
jdace  ;;railually  between  the  living  and  dead  parts, 
and,  if  the  patient  survive,  the  disorgani-sed  and 
lifeless  texture  is  thrown  oil',  and  the  part  heals  by 
Cicatrisation  (q.v. )  or  the  formation  of  a  .scar,  in- 
dicatinj;  the  loss  of  substance.  With  reganl  to 
treatment,  the  strength  must,  generally  si)eaking, 
be  maintained  by  a  nnnrisliing  but  not  too  stimu- 
lating diet,  and  the  pari  carefully  preserved  from 
external  injury  and  from  ch.inges  of  temperature. 

In  some  forms  of  gangrene  amjiutation  may 
afi'oril  the  best  or  even  the  only  chance  of  saving 
the  patient's  life ;  in  others  its  results  are  disas- 
trous, as  it  is  almost  certain  to  lead  to  fatal  exten- 
sion of  the  di.sea.se.  .Much  care  is  therefore  needed 
in  deciding  the  question  whether  surgical  interfer- 
ence should  be  resorted  to. 

CiailK><.  .AcKlcri.TfK.vi.,  a  name  specially  given 
to  comi)anies  of  women  and  boys  and  girls,  brought 
together  for  laljour  in  the  fen-districts  of  England, 
or  the  low  and  level  tracts  which  lie  south  of  the 
Wash.  The  reclaimed  land  w.is  niiiinly  cultiv.ated 
by  labourers  from  the  villages,  which  are  numerous 
on  the  high  ground  that  bordei-s  it.  To  save  ex- 
pen.se,  the  labourers  on  the  reclaimed  land  here 
consisted,  as  much  as  possible,  of  women,  girls,  and 
boys,  working  in  gangs.  An  act  of  18G7  ]iroviiled 
that  no  woman  or  child  wius  to  lie  em|)loyed  in  the 
.same  gang  with  men  or  lioys,  and  that  no  woman  or 
girl  w;us  to  be  emi)loyed  in  any  gang  under  a  male 
gangniiister,  unless  .-i  woman  licensed  to  act  ius 
superintendent  wiis  also  present  with  the  gang. 
See  F.vcTORY  AcT.s. 

CinilSnif  ( (ler.  Otiii'j,  '  a  vein  ' ),  the  stony  matrix 
in  which  metallic  ores  occur,  t^u.artz  is  the  most 
common  g.angue,  but  calc-spar  too  is  very  freipient, 
and  barytes  or  heavy-.sj)ar,  and  lluor-spar  are  also  of 
common  occurrence.  Large  iiortions  of  the  gangue 
are  generally  worked  and  suomitted  to  metailurgic 
proce.sses  for  the  sake  of  their  contents. 

<«ail-llWHy,  or  .\N-Hli,  an  eastern  inland  pro- 
vince of  China,  intersected  by  the  Yang-t.se- 
Kiang.     See  CHINA. 

(■ailister.  or  C.vi,l,i.viU),  the  name  given  in  the 
Yorkshire  coallield  to  .a  hard,  close-grained  silice- 
ous stone,  which  often  forms  the  stratum  that 
underlies  a  coal-seam.  Such  hard  'seat-earths' 
are  most  common  in  the  lower  coal-measures  -. 
hence  these  strata  in  Yorkshire  are  often  termed 
the  '  (Minister  Beds.' 

Ciailjaill.  a  town  of  Madras  ]iresidencv,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Kishikuliva,  18  miles  NE.  of  "Uerham- 
i)ur  (now  the  capital  of  the  district).  Salt  is  nianu- 
lactured  ;  and  the  place  is  a  small  port.  Pop.  470lt. 
— Ganjam  district  extends  along  the  Hay  of  15engal, 
in  the  extreme  north  east  of  the  Jladriis  presi- 
dency, and  is  low  and  fever-stricken,  but  fertile 
in  grain.  Area,  S3U  sfp  m.  ;  nop.  ( 1891 )  1,(KJ<),()IJ0. 
—  Ganjam  is  also  a  suburb  of  Seringapalam 
(q.v.). 

Oaniiat.  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Allier,   on   the  Andelot,   245  miles  SSE.  of  Paris 


by   rail.      It    luui  a   church    dating  from    the    lltli 
century,  and  its  Ijeer  is  famous.      I'op.  MM. 

Gannot  (.■>"/«),  a  genus  of  web-footed  birds,  in 
the  family  Suliihe,  and  the  order  Steganopodes, 
which  also  includes  pelicans,  cormorants,  and 
snake-birds.  The  head  is  large,  the  face  and  neck 
naked,  the  bill  straight  and  strong,  longer  than 
the  head  ;  the  toes  (4)  are  long,  ami  all  connected 


V  V 


Adult  Gannct  or  Solan  Goose  {Suta  Ixiiuiana). 

by  the  web.  The  genus  inclnde.s  about  eight 
species,  from  tem]ierate  ami  cold  sea.s.  They  llv, 
swim,  and  dive  well,  but  are  awkward  on  land  ; 
they  feed  upon  lishes,  live  socially,  and  nest  in 
crowds  on  clills  and  rocky  islands.  The  best- 
known  sjiecies  of  Gannet  is  the  Solan  Goo.«e  {S. 
lui.wdiiti).  whose  popular  name  is  akin  to  the  Ice- 
landic sii/uii,  'a.  gannet,'  while  it  ilerivesitsspecilic 
title  from  the  15iu>^s  liock  of  the  Kirtb  of  Forth.  It 
is  common  enough  in  north  Europe  from  .M.uch  to 
Uctidier,  but  migrates  southwards — e.g.  to  (iibral- 
tar,  in  late  autumn.  I.nndy  Isle,  the  H.iss  Kock, 
Ailsa  Craig,  .St  Kilda.  Suliskerry,  and  Skelig  ( Ire- 
land)  are  celebrated  British  breeding-jdaces.  The 
entire  length  of  the  solan  goose  is  about  three  feet ; 
its  gener.al  colour  ndlk  while,  the  crown  and  hack 
of  the  head  pale  vellow,  the  i|uill-feathers  of  the 
wings  black.  Tlie  ynuiig  bird,  when  newly 
hatched,  has  a  naked  bhiisli-black  skin,  but  soon 
becomes  covered  with  a  thick  white  down,  .so  that 
it  resembles  a  powder-iiulV,  or  a  ma-ss  of  cotton. 
When  the  true  feathers  apnear  they  are  black, 
with  line.s  and  spots  of  dull  white,  .so  that  the 
plumage  of  the  young  Is  ver>'  unlike  that  of 
maturity.  The  bird  is  long-lived,  and  takes 
about  four  years  to  come  to  maturity.  It  extends 
its  flight  to  great  distances  from  its  rocky  head- 
quarters, pursuing  shoals  chielly  of  .such  lish  as 
swim  near  the  surface,  particularly  herring,  pil- 
chards, and  related  forms.  The  presence  of  a  shoal 
of  pilchards  often  becomes  known  to  the  Cornwall 
fishermen  from  the  attendant  g.annets.  When 
feeding,  the  bird  always  (lies  against  the  wind  .at 
an  altitude  of  not  more  than  about  100  feet  iibove 
the  surface  of  the  sea.  When  it  espies  a  lish  it 
instantaneously  stops,  and  with  wings  ha//  dis- 
tended, stoo]is  and  swiftly  cleaves  the  air.  When 
within  a  yard  or  two  of  the  surface,  and  just  as  it 
makes  thejilungc,  the  wings  are  cla])ped  close  to 
its  sides.  Thus  the  bird  enters  the  water  like  a 
bolt.  The  nest.s  on  the  rocks  are  roughly  built 
of  seaweeds  and  marine  grasses,  and  are  huddled 
together  on  the  available  ledges  and  nooks.  The 
single  egg  has  a  chalky  white  colour,  .and  the  sur- 
face of  the  shell  is  rather  rough.     During  incubation 


GANOIDS 


GARCIA 


79 


the  goose  will  often  allow  itself  to  be  touched 
with  a  stick  without  rising  from  the  nest.  The 
number  of  gannets  that  annually  visit  the  Bass 
Kock  in  the  Firth  of  Forth  is  estimated  at  from 
sixteen  to  twenty  thousand.  The  young  are  killed 
by  cliti'men  who  are  lowered  down  tlie  rock  by  a 
rope  ;  they  are  valued  for  the  sake  of  their  down, 
flesh,  and  oil,  which  bring  a  profit  to  the  person 
who  rents  the  rock.  On  and  around  the  Ba.ss 
gannets  are  seen  in  prodigious  numbers,  the  air 
around  the  rock  being  tilled  with  them,  like  bees 
around  a  hive,  and  the  rock  itself  whitened  by 
them  aud  their  accumulated  excrements.  The 
deafening  noise  of  the  harsh  cries  they  utter  when 
they  are  excited  or  disturbed  adds  to  the  impres- 
sivencss  of  their  snowtlake-like  numbers.  The 
Hesh  is  rank  and  oily ;  but  that  of  the  young, 
baked,  is  eaten  to  a  consiilerable  extent  in  many 
places,  and  is  even  reckoned  a  delicacy.  The  eggs 
are  considered  by  many  connoisseurs  to  be  a 
decided  delicacy.  They  are  boiled  for  twenty 
minutes,  and  eaten  cold,  with  vinegar,  salt,  and 
pepper.  .S'.  varicgata,  extremely  abundant  in  some 
parts  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  is  said  to  be  the 
chief  producer  of  guano  ;  and  .S'.  jjiacatur  Ls  the 
well-known  phlegmatic  booby. 

Giinoids.  an  order  of  fishes  once  very  large,  but 
now  decadent,  lieing  represented  by  only  seven 
living  genera.  These  are  ( 1 )  predominantly  car- 
tilaginous forms — Acipenser  (sturgeon),  Scaphi- 
rhynchus,  Spatulaiia  ( or  Polyodon ),  and  ( '2 )  bony 
Ganoids — Polypterus,  Calamoichthys,  Lepidosteus 
( bony  pike ),  and  Amia.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
majority  of  fossil  fish  in  palaeozoic  times  are 
tJanoids — e.g.  Pterichthys,  Coccosteus,  Cephalas- 
pis,  Pteraspis,  Rhizodus.  The  general  characters 
are  noted  under  FiSHES. 

<;:illtnil;^  Pass,  in  31°  38'  N.  lat.  and  78° 
47'  E.  long.,  leads  eastward  from  Kunawar,  in 
Bashahr,  into  the  Chinese  territory.  Its  height  is 
18,295  feet  above  the  sea,  and  it  is  overhun''  by  a 
peak  of  its  own  name,  nearly  3000  feet  loftier. 
The  place  is  unsj)eakably  desolate  and  rugged,  and, 
being  devoid  of  fuel,  it  is  Imt  little  frequented. 

Oautlet.     See  G.\UXTLET. 

Oaiiyincde,  the  cup-bearer  of  Zeus,  was, 
according  to  Homer,  the  son  of  King  Tros  and  the 
nympli  Callirrhoii ;  or,  according  to  othei's,  of 
Laomedon,  llus,  or  Erichthonius.  The  most 
beautiful  of  mortals,  he  attracted  the  notice  of 
tlie  king  of  the  gods,  who  determined  to  make  him 
his  cup-bearer  in  succession  to  Hebe,  and  accord- 
ingly despatched  liLs  eagle  to  carry  him  otl'  to 
hea\en.  The  Greeks  believed  that  Zeus  gave  Tros 
a  jiair  of  (li\  ine  horses  as  a  compensation  for  his 
loss,  and  comforted  him  at  the  same  time  by 
informing  him  tliat  Ganymeile  hail  become  im- 
mortal and  free  from  all  earthly  ills.  At  a  later 
period  he  was  identilied  with  the  divinity  who  pre- 
sided over  the  sources  of  the  Nile.  The  Greek 
astronomers  likewise  placed  him  anumg  the  stais, 
under  the  name  of  Aquarius  ( '  the  water-bearer ' ), 
in  allusion  to  his,  celestial  function.  (Janymede 
was  a  favo\irite  subject  of  ancient  art,  and  in 
moilcrn  time  has  prompted  the  genius  of  Carstens 
and  Thorwaldsen. 

Vaol.    .See  Pri.soxs. 

Gaol  Delivery,  Commi.ssion  of,  is  one  of  the 

commissions  issued  to  judges  of  a-ssize  and  judges 
of  the  Central  Criminal  Court  in  England.  See 
Assize. 

Gap,  the  mountain  capital  of  the  French  de- 
partment of  Hautes  .\li)es,  is  pleasantly  situated 
on  the  Luye,  •242+  feet  aTio\e  sea-level,  among  vine- 
clad  slopes,  47  miles  SE.  of  (irenoble,  by  a  branch 
line.     It  has  a  cathedral  (rebuilt  since  1806),  and 


some  manufactures  of  silk  and  cotton  fabrics  and 
hats.  Population,  8450. — Gap,  the  ancient  Vajjin- 
cum,  was  formerly  a  fortress  of  some  imjiortance, 
and  gave  the  title  of  Gapencois  to  the  suriounding 
district  of  Dauphine. 

Gapes,  a  disease  of  fowls  and  other  birds,  due 
to  the  presence  of  threadworms  or  Nematodes 
( Syttmonus  tiachealis )  in  the  w  indpipe.  As  a  large 
numtjer  (twenty)  may  be  present,  the  worms  cause 
intlammation,  suffocation,  and  death.  The  worms 
breed  in  the  trachea,  embiyos  are  coughed  up,  anil, 
if  swallowed  by  the  same  or  other  birds,  pas-  fiom 
stomach  to  air-sacs,  lungs,  and  eventually  to  the 
windpipe.  As  to  the  external  life  of  the  embryo 
there  are  two  theories  :  Megnin,  for  instance,  says 
that  they  get  into  the  food  when  coughed  up,  and 
thus  pass  verj-  directly  from  fowl  to  fowl ;  while 
H.  D.  Walker  has  given  strong  reasons  for  suspect- 
ing that  they  pa.--s  first  into  the  earth,  then  into 
earthworms,  and  thence  into  biids.  For  treatment, 
M'e  the  books  named  at  PoULTKV.  See  al.so  P.VK.\- 
sitk;  Animals. 

Garabit,  a  point  on  the  railway  from  Marvejols 
(Lozere)  to  Neussargues,  about  10  miles  8.  ot  St 
Flour,  in  the  F'rench  department  of  Cantal,  where 
the  line  crosses  a  gorge  through  which  the  waters 
of  the  Truvere  ran,  401  feet  below  the  rails.  The 
viailuct,  tlie  work  of  M.  Eitlel,  is  built  jiartly  of 
girders  and  partly  of  masonry,  and  has  a  total 
length  of  1852  feet  6  inches.  AVhere  it  crosses  the 
river  it  is  supported  by  an  arch,  w  ith  a  span  of  no 
less  than  541  feet  4  inches.  See  Exginceriitij  ( 1885 ), 
and  Eiffel,  Lc  Vuuluc  dc  Garabit  (1889). 

Garaiuantes.    See  Fezz.\n. 

Garaiicine,  a  dyestuff  derived  fiom  Madder 
(q.v.).     See  Dyeing,  Vol.  IV.  page  l.SG. 

Garay,  J.ano.s,  Hungarian  poet,  born  at  Szeg- 
szard  in  1812,  lived  mostly  at  Pesth,  where  he 
obtained  in  1847  a  post  in  the  university  library, 
and  died  15th  November  1853.  His  study  of  the 
masterpieces  of  German  literatuie  and  of  ^'orc>s■ 
niarty  bore  fruit  in  numerous  dramas,  chietly  of 
historical  character:  Csdb  (1835),  Arboc:  (1837), 
and  Orszfjdk  Iloiia  (1837),  as  well  as  long  poems,  as 
Csatar,  an  epic  (18.34),  and  S:c»t  Laszlu,  a  histori- 
cal poem  ( 1850).  In  1847  he  published  Arjiclo/.; 
a  poetical  version  of  the  historical  legends  of  Hun- 
gary, and  next  year  Balatuni  Karjyli/I:,  a  ciillection 
of  lyrics.  A  complete  edition  of  his  ]ioem>  was 
published  by  Franz  Ney  (5  vols.  Pesth,  1S.")4),  a 
selection  in  German  by  Kcrtbeny  ( 2d  ed.  ^'ienna, 
1857),  and  a  Life  by  Ferenczy  (Pesth,  1883). 

Garaye,  La,  a  ruined  chateau  in  Brittany,  2 
miles  from  Dinan.  Its  last  ownei^,  Claude  Tous- 
saiut  and  his  countess,  in  the  lirst  half  of  the  18th 
century  converted  it  into  au  hos|iital,  which  forms 
the  theme  of  the  Hon.  Mre  Norton's  poem,  "The 
Lady  of  La  Garaye  '  ( 1 862 ). 

Garb,  or  Garbe  (  Fr.  f/crbc),  a  sheaf  of  any  kind 
of  grain.     A  garb  is  frequently  used  in  heraldry. 

Garcia,  M.vnuei,,  vocalist  and  composer,  was 
born  at  Seville,  in  S|iain,  22d  January  1775.  After 
acquiring  a  considerable  reimtation  as  a  tenor 
singer  in  Cadiz  aud  Madrid,  in  1808  he  ob- 
tained great  success  at  the  Italian  Opera  in  Paris, 
and  afterwards  proceeded  to  Italy,  where  lie 
was  received  witii  equal  favour.  From  181(1  to 
1824  he  was  constantly  engaged  as  a  singer,  either 
in  Paris  or  London.  In  1825,  with  a  select  operatic 
ccmipany,  composed  in  part  of  members  of  his  own 
family,  he  cros.sed  the  Atlantic,  and  visited  New 
York  and  Mexico.  On  the  road  between  Mexico 
and  Vera  Cruz  he  was  robbed  of  all  his  money :  and 
after  his  return  to  Paris  he  w;us  compelled  to  open 
a  cla«s  for  singing,  as  his  voice  ha<l  become  greatly 
impaired   by  age  and   fatigue.     Many  of  tiarcia's 


80 


GARCILASO 


GARDENIA 


puiuls  leiiclii'il  !i  lii^;liiU';;iee  of  rxcelli'iKH',  Imt  none 
iMiniilK-il  his  I'lilcsl  (luiiglitcr  Miiriji,  afUTwaiilt* 
>liulainu  Miililiriiu  (i|.v.).  He  wils  less  sueeesstnl 
as  a  coni|ioser,  altliimtili  several  of  his  works,  suoli 
as  //  Ctili/'i)  ill  liiniiliiil.  wciv  niiuii  admired. 
(Jaicia  ilie'cl  at  Talis,  loili  .luni;  IS.S'.'.  I'Afl.lNK 
VlAKlioT  (IVKCIA,  liis  seeon<l  ilau;,'litei-,  liorn  at 
Paris  in  IS'21,  ai-iiuired  a  eonsiderahU'  reputation  ius 
a  niezzo-so|praiii>  sinjjer,  anil  also  eoniposed  several 
ojiereltas  .'Uiil  son;;s. 

(■iirrililso,  a  Spanish  liisiorian,  sMrMaiiieil  the 
J  mil,  from  his  mother,  a  prineess  of  the  royal  raee 
of  the  Ineas,  was  son  of  CiareiUvso  de  la  \  e^a,  one 
of  the  i()ni|iierors  of  I'ern,  ami  was  born  atCuzeo 
in  1.">4U.  At  the  a^e  of  twenty  lie  proceeded  to 
Spain,  and  liveil  the  rest  of  his  lite  at  Cordova, 
where  he  ilied  in  Itilti.  His  lii-st  work  wa-s  La 
Flijriilii  ilil  Yiini  ( 1(50')),  ail  aeeount  of  the  conquest 
of  that  eiiuiitiy  by  Keriiando  de  Soto.  In  llJOit 
appeared  the  lirst,  and  ei;;hl  years  later  the  seeoiid 
|iart  of  his  i^reat  work  on  the  hislorv  of  I'eru, 
eiititleil  '  'i)iiimfiilan'i>.i  Rculcs,  i/iir  tiiitiiii  ild  r(f/eii, 
lie  lun  I/iiiis  ir>/i:i,  i/iic /inruii  tlel  I'cii'i.  ( lareilaso's 
Itiiiinl  ('iiiiiiiiintiiiics  was  translated  into  Eii;,'lisli 
bv'Sir  Paul  Kyeaiit  (!(>«!< ).  and  by  C.  K.  .Markliam 
for  the  llalJiivt  Soeiely  (  ISlii)). 

dillTilasu  de  la  V«'ga.  a  great  Spanish  poet, 
was  born  at  ToIimIo  about  150.'?.  He  early  adopted 
the  ])rofessiiui  of  arms,  and  fjaiiied  a  <li.stiiif,'uislied 
re|)iitatioii  for  bravery  in  the  wars  cinieil  on  by  the 
Kmperor  Cliailes  \'.  a^raiiist  the  Kreiieli  and  Turks, 
but  was  mortally  wounded  wliili'  stormin;;  a  easlle 
near  Frejus,  in  the  south  of  l''ranee,  and  died  at 
Nice.  November  l.VJG,  in  the  tliirtythird  year  of 
his  a^'e.  'I'hou^di  prematurely  cut  oil',  lie  lived  loii^;' 
enou;,'h  to  win  imiiioilality  ;  and,  lliou;ili  he  wrote 
little,  he  revolutioiiLsed  the  national  poetic  taste 
of  his  iimiiMvinen.  l'"or  the  short  metre  of  the 
older  romances  and  redondillas  he  substituted  the 
hendecasyllabic  vei-se  of  the  Italians.  Strangely 
enough,  his  jioems  contain  not  a  trace  of  military 
anhmr,  but  are  insi>ired  by  a  tender  sweetness  and 
melancholy  which  appear  to  have  ileeply  atlected 
his  countrymen.  '  Iiis  sonnets,'  says  Tickiior, 
'were  heard  everywhere;  his  eclogues  were  acted 
like  popular  dramas.  The  greatest  geniuses  of  his 
nation  express  for  him  a  reverence  they  show  to 
none  of  his  predecessors.  Lope  de  Vega  imitates 
him  in  every  po.s.silile  way  :  C'ervante.s  prakses  him 
more  than  he  does  any  other  poet,  and  cites  him 
oftener.  And  thus  (jarcilaso  de  la  Vega  luus  come 
down  to  us  enjoying  a  general  ailmiiation,  such  as 
is  hardly  given  to  any  other  Spanish  poet,  and  to 
none  that  lived  before  his  tiiiu'.'  The  best  of  the 
nuineroiis  editions  of  his  poems  is  that  by  Azagra 
(Madrid,  ITfi.')).  They  have  been  tiiULslated  into 
English  by  Witlen  (IHl'U). 

<>an-iiiia.    See  .Maxuostkk.n. 

iiiiirtU  a  department  in  the  south  of  Fraiice,  on 
the  Mediti'rraneaii,  and  bounded  on  the  K.  by  the 
river  Ithoiie,  with  an  area  of  '2'24.'i  scp  m.,  oiie-lliird 
of  which  is  arable.  It  is  watered  mainly  by  the 
Rhone,  and  by  its  tributaries  the  (lard  -from  which 
the  department  has  its  name -and  the  Ccze.  Of 
its  surtaci'  thi'  north-west  is  occupied  by  a  liiancb 
of  the  ('I'vennes,  the  remaimler  slopes  lowaid  the 
Rhone  ami  the  Meiliterraiiean.  the  coa-st  being 
lined  by  extensive  and  unhealthv  marshes  ;  the 
climate  here  is  unwliolesome,  n.\\i\  in  summer  the 
heat  reaches  104"  F.  The  soil  is  uneijual,  the  b&t 
land  occurring  in  the  river-valleys.  The  famous 
grapes  have  almost  <lisappear(Ml  befr>re  the  ravages 
of  t^ie  iihylloxera:  less  and  less  land  yearly  is  re- 
taineil  for  vineyanls  ;  and  the  production  of  wine 
has  sunk  to  less  than  a  fourth  of  what  it  w.os  before 
1875.  The  rearing  of  silkworms  is  widely  engaged 
iu,  and  the  cultivation  of  olives  and  chestnuts  is  of 


value.  The  minerals  include  coal,  iron,  argentifer- 
ous lead,  antimony,  marble,  and  salt  ;  and  the 
ilepartment's  iron  anil  sti'cl  works  are  important. 
The  department  isilivideil  into  the  four  ariondisse- 
ments  of  Alais,  Ninies,  Uzt's,  and  Vigan  ;  the  chief 
town  is  Nimes.  Pop.  (18(51)  422,107;  (1881) 
41.5,02!):  (IS'JU  41U,388. 

Ciarda.  Lauk  DI  ( the  Lariis  litnaeiis  of  the 
Itomans),  the  largest  lake  of  Italy,  lies  between 
Lombardy  ami  ^'elletia,  its  northern  end  extending 
into  the  Austrian  Tyrol.  Situated  22lj  feet  above 
sea-level,  it  has  an  area  of  115  .so.  m.,  a  greatest 
length  of  'Xt  miles,  a  breadth  of  2  to  II  niile.s, 
and  a  ma.ximnm  depth  of  itd?  feet.  Its  chief 
tributaries  are  the  Sarca  and  Poiiale,  and  it  is 
drained  by  the  Mincio,  a  tributary  of  the  Po. 
The  scenery  is  grand  :  at  the  north  end  alpine 
spuns  border  the  lake  on  both  sides,  and  ilesceml 
steeply  to  its  shores,  but  contain  within  them- 
selves also  many  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys; 
farther  to  the  south  the  country  sinks  by  gentle 
slopes  to  the  level  of  the  pkiin  of  Lombardy.  Along 
the  western  shore  the  mulberry,  lig,  grape,  myrtle, 
and  citron  are  grown  in  the  sliellered  gardens, 
many  of  them  terraceil  ;  olives  llourisli  most  on  the 
opposite  bank.  The  clear  waters  of  the  lake  abound 
in  lish  of  various  kinds.  Its  surface  is  studded  with 
many  islands,  ami  steamei-s  ply  between  the  prin- 
cipal jioiiits.  The  mild  climate  in  the  district  of 
the  lake,  and  tin-  beauty  of  its  vicinity.  h;ive  caused 
its  shores  to  be  lincil  with  bcautitul  villas  ;  anil  the 
district  between  (laiguaiio  and  Salo,  called  by  the 
people  La  Riviera,  passes  for  the  warmest  point  in 
northern  lt.i,ly.  Arco,  near  the  head  of  the  lake, 
is  growing  in  favour  as  a  winter-re.smt.  The  neck 
of  land  jutting  out  for  2  miles  from  the  southern 
shore,  and  now  called  Sermione,  is  the  Siniiiu 
praised  by  Catullus,  who  had  a  country-liouse  here, 
as  the  ■  darling  of  peninsulas.' 

Ciardaia.  or  (Jhahkaia,  in  the  Algerian 
Sahara,  stands  on  a  conical  liill,  in  an  oa.sis-valley 
full  of  date-palms,  1740  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
about  200  miles  south-west  of  Hiskra.  In  1882  a 
fort  was  built  by  the  French,  who  placed  a  garrison 
here.  Pop.  of  the  oasis  (which  is  the  capital  of  the 
Wady  Mzab)  with  the  garrison,  40,0(10.  Roman 
ruins  show  that  the  oasis  was  once  much  more  ex- 
tensive. Just  85  miles  to  the  SE.  lies  the  oiusis 
of  Wargia  (Oiiuriilit),  ollicially  a.ssociated  with 
fiardaia.  An  extension  hither  of  the  IJiskra  rail- 
way is  piiijectcd. 

CJardoh'SJt'll.  -^i'  "'"'  town  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
on  the  Milde,  2S  miles  {i>.i  by  rail)  NNW.  of 
Magdeburg,  with  a  foundry,  manufactures  of 
buttons,  agriiiilluial  implements,  iS.e.     Pop.  7340. 

darde  >aii«tiial<'.    See  Naiioxai.  (it  aud. 

Gardt'll  <'il.V.  the  Episcopal  cathedral  town  of 
Long  Island,  in  tlie  barren  Hempstead  Plains.  19 
miles  E.  of  Hiooklyn  by  rail,  was  laid  out  as  a 
town  of  model  vilhis  by  the  New  \tn\i  millionaire, 
A.  T.  .Stewart,  who  laid  down  27  miles  of  boulevards, 
and  planted  some  ,50,0(X)  trees.  His  widow  erected 
here  a  Gothic  cathedral  (1877  85),  a  cruciform 
liuilding,  small,  but  luofuse  in  detail  and  ornament, 
with  western  s|iire  and  circular  apse.  Close  by  are 
the  bishoii's  residence  and  the  cathedral  schools, 
besides  oilier  seiniuaries.      Pop.  574. 

tardeiM'r.s"  tiiarters.    See  Caxarv  Oba.ss. 

(iaiMU'llia.  a  genus  of  Cinchonace:e,  tropical 
and  subtropical  trees  and  shrubs,  frei|uently  intro- 
duced for  their  beautiful  ami  fragrant  llowers 
— e.g.  II.  fluridii  and  d.  nii/icanx  from  -lapaii,  and 
other  species  from  the  Cape,  where  their  hard 
timber  also  is  esteemed.  The  fruit  of  other  species 
is  used  in  dyeing  silks  yellow.  The  colouring  prin- 
ciple is  identicaf  with  that  of  .satlron  (Crociu).    The 


GARDENING 


81 


Indian  G.  arborea  and  r/ummifcra  yield  a  yellow 
resin.  The  name  was  given  Ijy  Linnieus  in  liommi- 
of  Dr  Alexander  Garden,  lioni  in  Scotland  in  1830, 
who  practised  medicine  in  South  Carolina,  became 
eminent  as  a  botanist,  and  died  in  London  in  17!)1. 

Gardening,  or  Horticultire,  the  ordering 
and  management  of  a  garden,  diti'ers  from  agricnl- 
ture  chieHy  as  being  conducted  on  a  smaller  scale 
and  witli  more  minuteness,  while  concerned  with  a 
greater  variety  of  subjects.  As  in  a  house,  so  in  a 
garden  (though  the  line  is  seldom  quite  distinct), 
part  is  devoted  to  comfort  and  enjoyment,  and  the 
other  part  to  provision  for  them ;  the  former  part 
forms  the  pleasure-ground,  and  the  latter  the 
kitchen-garden.  Leaving  vinery,  pinery,  hotliouse, 
greenhouse,  I'vrc.,  as  special  matters,  we  glance 
briefly  at  our  subject  in  this  distribution. 

The  pleasure-grounds  comjirise  the  lawns,  the 
walks  or  drives,  tlie  flower-beds,  ornamental  trees 
and  shrubbery,  and,  in  lar"e  places,  terraces,  lakes 
and  fountains,  statues,  rockwork,  fernery,  and  the 
like. 

The  kitchen-garden,  being  designed  for  the 
supply  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  contains  the  trees, 
plants,  and  bushes  needful  for  that  purpose,  with 
proper  walks  for  access  to  them,  and  appliances,  sucli 
as  hotbeds,  pots,  and  frames,  &c.,  for  advancing  or 
improving  them  ;  and  is  often  enclosed  either  partly 
or  wholly  by  a  wall,  which  shelters  and  promotes 
the  growth. 

( 1 )  Tlie  pleasnre-gronud  ( or  flower-garden ),  how- 
ever small,  has  almost  always  one  grass-plot,  which 
is  called  a  lawn,  though  it  may  be  but  a  little  one. 
Whether  space  be  .scant  or  ample,  the  lawn  is  the 
leading  feature  and  the  most  ]ileasant  )>art  of  the 
pleasure-ground,  and  it  should  be  well  kept  Hrst  of 
all.  This  can  be  (hme  at  small  expense  by  frequent 
use  of  the  'lawn-mower,'  which  has  quite  sujier- 
seded  the  scythe  wherever  the  slope  of  the  ground 
permits  it.  It  is,  however,  of  prime  importance 
that  the  grass  should  be  of  the  proper  kind,  ,and 
not  of  rank  or  wiry  growth.  Hence  the  most  perfect 
lawns  are  made  by  the  sowing  of  carefully  selected 
seed  rather  than  by  laying  turf,  though  the  latter 
is  the  quicker  |irocess.  In  any  case,  tlie  use  of  the 
roller  must  not  be  neglected,  ami  during  the  time 
of  rapid  growth  the  lawn-mower,  set  for  cutting 
close,  should  be  employed  at  least  twice  a  week. 
But  it  is  a  mistake  to  mow  very  closely  during 
periods  of  drought.  All  weeds  should  lie  extirpated 
as  soon  as  they  appear,  and  moss  (which  is  in  damp 
situations  the  worst  of  all  foes)  must  be  checked 
at  once,  or  it  will  soon  destroy  the  herbage. 

The  wa/ks  are  even  more  important  in  many 
cases  than  the  lawn  or  lawns,  and  unless  they  have 
been  made  with  skill  and  care  they  will  always  be 
troublesome.  A  dry,  compact,  and  even  surface, 
without  which  no  good  walk  can  be,  is  not  secured 
without  dejith  of  sulistancc.  proper  form,  and  good 
drainage.  The  depth  should  lie  at  Iciust  12  inches, 
to  secure  freedom  from  weeds  and  worm-casts,  ;us 
well  as  a  firm,  ilry  surface.  Nine  inches  of  brick- 
rubbish,  clinkers,  chalk,  burnt  earth,  or  other  open 
and  absorbent  matter  should  underlie  3  inches  of 
good  binding  gravel,  and  the  middle  should  be 
rounded  well  to  carry  off  the  rainfall,  for  which 
purpose  also  there  must  be  drain-traps  on  either  i 
sifle  conducting  into  cesspools,  or  other  receptacles 
of  ample  capacity.  The  posit i<in  and  frequency  of 
tliese  drain-traps  must  depend  upon  the  .slope  of 
the  ground,  the  average  rainfall  of  the  place,  &C. 
It  is  false  economy  to  stint  the  width  of  walk, 
even  when  carriages  are  not  rei|uired.  No  walk 
should  be  less  than  5  feet  in  width,  unless  there  is 
some  special  rea-son,  and  (i  or  7  feet  should  be  afforded 
even  to  a  .sidewalk  of  any  importance.  It  is  a 
common  practice  to  scatter  salt  or  other  poisonous 
matter  on  walks  to  destroy  the  weeds  or  worms, 
214  


but  the  remedy  is  generally  worse  than  the  disease. 
With  proper  care  a  walk  can  be  kept  clean,  and 
looks  more  cheerful  without  these  applications. 

As  to  the  flowerbeds,  their  arrangement  and 
composition  should  depend  upon  the  taste  of  the 
owner,  which  is  too  often  set  aside  in  favour  of  the 
passing  fashion.  A  common  mistake  in  small 
gardens  is  to  cut  up  the  gra.ss  into  intricate  pat- 
terns with  a  number  of  fantastic  flower-beds,  and 
to  lay  them  out  in  colours,  like  a  window  of  stained 
gla-ss.  Or  even  the  same  bed  is  planted  with  stripes 
anil  sweeps  of  eveiy  tint  produced  by  bloom  and 
foliage,  and  the  stiff  artiflcial  effect  is  called  a 
triumph  of  carpet-bedding.  Happily  this  taste  is 
growing  obsolete,  and  a  more  natural  style  is  in 
vogue  again.  But  the  opposite  extreme  must  be 
avoided,  that  of  having  flower-beds  without  flowers. 
The  borders  should  have  at  least  two  bright  periods, 
that  of  spring-blooming  bulbs  and  tuliers,  from 
March  to  the  middle  or  end  of  May,  and  again  that 
of  bedding  plants,  from  the  latter  part  of  June  till 
the  frost  of  autumn  nips  them.  In  the  larger 
flower-beds  there  are  also  some  perennial  plants 
or  shrubs  of  dwarf  habit,  such  as  roses,  azaleas, 
rhododendrons,  and  the  like,  which  form  the  back 
or  centre,  according  to  the  slope.  Whatever  the 
shape  may  be,  every  flower-bed  should  have  suffi- 
cient slope  of  soil  and  definite  edging,  whether  of 
turf,  or  tiles,  or  box,  or  other  dwarf-growing  and 
tidy  plants ;  and  the  surface  should  be  dressed  at 
least  once  a  year,  if  the  soil  cannot  otherwise  be 
renewed,  with  rich  material  of  neat  appearance, 
such  as  thoroughly  rotten  manure,  decomposed 
vegetable  substance,  <S:c.,  the  darker  in  colour  the 
better,  but  liglit  in  substance,  and  not  ajit  to  liind. 
The  jilants  employed  for  summer  bedding  (which 
should  be  done  towards  the  end  of  May )  have 
generally  been  raised  under  glass  in  small  pots, 
and  their  variety  is  almost  endless,  new  ones  being 
introduced  continually.  As  a  general  rule  those  of 
prostrate  or  very  low  habit  should  be  in  front,  with 
taller  growth  towards  the  centre  or  back,  and  a 
plea.sing  contrast  or  change  of  colour.  Most  of 
them  will  flower  for  weeks  in  succession,  if  well 
watered  and  not  allowed  to  seed — for  the  fonnation 
of  seed  checks  the  growth  at  once. 

In  large  pleasure-grounds  ornamental  trees  add 
much  to  the  beauty  of  the  scene,  by  graceful  form 
or  tint  of  foliage,  and  sometimes  by  brilliance  of 
bloom  or  berry.  As  a  general  rule  these  should 
stand  far  apart,  unless  there  is  something  unsightly 
to  coiu;eal,  and  should  not  be  very  near  the 
dwelling-house,  except  where  shelter  is  needful. 
The  choice  and  arrangement  belong  rather  to  the 
department  of  landscape-gardening,  but  none 
should  be  planted  wliicli  have  not  been  proved 
capable  of  enduring  the  coldest  winter  or  the 
roughest  weather  they  are  likely  to  confront.  This 
caution  applies  especially  to  all  the  race  of  imported 
conifers,  few  of  which  can  withstand  a  winter  of 
exceptional  rigour.  Thus  in  the  second  half  of  the 
)!)th  century,  in  1860,  18(i7,  and  1881,  that  general 
favourite  the  Abies,  or  C'tdnis  Dcodara,  has  been 
"really  injured  by  frost,  even  in  the  south  of 
Kngland. 

The  shrubbery  also  is  a  pleasant  adjunct  wher- 
ever space  is  plentiful,  affording  the  coolest  walk 
ill  summer,  and  in  winter  the  most  sheltered.  The 
shrubs  should  be  mainly  evergreen,  though  a  few- 
deciduous  may  be  admitteil  for  the  sake  of  the  bloom 
or  variety  of  colour.  But  forest-trees  must  not  be 
allowed  to  overhang  and  starve  the  ihvarfer  grow  th. 

Other  features,  such  as  terraces,  lakes,  and  foun- 
tains, Ac,  pertain  to  the  domains  of  the  wealthy. 
See  works  ou  landsca^ie- gardening  by  lilom- 
fiehl  and  Thomas,  Robinson,  Downing,  Elliott, 
or  Parsons.  But  a  place  without  any  great  pre- 
tensions   may    have    its    rockwork    and     fernery, 


82 


GARDENING 


which  are  often  conibinetl  in  some  slieltered  s|>ot, 
anit  offer  a  ]>leasant  retreat  from  tlie  glare  of  the 
llowerbeds  or  triinness  of  tlie  hiwn.  Many  good 
judges  pronounce  tliat  statues  are  out  of  place  even 
in  tlie  largest  garden,  intruding  on  the  sense  of 
repose,  and  competing  for  attention  with  fairer 
nature.  But,  if  the  owner  must  have  them,  he 
should  not  j)ost  them  too  conspicuously,  ami 
should  have  them  as  little  as  possible  at  enmity 
with  nature. 

(2)  The  l:ltchengarden,  for  the  supply  of  fruit 
and  vegetables,  is  generally  kept  out  of  view  from 
the  house,  either  Y)y  walls  or  a  fringe  of  trees  or 
shrubs.  This  also  should  have  good  walks  and 
drainage  ;  but  u-se  is  more  studied  than  a])pearance 
here,  .so  that  "raceful  curves  are  disi)cnsed  with, 
and  the  "round  is  divided  conveniently  into  squares 
or  parallelograms.  When  the  ca-se  permits,  this 
garden  is  enclosed  Ijy  walls  of  stone  or  brick — the 
latter  to  be  prefeiied  for  fruit— and  should  slone 
towards  the  sovith  or  southeast,  and  must  not  lie 
overhung  by  trees.  There  are  very  good  gardens 
not  favoured  thus;  but  the  ideal  Ivitchengarden 
perhaps  shovild  be  a  s(]uare  of  from  one  to  two  acres, 
lacing  not  the  cardinal  but  the  intermediate  points, 
SE.,  S\V.,  N\V.,  NE.  Every  wall  thus  id)tains  a 
share  of  sunshine,  the  soutlie.-i-st  aspect  is  quite  a-s 
good  as  the  south,  ami  the  south-west  not  very  far 
inferior,  at  least  in  the  warmer  part  of  England, 
while  the  north-east  aspect  is  much  better  than  due 
north  for  .Morello  cherries  or  other  hardy  fruit. 
P.arallel  with  tlie  walls  inside  are  borders  from  12 
to  2o  feet  in  width,  i)arted  by  straight  walks  at 
le:ust  Vi  feet  wide  from  the  squares  or  i)arallelo- 
grams  /orming  the  chief  area,  which  .are  intersected 
by  paths  at  right  angles,  with  two  main  walks 
crossing  at  the  centre  of  the  garden.  Very  often 
these  inner  sciuares,  or  quartei-s,  are  cropped  with 
vegetables  or  oush-fruit,  while  the  wall-borders  are 
reserved  for  strawberries,  early  lettuce,  kidney- 
potatoes,  or  other  dwarf  growth  which  is  advanced 
by  the  warmth  of  the  situation.  Although  the 
produce  of  the  kitchen-garden  m.ay  be  rmighly 
distinguished  .as  vegetables  and  fruit,  the  two  are 
very  seldom  kept  entirely  apart,  the  general  prac- 
tice being  to  crop  the  ground  with  vegetables  be- 
tween the  lines  of  fruit-tree.s.  And  it  is  still  more 
dillioult  to  part  the  two  by  .any  botanical  definition. 
Popular  usage  must  therefore  be  fcdlowed,  tliough 
even  this  is  sometimes  uncert.ain,  the  tomato,  for 
inst.ance,  being  a.ssigned  by  some  to  the  fruit  and 
by  others  to  tlie  vegetable  cla.ss. 

In  common  parlance,  vegetiibles  are  described 
as  plants  grown  for  culinary  use.  Of  some  the 
esculent  part  is  the  root;  of  others,  the  stem  or 
foliage  ;  of  others,  the  bloom  or  its  receptacle  ;  of 
others,  the  .seed,  whether  ripe  or  unripe,  and  with 
or  without  its  capsule.  As  an  instance  of  each  may 
be  given  the  carrot,  celery,  cabbage  and  cauli- 
flower, peas  and  lieans,  of  which  latter  the  seed  is 
consumed  without  the  Jiod  or  with  it,  according 
to  the  variety.  The  vegetables  chiefly  used  in 
Britain  are  as  follows,  some  attempt  being  made 
to  place  them  according  to  their  importance,  though 
all  households  may  not  concur  in  this.  The  potato, 
the  cabbage-tribe  (including  the  hearted  cabbage, 
the  colewort,  the  savov,  the  broccidi,  .and  cauliflower, 
seakale,  couve  troncliu<la,  and  othere),  onions  and 
leeks ;  s.alad-plants,  such  as  lettuce,  endive,  r.adishes, 
&c. ;  the  leguminous— i.e.  peas  and  beans,  of  several 
v.arietie-s  ;  the  canot,  celery,  turnips  and  parsnips, 
aspar.agus,  .spinach,  rhubarb,  beet-root,  shallots 
and  chives,  artichokes  (both  .lerusalem  and  globe), 
cucumbers  .an<l  marrows,  salsify  and  scorzonera, 
hoi-seradlsh,  .and  culinary  herbs  of  divers  kinds. 
The  tomato  orlove-ajiijle  (  Li/fojicrsicum  e^cnlrnfiim  ) 
has  of  late  years  become  so  popular,  and  is  con- 
sidered so  wholesome,  that  it  claims  a  high  place  in 


the  foregoini;  list,  which  is  not  pre8ente<l  as  exhaus- 
tive. For  all  of  these  plants  a  soil  of  medium  staple 
is  desirable,  for  a  still' clay  is  cold  and  too  retentive  of 
moisture,  while  a  sandy  or  gravelly  laml  iHith  sutlers 
from  drought  and  atlbrds  little  nourishment.  The 
soil  which  gardeners  describe  as  a  rich  loam  is  the 
best  of  all  for  their  purposes  ;  and  if  it  be  ."J  or  4  feet 
in  depth,  with  a  substratum  of  gravel  to  ensure  drain- 
age. It  will  grow  the  verv  best  vegetables,  without 
that  excess  of  manure  which  is  apt  to  increa.se  the 
size,  but  to  impair  the  flavour.  Space  forbids  us 
to  do  more  than  cite  a  few  general  rules  to  1)6 
observed  in  the  ''lowtli  of  vegetables,  and  there 
are  plenty  of  excellent  books  on  the  subject. 

A  heavy  soil  is  mmh  imiHoved  bv  the  mixture  of 
light  materials,  .such  .as  sand,  a.shes,  leaf-mould, 
ro.ad -scrapings,  or  anything  that  tends  to  keep  the 
surface  open  and  the  mass  more  i>cinieahle.  A 
]ioin-  sandy  sta]de,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be 
made  more  retentive  and  tenacious  by  the  additi<m 
of  clay  or  heavy  loam  or  manures  of  a  moist  and 
substantial  kind.  Whatever  the  soil  be,  it  .should 
be  moved  deeply  at  every  time  of  ]ilanting,  but  the 
subsoil,  if  very  pocn-,  .sliould  not  be  brought  up, 
psi)ecially  for  sh.allow -root<'d  plants.  All  the  caii- 
b.age-race,  and  nearly  all  plants  that  are  grown  for 
their  flower  or  foliage,  require  strong  nurture 
and  plenty  of  moisture  ;  while  many  jdants  culti- 
vated for  the  sake  of  the  root,  es|iecially  the  potato, 
are  injured  by  reeking  and  heavy  manures.  Even 
the  onion,  though  it  likes  a  rich  bed,  should  not 
have  a  rank  one.  Watering,  if  once  begun,  should 
he  repeated,  until  there  is  sulhcient  rainfall.  The 
use  of  the  hoe  between  glowing  ]ilants  is  most 
benelicial,  and  the  surf.ace  should  be  kejit  loose  and 
iqien.  Let  nothing  run  to  seed,  unless  the  seed  is 
wanted.  It  is  better  to  give  too  iiiueli  space  than 
too  little,  and  the  sequence  of  crops  should  be  care- 
fully considered,  so  that  like  should  never  follow 
like,  when  it  can  be  .avoided.  If  it  cannot  be 
.avoided,  the  ground  should  be  deeply  turned  over, 
and  plenty  of  fresh  nourishment  supplieil.  In 
planting,  let  the  fibrous  roots  be  .spread  well,  and 
the  soil  m.ade  linn  round  the  stem  or  collar. 
Whether  the  crop  is  sown  or  planted,  the  drills  or 
rows  should  be  so  anaiiged  that  the  sunshine  may 
pass  along  rather  than  across  them,  and  few  plants 
come  to  perfection  under  trees  even  in  the  brightest 
summers. 

Fruit,  which  forms  .an  important  ])art  of  kitchen- 
garden  produce,  is  ranged  in  three  classes  gener- 
ally, according  to  its  mode  of  giowtli,  whether 
on  plant,  or  bush,  or  tree.  Of  plant  or  ground 
fruit  we  have  chielly  the  strawberry  and  the  melon. 
The  latter  is  rather  a  subject  for  cultivation  under 
glass — although  in  warm  spots  and  fine  summers 
the  harilier  sorts  ni.ay  succeed  in  the  open  ;  but  the 
str.awberry  is  to  be  found  in  almost  every  kitchen, 
garden,  a  univei-sal  favourite,  and  not  dillicult  of 
culture  if  the  right  kinds  be  selected.  A  sunny 
wall-border  deeply  dug,  and  then  trodden  firm,  if 
the  soil  be  light,  is  the  best  ])Osition  for  the  early 
kinds.  The  distance  between  the  plants  is 
governed  by  the  vigour  of  the  growth,  but  the 
rows  should  generally  be  two  feet  a]>art,  or  even 
three,  when  tlie  growth  is  verj-  strong.  The  beds 
should  he  renewed  every  second  or  third  year, 
.according  to  the  constitution  of  the  kind.  Prob- 
ably this  line  fruit  t.akes  its  name,  not  (as  is 
often  su|pposcd)  from  the  use  of  straw  to  keep  it 
clean,  but  from  the  way  in  which  the  benies, 
having  but  a  sleniler  footstalk,  are  strewn  or 
str.a\vn  by  their  weight  upon  the  giound. 

Of  bush-fruit  the  most  important  are  currants, 
gooseberries,  and  r.aspl>errie.s,  the  former  two  being 
r.aised  from  cuttings,  and  the  last  from  suckers. 
Raspberries  delight  in  a  rich  and  heavy  soil,  and  a 
place  where  no  drought  can  reach  them.    The  black 


GARDENING 


83 


I  currant  also  rejoices  in  moisture ;  but  the  wliite 
and  red  currants  and  gooseberries  tlirive  well  in 
lighter  places. 

Tree-fruit  is  of  many  kinds,  and  grown  in  divers 
manners.  A  broad  distinction  Wiis  made  of  old 
betwixt  wall-fruit  ami  that  of  standards,  as  if  the 
former  were  far  superior  both  in  size  and  quality. 
But  now  it  is  acknowledged  that  any  fruit  which 
can  be  ripened  thoroughly  or  brought  into  j)roi)er 
state  for  gathering  'in  full  wind,'  as  the  French 
e.xpress  it,  will  pro\e  of  higher  flavour  and  of  liner 
Hesli  than  if  it  had  received  the  relaxing  influence 
and  coddling  of  a  wall.  Still,  the  wall  attords  much 
fairer  chance  of  protecting  tender  bloom  from  frost, 
and  heavy  fruit  from  wiiicls,  as  well  as  of  ripening 
later  kinds,  which  ought  not  to  be  culled  till 
October. 

Taking  wall  fruit  first,  we  find  the  following 
chiefly  favoureil  thus  :  the  peach,  the  nectarine, 
anil  apricot,  the  finer  sorts  of  plums  and  gages, 
cherries,  pears,  sometimes  ai>ples  of  dessert  varieties, 
and  also  figs  and  hardy  grapes,  which  ripen  in 
warm  seasons  and  warm  places  with  good  manage- 
ment. For  stone-fruit  the  usual  mode  of  train- 
ing is  to  spread  the  branches  against  the  wall 
in  radiations,  like  those  of  a  fan,  removing  the 
breast-wood  while  quite  young,  and  laying  in 
the  bearing  wood  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  lead- 
ing branches,  and  at  )>roper  intervals.  Very  few- 
gardeners  understand  the  education  of  a  wall-tree; 
and  a  peach-tiee  perfectly  trained  and  equally 
balanced,  yet  full  of  vigour,  is  one  of  the  fairest 
and  rarest  sights.  Nothing  less  than  loving  labour 
and  great  skill  can  bring  this  to  pass  ;  but  for  ordi- 
nary work  an<l  good  results  these  points  must  be 
attended  to — vermin  must  be  nipped  in  the  buil, 
gross  shoots  must  be  removed  or  reduced,  and 
redundant  fruit  taken  oft'  right  early.  These  rules 
apply  to  the  pear  as  well,  when  trained  against  a 
wall,  although  that  fruit  is  less  oppressed  by 
insects,  and  tlie  tree  is  usually  trained  in  the  hori- 
zontal or  rectangular  form — that  is  to  say,  with 
side-branches  issuing  at  intervals  of  about  a  foot 
from  the  main  stem  or  leader.  Another  mode  of 
training,  called  the  'cordon  system,'  is  now  in 
vogue  with  the  pear,  the  plum,  cherrj',  and  other 
wall-fruit.  This  Ls  not  by  any  means  a  noveltv, 
but  rather  a  revival  ;  and  where  the  walls  are  higli, 
and  many  varieties  are  needed,  it  is  sometimes 
employed  with  good  effect,  though  the  difficulty  Ls 
to  repress  the  longing  of  the  tree  for  ampler  foliage. 
It  is  a  .system  of  strict  repression,  and  the  victim 
requires  freijuent  care ;  and  even  at  the  best  we 
have  a  triumph  of  art  over  nature,  instead  of  with 
it. 

Without  the  aid  of  a  wall,  fine  fruit — quite  as 
handsome  in  some  cases,  and  often  of  better  quality 
— can  be  grown  in  good  situations  and  average 
sea.sons  with  ordinary  skill.  Trees  planted  thus 
for  fruiting  '  in  full  w  ind  '  are  described  as  either 
standards,  pyramids,  or  bushes.  The  first  have  a 
single  stem  free  from  branches  for  .several  feet 
above  the  ground— perhaj)s  6  feet  is  the  average. 
There  the  branching  bejiins,  and  the  growth  con- 
tinues according  to  early  treatment,  with  either  an 
upright  leader  or  open  divergence  of  coequal  shoots. 
Tliis  tall  growth  is  mainly  used  for  orchanls  now, 
or  in  gardens  for  planting  alternately  with  pyra- 
mids or  bushe.s.  The  pyraniiil — more  correctly 
perhaps  it  should  be  termed  the  conical  tree — is 
formed  by  allowing  the  lower  slioot.-^  to  remain,  ami 
even  encouraging  them  (when  the  habit  of  the  sort 
requires  it)  by  stopping  the  leader  at  intervals,  so 
that  we  have  a  young  tree  furnished  with  tiei-s  of 
side-shoots  from  the  l>ase  tipwards  in  regular  suc- 
cession, yet  still  po.s.se.vsing  a  central  upright.  In 
the  bush  the  leader  lias  been  removed,  if  there  ever 
was  one — for  some  varieties  branch  thus  by  nature  ; 


and  then  we  have  a  spreading  growth  without  any 
central  occupant,  as  the  nut-trees  are  usually 
foiined  in  Kent,  and  the  currant  and  goo.seberiy 
ever^'where. 

M  here  space  is  restricted  and  growth  must  be 
compact,  the  conical  form  of  tree  suits  well,  and 
otters  most  temptation  to  those  who  love  experi- 
ments. But  when  great  bulk  of  fruit  is  called  for, 
either  the  'pyramid'  must  be  allowed  to  earn  its 
name  by  magnitude,  or  the  free  and  tall  standard 
nmst  have  its  o«-n  way,  with  coercion  administered 
prudently.  Many  writers,  especially  nurserymen, 
have  plea-sure  in  proving  that  the  maximum  of 
fruit  is  to  be  achieved  with  the  minimum  of  tree  ; 
but  nature  works  otherwise,  and  if  she  be  not 
heeded  experience  will  inijiress  the  error.  Con- 
tinual lifting  and  pinching  of  trees  (alternated  as 
such  correction  Ls  with  do.ses  of  rank  liquor)  act 
upon  their  systems  as  feast  and  fa.'<ting  might  act 
upon  the  gardener.  To  those  who  have  not  studied 
tlie  precepts  (rather  than  the  practice)  of  recent 
authorities  this  will  appear  a  truism. 

Without  controversy,  it  Ls  enough  to  say  that  in 
this,  as  is  in  most  other  matters,  the  middle  course 
is  the  best  and  safest.  Fruit-trees  in  the  open  should 
be  planted  at  fair  distance  from  one  another ;  pyra- 
mids of  .strong  sorts  10  feet  asunder,  and  of 
weakly  kinds  not  less  than  8 ;  standanl-trees  15 
;  feet  apart,  to  do  justice  to  themselves  and  allow  it 
for  some  years  to  the  humbler  growth  betwixt 
them.  Many  must  be  checked  in  their  lateral 
spread  until  they  have  filled  their  forms,  not 
densely,  but  with  equable  bearing  wood  ;  and  none 
should  be  allowed  to  sacrifice  their  future  for  the 
sake  of  present  gain.  It  should  also  be  borne  in 
mind  that  stone-fruit,  if  any  is  thus  grown,  does 
not  bear  the  knife  as  kindly  as  the  pears  and 
apples  do.  If  the  plum  and  cherry  must  be  brought 
into  the  form  of  bush  or  cone,  it  can  only  be  done 
to  gootl  eti'ect  by  nipping  the  young  growth  before 
midsummer,  and  by  very  slight  winter-pruning. 
Any  amputation  of  thick  branches  produces  gum- 
ming, and  maims  the  tree.  To  achieve  the  pear 
and  apple  in  small  compass  and  with  ciuick  increase 
dwarfing  stocks  are  much  employed,  tlie  pear  being 
grafted  or  budded  on  the  quince,  and  the  apjile  on 
the  Paradise  or  doticin.  Many  varieties  thrive 
well  on  these,  some  for  many  years,  and  othei^s  for 
a  shorter  time,  according  to  their  liking ;  and 
larger  and  finer  coloured  fruit  is  the  early  result  of 
the  union.  Nurserymen  by  experience  know  what 
sorts  to  offer  in  this  form,  and  what  are  less  com- 
plaisant. The  espalier  also,  which  may  be  termed 
a  multiple  form  of  cordon,  is  frequently  found  in 
kitchen-gardens,  though  not  universal  as  in  days 
gone  by.  The  tree  is  trained  horizontally  on 
stakes,  or  wires,  in  tiei-s  proceeding  from  the 
central  .stem,  and  for  heavy  fruit  tliis  method 
doubtle-ss  ofl'ers  more  stability  ;  but  the  disadvan- 
tages are  many,  and  in  common  with  the  qiinioiii/fe 
(wliich  is  a  modification  of  it)  the  espalier  has 
yielded  place  to  the  less  exacting  pyramid. 

For  fruit-trees,  as  for  vegetables,  a  few  well- 
known  but  often  slighted  cautions  may  be  offered. 
Let  suttioient  space  be  given  ;  luxuriant  growers 
may  sometimes  stand  alternate  with  the  feelder  ;  let 
no  tree  be  planted  deeply,  nay,  if  the  soil  be  wet 
and  heavy,  plant  almost  upon  the  surface,  banking 
up  and  staking  well.  Keniove  the  coai-ser  tap- 
roots if  there  be  encnigh  of  fibre ;  prune  but 
slightly,  if  at  all,  until  fresh  growth  has  .started, 
and  then  be  not  too  hard  with  it.  Do  not  clog 
with  rank  manure,  but  let  the  ground  have  been 
well  worked  liefore  the  tree  is  idanteil.  Give  the 
needful  nurture,  when  the  fruit  is  taxing  the 
resources  of  the  root,  either  by  mulching  with  fat 
manure,  or  presenting  it  in  liquid  form.  Let  not 
the  tree  be  overcropped  :  a  hundred  puny  fruits  are 


84 


GARDES    SUISSES 


GARDINER 


not  equal  in  bulk  to  a  Rcore  of  line  ones,  ami  far 
less  in  ((iialitv,  yet  they  exhaust  the  powers  of  tlie 
parent  more  than  the  worthy  ]>roj;eny.  He  eareful 
a-i  to  the  time  of  rullinj; :  even  the  earliest  fruit 
shouhl  not  he  aMoweil  to  jjct  ileadripe  on  the 
branch,  wlicrcas  tlie  winter  kinds  are  often 
jjathercil  prematurely,  especially  under  the  menace 
of  a  storm,  (ieneral  pruning  should  be  done  in 
winter,  when  the  trees  have  filled  their  sjiaces,  and 
should  be  tempered  with  niercv  ;  but  for  this  ilircc- 
tions  will  be  fimiid  in  our  article  ui)on  that  subject. 

Hot  beds  ill  the  kilcheiifxaiden  are  chiclly  for 
promoting  and  protcctinj,'  early  •jrowth  of  tender 
stulV,  such  as  marrows,  cucumbers,  potatoes,  mush- 
rooms,  \c.  No  description,  but  experience  alone 
and  common  sense  can  jfive  the  key  to  the  manage- 
nient  of  this  close  work.  Only  it  may  be  said  that 
half  the  failures  which  occur  are  caused  by  excess 
of  heat,  stint  of  air,  ami  injudicious  coddling.  See 
also  Plant-iioise. 

The  gardener,  whether  he  has  to  stuily  beauty  or 
utility — not  that  these  are  discordant  ))ower>4 — 
must  enileavour  to  move  altmg  the  broad  walk  of 
intelligence,  despising  nothing  because  it  seems 
new,  still  le.ss  because  it  is  old  ;  and  striving  to 
learn  from  othei's  all  he  can,  and  from  liim.self  the 
whole  of  it.  The  multiplicity  of  art  for  him  is 
multiplied  by  the  iiilinitude  of  n.atiirc.  and  before 
he  is  out  of  his  rudiments  his  time  comes  to  be 
made  perfect. 

Among  the  many  treatises  upon  Gardening,  general  or 
special,  a  few  may  here  be  mentioned  :  London's  Kneiiclo- 
jtfrdia  of  Gartttniiiff  (1878);  Loudon's  E'nrifcf"iKV(iia  of 
Plants  { booster's  edition ) ;  Liiidley's  Vttjt  table  Kiuij- 
dom ;  Lindley's  Botanical  Reijhtrr :  Lindlcj-'s  Brilinh 
Fruits;  Viliiiorin's  VeiietahU  Garden;  Sweet's  British 
Floicer-ffardeii  (7  vols.);  KoViinson's  Flower-fiardcn  ; 
Paul's  Bo8€'ijardt'»  ;  Hihberd's  liogc-ft^'ok ;  Hibberd's 
Amateur's  (I rieuhoufca ;  Hoggs  Fruit  Manual  {i>t\i  edi- 
tion); Johnson's  Oardenei's  Dictionary  (15ro\vn*s  edi- 
tion); Barron's  Vines  and  Vine-culture;  Thompson's 
Oardener's  Assistant;  Cas-sell's  Popular  (tardtnin(t ; 
Hems\Ky's  Hard;/  Trees  and  Shrubs;  Siiiith's  Economic 
Plants;  Sedding's  Garden-craft,  Old  and  Ncic  (1892); 
Miss  Amherst's  Hislortj  of  Gardcnimj  in  England  (1896). 

Gardes  Siiisses.    See  S\vi.s.s  Guard.s. 

Gardilirr.  a  port  of  Maine,  on  the  Kennebec 
Iiivcr,  .')(>  miles  NNE.  of  Portland  ;  pop.  5500. 

Gardiiier<  Colonel  Jame.s,  son  of  Captain 
Patrick  tlardiner,  wa«  born  at  Carriden,  in  Lin- 
lithgowshire, January  11,  loss,  ami  when  only  four- 
teen years  old  obtained  a  commission  in  a  Scots  regi- 
ment in  the  Dutch  service.  In  170'2  he  parsed  into 
the  English  ariiiv,  ami  in  170U  was  severely  wounded 
at  the  battle  of  Hamillies.  (laidincr  fcmglit  with 
great  dLstinctioii  in  all  the  other  battles  of  ^Larl• 
borough.  In  1715  be  was  made  lirst  lieutenant, 
then  captain  of  dragoons  ;  and  in  the  .same  year 
he  gave  a  coiispiciums  proof  of  his  courage, 
when,  along  with  eleven  other  daring  fellows 
(eight  of  whom  were  killed),  he  fired  the  barricades 
of  tlie  Highlanders  at  Preston.  PVom  an  early 
])eriod  Gardiner  was  noted  for  his  licentiousne.ss ; 
tint  in  the  year  1719  a  vision  of  riirist  on  the  cross 
transformed  the  brave  but  wicked  soldier  into  a 
pious  and  exemnlary  Christian.  In  17'24  he  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  major,  and  in  17:26  he  married 
Lady  Frances  Eiskine,  daughter  of  the  fourth  Earl 
of  Buchan,  by  whom  lie  bail  thirteen  chihlreii,  only 
five  of  whom  survived  him.  In  17.30  he  became 
lieutenant-colonel  of  ilragoons,  and  in  174.3  colonel 
of  the  Enniskillens.  Deserted  by  his  dr.igoons  at 
the  battle  of  Prestonpans,  fought  chise  to  liis  own 
house,  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  handful  of 
I  infantry,  and  fought  till,  cut  down  with  a  Lochaber 
axe,  he  was  borne  to  the  manse  of  Tranent,  where 
he  died  in  a  few  hours,  September  21,  1745.  See 
his  Life  bv  Ur  Doddridge  ( 1747  ). 


Ciardiiicr,  Samuel  Haw.son,  historian,  was 

born  at  Hopley,  in  Hampshire,  March  4,  1S29,  and 
eilncate<l  iit  Winchester  and  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxforil,  taking  a  liistchu-s  in  ls51.  I-'or  some 
yeai-s  he  tilled  the  chair  of  .Modern  History  nt  King's 
College,  London,  but  resigned  it  in  ISS5  io  continue 
his  History  at  Oxford  on  an  .Ml  .Souls'  elective 
fellowship.     In   1SH2  he  w.-is  granted  a  Civil  List 

1)ensiou  of  £1.50.  The  work  to  which  he  has  devoted 
limself  with  more  than  tJerman  tlioi()ugline.s.s  and 
unbiiised  oiienness  of  mind  began  with  the  follow- 
ing instalments  :  The  llistori/  nf  Emjhmil  from  the 
Acecssioti  of  Jaiiicx  /.  lu  t/ic  Di-ii/rdrr.  of  Cliirf- 
jitstice  Coke  ( 1S6.3),  I'rinrc  Charles  iiiu/  the  SpriiiM 
Marriafjc  (1809),  Emiltind  under  the  ])al;e  uf  liurk- 
inghiiiii  atul  Charles  I.  ( 1875),  The  Personal  Gorcrii- 
meat  of  C/uir/es  I.  (1877),  and  The  Fall  of  the 
Moiianhi/  <f  Charles  I.  ( v(ds  i.  an.l  ii.  1882). 
The  last  w;is  of  cour.se  intended  to  extend  to  the 
death  of  the  king,  but  in  the  lirst  two  volumes  h.ad 
only  been  brought  down  to  1042,  when  the  wli<de 
of  the  preceiliiig  were  giouj)ed  together  and  re- 
iniblished  ( 188.3-84)  in  ten  volumes,  as  a  coiiliiiiious 
liistory  of  England  from  1003  to  1042.  The  tlistury 
of  Ihi:  Ciril  War  (3  vols.  1880-91)  w.os  continued 
by  The  Histor;/  of  the  Coiiimonii-cnllh  and  Pro- 
teetorutc  (vols.  i.  and  ii.  1894-97).  Sliinter  books 
deal  with  the  character  of  Cromwell  (1897)  and 
with  the  Gunpowder  Plot  ( 1897,  in  reply  to  Father 
Gerard's  attempt  to  prove  that  there  wa.s  no  real 
l)lot).  The  StudenVs  Hislori/  of  JCnijlmul  (3  vols.) 
appeare<l  1890-92.  Other  works  are  The  Thirty 
Years'  IVfir  (1874)  and  The  Puritan  Jicrolution 
(' Epochs' series,  1875),  and  .an  Introduelinii  to  the 
Study  of  Enylish  llistonj  (1S81  ;  new  ed.  1894), 
written  with  Mr  .1.  Hass  .Mulliiiger.  For  the 
(Jaiiiden  Society  he  edited  the  Fortcstjue  Papers,  the 
Hamilton  Papers,  the  Parliamentary  Debates  in 
1610,  a.ni\  Debates  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  1625. 
CiardilK'r,  Stepiikn.  Ilishop  of  Winchester, 
wa-s  born  between  1483  ami  1490  .at  Bury  St  Edmunds 
— .a  clothworker's  .son,  say  some  ;  others,  .a  natur.al 
son  of  Bislioi)  Woodville  of  S.ilisbuiy.  He  stmlied 
at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  in  1.520  21  proceeding 
doctor  of  civil  and  of  canon  Law  ;  and  soon  after, 
through  the  patronage  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk, 
he  was  introifuced  to  Wolsev,  who  made  him  his 
secret.ary.  In  this  capacity  lie  won  the  conlidence 
of  Henrj'  VIII.,  <and  by  liim  w.as  employeil  during 
1.527-.33  in  promoting  at  Home  and  elsewhere  his 
divorce  from  Catharine  of  .\iagon.  At  this  lime 
he  W!is  known  iis  Dr  .Stei>liens.  He  had  become 
master  of  bis  old  college  in  I5'25,  Archdeacon  of 
Norfolk  in  15"29,  and  two  years  Later  of  Leicester, 
when  in  November  1.531  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Winchester.  Good  Catholic  though  he  was,  he 
sujiported  the  royal  supremacy,  and  wrote  a  treatise 
in  defence  of  it,  De  vcrA  Obediential  (15.35).  Still, 
he  opposed  all  measures  tending  to  a  doctrinal 
reformaticm,  he  liatl  a  princiiial  hand  in  the  down- 
fall of  Tlioma.s  Cromwell,  and  the  '  Six  Articles ' 
were  largely  of  his  framing,  though  the  storj'  that 
he  lost  Henry's  favour  by  an  attempt  to  impeach 
Catharine  Parr  of  heresy  is  not  based  ujion  con- 
temporary authority.  On  Ed«uid  \1.  s  acces- 
sion (1547),  for  refusing  to  comi)ly  with  the  new 
teaching  he  w.as  committed  to  the  Fleet  pri.son, 
but  released  three  weeks  afterwarils,  to  be  next 
year  again  seized  and  bulged  in  the  Tower,  and 
in  1.5.5'2  dei>rived  of  his  bishopric.  When  in  1.553 
Mai-y  a.scended  the  throne,  he  was  set  at  liberty, 
restored  to  his  see,  and  .ai)pointed  Lonl  High 
Chancellor  of  England.  He  now  took  the  lead  in 
the  persecution  of  the  Protestants,  and  ha.s  Ixjen 
charged  with  the  grossest  cruelty.  Dr  Maitland 
shows,  however,  that  in  \ery  many  instances  the 
parties  brought  before  his  court  were  arraigned  for 
treason  rather  than  heresy ;  and  certain  it  is  that 


GARDNER 


GARGOYLE 


85 


he  helped  Peter  Martyr  to  leave  England,  and 
interposed  to  protect  llo;ier  A^c•llanl.  He  died 
very  wealthy  at  Wliitchall,  of  the  ;;out,  on  I'ith 
Novenilx'r  15o.5,  and  was  buried  in  his  cathedral. 
On  his  deathbed  he  cried  out  in  Latin,  'I  have 
ilenied  with  Peter,  I  have  gone  out  with  Peter  ;  hut 
I  have  not  wept  with  Peter  ' — referring  doubtless  to 
his  temiiorary  renunciation  of  the  papal  sui)reniaey. 
We  have  a  dozen  Latin  and  English  treatises  fi-oni 
his  pen ;  but  the  Xcressari/  Dortritie  and  Eru- 
dition of  a  Chriatiaii.  Mriii.  (1543)  was  prohalily 
Henry's  own,  not  a  joint  production  of  (iardiner 
and  ('rannier.  Gardiner's  character  has  been  tlie 
sul)ject  of  much  debate  ;  but  it  can  scarcely  Ije 
doul)ted  that  he  was  a  zealous,  though  not  a 
spirituallyniinded,  churchman.  His  devotion  was 
that  of  an  out-and-out  partisan  ;  but  it  was  none 
the  less  real,  for  he  would  have  laid  down  his  life 
for  the  cause  which  commanded  his  sym])athies. 
See  Bass  MuUinger  in  the  Dirt.  Nat.  Biorj.;  and 
Dixon's  Hist,  of  the  Ch.  ofEn(jland(\o\.  iv.'lSOl). 

CiiaiMllier,  a  post-village  of  ^^lssacllusetts,  7U 
miles  \VN\V.  of  Boston  by  rail,  with  manufactures 
of  wooden  wares — chairs,  pails,  tubs,  and  tovs. 
Pop.  (  with  South  Gardner)  82S3. 

tiartield,  J.vmes  Abram,  twentieth  president 
of  the  Uniteil  States,  was  born  in  Orange,  Ohio, 
I9tli  November  1831.  His  father,  who  was 
descended  from  one  of  the  Puritan  f(uinders  of 
Watertown,  Massachusetts  (1630),  died  .soon  after 
the  boy's  birtli,  leaving  his  wife,  the  daughter  of  a 
Huguenot  family  tliat  hail  settled  in  Xew  England 
in  l(iS.'),  to  liring  up  unaided  her  finir  small  chil- 
dren, battling  bravely  w-ith  poverty  and  privation 
in  her  lonely  cabin  in  the  '  Wilderne.ss '  (now  the 
'Western  Reserve')  of  Ohio.  At  the  age  of  ten 
young  Garlield  alreaily  added  something  to  his 
mother's  income  by  work  on  the  neiglihouring 
farms  ;  in  winter  he  maile  steady  progress  in  the 
district  school.  In  1S49  he  entered  Geauga 
Seminary,  at  Che.ster,  Ohio  ;  and  in  the  summer 
months  he  turne<l  to  any  and  all  kinds  of  work,  to 
provide  funds  for  the  ensuing  winter.  At  this 
period  Garlield  joined  the  Campbellite  body.  He 
next  passed  on  to  the  college  at  Hiram,  Ohio, 
supporting  him.self  meanwhile  by  tuition,  and 
finally  graduated  at  Williams  College,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  IS56.  Returning  to  Hiram,  he 
became  its  president  in  1S.57,  at  the  same  time 
preaching  and  studying  law.  He  was  electeil  to 
the  state  senate  in  18,59,  and  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  received  the  command  of  the  4'2d 
regiment  of  Ohio  volunteers.  In  December  ISIil 
he  was  given  a  brigade,  with  orders  to  drive  tin; 
Confederates  out  of  eastern  Iventui'ky,  .and  with 
reinforcements  gained  the  b.attle  of  Middle  Creek, 
10th  .lanuary  180'2,  from  which  his  commission 
as  brigadier-general  was  dated.  He  had  been 
promoted  major-general  for  gallantry  at  (Miicka- 
mauga,  September  19,  1S(J3,  when  he  resigned  his 
command  to  enter  congress,  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
two.  He  sat  in  congress,  rendering  valual)le 
assistance  in  nnlitary  and  linaneial  cpiestions, 
until  KSSO,  and  acted  latterly  ;is  leader  of  the 
Republican  party  in  the  house.  In  .January  1880 
he  was  elected  a  United  States  sen.ator,  and  in 
.lune  of  the  saTue  year  he  was  ailopted  as  presi- 
dential candidate  by  tlie  Uepublican  convention  at 
Chicago.  Cailielils  nomination  c.-ime  as  a  surprise 
to  his  party,  ami  was  simply  llu'  result  of  ,a  com- 
pronu.se  between  the  suppcuters  oft  i  rant  ami  Blaine, 
after  thirty-three  inelVectual  ballots  had  proved  that 
neither  could  secure  till"  prize.  He  juoved,  never- 
theless, a  strong  camlidate,  regardless  of  prece- 
(lent  delivered  speeches  in  his  own  behalf,  and 
finally  ilefeated  (leneral  Hancock  by  a  narrow 
majority  on  the  popular  vote,  but  by  'il.'i  to   loo 


electoral  votes.  He  was  inaugurated  on  4th  March 
1881,  and  identified  himself  with  the  cau.se  of  civil 
service  reform,  whereby  he  irritated  a  powerful 
section  of  his  own  party  (see  CoSKLlXi;).  On  the 
morning  of  "id  July,  as  he  was  setting  oil'  to  witness 
the  closing  exercises  of  his  old  college,  he  was  shot 
down  from  behind  by  .a  disappointed  office-seeker, 
Charles  (Juiteau.  Kor  weeks  lie  lingered  between 
life  and  death  ;  early  in  September  he  was  removed 
to  Long  Branch,  Xew  Jersey,  ami  there  he  died,  at 
Elberon,  19th  September  1881.  He  was  burie<l  at 
Cleveland  (q.v. ).  The  vice-president,  General 
Artliur  (q.v.),  succeeded  him.  Garfield  hehl  power 
long  enou"h  to  show  himself  worthy  of  it.  His 
tragic  deatli  has  given  him  prominence  in  the  roll 
of  American  presidents,  but  it  was  his  brave  and 
patient  endurance  of  sutl'ering  that  en<leared  him 
most  to  his  countrymen  and  claimed  the  sym- 
patliy  and  admiration  of  the  rest  of  the  world.  His 
speeches  were  collected  in  2  vols.  (Boston,  1882). 
See  the  Life  l>y  J.  R.  (Ulniore  (1880). 

Clarcfowl.     See  AlTK. 

Care  Loch.    See  Dcmbartox.shire. 

Ciar-iisli.    See  Gar-pike. 

Gar  gaiiey.    See  Teal. 

GargailO  (ancient  Garr/Onus),  a  mountainous 
])eninsula,  the  '  spur "  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Foggia,  jutting  out  some  30  miles  into  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  and  attaining  in  Monte  Calvo  a  height  of  .il  10 
feet.  Bee-keeping  is  yet  as  generally  engaged  in 
as  in  the  time  of  Horace.  The  district  is  visited 
mainly  by  pilgrims  to  a  shrine  of  St  Michael  on 
Monte  St  Angelo. 

Gargaiitua.    See  Rabelals. 
Gargariis.    See  Ida. 

Gargle,  or  Gargarism,  a  class  of  medicines 
intended  to  be  churned  about  in  the  throat,  with  a 
view  of  cleansing  the  parts,  and  of  acting  as  anti- 
septics. Astringents  (q.v.),  sedatives,  or  Stimulants 
(q.v.),  in  various  conditions  of  the  throat.  In 
using  them  a  full  breath  is  taken,  the  mouth  filled 
with  the  liquid,  and  the  head  thrown  back  ;  as  the 
breath  is  gradually  allowed  to  escape,  the  liquid  is 
freely  brought  into  contact  with  the  uiqier  part  of 
the  throat.  They  are  not  generally  suitable  in 
cases  of  acute  intiammatiim  of  tlie  throat,  but  often 
valuable  in  chronic  atl'ections.  Among  the  most 
useful  gargles  are— Antiseptic  :  Condy's  Huid,  10  to 
20  drops  ;  carbolic  acid,  4  to  8  grains.  '  Astringent  : 
tannic  acid,  10  grains  ;  alum,  20  grains.  Sedative  : 
bromide  of  jiotash,  20  grains.  Stimulant  :  vinegar, 
;iO  drops;  ililnte  hydrochloric  acid.  20  drops,  dis- 
solved or  diluted  with  a  wineglassful  of  water. 

Cargoyh',  a  projecting  spout,  leading  the 
water  i'rom  the  roof-gutters  of  buildings.  (iar- 
goyles  of  various  forms  have  been  used  in  almost 
all  styles  of  architecture,  but  were  peculiarly 
developed  in  connec- 
tion with  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. Some  g.ar- 
goyles  are  small  anil 
plain,  others  large  and 
ornamental,  according 
to  their  various  posi- 
tions. They  are  carved 
into  all  conceivable 
forms  —  angelic, 
human,  and  of  the 
lower  animals ;  and, 
a-s  in  fountains,  the 
water  is  generally 
spouted  through  the 
mo>ith.  In  late  castel- 
lated buildings,  they  frequently  assume  the  form 
of  small  cannons  projecting  from  the  parapet, 
(.iaigoyles  are  generally  oarve<l  in  stone,  but  are 


St  Stephen's,  Vienna. 


86 


GAUHMUKHTESAR 


GARIBALDI 


sometimes  executed  in  wood,  and  are  made  of 
great  length  so  as  to  tliiow  the  water  into  llie 
gutter  formed  in  the  middle  of  the  streets  of  some 


St  Alkmund's  Church,  Derby ; 
circa  1450. 


Horaley  Church,  Derbyshire; 
circa  H60. 


old  towns.  In  modern  times  the  use  of  leaden  pipes 
to  convey  away  the  water  from  roofs  has  almost 
entirely  superseded  the  use  of  gargoyles. 

Garlllllllklltrsar,  an  ancient  town  in  the 
Nortli-wt'^t  I'nuiiices  of  Inilia,  on  the  Ganges, 
26  miles  .SE.  of  Meenit,  with  four  shrines  deili- 
cated  to  Gang.1,  and  a  great  fair,  which  attracts 
200,000  pilgrims.     Pop.  6100. 

Ciarhwal.  a  native  state  in  the  North-west 
Provinces  of  India,  on  the  borders  of  Tihet :  area, 
al)OUt  4180  so.  m.  ;  pop.  241,242.  Also  the  name 
of  a  liritish  iii>trict  in  the  Northwest  Provinces, 
next  to  iihk'penilciit  (iarhwal  :  area,  5G.S0  sq.  ni.  ; 
pop.  (1H91)  407, NIS.  Hein"  on  the  southern  slope 
of  the  Himalayius,  Garhwalis  for  the  most  part  a 
ma.ss  of  rugged  mountain-ranges,  whose  elevation 
above  the  sea  reaches  in  Nanda  iJevi  2.>,661  feet. 
The  native  state  is  the  cradle  of  both  the  Jumna 
and  the  Ganges,  and  in  the  <listrict  are  the  Alak- 
nanda  and  its  point  of  junction  with  the  Bhagi- 
rathi  (see  G.\X0E.s) ;  consequently,  in  spite  of  the 
length  and  ruggedness  of  the  way,  crowds  of  pil- 
grims are  attracted  to  the  peculiarly  sacred 
localities  of  Deoprayag  and  Gangotri. 

Garibaldi,  Giukepi-B,  the  Italian  patriot,  -was 
born  at  Nice  on  the  4th  July  1807.  HLs  father 
was  a  simple,  (iod-fearing  lisherman,  seldom  in  pros- 

f>erous  circumstances,  but  he  contrived  neverlhe- 
e.ss  to  give  the  boy  a  tolerable  education,  possibly 
with  the  object  of  making  him  a  priest.  Giuseppe, 
however,  wa.s  determined  U]>on  beconung  a  sailor, 
and  rising  rapiilly  in  the  mercliant-.service,  he  Wius 
appointed  in  1828  second  in  command  of  the  brig 
Curtcse.  His  e.arly  voyages,  which  included  a,  visit 
to  Rome,  tilled  liim  with  democratic  ardour,  whence 
it  is  only  natural  that  in  18.14  he  should  have  been 
involved  in  the  'Young  Italy  '  movement  of  .Mazziiii, 
whom  he  met  <at  Marseilles,  and  shoulil  have  been 
condemned  t<i  death  for  taking  part  in  an  attempt 
to  seize  Geno.a.  He  had  volunteered  for  the  royal 
navy  >vith  the  object  of  gaining  recruits  for  the 
cause.  Garibaldi  escaped  to  Marseilles  and 
afterwards  to  South  America,  where  he  ollered  his 
services  to  the  province  of  Uio  Gramle,  which  w.us 
in  rebellion  against  the  Emperor  of  Brazil.  He 
distinguisheil  himself  as  a  guerilla  warrior  aii<l 
privateer,  w.as  taken  prisoner  and  suspended  for 
two  hours  by  the  wrists  for  attempting  to  escape,  and 
eloped  with  and  so<m  married  the  beautiful  Creole 
Anita  Itiveir.^  <le  Silv.i,  the  companion  of  his  earlier 
campaigns  and  the  mother  of  his  chililren  Menotti, 
Kicciotti,  and  Teresa.  After  some  mingled  experi- 
ences as  drover,  shipbroker,  and  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics, he  oll"ere<I  in  1842  his  a-ssistance  to  the 
Montevideans,  who  were  at  war  with  Rosas,  the 
tyrant  of  Buenos  Ayres.  In  this  struggle  Garibaldi 
won  fresh  renown,  by  water  as  naval  commander 
in    a    two    days'    engagement,    and    on    land    aa 


organiser  and  commander  of  the  Italian  legion, 
esiwcially  on  8th  February  and  20th  May  1846, 
when  he  l>eat  oil'  considerably  sujicrior  forces  of 
the  enemv  at  Salto  San  Antonio  ami  the  Dayman 
River,  lie  gives  a  full  account  of  his  various 
exploits  ill  his  autobiography. 

The  '  ie<l  shirt '  of  (laribaldi  hail  thus  already  In- 
come famous,  when  in  1847  the  ii-loiiiiing  pope,  I'ins 
IX.,  ascended  the  throne  of  St  Peter.  Garibaldi, 
the  Monteviileaii  struggle  being  practicallv  at  an 
end,  promptly  odered  to  enlist  under  his  banner, 
but  received  an  ambiguous  reply  ;  ami  ( 'harles  .-Mbert 
of  Sardinia,  whom  on  his  arrival  in  Italy  in  June 
1848  he  found  liesieging  the  Austrians  in  Mantua, 
coldly  referred  him  to  his  miiiisteis.  Garibaldi, 
however,  after  the  collapse  of  the  Sardiiiliin  army, 
at  the  head  of  a  body  of  vcduiiteers  |>crfornied  .some 
notable  feats  against  the  .•\ustrians  on  the  Swi.ss 
frontier,  and  then  wamlered  alMiiit  Italy  until  he 
reached  Ravenna.  In  1849  he  threw  in  his  lot  with 
the  revolutionary  government  of  Rome  against 
Pius  IX.,  who  had  retiacteil  his  liberal  concessions 
and  fled  the  city.  Garibalili,  indi'ed,  voted  for  the 
proclamatiim  of  the  republic  in  I-'ebruary,  drove  the 
French  cxpediti<mary  torce  under  Uudinot  from  the 
Porta  San  Pancrazio  in  April,  and  routed  the 
Neapolitans  at  Palestrina  ami  Velletii  in  May, 
sendiiii;  them  pell-mell  over  the  frontier.  Mean- 
time, however,  Mazzini  had  been  inveigled  by 
Oudinot  into  an  armistice  ;  and,  Ijcing  abundantly 
reinforced,  the  French  proceeded  to  lay  sit^ge  to 
Rome.  Garibaldi  was  recalled,  much  to  his  disgust. 
He  had  refused  the  dictatorshi|>  on  June  2,  and 
on  July  S,  after  a  brilliant  ilefeiice,  he  was  forced 
to  abandon  his  post.  He  retreated,  pui-sued  by  the 
.Vustrians,  to  the  Adriatic,  where  jioor  Anita,  worn 
out  by  sull'ering  ami  anxiety,  ilied,  and  was  buried  in 
the  sand,  (iaribaldi  was  at  length  arrested  by  the 
ordei's  of  the  Sardinian  government  at  Chiavari, 
and  requested  to  leave  Italy,  much  to  the  imligna- 
tion  of  the  people.  He  betook  himself  to  Staten 
Island,  New  York,  where  he  worked  for  eighteen 
months  as  a  candlemaker,  then  became  captain 
of  various  merchantmen,  paying  a  visit  to  New- 
castle, where  lie  declined  a  popular  demonstration. 

He  returned  to  Italy  in  1854,  and  had  settled 
down  as  a  farmer  on  the  islanil  of  Caprera,  when  in 
18o9  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  Italian  liberaticm 
called  him  to  arms  once  more.  He  was  summoned 
to  Turin  by  C'.i\our  in  February,  and  at  once 
placed  his  sword  at  the  di.M)o.sal  of  \'ictor  Em- 
manuel. Though  fre(|Uently  thwarted  by  the 
Sardinian  generals.  Garibaldi  and  his  '  clia.s.seurs  of 
the  Alps '  rendered  valuable  service  to  the  allies, 
especially  at  Varese  in  the  Valtelline  (May  25). 
After  the  peace  of  Villafranca,  (iaribaldi,  with  the 
permission  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  went  into  central 
Italj-  as  second  in  command,  and  helped  to  con- 
summate the  annexation  of  the  territories  lo 
Sardinia,  but  was  not  allowed  as  he  desired  to 
march  <in  Rome.  He  was  cut  to  the  quick  when 
his  native  Nice  was  handed  over  to  trance,  and 
declaimed  against  Cavour  in  the  chamber  at  Turin. 
Meanwhile  the  Mazzinists  hail  been  busily  con- 
spiring against  the  edete  Bourlxin  tyranny  in  the 
Two  .Sicilies,  and  liaribaldi,  in  spite  of  Cavour's 
efforts  to  prevent  him,  prepared  to  come  to  the 
rescue.  The  enter])rise  appearetl  dangerous  in  the 
extreme;  but,  as  the  English  cabinet  insisted  on  the 
neutrality  of  France,  the  Bonrlions  could  look  for 
no  foreign  assistance,  and  '  the  thousand  heroes ' 
on  lamling  at  Marsala  on  May  11  met  but  a 
feeble  enemy.  'With  the  exception  of  the  garrison 
of  Milazzo,  which  capitulated  after  a  battle  on 
.July  24,  the  disaffected  troops  of  Francis  II. 
fought  half-heartedly  enough,  and  within  three 
months  Sicily  was  free.  Promptly  crossing  the 
straits   (August  29)  Garibaldi  began  his  military 


GARIBALDI 


GARLIC 


87 


promenaile  tlirough  Naples,  and  entered  the  capital 
(September  7)  amid  the  cheers  of  Kinj'  Francis' 
troops.  After  a  last  stand  on  the  Volturno  on 
October  1,  the  Bourbons  took  refuge  in  the  citadel 
of  Gaeta.  Then  Victor  Emmanuel,  having  been 
elected  sovereign  of  the  Two  Sicilies  by  a  plebiscite, 
arrived  at  Naples,  an<l  Garibaldi,  refusing  all 
reward,  resigned  his  dictatorship  and  retired  to 
Caprera.  His  conduct  entailed  a  ciuarrel  with  the 
Republican  party,  and  he  was  besides  disgusted  by 
the  refusal  of  the  Italian  ministry  to  enrol  his 
veterans  in  the  regular  army,  and  at  not  being 
allowed  to  march  on  Itome  and  destroy  the  hated 
papal  government.  In  this  he  .saw  the  hand  of 
Cavour,  but  later  nulilications  show  that  he  was 
mistaken  as  far  as  tlie  volunteers  were  concerned. 

During  the  ensuing  years  Rome  was  the  centre  of 
Ills  thoughts,  thougli  shared  with  schemes  for 
stirring  up  rebellion  in  Hungary,  and  so  causing 
the  Austrians  to  withdraw  from  Venice,  and  in 
186'2  he  emljarked  on  a  rash  expedition  against  the 
capital.  If  the  king  and  the  weak  Rattazzi  cabinet 
did  not  actually  egg  him  on,  as  Garibaldi  said  they 
did,  they  at  all  events  sat  still  and  allowed  him  to 
compromise  himself,  and  then  sent  troops  against 
him,  by  whom  Garibaldi  was  taken  prisoner  at 
Aspromonte  after  he  had  given  orders  to  his  troops 
not  to  fire  (August  28).  Badly  wounded  in  the 
foot.  Garibaldi  was  detained  for  two  months  as 
prisoner  at  Spezzia,  and  was  then  allowed  to 
return  to  Caprera.  He  next  paid  a  visit  to  Eng- 
land to  induce  the  government  to  espouse  the 
cause  of  Denmark,  and  wa.s  received  with  the 
wildest  enthusiasm  ;  but  failing  to  ettect  the  object 
of  his  journey,  he  returned  abruptly  home  at 
the  reque.st  of  the  cabinet.  In  tlie  war  of  1866 
he  once  more  commanded  the  '  Red  Shirts '  in 
the  Tyrol,  but,  though  his  sons  Menotti  and 
Riceiotti  proved  worthy  of  their  father,  the  cam- 
paign as  a  whole  was  not  marked  by  very  brilliant 
attairs.  Garibaldi  accused  the  government  of  neg- 
lecting to  forward  men  and  arms,  and  their  conduct 
seems  to  have  been  marked  l)y  unworthy  suspicions. 
Venice  was  now  ceded  to  Italy,  l)ut  Rome  still 
remained  unredeemed,  and,  untaught  by  his  previ- 
ous adventures,  Garibaldi  in  the  following  year 
made  his  last  attempt  on  the  Holy  Cit^'.  Arrested 
on  September  2'i  by  the  Italian  government — whose 
hands  were  tied  by  the  convention  with  France  of 
186-t — he  escaped  from  Caprera  in  a  boat,  and 
placing  himself  at  the  head  of  the  volunteers, 
defeated  the  papal  troops  on  October  25  at 
Monterotonilo.  On  November  3,  however,  the 
Zouaves,  reinforced  l>v  a  body  of  French  armed 
with  the  deadly  cha-ssepot,  utterly  routed  him  at 
Mentana.  Once  more  he  wa,s  allowed  to  retire  to 
Caprera,  whence  in  1870  he  sent  for  publication 
two  novels,  entitled  CantoiU  il  coluntario  and 
Clelia,  ovvcro  il  Governo  del  Munwo.  The  latter  luis 
been  translated  into  English  under  the  title  of  the 
'  Rule  of  the  Monk,'  but  it  must  be  confessed  that 
Garibaldi  did  not  shine  ius  an  author,  and  that  the 
average  schoolboy  could  write  ;is  well.  In  1872, 
however,  he  published  a  thini  romance,  //  Millc, 
based  on  the  events  of  the  Sicilian  expedition.  In 
1870,  though  at  first  a  sympathiser  with  Germany, 
owing  to  his  hatred  of  Napolecm  III.,  he  resolved  to 
come  to  the  assistance  of  the  French  Republic. 
Gambetta  did  not  receive  him  with  much  en- 
thusia.sm,  but  eventually  placed  him  in  comm.and 
of  the  volunteers  of  the  N'osges.  Badly  crippled 
by  rheumatism,  however,  and  hopelessly  out- 
numbered, he  confined  his  movements  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  Dijon  and  Autun.  Even  so  his 
troops  distinguished  themselves,  es|)ecially  on  SOth 
January  1871,  when  Riceiotti  beat  otV  a  body  of 
Prussian  I'omcranians  near  Dijon.  The  Prussian 
general,  Manteull'el,  luus  left  a  favourable  estimate 


of  his  tactics  during  the  campaign.  Garibaldi 
was  elected  to  the  Assembly  at  Bordeaux  by  Dijon, 
Nice,  and  Paris,  but,  as  a  foreigner,  was  not 
allowed  to  addres.s  the  deputies. 

During  the  remainder  of  his  life  he  remained  a 
helpless  Invalid  at  Caprera,  excejjt  on  occiusions  like 
that  in  1874,  when  he  took  his  seat  in  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  at  Rome  ;  and  through  the  generosity 
of  his  English  friends  he  became  entire  proprietor 
of  the  island.  In  1880  the  marriage  into  which  he 
had  been  entrapped  by  an  adventuress  as  far  back  as 
1859  was  annulled,  and  he  was  promptly  united  to 
Francesca,  his  peasant-companion,  wlio  had  origin- 
ally come  to  the  island  as  nurse  to  the  children  of 
his  daughter  Teresa,  the  wife  of  Stefano  Canzio, 
one  of  his  officers.  During  the  last  years  of  his 
life  manifestoes  poured  from  his  pen,  in  which  pro- 
fessions of  devotion  to  the  Sardinian  dynasty 
alternated  with  the  wildest  republicanism  ;  and  his 
simplicity,  like  that  of  Victor  Hugo,  was  easily 
persuaded  to  endorse  any  document  containing  the 
commonplaces  of  cosmopolitanism.  But  he  was 
ever  constant  to  the  ideal  of  his  youth,  the  unity 
of  the  Italian-speaking  race.  Thence  came  his 
participation  in  the  '  Irridentist '  agitation  ;  thence 
too  his  undying  hatred  of  the  papacy.  More 
practical  was  his  advocacy  of  the  creation  of 
a  mercantile  navy  and  the  reorganisation  of  the 
army,  and  his  interest  in  the  drainage  of  the 
Campagna  and  the  diversion  of  the  Tiber ;  but 
the  last  project  had  no  adequate  result.  His 
religious  views  latterly  embraced  a  somewhat 
elementary  pantheism:  '  God  did  not  make  man,' 
he  wrote,  'out  man  made  God,'  and  death  he 
looked  upon  as  a  transmutation  of  matter. 
On  2d  June  1882  he  died,  and  was  sincerely 
mourned,  not  only  by  his  fellow-countrymen,  but 
by  the  lovers  of  liberty  throughout  Europe.  For 
though  as  a  soldier  he  was  perha|)s  nothing  more 
than  a  good  commander  of  irregulai-s,  and  though 
his  ignorance  of  political  considerations  .sometimes 
did  actual  harm  to  the  cause  he  advocated,  yet  it 
would  be  impossible  to  overrate  the  importance  to 
Italian  unity  of  his  whole-souled  devotion  to  his 
country,  a  devotion  which  he  communicated  to  all 
with  whom  he  came  in  contact.  He  will  always 
remain  the  central  figure  in  the  story  of  Italian 
independence. 

Garibaldi's  autobiography  was  published  in  1887,  and 
an  English  translation  with  a  supplementary  biography 
by  Mine,  ilario  in  1889.  The  best  general  sketches  of 
Garibaldi  are  to  be  found  in  J.  T.  Bent's  Life  of  Garibaldi, 
and  in  Jlme.  Mario's  Garibaldi  e  i  stioi  Tempi  (Milan, 
1884).  Elpls  Melena's  Garibaldi  (2  vols.  Hanover,  18^) 
is  also  incidentally  instructive.  Garibaldi's  speeches  were 
published  in  1882,  and  his  letters,  edited  by  K  E.  Xiuienes, 
in  1885. 

Gariep.    See  Or.\nge  River. 

GarigliailO  (ancient  Liris  :  in  its  upper  course 
now  called  Liri),  a  river  of  southern  Italy,  rises  in 
the  Abruzzi,  west  of  the  former  Lake  of  Fucino,  and 
Hows,  after  a  generally  southerly  coui'se  of  90  miles, 
into  the  Gulf  of  Gaeta.  It  is  navigable  below 
Pontecorvo,  and  abounds  with  fish.  On  its  banks 
in  1503  was  fought  a  famous  battle  between  the 
French  and  the  Spanianls,  commanded  by  Gonsalvo 
lie  Cordova,  in  which  the  former  were  totally 
routed,  though  Bayard  is  said  single-handed  to 
have  held  the  bridge  against  200  Spaniards. 

Garlic  {Allium  sntiriini,  see  Al.LliM),  an  herb 
cultivated  from  the  earliest  ages  on  account  of  its 
wholesome  and  characteristically  Havoureil  bulbs. 
These  break  readily  up  into  a  dozen  or  more  '  cloves  ' 
or  subordin.ite  bulbs,  which  are  the  developed 
axillary  buds  of  the  exhausted  .scale-leaves  of 
the  parent  bulb:  and  this  circumstance  is  of  much 
service,    alike    in    cultivation    and  in    regulating 


88 


GARLIC 


GARNETS 


Common  Garlic 
(Allium  aativmn). 


tlie    quantity    used     in     cooking.        Tliin     varies 

greatly    with    national   ta«te,    from    a   niaxiiiiiiiii 

in  Sp.iin  to  a  ininiiiiiiiii 

^^^^^^■■^(^       in   liritnin.      Tlie   plant 

^^^^^^  /^"^X^    seems  to  have  been  intro- 

^^^r       ^^y    S^l^   duced  along  the  Mcditer- 

^^r    ^L^^</*- I^H    ranean  from  the  Kiust  in 

i^m  miittr^M^K    ^'<^ry     early     times,     its 

^m       ^riSSml    w^K    '"'i?''"^'  home  being  per- 

flV        C   Mmtsi^^m       haps  the  Kiiglii/st('])p<'s  : 

iff        ^tEa^sll^^r         '^  '^  recorded  as  part  of 

H  ll^^lm  *''^  raticms  of  the  Kgyp- 

D  a  II  tian      pyramid-builders, 

I  M  n  and    there    perhajis   the 

|V  H  I  Jewsae<]nired  their  fond- 

y  ll  H  ness  for  It.      It  was,  how- 

"  "  ever,    forbiilden    to    the 

i)riests  of  I  sis.  The 
{oman  soldiers  were 
given  garlic  as  an  e.xcit- 
ant  (whence  the  jieacc- 
loving  maxim,  tilliiini  tie. 
romcddx);  and  the  same 
regimen  was  applied  in 
the  still  recent  days  of 
cock  lighting.  It  had 
also  many  medicinal  aj)- 
plications. — Many  of  the 
Hpecie.s  of  Allium  are 
popuharly  called  garlic, 
with  some  distinilive 
addition.  A.  oleraceiim  is  sometimes  called  Wild 
(iarlic  in  England,  and  its  young  and  tender  leaves 
are  used  as  a  pot-herb. 

(>arli<'.  Oil  of.  When  the  leave-s,  seeds,  or 
bulbs  of  garlic  and  other  allied  plants  are  ilistilled 
with  steam,  about  0'2  per  cent,  of  .a  brown  oil,  with 
acrid  taste  and  strong  disagreeable  odour,  ])asses 
over,  liy  jiMrilication  it  is  obtained  as  a  pale  yellow 
oil  having  the  odour  of  garlic,  and  it  is  then  found 
to  consist  of  the  sulphiile  of  allyl,  (C,H.,)„S.  This 
oil  is  nearly  related  to  the  iiungent  oil  of  must.ird, 
CjIIsNCS,  an  isomer  of  the  sulpliocyaiiid(^  of  allyl, 
and  is  of  much  interest  chemically,  but  it  is  of  no 
importance  from  an  industrial  or  popular  point  of 
view. 

Garnet.  Fenrv,  is  chielly  remembered  for 
his  connection  with  the  (Junpowder  Plot.  He  wxs 
horn  in  1555,  and  educated  as  a  Protestant  at 
Winchester  College.  A  few  years  alter  leaving 
school  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  went  abroad, 
and  entered  the  Society  of  .Jesus.  He  acquirecl 
among  the  .lesuits  a  considerable  rc|iutation  for 
learning  and  piety.  In  1586  he  was  sent  upon  the 
English  mission,  where  for  eighteen  years  he  acted 
as  provincial  of  the  Jesuits.  The  indiscreet  zeal 
with  which  he  promoted  cert.ain  .Jesuit  schemes  for 
the  advancement  of  their  order  brought  him  into 
odium  with  an  inlluential  section  of  the  secular 
clergy ;  while  his  frieinlship  and  ciurespondence  with 
the  extreme  partisans  of  the  Spanish  faction  brought 
him  uniler  suspicion  of  treason.  In  the  spring  of 
1605  he  wrote  to  a  Jesuit  in  l'"lan<lers  in  commemla- 
tion  of  Guy  Fawkes,  when  that  conspirator  went 
over  to  the  Netherlands  in  order  to  solicit  the 
co-operation  of  Sir  William  Stanley  and  others  in 
the  plot  of  that  year,  (larnet  admitted  that  before 
this  he  had  come  to  know,  in  a  general  way,  of 
the  projected  treason,  and  that  in  July  he  heard 
the  particulars,  under  the  seal  of  confession 
(so  he  said),  from  another  Jesuit,  (Jreenway. 
At  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  plot  he  w;ts 
present  at  the  place  of  meeting  appointed  by  the 
conspirators,  and  shortly  afterwards  wius  apjjre- 
hencled  on  suspicion  at  Hindlip.  The  chief  grounds 
for  inferring  his  complicity  in  the  plot,  were 
derived  from  a  secret  conversation  held  bv  him  in 


))rison  with  a  brother  Jesuit,  Oldcorn,  overheard  by 
spies  set  for  the  pnr])ose  by  the  government. 

That  (iarnel  knew  the  particulars  of  the  mur- 
derous design  months  before  its  attempted  execu- 
tion wjis  proved  and  lulmitted.  That  this  know- 
ledge wius  <lerived  exclusively  from  the  confessional 
rests  U])on  his  stalement  oidy.  It  would  pr(d>ably 
have  giuie  le.ss  hard  with  the  prisoner  had  not  his 
judges  been  ])rejuilieed  against  him,  not  indeed  so 
much  on  account  of  his  creed  ils  for  his  extraor- 
"linary  practice  of  equivocation  when  on  his  trial. 
He  wius  condemned  for  misprision  of  trea.son,  and 
executed  May  '.i,  lOOti.  In  i>roof  of  his  innocence 
the  story  of  a  miraculous  straw,  timcheil  by  his 
blood,  and  bearing  a  miniature  portrait  of  the 
.Jesuit,  was  circulated  among  Koman  Catholics; 
anil  it  is  said  that  the  mere  sight  of  the  straw 
nuule  live  hundred  converts  to  his  creed,  (iarnet 
was  ccmsidered  by  his  co-religionists  generally  as  a 
martyr  for  the  seal  of  confession,  ami  as  sucli  was 
juo)H>sod,  with  the  rest  of  the  victims  of  the  penal 
laws,  for  the  honour  of  beatilicatiim  ;  but  it  is 
remarkable  that,  while  more  than  three  hundred 
candidates  (d)tained  the  title  of  lilesse<l  or  Vener- 
able, the  objections  of  the  'devil's  advocate'  in 
the  ca.se  of  i'"ather  Garnet  were  so  cogent  that  the 
pope  was  induced  to  defer  the  introduction  of  his 
cause.  See  GUNPOWDEH  I'LOT,  and  works  cited 
there. 

Ciiariiets.  a  group  of  minerals  that  crystallise  in 
the  cubic.il  system.  Their  commonest  form  is  the 
rhombic  ilodecahedron,  or  a  condjinalion  of  this 
with  the  icositelrahedron.  Their  composition  may 
he  represented  by  the  gener.il  formula,  M.,l{.,Sij()|„, 
where  M  =  Ca,  Fe,  Mg,  Mn ;  K,  =  Al.„  Fe„,  Cr.f  Thu's 
we  have  lime-alumina,  iron-alumina,  magnesia- 
alumina,  mangancsealumina,  lime-iron,  and  lime- 
chrome  garnets.     Garnets  have  a  hardness  ranging 


a,  a  detached  cr}*sta1 


(iarnet : 

b,  portion  of  rock  with  embedded 
crystals. 


from  about  7  to  8.  Their  lustre  is  vitreous 
and  resinous,  and  they  are  rarely  transparent  and 
very  seldom  colourless.  The  most  common  colour 
is  some  shade  of  red,  but  brown,  yellow,  green,  and 
even  lilack  varieties  are  known.  Some  of  the  better 
known  kinds  are  as  follows  : 

Liiin-aliiiiiiiia  Garnets. — fhossiihir  [fjrossiila,  'a 
gooseberry'),  so  called  from  its  green  colour — the 
tint  is  usually  rather  pale — found  in  Siberia  and  in 
Norway;  Essoiiitc  or  Citinimnni-stone  (q.v. );  Sue- 
eiiiitc,  aniber-colimred,  from  Ala,  Piedmont ;  llotnan- 
ziivite,  brown  or  brownish-black,  from  Kimito,  in 
Finland. 

Iruniihiminii  Garnets. — Almaiidine,  the  precious 
or  oriental  ganiet  of  jewellers  ;  red,  transjiarent ; 
occurs  .IS  .a  rock-constituent  in  many  crystalline 
schists  anil  granites,  and  occasiimally  also  in 
trachyte,  and  is  met  with  in  the  sands  and  alluvial 
soils  which  have  resulted  from  the  disintegration 
of  such  rocks,  as  in  Ceylon,  Pegu,  Hindustan, 
Brazil,  Greenland,  Scotland,  I've.  Iron-alumina 
ganiets  are  often  crowded  with  enclosures,  have  a 
somewhat  dull  lustre,  and  are  full  of  flaws  ;  such 
are  usually  known  as  eommon  ifarnet.  Common 
garnet  often  occurs  niiussive,  and  not  infrequently 


GARNETT 


GARONNE 


89 


forms  a  very  considerable  part  of  certain  kiiul.s  of 
rock,  as  j,'arnet-rock,  eklogite,  and  grannlite. 

Mfignf.iifi-aliimuta  (irirncts.  — These  are  somewhat 
uncommon — tlie  best  known  being  the  black  garnets 
from  Arendal  in  Norway.  Another  is  I'ljruiie,  whicli 
is  transparent  and  of  a  Idood-red  coh)ur.  CurbKudc. 
(i(.v.)  is  tlie  name  given  by  laiiiihiries  to  a  jjyrope 
cut  eti  cabochoii  or  'tallow-drop.'  It  occurs  in 
serpentine  and  in  the  loose  soils  derived  from  the 
breaking-up  of  that  rock,  as  in  IJohemia,  where  it  is 
used  as  a  gem.  It  does  not  occur  in  crystals,  but 
in  rounded  or  angular  grains. 

Mauqiincse-aiumina  Garnets  are  met  with,  chiefly 
in  small  grains  and  crystals  in  schists  and  granites, 
near  Aschatt'enburg,  in  Spessart  (Frauconia);  in 
the  Ardennes,  I'iedmont,  ('onnecticut,  iSrc.  The 
Kranconian  locality  has  given  its  name  to  this 
garnet — Spcssartiiic,  which  is  of  a  deep  hyacinth  or 
brownish-red.  Many  of  the  garnets  which  occur  in 
the  granites  of  Scotland  are  rich  in  magnesia,  but 
from  the  abundance  of  ferric  oxide  which  they 
contain  they  are  included  under  the  iron-alumina 
group. 

Lime-iron  Garnets. — Of  these  the  most  important 
is  Melanite,  velvet-black  and  opaque  ;  it  occurs  as  a 
rock-constituent  in  various  volcanic  rocks  (phono- 
lite,  leucite  lava,  and  tuff),  as  at  Fra.scati  ( Albano 
Mountains,  near  Rome),  Laacher  See,  near  the 
Rhine,  Oberbergen  (Kaiserstuhl),  &c.  Other 
varieties  are  Topuzolitc,  yellow,  green,  and  greenish- 
yellow  ;  Aploiiie,  green,  brownish,  and  sometimes 
yellow. 

Lime-r/iromc  Garnets.  —  Uwarowifc,  an  emerald- 
green  garnet,  translucent  at  the  edges,  found  in 
the  Urals. 

The  garnets  of  commerce  are  brought  from 
Bohemia,  Ceylon,  Pegu,  and  Brazil  ;  the  most 
esteemed  kinds  (coming  originally  from  Syriani,  in 
Pegu)  are  vulgarly  called  Syrian  garnets.  They 
are  violet-purple ;  and  now  and  again  very  tine 
specimens  almost  vie  in  ccdour  with  the  oriental 
amethyst.  The  stones  vary  in  size  from  the  smallest 
that  can  be  worked  to  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut. 
Larger  ones  are  common  enough,  but  these  are 
rarely  free  from  flaws  or  impurities. 

(•ill'lioti*  KlCH.\RD,  philologist,  was  born  at 
Otiey,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1789.  He  had  already  tried 
commerce  and  the  church,  when  in  183.S  be  found 
his  work  in  the  appointment  of  assistant-keeper  of 
printed  books  at  the  British  Museum.  He  died  in 
1850.  One  of  the  founders  of  the  Philological 
Society,  he  cimtributed  many  striking  papers  (on 
Celtic  subjects,  largely)  to  its  Proceedings  and  to 
the  Qiiurier/i/  Review.  These  were  collected  by 
his  son  in  Philological  Essai/s  (1859). — KlCll.\RD, 
his  son,  was  born  at  Lioldleld,  Feliruary  27, 
18.'i5,  and  appointed  in  1851  assistant  in  the 
printed  book  department  of  the  British  Museum, 
where  also  he  became  sujjerintemlent  of  the 
reading-room  in  1875.  This  otiice  he  resigned 
in  1884  to  devote  himself  to  the  printing  of  the 
Museum  Catalogue  ;  in  1896  he  became  Keeper  of 
the  PriutiMl  Book.s.  LL.I).  of  Edinburgh  since  1883, 
he  lias  published  several  volumes  of  verse  ;  liclics  of 
S/irl/ri/  {IH{}2),  Selections  of  S/iellei/'s  Poems  (1880) 
and  Letters  (188-2);  Dc  Quincei/'s  English  0/iiiim 
Eater  (1885);  a  sensible  little  liook  on  Carlyle 
(1883):  a  volume  of  humorous  and  satirical  jirose 
tales,  T/ie  Twilif/ht  of  the  Gods  ( 1888) ;  and  a  book 
on  the  literature  ot  The  Aeje  of  Dnjdcn  (1895). 
The  article  on  Milton  in  the  present  work  is  from 
his  pen.     He  retired  in  1800,  and  is  C.  B. 

fiiarilirr,  Fri.\NCIs,  sailor  and  travcdler,  was 
born  at  St  Etienne,  25tb  July  18;i0,  and  entering 
the  navy  fought  in  the  Chinese  war  (IStiOO-J). 
Appointed  to  a  post  in  French  ( 'ocldn-t 'liin.a, 
he  promoted  a  great  exploring  expedition,  of  which 


he  ultimately  assumed  the  command.  Starting 
from  the  coast  of  Cambodia  (q.v. ),  the  expedi- 
tion travelled  to  Shanghai  by  way  of  Yunnan.  He 
to(dv  part  in  the  defence  of  Pans  in  1870-71,  and 
subsequently  travelled  again  in  China.  In  the 
Tonkin  war  he  took  Hanoi,  but  was  killed,  2il 
December  1873.  His  chief  work  is  Voi/a</e  d'Ex- 
ploration  en  Indo-Cliine  (2  vols.  1873).  See  Petit's 
Francis  Gamier  (Paid-s,  1885). 

Cjiarilier,  Rohert  (1.534-90),  a  French  trage- 
dian, the  most  distinguished  of  the  predecessors  of 
Corneille  (see  Drama).  Editions  of  bis  jdays  have 
appeared  at  Paris  (1607),  Rouen  (1618),  and  Heil- 
bronn  (1883). 

Gamier-Pages,  Etienne  Joseph  Loui.s,  was 

born  at  Marseilles,  27th  Decemlier  1801,  and 
practised  there  as  an  advocate,  Imt  at  Paris  in  1830 
took  a  conspicuous  jiart  in  the  July  levolution, 
and  in  1831  became  a  prominent  mendier  of  the 
Chamber.  He  died  23d  June  1841.  — His  half- 
brother,  Lons  Antoine,  born  Kith  July  1803,  also 
shared  in  the  July  revolution,  and  succeeded  his 
brother  in  the  Chamber,  leading  the  extreme  Left. 
He  became  in  1848  mayor  of  Paris  and  finance- 
minister  of  the  provisional  government ;  was  a 
repuliliean  member  of  the  Corjjs  Legislatif  in  1864  ; 
and  was  a  member  of  the  provisional  government  of 
1871.  He  died  in  Paris,  31st  October  1878.  He 
wrote  the  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  de  IS4S  ( 1861- 
62),  and  L'Ujjposition  et  rEmpire  (1872). 

Garnishee.  In  English  law,  to  garnish  ( Fr. 
garnir)  is  to  warn,  and  the  garnishee  is  a  jierson 
warned  not  to  pay  money  which  he  owes  to  another, 
because  the  latter  is  indebted  to  the  garnisher  who 
gives  the  warning.     See  Att.\CHMENT. 

Garofalo,  the  name  by  which  the  painter 
Ben\enuto  Tisi  or  Tisio  is  known.  He  spent  most  of 
his  life  ( 1481-1559)  in  Ferrara,  where  he  was  bom  ; 
but  spent  three  years  in  Rome  in  association  with 
Raphael,  on  whom  he  modelled  his  style. 

Garo  Hills,  a  mountainous  district  forming  the 
soulli-west  corner  of  Assam,  with  an  area  of  3270 
sq.  III.,  and  a  pop.  (1891)  of  121, ,570.  In  the  Tuia 
range  (4950  ft.)  the  rainfall  is  126  inches. 

Garonne  (anc.  Gammna  ),  tlie  iirincipal  river  in 
the  south-west  of  F'rance,  rises  witliin  the  Spanish 
frontier  in  the  Val  dAian,  at  the  ba.se  of  Blount 
Maladetta,  in  the  Pyrenees,  6142  feet  above  .sea- 
level.  About  26  miles  from  its  source  it  enters  the 
I'^rench  territory  in  the  department  of  Haute 
(iaronne,  flows  in  a  general  north-east  course  to 
Toulouse,  then  bends  to  the  north-west,  and  con- 
tinues to  How  in  that  direction  until,  joined  liy  the 
Dordogne,  about  20  miles  below  Bordeaux,  and 
widening  afterwards  into  the  estuary  which  bears 
the  name  of  the  Giromle,  it  enters  the  Atlantic  at 
the  Pointe  de  Grave.  The  estuary,  the  largest  in 
France,  is  nearly  50  miles  long.  The  total  length 
of  the  river  is  ;ibout  346  miles  ;  it  drains  an  area  of 
some22,020  sq.  m.  Its  navigation,  which,  however, 
is  much  impeded  above  Toulouse,  commences  for 
small  craft  at  Cazeres  ;  ocean  steamers  go  up  to 
Bordeaux.  Its  principal  attluents  are  the  'larn, 
Lot,  and  Dordogne,  on  the  right  :  ami  on  the  left, 
the  Save,  Gers,  and  Baise.  .\t  Toulouse  it  is  joined 
by  the  Canal  du  Midi,  which,  running  ea,stward 
to  the  Mediterranean,  forms  with  the  Garonne  a 
means  of  cimimunication  between  th.it  .sea  ami  the 
.\tlaiitic:  and  the  river's  own  canal  lattral,  starting 
al.so  from  Toulouse,  runs  along  the  right  bank, 
receives  the  Montauban  Canal,  and  spans  several 
streams  in  its  course,  crossing  the  (ianuine  itself 
at  Agen  bv  a  magniflcent  viaduct.  ;uid  returning  to 
the  river  at  Castets.  after  a  total  length  of  120 
miles.  The  valley  of  the  Garonne  is  noted  for  the 
beauty,  of  its  scenery,  but  is  liable  to  ib'stnicti\e 
inundations,   the  most   memorable   being  that  of 


90 


GARONNE 


fiAHKISON 


1875,  when  tiniiiage  to  the  amount  of  85  million 

francs  was  iiiiisfd. 

<>aroilll('.  IlAl'TE,  a  (lepiirtiiient  in  the  south 
of  Kniiice,  eiiilnaciii;,'  portions  of  ancient  Gascoiiy 
and  Lan;,'uciloo,  lias  an  area  of  '2-128  sm.  in.,  ami  a 
pop.  ( 1872)of  47'J,:i02;  (  IS'.M  )  472,;iS;!.  It  is  watered 
thr<')Uj;liout  l>y  the  (iaroiiiie,  from  which  it  derives 
its  name,  and  « illiin  the  basin  of  which  it  wholly 
lies.  Occupied  in  the  south  hy  a  liranch  of  the 
Fyrenean  ran;,'e,  the  slope  of  the  department  anil 
the  course  of  its  stri'anis  arc  towanl  the  north  and 
north-east.  Apart  from  this  southern  mmmtainous 
region,  the  department  is  hilly  and  fertile.  Tiie 
soil  in  the  valley.s  is  remarkahly  i)roductive,  and 
hears  heavy  crops  of  wheat,  nniize,  Max,  hemp, 
potatoes,  and  rape-seed.  Orchard  fruits  and  chest- 
nuts are  produceil  in  abundance,  .and  the  annual 
yield  of  wine  is  about  20,(MK),(HR)  f;allons,  two-thirds 
of  which  is  cvjiurted.  Mineral  spring's  and  baths 
are  very  plentiful.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
woollen  anil  iM)tton  fabrics,  paper,  and  hardware. 
The  department  is  divideil  into  the  four  arrondis.se- 
nients  of  Touhm.se,  Muret,  St  (iaudens,  and  Ville- 
franche,  with  Toulouse  as  capital. 

<;ar<>tt4-.     See  O.UtKOTTE. 

(iar-^Mke  {Ikluiic),  a  genus  of  bony  fishes  in 
the  family  Scombresocida',  not  far  from  the  true 
pikes  (Esocida').  They  have  Ion;;  bodies,  and  both 
jaws  are  prolon;,'ed  into  a  slender  beak,  be.^et  with 
roughnesses  and  widely  set  teeth.  They  swim 
actively,  with  an  undulating  motion,  near  the 
surface,  and  catch  small  lishes  in  their  jaws.  The 
common  (iar-pike  { Jl.  vnlijaris  or  li.  be/one)  is 
frequent  oil'  British  coasts,  and  is  sometimes 
called  (lieenbone,  from  the  colour  of  the  bones 
(especially  after  cooking),  tiorebill,  from  its  char- 
acteristic beak,  or  Mackerel-guide,  because  it  visits 


Uar-pike  (Belone  vulyari*). 

the  coa.sts  just  before  the  mackerel.  It  is  usually 
about  two  feet  in  length,  is  often  brought  to  the 
London  market,  and  forms  a  wholesome  dish,  in 
tiavour  somewhat  like  mackerel.  About  lifty 
species  are  known  from  tropical  and  temperate 
seas,  some  twice  as  long  as  the  Uritish  species. 
The  young  forms  li.ave  at  lirst  j.iws  of  a  normal 
size,  and  in  growth  the  lower  imtstrips  the  upper. 
The  name  Oar-pike  Is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
far-removed  Ganoid,  Lepidosteus,  or  Bony  Pike 
(q.v.). 
CJarrott,  ELiz.vtiETii.    See  Axdkr.sox. 

Oarrirki  H.vvid,  .actor,  manager,  anil  drama- 
tist, Wits  born  on  20tli  Kcbrnary  1717,  at  Hereford, 
where  his  father.  Captain  I'eter  (iarrick,  wivs  then 
stationed.  Lichlield,  however,  was  the  home  of 
the  Garricks,  and  it  w.os  in  the  grammar-school 
there  that  David  received  the  chief  part  of  his 
education,  for  he  must  have  been  in  his  nineteenth 
or  twentieth  year  before  he  was  sent  to  study 
Latin  and  Greek  under  Samuel  .lohnson,  at  Edial 
near  Lichlield.  His  tuition  by  .Johnson  lasted  for 
'  only  a  few  months,  and  its  well-known  result  was 
the  setting  out  of  master  and  pupil  together,  on 
the  morning  of  2(1  March  17.37,  to  journey  to 
London;  (iarrick  to  study  'mathematics,  and 
philosophy,  and  humane  learning,'  with  a  view 
to  the    bar ;    Johnson    '  to    try   his    fate   with    a 


tragedy,  and  to  see  to  get  himself  einployed  in 
some  translation,  cither  from  the  Latin  or  the 
French.'  lint  circumstances  brought  Garrick's 
legal  studies  to  nothing,  aiul  in  17;iH  he  became 
a  wine-merchant,  in  partnership  with  his  eldest 
brother,  I'eter.  Samuel  Eoote  in  after  years  used 
to  say  that  'he  remembered  Garrick  living  in 
Durham  Yard,  with  three  quarts  of  vinegar  in 
the  cellar,  calling  himself  a  wine-merchant.' 
Garrick,  there  is  no  diuibt,  already  had  the  stage 
fever,  and  his  attention  was  probably  more  taken 
up  with  plays  and  playei-s  than  willi  business,  so 
it  is  not  surprising  that  in  I74U  the  partnership 
was  dis.solved.  tiarrick  then  devoted  his  mind  to 
preparing  himself  for  his  intended  |iiofession,  and 
in  the  summer  of  1741  made  his  lirst  appear- 
ance .OS  an  actor.  He  did  not  venture  at  once 
to  iday  in  London,  but  went  througli  a  short 
probationary  season  at  Ipswich,  jdaying  under  the 
name  of  Lyddal.  His  lii-st  part  was  Aboaii  in 
Southerne's  Oiouiioko,  which  he  chose  because 
Aboan's  black  face  disguised  him  and  gave  him 
greater  cimlidence.  He  snbseijueiitly  played  with 
great  success  several  other  jiarls,  incluiling  Harle- 
quin. On  19th  October  1741  he  a]ipcared  in 
London  at  the  theatre  in  (ioodnian's  Eields,  of 
which  his  friend  (iill'ard  was  manager.  Richard 
HI.  was  Ills  lii-st  character,  and  his  success 
was  so  great  that  within  a  few  weeks  the  two 
patent  theatres  were  deserted,  anil  crowds  Hocked 
to  the  unfashionable  East-end  playhouse.  Ilut 
tJoodmairs  Fields  hail  no  license,  so  the  managers 
of  Drniy  l.ane  and  Covent  Garden  set  the  law 
in  motion  and  had  the  theatre  closed,  (iarrick 
played  at  both  the  |)atent  theatres,  but  ultimately 
.settled  at  Drury  I^ane,  of  which  he  became  joint- 

fiateiitee  with  James  Lacy  in  1747.  Until  1776 
le  continued  to  direct  the  leading  theatre,  and 
in  that  year  he  retired  from  the  stage  and  from 
management,  his  successor  in  the  direction  of 
the  theatre  being  Kichaid  Jirinsley  Sheridan. 
During  this  period  (iarrick  was  himself  the  great 
attraction  and  played  continually,  his  only  long 
re.st  being  a  trip  to  the  Continent  from  17(13  to 
17(>5,  at  which  time  he  fancied  that  his  ]iopularitv 
was  in  danger  of  diminishing.  His  farewell 
appearance  was  made  on  Hitli  .lune  177(>,  when 
he  played  Don  Felix  in  the  comedy  of  The  Wunder. 
He  died  on  'JOth  .lanuary  177!»,  aiiil  was  buried  in 
AVestmin.ster  Abbey,  where  a  hideously  theatrical 
monument  was  erected  to  his  memory.  As  an 
actor,  Garrick  occupies  the  lirat  rank.  At  his 
coming  the  stage  wius  given  over  to  formality  and 
tradition,  but  these  disajipeared  before  the  new 
actor  whose  leading  characteristic  was  naturaliies.s. 
He  possessed  also  the  most  astonishing  versatility, 
being  equally  at  home  in  tragedy,  comedy,  or 
farce — in  Lear,  Don  Felix,  or  Abel  Drugger.  As 
a  man,  he  has  been  charged  with  meanness,  vanity, 
and  petty  jealousy ;  but  his  faults  of  char.acter 
were  grossly  exaggerated  by  those  who  envied  his 
fame,  .and  they  were  more  than  balanced  by  his 
many  excellent  qualities,  (iarrick's  dramatic  jiro- 
ductions,  .some  forty  in  number,  are  of  minor 
importance,  but  simie  of  his  numerous  prologues 
and  epilogues  are  excellent.  G.arrick  married  in 
June  1749  a  good  and  excellent  woman,  Eva  .Maria 
Violctte,  the  celebr.ated  dancer.  She  long  survived 
him,  dying  in  18'22,  at  the  great  age  of  ninety- 
seven.  See  I'Mtzgeiald's  f .iff  of  David Oan-ic/c (\S6S), 
and  that  by  Joseph  Knight  (1894). 

<iarris«ll,  AVii.i,i.\m  Lloyd,  journalist  and 
abolitiimist,  was  born  .at  Newburyiiort,  Mas.sa- 
chusetts,  December  10,  180.5.  His  lather  was  a 
man  of  literan'  taste  and  ability,  but,  falling  into 
{  dissolute  lial>its,  deserted  his  wife,  who,  to  support 
!  her  family,  had  to  turn  professional  nurse.  William, 
who  had  previously  tried  shoeinaking  and  cabinet- 


GARROT 


GARTER 


91 


making,  was  apprenticed  to  the  printer  of  the 
Newburijjmrt  HeiaUl,  an  occupation  wliicli  suiteil 
his  taste;  he  soon  made  himself  master  of  the 
mechanical  part  of  the  business,  and  when  only 
sixteen  or  seventeen  hegan  to  write  for  the  Herahl. 
His  contributions,  which  were  anonynious,  were 
favourably  received,  and  he  soon  commenced  to 
senil  articles  to  the  Salem  Gazette  and  other  papers, 
drawing  the  attention  of  political  circles  by  a 
series  of  articles  under  the  signature  Aristides, 
with  the  view  of  removing  the  almost  universal 
apathy  on  the  subject  of  slavery.  In  1824  he 
became  editor  of  the  Herald,  and  some  of  J.  G. 
Whittier's  earliest  poems  were  accepted  by  him, 
while  their  author  was  yet  unknown  to  fame. 
After  two  or  three  other  attempts,  in  1829  he 
joined  Mr  Lundy  at  Baltimore  in  editing  the 
Genius  of  Uiticerstil  Emaneiimtiuii.  The  vigor- 
ous e.vpression  of  his  anti-slavery  views  in  this 
last  paper  led  to  his  imprisonment  for  libel,  from 
which  he  was  released  by  Jlr  Tappan,  a  New 
York  merchant,  who  paid  his  tine.  He  now  pre- 
pared a  series  of  emancipation  lectures,  subse- 
quently delivered  in  New  York  and  other  places. 
He  returned  to  Boston,  and  in  1831  started  the 
Liberator,  without  capital  or  subscribers,  a  paper 
with  which  his  name  is  inseparably  iissociated,  and 
which  he  carried  on  for  thirtytive  years,  until 
slavery  was  abolished  in  the  Cnited  States.  For 
the  first  few  years  the  mail  brought  hundreds  of 
letters  to  (jarrison,  threatening  his  assassination 
if  he  did  not  discontinue  this  journal  ;  the  legis- 
lature of  Georgia  ottered  a  reward  of  5000  dollars 
to  any  one  who  sliould  prosecute  and  bring  liim 
to  conviction  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  that 
state  ;  in  1833  he  was  severely  handled  by  a  Boston 
mob,  and  the  mayor  of  that  city  was  constantly 
appeale<l  to  from  the  South  to  suppress  his  paper. 
In  spite  of  all,  he  successfully  persevered.  In  1833 
he  visited  Great  Britain,  and  on  his  return  organ- 
ised the  American  Anti-slavery  Society,  of  which 
he  was  afterwards  president.  He  visited  England 
again,  in  the  furtherance  of  his  anti-slavery  opinions, 
in  184G  and  1848.  The  diverging  views  of  the 
anti  slavery  ))arty,  as  to  whether  a  political  plat- 
form should  be  adopted,  and  as  to  the  voting  and 
speaking  of  women,  rent  the  body  for  a  time,  but  on 
1st  January  1863  Lincoln's  proclamation  of  freedom 
to  the  slaves  as  a  military  measure  placed  the 
civil  struggle  on  an  anti  slavery  basis.  In  186.5, 
when  (iarrison's  labours  had  been  completely  suc- 
cessful, and  after  the  total  abolition  of  slavery  in 
the  United  States,  his  friends  presented  him  with 
.30,000  dollars  (£6000)  as  a  memorial  of  his  services. 
In  1867  he  was  once  more  in  England,  and  enter- 
tained at  a  public  breakfast  in  St  .lanies's  Hall. 
He  died  .at  New  York,  24th  May  1879.  \  bronze 
statue  has  been  erected  to  his  memory  in  Boston. 
Some  Sonnets  and  other  Poems  by  him  were  pub- 
lished in  1847,  and  Seleetlnns  from  liis  Writings  and 
Speeehes  in  18.')2.  See  Johnson's  William  Lloyd 
Garrison  (1882);  William  Lloijd  Garrison:  the 
Story  of  his  Life,  by  his  children  (4  vols.  188.5-89) ; 
and  ])oems  to  his  memory  by  both  Whittier  and 
Lowell. 

tiarrot.  a  name  applied  to  various  ducks — e.g. 
to  Fiili.r  elaiKjiila  and  Harelda  kistrionica.  See 
Duck,  Wilu-fowl. 

Garrotte  (Span,  garrote,  'a  stick  or  cudgel'), 
a  mode  of  execution  practised  in  Spain  and  the 
Spanish  colonies.  Originally  it  consisted  in  simply 
placing  a  cord  round  the  neck  of  a  crimin.al,  who 
was  seated  on  jv  chair  fixed  to  a  post,  and  then 
twisting  the  cord  by  means  of  a  stick  { whence  the 
name)  inserted  between  the  post  an<l  the  back  of  the 
neck,  till  strangulation  was  ]iroduced.  Afterwards 
a  brass  collar  was  used,  containing  a  .screw,  which 


the  executioner  turned  till  its  point  entered  the 
spinal  marrow  where  it  unites  with  the  brain, 
causing  instantaneous  death.  In  its  primitive  form 
it  exactly  resembles  the  punishment  of  the  bow- 
.string  in  use  among  Mohammedan  nations. — 
Garrotting  is  also  the  name  given  in  Britain  to  a 
species  of  robbery  which  became  rather  common  i 
in  the  winter  of  1862-63,  and  in  which  the  robbers 
suddenly  come  behind  their  victim,  and  half- 
strangle  him  till  their  purpose  is  etl'ected.  An  act 
passed  in  1863  imposing  Flogging  ((j.v.)  as  part  of 
the  penalty  was  effective  in  speedily  suppressing 
the  otl'ence. 

Garter,  The  Most  Noble  Order  of  the. 
This  renowned  order  of  knighthood  was  instituted 
by  King  Edward  III.,  at  what  exact  date  has  been 
matter  of  dispute,  but  most  probably  on  IStli 
January  1344.  Edward,  having  laid  claim  to  the 
French  throne,  assumed  the  style  of  king  of 
France.  He  had  been  partially  successful  in  his  first 
French  campaign,  and,  meditating  a  seccmd  expedi- 
tion, he  resolved  to  institute  an  order  of  knighthood 
in  honour  of  his  successes  past  and  to  come,  and  as 
a  means  of  rewarding  some  of  his  most  distin- 
gtiished  comrades  in  arms.  Hence  the  colour  of 
the  emblem  chosen  ^^as  blue,  the  French  livery 
colour,  and  the  motto,  Honi  soil  qui  mal  y  jjcnse 
(i.e.  '  Dishonoured  be  he  who  thinks  ill  of  it'),  was 
appropriate  whether  it  applied  to  the  French  e.x- 
pedition  or  to  the  order  itself.  The  tradition  is 
that  the  choice  of  both  emblem  and  motto  was 
determined  by  a  trivial  incident.  The  Countess 
of  Salisbury  dropped  her  garter  when  dancing  with 
the  king,  and  the  king,  picking  it  ujt,  tied  it  round 
his  leg ;  but,  observing  the  queen's  jealous  glances, 
he  returned  it  to  its  fair  owner  w  ith  the  remark, 
Honi  soil  qui  mal  y  pense.  The  order  was  origin- 
ally founcfed  in  hoimur  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  the 
\"irgin  Mary,  St  George  of  Cappadocia,  and  St 
Edward  the  Confessor ;  but  St  George  was  always 
accounted  its  especial  patron,  so  nnicli  that  it  has 
sometimes  been  called  the  'Order  of  St  George.' 
By  the  original  constittition  the  Knights  Com- 
panions were  to  be  twenty-five  in  number  exclusive 
of  the  sovereign,  and  were  to  a^isemble  yearly  on 
'  the  eve  of  St  George  in  St  George's  Chapel,  wliere 
each  was  assigned  a  stall.  Subsequent  statutes 
authorised  the  admission  into  the  order,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  twenty-five  companions,  of  foreigners 
of  distinction,  and  such  descendants  of  George  II. 
j  (extended  to  descendants  of  George  I.  in  1831) 
I  a-s  should  be  elected,  always  excepting  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  who  was  of  necessity  a  companion  ;  also 
of  extra  knights,  which  last,  however,  have  always, 
on  \  acancies  occurring,  been  incorporated  into  the 
number  of  the  twenty-five  companions. 

The  habits  and  ensigns  of  the  order  originally 
consisted  of  the  garter,  surcoat,  mantle,  and 
hood,  to  which  were  afterwards  added  the  collar 
and  George,  the  star,  aiul  the  under  habit. 

This  order  has,  unlike  all  others,  for  its  princi- 
pal emblem  neither  chain  nor  badge,  but  the 
garter,  which,  at  first  of  light-blue  silk  with  the 
motto  sometimes  set  in  pearls,  rubies,  and  diamonds, 
is  now  of  ilark-blue  velvet  about  an  inch  wi<le,  with 
the  motto  in  gold  letters.  It  is  worn  on  the  left 
leg  a  little  below  the  knee  :  an<l  when  the  sovereign 
is  a  queen,  she  weal's  it,  as  sovereign  of  the  order,  on 
the  left  itrm  above  the  elbow.  The  statutes  forbade 
the  companions  to  appear  in  jjublic  without  it, 
yet  in  the  elfigies  on  their  monuments  it  is  often 
wanting.  The  practice  of  surrounding  the  armorial 
insignia  of  the  companions  with  the  garter  be^an 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  V.  :  and  the  first  sovereign 
on  whose  tomb  this  usage  was  complie<l  with  was 
Henry  \\\.  An  embroidered  garter  with  the 
motto  of  the  order  seems  to  have  been  formerly 
worn  on  the  left  arm  of  the  wives  of  companions. 


d2 


GARTEH 


OARTH 


The  manifold  variations  in  tlie  colour,  form,  and 
material  of  tliu  iniintli.-,  .snrcoat,  and  nn<ler  lialitt 
at  (litlerent  tiriu's  lucil  nut  lie  ilesorilieil  here.  As 
at  present  worn,  the  niiiiil/c  is  of  purple  velvet  lined 
with  white  talleta,  having  on  the  lelt  shoulder  the 
badge  of  the  order,  namely,  a  silver  escutcheon 
charged  with  a  red  cross  for  tlie  arms  of  St  George, 
and  encircled  with  the  garter  and  motto,  as  in  the 
annexed  cut.  In  chapters  it  is  worn  over  the 
uniform  or  court  dress.  The  surcoot,  a  short 
gown  without  sleeves,  is  niaile  of  crimson  velvet 
lined  like  the  mantle  with  white  talleta.  The 
hood,  worn  on  the  right  shouliler  of  the  mantle, 
and  now  a  meaningless  apjiendage,  is  made 
of  the  same  velvet  as  the  surcoat,  and  simi- 
larly lined.  When  it  ceasetl  to  serve  its  original 
purpose  of  a  covering  for  the  liea<l,  a  cap  was 
introduced  in  its  place,  which  is  now  ornamented 
with  ostrich-feathers,  and  in  the  centre  of 
them  a  lofty  tuft  of  hiack  heron's  feathers,  the 
whole  attached  to  the  hat  by  a  clasp  of  diamonds. 


Order  of  the  Garter : 
Star,  Collar  and  George,  and  Garter. 

The  under  habit,  introduced  by  Charles  II.,  need 
not  be  described  in  detail,  and  the  costume  is  coiii- 
iileted  by  white  silk  hose  ami  white  shoes  and  red 
lieels.  The  garter  worn  on  the  right  leg  is  of 
white  silver  riband  with  a  hirge  silver  rosette. 
The  sword  is  straight,  of  an  ancient  pattern  with 
a  cross-guard  hilt,  all  gilt,  the  scabbard  of  crimson 
velvet. 

The  collar  was  introiluced  by  Heniy  VII. ,  prob- 
ably in  consideration  of  a  similar  ornament  being 
the  principal  ensign  of  the  (iolden  Kleece  ami  other 
orders  instituted  in  the  l.'ith  century  ;  but  it  was 
lirst  onlered  to  be  worn  in  15-44.  It  consists  of 
twenty-six  pieces  in  which  interlaced  knots  of 
cords  alternate  with  double  roses,  each  surrounded 
with  the  garter  ami  its  motto,  these  roses  being 
alternately  white  within  red  and  red  within  white  ; 
and  pendent  from  one  of  the  roses  is  the  Gcorrfc, 
or  ligure  of  St  CJeorge  piercing  the  dragcm.  The 
collar  and  (!eorge  were  appointed  to  be  worn  on  all 
solemn  feasts ;  and  provision  was  also  made  for  a 
lesser  George  to  be  worn  on  other  occasions  attached 
to  a  chain  or  lace  of  silk,  for  which  wa-s  afterwards 
substituted  a  dark-blue  ribaiiil.  The  leaser  George 
ia  surrounded  with  the  garter  and  motto. 


In   respect  that  the  mantle  on  which   are  the 

arms  of  St  fJeorge  within  the  garter  is  only  worn 
on  special  occasions,  Charles  I.  in  Ki'Jti  introiluced 
anotlier  badge  to  be  worn  on  the  cloak  or  coat, 
in  which  the  cross  of  St  (ieorge(not  in  a  shield) 
is  surrounded  by  the  garter,  and,  to  make  it  more 
.splendid,  onlered  the  whole  to  be  surrounded  with 
rays  of  silver.  While  the  ba<lge  worn  on  the 
onlinary  ilress,  popularly  known  as  the  star,  is 
thus  irrailiatcd,  that  <m  the  mantle  has  remained 
unaltered. 

On  the  occurrence  of  a  vacancy,  a  chapter  (con- 
sisting of  the  sovereign  and  six  knights)  is 
appointed  to  meet,  in  which  the  new  companion 
is  elected,  the  election  being  ])ractically  a  form, 
and  the  choice  lying  with  the  sovereign.  The 
knight  elect,  if  at  liaml,  appeai-s  and  is  invested. 
If  absent,  the  garter  and  George  are  sent  him  by 
Garter  King  of  Arms.  In  case  of  a  foreign  prince 
being  elected,  some  person  of  distinction  is  sent 
along  with  (iarter  to  invest  him.  In  later  times, 
the  ceremony  of  election  has  often  been  dispensed 
with,  the  investiture  taking  jilace  privately,  and 
the  cerem<mies  connected  with  installation  are  now 
done  away  with.  Each  knight  has  his  stall  in 
St  George's  Chapel,  Windsor;  tlie  knight  elect 
used  to  get  his  predecessor's  stall,  but  a  system 
of  promotion  has  latterly  been  introiluced.  The 
garter-pl.ates  of  the  knights,  containing  their 
arms  and  style,  remain  ])ermanently,  and  those 
placeil  there  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  rank 
among  the  most  valuable  heraldic  relics  in 
Europe. 

The  olliccrs  of  the  order  are  the  Prelate,  who  has 
always  been  the  Bishoi)  of  Winchester ;  the 
Chancellor,  formerly  the  IJishop  of  Salisbury,  now- 
tin  coiisei|uence  of  a  change  in  the  division  of  the 
respective  sees)  the  Bishop  of  Oxford  ;  the 
Registrar,  who  is  the  Dean  of  Wind.sor ;  (Jarter 
King  of  Arms;  and  the  Gentleman  Usher  of  the 
Black  Hod. 

Knights  of  the  Garter  write  K.G.  after  their 
names.  Though  the  military  character  of  this 
fraternity  no  longer  exists,  it  has  retained  till  the 

I  present  day  its  pro-eminence  among  the  orders  of 
;nighthood  of  Europe.  For  two  centuries  past 
the  twenty-live  companions  have  been  almost 
exclusively  peers  or  the  eldest  sons  of  peel's.  .See 
Ashinole  s  IifitHiilioii,  Laws,  and  Ceremonies  o/' 
t/ie  Order  of  the  Garter  (1672);  and  Sir  Harris 
Nicolas'  History  of  British  Orders  of  Knighthood 
(1842). 

Garth.  Sir  S.vmi'KI.,  an  eminent  physician  and 
fair  poet,  was  born  at  Bowland  Eorest  in  Yorkshire 
in  the  year  1(501.  He  studied  at  I'eterhouse,  Cam- 
bridge, graduated  M.I),  in  lOltl,  and  next  year 
settled  in  London,  where  he  soon  became  fanmiis 
as  a  physician  and  conversationalist.  In  the  year 
17(K)  he  did  himself  everlasting  honour  by  providing 
burial  in  Westminster  Abbey  for  the  neglected 
Dryden,  and  pronouncing  a  eulogium  over  his  grave. 
On  the  accession  of  George  I.  he  was  kniphted  and 
ap]iointed  physician  in  ordinary  to  the  king,  and 
]inysician-general  to  the  army.  He  died  in  London, 
.January  IS,  171H.  Garth  is  best  known  in  our  liter- 
ary history  .as  the  author  of  The  iJixjien.sdrij  ( 109!)), 
a  mock-heroic  poetical  satire  on  those  apothecaries 
and  physicians  who  opposed  the  project  of  giving 
medicine  gratuitously  to  the  sick  poor.  The  poem 
was  exceedingly  popular,  but  has  long  since  ceased 
to  interest  a  reader.  In  \1\'>  he  published  his  topo- 
graphical ])oem  entitleil  Clarrnmnt,  in  imitation  of 
Denliam's  Coojicr'x  Hill,  and  in  1717  he  superin- 
tended and  contributed  to  a  translation  of  Ovid's 
Metamorphoses  by  Addison,  Pope,  Gay,  Congreve, 
Kowe,  and  other  eminent  contributors.  Garth  is 
now  interesting  chiefly  for  his  versification  as  a 
connecting  link  between  Dryden  and  Pope. 


GARTSHERRIE 


GAS    AND    GASES 


03 


dartsherrie.    See  Coatbridge. 

Gas  and  Gases.  Gas,  a  tenn  applied  by  Von 
Helinont  {1577-1044)  to  vapour  not  yet  shown 
to  be  condensable,  and  jiossibly  suj^gested  by  the 
Dutch  ficcst,  'spirit,'  'Khost.'  It  now  siynilics 
either  ( 1 )  a  vajiorous  substance  not  condensed  into 
a  liquid  at  ordinary  terrestrial  temperatures  and 
pressures,  or  (2)  one  which  at  ordinary  temperatures 
IS  not  condensable  into  a.  lii|nid  by  pressure  alone. 
In  both  these  senses,  air  under  ordinary  atmospheric 
conditions  is  a  gas  ;  when  cold  enough  it  is  not  a 
gas  but  a  vapour,  and  pressure  alone  can  then  con- 
dense it.  Sulphurous  acid  gas  is  ordinarily  ga.seous, 
but  it  is  a  '  va])our'  because  pressure  alone  will  con- 
dense it  at  ordinary  temperatures.  Above  .30'92'  C. 
(87 '(37  F. )  carbonic  acid  is  a  true  ga.s ;  no  pre.ssure 
will  then  lifjuefy  it ;  but  at  30-92'  C  a  pressure  of 
77  atmospheres,  and  below  30'92°  C.  progressively 
smaller  pressures  will  conden.se  it;  at  and  below 
that  temperature  (.Andrews's  Critical  Temperature) 
gaseous  carbonic  acid  is  a  '  vapour,'  condensable  by 
pre.ssure  alone.  Saturated  steam  is,  in  the  same 
sense,  a  permanent  gas  at  all  temperatures  above 
720'6'  C.  ;  it  caimot  be  lir|Uelied  by  pre.ssure  unless 
its  temperature  be  below  that  limit.  The  critical 
temperature  for  hydrogen  is  -240'4°C.  Hydrogen 
alone  among  gases  resisted  condensation  till  ]S9S. 
when  it  was  licpielied  at  -238"  C.  (Dewar),  ibis 
result  being  followed  in  1899  by  its  solidilieallon 
at  -  261"  to  -  200°  C.  (Dewar).  It  had  been  believed 
that  Messrs  Cailletet  of  Paris  and  Eaoul  I'ictct 
of  Geneva  had,  in  1877,  succeeded  in  condensing 
hyilrogen  as  well  as  all  the  other  gase.s  then 
believed  to  be  non-condensable ;  but  this  on 
furtlier  investigation  was  found  to  be  incoiiect. 
Liquelied  air  was  made  available  for  various  in- 
dustrial uses — as  a  motor,  for  e.\ani]ile,  its  expan- 
sion being  utilised  ;  it  is  also  sold  like  o.\ygcn  in 
iron  tubes. 

Gases  have  small  <lensities  :  hydrogen  has,  com- 
pared with  water,  a  density,  at  0°  C.  and  760  mm. 
barometric  pre.ssure  (32'  F.  and  29'922  in.),  of 
0  0000895682,  and  air  a  density  of  00012932. 
Taking  hydrogen  as  a  standard,  o.xygen  is  very 
nearly  16  times,  nitrogen  14,  air  14'47,  carbonic 
acid  22  times  as  heavy. 

Gases  have  no  free  surface-boundary,  but  occupy 
any  space  within  which  they  may  lie  confined.  The 
smaller  the  space  within  which  a  given  i|uantity  of 
gas  is  conlincd,  the  greater  is  the  expansive  pressure 
which  it  exerts  on  the  walls  of  the  containing 
vessel ;  approximately,  for  a  given  quantity  at  a 
given  tem|>eratnre,  the  pressuie  \aries  inversely  as 
the  volume  { IJoyle's  Law,  Mariotle's  Law),  or  the 
pre.ssure  multiplied  by  the  volume  gives  a  constant 
product  :  ])v  =  c.  This  law  is  fairly  well  obeyed 
by  such  gases  as  air;  but  in  all  g;uses,  other  tiian 
hydrogen,  it  is  observed  that  there  is  with  pro- 
gressively increasing'  pressures  a  fall  in  the  value  of 
the  product  y)  r,  wliicli  att.iinsa  minimum  and  then 
rises;  and  even  with  hydrogen  the  apparent  excep- 
tion has  been  removed  by  the  labours  of  Wroblewski, 
who  found  that  at  very  low  temperatures  the  same 
phenomena  were  observed  in  that  gas;  and  that,  in 
general,  if  we  draw  curves  representing,  for  a  series 
of  gases,  the  respective  pressures  at  which  the 
minimal  \alues  of  p  v  occur  at  various  temperatures, 
then  if  our  diagrams  are  so  plotted  out  as  to  re- 
present the  respective  tcmp(}ratnrcs  and  pressures 
m  terms  not  of  degrees  or  millimetres,  but  a.s 
multiples  of  the  critical  tenqierature  (measuied 
from  -  273°  C.  as  alis(dute  zero)  and  of  the  corre- 
sponding critical  jiressure  of  each  gas,  the  curves 
are,  for  all  gases,  the  .same.  I'nder  circumstances 
which  are  similar  with  respect  to  the  critical 
temperature  and  pressure,  therefore,  all  gitses 
behave  similarly  in  this  respect ;  ami  hydrogen  acts 
at  -  183°  ('.  (the  temperature  of  boiling  o.xygen), 


but  not  at  -  ]03'5°  C.  (the  temperature  of  boiling 
ethylene),  like  air  and  other  gases  at  ordinary 
terrestrial  temperatures.  Carbonic  acid  gas,  in 
order  to  act  like  hydrogen  at  -  1035'  C,  must  be 
at  a  temperature  of  about  1287°  C.  ;  both  are  then 
at  a  teni])eiature  about  five  times  their  respective 
critical  temperatures,  measured  from  absolute  zero. 
When  the  temperature  of  a  given  quantity  of  gas 
is  altered,  the  ])rodnct/>  v  is  altered  so  as,  to  a  first 
ap))roxiination,  to  be  proportional  to  the  absolute 
temperature  (  -  273°  C.  =  0°  Abs. ).  There  are, 
however,  some  abnormalities  :  kee]i  tlie  luessure 
constant  and  let  the  volume  increa.se,  and  we  have 
a  certain  coeHicient  of  expansion  under  constant 
pressure,  which  is  a|)proximately  5' 3  of  the  bulk  at 
0°  C.  for  each  C.  degree  of  increase  in  temjierature  ; 
keep  the  volume  constant  and  let  the  pressure  in- 
crease, and  we  have  a  coefiicicnt  of  increa.se  in  ex- 
pansive iire.ssnre,  which  ought  to  be  the  same  and  is 
very  nearly  the  .same  as  the  previous  coefticient ;  but 
not  exactly  so.  The  former  coefiicicnt  is,  except 
in  hydrogen,  a  very  little  larger  than  the  latter ;  m 
the  readily  condensable  gases  the  iiroduct  p  v  rises 
more  rapidly  than  the  absolute  temperature;  and 
with  progressively  ascending  pressures,  the  late 
of  increase  of  p  v  itself  rises  more  markedly  in 
the  easily  condensable  gases  than  in  air.  These 
phenomena  indicate  the  existence  of  inter-molecu- 
lar forces  between  the  particles  of  a  gas,  which 
manifest  themselves  the  more  clearly  the  nearer 
is  the  ajiproach  towards  liquefaction  ;  when  the 
liquid  state  has  been  reached  there  is  cohesion 
within  the  liquid.  That  gases  are  comiiressible  by 
increase  of  pressure  above  the  atmospheric,  as  well 
as  dilatable  by  diminution  of  pressure,  follows  from 
what  has  been  said  ;  if  the  pressure  be  ilouliled  the 
volume  will  be  halved,  and  vice  vers6.  When  "ases 
are  compressed,  work  is  done  upon  them,  and  the 
compressed  gas  tends  to  expand  ;  when  the  jiressure 
is  wholly  or  partly  relieved,  the  gas  ex]iands  and 
does  work,  a.s  in  the  air-gun  or  in  compressed-air 
machines.  The  pressure  at  all  points  in  the  same 
horizontal  level  is,  or  soon  becomes,  the  same ; 
whence,  if  jnessure  be  applied  to  one  part  of  a  ma-ss 
of  gas,  the  pres.sure  is  soon  transmitted  throughout 
the  whole,  and  thus  energj'  may  be  conveyeil,  even 
to  considerable  distances.  The  restitution-pressure 
tending  to  cause  exiiansion  is  equal  to  the  external 
])ressure  apiilied,  and  the  coeliicient  of  elasticity 
is  at  all  temperatures,  provided  there  is  no  change 
of  temperature  during  the  compressiim,  numerically 
equal  to  the  pressure ;  while  if  the  conqiression 
could  be  so  conducted  as  to  allow  absolutely  no 
heat  to  escape,  the  elasticity,  in  air,  would  be 
numerically  1-406  times  as  great  as  the  pressure. 
Through  this  elasticity  of  gases,  local  displace- 
ments set  up  wave-motions,  which,  mostlv  in  air, 
are  the  usual  cause  of  .sound.  The  speeil  of  i)ro- 
paga lion  of  such  waves  (unhampered  by  boiimlarj' 
walls)  is  equal  to  the  square  root  of  the  quotient  of 
the  coeliicient  of  elasticity  divided  by  the  density  ; 
and  thus  the  velocity  of  sound  is,  within  the  same 
gas,  indepeuilent  of  the  pressuie  (f<u'  the  i)re.ssure 
and  the  density  are  directly  proportional  to  one 
another).  It  is,  however,  directly  proportional  to 
the  square  root  of  the  absolute  temperature. 

According  to  Dalton's  Law,  when  a  iiunil>er 
of  gases  are  mixed,  each  exerts  its  own  pressure 
according  to  the  quantity  in  w  hich  it  is  ]ircsent ; 
this  law  is  the  less  perfectly  obeyed  the  nearer 
the  gases  are  to  their  condensing  temperatures, 
and  the  greater  their  mutual  solvent  action. 
When  a  gas  is  "leatlv  rarefied,  a  small  mass 
holds  possession  of  a  ie"latively  great  space :  such 
a  space  is  called  a  vacuum,  which  in  fact  it 
is  not,  for  two  reasons — that  the  ether  of  space 
is  not  eliminated,  and  that  traces  of  the  gas 
(one  huiidredniillionth  of  an  atmosphere   in   the 


94 


GAS    AND    GASES 


best  vacua)  are  always  retained.  If  two  fjases  be 
placed  at  dillerent  levels  in  a  vessel,  even  with  llie 
lighter  };ii.s  n]ipernii)st,  they  will  raiiidly  difl'nse  into 
one  another,  and  even  if  conneeti'd  only  by  a  lonj,' 
glass  tube  they  will  soon  mix,  and  will  not  there- 
after separate.  This  is  dne  to  niolecular  move- 
ment, iuid  dust-iiartirlos  are  not  appreeiably  trans- 
ferred ;  thus  the  dnst  of  a  closet  is  not  removed, 
though  the  air  is  renewed,  by  opeiiin;,'  the  door. 
If,  however,  the  two  gases  to  be  exehanned  1h!  of 
notably  dill'erent  densities,  there  may  be  a  pressure 
resulting  from  the  tendency  of  the  lighter  ga.s  to 
pass  more  rapidly  into  the  heavier  ih.aii  the  heavier 
one  travels  into  it.  The  rate  of  mixing  by  dill'iisioM 
between  two  gases  is  measured  by  tlieir  coellieient 
of  dilliisivity,  which  is  to  be  experimentally  found. 
The  significance  of  this  coellieient  is  that  where 
we,  adopting  a  consistent  system  of  units,  say 
centimetre,  gramme,  and  second,  state  in  the  .shape 
of  a  formula  tlie  known  laws  of  gaseous  ditl'usion  — 
viz.  that  ( 1  )  the  ([uatitity  of  matter  transferred 
across  any  layer  is  inversely  proportional  to  the 
thickness  of  that  layer,  (2)  that  it  is  directly  pro- 
portional to  the  area  exposed,  (,'{)  directly  pro- 
Sortional  to  the  time  taken,  and  also  (4)  to  the 
illerence  of  densities  on  cither  side  of  the  layer — 
wem.av  convert  this  formal  statement  of  proportions 
into  a  numerical  identity  by  inserting  the  proiier 
numerical  factor  or  coetlicient ;  thus  if  M  be  the 
number  of  grammes  transferred,  tth  the  area  ex- 
posed in  si\.  em.,  c  the  thickness  of  the  layer,  t  the 
time,  and  d  the  dillcrence  of  densities,  M  is  pro- 

,    .       iib.l.d                                 ab.t.d       , 
portioual  to ,  or  equal  to  A' .  ,  where 

k  i-s  the  coetlicient  of  dillusivity.  But  /.■  becomes 
a  different  number  when  we  change  our  units  of 
length  or  time  ;  it  varies  numerically  according  to 
the  square  of  the  unit  of  length,  and  inversidy 
according  to  the  unit  of  time  adopted,  and  hence 
the  coefficient  of  dillusivity  is  usually  stated  as 
being  so  m.iny  square  centimetres  ner  second. 
Some  immerical  values  for  this  coellieient  will  be 
found  in  Clerk-Maxwell's  Thrjirij  ry///(f(^(ap]>en(lix). 

Dill'usion  in  gases  has  also  been  measured  in 
anotlier  way.  Ilyilrogen  separated  from  the  outer 
air  by  a  plaster-of- Paris  plug,  escapes  into  the  air 
about  four  times  a-s  fast  as  air  traverses  the  plug  in 
order  to  get  into  the  hydrogen.  The  law  is  tliat 
the  rate  of  traversing  the  plug  is  inversely  ])ro- 
portional  to  the  sipiaie  root  of  the  density  of  the 
ga-s;  or,  in  terms  of  the  kinetic  theory  of  gases,  it  is 
directly  pro]iorti<>nal  to  the  average  velocity  of  the 
molecules  of  each  gas.  The  rates  at  which  gases 
will  traverse  a  single  small  aperture  ( '  efi'usitm  ' ) 
are,  within  the  limits  of  experimental  error,  in 
accordance  with  the  same  law.  The  rates  at  which 
gases  slowly  pass  under  pressure  through  extremely 
fine  long  tubes,  or  are  'transpired,'  have  no  rela- 
tion to  the  dill'usion  or  ellusion  rat("s  -.  the  mass  of 
gas  piissing  per  second  varies  iis  the  motive  pressure, 
as  the  density,  and  inversely  ;vs  the  lengtii  of  the 
tube,  and  aVso  as  a  coellieient  of  transpiration 
special  to  each  gas,  ami  presenting  from  gas  to 
gius  certain  coincidences  as  yet  unexplained  (.see 
Graham's  Collected  Works,  or  Miller's  Chemical 
P/ii/.sics).  The  rate  is  slower  the  higher  the 
temperature,  but  is  independent  of  the  material  of 
the  tube. 

When  gases  are  se])arated  bv  membranes,  in 
which  they  are  unequally  soluble,  or  for  which 
they  have  unequal  adinities,  the  diffusion-rates  are 
interfered  with  and  become  abnormal — e.g.  benzol- 
vapour  and  air  separated  by  a  thin  india-rubber 
membrane;  the  benzcd  traverses,  the  air  does  not. 
Thus  also  carbonic  oxide,  an  extremely  poi.sonous 
gas,  may  traverse  red-hot  cast-iron,  a  fact  to  l>e  kept 
lu  minil  in  reference  to  overheated  stoves.  This  is 
due   to  solution  of  the  gas  in  the    solid,   which 


l>eliavc.s  like  a  liquid  film  in  reference  to  it.  Gases 
are  also  condensed  on  the  surface  of  solids  ;  every 
solid  object  bears  a  condensed  lilm  of  air  on  its 
surface  ;  some  substances  have  enormous  powi'r  of 
cimilensation,  notably  cocoa-nut  charcoal  ( lliinler), 
which  absorbs  17')  limes  its  own  vcdunic  of  am- 
monia, lid  of  carlwinic  acid,  44  of  water  vapour. 
This  power  is  beneheially  utilised  in  charcoal 
respiratoi's,  in  which  oxygen  and  oxidisalde  givses 
are  condensed  together  and  combine  ;  and  in 
Dobereiner's  hydrogen  lani|>,  in  which  hydrogen 
plays  u]ion  platinum  black,  and  is  condenseil  so 
r.ipiilly  (ijerhajis  being  oxidised  at  the  same  time) 
that  till'  idaliniim  becomes  incandescent  and 
ignites  the  liydrogen  jet. 

The  su]icr!icial  lilm  of  air  on  solids  ]ilays  a  ]iart 
in  friction  in  air:  a  iiendulum  has  the  amplitude 
of  its  swing  slightly  diminisheil  by  this  friction  :  a 
waterfall  drags  air  down  and  is  retarded  by  this 
frictional  action  ;  and  the  examples  of  railway 
trains  and  cannon-balls  will  readily  occur.  The 
slide-valve  of  a  steam-engine  is  ])resseil  upon  by  the 
steam,  and  this  gives  ri.se  to  friction. 

(iases  are  in  many  ca.ses  soluble  in  li(|ui(ls;  some 
are  greatly  so  (ammonia  in  water  at  0°  C,  I049'6 
volumes:  at  20°  C,  054  volumes),  some  slightly 
(hydrogen  in  water  at  0'  ('.,  0()1!)3  volume).  The 
general  rule  is  (lleniy's  Law)  that,  at  any  given 
teinperature,  the  volume  of  gas  di.'-.solved  is  con- 
stant at  all  iire.-siires,  so  that  the  quantity  of  gas 
dissolved  is  proportional  to  the  pressure:  and  on 
liberation  from  pressure  some  of  the  gas  escapes. 
This  law  is  interfered  with  in  most  cases  by  the 
formation  of  chemical  com|)OUnds  (hydrates)  be- 
tween the  water  and  the  gas  dissohed.  Again, 
when  a  mixture  of  gases  is  |)rcseiited  to  a  liquid, 
the  general  rule  is  that  each  is  dis.solved  in  pro- 
iioition  to  the  jiartial  ])ressure  exerted  by  it,  com- 
liined  with  its  own  sjiecilic  solubility  in  tlie  liquid  : 
thus  the  small  quantity  of  air  dissohed  in  water, 
which  subserves  the  respiration  of  aquatic  life, 
contains  34 "82  i>er  cent,  of  oxygen  instead  of  20'9 
lier  cent.,  !us  air  does,  because  oxygen  is  more 
soluble  in  water  than  nitrogen  is.  \\'lieie,  how- 
ever, the  gases  h.ave  a  mutual  cheniical  action,  this 
rule  is  comiiletely  de])arted  from.  One  etfect  of 
the  formation  of  hydrates  may  be  that  the  gas  is 
not  ex|>ellable  by  boiling  :  hydrochloric  acid  L'as  is 
an  example  :  a  certain  excess  of  g.as  may  be  driven 
olfby  he;it,  but  beyond  that  the  aqueous  solution 
of  liydrocliloric  acid  distils  over  as  a  vliole:  am- 
monia gas  or  carbonic  acid,  on  the  other  hand,  may 
be  completely  driven  olf  from  water,  any  feeble 
hydrates  formed  being  deconii)osed.  (jascs  may, 
it  appears,  dissolve  gases ;  oxygen  evolved  from 
chlorate  of  potash  may  (Schiitzcnberger)  contain 
chlorine  unrecognisable  by  any  cheniical  test  until 
a  red  heat  has  been  a]iplied  ;  and  it  seems  that 
thi'ie  is  no  lasi^  of  evaporation  without  the  vapour 
carrying  olf  some  of  the  solids  dissolved  in  the 
evaporating  liquid,  a  phenomenon  specially  ob- 
served in  the  case  of  boracic  acid  solutions,  and 
also  in  the  case  of  coal-gas,  which  may,  especially 
when  rich  in  the  vapour  of  liquid  hydrocarbons, 
carry  much  solid  naplitlialine  in  a  state  of  invisible 
suspension  ap|iioximalinj,'  to  true  solution. 

(iiuses  are  to  a  certain  extent  viscous;  air  or 
steam  in  motion  will  drag  the  surrounding  air 
along  with  it,  and  will  thereby  have  its  own  motion 
checked.  Wave-motion  set  up  in  air  may  travel 
far,  but  ha-s  at  length  its  energv'  worn  down  into 
heat  through  the  viscosity  of  the  air.  Air  is  at 
OG  ('.  about  a  hundred  times  less  viscous  than 
water  is,  and  at  30'  C.  it  is  only  about  twelve 
times  less  visc<ms  than  water  at  that  temperature. 
The  viscosity  of  any  given  gas,  dynamically 
measured,  docs  not  vary  with  its  density. 

Gases  also  possess  a  feeble  power  of  conducting 


GAS    AND    GASES 


95 


Iieat  by  a  kind  of  difl'usion  and  redistribution  of 
energy  of  lieatniotion.  In  liydro{,'en  a  lieateil  wire 
is  very  rajadly  cooled  ;  in  a  lieavier  ^'as,  less  rapidly 
so.  Tliec<)n<luctivity  of  air,  when  the  heat  conducted 
is  reckoned  in  units  such  that  each  will  raise  a 
cubic  cm.  of  the  substance  (air)  itself  through 
one  degree  Centigrade,  is  0''2.3G  ;  under  similar  con- 
ditions that  of  iron  is  O'lS.'i,  and  that  of  copper  is 
1'077;  so  that  the  rate  of  propagation  of  thermal 
etl'ects  in  air  is  intermedi.ite  between  that  in  iron 
and  that  in  copjier.  This  apparently  high  rate 
is  due  to  the  small  density  of  air  and  to  its  low 
specific  heat ;  and  when  we  turn  to  the  actual 
propagation  of  heat  energy  as  distinguished  from 
that  of  temperature,  wc  lind  the  conductivity  of 
air,  in  this  sense,  to  be  only  about  one  '20,000th 
that  of  copper. 

tiases  have  as  a  rale  small  specific  heat :  air 
has  at  constant  pressure  a  .specific  heat  =  0'2375, 
at  constant  volume,  0'1684  ;  that  is,  to  raise  a 
pound  of  air  1°,  allowing  it  to  expand,  takes 
()'2375  as  much  heat  as  it  would  take  to  raise  a 
pound  of  water,  whereas  if  it  be  not  allowed  to 
e.xnand  and  thereby  absorb  energy,  it  «ill  take 
only  0'1684  times  as  much.  The  specific  heat  of 
gases  is  irtated  in  tables  with  reference  to  'air  = 
0'2375 '  as  a  starting-point ;  an  equal  volume  of 
hydrogen  has  a  specific  heat  at  constant  jiressure 
=  0'2359,  and,  roughly,  equal  volumes  of  all  the 
ordinary  gases  have  ei(ual  thermal  capacities  ;  but 
ordinary  vapours  have,  volume  for  volume,  much 
greater  thermal  capacities  than  ordinary  gases. 
Hydrogen  has  a  specific  heat,  weight  for  weight, 
3'0490  times  (at  constant  pressure)  as  great  as 
water  ;  and  it  is  the  solitary  exception  to  the  state- 
ment that  water  has  of  all  substances  the  highest 
specific  heat.  In  general  the  specific  heat  of  a  gas 
at  constant  pressure  is  about  1  '4  times  its  specific 
heat  at  constant  volume  ;  in  the  latter  case  no  heat 
is  absorbed  in  doing  the  work  of  expansion  against 
resistance.  Tlie  specific  heat  of  gases  rises  slightly 
with  increasing  temperature  (Mallard  and  Le 
C'hfitelier),  and  this  becomes  at  furnace  heats  very 
well  marked  :  at  2000'  C.  the  si)ecilic  heats  of  car- 
lionic  acid  and  water-vapour  are  double,  and  those  of 
nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  carbonic  oxide  about  one  and 
a  halt'  times  as  great  as  what  they  are  at  '200'  (". 

Different  gases  have  different  actions  upon  radiant 
heat  and  light;  they  characteristically  absorb 
special  portions  of  the  heat  and  light  spectrum, 
and  thus  |)roduce  absoriition  bands  :  the  dark  lines 
A  and  B  seen  in  the  solar  spectrum  are  traced  by 
Egorofi'and  Khamantoff  to  the  absorptive  action  of 
oxygen.  In  some  gases  tlie  absorption  is  carried 
so  far  that  the  gas  appears  coloured — e.g.  chlorine, 
which  is  yellowish-green  :  iodine  vapour  in  com- 
paratively thin  layers  allows  only  red  and  blue 
light  to  pass,  and  tluis  api)ears  purple  ;  in  thicker 
layers  only  l)lue  light  passes.  On  the  whole,  how- 
ever, gases  are  poor  absorbents  and  corres])on(lingly 
poor  radiators  :  there  is  comparatively  little  radia- 
tion from  a  IJunscn  flame.  At  the  same  time  the 
radiation  from  an  incandescent  gas  tends  to  be 
very  precise  in  its  frequencies;  it  tends  to  jiroduce 
line-siiectra  as  distinguished  from  the  continuous 
spectrum  produced  Ijy  the  mutually  jolting  particles 
of  an  incanilescent  solid.  Kacli  gas  has  its  own 
index  of  refraction  also  ;  oxygen  has,  for  example, 
as  compared  with  vacuum,  a  mean  index  at  atnui- 
spheric  [ircssure  of  1  •000272.  In  vapours  the  dis- 
^)ersion  is  great;  and  iodine  vapour  strangely  re- 
fracts red  most  and  violet  least. 

In  Electricity  (q.v. )  the  different  gases  have 
different  properties  which  sometimes  present  curi- 
ous anomalies ;  air  at  ordinary  pressures  is  an 
insulator ;  warm  air  at  rest  is  an  insulatoi',  b\it 
above  a  Bnnsen  burner  it  is  a  conductcn- ;  at 
low  pressures  it  conducts  and  glows  while  con- 


ducting ;  at  extremely  low  pressures  it  is  again 
an  insulator.  Different  gases  set  up  diflerent 
potential-differences  between  themselves  and  metals 
with  which  they  may  be  in  c<mtact,  as  in  gas- 
l)atteries,  and  tiiey  have  diflerent  specific  induc- 
tive capacities. — Oxygen  is  magnetic  in  the  same 
sense  as  iron  ;  hydrogen  and  nitrogen  are  diainag- 
netie,  and  tend  to  lay  themselves  acro.ss  the  poles 
of  a  magnet.     See  also  Mattkk. 

Analy.sis  of  Gase.s.— Tlie  gas  is  collec'ied  in 
small  glass  vessels,  the  contents  of  which,  con.sist- 
ing  of  mercury,  water,  or  air,  are  displaced  by  the 
gas  to  be  analysed.  For  the  best  methods  of  col- 
lecting gases  from  mineral  sjirings  and  waters, 
from  volcanic  lakes,  geysers,  or  lioiling  s]nings, 
from  ojienings  in  rocks,  clefts  of  glaciers,  furnaces, 
fissures  in  volcanic  craters,  iVc,  leference  may  be 
made  to  Bunsen's  Gasometi-i/,  translated  by  Koscoe. 
Air  is  only  used  when  a  considerable  current  of  the 
gas  to  be  analysed  can  be  procured,  which  may 
sweep  out  the  last  traces  of  air  from  the  collecting 
vessel.  Water  often  afl'ects  tlie  coniposition  of 
mixed  gases  which  it  is  attenijited  to  collect  over 
it;  for  to  varitms  extents  it  absorbs,  among 
others,  liy<lrocliloric,  hydriodic,  hydrobroniic,  and 
sulphurous  acid  gases,  chlorine,  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  ammonia,  fiuoride  and  chloride  of 
boron,  methyl-  and  ethyl-amine,  niethyl  chloiide 
and  methyl  ether,  cyanogen,  and  chlorine  cyanide; 
and  it  decomjioses  silicon  fluoride  with  precipita- 
tion of  gelatinous  silicic  acid.  Mercury  is  generally 
employed  because  it  is  inert  to  most  gases  ;  but  it 
is  attacked  by  chloiine,  w hich  it  absorbs. 

There  are  two  leading  principles  made  use  of  in 
the  analysis  of  gases.  First,  a  given  volume  is  sub- 
jected to  a  chemical  reaction,  which  results  in  the 
condensation  of  one  of  the  constituents  of  the  gase- 
ous mixture  or  compound  ;  then  by  simple  observa- 
tion, or  from  the  known  laws  of  gaseous  volume, 
it  is  determined  how  great  a  volume  of  the  original 
gas  has  disappeared  through  being  amenable  to  the 
reaction  employed,  and,  accordingly,  how  great  a 
proportion  of  the  constituent  in  question  was 
originally  present.  In  the  case  of  air,  for  example, 
a  measured  volume  may  be  exjiosed  to  the  absorp- 
tive action  of  a  strong  alkaline  solution  of  pyro- 
gallol  ;  the  solution  becomes  dark  ;  the  oxygen  is 
absorljcd  ;  the  original  volume  of  air  is  diminished  ; 
the  loss  of  volume  is  ascertained,  and  re]uesents 
the  quantity  of  oxygen  originally  jiresent  in  the 
measured  volume  of  air.  Or  again,  if  the  mixture 
of  gases  be  a  somewhat  more  conqilicated  one,  as, 
for  example,  a  mixture  of  carbonic  acid  and  oxide, 
oleliant  gas,  and  oxygen,  the  various  absorbent 
reagents  appropriate  to  each  constituent  may  be 
successively  introduced,  anil  the  successive  shrink- 
ages noted  by  remeasurement  at  the  original  tem- 
perature and  pressure.  A  few  drops  of  a  solution 
of  caustic  potash  will  in  this  way  take  up  the 
carbonic  aciil ;  ]iyrogaII(d  will  take  up  the  oxygen  ; 
anhydrous  sul]ihuric  acid  dissolved  in  oil  of  vitriol, 
and  introduced  on  a  coke-]K'llct,  will  slowly  take 
lip  the  olefiant  gas,  and  the  siilplmrous  acid  and 
anhydious  sulphuric  acid  vapour,  which  contamin- 
ate the  gas  after  this  reaction,  may  be  removed  by 
caustic  potash ;  and  carbonic  oxide  may  be  ab.sorljed 
by  means  of  a  solution  of  cuprous  chloride  (pre- 
pared by  leaving  copper  turnings  with  a  saturated 
scdutiim  of  cnprie  chloride  in  a  sto]ipeied  bottle  for 
some  days),  which  will  take  it  up  in  about  ten 
minutes.  The  |)rincipal  absorption  reagents  are  ( 1 ) 
caustic  potash  solution,  which  absorbs  sulphuretted 
hyilrogcn,  hydrochloric,  carlxmic,  sulphurous,  and 
other  acid  gases,  chloride  and  fluoride  of  boron, 
and  chloride  of  cyanogen,  and  dec(Uiipo.ses  siliciii- 
rctted  hydrogen  with  evoluti(m  of  4  volumes  of 
hydrogen  ;  (2)  ilry  caustic  ]iotash,  which  acts  like 
the  solution,   but  more  slowly,   and   also  absorbs 


96 


GAS    AND    GASES 


\vatervai>our ;    (3)   alcoholic    solution    of    cauKtic 
potash,  which  also  ahsoihs  hisiilpliiilc  of  carlioii  ; 
(4)  alkaliiiiseil  sohitioii  of  |iyropill'>l— oxyKeii ;  (5) 
phosphonis— oxyK"^ii ;  (•) )  cuprous  chloride  dissolveJ 
m    hvdrochloric     acid— oxygen,     carbonic     oxide, 
acety'lene,  ami  allylene;  (7)  the  same  dissolved  in 
ammonia,  which  alisorhs  also  the  hydrocarbons  of 
the   oleline    series;     (8)    ililute    sulphuric    acid  — 
ammonia,    methyl  amine,   and    other   amines;    {!)) 
strong  sulphuric  ;icid- -water,  .alcohol,  nu'lhyl  ether, 
propylene   and    its    homologues ;   elhyh'ue  slowly, 
hydrogen   an<l   marsh  gas   not  at  all;    (10)   Nord- 
hliiisen  sulphuric  acid,  which  abs(nbs  the  olelines, 
not  hydrogen   or  the  nnirsh-gas  series  ;   (11)  con- 
centrated  aipiecms   solution   of    sulphate   of   iron, 
which  absorbs  nitric  oxide  ;  ( 12)  bri)iiiine,  which  in 
presence  of  water  acts  like  Nordhioisen  sulphuric 
acid;    (1.3)   sulphur,    which   absorbs    suliihuretted 
hydrogen,    sulphurous    acid,    and     bisulphide    of 
carbon;    (14)   chromous  sulphate,    to   which   am- 
monium chloride  and  ammonia  have  been  added, 
absorbs     oxygen,     nitric     oxide,     acetylene,     and 
allylene  ;  (15)  alcohol  absorbs  chloride  of  cyanogen, 
nietiiyl  chloride,  methyl  ether,  and  cyanogcu  ;  (Hi) 
mercuric    oxide — cyanogen;     (17)   lea<l    acetate — 
sulphuretted   hydrogen;    (18)  lead   |ieroxi<le— sul- 
Iihnrons  acid.     Analyses  conducted  by  the  aid  of 
such  reagents  are  direct ;  and  on  the  same  princiide 
of  observation  of  shrinkage  we  m.ay  also  employ 
explosicm-re.ictions.     In  the  case  of  air  we  take  a 
measured  volume  and  .add  to  it  alxuit  half  its  bulk 
of  hydrogen,  observing  ])rocisely  wh.it  volume  we 
add.      In  this  case  the  graduated   tulnilar  vessel,  in 
wliich  the  gas  is  contained,  h.ts  two  jdatinum  wires 
fused  into  it  so  as  to  aj)proach  one  another  within 
the  vessel  ;  our  vessel  is  then  calle<l  a  Kudiometcr. 
An    electric    spark   is    made   to   leap    across    the 
interval    between    the    two   wires ;    an    exi)losion 
occurs:  ])arl  of  the  hydrogen  of  the  mixture  com- 
bines with  the  whole  of  the  oxygen  ;  presently  the 
aqueous  vapour  formed  condenses,  and  the  volume 
of  the  mixture  becomes,  at   the   former   tempera- 
ture ami  pressure,  considerably  less  than   it  was 
before  the  explosion.     The  shrink.age  is  measured  ; 
the  gas  which  has  disappeared  consisted,  for  every 
tliree   volunu>s,    of    two   of   hydrogen    .and   one   of 
oxygen.       One  third    of   the   shrinkage,    therefore, 
represents  the  .amount  of  oxygen  [iresent  in  the  air 
acte<l  u|>on  ;  and  in  the  case  of  <an-  the  balance  of 
the  iniginal  volume  is  taken  (if  the  air  h,ad  been 
freed  from  nM)isture  and  carbonic  .acid )  as  consist- 
ing wholly  of  nitKigen  (including  argon).      In  more 
complicated  mixtures  the  explosion-reactions  lead 
to   more   c(Mnidicatcd    (jrowsses   and   calculations. 
For  example,  if  we   have  .a  mixture  of  hydrogen, 
methane,  carbonic  oxide,  ami  nitrogen  (wliich  cor- 
res])onds  to  coal  gius  that  h.as  been  jias.sed  through 
potash  solution   and  has  stood  over  stnmg  oil  of 
vitriol),  we  first  exploile  a  known   volume  of   the 
mixture  with  an  excess  of  oxygen.     The  shrinkage 
is  observed,  and  then  potash  solution  is  introduced 
in  order  to  remove  the  carbonic  acid  formed  by  the 
combustion  of  the  methane  and  the  carbonic  oxide. 
The  nitrogen   alone   now   remains,  together  with 
the  excess   of  oxygen ;    and   the  amount  of    the 
latter  is  determined    by   another  explosion   with 
hydrogen,  whence  the  amount  of  nitrogen  may  be 
determined  ;  and  from   this  we   lind   the  volume  of 
combustible  g.as  origin.ally  present  in  the  mixture. 
We  now  know  ( 1 )  the  volume  originally  used  ( A) ; 
(2)   the   volume   of   combustible   gas    therein  con- 
tained  (15);    (•*)   the   ccmtr.action    of    volume    on 
explosion  (C) ;  and  (4)  the  volume  of  carbonic  .acid 
generated  on  explosion  ( I)).     We  also  know  that 
when    hydrogen    is   exploded    with    an    excess    of 
oxygen  the  combustion  of  one  volume  of  hydrogen 
causes    the    condens,atiim    of    IJ    volume    of    the 
mixture ;    that   the  combustion    of    1    volume    of 


carlx)nic  oxide  similarly  causes  a  shrinkage  of 
^  vidume,  and  the  production  of  1  volume  of 
carbonic  acid  ;  and  that  the  combustion  of  1 
volume  of  methane  (light  carburetted  hydrogen, 
marsh  gas,  t'H,)  produces  a  shrinkage  of  2  volumes 
and  the  formation  of  1  V(dunu' of  CO.,.  Hence  we 
lind  that  the  shrinkage  ('  is  made  up  of  the  original 
11-volume  X  U,  ^)/»,v  the  CO  volume  x  J,  plus 
the  Cll.  volume  x  2;  ami  that  the  carbonic  acid 
(=  ]))  IS  eipial  to  the  CO-volume  jihin  the  CH , 
volume;  and  if  we  set  down  these  statements 
algebraically,  writing  »•  for  the  original  volume  of 
nitrogen,  x  for  that  of  hydrogen,  ;/  and  z  for  those 
of  carbonic  oxide  and  marsh-gas,  we  have  the 
efjuations   A  =  v  -V  x  +  y  ■¥  z  ;    H  =  x  +  y  +  z  ;   D 

=  y  +  z;   and  C-    '    +-'-\-z,  from  which   v,  x, 

y,  z  may  be  readily  foimd  and  thereafter  reduced 
to  percentages.  If  any  of  these  (pmntities,  i/-,  .r, 
y,  z,  be  found  equal  to  0  (or  to  a  small  negative 
eiu.antity),  the  corresponding  gas  is  not  present  in 
tlie  mixture. 

The  a|i]iaratus  made  use  of  varies  from  a  simple 
graduated  tubular  vessel  to  the  nmre  cl.aborate 
comjiensating  apparatus  now  in  u.se.  The  object 
of  coni|ien.salion  is  to  enable  the  volume  of  the  gas 
to  be  ascertained  without 
calculation  f(U'  correlation. 
We  may  refer  by  way  of 
illustration  to  the  ap- 
|),aratus  of  Franklaml  and 
\Vard,  which  is  fully  ex- 
plained in\Villiaujs'//(/Hrf- 
b<jol:  <ij  I  heniirdl  Mdiiipu- 
littion,  as  well  as  in  Messrs 
Franklaiul  ami  \\'ard's 
memoir  in  the  Qiioiicrly 
Journal  of  the  C/ninical 
Sochti/.  \Ve  take  as  an 
example  an  explosiim- 
.analysis  of  atmospheric 
air.  A  few  ( three  or  four) 
cubic  inches  of  air,  freed 
fnmi  carbonic  acid,  having 
been  introduced  into  the 
lube,  I,  it  is  transferred 
into  F  for  measurement 
by  opening  the  cocks, 
/,  /',  and  jilacing  the  lube, 
F,  in  connection  with  the 
exit-pipe,  h ;  the  trans- 
ference can  l>e  a.ssisted, 
if  necessary,  by  elevating 
the  mercurial  tiough,  C. 
(The  i>art  markeil  6  in 
the  (igure  is  merely  the 
tubular  well  of  the  mer- 
curial trough,  C.)     When  t, 

the  air,  followed  by  a  few  ^ — 
drops  of  mercury,  h.as  a,  a  tripoH, 
passed  comjileti'ly  into  F, 
the  cock,  /,  is  shut,  and/ 
turned,  so  as  to  connect  F 
and  II  with  li.  Mercury 
is  allowed  to  flow  out 
until  a  v.acuum  of  two  or 
three  inches  in  length  is 
formed  in  H,  and  the 
met.al  in  F  is  just  beh)w 
one  of  the  graduated 
divisions;  the  cock,/,  is 
then  reversed,  and  mer- 
cury veiy  gradually  ad- 
milted  from  (!,  until  the  highest  i)oint  in  F  exactly 
corresponds  with  one  of  the  divisions  ujion  that 
tube  ;  we  will  assume!  it  to  be  the  sixth  division, 
there  being  ten  divisions  in  all.  This  adjustment 
of  mercuiT,  and  the  subsequent  readings,  can  be  very 


with  levellilK; 
screws;  lilJ,  a  vertiVal  i)i]. 
lar.  to  wliich  is  attachcit 
C,  a  mercurial  trouKh,  niov- 
ahlc  hy  a  rack  and  pinion. 
nn ;  DD,  a  filass  cylinder, 
30  inches  Ioiik.  with  an  in- 
ternal diameter  of  4  inche«. 
containiiiK  three  tubes.  F, 
G.  H,  witich  comninnieate 
with  one  anotlier,  and  with 
the  exit-iiipe.  ft,  Iiv  the  ap- 
paratus E/E.  Tlie  rest  of 
the  Hpiire  will  besnfticicntly 
intelliKihle  from  thedcscrip- 
tion  given  in  the  text. 


GAS    AND    GASES 


GAS-LIGHTING 


97 


aocurately  maile  by  means  of  a  small  lioiizontal 
ti'lescope,  placed  at  a  distance  of  about  six  feel,  and 
sliding'  on  a  vertical  rod.  The  lieif,dit  of  the  mer- 
cury in  II  must  now  be  accurately  determined  ; 
and  if  from  the  number  thus  read  off  the  liei^dit 
of  the  sixth  division  aliove  the  zero  of  the  scale  in 
11  is  deducted  (the  scale  on  H  is  not  marked  in 
tiie  li;;ure),  the  remainder  will  express  the  true 
volume  of  the  gas,  no  corrections  being  requiiml 
for  variations  of  temperature,  atmosplieric  pres- 
sure, tension  of  aqueous  vapour,  &c. 

Hydrogen,  in  the  jirojiortion  of  half  the  volume  of 
tlie  air  used,  must  now  be  passed  into  T,  and  from 
thence  into  F,  when  the  volume  of  the  mixed  gases 
must  be  again  deterniined  as  beiore.  An  electric 
sjiarU  must  now  be  passed  llirough  the  mixed  gases 
in  F  by  means  of  the  ijlatinum  wires  at  m  (near 
the  top  of  ¥).  A  slight  explosion  occurs,  after 
w  hich  we  observe  a  considerable  contraction  in  the 
volume  of  the  mixed  gases,  and  one-third  of  this 
shrinUage  represents  the  volume  of  oxygen. 

The  objection  to  tiiis  kind  of  gas  analysis  is  its 
comparative  slouness.  When  we  wish  to  coMtrol 
the  process  of  coal-gas-making,  it  is  necessary  to 
collect  a  series  of  specimens  during  the  progress  of 
the  decomposition,  but  the  lesultsof  gas-analysis 
aie  raridy  available  witli  useful  expedition.  Where 
it  is  sullicient  to  trace  up  one  special  constituent, 
such  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen  in  coal-gas  or  car- 
bonic acid  in  ventilation-experiments,  results  of 
considerable  value  may  be  attained  by  passing 
know  n  volumes  of  the  gas  through  a  known  (piantity 
of  a  test-liquid,  or  sliakingit  up  with  it,  and  measur- 
ing' by  titration  the  amount  of  the  reagent  un- 
allected  by  the  jiarticular  constituent  of  the  gas  ; 
or,  more  rajihlly,  by  the  gradiurl  addition  of  one  to 
the  other  until  the  mutual  reaction  ceases.  For 
instance,  100  cubic  cm.  of  crude  coal-gas  may 
have  successive  instalments  of  a  dilute  solution  of 
iodine  of  known  strength  brought  into  contact 
with  it;  when  the  reaction  ceases  the  iodine  solu- 
tion ceases  to  be  ilecolorised  by  the  snli>hnrelte(l 
hydrogen,  anil  if  starch  be  present  a  blue  tint  will 
be  struck. 

Gas,  Lighting  and  Heating  By,  depend 
mainly  on  the  presence  of  gaseous  heavy  hydro- 
carlions  in  the  gas.  I'ure  hydrogen  and  even'piire 
metliane  give  no  light,  and,  volume  for  volume, 
tliev  give  little  heat,  thougli  their  Hamesare  llames 
of  high  temperatuie.  When  illuminating  gas  is 
igidted  it  b\niis  with  a  llanie  which  is  luminous 
tor  two  reasons  :  (1  )  the  hydrocarl>ons  forni  acety- 
lene, which  upon  becoming  highly  heateil  decoiii- 
]M>ses  exidosively  with  a  liright  (lash;  and  (•>)  the 
hydrocarbons  are  partly  decomposed,  and  leave 
highly  carl)onaceous  molecular  residues  wliicli, 
becoming  highly  healed  in  the  flame,  incandesce 
and  become  luuunous.  I.  Coul-f/as  is  produced  by 
the  simple  (li-~tillation  of  dry  coal.  .■Viithracite 
coal  is  unsuilabh-;  brown  coal  and  lignite  are 
unsatisfactory  :  the  greatest  yieM  of  the  best  gas  is 
ipbtaincil  from  highly  bituminous  coals,  although 
these  are  expensive  and  leave  as  residue  inferi7)r 
coke,  inairdy  ash  ;  practically  the  most  useful  gas- 
coal  is  that  which  will,  either  alone  or  mixeil 
w'nU  bituminous  coal,  yield  a  fair  quantity  of 
good  gas  an<l  leave  good  coke  in  the  retorts.  The 
very  highly  bituminous  coals  arc  only  used  for  mix- 
ing with  ordinary  coal  :  the  ordiiuiry  bituminous  or 
cannel  coals  are  sometimes  used,  espeeiallv  in  Scot- 
l.uid,  for  making  richer  gas  of  2.5  to  ;iO  candle- 
power  ( in  stanilard  Imrneis  burning  o  cubic  feet  per 
hour),  Init  are  usually  mixed  with  ordinary  coal  with 
the  vie\"  of  improving  the  coke  lu-oduced.  Tiie 
ordinary  caking  coals  of  the  north  of  England  are 
mainly  used  in  England,  mixeil  with  a  proportion 
of  cannel  or  of  highly  bit  ununous  coal  or  shale  in 
order  to  improve  the  gas,  which  is  generally  su|)- 
*2 1  .'> 


C.-irl.on, 
p«r  cent. 

French  anttiracite  94 

Glariiorgai)  antlir. .  9r5 

Newcastle  gas-coal  S2'l 

\Vit;aii  cannel.   . . .  7ic2 

I3o;:lieaiIinineral..  C303 


Oxygi-n. 

Hjilro.  per 

0»7.  i»r 

per  cent. 

100  CArli. 
10 

100  carb. 

2  0 

3-8 

2-8 

57 

0-4 

00 

7-2 

r-7 

91 

4-;o 

13-8 

7-4 

]died  with  an  illuminating  power  of  from  16  to  20 
candles.  The  gas-coal  used  on  the  Continent  is  inter- 
inediate  between  caking  coal  and  cherry  coal,  and 
gives  gas  of  from  12  to  17  candles.  Hy  biiiiminous 
coal  is  not  meant  coal  which  actually  contains 
bitumen,  but  coal  which  contains  carbon  and 
hydrogen  in  a  proportion  suited  to  the  formation 
ot  heavy  hydrocarbons  when  the  coal  is  exjiosed 
to  heat :  no  bitumen  can  be  dissolved  hy  alcohol 
out  of  a  so-called  bituminous  coal.  The  pro- 
portions of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  to  the  car- 
bon in  various  materials  is  shown  in  the  following 
table: 

HyilrugMi. 

Iter  cunt. 

1-49 

3-5 

5-3 

o-i 

8 -SO 

The  hydrocarbons  which  enable  the  gas  to  give 
a  luminous  Hame  depend  for  their  formation  upon 
the  presence  of  hydrogen  :  oxygen,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  detrimental  ;  it  takes  up  hydiogen  to  form 
water,  and  with  carbon  it  forms  carbonic  acid  and 
carbonic  oxide.  Anthracite  distilled  gives  no  use- 
ful result;  Newcastle  gas-coal  gives,  per  Ion,  a  little 
over  10,000  cubic  feet  of  gas,  of  an  illuminating 
jiower  ranging  between  14  and  20  candles  ;  Scotch 
cannel,  10,000  feet,  of  .SO  candles  ;  Scotch  lioghead, 
distilled  alone,  13,000  feet,  of  40  candle,  or  15,0()0 
feet,  of  .3.5  candle  ;  and  Atistralian  lioghead,  14,000 
feet,  of  50  candleg.as.  These  are  given  merely  as 
typical  examjiles  ;  the  results  vary  gieatly  acciird- 
ing  to  the  temperatures  enqdoyed  and  tiie'duration 
of  the  exiiosure  to  heat.  Newcastle  cannel  coal, 
for  exauqde,  if  distilled  between  7.50  and  800"  F., 
yields,  per  ton,  68  galloirs  of  crude  oil  ( whereof  may 
be  recovered —paraflin  spirit  about  2  galloirs;  lamp- 
oil,  22i  gallons  ;  heavy  oil  and  paratlin,  24  gallons), 
1280  lb.  of  coke,  and  only  1400  cubic  feet  of  gas; 
wheieas,  when  it  is  distilled  for  giis  in  the  usual 
way,  it  yields,  besides  the  coal-gas.  18.^  gallons  of 
coal-tar  (wheiefrom  3  pints  benzol,  3  pints  coal-tar 
naptlia,  and  9  gallons  of  heavy  oils,  naphthaline, 
&c. ),  and  1200  1b.  of  coke.  Protracted  distillation 
at  high  heats  causes  the  evolution  of  hydrogen 
rather  tli.an  of  hydrocarbons  ;  high  heats  ingcneial 
cause  the  production  of  volatile  rather  than  of  con- 
densable hydrocarl  ions,  and  this  results, if  not  carried 
to  excess,  in  a  decided  advantage— viz.  that  the 
gas  iirodnced.  though  of  lower  i|uality  than  the 
smaller  quantity  pniduced  .at  low  heats",  is  greatly 
less  lialile  to  lose  its  illuminating  power  by  conden- 
sation and  deposition  of  hydrocarbons  on  the  way 
to  the  consumer.  Very  roughly,  the  candle-imwer 
is,  within  a  limited  range,  inversely  |>ro|iortional 
to  the  number  of  feet  of  gas  made  (at  a  given 
lemiieratuie)  from  a  given  quantity  of  coal.  Tims, 
if  a  ton  of  coal  give  id.OOO  eubic  feet  of  l,5i'  candle- 
gas,  then,  if  the  distillation  be  protracted  so  that 
10..5(K)  feet  aie  pioduced,  the  candle-power  will 
sink  to  1,5.  Tieftrnnk  calculates  the  percentage 
composition  (in  volumes)  of  the  gas  which  comes 
off  in  successive  lioui-s  thus  : 


lit  hour. 

al  Iwur 

3d  hour. 

4th  hour. 

Heavy        liyilro-^    ,- 
carbons > 

12 

12 

7 

JIai->li-gas 82 

72 

58 

56 

20 

llvilrogen 

88 

10 

213 

00 

Carbonic  oxiile  . .        3'2 

1-9 

123 

11 

10 

Nitrojjen 1-3 

5-3 

1-7 

4-7 

10 

Hflatixo  vohiines        1 

OliS5 

0  3S- 

0105 

Bistillation  is  thus  after  the  fourth  hour  jiractically 
disadvantageous  to  illuniimiling  power. 

The  products  of  distillation  of  coal,  as  usually 
performed  in  gas-works,  are  very  numerous.  The 
piincipal  of  them  are  inai-sh  gas,  iiydrogen. carbonic 
oxide,  carbonic  acid,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  ammonia,  hydrocyanic  acid,  bisul)ihide 
of  carbon,  and  other  organic  sulphur  compounds; 


98 


GAS-LIGHTING 


aqueous  vaiiour ;  etliyk'iip,  propylene,  Imtyleiie, 
acetylene,  ililetiyl,  ami  aliyleiie  ;  capioyl,  capryl 
ami  nityl  liyiliiilcs;  capioyleiic,  (jpiianlliyleiie  ;  ben 
7.0I,  toluol,  xylol,  CYiuol  ;  |>arairin,  naplilhaline, 
antliiaeone,  clirysene,  pyrene  ;  iicetio  aeiil,  farlmlic 
aeiil,  cresol,  pliloiol,  iosdHc  aciil  ;  aniline,  pyridine, 
liiooliii,  an.l  several  oilier  nilrof;enous  alUaloiil  suli 
stances;  willi  some  livilrocliloric  ami  snlpliuro\is 
nciils.  These  sulislances  have  very  (liU'erent  vola 
tilities  anil  soluljilities ;  a  large  nunilier  of  them 
may  be  separated  from  the  gas  by  mere  cooling, 
ami  together  these  form  conltai;  which  is  a  black 
viscous  liquid,  sp.  gr.  0'9S  (fjom  cannel)  to  11.3 
(from  ordinary  coal ),  the  yield  of  wliicli  is,  from 
coal,  up  to  I'i  gallons,  and  from  cannel  up  to  17 
gallons  per  ton  distilled,  llie  average  yield  being 
scarcely  11  gallons.  By  careful  distillation  coal- 
tar  yields  successively  the  following  products,  the 
percentages  of  which  vary  widely  in  diireient  g.i-s- 
works :  '2-1  per  cent,  of  water,  ammonia  (wliicli 
may  1)0  extr.icted  from  the  tar  by  cold  water), 
ami  volatile  hydrocarbon  vapours;  1  ■  j  to  16  per 
cent,  of  light  oils,  iiu-luiling  carbolic  aciil ;  20-3.) 
])er  cent,  of  heavy  oils  (cieasotc  oils);  10-20  per 
cent,  of  anthracene  oils,  ami  a  resiilue  of  2S-G+ 
per  cent,  of  pitch.  The  reason  of  this  wide  range 
of  variation  in  the  tar  lies  partly  in  the  nature  of 
the  coal  used,  the  tempei:iture  of  ilisiillalion  (the 
higher  the  heats  the  thicker  the  tars),  and  partly 
in  the  mode  and  temperature  of  condensation. 

After  the  tar  luts  been  mostly  deposited  the 
gas  is  w.islied  with  water,  wbicli  is  converted  into 
ammoniaeal  liquor,  containing  .amnioni.a,  carbonate 
of  .ainiiioniiim,  siilpliiile  of  .amnionium  and  some  sul- 
phite, chloride,  and  sulpliocyaiiide  of  aminonium, 
ami  s.alts  of  nitrogenous  alkaloids.  After  being 
cooled  an<l  wa.shed  the  gas  still  contains  carbonic 
acid,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  some  hydrocyanic 
acid,  and  some  bisulphide  of  carbon,  and  other 
sulphur  compounds.  Slaked  lime,  moistened  so 
as  to  form  a  porous  mass,  will  absorb  the  carbonic 
acid  or  sulMliuretted  hydrogen,  but  not  the  hyilio- 
cyanic  acid  and  bisulphide  of  carbon  .so  long  .as 
there  is  free  carbonic  acid  present.  Oxide  of  iron 
absorbs  H.jS,  becoming  sulphide;  and  tliis,  wbcii 
re  exposed  to  the  air,  is  re-oxidised,  the  oxide  being 
regenerated,  while  free  sulphur  is  formed  mixed 
with  the  oxide  ;  the  oxide  may  be  used  over  and 
over  until  the  iiercentage  of  free  sulphur  rises  to 
50  or  5(5,  after  which  the  oxide  is  'spent,' and  is 
tr.ansferred  for  the  sake  of  its  sulphur  to  the  manu- 
f.actiiring  cliemist.  Spent  oxiile  also  contains 
Prussian  blue,  or  ferrocyauide  of  iron,  Ke-Cy,, : 
this,  together  with  sulphocy.anide  of  iron,  is 
formed  from  the  hydrocyanic  aciil.  Further,  the 
free  sulphur  in  the  oxide  arrests  bisuljihide  of 
carbon  and  other  sulphur  compounds.  The  re 
generation  of  the  o.xiile  can  be  brought  about 
by  .admitting  a  percentage,  say  '2,  of  air  into  the 
gas  stream.  The  oxygen  of  the  admitted  air  is 
taken  ui)  in  continuous  regeneration  of  the  purify- 
ing oxide.  The  disadvantage  of  this  is  that  the 
residual  nitrogen  of  the  air  tells  against  the  illum- 
inating power  of  the  g.as  ;  but  recently,  since  imre 
oxygen  h.os  become  cheaji,  oxygen  gas  alone  has  been 
employed  with  very  favourable  results.  One  result 
of  continuous  revivication  is,  that  the  evil  smells 
associated  with  the  opening  of  jiuriliers  ha\  e  become 
unfamiliar  in  most  works.  When  continuous  re- 
generation is  resorted  to,  the  oxide  does  not  become 
.spent  until  it  contains  a  considerably  higher  )ier- 
centage  (as  much  as  75)  of  sulphur.  Iron  oxide, 
however,  does  not  remove  carbonic  acid,  and  Mr 
K.  H.  Patterson  showed  that  complete  purilication 
might  be  .secured  by  removing  (1)  CO^  by  means 
of  lime  ( the  carlionic  aciil  having  a  stronger  atlinity 
for  lime  than  sulphuretted  hydrogen  has,  is  retained 
in  the  first  lime  purifier,  while  H„S  either  pa.sses 


on  directly  or  is  <lriven  oil  by  the  succee<liiig  iX>. 
from  any  temjioiary  lodgmeiii  it  may  have  gaine(l 
in  the  first  jnirilier)  ;  (2)  H.Ji  by  n  second  lime 
]inrifier,  the  restiliing  sulphide  of  calcium  nniliiig 
with  the  bisulphide  of  carbon  to  form  thiocaibonate 
of  calcium  ( t'aS-H('.S._.  =  C'ift_'Sj,  analogous  to  car- 
bonate of  calcium,  f'aCO,),  or  rather  a  ba-ic  com- 
pound  t'a('.S„('allJ)o,7ll„(t,  and  also  with  other 
sul|diocarl)on  compounds;  and  (3)  if  necesviny 
any  remaining  H„.S  may  be  taken  up  liy  iron 
oxide.  In  lSS8-b!)  .Mr  "Valon  found  that  "if  0(i 
])er  cent,  of  oxygen  be  iulded  to  crude  g.os,  and  if 
lime  be  used  alone  as  the  purifying  agent,  tlii'ie  is 
complete  and  simultaneous  removal  of  I  be  carbonic 
•acid,  siilpbuictte<l  hydrogen,  and  sulphide  of  I'ar- 
bon,  the  sulphur  being  separated  in  llie  free  slate 
and  the  g.as  lime  iiroiliiced  being  entirely  ilevoid 
of  smell  ;  while,  owing  to  complete  .separation  of 
the  carbonic  .acid  and  throngii  not  introdm'ing 
nitrogen,  the  lighting  power  of  the  gas  is  at  le.ast 
1 1  candle  better  than  when  iron  o.xi<le  is  employed 
alone. 

Purilieil  gas  contains,  in  iiereentages  by  volume  : 


L..>rt<lun 
coiniiiun  Ohm. 

He.lvy  liydrocarboiis 3-3 


JLii-sli- 

Ilyflrogt'ii 

Ciirboiiic  oxide. 
Carbonic  aciil .. 
Nitroj;eii. , 


3fl-5 

40 
7-5 
8-7 
0-5 


Ciiiiitel  On*. 
13 

40 
277 

(1-8 

01 

0-4 


B(>k'1>p-«1 
tin*. 

21-5 

.'i8'4 

10-0 

CO 


Aqueous  va|Miur 2 

London  cannel  gas  is  no  longer  made;  and  true 
IJoglicad  mineral  is  no  longer  obtained  in  (lieat 
Itritain,  though  large  quantities  of  an  equivalent 
substance  arc  now  sliipjied  from  Australia. 

When  coke  is  made  in  a  beehive  oven,  the  gas 
evolved  is  largely  contaminated  with  nitrogen  ;  luit 
when  coke  is  made  from  moderately  bituminous 
coal  in  a  by  juoducts  oven,  the  gas  produced  is 
l)ractically  ei|nivalent  to  a  somewhat  Jioor  coal  gas 
or  to  a  rich  fuel-gas.  It  is  understood  that  the 
manufacture  of  ibis  by-])roducts  coke-gas  is  likely 
to  be  uiiderlaken  on  a  large  scale  in  Massachusetts 
and  at  Pittsburg,  where  the  supply  of  natural  gas 
shows  symptoms  of  exhaustion. 

The  illuminating  power  ilepen<ls  on  the  'heavy 

j  hydrocarbons;'  of  these  benzol  is  the  most  ell'ective 
(3  parts  of  it  being  equal  to  25  of  ethylene),  and  in 

[  ordinary  English  g.as  is  present  to  the  amount  of 
from  5  to  10  grains  i)er  cubic  foot,  while  ethylene 

'  and  ]irop\leiie  are  together  from  four  to  twelve 
timeslbat  quantity.      If  carbonic  aciil,  sulpliuietted 

j  hydrogen,  and   nitrogen  be  absent,  the  heavier  ga.s 

I  is  generally  the  richer,  tliougli  a  high  iiercentage  of 
carbonic  oxide  may  also  make  a  g.-is  heavy.  The 
sjiecific  gravity  of  coal-gas  is  from  04  to  0'55(air  = 
lOO).  There  are  two  rough  tests  for  the  value  of 
gas  :  ( 1 )  its  iliirability— i.e.  the  time  taken  to  burn 
i  cubic  foot  of  gas  in  a  jet  of  5  inches  high  ;  this 
ranges  from  50'  40"  for  English  caking  coal  gas,  to 
84'  22"  for  Pxighead  gas;  (2)  the  percentage  of 
volume  which  is  condeuseil  by  chlorine  or  bromine, 
which  attack  the  heavy  hydrocarbons.  If  any 
carbonic  acid  remain  in  the  gas,  it  will  diminish 
the  illuminating  power  about  one  candle  for  every 
1  (lei  cent,  of  carbonic  acid.  If  g.as  be  mixed  with 
air  the  illuminating  oower  rapidly  falls  otl':  with  1 
(ler  cent,  of  air,  the  loss  of  ligbling  power  is  li  per 
cent.;  with  2,  11;  3,  18;  4,20;  5,  .S3;  10,  li7  ; '20,  !I3  per 
cent.;  45,  total  loss  of  lighting  iiower.  Ordinary 
gas  mixed  with  more  than  4  and  less  than  12  times 
its  bulk  of  air  is  explosive;  most  so  when  mixed 
with  8  volumes  of  air  or  sonie«liat  more  (up 
to  11  volumes)  if  the  ^;as  be  richer.  Alone,  it  is  not 
explosive.  l''ora.scertainiiig  the  illuminaliiig  power, 
the  Itunscn  jdiotometer  ( tlie  open  (iO  imli  P.unsen- 
I.etheby  photometer,  or  the  eiiclored  lOii-iiich  Evans 
photometer)  is  generally  employed.    In  this,  at  one 


GAS-LIGHTING 


99 


end  of  a  mil,  there  is  a  candle ;  at  the  other  end  there 
is  a  jjas-linrner,  and  a  iiicler  to  measure  the  siipjily 
of  ;:as  ;  the  ;,'as-biinior  and  the  candle  are  tlins  at  a 
IKcd  distance  from  one  another.  I'elween  them 
there  moves,  slidinf:;  on  a  graduated  har,  a  disc  of 
prepared  jiaper  ;  this  is  slippe<l  up  and  down  until 
its  two  siiles  (or  rather  the  imaj,'es  of  its  respective 
sides  in  two  little  mirrors  which  travel  with  it) 
ajijiear  equally  illuminated.  This  is  ascertained  hy 
the  disappearanci'  of  a  grease  spf)t  or  rather,  in  tlie 
newer  models,  hy  the  vanishing  of  all  dillerence  in 
appearance  hetweon  an  nngrcased  centre  and  the 
greased  rim  of  the  disc.  In  the  Leeson  disc  there 
are  three  thicknesses  of  pai)er,  of  which  the  middle 
one  is  much  the  thickest,  hut  is  perforated  at  its 
centre;  and  this  form  of  disc  worKs  hetter  in  the 
compari>on  of  light  of  somewliat  dilVerent  colours. 
Till'  Lummel-liroilhun  photometer  is  an  idealised 
lliinsen  photometer,  in  which  the  place  of  the 
pa|ier  with  its  central  grease-spot  is  taken  hy  a 
purely  optical  arrangement  of  totally  reflecting  or 
partially  reflecting  prisms.  The  har  may  he 
graduated  in  one  of  two  ways:  ( I  )  Equal  intervals, 
so  that  the  respective  distances  hetwcen  the  disc 
and  the  gas-luirner  and  candle  may  he  measured  ; 
the7i  the  ratio  hetween  the  intensities  is  the  inverse 
ratio  of  the  sqtKirrs  of  the  respective  distances  ; 
say,  for  example,  that  the  respective  distances  of 
the  candle  and  gas-burner  are  20  inches  and  80 
inches;  then  the  gas-burner's  intensity  :  the  candle's 
:  :  (o'o)-  :  (^'ir)"— i.e.  :  :  16:  1.  (2)  Tlie  bar  may  be 
so  graduated  as  to  anticipate  and  s.ave  this  calcula- 
li  )n,  on  which  ]irinciple  the  mid-]ioi?it  of  the  bar 
wouM  be  marked  1,  and  a  point  one  liflh  of  the  bar's 
length  from  either  end  would  lie  marked  16;  the 
lignres  so  marked  sliow  directly  the  ratios  souglit 
for.  The  pressure  of  gas  must  l)e  measured  Ijy  a 
gauge  and  regulated  by  a  governor  ;  the  consumpt 
of  the  candle  must  be  weighed  ;  tlie  gas  used  must 
be  exactly  ■')  cubic  feet  ])er  hour;  the  burner  is  a 
standard  Sugg'.s  London  Argand  No.  1  for  common 
coal-gas,  a  standard  Steatite  Batswing  burner  for 
cannel  gas  ;  the  caniUes  are  s]icrm  candles,  of  six 
to  the  pound,  each  burning  120  grains  ])er  hour; 
and  the  quantity  of  gas  used  is  to  be  corrected  for 
temperature  ami  barometric  ])res.sure.  The  candle 
is  a  very  un.satisfactory  unit  <if  light;  it  v.aries  as 
much  as  6  per  cent.,  and  its  colour  is  not  the  same 
as  that  of  the  gas-llame.  (Jther  standards  have 
been  proposed  ;  of  these  the  piincipal  .are  the  Ger- 
man standard  candle — r065  English  sperm  candle  ; 
the  Krench  ('arcel  lamp  (648  grains  colza  oil  per 
himr)  =  10'441  English  sperm  candles;  Mr  Vernon 
llarcourt's  jientane  lamp,  air  +  pentane-vapour, 
\  cubic  foot  per  hour,  nearly  equal  to  the  English 
standard  candle  ;  .Mr  Methven's  and  Mr  Fiddes's 
standard,  in  ]irinci|ial  a  given  area  of  the  bright 
part  of  gas-llame,  this  being,  singularly,  an  almost 
uniform  st.indard  of  illumination,  not  with  any 
kind  of  illuminating  gas,  as  was  at  first  belioved, 
liiit  quite  accurately  so  with  pentane- vapour ; 
Hefner  .-Mteneck's  ,aniyl  .acetate  lamp,  witli  the 
flame  turned  up  to  a  height  of  1 '6  inch,  ecpial  to 
0-S77  English  st.-indard  cuidle  ;  and  the  Dutch 
clher-ben/.id  standard  (bSilS)  =  1-48  English  stand- 
ard candle.  Other  photometers  ( Elster's,  with 
movable  standard  light,  I've.  )  have  been  proposed. 
I,o\ve  and  Sugg's  jot-idiotimieter  de)iends  m\  this, 
that  assiimiug  the  height  of  the  flame  to  be  kent 
constant,  the  ligliting  power  of  a  jet  is  inversely 
proportional  to  the  cimsuiuiit — or  otherwise,  that 
the  consumpt  being  kept  constant,  the  height  of 
the  jet-tlame  is  ilireetly  proportional  to  the  lighting- 
power.  In  Giroud's  jet-iihotometer  the  height  of 
the  flame  at  constant  pressure  is  taken  as  the 
measure  of  illuniinaling  power;  when  the  fl.ame 
is  about  0  inclies  high,  .a  \aiiation  of  jiboiit  \  incli 
corresponds    to   ,a   variation    of   one  candle   power. 


when  the  whole  lighting-power  is  from  10  to  14 
candles  per  r>  cubic  feet.  A  Connuittee  aiqiointed 
liy  the  Board  of  Trade  in  1891,  reported  in  189.")  that 
a  flame  of  some  kind  must  he  used  as  the  standard  ; 
that  tlie  sperm  candle  is  unsatisfactory;  that  Mr 
Vernon  Harcourt's  pentane-vapour  and  air-flame  is 
constant  in  brightness  and  easily  reproducible 
when  used  as  directed,  and  that  it  is  accurately 
equal  to  ,an  average  standard  candle;  and  that  this 
should  be  niadi-  the  basis  of  com]iarison,  an<l  called 
a  candle  ;  that  for  actual  work  witli  g.as  llames  it  is 
Ijetter  to  compare  these  with  more])Owerful  sources 
of  light  tlian  a  candle,  and  tliat  for  this  purpose  a 
Dibdin  10-canille  standard  (an  air  and  jjcntane- 
vapour  Aigand  flame  with  a  Metliven  .screen) 
should  he  used,  with  tlie  Metbven  screen  fi.xed  so 
as  to  expose  215  inches  of  the  flame.  They  also 
recommend  that  instead  of  burning  gas  at  .5  cubic 
feet  per  hour,  the  gas  should  be  Imrned  at  just  such 
a  rate  as  will  give  the  required  ntimber  of  candles, 
ami  that  the  iiluniinating  power  be  c.alcnlateil  b;ick, 
and  be  stated  as  so  many  candles  per  5  cubic  feet, 
riiotonietrically  the  lime-iiuiified  g.as  of  the  south 
of  Englanil  is  greatly  inferior  to  the  iron-oxide 
]iurified  gas  of  the  north  of  Engl.and,  and  yet 
,an  impression  of  greater  brightness  is  often  ex- 
[lerienced,  for  the  tiame  is  wliite  instead  of  yellow. 

Gas  work  apparatus  falls  under  thirteen  heads. — 
The  Bcfort/ioiisc  contains  the  benches  or  sets  of 
retorts  in  which  the  coal  is  distilled.  The  retorts 
were  formerly  small,  and  of  cast-iron  only  ;  they  are 
now  generally  larger  .and  of  fireclay  ;  though  the  use 
of  iron  is  again  becoming  familiar  in  cases  where  the 
last  retort  or  two  of  a  set  are  more  easily  heated  if 
made  of  iron  th.an  when  made  of  hreclay.  Retorts 
are  ni.ade  round,  oval,  and  D-shaped  ;  the  first  of 
tliese  is  the  .strongest  and  most  durable;  the  oval 
.and  tlie  D-shaped  are  better  carbonisers.  Clay 
retorts  are  usually  11  to  3  inches  thick,  oval,  with 
diameters  1,5  and  21  inches  inside,  and  9  feet  4  inches 
long;  but  'through'  retorts  .are  often  used,  corre- 
sponding to  two  ordinary  retints  joined  together  so 
.as  to  form  one  tube,  some  20  feet  long,  with  .a 
mouthpiece  at  e.ach  end— a  form  which  is  more 
re.adily  manipnl.ated  .and  more  readily  kept  clear  of 
coke-deposit.  Even  these  di.ameters  are  somewhat 
too  great,  .and  the  result  is  better  with  narrower 
retorts  ;  and  in  small  works  smaller  and  shorter 
retorts  are  generally  used.  Of  late  years  through- 
letorts,  inclined  at  an  angle  of  some  SO',  have  come 
greatly  into  use,  especially  in  conjunction  with 
mechanical  ajiplianccs  for  charging  .and  discharg- 
ing the  retorts  :  the  coal  slides  down  the  retort 
from  a  lioppcr  and  is  promptly  sjucad  out  into  ji 
layer  of  uniform  thickness,  and  the  sjient  coke  is 
easily  drawn  from  the  retort  in  a  stream.  To  .an 
increasing  extent  the  co.al  is  first  raised  to  a  height 
and  then  loweied  in  the  succe.s.sive  operations  to 
sticeessively  lower  levels,  .so  tliat  m.anu.al  labour  is 
economised.  The  Dinsmore  retorts  .are  Z-sliaped, 
.and  the  tarry  priidiicts  are  subjected  to  continued 
distillation  in  the  ujiper  bends.  Mr  Isaac  Carr's 
modilication  of  this  (irocess  li;us  been  very  successful 
in  liis  own  hands  at  Widnes;  but  it  seems  that  the 
process  has  not  been  successful  elsewhere.  Five  or 
seven  retorts,  and  sometimes  ten  or  more  are  built 
into  each  oven  ;  and  all  the  retort.s  of  one  oven  are 
heated  from  the  saiue  source.  This  may  be  .a  coke 
furnace,  in  which  case  some  ^l  cwt.  of  coke  are 
used  in  ilistilling  each  ton  of  coal — i.e.  .about  25  per 
cent,  of  the  coke  made-  a  proportion  which  sinks 
in  large  works  to  20  or  IS  per  cent. — or  tar  may  be 
u.sed  as  fuel,  either  dropped  on  hot  plates  or  blown 
in  by  air  or  by  steam  .as  spray  ;  or  generator 
furnaces  may  be  enqdoyed  in  which  the  fuel  is 
first  half-hurneil  (CO  lieing  formed),  and  the  hot 
furu.ace  g.ases  thus  produced  are  burned  under  the 
retorts  ;    or   regenerative    furnaces,    in    whioli    the 


100 


GAS-LIGHTING 


same  tliiii';  is  done,  Ixit  tlie  air  wliicli  meets  tlie 
fiiiniice  {jiises  iimler  tlie  letiiits  is  lieated  by  llie 
wjiste  heal,  wliioli  wcniM  otlierwisc  liave  been 
allowed  to  esciipe  tlirouj^'li  llie  Hue  afler  the  letorls 
had  been  heated  ;  the  ie>iilt  being  a  great  economy 
in  fuel  anil  in  the  wear  of  the  retorts.  The  retorts, 
once  heated  nji,  are  kept  continuously  at  an  orange- 
red  heat  (2000°  F. )  ;  they  are  charged  with  coal 
{•2k  to  3  cwt.  each):  the  charge  Is  niked  out  after 
four  or  six  hours,  ami  a  fresh  charge  is  put  in  ; 
the  charging  and  drawing  iwing  now  often  ilone  by 
machinery.  The  duration  of  clay  retorts  depends 
on  the  treatment  they  receive  ;  fifteen  to  eighteen 
months  where  directly  e.\po.sed  to  the  lire,  or, 
where  protected,  three  or  fouryeai-s,  or  even  longer. 
In  the  Yeadon  and  Adgie  revolving  retort,  small 
coal  is  fed  in  at  one  end  and  coke  dust  withdrawn 
at  the  other  as  the  retort  revolves  ;  each  granule  of 
coal  takes  about  1.5  minutes  to  traverse  the  retort. 
Every  retort  is  proviiled  with  a  mouthpiece,  through 
whicli  the  charge  is  put  in  and  extracted,  and  the 
door  of  whicli  is  jiiessed  home  by  a  screw  or  lever 
and  may  or  may  not  be  secured  by  cement.  The 
gas  produced  jta-sses  from  the  retort  by  means 
of  a  wide  vertical  ascciii/i/iif  pipe,  a  very  short 
horizontal  Inidije  ■  pijK,  and  a  short  descending 
(/ip />ijie,  which  dii>s  to  a  very  slight  extent 
below  the  overflow  level  of  li(|ui<l  in  the  hi/drniilic 
M'liii.  Thus  hydraulic  main  is  a  wide  tubular 
closed  reservoir  of  wroughtiron,  placed  above  the 
retorts  ;  it  has  a  large  descending  overllowpipe  ; 
it  is  first  filled  with  tar-water  as  far  as  it  can 
be  filled  ;  the  products  of  distillation  from 
the  retort  jiass  through  the  hydraulic  main  ; 
some  tar  is  deposited,  some  watery  licpiiil  con- 
densed ;  tar  accumulates  u])  to  the  overflow 
level,  so  that  the  gas  passing  through  is  washed 
in  hot  tar,  and  the  liglit-giving  constituents  tend 
to  become  dissolved  out  to  a  large  extent  by  the 
tar,  unless  the  tar  be  kept  suHiciently  hot  or  be 
often  enough  removed  from  the  hydraulic  main. 
Down  the  overflow -pipe  run  the  products  of 
distillation,  which  sink  into  a  l<ir  well,  fnnn 
which  they  are  ]>umped  out  from  time  to  time. 
This  tar-well  is  also  used  ivs  a  general  receptacle 
for  condensation  products  deposited  by  the  ga.s  in 
its  further  coui'se.  The  g.%s  iloes  not  escajie  by 
this  tar-well,  for  the  overllowpipe  dips  to  an 
adeijuate  depth  into  the  liipiid  in  the  well  :  it 
passes  on  by  a  lateral  horizontal  tube.  This  device 
IS  rejieated  as  often  as  is  necessary. 

The  gas  goes  on  to  undergo  a  gradual  process  of 
cooling  ( to  a  temperature  not  below  55"  1". )  and 
farther  condensatiim,  partly  in  pipes  led  round  the 
retort-house  (in  which  the  tar  is  largely  de])Osiled 
by  friction  while  the  gas  is  still  hot),  partly  in 
the  cumkiisd:  There  are  several  types  of  con- 
denser :  (n)  a  series  of  vertical  iron  tubes  in  which 
the  gas  alternately  ascends  and  descends,  the  cool- 
ing being  due  to  the  exterior  air  or  to  the  trickling 
of  water  down  the  surface  of  the  tul>es ;  (h)  verti- 
cal iron  tubes  of  large  size,  concentrically  arranged 
in  |)airs.  so  that  the  gas  may  slowly  ilescend  in  the 
annular  space  between  each  two  tubes,  while  the 
cooling  air  ascends  the  inner  tube— the  gas  is  then 
led  u|)  to  the  top  of  another  annular  space,  and 
so  on  ( Kirkhams) ;  (c)  a  horizontal  sjiiral  ;  (rf) 
a  vertical  zig-zag  of  pipes  horizontally-laid;  (e) 
arrangements  for  retarding  the  speed  and  thus 
enabling  the  gas,  in  comparative  repose,  more 
readily  to  deposit  any  particles ;  battery  con- 
den.ser ;  Mohr's  condenser,  in  which  the  gas  is 
gnided  through  hollow  cones,  so  as  to  run  slowly. 
The  cooled  gas  is  then  led  to  the  tcasher,  in 
which  it  is  pa.ssed  in  fine  streams  through  water, 
which  dis.solves  ammonia,  &c.  ;  but  here  or  farther 
on,  after  the  scrubber,  there  is  a  .suction  arr.ange- 
::ient,    either    a    fan,    a    pump,    or    a    steam-jet 


injector,  calleil  the  exliinislcr.  The  coal  being 
thus  distilleil  in  a  partial  vacuum,  gits  is  more 
readily  given  oil'  by  it  ;  and  the  gas  once  formed 
is  rapidly  removed  from  the  retort  and  from  the 
decom|Misiiig  inllueiice  of  the  hot  retort-walls,  and 
its  iiercentage  in  hydrocarbons  is  thus  kept  lu-  high 
as  may  be  ;  but  there  is  at  the  same  lime  a  con- 
trary tendency  towards  deterioration  of  (|nality, 
along  with  increa.se  of  yield,  w  hen  the  exhaust  "is 
at  work.  After  the  Wiusher  comes  the  irriihher, 
in  whicli  the  gas  is  made  to  ascend  a  lo;ly 
column  filled  with  coke  or  deal  boanis,  down  w  hicii 
water  trickles,  or  is  made  to  ascend  a  ."-iiace  filled 
with  descending  spray.  Sometimes  the  gas  is 
made,  as  in  Pelonze  and  Audouin's  so-called  con- 
denser, to  ileposit  the  last  traces  of  tar  by  impact 
against  solid  surfaces ;  or  may  be  made  to  inn 
with  or  against  a  stieam  of  hot  tar,  and  thus  to 
]iick  up  liydrocarlions  from  the  tar.  Sonu-liiiies 
the    functions   of    washer   and    scrubber   are   com- 


bined in  one  apparatus;  sometimes  a  scrubber 
is  used  alone.  Tiie  gas  next  pa.sses  through  the 
purifiers,  in  which  it  has  to  pa.ss  slowly  up,  or 
lietter  down,  through  an  amjile  extent  of  thick 
layers  of  porous  lime,  or  of  iron  oxide  .somewhat 
moist  ami  rendered  porous  by  .sawdust,  cliall',  or 
other  vehicle,  or  aided  by  porous  magnesia,  or 
through  both,  or  else  through  washed  AVeldon 
slime.  The  gas  ought,  before  this  singe,  to  be 
free  from  all  impiirilies,  except  carbonic  aciti,  sni- 
|diuiclted  hydrogen,  and  bisulphide  of  carbon,  and 
the.se  are  removed  in  the  purifiers.  There  are  various 
ilevices  for  absorbing  these  by  means  of  ammonia  and 
hydrocarbons  .separated  in  the  earlier  stages  (  ^■(lung, 
Clans,  Hills ).  Tlie  liritisli  parlianientaiy  standard  of 
purity  is  that  10  cubic  feet  of  gas  shall  not  stain 
ieiul  paper  ( ab.sence  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen); 
that  tlie  ammonia  in  the  gas  shall  not  exceed  four 
grains  jier  KiO  cubic  feet ;  and  that  the  whole 
sulphur  in  the  gas  shall  not  exceed  twenty-two 
grains  ])er  \00  cubic  feet.  The  purifiers  are  so 
arrangeil  that  while  a  snllicient  large  area  of  puri- 
fying material  shall  always  be  encountered  by  the 
ga-s,  one  part  of  the  purifiers  after  another  is 
thrown  out  of  action,  and  renewal  of  the  material 
is  thus  po.ssible,  when  required,  without  inter- 
ruption to  the  purification.  The  valves  iinil  ion- 
verting  pipes  are  so  ■inanged  as  to  ])erniit  this 
altemation  to  be  readily  ellected  :  and  tbiiiiighout 
a  gas-work,  the  pipes  are  so  arranged  as  to  permit 
any  single  piece  of  ajiparatus  to  be  cut  out  of  the 
gas-stream  when  ie(|uiied. 

The  gas  goes  on  from  the  purifiers  to  the  stalion- 
meter-house,  in  which  there  are  («)  the  station- 
meter,  a  large  'wet'  meter  for  measuring  the 
whole  make  of  purified  gas;  (6)  the  exiiaust, 
previously  referred  to:  (c)  pressure  gauges,  and 
((/)  |)ressnre-recoriling  instruments  ;  (e)  the  station- 
governor,  by  adjustment  of  which  the  pressure  of 
gas  as  suimlied  from  the  ga."lioldcr  to  the  mains  is 
to  be  regulated.  From  the  station-meter  the  gas 
goes  on  to  the  gasholder,  or  holders,  to  be  stored 
and  i.ssiied  .as  required.  The  gasholder  is  an  inverted 
cylindrical  ve.s.sel  of  sheet  iron,  placed  in  a  t.ank  of 
stone,  brick,  concrete,  cast  or  wrought  iion,  steel, 
or  a  combination  of  these,  but  gpiieially  of  brick  or 
stone,  lined  with  Portland  cement,  or  backed  with 
clay  puddle,  and,  where  ])ossible,  sunk  into  the 
giound.  The  tank  contains  water,  in  which  the 
cylindrical  vessel  lloats  and  rises  or  sinks.  As  the 
lloatiiig  holder  rises  and  sinks,  it  is  kept  vertical 
by  tall  columns  which  surround  it,  and  guiile  its 
motion.  On  the  tops  of  these  columns  are  pulleys, 
over  w  liicli  run  chains  which  at  one  end  are  c(m- 
iiected  to  the  crow  n  of  the  gasholder,  while  at  the 
other  they  bear  suspended  balance-weights.  These 
bal.ance-weights  are  not  quite  lieavj'  enough  to 
balance   the   weight  of  the  floating  vessel,  whicli 


GAS-LIGHTING 


101 


tlm-i  tends  to  descend  ami  press  the  gas  (contained 
lietween  tlie  water  and  tlie  ciown  of  the  hoklei) 
out  into  the  mains,  ami  also  back  tliiongh  the 
station-meter  ;  but  tliey  so  nearly  poise  llie  floating 
holder  that  the  small  pressure  at  which  the  gas  is 
ilelivered  through  the  station  meter  is  sutticient  to 
lilt  the  holder,  and  thus  to  enalile  gas  to  accumu- 
late in  it  when  there  is  no  outllow  through  the 
main  ;  and  when  there  is  such  an  outflow,  the  giis- 
iiolder  oscillates  up  and  down  according  to  the 
proportion  between  the  gas  taken  oil'  from  the 
mains  ami  that  supplied  from  the  retorts.  When 
the  diameter  of  a  gasholder  is  jiroj^jrlionately  great, 
it  does  not  need  counterbalancing.  It  is  com- 
paratively not  a  heavy  structure,  and  it  contains  a 
gas  which  is  lighter  tlian  air,  so  that  the  pressure 
upon  the  base,  so  far  as  due  to  the  sheet-iron 
holder  and  its  contents,  readily  comes  to  he  hut 
little  more  than  that  which  would  have  been  due 
to  an  ei|uivalent  (juantity  of  air.  Mechanical 
ingenuity  has  been  spent  upon  framing  the  holder 
by  means  of  ribs,  and  internal  bars,  so  as  to  give 
the  ma.ximum  strength  (freedom  from  buckling) 
with  the  lea-st  weight ;  and  upon  the  construction 
of  telescopic  holders,  in  which  the  holder  is  con- 
structed in  two,  three,  or  four  lifts  or  cylinders, 
of  which  only  the  inner  one  has  a  crown.  In  each 
pair  of  cylinders  the  inner  one  has  its  lower  free 
edge  turned  up,  so  that  when  it  ri.ses  it  hooks  into 
the  down  turned  upper  free  edge  of  the  outer  cylin- 
iler,  and,  as  the  gasholder  goes  on  filling,  lifts  the 
outer  cylinder  from  the  tank,  and  so,  if  there  be 
more  than  two  lifts,  for  each  succeeding  cylinder  ; 
the  ga.s  being  prevented  from  escaping  between 
any  two  of  these  mobile  cylinders  by  the  water 
which  the  inner  one  lifts  from  the  tank  in  its 
ui>turneil  e<lge.  Recently  the  construction  of  the 
ga-someter  has  been  managed  in  such  a  way  as  to 
dispense  with  the  columnar  guides.  \eces.sarily 
the  space  within  the  gasholder  above  the  tank  water 
is,  by  means  of  pipes,  placed  in  communication  both 
with  the  station-meter  and  the  mains.  The  function 
of  the  gasholdei'S  is  a  most  important  one ;  they 
act  a.s  a  reservoir,  and  usually  are  of  a  capacity  suf- 
ficient to  contain  a  twenty-four  hours  nuiximum 
sup|)ly  (the  qu.antity  used  on  a  midwinter  day); 
ami  they  also  eijualise  the  pressure.  The  "as- 
bolder  of  the  South  .Metropolitan  Co.  at  Last 
(Jreenwich  has  six  lifts,  a  diameter  of  300  feet,  a 
height  when  inflated  of  ISO  feet,  ami  a  capacity  of 
1-2,0<)0,000  cubic  feet.  The  ga-shohler  ensures  a 
regular  supply  at  all  houi-s  both  of  day  and  night ; 
and  liy  its  means  a  comparatively  suuill  plant,  kei)t 
continuously  working,  is  enabled  to  meet  demands 
for  which,  if  the  gas  were  supplied  direct  from  the 
retorts,  it  would  he  quite  inadequate. 

Before  reaching  the  mains  the  pressure  of  the 
gas  is  regulated  by  the  sl<Uioii-t/oi;criior ;  ,an 
excessive  pressure  in  the  nuiins  would  result  in 
excessive  leakage.  There  are  ^■arious  devices  for 
securing  the  automatic  adjustment  of  resistance, 
whose  amount  is  nuide  to  increiuse  or  diminish  with 
the  pressure  ;  either  by  the  gics  lifting  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree  the  lloating  bell  of  a  small  gas- 
holder, and  thereby  altering  the  position  of  a 
conical  or  parabolic  plug  sus|>endeil  within  the 
entrance  to  the  main,  or  (Hunt's)  by  working  a 
throttle-valve. 

The  gas  is  conveyed  from  the  works  by  niain- 
pi|ies  or  mains,  generally  of  cast  iron,  carefully 
piinted  ;  the  jointing  is  eti'ected  either  by  turn- 
ing and  boring  so  as  to  make  the  pipes  fit 
easily  with  a  little  white  ami  red  lead,  or  by 
using  pipes  which  do  not  exactly  fit,  anil  nuiking 
ihi'Mi  do  so  by  means  of  caulking,  nudteil  lead, 
India  rubber,  or  rust  cement  ;  in  some  ca-ses  the 
pipes  are  connected  by  ball-and  .socket  joints  ;  in 
others,    special   provision   is   made   for  expansion. 


At  each  lowest  point  provision  Ls  made  for  takitig 
otf  water,  as  by  a  trapped  drip-well,  the  liquid  in 
which  can  be  pumped  out  into  a  cart  and  taken  to 
the  gas-works.  When  mains  sujiply  a  district  the 
altitudes  in  which  vary  considerably,  the  tendencj- 
is  for  the  local  pressures  to  vaiy  correspondingly  ; 
a  diH'erence  of  100  feet  in  level  makes  a  dill'erence 
of  1  '5  inch  of  water  in  a  i)ressure-gauge ;  and 
therefore  it  is  necessary  to  use  district-governoi-s 
which  control  the  pressure  in  particular  districts. 
To  the  mains  are  connected  branch  or  service  pijtes, 
usually  of  wrought-iron  or  lead,  in  which  the 
deposition  of  moisture  is  provideil  for,  either  by 
making  the  whole  service -pipe  drain  into  the 
main,  or  by  fitting  up  a  drip-well  at  each  lowest 
point. 

The  gas  sujiplied  is  measured  by  meters,  of 
which  there  are  two  main  varieties,  the  wet 
and  the  dry.  The  wet  meter  is  a  device  for 
measuring  out  successive  units  of  volume  of  gas; 
the  reading  will  be  the  same  whether  the  gas  be 
delivered  at  low  or  at  high  pressures  ;  and  there- 
fore the  lower  the  pressure  the  less  the  absolute 
quantity  of  material  in  gas  measured  through  a 
wet  meter,  and  vice  versa.  In  a  wet  meter  there 
is  a  cylinder  mounted  on  an  axis  ;  this  cylinder  is 
hollow,  the  hollow  being  divided  into  four  parts  or 
chambers  by  partitions,  the  longitudinal  boundaries 
of  w  hich  present  the  form  of  an  Archimedean  screw 
or  the  riding  of  a  gun  ;  the  gas  enters  one  of  these 
spiral  chambei-s  at  one  end  ;  as  the  gas  is  pres.sed 
in,  it  displaces  water  and  makes  the  hollow  space 
lighter  than  water  ;  it  thus  makes  the  hollow  tend 
to  rise,  and  in  that  way  works  the  cylinder  pailly 
round.  No  gas  can  pass  through  the  chamber  until 
it  is  completely  full.  When  one  chamber  has  been 
completely  filled,  two  things  hapjien  ;  the  entering 
stream  of'gas  now  finds  an  inlet  into  the  succeed- 
ing chamber;  and,  secondly,  the  gas  in  the  fir.st 
chamber  finds  a  possible  outlet  at  its  opposite  end, 
through  a  slit  which  now  begins  to  emerge  above 
water-level.  As  the  cylinder  goes  on  rotating,  the 
first  chamber  comes  to  sink  under  water ;  water 
enters  the  chamber  and  gas  lea\  es  it ;  and  so  for 
each  of  the  four  chambei's  in  succession.  The  axle, 
thus  made  to  rotate  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
gas  delivered,  works  a  train  of  wheelwoik  v\ hich 
by  means  of  pointei's  shows  the  number  of  10,000's, 
tfie  number  of  1000s,  atul  the  number  of  lOO's  of 
cubic  feet  of  gas  which  have  jjassed  through  the 
cylinder.  The  water  must  be  kept  at  a  constant 
level ;  it  may  freeze,  for  which  reason  the  meter 
should  be  kept  in  a  sufficiently  warm  i)lace  (not 
too  waini,  else  the  gas  will  exi)and  and  the  meter 
give  too  high  a  reading),  or  else  a  non-freezing 
liquid  should  be  used  ;  and  the  water  damps  the  gas. 
There  are  contrivances  for  maintaining  the  water- 
level  constant ;  the  meter  .sometimes  shuts  oH'  the  gas 
when  the  water  is  too  low.  Thus  there  may  be  au 
automatic  addition  of  water  from  a  subsidiary  reser- 
voir, or  au  automatic  maintenance  of  level  by  a 
hinged  float  which  sinks  into  the  water  when  liquid 
fails  to  support  it  in  its  uppermost  position  ( as  in 
the  constant- level  inkstands);  or,  there  may  be 
(Warner  and  Cowan)  a  contrivance  for  transferring 
the  excess  of  gas  delivered  at  each  revolution,  when 
the  water  is  too  low,  back  again  for  measurement. 
When  the  meter  is  ilriven  too  fast  the  record  is  too 
low  ;  but  backwash  in  the  meter  then  causes  flicker- 
ing at  the  jet  ;  and  the  general  use  of  metei-s  too 
small  for  the  work  which  they  have  to  do  is  con- 
ducive to  leakage  in  the  district  within  which  they 
abound,  on  account  of  the  high  pressure  necessary 
to  force  g:is  through  them. 

Dry  meiei-s  are,  in  principle,  a  variety  of  jiiston- 
meter  ;  the  (luid  is  meivsured  by  displacing  a  jiiston 
or  diaphragm,  and  thereby  filling  a  mea.sureJ 
cavity.      They  consist   of    two  or   three  separate 


102 


GAS-LIGHTING 


cliiiiubei's ;  ejicli  cliuiiilier  is  diviileil  into  two  liy 
ii  ilia|>lii'n^iii,  wliicli  iiiav  be  (li.s|>lHcc>l  tu  one  !>i<te 
or  tilt'  otlier.  The  j,';vs  ih  n<liiiitteil  to  tlie  one  s^iile 
of  this  ilia|>hni;,'tn  nncil  it  is  >lis|iIaoe<l  to  the  full 
extent  of  its  range :  when  Ihis  occuis  the  yiis 
is  ailniitteil  to  its  other  side,  and  llie  gas  jne- 
vionsly  adniilteil  is  allowed  to  go  on  to  the  hurner, 
and  so  on  alternately.  The  ehaiiihers  act  alter- 
nately, thus  |)assing  the  deadiH)ints.  The  dia- 
phragms are  connecleil  with  wheel  work  which  reconi 
tlieir  successive  oscillations,  and  represent  on  the 
dials  the  corresponding  nnniber  of  cuhic  feet  passed 
through  the  apparatus.  IJy  an  act  of  parliament 
(18.'i9)  all  gas-meters  must  register  not  more  than 
•2  per  cent,  in  favour  of  the  seller  and  not  more  than 
;J  [icr  cent,  in  favour  of  the  purchaser  of  g;Ls  ;  ami 
meters  must  bear  the  seal  of  an  inspector  appointeil 
under  the  act.  Meters  have  recently  been  inlro- 
iluceil  which  enable  the  poorer  consumer  to  purclia.-e 
gxs  by  pennyworths  on  tlie  familiar  '  penny  in  a  slot ' 
principle  ( 'coin  '  meters),  or  to  pay  into  the  meter 
a  delinite  sum  which  will  allow  the  mechanism  to 
transmit  the  nrearrangeil  <|uanlity  of  Lja-s  ('slop' 
metei-s).  In  brussels  the  gius  burned  by  day  and 
that  used  at  night  were  for  some  years  registered 
on  ditlVrent  ilials  of  the  same  meter. 

The  lighting  power  of  a  g;us  is  measured  in 
terms  of  the  number  of  candles  to  which  a  5-feet 
stanilard  llat-tlame  is  eipiivalent.  The  lighting 
value  of  a  gas  is  measureil  by  the  number  of 
candle-hours  it  will  yielil  i>er  1000  cubic  feet 
when  burned  in  standanl  burners  ;  thus  1()(H) 
cubic  feet  of  20canille  ga.s  will  keep  up  a  light  of 
"20  candles  for  '2iX)  hours  (using  5  cubic  feet  i>er 
hour),  anil  it.s  lighting  value  is  4000  candle  hours, 
or,  a.s  it  is  generally  abbreviated,  4000  'caiulles. ' 
Since  a  stand.ird  caiulle  shines  for  one  hour  at  the 
expense  of  120  grains  of  sperm  consumed,  the 
ligliling  value  of  a  g;v>  is  fre<|ueMtly  stated  as  so 
many  grains  of  sperm;  thus  the  'sperm  value'  of 
•20-cau.lle  gas  is  20  x  200  x  120  =  48,000  grains 
per  1000  cubic  feet.  During  recent  years  eannel 
ciial  li;V3  become  too  exiiensive  to  make  gas 
from,  and  the  n.se  of  eannel  gas  has  been 
given  up  in  the  limited  region  of  the  west  eml 
of  London  to  which  it  wius  formerly  supplied. 
(!as  -  makers  have,  therefore,  had  to  reduce 
tlieir  standard,  as  in  Eilinbnr'di,  where  the 
2Scandle  gas  has  been  replaced  by  24-candle 
gas,  or  else  to  turn  their  attention  to  the  ciirich- 
inoit  of  a  i>oorer  gas  made  from  ordinary  coal. 
This  enrichment  is  ellecteil  by  the  a<ldition  of 
hydrocarbon  vapours  in  vjirious  forms  to  the  poorer 
coal  gas.  If  gas  of  higher  quality  be  made  by  .a 
more  costly  process,  so  that  it  costs  say  (0  pence  per 
1000  cul)ic  feet  to  make  givs  of  a  lighting  power  C, 
instead  of  d  pence  to  make  gas  of  a  lighting  power 
C,  the  cost  per  adilitional  candle  of  lighting  power 
is  {(rf>  -  (/)  -^  (C  -  C)\  pence  per  1000  cubic  feet  of 
giVs  made.  If  the  enriching  giis  be  added  in  the 
jiroportion  of  f  cubic  feet  to  1000  of  coal-gjvs,  of  a 
lighting  value  of  C  canille-hours  per  5  cubic  feet, 
then  if  the  resulting  ( lOW  +f)  cubic  feet  of  eu- 
richeil  gas  have  a  lighting  value  of  C  candle-houi-s 
per  o  cubic  feet,  and  if  the  original  gits  and  the 
aildeil  einichingga-s  respectively  cost  rfanil  lO  pence 
)>er  1000  cubic  feet,  the  ailditional  cost  per  10(X)cubic 
feet  of  gas  made  is  {/"( rf'  -  '0  -^  [  ( 1000  -f /)  (  C  -  C)  ]  [ 
pence  per  additional  cainlle  of  lighting  power.  If 
we  add  a  richer  g;us  to  a  jioorer,  the  lighting  power 
of  the  mixture  is  generally  not  equal  to  the  arith- 
metical mean  as  dednceil  by  calculation  ;  there  is 
generally  deterioration  due  to  dilution  ;  but  it 
often  happens  that  if  we  add  a  little  poor  gas  to  an 
e.xceedinglj-  rich  one  the  lighting  power  is  higher 
than  we  would  have  expected.  I'ut  if  we  apjily  to 
the  actual  results  of  einichment  the  same  melhoils 
v.liicli  we  wonll  use  if  there  had  been  no  deteriora 


tiuu,  we  obtAin  a  useful  nominal  value  fortlie  light- 
ing iMiwer  of  the  richer  g.is,  which  is  calleil  its 
'  enruhment  value.'  Thus  if  we  mix  13J  cubic  feet 
of  oil'g;is,  of  an  unkimwn  enrichment  value  ('", 
with  1000  cubic  feet  of  14  candle  coal-gas,  and 
obtain  lOl.'JJ  cubic  feet  of  lo-candle  gas,  we  find, 
from  the  equation  1013i  x  15  =  ( 1IH)0  >  \i)  +  L'tJ'-'". 
that  C"  =  90  candles,  the  nominal  lighting  power 
of  the  enriching  gas,  or  its  enrichment  value. 
As  means  of  enrichment  by  mere  ailmixtnre,  we 
have  benzol-vapour,  which  is  much  u~e<l  on  the 
Continent,  and  which  for  small  eniichnient  adds 
about  4700  eamlle- hours  per  gallon  of  benzol 
evajioraled  into  the  gas;  carburine  or  light  petro- 
leum oil  (practically  hexane,  C',,!!,,),  used  to  some 
e.xtent  in  London  under  the  >Iaxim  (latents,  and 
adding  about  IGOO  eamlle  hours  per  gallon  cva]) 
orate<l;  and  oil-gas.  Oil  has  also  Ijeen  employed 
as  spray  injected  into  the  coal-retorts  theniselvijs  : 
and  coal-gxs  is  largely  carbuielted  by  being 
expo.se(l,  along  with  the  vapours  obtained  by  the 
distillation  of  oil,  to  a  high  temperature,  so  that 
these  vapours  may  be  rendered  more  'permanent,' 
or  less  liable  to  condense  in  transit  through  the 
pijics. 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  in  the  first  place 
gasliltings  should  be  adequate  to  supply  the 
maximum  demand  for  gas  ;  and  in  the  second,  that 
the  g.a-s  should  emerge  from  each  burner  under  a 
low  |iiessiire.  If  the  g»slittii)gs--pipes,  i>y:c.  —  be 
iiiade<]uale,  as  they  mostly  are,  full  Mames  cannot 
l»e  produced,  and  the  light  is  iinsatisfiicloiy  ;  if,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  full  inessme  of  the  mains  is 
comnmnicated  too  directly  to  the  gas-burners  them- 
selves, there  is  a  tendency  to  Hare.  This  can  be 
mitigated  by  partially  turning  oil' at  the  meter: 
but  even  then  the  variable  denuuul  may  result  ir. 
variable  pressures  at  the  biirnei*.  There  shoiiM  be 
a  governor  for  each  g;is  burner,  or  for  each  snuill 
groiiii  of  giis  burners ;  these  are  now  readily  pro- 
curable, and  when  they  are  used  a  full  llame  is 
obtained  which  is  constaiilly  .'ind  steadily  kept  uji 
by  a  comparatively  slow  supply  of  g;is  ;  the  incan- 
descent particles  or  heavy  lieated  hydrocarbon 
vapours  upon  which  luminosity  depends  are 
allowed  to  remain  as  long  as  po.ssil)le  in  the 
Maine,  and  the  gas  is  thoroughly  burned  ;  ami  air 
is  not  swirle<l  into  the  interior  of  the  llame  by  the 
swift  current  of  gas,  thus  spoiling  the  luminosity. 
An  ordinary  burner  gives  greatly  superior  results 
when  governed  ;  since  the  electric  light  has  caused 
more  attention  to  be  iiaid  to  the  ellicient  burning 
of  gas,  the  burners  tliem.selves  have  been  greatly 
ini|)roved  ;  but  burners  should  always  be  selected 
with  reference  to  the  quality  of  gas  to  be  used  in 
them. 

The  ordinary  latstail  burner  has  long  given  place 
to  the  batswing  and  lishtail  burners,  the  former 
of  which  are  nuide  with  a  clean  slit  across  the 
head  of  the  burner ;  the  latter  have  two  pas.sages 
converging  towards  one  another,  the  result  being 
that  the  two  streams  of  gas  meet  one  another 
and  sprea«l  out  into  a  flat  sheet  of  llame.  The 
former  u.se  nmch  gas  at  onlinary  pressuies,  ami  a 
very  small  pressure  (  J-inch  of  water  just  below  the 
burner)  is  suHicient  to  bring  out  the  full  lighting- 
power.  In  hollow-top  burners  the  ))ressure  is 
relieved  by  the  gas  swirling  in  a  cavity  below  the 
outlet-slit!  Burnei*  of  these  classes  shoulil  always 
be  selected  w  illi  steatite  tops  ;  metal  burners  soon 
rust  and  si)oil  the  llame.  In  Aigand  burners  the 
gas  issues  through  a  ring  of  holes  ;  the  tiame  is 
tubular,  and  is  surronndeil  by  a  chimney  ;  air 
ascends  both  inside  and  outside  the  tubular  llame. 
In  Dumas  burners  the  circle  of  holes  is  replaced  by 
a  circular  slit,  and  a  regulator  controls  the  admis- 
sion of  air.  These  various  burnei-s  have  also  been 
collected  in  groups  to  form  the  so-called  sunlights. 


GAS-LIGHTING 


103 


and  so  foitl)  :  lint  the  recent  leniarkalile  i)r( igress 
ill  gas  lij,'litiiig  lias  been  ilue  to  tlie  study  of  tlie 
mutual  actions  of  llanios,  ami  to  the  use  ol  hot  air 
anil  soiiietiiues  hot  gas.  For  exainjile,  we  have 
concentric  ArgMinl  tlauies  (Sugg)  ;  ]iorcelain  rylin- 
ileis  in  the  axis  of  an  Aigand  Haine  to  keep  the 
llaiiie  from  llickering,  to  keep  up  the  heat  of  the 
Hame,  and  also  themselves  to  radiate  light  when  in- 
candescent;  liurners  in  which  gas  from  a  circular 
slit  plays  on  the  under  surface  of  a  porcelain  globe  ; 
ainl  especially  regenerative  burners  of  various 
models,  generally  with  inverted  llanies,  in  which 
the  lieated  products  of  combustion  are  made  to  heat 
the  incoming  air.  Globes  and  shades  cut  ott'  a  good 
deal  of  light ;  a  clear  glass  globe  cuts  oft"  from  9  to 
12  per  cent.  ;  ground  gl.ass  about  40;  opal  ghdies 
about  GO.  Globes  .should  never  have  a  lower 
a]ierture  narrower  than  4  or  5  inches  ;  the  ordinary 
narrow  aperture  makes  a  strong  draught  of  air, 
which  materially  weakens  the  brightness  of  the 
Hame,  and  unsteadies  it.  For  use  with  incandescent 
mantles  globes  are  now  made  with  surfaces  niatlie- 
inatically  facetted  ( '  holophanes ')  or  channelled 
( '  dirt'users')  which  distribute  the  incident  light 
and  spread  out  the  light  so  as  to  make  it  appar- 
ently lill  the  globe. 

Soiuetiiiies  gas  is  burned  with  air  in  a  small 
Bunsen  burner,  and  over  the  Hame  is  litted  a  basket 
of  jilatitium  wire  (Lewis),  or  a  small  mantle  con- 
sisting of  thoria  along  with  a  little  ceria  (.\uer  von 
Welsliach),  which  emits  a  brilliant  white  light  on 
incandescence  ;  or  the  ordinary  Hame  of  gas  may  be 
rendered  more  luminous  by  passing  the  gas  over 
melted  na|ditlialiue,  which  i  t  takes  up  (  Albocarbon). 
In  Denayrouze's  modilication  of  the  Bunsen  burner, 
tlie  gas  and  air  are  effectively  mixed  by  means  of  a 
little  fan-wheel  driven  by  a  minute  electromotor; 
the  Maine  is  altered  in  character  and  becomes  in- 
tensely hot  ;  if  a  Welsbach  mantle  be  used  with 
such  a  burner,  the  lighting  eHect  goes  up  as  high  as 
270  candles  with  a  consumpt  of  9  cubic  feet  of 
Loudon  gas  per  hour.  In  Mandsejit's  Bunsen  burner, 
the  gas  and  air  are  similarly  mixed  by  means  of  a 
balHer  immediately  under  the  Hame;  tlie  result  is 
about  J  the  light  given  by  a  Denayrouze. 

l'"or  heating  purposes,  coal-gas  mixed  with  air 
produces  a  smokeless  Hame  ami  a  higher  tempera- 
ture than  it  does  when  burned  in  luminous  tlanies  ; 
and  so  for  direct  heating  the  Bunsen  Burner  (ipv.  ) 
jirinciple  is  suitable.  In  one  modilication  of  the 
Band.scpt  Bunsen  burner  the  air  is  driven  through 
an  inverted  injector  under  high  pressure,  dragging 
gas  with  it,  and  being  mixed  therewith  ;  and  the 
Hame  is  produced  under  the  surface  of  any  lir|uid 
which  it  may  be  ilesired  to  heat  up.  Thus  about 
90  per  cent,  of  the  heat  evolved  is  utilised  directly. 
Gas  produces  the  same  tiuantity  of  lieat,  provideil 
that  it  is  comiiletely  liurned,  in  whatever  way  it 
is  burned.  Convenience,  cleanliness,  may  ohen 
determine  the  use  of  Bunsen  Haines ;  but  where 
radiation  is  expected  to  come  into  play  the  lumin- 
ous Hame  is  more  effective— as  for  cooking  (see 
W.VitMiNr. ).  Coal-gas  for  cooking  is  economical,  as 
it  can  be  turned  off  when  not  wanted,  and  turned 
on  at  once  ;  and  it  is  smokeless  if  properly  burned. 
Of  course  it  ought  not  to  be  left  unprovideil  with  a 
chimney.  For  ventilation,  a  well  uranged  system 
of  lamps,  esiiecially  of  the  regenerative  ty]ie,  will 
jirovide  motive  power  for  carrying  away  their  own 
products  of  combustion  and  for  renewing  the  air  of 
the  room.  G;is  is  largely  used  for  gas-engines 
(ipv.),  which  in  1896  were  being  made  up  to  1000 
horse- power. 

The  price  of  light  obtained  from  coal-gas  may  be 
ascertained  by  linding  I  he  cost  of  a.  caiullc-hoiir — 
tli;;  light  of  one  standard  sperm  candle  for  one  hour 
— in  each  case.  The  table  combines  the  data  of 
Stevenson    .Macadam,    Letheby,   Thompson,    I'oris, 


and  others,  and  gives  the  price  per  canale  hour, 
in  thousandths  of  a  penny  : 

EUiiibiirgli  gas,  24  caiiille-i)0"t'r,  in  a  5-feet  burner 
(Xo.  j) ;  liylitiiij;  eH'ect  =  24  caiulles  ;  i>rice  of  gas 

3s.  per  lliousami  cubic  feet. 7*5 

Do.    ill  a  4-feet  burner  (No.  4);  lighting  effect 

=  17-8  candles 80 

Do.  3-feet  bunier  ( No.  3 ) ;  11-8  caiuUes 5-C 

Do.  2           .1            (Xo.  2);    «-9        .i        10-4 

Do.  1           II            (.N'o.  1);     20        1 140 

Do.*          ..           (N'o.  J);     0-S5      21-0 

Do.   witli  a  AVelsbacli  incanilescent  mantle,  in  a 
3|-feet  burlier  (1-incli  pressure);  averajje  effect, 

4S  camlles  ;  niaulle  lOd.,  lasting  1000  lioiire 3125 

Gas  at  say  2s.   9(1.   for  IG-candle  gas ;    burned   in 

Argaiids 7-7 

Do.  in  Siemens'  precision  Argand  burner 5-8 

Do.  M  Inverted  Siemens,  Biisclike  and  Wenliani...  2'(>-5"3 

Do.  burned  in  Welsbach  mantle  as  above 2'09 

Do.         II                     M         with  Bandsept  burner  2  04 
Do.          II                      n     with  Denayrouze  burner, 

0  cubic  feet,  270  candle-power 1-52 

Sperm  oil,  at  2s.  per  gallon,  in  Argands 8*7-27"3 

II                        M             in  common  lamps 55  0 

Paratfin,  at  8d.  per  gallon,  in  niodeni  lamjis 5*3-8'9 

'fallow  caudle-s,  at  Ijd.  per  lb 110 

Couiposile  candles,  at  8d IGO 

Paratlin  candles,  at  5d.      it 02'5 

Wax  candles,  at  2s.             i 404 

Electricity  in  arc  lamps,  875  candle-power,  consuming 

500  walls  per  hour,  at  5d.  per  1000  walls 2-9li 

Electricity   in  glow  lamiis,   10  candle-power  eacli, 
consuming  50  watts  per  hour,  at  5d.  jier  1000  walls  ; 

lamp  I.S.,  lasting  1000  hours 17'S5 

The  price  of  ga.s,  like  the  quality,  will  vary  from 
place  to  place,  owing  to  differences  in  the  price  of 
coal,  the  cost  of  the  works,  and  so  forth.  In 
the  London  Gas-light  and  Coke  Company's  accounts 
we  find  the  gross  cost  of  niannfacture  of  each  1000 
cubic  feet  of  gas  sold  is  23'418  pence  ;  the  re.siduals 
— coke,  breeze,  tar,  and  animoniacal  liquor — retnrn 
9'036d.  :  so  the  net  current  cost  at  the  works  is 
14'3S2d.  for  each  lOOU  cubic  feet  sold  ;  the  cost  of 
distribution  is  3'571d.;  public  lighting  involves  an 
outlay  of  0'437d.  ;  rates  and  taxes  come  to  2'696d. ; 
management  to  0'894d.  ;  vaiious  charges  (bad 
debts,  annuities,  legal  expenses,  &c. ),  come  to 
0'546d.— altogether  22'526d. ;  which  meter  and  stove 
rents,  &c.,  bring  down  to  22144d.  The  average 
juice  of  the  gas  sold  is  33'705il.  ;  the  difference, 
ll'Seid.  per  thousand  on  a  .sale  of  9,453,889,000 
cubic  feet  in  six  months,  corresponds  to  a  gnoss 
proHt  of  just  over  SJ  per  cent,  per  annum  on  the 
jiaid-uii  capital  of  i'll, 198,000.  The  capital  value 
of  the  works  of  this  company  in  January  1S96  was 
,fll, 792,85!,  9s.  lid.;  that  'of  the  SotUli  Metro- 
politan Company  was  .£3,405,715,  4s.  ;  and  that  of 
the  Commercial  Company,  £877,951,  10s.  9d. 

The  risks  of  gasligiiting  are  twofold— exjdosion 
and  poisoning.  Exjdosion  cannot  occur  until  there 
is  about  6'6  per  cent,  of  gas  in  the  air,  but  it  is 
dangerous  to  '  look  for  a  leak  with  a  light.'  As  to 
poisoning,  the  gas  must  escape  into  a  room  without 
being  noticed  until  there  is  about  one-half  per 
cent,  of  carbonic  oxide — i.e.  from  4  to  12  per 
cent,  of  coal-gas — in  the  air  of  the  room,  before 
danger  to  life  becomes  imminent  ;  and  this  ]ier- 
centage  is  rarely  attained  by  ordinary  escajies  into 
rooms  of  fair  size.  Fatal  accidents  have  generally 
haiqiened  from  escapes  into  small  rooms,  and  also 
fioiii  the  travelling  of  gas  from  broken  mains 
through  earth  into  an  earth  Hooicd  lumse,  which 
may  draw  the  earth-gases  through  it  in  a  deo- 
dorised condition.  A  gas-escape  is  most  likely  to 
be  serious  in  its  consequences  when  it  takes 
place  into  the  npper  part  of  a  room  ;  the  per- 
centage near  the  ceiling  may  then  come  to  be 
much  greater  than  it  is  at  fii'st  lower  down  (see 
Poi.soN.s). 

From  1G39  onwards  the  attention  of  scientific  men 
had  repeatedly  been  turned  to  'burning  springs'  or 
streams  of  'inHamniable  air 'issuing  from  wells  and 
mines  in  the  coal  dLslricts  of  Kngland,  and  com- 
munications on  the  subject  were  aildressed  to  tlie 
1  Koyal  Society  of  Loudon.     Some  time  before  1691 


104 


GAS-LlGHTlNG 


the  Kev.  l)r  Jolin  Clavtoii,  Dean  of  KiUIaie,  ad- 
dressed a  letter  t«  tlie  lion.  I{ol>cil  Hoyle,  in  which 
he  ileseiibed  ex]ieriiiieMls  on  llie  ]iniihiclion  luul 
stom^'e  of  inlhiinniahle  ^:.us  ilistilled  from  coal  ;  anil 
this  leltoi-  was  imhlislieil  in  the  Koyal  Society's 
Transactions  for  17S9.  In  17H7  Lord  Dundonald 
made  some  domestic  exiicrinients  on  li^dilin^  liv 
coal>;as.  In  1792  William  Mnnloch  lit  np  his 
house  and  ollice  at  Kedriitli  in  Cornwall  ;  in  I7'JS  lie 
lit  up  a  part  of  IJoiillon  \-  Watt's  niannfactory  at 
Soho.  liiruiin^'ham  :  and  in  1805,  with  l(HH)  Imrncrs, 
the  mills  of  Messi-s  Philips  anil  Lee  at  iSalford.  In 
1801  Le  Bon  lit  his  honse  with  coal  ;,'.us,  and  in 
ISO'2  he  proposed  to  liiLjht  a  part  of  the  cily  of  Paris. 
In  1  so:}  Wint/.er  or  Winsor  lectured  in  London  upon 
tlie  new  li^lit ;  he  was  a  sanj;uine  projector,  holdiiix 
forth  fantastic  hiii)(?s,  but  was  instrumental  in  found 
iny  the  Chartoreii  (!as  Company  which  obtained  its 
Act  of  Parliament  in  1810.  In  'l8i:i  he  w;vs  replaced 
by  Mr  Samuel  Clegj;,  who  bad  been  manayini,' 
Boulton  and  Watt's  ;j;asdi^ditin};  since  180,5  in  suc- 
cession to  Mr  Murdoch,  and  who  w.xs  the  inventor 
of  the  hydraulic  main,  the  wet  meter,  and  the  wet- 
lime  puriher.  In  1813  Westminster  Bridge  was 
lifjbted  by  ;,'as,  and  immediately  thereafter  the 
new  method  of  li;,'litin;,'  made  very  rapid  nro- 
gress  in  (Ireat  ISritain  and  other  countries  ;  anil  in 
the  contest  for  supremacy  between  coal-gas  and  oil, 
wood,  and  peat-gas,  which  were  at  one  time  some- 
what e-xtensively  tried,  coal  g.us  took  the  lead. 

II.  O'Ugas  is  prepared  from  heavy  mineral  oils 
(sq.  gr.  =  0  9)  or  parallins,  from  thidr  residues, 
and  sometimes  from  spent  grease,  suint,  waste 
mutton  fat  (in  .\ustralia),  itc.  t)ne  hundred  lb. 
of  oil  yields  from  72J  to  1092  cubic  feet  of  gas,  of 
which  one  cubic  foot  per  hour  yields  a  light  of  10 
to  12  candles.  The  oil  is  made  to  llow  in  a  thin 
steady  stream  into  cast-iron  retorts,  heated  to 
between  900'  ami  1000'  C.  :  these  retorts  are  hori- 
zontal or  vertical,  or  are  in  some  civses  so  arninged 
that  ga-s  formed  in  one  retort  or  section  of  a  retort 
is  further  heated  in  another  retort  or  in  another 
section  of  the  same  retort.  The  condensation 
reipiires  special  attention  ;  oil -gas  hits  a  tend- 
ency to  carry  non- permanent  v.aiioui's  with  it, 
and  the.se  must  be  removed.  Tlie  purification 
necessitates  the  use  of  scrubbei's,  puiilicrs,  and  so 
on  !vs  in  coal-gas.  Even  in  refined  parallin 
and  petroleum  oils  there  is  sulphur  present 
often  far  in  exce.ss  of  that  contained  in  an 
equivalent  (luantity  of  coal-gas.  Oil-g.is  must  be 
burned  at  a  low  pressure  and  in  small  burners  ;  the 
standard  burner  is  No.  1  (1  cubic  foot  ]>er  hour). 
Oil  g.os  is  used  for  lighting  railway  carnages ;  the 
gas,  carefully  purified,  is  compressed  at  lO  atmo- 
spheres' pressure  ;  it  is  then  transferred  to  the  reser- 
voirs borne  by  the  railway  carriage,  each  of  which 
carries,  at  6  atuiospheres'  i)ressure,  enough  gas  for 
33  to  40  hours'  lighting ;  a  regulator  governs  the 
pressure  at  the  burners,  and  each  burner,  con- 
suming 0777  cubic  feet  per  hour,  gives  7  candle- 
light. Ciim|)ie.s.sed  oil  gas  has  also  been  applied  to 
the  lighting  of  buoys,  and  to  some  extent  to  steam- 
ship lighting.  In  the  Young  &  Bell  i)rocess,  oil 
is  iiiade  to  trickle  from  cooler  to  hotter  regions,  but 
at  no  point  is  the  temperature  relatively  very  high  ; 
as  the  oil  descends,  any  given  constituent  of  it 
meets  a  temperature  coninetent  partly  to  decompose 
it  into  lighter  and  heavier  hydrocarbon  gases  and 
vajmurs  :  the  gaseous  and  va])oious  mixture  pro- 
duced travels  npw.ards  and  meets  the  down-tlowing 
stream  ;  this  stream  dissolves  everything  except 
the  lightest  gases  and  vapours,  which  jiass  oil'  as 
oil-gas,  without  being  subjected  to  any  exces.sive 
temperature,  while  the  materials  dissolved  find 
their  way  b.ack  towards  the  retort,  and  are  iigain 
subjeclci)  to  heat  and  further  decompositiim.  The 
only  by  product   is  a  very  pure  form  of  coke.     This 


f;as  has  an  enrichment  value  of  about  90,  and  may 
>e  applied  to  the  eiirichiiient  either  of  ordinary 
coal-gas  or  to  that  of  poor  gas  or  water  gas.  .\Ir 
Tathain  mixes  oil-gas  with  about  I.")  per  cent,  of 
oxygen,  and  thereby  enables  the  gas  to  be  burned 
directly  in  greater  volume  with  ordinary  small 
burners,  so  that  a  lighting  power  is  attained  equi- 
valent to  100  candles  per  5  cubic  feet.  The  light  is 
brilliantly  white,  and  the  tiaines  arc  not  so  small 
that  they  are  chilled  by  the  burner  itself. 

III.  l'i-(ilij<i.i  and  IV.  W'uud  fids  are  occasion- 
ally used.  Wood-gas  is  a  byproduct  in  the  pre- 
paration of  pyroligneous  (crude  acetic)  acid;  its 
lighting-power  is  about  20  candles  ;  the  yield  is.")4(i 
to  642  cubic  feet  ))cr  1000  lb.  of  wood  ;  of  tlic  crinle 
gas  20  to  2.')  per  cent,  ciuisist  of  carbonic  acid.  Peat 
yields  320  to  otK)  cubic  feet  of  gas  [ler  UK)  lb.  ;  light- 
ing power  about  18  candles  ;  the  carbonic  acid  in 
tlie  crude  gas  is  about  .'{0  per  cent. 

V.  Pioihicci-  Giis. — When  a  limited  stream  of  air 
is  driven  through  glowing  coke,  the  coke  is  first 
burned  to  carbonic  acid  ;  the  carbonic  acid,  as  it 
travels  through  the  remainder  of  the  brightly  glow- 
ing coke,  takes  U])  carbon  and,  for  the  most  |iart, 
becomes  carbonic  o.xide;  the  resultant  gaseous 
mixture  consists  of  carbonic  oxide  (about  2(1  per 
cent.),  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  employed  (about  70 
per  cent. ),  and  some  undecomposed  carbonic  acid 
(about  4  per  cent.).  This  mixture  is  combustible 
with  a  clean  llamc,  and  this  kind  of  fuel  is  now 
largely  employed  (geneially  with  utilisation  of  the 
waste  heat  to  warm  the  incoming  curicnt  of  air.  as 
in  the  so-called  regenerative  furii.iccs)  lor  he.iling 
the  retorts  in  coal-gas  making,  in  metallurgical 
operations,  in  glass  and  pottery  making,  and  in 
boiler  firing.  The  furnace  hearth  becomes  a  clear, 
clean,  deoxidising  region  of  intense  heat  withouti 
visible  llame.  The  g.is  from  the  ]>roducer  is  very 
hot ;  if  it  be  passed  at  once  into  the  fuinace,  a  large 
propoition  of  the  heat  of  the  coke  ma>  be  utilised  ; 
if  it  be  allowed  to  cool,  a  considerable  percentage  is 
lost.  The  usual  yield  of  luoducer  gas  is  ficuii  coal 
(Siemens)  about"l60,ii00,  from  coke  about  17.'i,(MK» 
cubic  feet  per  ton  ;  the  heating  values  are,  for  coideil 
gas,  resnectively  29,700  and  26,900  calories  ]ier 
thousand  cubic  feet,  or  altogether  60  and  6S  per 
cent,  of  tho.se  of  the  respective  materials  employed. 

VI.  Protluecr  Watei-rjas. — When  mixed  air  ami 
steam  are  driven  through  glowing  coke  (or  antbia- 
cite,  Dow.son  ),  the  air  keeps  the  coke  glowing,  ami, 
as  in  the  previous  case,  |iroduces  carbonic  oxide, 
carbonic  acid,  and  nitrogen  ;  the  steam  acts  on  the 
glowing  coke  and  ]iroduccs  hydrogen  and  carbonic 
oxide  ;  the  result  is  a  mixture  w  hose  compositiim 
varies  according  to  the  relative  <|uanlitics  of  .lir 
and  steam,  and  according  to  the  temperature  in 
the  i)ioducer  ;  as  an  average  it  may  be  said  to  con- 
sist of  9  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid,  24  of  carbonic 
o.xide,  13  of  hydrogen,  and  54  of  nitrogen.  If  an 
excess  of  steam  be  used,  there  is  more  hydrogen, 
more  carbonic  acid,  and  le.ss  carbonic  oxide.  The 
nsn.al  yield  is  about  168,(X»0  cubic  feet  per  ton  of 
material  ;  the  heating  value  is  alxuit  .■i.'t,.5lK)  calories 
per  KKH)  cubic  feet ;  altogether  about  80  per  cent, 
of  that  of  the  coke  and  anthracite  employed. 

VII.  \Viitcr-gas.—\n  1793  Lavoisier  discovered 
that  when  steam,  unmixed  «ith  air,  is  passed 
through  glowing  coke,  the  coke  is  oxidised :  car- 
bonic oxide  and  hydiogen  gas  are  produced,  theo- 
retically, pure  and  in  equal  volumes;  practically, 
the  jiroduct  contains  3  to  8  [ler  cent,  of  carbonic 
aciil,  and  4  to  9  of  nitrogen.  The  yield  is  from 
coke  (7,000,000  calories  per  ton)  about  35,0(X)  cubic 
feet,  with  a  heating  value  of  about  75,'K)0  calories 
jier  ItXX)  cubic  feet,  or  on  the  whole  alioiit  40  per 
cent,  of  the  heat-value  of  the  coke  ;  from  coal 
(7,800,1100  calories  per  ton)  about  42,OfK)  cubic  feet, 
at  95,000  calories,  or  about  49  per  cent.     In  th> 


GAS-LIGHTIXG 


GASCONY 


105 


process  tlie  steam  cools  down  tlie  glowing  coke ; 
consequently  air  must  be  sent  through  the  coke  at 
intervals  (about  4  minutes  steam  ami  10  minutes 
air)  in  order  to  restore  its  glow  ;  and  a  series  of 
firoducers  must  be  so  conjoined  as  to  act  alternately 
with  one  anotlier,  before  the  process  can  result  in 
a  continuous  supply  of  water-gas.  The  by-product, 
]iroducer  gas,  which  may  be  produced  in  large 
quantities  (110,000  cubic  feet,  at  26,900  calories 
per  1000)  by  regulating  the  supply  of  air  while 
the  coke-glow  is  being  worked  up,  may  be  used 
for  boilei's  or  for  gas-engines.  When  it  is  so  util- 
ised, the  net  cost  of  making  simple  water-gas  is 
between  5d.  and  6d.  per  1000  cubic  feet,  about  8d. 
per  1000  less  than  coal-gas.  Water-gas  gives  on 
combustion  an  extremely  high  temperature,  wliich 
saves  time  in  furnace  work ;  gold,  silver,  and 
copper,  and  even  an  alloy  of  70  jiarts  of  gold  and 
30  of  platinum  are  readily  melted  in  quantity  by 
it ;  hence  lor  bringing  objects  such  a.s  Fahneh- 
jelm's  combs  (a  series  of  rods  of  magnesia)  into 
brilliant  luminous  incandescence,  for  welding,  or  for 
metallurgical  operations  involving  high  tempera- 
tures, it  is  very  suitable ;  and  in  gas-engines  it  works 
cleanly.  When  water-gas  is  used  witii  Fahnehjelm 
combs,  the  quantity  of  gas  used  is  ( Dr  F.  Fischer) 
180  litres,  or  (jt  cubic  feet  per  hour,  the  light  being, 
when  the  burner  is  new,  22  to  24  candles,  and  after 
60  hours,  reduced  to  16.  The  combs  ( 15s.  per  hun- 
dred) require  renewal  after  100  hours' use.  As  a 
carrier  of  heat,  coal-gas  is  twice  as  efl'ective  in 
respect  of  quantity  of  heat ;  its  heating-power  is 
aliout  1.50, (X)0  calories  per  1000  culjic  feet,  which 
represents  about  20  per  cent,  of  the  whole  lieat  of 
the  coal  distilled,  or  about  50  |)er  cent,  after  allow- 
ing for  the  heating-power  retained  in  the  coke, 
breeze,  and  tar  ;  and  this  concentration  of  heating- 
power  in  smaller  bulk  may  in  some  cases  transfer 
the  advantage  of  cheapness,  through  smaller  cost 
of  distribution,  to  coal-gas.  Water  gas  is  much 
used  in  the  United  States.  It  is  supplied  to  houses, 
either  pure  or  mi.xed  with  the  coal-gas  produced  in 
tlie  manufacture  of  the  coke  from  which  the  water- 
g.os  is  maile,  and  it  is  then  known  as  'fuel  g.is;" 
but  more  generally  it  is  carburetted  by  being  ex- 
posed to  a  high  temperature  along  with  iiaphtha  or 
|ietroleum  vapoiiis,  and  the  resultant  mixture  is 
employeil  as  illuminating  ga.s.  Unfortunately  the 
high  percentage  of  carbonic  o.xiile,  which  is  odour- 
less, has  caused  a  high  death-roll. 

VIII.  Acetif/ene. — This  gas,  t\.H..,  longachemical 
curiosity  merely,  is  now  prepared  on  the  large  scale 
by  the  action  of  water  upon  calcium  carbide, 
which  is  made  by  exposing  a  mixture  of  lime  and 
carbon  to  the  temperature  of  the  electric  arc  in  the 
electric  furnace.  The  carbon  unites  with  the 
hydrogen  of  the  water,  forming  acetylene  ;  the 
calcium  with  the  oxygen,  forming  lime,  which,  as 
slaked  lime,  renuiins  in  the  water.  This  gas  gives, 
with  a  half  cubic-foot  burner,  an  intensely  white 
solid-looking  flame  of  24  candle-power.  For  en- 
richment its  enrichment  value  is  aliout  100  candles 
for  about  the  liist  live  candles  of  adilitional  ilhimin- 
ating  power:  alter  which  the  etlect  of  dilution 
weai-s  oH'.  and  the  enrichinent  value  may  go  up  to 
aliout  150.  Suttieiently  dilute  pure  acetylene  is 
not  aiqireciably  poisonous  ;  but  it  has  a  character- 
istic disagreeable  odour,  partly  due,  when  it  is  made 
from  carbide,  to  traces  of  iiho'sphuietted  hydrogen. 
A  ton  of  carbiile  produces  about  1I,(HKJ  ciibic  feet 
of  acetylene  :  and  though  estimates  have  been 
published  which  show  a  cost  of  £4  per  ton,  the 
iiianulacturei-s  have  not  been  able,  in  Kurope.  to 
put  it  on  the  market  at  less  than  40.5s.  a  ton  ( 1896). 

IX.  Natiirtil  dtts  issues  from  the  earth  in  many 
places— the  eternal  lires  at  Uaku  ( ipv. ),  for  example  : 
trom  other  g.is- wells  in  the  Caucasus,  natural  or 
opened  in  boring  for  oil  ;  in  China  ;  but  principallv 


in  North  America.  At  Fredonia,  New  York  state, 
gas  escaping  from  the  earth  was  used  in  ls21.  In 
1859  boring  for  oil  in  Pennsylvania  and  elsewhere 
became  general ;  the  gas  as.sociated  with  this  was  con- 
veyed to  a  distance  and  burned  as  a  nuisance.  The 
general  utilisation  of  the  gas  began  in  1872  at  Fair- 
view,  Butler  County,  Pennsylvania.  Many  of  the 
gas-wells  lasted  only  four  or  live  years.  In  1874  the 
gas  was  used  in  iron-smelting,  and  by  1884  one  Pitts- 
burg company  used  gas  equivalent  to  the  produce 
of  400  tons  of  coal  a  day.  Pittsburg,  formerly 
lying  under  a  continuous  black  pall  of  smoke, 
became  bright  and  clear.  Hut  now  the  supply  has 
fallen  off',  and  Pittsburg  lia.s  been  .sujiplied  with 
gas  from  West  Virginia,  at  a  distance  of  102  miles 
(and  see  above  at  p.  98).  Chicago  is  sujiplied  with 
natural  gas  from  Greentown,  Ind.,  at  a  distance  of 
116  miles.  Nearly  all  the  gas  obtained  is  now  dis- 
tributed by  ]iipes  and  pumping  engines,  and  in  the 
United  States  of  America  about  40<j  million  cubic 
feet  |ier  day  are  thus  distributed.  Natural  gas  is 
also  found  by  boring  elsewhere  in  Pennsylvania, 
in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Illinois,  Kansas,  the 
Dakotas,  and  at  Los  Angeles  in  California.  The 
North  American  gas  consists  mainly  of  inar>h  gas  ; 
sometimes  it  contains  nothing  else  than  marsh  gas 
and  a  little  carbonic  acid  ;  sometimes  there  aie 
various  percentages  of  hydrogen,  ethylene,  traces 
of  carbonic  o.xide,  nitrogen,  o.xygen,  or  heavy 
hydrocarbons.  The  Baku  gas  contains  .3  per  cent. 
<if  heavy  hydrocarbons,  and  is  more  regularly 
delicient  in  hydrogen.  The  American  gas  is  used  for 
all  metallurgical  proces.ses  except  the  blast-furnace, 
and  is  very  convenient  for  gla.ss-making.  In  some 
places  the  gas  is  carburetted  or  used  with  Falineli- 
jelm's  combs.  Natural  gas  may  possibly  underlie 
the  English  salt-beds. 

See  King's  work  on  coal-gas  edited  by  Ncwbigging, 
whose  6'aj  Manager^  Handluok  is  also  valuable  ;  Waiik- 
lyn's  Oas  Eitf/iiiecfi^  Chcmicat  Manual^  and  Butterfield, 
(>'<M  Mauiifucture  ( 18%)  for  chemistry ;  Field's  AnalysU, 
and  the  Has  }i'orld's  yearly  analyses. 

Gaseoigne,  Sir  William  (1350-1419)  judge, 
was  ajqiointed  on  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  a 
justice  in  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  in 
November  1400  was  raised  to  be  Chief-justice  of 
the  King's  Bench.  He  was  evidently  a  fearless 
judge,  as  he  lefused  to  obey  the  king's  command 
to  sentence  to  death  Archbishop  Sciope  and  Mow- 
bray after  the  northern  insurreclion  in  1405.  Nine 
d.ays  after  the  death  of  Henry  IV.  a  succes.sor  wiis 
a|ipointed  to  his  otlice,  which  disjicses  of  the  liction 
that  Henry  V.  continued  him  in  it  (Shakespeare's 
Hciity  IV.,  V.  ii.  102-121).  The  famous  story  of 
his  encounter  with  the  dissolute  young  prince  Hal 
lacks  historical  support.  -Mr  Croft  and  Mr  Solly 
Flood  believe  it  originated  in  the  Rolls  entry  under 
Edward  I.,  that  the  prince,  afterwards  Eilward  11., 
was  e.xpelled  from  the  court  for  half  a  year,  for 
insulting  one  of  his  father's  ministers.  The  story 
as  ascribed  to  Prince  Hal  lii^t  apjieai-s  in  Elyot 
( 1531 ).  Hall  has  the  story  also,  and  after  him 
Ilolinshed,  although  none  of  the  three,  like  Shake- 
sjieare,  mentions  the  judge  by  name. 

See  Croft's  edition  of  Elyot's  Bol:e  named  the  Govetiiovr 
(l!^f<0),  and  Church's  iff  nrj/  V.  (188U). 

Gasrony  (Lat.  Vasconia),  an  ancient  district 
in  south-western  France,  situated  between  the  15ay 
of  Biscay,  the  river  Garonne,  and  the  Western 
Pyrenees.  The  total  area  is  over  10,(KX)  sq.  m. ; 
its  inhabitants,  numbering  about  a  million,  have 
preserved  their  dialect,  customs,  and  individuality. 
The  t!a.scon  is  little  in  stature  and  thin,  but  stKing 
and  lithe  in  frame  :  ambitious  and  enterprising,  but 
p.issionate  and  given  to  boasting  and  exaggeration. 
Hence  the  name  Gasconade  has  gone  into  litera- 
ture as  a  synonym  for  harmless  vapouring.  The 
Cascons,  moreover,  are  quickwitted,  cheerful,  and 


lOG 


GASCON Y 


GAS-ENGINE 


perseveriiij,',  ami  inaku  ciipital  soKliers.      This  is 
es|n'i'ially  true  of  tlie  (iasoms  in  the  l!ers  depart 
ineiit ;  the  peasants  of  the  I.an<les,  livinj^  in   nunl 
lints,  are   extremely  ijinorant    ami   rude  in   their 
manners,  hut  yet  are  honest  ami  moral. 

Gascony  deriveil   its   name  from   the   Itasqnes  or 
ViLM|ues,  who,  driven   hy  tlie  \'isii,'oths  from   their 
<i\vn  territories  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Western 
Pyrenees,    crossed    to   the    northern    side   of    that 
niountain-raiij;e  in  the  middle  of  the  Gth  century, 
and  settled  in  the  former  itonian  district  of  .Winiii 
po/iii/iiiKi.     In  002,  after  an  ohstiiiate  resistance, 
the  15as(|ues  were  forced  to  snhniit  to  the  Franks. 
They    now    passed    under   the   sovereignly    of    tin' 
dukes  of  .\(|uitaiiia  ((].v.),  who  for  a  time  were  in 
ilepenilent  of  the  crown,  hut  were  afterwards  con 
(|nereil  liy  Kin;;  I'epin,  and   later  by  Charlenia{,'ne. 
Snliseqnently    (iascony   hecame   incorporated   with 
Acjuitaine,  and  shared  its  fortunes. 

See  Moiilezun,  Ilhtuirc  dc  hi  Guscwnic  (fi  vols.  Audi, 
184<)  50)  ;  Cunac-Moncaut,  Litti'ralure  pujiuluire  dc  Ai 
Oancoijne  (Paris,  18G8) ;  and  J.  F.  Blade,  Vontts  popidairt's 
de  la  Oascoyne  (3  vols.  I'aris,  188G). 

GasM'IlKillC.  Gas-entjines  are  lieat-cn^'incs  of 
a  \\\>r.  in  wliii  li  the  fuel  is  eomlmslible  yiu<.  which 
is  iinrnecl  within  the  en;;ine  itself.  In  all  heat- 
engines  there  is  a  workinj;  substance,  which  Ls 
alternately  heated  and  cooled,  and  <loes  work  by 
alternate  expansion  and  contraction  of  its  volume, 
thereby  converlin;,'  into  mechanical  form  a  ]>orlion 
of  the  ener^'v  which  is  communicated  to  it  as  heat. 
In  nio.st  lieaten^;ines  the  combustion  of  the  fuel 
which  supplies  heat  to  the  workin;;  sulistance  j;oes 
on  outside  of  the  vessels  within  which  the  workinj; 
subst.ance  is  containeil  :  the  sleam-en^'ine  is  a  char- 
acteristic examiile  of  this  chuss.  Gas-engines,  on 
the  other  haml,  belong  to  the  internal  combustion 
clitss:  the  working  sulistance  is  made  uji  of  the  fuel 
it.self — before  and  after  combnslion — along  with  a 
certain  quantity  of  diluting  ,air.  Intermil  com- 
bustion engines  ba\e  the  enormous  advant.ige  ihiit 
there  is  no  heating  surface  of  metal  through  which 
the  heat  must  pa.ss  on  its  way  to  the  working  sub- 
stance. The  existence  of  a  heating  surface  in  the 
external  combustion  engine  imposes  practically  a 
soMU'wb.at  low  limit  uiion  the  highest  temperature 
to  which  the  working  substance  may  be  raiseil.  In 
gas-engines  a  far  higher  temperature  is  practicable, 
and  the  result  is  that  it  becomes  possible  to  convert 
a  Larger  fraction  cif  the  heat  into  work.  The  theory 
of  Thermodynamics  (q.v.)  shows  that  even  the  most 
ellicient  conceivable  heat-engine  can  convert  into 
work  no  more  than  a  certain  fraction  of  the  heat 
supplied  to  it — a  fraction  which  is  increased  by 
incre.ising  the  range  through  which  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  working  substance  is  caused  to  vary. 
This  range  is  much  greater  in  the  ga.s-engine  than 
in  the  steam-engine,  and  the  ideal  etliciency — that 
is  to  say,  the  fraction  of  the  heat  convertible  into 
work — is  c<iiiseiiuently  greater.  In  practice,  alt  hough 
the  gas-engine  lus  yet  falls  short  of  its  ideal  eltici- 
eney  to  a  nuich  greater  extent  than  does  the  steam- 
engine,  it  is  actually  the  more  ellicient  of  the  two. 
A  pound  of  fuel  converted  into  gas  and  used  in 
a  modern  gas  engine  gives  a  better  return  in 
mechanical  work  than  if  it  were  burneil  in  the 
furnace  of  a  ste.amengine  of  the  most  economical 
type.  For  small  powers  the  ga.s-engine  has  the 
great  practical  merit,  ius  compared  with  the  steani- 
enjrine,  of  dispensing  with  the  attemlance  which  a 
boiler  and  furnace  would  rei|uire.  This  considera- 
tion has  maile  it  in  many  thousands  of  ca-ses  an 
economical  motor  even  when  the  ga-s  it  uses  is  of 
the  comparatively  costly  kind  supplied  for  illum- 
inating purposes. 

From  the  year  1823  onwards  a  number  of  pro- 
posals were  made  by  Brown,  Wright,  Barnett,  and 


others  for  the  construction  of  engines  to  work  by 
the  explosive  combustion  of  gas.  Although  in  some 
instances  these  inventions  anticipated  later  success 
ful  engines,  and  although  ihe  details  were  often  care- 
fully ehiboi.'iteil,  no  practical  success  was  attained 
till  ISliO,  when  an  ellectivc  gas-engine  was  brought 
into  public  use  by  >1.  I.i'iioir. 

Lenoir's  engine  resembled  in  appearance  a  single- 
cyliniler  horizontal  sleain-eMgiiie.  As  the  piston 
advanced  it  drew  in  an  explosive  mixture  of  gas 
and  air.  About  mid  stroke  this  w;is  ignited  by  an 
electric  sjiark,  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  stroke 
work  wa.s  done  through  the  ]iiessure  of  the  hot 
products  of  the  exidosion.  During  the  back  stroke 
these  iiroducts  were  expelled  to  the  atmosphere, 
while  on  the  other  side  of  the  piston  a  fresh  ex- 
plosive mixture  wxs  being  taken  in  ami  exploded  at 
mid  stroke  as  before.  To  keep  the  cylinder  cool 
enough  to  admit  of  lubrication  it  was  suiinunded 
by  an  external  casing  within  which  cold  water  was 
canseil  to  circulate.  'i'his  watei  jacket  has  con- 
tinued to  lie  a  feature  of  nearly  all  modern  ga-s- 
engines.  An  indicator-diagram  from  Lenoir's  engine 
is  shown  in  lig.  I.    From  A  to  I>  the  gas  and  air  are 


Fig.  1. — Iiidicator-diagriiiu  of  Lenoir's  Kngine. 

being  sucked  in.  The  i  a]iid  rise  of  pressure  from  B 
to  C  is  due  to  the  ignition  of  the  mixture.  .-Vfter  (." 
the  hot  |iroducts  of  combustion  go  on  exjianding  to 
the  end  of  the  stroke,  l),and  the  pressure  diminishes 
although  (a.s  recent  investigations  have  shown)  the 
iirocess  of  combustion  is  to  some  extent  continued 
into  this  stage.  The  back-stroke,  D.A,  expels  the 
burneil  gases  at  atniospheiic  ]iressure. 

Lenoir's  engine  used  about  95  cubic  feet  of  gas 
jier  hor.sepower  ]ier  hour,  which  is  about  live  times 
the  quantity  required  by  the  best  gas-engines  of 
the  present  day.  Its  poor  economy  wa.s  mainly 
due  to  the  small  amount  of  exjiansidii  which  the 
hot  gilses  underwent  .itter  the  explosion.  Another 
drawliack  was  that  the  averapi  inessiire  ujion  the 
piston  was  so  low  as  to  make  the  engine  bulky 
in  iiroiportion  to  the  work  performed  by  it. 
These  defects  are  remedied  in  modern  gas-engines 
by  compressing  the  mixture  before  it  is  ex- 
jiloded,  so  that  a  greater  range  of  expansion  is 
required  to  reduce  the  burned  ga.ses  to  the  atmo- 
spheric pressure  at  which  they  are  exjielled.  'J'liis 
secures  greater  ethciency,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  higher  mean  ellectivc  pressure  of  the  work- 
ing substance  permits  an  engine  of  a  given  size 
to  have  more  power.  Comiiression  of  the  ex- 
plosive mixture  had  been  iiroposed  by  liarnett  as 
early  as  \Ki^,  and  was  a  feature  in  .several  later 
patents;  but  its  advantages  were  liist  practically 
realised  in  the  well-known  and  highly  successful 
engine  of  Utto,  which  dates  from  1S70. 

Nine  years  earlier  (in  ISOT)  a  gas-engine  had 
been  commereially  introduced  by  Otto  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Langen  which,  although  now  ob.solete, 
deserves  mention  both  on  account  of  the  succes.s 
which  it  achieved  and  the  peculiarity  of  its  action. 
The  Otto  and  Langen  engine  was  of  the  free-piston 
type  (originally  juoposed  by  IJariJinti  and  .Matteucci 
in  1857).  There  was  no  compression  of  the  ex- 
plosive mixture;  it  was  taken  m  during  the  early 
part  of  the  uji-stroke  of  a  jiiston  which  rose  in  a 
vertical  cylinder.  Then  the  mixture  was  igniteil 
by  being  brought  into  momentary  contact  with  a 


GAS-EXGIXE 


107 


flaiiie   through  the  action  of  a  special  sliile-valve. 

Uiiilcr  the  iiiijiulse  of  the  explosion  the  piston  rose 
with  great  vehii'ity  to  tlie  top  of  it.s  stroke,  heing 
free  to  rise  without  doing  work  on  the  engine  sliaft. 
The  hurnetl  gases  then  eooleil,  and  their  pressure 
fell  below  that  of  the  atniosjihere.  The  piston  was 
therefore  urged  down  hy  the  pressure  of  the  air, 
and  in  coming  down  it  was  automatically  put  into 
gear  with  the  sliaft,  and  so  did  work,  the  products 
of  cuiiiliustion  being  expelled  during  the  last  part 
of  the  down-stroke.  The  engine  was  excessively 
noisy,  lint  it  took  less  than  half  the  amount  of  gas 
that  had  been  taken  by  Lenoir. 

Otto's  invention  of  1S70  again  halved  the 
consumption  of  gas,  and  rjuickly  raised  the  gas- 
engine  to  the  position  of  a  commercially  ini|iortant 
motor.  Its  success  may  be  judgeil  from  the  fact 
that  in  1HS9  there  were  some  thirty  tho\isand 
engines  of  this  type  in  use,  of  sizes  which  give 
from  100  horse-power  down  to  a  fraction  of  1 
horse-power.  In  the  Otto  engine  the  cylinder  is 
generally  horizontal  and  single-acting,  witli  a  trunk 
jiiston,  and  it  takes  two  revoluthms  of  the  crank- 
shaft to  complete  a  cycle  of  operations.  During  the 
lirst  forward  stroke  gas  and  air  are  drawn  in,  in  the 
jiroportion  proper  to  form  an  explosive  mixture. 
During  the  hrst  backward  stroke  the  mixture  is 
compressed  into  a  large  clearance  sjiace  beliind  the 
piston.  AVhen  the  next  forward  stroke  is  about  to 
begin,  the  compressed  mixture  is  ignited,  and  work 
is  clone  by  the  heated  gases  during  the  second  for- 
ward stroke.  The  sec(md  backward  stroke  com- 
pletes the  cycle  by  causin"  the  burned  gases  to  be 
expelled  into  an  exhau.st-iupe  leading  to  the  outer 
air.  The  clearance  space  is,  however,  left  full  of 
burned  gases,  and  this  jjortion  of  the  previous  charge 
is  allowed  to  mix  with  the  fresh  air  and  gas  which 
is  drawn  in  during  the  lirst  forward  str<jke  of  the 
next  cycle.  Since  only  one  of  the  four  strokes 
which  are  required  to  complete  a  cycle  is  effective 
in  doing  work,  a  massive  tly-wheel,  running  fast,  is 
used  to  furnish  a  large  magazine  of  energy,  and  in 
cases  where  exce|)tional  uniformity  of  speed  is  im- 
portant— as,  for  instance,  in  electric  lighting — it  is 
usual  to  have  two  heavy  fly-wheels.  A  centrifugal 
governor  controls  the  engine  hy  cutting  oil'  the 
supply  of  gas  when  the  speed  exceeds  a  prescribed 
limit.  The  cylinder  Is  kept  moderately  cool  by  the 
circulation  of  cold  water  in  a  water-jacket ;  and 
the  usual  means  of  igniting  the  charge  is  a  slide- 
valve,  the  construction  of  which  is  described  below. 

The  general  ajipearance  of  an  Otto  engine,  as 
made  by  Jlessrs  C'rossley  Brothers,  is  too  well  known 
to  need  an  extended  description.  It  resembles 
a  single-cylinder  horizontal  steam-engine,  heavily 
built  and  mounted  on  a  somewhat  high  bed  plate. 


details  by  a  horizontal  section  thiough  the  cyliniler. 
The  piston,  P,  appears  in  the  ligure  at  the  back 
end  of  its  stroke,  and  the  space  A  is  the  clear- 
ance. Its  volume  is  usually  from  two  to  three 
fifths  of  the  volume  swept  through  by  the  piston. 
IjBI!  is  the  water-jacket.  C  is  the  e,\hanst-valve, 
which  is  opened  by  the  action  of  a  revolving  cam 
during  the  second  back-stroke  of  the  cycle,  'i'he 
slide  valve,  D,  is  made  to  slide  backwards  and  for- 
wards across  the  back  end  of  the  cylinder  by  means 
of  a  connecting-rod  driven  by  a  short  crank  on  the 
lay-shaft,  K,  whicji  is  driven  by  bevel  or  .s<-i'i-\v 
gear  from  the  main  shaft,  so  that  it  turns  once  for 
two  revolutions  of  the  main  sliaft.  This  vahe 
serves  to  admit  gas  and  air,  and  also  to  carry  an 
igniting  flame  to  the  mixture  after  compression  in 
the  cylinder.  An  igniting  jet  is  kept  burning  at  1", 
behind  the  valve.  In  the  valve  there  is  a  small 
chamber,  G,  supplied  with  gas,  ami  as  this  pas.ses 
the  jet  it  ignites  and  continues  Inirning  until  by 
the  further  movement  of  the  valve  the  chamber,  O, 
communicates  with  the  cylinder  through  the  open- 
ing H,  by  which  time  the  back  of  the  chamber  is 
closed.  In  a  number  of  recent  Otto  engines  the 
ignition  of  the  mixture  is  brought  about  in  adili'er- 
ent  way.  Tlieie  is  a  short  tube  closed  at  one  end 
and  communicating  at  the  other  with  the  cylinder, 
through  a  valve.  The  tube  is  kept  red-hot  by  a 
Bunsen-flame  playing  round  it,  and  at  the  proper 
moment  a  portion  of  the  charge  within  the  cylinder 
is  allowed  access  to  the  red-hot  tube  through  tlie 
valve. 

Fig.  3  is  a  copy  of  an  indicator-diagram  from  an 
Otto  engine.     AB  is  the  flrst  stroke  of  the  cycle, 


l'"ig.  2.— Section  tlirough  Cylinder  of  Otto's  Engine. 

In  the  smallest   forms  a  vertical  arrangement  of 
the    cylinder    is    ado]itcil,    and     for    the     largest 

I  lowers  a  pair  of   horizontal   cylinders  are  set  side 
ly   side.      Fig.   '2    sliows    some    of    the    princijial 


Fig.  3.  —  Indicator-diagram  of  Otto's  Engine. 

and  corresponds  to  the  taking  in  of  gii.s  and  air  at 
a  pressure  sensibly  the  same  as  that  of  the  atino- 
s|)here.  BC  is  the  compression  stroke.  At  C  igni- 
tion takes  place  and  raises  the  pressure  (piickly  to 
D.  C'DEB  is  the  efl'ective  forward  stroke,  and  the 
e.xhaust-valve  is  opened  for  the  escape  of  the  waste 
gases  near  the  end  'of  this  stroke  at  K.  The 
expulsion  of  the  g<ases  goes  on  from  B  as  the  iiiston 
moves  back  to  A,  and  this  com|detes  the  cycle. 

There  are  now  a  number  of  other  successful  gas- 
engines  which  more  or  less  resemble  Otto's.  In 
Clerk's  engine  a  similar  cycle  is  performed,  except 
that  there  is  an  explosion  at  each  forward  stroke. 
The  waste  gases  escape  through  exhaust-ports  near 
the  front  end  of  the  cylinder,  whieh  are  uncovered 
by  the  advance  of  the  piston,  ami  a  displacer  cylin- 
der or  pumii  immediately  forces  in  a  fresh  mixture, 
which  is  compressed  during  the  return  stroke.  In 
Andrew's  (the  Stockport)  engine,  ami  in.Itobson's 
(made  by  Messrs  Tangye),  an  imjiul.se  in  every 
rev(dution  is  secured  by  compressing  the  explosive 
mixtnie  in  a  pump,  which  in  some  cases  is  supplied 
liy  Using  the  tront  end  of  the  working  cylinder  itself 
for  this  purpo.se.  In  the  '  Griflin  '  engine  (  Messrs 
Dick,  Kerr,  &  Co.)  explosion  occurs  at  both  ends  of 
the  cylinder,  but  only  at  every  third  stroke  :  the 
cycle  includes  the  drawing  in  and  rejecting  of  a 
'scavenger'  charge  of  air,  as  well  a.s  the  drawing 
in  and  compression  of  the  explosive  mixture  and 
the  rejection  of  the  burned  gases.     A  recent  engine 


108 


GAS-EXGINE 


possessing  mucli  oiij;inality  is  Atkinson's,  the  dis- 
tinctive feiituies  of  wliioli  are  sliowii  in  lij;.  4.  Here 
tlie  i)iston  aet.s  on  the  rriiiik  shaft  not  directly  hnt 
Ihnm^'h  a  totjj^'Iejoint,  which  has  the  etVeet  of  com- 
pelling the  i>iston   to  make  four  single  strokes  for 


Fig.  4.  — Atkinson's  Gas-engine. 

one  revolution  of  the  shaft.  The  four  strokes  are 
of  dillerent  lengths.  In  the  lii-st  forward  stroke  the 
piston  starts  from  the  back  end  of  the  cylinder  and 
draws  in  gjis  and  air.  Returning  it  makes  a  shorter 
stroke,  compressing  the  mixture  into  a  space  not 
swept  through.  Tlien  the  mi.'cture  is  lired,  and 
work  is  done  during  another  and  consiilerahly 
longer  forward  stroke,  and  linally  the  cycle  is  com- 
pleted l>y  a  return  stroke,  which  is  long  enough  to 
com|>letely  expel  the  burned  gases.  The  mixture  is 
ignited  by  means  of  a  red-hot  tube,  but  in  this  ca.se 
there  is  no  valve  to  contnd  the  time  of  tiring;  it  is 
determined  simply  by  the  compression  of  the  explo- 
sive mixture  against  a  cushion  of  wa^te  gas  in  the 
to|i  of  the  tul)e.  Kig.  .>  is  an  imlicatordiagram  from 
Atkinson's  engine.  A  I!  is  the  admission  stroke. 
From  B  to  C  the  explosive  mixture  is  compresseil  ; 
at  C  it  is  fired,  and  the  etVeclive  working  stroke, 
CUE,  begins.     Its  length  is  more  than  twice  that  of 


Fig.  5. — Indicator-disigram  of  Atkinson's  Engine. 

the  compression  stroke.  In  the  long  return  stroke, 
E.\,  the  products  of  combustion  are  wholly  expelled, 
except  for  a  small  riuantity  contained  in  the  clear- 
ance space,  which  is  no  greater  than  the  clearance 
necessarily  left  behind  any  iiiston.  This  complete 
(or,  to  be  more  exjvct,  nearly  complete)  expulsion 
of  the  burned  gases  is  a  good  feature  in  Atkinson's 
cycle,  but  the  most  distinctive  merit  is  the  rel.itively 
long  working  stroke,  which  secures  much  expansion, 
so  that  the  gases  do  not  escajjc  until  their  pressure 
falls  to  a  value  not  greatly  exceeding  that  of  the 
atnmsphere,  and  at  the  same  time  makes  the 
expansion  occur  c^uickly,  giving  the  hot  gases  com- 
j)aralively  little  tmie  to  part  with  their  heat  to  the 
lining  of  the  cylinder. 

Messrs  Crossley  have  lately  introduced  a  modified 
form  of  Otto  engine,  with  two  equal  cylinders,  the 


pistons  of  which  make  their  strokes  simultuneonsly. 
The  mixture  is  compressed,  exploiled,  and  expanded 
first  behind  (me  piston  ;  then  the  products  of  com- 
bustion are  allowed  to  pa.ss  to  the  front  end  of  both 
cylinders,  driving  back  both  pistons,  and  under- 
going further  expansion.  .Mean- 
while the  other  cylinder  has  taken 
in  a  fresh  charge,  which  is  m>w 
compressed  behind  its  piston,  anil 
is  explode<l  when  the  next  forwaiil 
stroke  licgins. 

During  the  explosion  in  a  gas- 
engine  cylinder  the  highest  v.iluc  of 
the  pressure  is  \isnally  from  ISd  to 
200  lb.  per  square  inch,  and  the 
highest  tem]ierature  is  about  ;!(H)0° 
F.  The  luocess  of  expl<»ion  is  by 
no  means  instantaneous.  .\fter 
ignition  the  pressure  and  tempera- 
ture rise  with  great  rai>idity,  as  the 
indicator-diagrams  ( ligs.  .i  aiul  .">) 
show,  but  combustion  is  not  com- 
plete when  the  highest  point  in  the 
diagram  h.us  been  reached.  ( >nly 
about  (iO  per  cent,  of  the  whole  lie.it 
which  the  combustion  of  the  gas 
should  yield  is  developed  up  to  that 
point.  During  the  sulisei|uent  ex- 
pansion a  slow  process  of  continued 
comlnistion  goes  on,  in  which  a 
considerable  part  of  the  renuiining 
40  per  cent,  is  set  free :  but  even  when  the  con- 
tents of  the  cylinder  escape  to  the  exhaust  the 
iirocess  is  generally  still  inconiiilete.  The  after- 
liurning,  as  it  is  called,  which  occurs  during 
expansi<m,  after  the  point  of  highest  jiressure 
has  been  passed,  has  the  ell'ect  of  kee]iiiig  the 
pressure  of  the  ex|ianding  gas  from  falling  so 
fast  as  it  otherwise  wcuild  fall.  lint  for  this  the 
expansion  curve  on  the  indicator-diagram  would 
fall  very  rapidly,  owing  to  the  cooling  of  the  gases 
through  their  contact  with  the  cylinder  walls. 
During  exjiansion  the  gases  are  ]iartlng  with  much 
heat   to   the  walls,   but    the  after  burning  supplies 

nearly  enough  additional  heat   to  make  g I   this 

loss — sometimes,  indcol,  more  than  enough — and 
the  result  is  that  the  form  of  the  exjiansion  curve 
does  not  dill'er  very  nuiterially  from  that  of  an 
adiabatic  line.  The  ex]>eriments  of  Mr  Dngnld 
Clerk,  who  has  taken  much  pains  to  investigate 
this  action,  show  that  the  time-rate  of  the  explo- 
sion depends  greatly  on  the  richness  of  the  explosive 
mixture.  \Vhen  the  mixture  is  much  diluted  the 
process  is  so  slow  that  the  point  of  highest  pressure 
IS  not  reached  until  far  on  in  the  stroke. 

Though  the  maximum  temperature  within  the 
cylinder  is  materially  reduced  by  this  want  of  jier- 
fect  suddenness  in  the  combustion  of  the  gas,  it  is 
still  so  high  that  in  engines  of  even  very  moderate 
si/e  a  water-jacket  is  essential.  The  actual  niaxi- 
mum  temperature  of  thegiises  is  in  fact  higher  than 
the  melting-point  of  ca.st  irim,  while  the  temperature 
of  the  niet.al  has  to  be  kept  low  encnigh  not  to  burn 
oil.  The  water-jacket  involves  an  immense  waste  of 
heat.  In  the  most  favourable  cases  it  absorbs  27  per 
cent,  of  the  whole  heat  which  would  be  jiroduced  by 
complete  combustion  of  the  gaseous  mixture,  and 
more  generally  the  amount  it  absorbs  ranges  from 
40  to  50  per  cent.  The  best  existing  gas-engines 
succeed  in  converting  into  work  about  22  per  cent, 
of  the  whole  potential  energy  of  the  fuel  ;  of  the 
remaining  78  Jier  cent,  a  half  or  more  generally  goes 
to  heat  the  water  which  circulates  in  tlie  jacket,  and 
the  remainder  is  rejecteil  in  the  exhaust,  jiartly 
through  incomplete  combustion,  but  mainly  m  the 
form  of  actual  heat,  on  account  of  the  high  tem- 
perature at  which  the  waste  gases  escape.  At- 
tempts have  been  made  to  save  a  part  of  this  loss 


GAS-EXGINE 


GASKELL 


109 


by  the  application  to  gas-engines  of  the  regenera- 
tive principle  whicli  has  done  so  niucli  to  promote 
economy  of  Iieat  in  meta,llurgical  operations.  It 
was  proposed  by  Siemens  to  use  a  separate  com- 
bustion cliauiber,  wliicU,  being  distinct  from  the 
working  cylinder,  might  be  kept  always  hot,  and 
to  ])ass  the  outgoing  gases  through  a  regenerator, 
which  would  take  up  their  heat  and  give  it  back  to 
the  incoming  air.  >luch  the  same  end  was  aimed 
at  by  Fleeming  Jenkin,  who  tried  to  adapt  the 
regenerative  engine  of  Stirling  (see  Air-engixe) 
to  serve  for  the  internal  combustion  of  ga.s.  These 
attempt.s  have  hitherto  failed,  and  the  gas-engine 
still  falls  far  short  of  the  linut  of  thermodynamic 
efficiency  which  its  high  range  of  temperature 
shows  it  to  be  theoretically  capable  ot.  The 
greatest  ideal    efficiency    of    any    lieat -engine    is 

measured   by  the  fraction ",  where  t^  is  the 

highest  (absolute)  temperature  at  which  it  can 
receive  heat,  and  to  is  the  lowest  ( absolute )  tem- 
perature at  which  it  can  reject  heat.  The  highest 
temperature  in  the  combustion  is,  as  we  have  seen, 
about  3(X)0  F. ,  and  the  lower  limit  of  the  range 
is  the  atmospheric  temperature,  or  say  60'  F. 
Substituting  these  values  in  the  foniiula,  we  have 
0S.5  as  the  highest  ideal  efficiency  :  in  other  words, 
it  should  be,  from  the  thermo<lynamie  point  of  view, 
theoretically  possilde  to  convert  8.5  per  cent,  of  the 
heat-energy  of  the  gas  into  work.  The  greatest 
efficiency  lutherto  realised  is  about  0'22,  or  little 
more  than  one-fourth  of  the  ideal  efficiency.  It 
must  not  be  sujjposed  that  under  any  imaginable 
l)ractical  conditions  it  could  be  ])Ossible  to  reach 
the  ideal  limit,  but  it  may  be  conKdently  expected 
that  tlie  gas-engine  of  the  future  will  approach  it 
much  more  closely  than  does  the  gas-engine  of  to- 
day. The  comparison  serves  to  show  how  much 
room  tliere  is  for  invention  in  the  direction  of 
obviating  what  is  essentially  preventable  loss. 

It  is  instructive  in  this  connection  to  compare 
the  efficiency  of  gas-engines  with  tliat  of  steam- 
engines.  In  a  lar^e  steam-engine  the  efficiency  is 
al)out  01.5  ;  in  otiier  words,  the  engine  converts 
int(j  work  only  some  1.5  per  cent,  of  the  heat  energj' 
supplied  to  the  steam,  and  the  ligure  would  be 
greatly  less  if  one  stated  it  as  a  fraction  of  the 
whole  heat  of  combustion  of  the  fuel.  In  steam- 
engines  small  enough  to  be  fairly  comparable  with 
actual  gas-engines,  the  efficiency  is  rarely  more, 
and  generally  a  good  deal  less,  than  O'l.  Con- 
sidered as  a  thermodynamic  machine,  the  gas- 
engine,  imperfect  as  it  ailniittedly  is.  is  already 
not  far  from  twice  as  efficient  as  the  steam-engine. 
It  is  in  fact  the  most  efficient  heat-engine  we 
possess. 

E.xperiments  show  that  the  consumption  of  gas 
in  practice  in  a  small  gas-engine  (indicating  10 
liorse-power  or  more )  may,  in  favourable  cases,  be 
less  than  20  cubic  feet  per  hour  per  indicated 
horse-power,  including  the  gas  which  is  consumed 
in  maintaining  the  igniting  llanie.  Of  the  indi- 
cated horse  power  about  H.5  per  cent,  is  available 
for  doing  mechanical  work  outside  of  the  engine 
itself.  The  cost  of  the  fuel  is  neces.sarily  high  so 
long  as  the  gas  suji])lied  to  the  engine  is  the  puri- 
lied  coal-gas  used  tor  lighting.  Thus,  withga.s  cost- 
ing 3s.  per  10<)0  cubic  feet,  the  supply  re(|uired  for 
each  indicateil  horse-power  per  hour  will  cost  about 
three-farthings,  whereas  tlie  coal  bill  of  a  steam- 
engine  for  each  horsepower  hour  need  not  exceed 
a  fifth  of  a  penny,  and  may  be  even  less.  In  such 
cases  the  advantage  of  the  gas-engine  lies  in  its 
compactness  and  convenience,  in  the  saving  of 
charges  for  attendance,  and  in  the  eiuse  and 
economy  with  whicli  it  can  be  applied  to  do 
internultent  work.  Economy  in  the  cost  of  fuel 
may,  however,  be  secured  l>y  supplying  the  engine 


with  a  cheaper  kind  of  gas?,  a  gas  suitable  for  heat- 
ing though  not  suitable  for  illumination.  The  late 
Sir  William  Siemens  pointed  out  that  a  compara- 
tively cheap  gas  of  the  kind  required  might  be  got 
by  separating  successive  stages  in  the  distillation 
of  coal,  and  advised  supplying  of  towns  with  such 
a  gas  for  heat  and  power  through  distinct  mains. 
Another  gas  for  gas-engines  is  that  produced  by 
Mr  Emerson  Dowsons  process  of  blowini'  a  mix- 
ture of  air  and  steam  through  a  bed  of  rod  hot 
anthracite  or  coke.  The  product  contains  ■2'2i  per 
cent,  of  hydrogen  and  the  .same  quantity  of  car- 
bonic oxide,  mixed  with  much  nitrogen  and  a 
small  quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  and  is  said  to 
cost  about  2id.  per  1000  cubic  feet.  The  engine 
requires  about  four  times  as  much  of  it  as  it  would 
require  of  illuminating  coal-ga.s.  When  Dowson 
gas  is  used,  the  fuel  needed  for  a  gas-engine  is 
not  more  tlian  li  lb.  of  coke  or  anthracite  i)er 
horsepower  per  hour — as  conijjared  «ith  the  4  or 
5  lb.  burned  in  a  steam-engine  of  corresponding  size. 

Gas-engines  have  recently  been  applied  ^\ith 
gieat  success  on  the  Continent  to  the  propulsion  of 
tramcars,  which  carry  compression-cylinders.  The 
gas  from  tlie  mains  is  driven  by  pumping-engines 
into  a  compression-reservoir  :  the  car  runs  u))  out- 
side the  station,  and  the  reservoir  is  connected  with 
the  car  cylinder,  which  promptly  become  refilled 
under  a  high  pres.sure  :  the  stopcock  is  closed,  the 
connecting-tube  removed,  and  the  car  is  again 
reaily. 

A  notice  of  gas-engines  Avould  be  incomidete 
wiiliout  a  reference  to  oilenffincs  nsing  petroleum 
as  fuel,  which  is  vaporised  and  then  exploded  along 
with  air.  In  Priestman's  engine  the  petroleum, 
which  is  a  safe  oil  with  a  flashing-point  higher  than 
75°  F.,  is  injected  in  the  form  of  spray,  by  a  jet  of 
compressed  air,  into  a  chamber  whicli  is  heated  by 
means  of  a  jacket  through  which  the  hot  ga.ses  of 
the  exhaust  pass.  There  the  s]iiay  is  raised  to  a 
temperature  of  about  .300°,  and  is  comiiletely 
v.aporised.  From  the  hot  chamber  the  vajiour  is 
drawn,  along  with  more  air,  into  the  working 
cylinder,  where  the  cycle  of  operations  is  e.ssentially 
tlie  .same  as  in  Otto's  engine.  In  some  types,  only 
li  lb.  of  oil  is  burned  ]ier  brake  horse-power  per  hour. 
The  compactness  and  smoothness  of  working  of 
these  oil-spray  motors  has  made  it  possible  to  adapt 
them  to  vehicles,  fi-om  traincai"s  to  tricycles ;  and 
innumerable  types  of  'autocars'  or  'motor-cars' 
have  been  perfected,  and  since  1S06  (see  Tr.vction"- 
ENGINES)  have  become  familiar  even  on  the  roads 
of  remote  country  districts. 

See  works  by  D.  Clerk  (1.<,S6).  VT.  JlacGregor  (188.=)), 
and  Brjan  Donkiu  (18941;  Professor  Perrj-,  The  Steam- 
Enr/iiK,  and  Gas  and  Oil  JEiir/iiies (IS99) ;  and  numerous 
papers  in  Engineering  magazines, 

Ga.skeII,  ilR-S,  novelist,  was  born  at  Cheyne 
Row,  Chelsea,  29th  Septeiul)er  1810.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Elizabeth  Cleghorn  Stevenson,  and  her 
father  was  in  succession  teacher,  preacher,  farmer, 
boarding-house  keeper,  writer,  and  Keeper  of  the 
Kecinds  to  the  Treasury.  She  was  brought  up  by 
an  aunt  at  Knutsford — the  Cranford  which  she 
was  yet  to  describe  with  such  truthful  patience  ; 
was  carefully  educated,  and  married  in  18.'!2 
William  (Jaskell  (180.5-S4),  a  Unitarian  minister  in 
Manchester.  In  1848  she  published  anonvmously 
her  Mary  Barton,  which  at  once  arrestee^  public 
attention.  It  was  followed  by  T/ic  Moorland  Cuttuqc 
(18o0),  Cranford  (1853),  Ruth  (1853),  North  and 
South(lSoo),  Round  the  Sofa  (1859),  7?i<7/(/  at  Last 
(1860),  Sijlrias  Lovers  (1863),  Cousin  I'hi/lis  (1865). 
anil  n'lrtvf  and  Daughters  (1865),  a  series  of  novels 
that  have  permanently  enriched  English  literature, 
and  almost  lifteil  their  authoress  into  a  rank  repre- 
sented alone  by  Jane  Austen,  Charlotte  Bronte,  and 


110 


GASOLENE 


GASTEROPODA 


Oeor<;e  Eliot.  Mrs  Uaskell  liml  sonic  measure  of 
almost  all  llie  gifts  of  the  ".'roat  novelist —(lecp  ami 
;:i:iiiiiiu'  p.itlios,  a  singularly  genial  and  truthful 
Innnour,  a  graceful  ami  unforced  sljle,  power 
of  (Icseription,  ilramatic  faculty  on  occasion,  and 
symiiatlietic  insight  into  character;  while  she 
wrote  of  nothing  that  she  did  not  know  and 
undei'stand— indecil  many  passages  are  close 
transcripts  from  lior  own  life  history  and  expcri 
encc.  ■rhough  written  with  a  purpose,  her  novels 
have  not  faileil  to  be  completely  artistic,  perhaps 
because  they  flowed  so  freely  from  her  heart,  and 
because  their  puriiose  was  so  truly  and  so  much  her- 
self. Mrs  (Jiuskell  died  smhlenly  of  heart  disease  at 
Holyboiirne,  .Vlton,  in  Hampshire,  12th  November 
18()."i,  and  Wiis  fittingly  buried  at  Knutsford.  l!e- 
sides  her  novels  she  wrote'  The  Life  <>/  C/inrln/tc 
ISrontc  (18.^7),  which  will  remain  one  of  the  master- 
pieces  of  Knglish  biography.  Mfiri/  liartuii  was 
received  as  a  revelation  of  the  h.ibits,  thoughts, 
|)rivations,  and  struggles  of  the  industrial  ]>oor,  .o-s 
tbe.se  !vre  to  be  found  in  such  a  social  beehive  as 
Maneboter,  and  has  had  many  imit.ators,  but  not 
an  crpial. 

Caiisolenc,  or  Gazoline,  rectifie<l  petroleum 
(q.v. )  M>ed  for  gas-engines  and  horseless-carriages. 

Ciiisometor.    See  (!.\s  Lioiitixg. 

(^aspariii,  V.m.kkie  r>ois.sii;n,  Comtes-se  de, 
«.as  burn  at  (icneva  in  ISl."},  and  marrieil  Count 
Agcnor  (le  (iasparin  {1810-71),  a  zealous  .'idvocate 
of  religious  liberty.  Till  her  death,  18th  .lone 
189+,  she  warndy  supported  llie  reformed  faith, 
but  denounced  the  extravagances  of  fan.itics. 
Two  of  her  works  obtained  the  Monlyon  prize  at 
the  Academic  Krancaise  :  Le  Afdi-iar/c  an  puiiit  dc 
viie  Chri'tien,  and  //  y  (i  lies  I'diirres  A  Paris,  et 
uillciirs.  .Among  ber  other  publications  are  J'oi/aijc 
(/fills  Ic  Midi  ]Htr  line  ignnritute,  Allans  /aire 
Fortune  d  Paris,  Un  Lirrc  pour  Ics  Fcmmes 
ilarifes,  Lise:  et  Jurjez  ( Strictures  on  the  '  Salvation 
Army'),  and  Lcs  I/oriznns  Proeliniiies.  Several  of 
lier  liooks  have  been  translated  into  English. 

Cia.spt'.  a  peniuMila  in  the  east  of  t^ueliec  pro- 
vince, comprising  the  counties  of  (J.ospc  and  liona- 
venture,  projects  into  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence, 
between  the  estuary  of  that  name  on  the  north  and 
the  I5ay  of  Chaleurs  on  the  south.  It  has  ,an  area  of 
nearly  8000  .sf|.  m.,and  abimt  :{.■), 0(H)  inhabitants,  the 
greater  number  eng.aged  in  the  important  fisheries, 
wliicli,  with  the  export  of  liimlier,  form  the  staple 
business  of  the  country.  — (Iasi'k  Basin,  where 
earlier  landcil  in  X't'H  (see  Canada),  is  a  port  of 
entry  in  (;x<pe  Hay,  now  the  seat  of  extensive 
fisheries.     Top.  7'2G. 

<>a.ss('ll«Ii.  or  Ga.s-sexd,  PiEliRE,  French 
pbilosoplier  and  mathematician,  Avas  born  '2'2d 
Jiinuary  1.592,  at  Champtcrcicr,  a  vill.age  of  Pro- 
vence, His  unusual  powers  of  mind  showed  them- 
.selves  at  an  e.arly  age.  Having  rcsidved  upon  an 
ecclesiastical  career,  lie  studied,  and  afterwards 
l.-ingbt,  philosophy  at  Aix.  I'ut,  catching  the  in- 
fection of  empirical  methods  of  study,  be  revolted 
fnun  the  piedoniinant  scholastic  iihilosophy,  and 
began  to  subject  it  to  a  critical  scrutiny.  At  the 
same  time  lie  bent  liis  energies  upon  physics  and 
astronomy.  The  results  of  bis  examination  of  the 
.Vristotelian  system  and  niethoils  appeared  at 
tJrenoble  in  1024,  E.rerrltationes  /lanulo.rirrr  ailrer- 
siis  Arisf'iteleos,  in  which  he  uttei-s  an  emphatic 
protest  .against  .accepting  the  .-Vristotelian  dicta  as 
final  in  all  matters  of  philosophy,  .and  esjiecially  of 
physics.  In  the  s.anie  year  be  was  appointed  jirfvi'il 
of  the  cathedr.al  at  Digne,  an  office  which  enabled 
him  to  pui-sue  without  distr.action  his  researches  in 
.a-stronomy  and  other  natural  sciences.  From  1G28 
he  spent  several  years  travelling  thrungli  Hidl.ind, 
Flanileis,    and    France,    until     in     lG4.i    be    was 


appointed  i>rofcs.sor  of  .Mathematics  in  the  Cidlcgo 
Koyal  lie  France,  at  Paris,  where  he  dieil,  Utii 
Ociober  Itjoj.  During  his  .stay  in  the  Low 
Countries  he  controverted  (1631)  the  mystical 
opinions  of  ISobert  Flndil,  ami  wrote  a  treatise 
on  parhelia,  besides  other  astronomical  (inpci's. 
Eleven  years  later  lie  proceedcil  also  to  critici.xe 
•adversely  the  new  system  of  |ihilosophy  promul- 
gated by  Descartes,  in  a  work  entitled  (llijeitiones 
<i(l  Metlitatiuiies  Ciirlesii.  Whilst  at  Paris  (J.a.sscndi 
wrote  bis  princi|>al  philosophical  works,  Ue  Vita 
E/iiriiri  (\iHl);  a  comnientaiT  on  Diogenes  Laer- 
tins'  tenth  liook,  De  Vila,  MurHnis,  cl  Plaritis 
Kpieiiri  (1649);  and  in  the  same  year  the  Sijn- 
lufjinn  Philti.siipliiw  lijiieiircd,  which  contains  a 
complete  view  of  the  system  of  E]iicurus.  Put, 
whilst  thus  going  b.ack  to  ihc  ancients  in  his  jdiilo- 
sopby,  (Jasscndi  ni.iicbcd  in  the  van  of  the  miHb'ins 
in  natural  and  physical  science.  Kepler  and  (lalilco 
were  numbered  amongst  bis  friemls.  His  Insliliilio 
Asliiiniimini  ( 1047  )  is  a  clear  anil  connected  re]ire- 
sentation  of  the  state  of  the  science  in  his  own 
day  ;  in  his  Ti/ehonis  Praha'i,  Xieoltti  C"perniei, 
Gcorifii  Piierljar/iii,  et  Joniinis  Jier/ioni'iiiliiiii  Vilre 
(Paris,  1C.">4)  he  gives  not  only  a  m.asterly  account 
of  the  lives  of  these  men,  but  likcw  ise  a  complete 
history  of  astronomy  down  to  his  own  time.  His 
collected  works  were  ]mblislied  by  Mmitmort  ami 
Sorbiere  (6  vols.  Lyons,  1658),  and  by  Averrani 
(0  vols.  Flor.  1728)." 

4>assilor.  .Iohanx  .Ioseimi,  exorcist,  was  boi-n 
28tb  -\ugnst  1727,  near  Pdudcn/,  in  the  Voiarlberg, 
and  liecame  Catholic  ]iiiest  at  Kliistcrlc,  in  the 
diocese  of  Coire.  He  began  to  cure  the  sick  by 
driving  out  the  demons  th.at  pos.sesseil  them  by 
means  of  exorcism  and  jirayer.  In  1774  he  received 
the  sanction  of  the  liisbop  of  Katisbon  ;  and  by  the 
mere  word  of  cominaml,  Cesset  ('Give  over),  he 
cured  the  lame  or  blind,  but  especially  those 
afliicted  with  convulsions  and  eiiilepsy,  wlio  were 
all  supposed  to  be  possessed  by  the  devil.  I'lti- 
niately  lie  was  found  to  be  an  imjiostor;  the  arcli- 
bisho|)s  of  Prague  and  Salzburg  issued  p.astorals 
.against  his  imposture,  and  the  imperial  authorities 
coiiipelled  the  Pisliop  of  Katisbon  to  dismiss  him. 
The  bishop,  however,  gave  him  the  cure  of  Hendorf, 
and  there  be  died  in  1779. 

<ias-tar.    See  Coal-tar,  Gas,  Aniline,  Dve- 

IXii,  \c. 

<>ast4MII.  a  romantic  valley  in  the  south  of  the 
.\n~triiin  ilmby  of  Salzburg,  28  miles  long,  with  a 
number  of  small  villages.  The  chief  of  these, 
Wildbad  Gastein,  is  a  verj-  famous  watering  place, 
and  was  a  favourite  resort  of  the  Emiieror  \Villi:iiii 
I.  of  Germany.  Some  SfKX)  guests  visit  the  pl.ice 
in  summer  to  drink  the  waters  of  its  .seven  warm 
springs.  Here,  on  14th  .\ugust  ISO."),  a  convention 
was  signed  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  which, 
by  a  partition  of  Sleswick  and  Holstcin,  for  a  short 
period  prevented  the  rupture  between  the  rival 
powers.  Pop.  of  the  valley,  about  40(J0.  See  W. 
Eraser  K.aes  Ans/ritiii  Health  Jlesorts  (1888). 

(liasterttnoda  (Gr.,  'belly-footed'),  a  large 
class  of  mollu.scs,  including  snails,  .slugs,  buckles, 
whelks,  cowries,  limpets,  and  the  like.  Along 
with  the  cuttle-fishes  or  Ceidialo|ioils,  and  the  yet 
more  closely  allied  'butterfly-snails'  or  Ptcrojiods, 
the  Gasteropods  are  contrasted  with  the  bivalves 
or  Lamellibranchs  bv  the  more  or  less  prominent 
development  of  the  lieadregion,  and  by  the  lues- 
ence  of  a  rasjiing  ribl>on  or  tongue  on  the  floor  of 
the  mouth. 

General  Charaeteis. — In  addition  to  the  develop- 
ment of  head  and  rasping  tongue,  the  Gasteropods 
are  characterised  by  the  nature  of  the  '  foot '  or 
mnscul.ar  ventral  surface.  Except  in  some  forms 
adapted   for  free-swimming,    the   'foot'  is  simple, 


GASTEROPODA 


111 


nieilian,  and  sole-like.  It  is  the  surface  on  wliicli 
tlie  animal  crawls,  and  is  often  divided  into 
anterior,  median,  and  posterior  regions.  The 
wcaltli  of  modification  included  in  the  class  is  so 
jrreat  that  no  other  general  characters  can  be 
given. 

General  Siirrei/. — (A)  The  simplest  Gajsteropods, 
sucli  as  the  common  Chiton,  are  symmetrical,  not 


Fig.  1.— Part  of  the  Rasper  of  the  S.iail  (from  Howes). 

lo])  sided  like  the  higher  forms.  They  have  the 
mouth  at  one  end  of  the  long  a.xis  of  the  body,  the 
anus  at  the  other ;  the  gills,  kidneys,  genital 
duets,  and  circulatory  organs  are  paired ;  there 
are  two  pairs  (pedal  and  visceral)  of  ner\e  cords 
ninning  parallel  to  one  another  along  the  body, 
ami  the  ganglia  are  slightly  developed.  Of  all 
molluscs  these  simplest  Casteropods  are  probably 
nearest  the  hypothetical  worm  like  ancestor.  In 
one  order  (Chitons,  q.v.)  there  are  eight  sliells,  one 
behind  the  other  like  .segments  ;  in  the  two  other 
orders  ( Neomenije  and  Cluetodeniia)  the  shell  is 
represented  only  by  calcareous  plates  and  s])ine.s  in 
the  skin.  These  three  orders  form  the  sub-class 
Isopleura,  in  contrast  to  all  the  others  which  are 
nnsymmetrical — the  Anisopleura. 

(ij)  The  latter  are  grouped  first  of  all  according 
to  the  st.ate  of  the  loop  formed  by  the  visceral 
nerves.  ( 1 )  In  one  series  the  visceral  nerve-loop  is 
implicated  and  twisted  in  the  torsion  of  the  asym- 
metrical body, 
and  furthermore 
the  sexes  are 
sejiarate.  These 
are  known  as 
Streptoneura 
( '  loop-  nerved'), 
and  include 
'iiiipets(  Patella), 
u-shells  (Hali- 
litis),  pond-snail 
( Paludina),  cow- 
ries (Cypnea), 
cone-shells 
( Conns ),  buckies 
( Buccinum ),  and 
the  free-swim- 
ming Heterojiods. 
This  division  includes  what  are  often  called  I'roso- 
branchs,  and  the  numerous  genera  are  further 
arranged  according  to  the  characters  of  the  gills, 
kidneys,  and  foot.  (2)  In  another  series  the  vis- 
ceral loo]i  is  not  twisted,  and  is  often  very  short  ; 
the  shell  is  light  and  often  lost  in  the  adult  ;  and 
the  animals  are  hermaphrodite.  They  are  known 
H.S  Kutbyneura  ( 'straight-nerved'),  and  include  two 
.sets  -( Ipisthobranchs  and  Pulmonates.  Among 
(•lii^thooranchs  some  retain  the  usual  mantle-fold 
and  have  a  delicate  shell — e.g.  Bulla  and  Aplysia, 
while  othei-s  (known  a-s  Xudibranchs)  have  their 
mantle  atrophieil  and  no  shell — e.g.  Doris  and  Eolis. 
Lastly  there  are  the  PuluKmates,  where  gills  are 
replaced  by  an  air-breathing  mantle  cavity,  as  in 
snails  (e.g.  Helix),  slugs  (e.g.  Arion),  water-snails 
(e.g.  Lymna'us). 

MtHli'  iif  Life. — Though  the  number  of  terrestrial 
Oiu^teropods,  breathing  the  air  directly  by  means 
of  a  pulmonary  chamber,  is  very  large — over  6000 


Fi-  ■>.— A'ttTielk: 

Showini;  r>^spiratJ»ry  siphon,  a;  head  with 

teiiacles,  c,  and  eyes,  d;  foot,  b,  with 

sliell-lid  or  operculum,  e. 


Fig.  3. 


Ii\'ing  species — those  living  in  water  are  greatly  in 
the  majority,  including  over  10,000  forms,  mostly 
marine.  Of  these,  some  9<X)0  or  so  belong  to  the 
Prosobranch.s  or  Streptoneura,  a  relatively  small 
minority  lieing  OpLstliobranchs  and  Nudibranchs. 
The  Heteropods  and  some  Opisthobranchs  enjoy  a 
free-swimming  pelagic  life,  but  most  marine  forms 
frequent  the  coasts  either  on  the  shores  or  along 
the  bottom.  Deep-sea  Gasteropods  are  compara- 
tively few.  The  locomotion  eflected  by  the  con- 
tractions of  the  muscular  '  foot '  is  in  almost  all 
ca-ses  veiy  leisurely, 
and  the  average  teml- 
ency  Is  towanis  slug- 
gishness. As  to  diet, 
the  gieatest  variei\ 
obtains;  most  Pro- 
branchs  with  a  i 
spiratory  siphon  ai 
a  corresponding  not  < 
in  the  shell  are  car- 
nivorous,  and  so  are 
the  active  Hetero- 
pods;  most  of  the  Young  Pond  .Snail  (Zymnariis) 
rest     are    vegetarian  (from  Howes), 

in  diet.       Numerous 

genera,  l)oth  marine  and  terrestrial,  are  verj'  indis- 
criminate in  their  feeding ;  others  are  as  markedly 
specialists,  keeping  almost  exclusively  to  .some 
one  vegetable  or  animal  diet.  Some  marine 
snails  partial  to  Eehinoderms  have  got  over  the 
digestive  ditliculty  presented  In'  the  calcareous 
character  of  the  skins  of  their  victims  by  a  secre- 
tion of  free  sulphuric  acid  from  the  mouth.  This 
acid  changes  the  carbonate  of  lime  into  .sulphate, 
which  is  brittle  and  readily  pulverised  by  the  ras]i- 
ing  tongue.  A  few  are  parasitic — e.^  Eulima, 
Stylifer,  and  the  very  degenerate  Entuconclta 
miiabilis,  all  occurring  in  or  on  Holothurians. 

Distribution. — A  few  Gasteropods  occur  in  strata 
as  far  back  as  the  Cambrian,  from  which  remote 
period  they  have  continued  with  a  steady  increase. 
.\lmost  all  the  Pahcozoic  genera  are  now  extinct, 
and  during  these  ages  the  siphon-po.ssessing  forms 
seem  to  have  been  almost,  if  not  altogether,  unre- 
presented. A  host  of  new  Ga.steropods  appeared 
in  the  Jurassic  period,  and  many  of  the  modern 
families  have  their  origin  in  Cretaceous  times. 
Numerous  a.s  the  fossil  forms 
are,  the  number  of  types  wlndly 
extinct  is  comparatively  small  : 
both  as  regards  persistence  of 
types  and  increase  of  numbers, 
the  Gasteropods  are  a  peculiarly 
successful  class. 

Life-historii. — The  eggs  of 
Gasteropods  are  usually  small, 
and  are  surrounded  with  albu- 
men, the  surface  of  which  lie- 
comes  firm,  while  in  the  com- 
mon snail  (Helix)  and  some 
others  there  is  an  egg-shell  of 
lime.  The  eggs  not  unfre- 
quentl.v  develop  into  embr\<)S 
within  the  parent,  but  in  most 
cases  they  are  laid,  either  singly 
or  in  ma.sses,  aiul  often  witldn 
cocoons.     Few  objects  are  more  Fig.  4. 

familiar  on   the  seashore  than  Section  of  Triton-shell 
the  clustered  egg-cases  of  the        (after  Owen): 
whelk,  which  together  form  a  "': ''T^\''\f^t\w  '■ 

,     ,,      V  ,       .     .»  ■  e     c,  axis  or  Columella. 

ball    often    about    tlie   size   of 

an  orange.  Inside  each  of  the  ntimerous  egg-cases 
are  many  embryos,  but  onlv  a  few  reach  maturity, 
the  others  serving  as  food  material,  an  infantile 
cannibalism  or  struggle  for  existence  not  uncom- 
mon in  the  class.  As  to  the  actual  develoji- 
ment  and  the  larval  forms,  reference  must  be  maoe 


11: 


GASTON    DE    lOIX 


CATKSHEAD 


to  llie  articles  on  Mol.l.r.scs  ami  on  K.MiiUVoujGY  ; 
Imt  it  may  be  noted  that  the  ovum  ilivides  more 
or  less  uneiiually,  arcordlii;,'  to  the  aiiioiint  of  \olk, 
that  a  },'a.stnilasta;,'e  <ieeui-s  lus  us\ial,  and  tliat  this 
is  succeeded  in  tv|iieal  ea-ses,  lii-st  hy  a  '  Tiocho- 
sphere'  and  afterwarils  liy  a  'Veliyer'  larva  (see 
Molluscs). 

General  Interest. — As  voracious  animals,  furnished 
with  iiowerfiil  rasping  or<;ans,  many  (lasteropods 
]day  an  im|iortanl  part  in  the  stru;.';^U'  lorexistence 
aimiii;;  marine  or^'anisms,  while  other  terrestrial 
forms  are  most  ilestruetive  ilevastators  of  ve;;etalile 
and  llowerin;;  plants.  The  manner  in  which  num- 
erous |dants  are  saved  from  the  ravaj;es  of  snails, 
liy  tlieir  chemical  and  physical  characters,  is  an 
interestinj«  subject  of  investi^'ation  recently  worked 
out  by  I'rofe.ssor  E.  Slahl.  Krom  very  e.-irlv  times, 
various  (iiisterojiods,  such  as  whelks,  have  been 
iitiliscd  for  human  eousnm|ition  ami  also  ,is  bait, 
while  yet  more  lrei|uenlly  the  shells,  often  so  beau- 
tiful in  form  and  colour,  have  been  Used  for  the 
decoratiim  of  the  pers(ui  and  the  dwellinj;,  for  the 
basis  of  cameos,  ;ui  domestic  utensils,  or  even  as 
weapons,  ami  in  many  other  ways.  From  the 
mucous  j;lands  of  the  roof  of  tin;  K'lb<''l^''.V  "' 
thej;('iu'ra  I'urptira  ami  Murex,  there  exudes  the 
famous  secretion,  at  lirst  colourless,  but  afterwards 
becoming  |>urple  or  violet,  which  furnished  the 
ancient  Tyrian  dye. 

.'^ee  CiliTOX,  LiMi'rr,  Moi.i.rsoA,  HFTElioroiiA,  Snail, 
AVhelk,  and  articles  iUaliiig  with  various  l^asteropods 
al'ove  mentioned.  Also  the  ?,nnK);,'ical  te.xt-books  of 
t!laus,  Gigenhaur,  Huxley,  ic.  ;  Hatcliett  .Jackson'.s  ed.  of 
Ki)llestt>ii'.s  Furiiis  of  Aiiimiil  Life  (  Oxford,  l.S8,S);  Kefer- 
stein's  '  Mollusca,'  in  Uronn's  I'liiirreitli  (ISG'J-Uti) ;  E. 
Itay  I^ankestir,  article  '  Molhi^ea,'  i'liow.  ijcrt.  ( vol.  xvi. 
lss:{);   Woodward,  Mtuiiutt  vj  Mullusca  (3d  ed.  1873). 

(■a.sloii  do  Foix.    See  I'oix. 
<;:istric:i.  <^astriila.    See  Kmuhydlocv. 
<;astralt;ia.    See  (•.U!i)i.\i.(;i.v. 
<iasti-i(-  r«'>«'r.    See  Tvi'iioii)  Fkver. 
<;astri«"  .liiire.    See  Duikstion. 
(lia.striti.s.    See  Stomach  (Dise.xses  of). 
4>a.strorlia''lia.   a  f^enus  of  boring  bivalves, 
not  far  removed  from  Tere<lo  ami   I'liolius,  hut  type 
of   a    distinct    family,  (!iLslrocliaiiid:e,   which   also 
in(  hides    the  remarkable   .•\sper^'illum   ((j.v. )   and 
(lava^'ella  ((|.v.).     The  original  shell  has  the  two 
valves    ty]deal    of    Lamellibrauchs  ;    but    these    are 
delicate,   and   bei'ome   surrounded    liy   a  .secondary 
tubular  shell  linin;^  the  cavity  which  the  mollusc 
bores  in  limestone,   coral,   other    shells,    i!v.c.     G. 

nt'itfiutind,  a 
rare  British 
mollusc,  com- 
mon in  the 
Mediterranean, 
makes  holes 
about  two 
inches  dee]>  and 
half  an  inch  in 
diameter.  It 
.sometimesbores 
rijjht  through 
.an  oyster  into 
the  <;rou  n  d 
below,  and 
makes  for  itself, 
plus  little  stones  and  particles  of  debris,  a  flask- 
shaped  ca-se,  with  its  neck  fixed  in  the  oyster-shell. 
The  tubes  of  some  of  the  tropical  species — e.g.  O. 
c/ara,  from  the  Indian  Ocean,  which  live  in  sand 
are  very  curious. 

Gastro'.StOIIiy  (Cr.  r/nx/rr.  'the  belly  or 
stomach;"  and  stuiiin.  'mouth'),  an  ojieratioii 
performed  for  the  relief  of  stricture  of  the  gullet,  to 


Gastrochn;na  Modiolina  : 

(1,  one  of  the  tuln-s  liroken  oir-ii,  showing 
the  valves. 


save  the  |>atient  from  the  imminent  risk  of  starva- 
tion by  introilucing  food  directly  into  the  stomach 
thrmmh  .m  external  opening.  The  well  known  case 
of  Alexis  St  .M.'irtiu,  a  Canadian,  in  whom  in  conse- 
quence of  a  gunshot  wound  there  was  a  listulous 
opening  into  the  interior  of  his  st<uuach,  the  sui'ce.ss 
ot  operations  for  the  removal  of  fiueign  boilics  from 
the  stonuich,  and  innueriuis  experiments  on  the 
lower  aninjals,  h'd  to  this  allcmpt  to  save  life  ;  and 
when  it  is  not  delayed  loo  long  it  has  juoved  suc- 
ces>fnl  in  a  fair  proportion  of  cases. 

(■astro  toill.V  ((!r.  ijuslCr  and  tome,  'an  in- 
cision ),  an  incision  into  the  cavity  of  the  .Abdomen 
(q.v.)  generally  for  the  ])nr|)ose  of  removing  some 
disea-sed  texture  or  foreign  body.  The  term  has 
also  lii-i'n  .ipplierl  to  t'ii'sarean  Operation  (i|.v.). 

(ialakn*.  Tiiom.vs,  Knglish  divine,  was  born 
in  Loudon  in  ir>74,  and  educated  at  St  .John's 
Collcgi',  Canibridge.  In  succession  preacher  at 
Lincoln's  Inn.  riMtor  of  Kotlierhithc.  ami  mcmlier 
of  the  Assembly  (d'  Divines  at  AVi'stminstci-,  he 
ojiposed  the  imposition  of  the  Covenant,  and  w.is 
one  of  the  forty-seven  London  clergymen  who  con- 
demned the  trial  of  Charles  I.  lie  died  in  I(l.")4. 
His  works  include  Of  the  Nature  and  Unr  of  l.nts 
(llJMi):   and    t'inniis,   sii-C  Adversaria    MiseeUanea 

(ii;.-ii  1. 

<>al«'llilia,  a  town  of  Hnssia,  .10  miles  by  rail 
SSW.  of  St  I'etersburg.  It  has  some  nmnnfactures 
of  |iorcclain,  and  seveial  bairacks,  but  is  especially 
worthy  of  mention  for  its  royal  pal.ace,  surrounded 
by  one  of  the  linest  iileasure  gardens  in  Knrope. 
which  was  the  favourite  summer  .seat  of  the  Kmperor 
Paul  I.,  and  the  winter  residence— iiraclically, 
owing  to  precautions  .ag.ainst  Nihilists,  tlie  i)rison  - 
of  Alexan.ler  III.      Top.  (  ISSO)  10,ll(i:i. 

Ciatcs.  lloit.vTio,  an  American  general,  w:i> 
born  iit  Maldon.  in  Kssex,  Kngland,  in  I7"-M.  lie 
entered  tin'  I '.nglish  army,  served  in  America,  whi're 
he  was  major  under  liraddock,  anil  with  diflicully 
escaped  in  the  defeat  in  which  that  ollicer  was 
slain.  On  the  ]ieaceof  170"?  he  ]Mnehased  an  estate 
in  Virginia,  where  he  resided  until  the  war  of  indc 
pendence.  In  this  struggle  he  sided  with  his  adop 
five  country,  and  in  177.')  was  made  adjutant- 
general,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier,  receiving  in 
177t>  ('(unmand  of  the  .army  whiidi  had  just  retreated 
from  Can.ada.  In  August  1777  he  supersedeil 
Schuyler  in  cmnmand  of  the  northern  ile]iartment ; 
and,  principally  as  the  result  of  his  jiredeccssor's 
able  mano'uvres.  he  was  enabled  to  cicfeat  ami  com- 
pel the  surrender  of  tlu'  Hritish  army  at  Saratoga 
in  October  (sec  UilMidV.NK).  This  success  gainc'd 
him  a  great  reputation,  which  probably  is  account- 
able for  his  endeavour  to  su])i)lant  AVashington  in 
the  chief  command  of  the  army;  but  this  failing, 
he  retired  to  his  cst.ate  until  1780,  when  he  was 
called  to  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  South, 
and  in  the  unfortum\te  defeat  near  Ciimdcu,  in 
South  Carolina,  lost  the  laurels  he  had  previously 
won.  lie  was  superseded,  and  was  not  acijuilti'd  of 
blame  by  court-martial  until  178'2.  He  then  retired 
to  Virginia  till  17!I0,  when  he  emancipated  all  his 
slaves,  ami  settled  in  New  York.  There  he  died 
on  April  10,  ISOti. 

Galt'slM'atl.  a  town  in  Knglaml,  on  the 
noitliirn  verge  of  the  county  of  Durham,  and  on 
the  south  lijink  of  the  river  Tyne.  OovcrniMl  for 
centuries  by  a  chief  l>ailill  appointed  by  the  piiuec- 
bishop  of  tiie  p.alatinate,  aided  by  ]iopulaily  idccted 
burgesses,  Catcshead  w.os  enfranchised  lirst  as  a 
parliamentary  borough  in  1S3'2.  and  secondly  as  a 
municipal  borough  in  IS.'}."),  whilst  in  18SH  it  lie- 
came  a  countv  borough.  Its  |Mi]iul;aion  has  grown 
from  !."■). 177  in  1831  to  '2."),.'i(J8  in  1S,-)1,  i;.'i,8.').-)  in 
1881.  ;inil  N.'i.70!l  in  18111.  Thus  there  is  only  one 
urban    conuniinitv    along    the    main    line    between 


GATESHEAD 


GATSCHINA 


113 


London  and  Edinbnrgh  which  exceeds  Gateshead 
in  population  ;  and  tlie  exception  is  the  city  of 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  which  is  situated  directly 
opposite  (lateshea<l  on  the  Northuniherland  or 
nortliern  bank  of  the  river.  The  two  towns  are 
intimately  connected  :  a  splendid  suspension  l)ridj,'e 
( 1871 )  joins  them  at  Kedheugh  ;  Stephenson's  cele- 
brated Hij;h  Level  ( 184!) )  connects  them  by  both  road 
and  rail ;  and  a  swinfj-bridge  ( 1S76),  which  opens  to 
allow  the  |)assa<;e  of  ships,  connects  the  quayside 
of  Newcastle  with  the  princijial  thorouijhfare  of 
Gateshead.  This  close  association  of  the  two 
communities  is  not  felt  to  be  of  advantage  to  the 
Durham  boroui^h,  because  the  city  on  the  North- 
umberland side  of  the  Tyne  levies  under  ancient 
charter  local  dues  on  all  the  river  trade,  which 
both  towns  promote,  though  the  emoluments 
derived  tlierefrom  lielong  exclusively  to  Newcastle. 
The  older  portions  of  <iat<-'sheail  ha\"e  not  during 
recent  years  been  much  iin|>roved.  Many  of  the 
old  stone  buildings  have  been  allowed  to  fall  into 
considerable  decay.  Westward  and  southward  ex- 
tension and  improvement  are  continuous,  and  the 
suburbs  show  many  tine  villas.  The  town  com- 
munity is  for  the  greater  part  industrial.  Engine- 
works,  iron-sbi[>yards,  electric  cable,  hempen  and 
wire  rope  nianufactorie>,  chenucal  works,  cement- 
works,  glass-win'ks,  and  iron-works  furnish  emjiloy- 
ment  to  a  large  pro])ortion  of  the  inhabitants. 
The  only  philanthropic  institutions  in  the  town 
which  do  not  owe  their  existence  to  modern 
public  spirit  are  the  grammar-school  (1700)  and 
the  King  James  Hospital  (  Kill )  for  poor  brethren. 

Numerous  institutions  dei)end  for  their  suiii)ort 
on  voluntary  contrili\itions  and  on  grants  from  local 
rates.  These  include  successful  boys'  and  girls' 
high  schools,  excellent  swimming-baths,  a  useful 
dis[)ensary,  a  hosi)ital  for  the  isolated  treatment 
of  infectious  disease,  a  literary  and  scientific 
institute,  a  school  of  art,  <S;c.  Public  libraries 
(circulating  and  reference)  were  inaugurated  in 
18SG,  which  are  free  to  all  burgesses.  Under  the 
management  of  an  energetic  school-board  formed 
in  1872,  two  higher-grade  and  some  forty  element- 
ary schools  educate  li.'i.OOO  children.  A  free  school 
was  established  in  1701.  The  town-hall  and  free 
library  are  among  the  architectural  ornaments 
of  the  borough.  There  is  a  recreation  grounil  on 
Windmill  Hills;  and  a  iiublic  |)ark  of  50  acres 
at  Saltwell,  opencil  in  1874.  Besides  other  jilaces 
of  worship  belonging  to  the  various  denominations, 
there  are  ten  churclies  of  the  English  establish- 
ment, including  the  venerable  St  Mary's,  which 
in  1080  was  the  scene  of  the  nuirder  of  Bisho]) 
Walcher  liy  an  Englisli  mob.  Among  places  of 
interest  in  Gateshead  are  the  site  of  the  lire  and 
explosion  of  18.')4,  which  cost  fifty  lives,  and 
destroyed  a  million  pounds'  worth  of  jiroperty  ; 
the  extensive  locomotive  works  of  the  North- 
Eastern  Railway  Company,  the  finest  in  the  ninth 
of  England  ;  alleged  traces  of  the  ancient  Roman 
headway  or  ijittr's  head,  from  which  the  name  of 
the  town  is  said  to  be  derived;  the  undoubted 
residence  in  the  Hillgate  ilistrict,  during  the  writ- 
ing of  the  immortal  lioliinsun  Crusoe,  of  Daniel 
Defoe;  and  the  works  at  which  large  portions  of 
the  first  Atlantic  cable  were  manufactured.  The 
quarries  from  which  the  world-famous  Newcastle 
grindstones  are  obtained  are  also  worked  within 
the  i)recincts  of  Gateshea<l,  at  Gateshead  Fell. 
Gateshead  cimlinucs  to  be  represented,  a-s  in  IS.'i'J, 
by  one  memlier  in  the  House  of  Commons.  For 
parliamentary  and  municipal  purposes  alike,  the 
county  borough  is  dividei!  into  ten  wards.  Its 
governing  body  consists  of  a  mayor,  ten  alilernien, 
and  thirty  councillors.  See  Richard  Welfords 
llistoni  of  Netrcasllc  and  Gateshead  (2  vols. 
1884-S.")).  ' 
21t) 


Gateway,  the  pas.sage  or  opening  in  whicli  a 
gate  or  large  door  is  hung.  Tliis  may  be  either 
an  open  way  with  side  |)illars  or  a  covered  way 
vaulted  or  roofed  over.  Ihe  gateway,  being  a  most 
important  point  in  all  fortified  jilaces,  is  usually 
protected  by  various  devices.  it  is  flanked  by 
towers  with  loopholes,  from  which  assailants 
may  be  attacked,  and  is  frequently  overhung  by 
a  machicolated  battlement,  from  which  ini.ssiles  of 
every  description  may  be  poured  upon  the  besiegers. 
In  the  middle  ages  gateways  were  also  fortified 
with  one  iiortcullis  or  more,  and  had  frei|uently 
an  outer  work  or  barbican  in  front  of  the  gate 
defended  with  drawbridges.  Citv  gates,  and  gates 
of  large  castles,  have  in  all  ages  l)een  the  subjects 
of  great  care  in  construction  ;  and  when  from  some 
cause,  such  as  the  cessation  of  constant  fighting, 
or  a  change  in  the  nujde  of  warfare,  gateways  have 
lost  their  iin]jortance  in  a  military  ])oint  "of  view 
they  have  maintained  their  position  as  injportant 
architectural  works,  and  although  no  longer  forti- 
fied have  become  ornamental.  In  very  ancient  times 
we  read  of  the  'gate'  as  the  nuist  ]prominent 
part  of  a  city,  where  proclamations  were  made, 
and  where  the  kings  administered  justice.  The 
Greek  and  Roman  gates  were  frequently  of  great 
magnificence.  The  propyhca  at  Athens  is  a 
beautiful  example,  and  the  triunqihal  arches  of 
the  Romans  are  the  ornamental  ofl'siiring  of 
their  city  gates.  At  Autun  in  F'rance  two  Roman 
gateways,  and  at  Treves  in  Germany  one,  still 
exist,  and  formed  the  models  on  which  early 
medieval  gateways  were  designed.  Most  of  the 
English  towns  have  lost  their  walls  and  city 
gates;  but  a  few,  such  as  York  and  Chester,  still 
retain  them,  and  give  us  an  idea  of  the  buildings 
which  formerly  existed,  but  which  now  remain 
only  in  the  name  of  the  streets  where  they  once 
stood.  English  castles  retain  more  of  their  ancient 
gateways,  and  from  these  we  nuiy  imagine  the 
frowning  aspect  every  town  presented  during  the 
miilille  ages.  Abbeys,  colleges,  and  every  class 
of  buildings  were  .shut  in  and  defendeil  by  .similar 
barriers  ;  many  of  these  still  exist  in  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  and  the  abbey  gates  of  Canterbury 
ami  Bury  St  Edmunds  are  well-known  specimens 
of  monastic  gateways.  The  feeling  of  personal 
freedom,  which  is  so  strong  in  England,  must 
no  iloubt  have  tended  greatly  to  hasten  the  demoli- 
tion of  the.se  marks  of  feudalism  ;  but  in  many 
parts  of  the  Continent  we  still  find  these  barriers 
kept  up. 

Ciatll,  one  of  the  five  chief  cities  of  the  Philis- 
tines, was  situated  on  the  frontiers  of  Judali,  and 
was  in  consequence  a  place  of  much  importance 
in  the  wars  between  the  Philistines  and  the 
Israelites.  The  famous  giant,  Goliath,  who  was 
slain  by  the  youthful  David,  was  a  native.  St 
Jerome  describes  it  in  his  time  as  ■  a  \erv  large 
village.'  Its  site  (Tcl-es-Safivh)  is  probalily  the 
Blanche  Garde  of  the  Crusaders,  who  built  a  castle 
here  to  commaiid  the  Philistine  plain. 

tiatilieail,  a  river  of  (Juebec,  in  Canada,  has 
its  origin  in  a  chain  of  lakes  lying  immediately 
north  of  48°  N.  lat.,  aiul,  after  a  SSW.  course 
estimated  at  400  miles,  enters  the  Ottawa  River, 
about  a  mile  below  Ottawa  city. 

Cilatlill^.  Rlcil.Mil)  J<iKl).\.\,  born  in  1818,  in 
Hertford  county,  North  Carolina,  studied  medicine 
liut  never  practised,  and  is  known  for  invention.- 
as  various  ;is  machines  for  sowing  cotton  and  rice 
ami  for  dressing  hemp,  a  steam-plough,  and  the 
famous  (iatling  gun  (1801-62),  a  revolving  battery 
gun,  usu.ally  having  ten  parallel  barrels,  and  firing 
in  some  cases  as  many  as  12(X) shots  a  minute.  See 
M.vuiiim;  Guns. 

Ciatschina.    See  Gatchinw. 


114 


GATTY 


GAULTHERIA 


Ciatty,  Maboaret.     See  EwiSG. 

Gail*  a  (iernian  wonl  iiieaiiini;,  in  a  ki'"'"'''' 
way,  ilistiiot,  Imt  ajiplii'il  tipccially  to  a  pnlilical 
division  of  anrient  (loriiiany,  having;  iclalion  to 
the  arran^'einciit.H  for  war  ami  tlie  adniiiiist ration 
of  justii'c.  Tin-  ilivi-ioti  into  sui'li  distrii'ts  wa.s 
in  foroi'  umlcr  tlii'  1' ranks  in  the  7th  century  ;  and 
at  the  hoail  of  tlie  tjau  was  tlie  ^'raf  (see  t'oiNT). 
As  tlie  jjrafdonis  hecanie  more  and  more  liereilitary, 
the  t;!\.\\,  as  a  political  ilivisicm,  fell  into  disuse 
(ahout  the  l'2tli  century),  and  only  in  the  luvmcs 
of  some  places — Hheinjjau,  l{reisf,'au,  Aar;;au,  \c. 
— do  the  traces  of  it  remain.  See  Ulnukkd, 
Keidai.ism,  \'illa(;k  ('oMMtxniEs. 

GsUU'llOS  are  the  lu'nlsmcn  of  the  >jreat  plains 
of  tlie  Ar;;entiiie  Uepuhlie  and  Uruguay,  where 
they  live  in  rude  huts  with  scanty  furniture, 
and  are  cliietly  employed  in  drivin;,',  catchiu';. 
and  shuiKhterin*;  cattle.  They  are  mostly  of 
mixed  Spanish  and  Indian  descent,  sparely  huilt, 
and  of  j;reat  stren^'th  and  endurance  ;  lliey  are 
most  expert  hoi-semeu,  and  use  the  L:us.so  (q.v. ) 
and  Boliis  ((j.v.)  with  marvellous  skill.  Tlieir 
dress  consists  of  a  rout;li  jacket  and  trousers, 
over  which  a  woollen  /miir/n)  falls,  heavy  top- 
hoots,  and  a  wide-hrimmed  hat.  Cheerful  .and 
hospitahle,  they  are  violent  and  vindictive  when 
enraged,  and  are  much  i,'iven  to  drink  ami  i;:iu\- 
blinj;.  Inured  to  hardship  and  fatigue,  they  have 
played  an  important  part  in  the  revolutions  of 
South  America. 

Ciiaudrailllis,  the  heginninr;  of  a  famous 
German  stiidcnts'  sonj;  in  dog-Latin  rhymes,  of 
which  the  first  line  is  (liimlciimtin  igitiir  /iit'cnea 
diim  SHinii.i  ('Let  ns  therefore  rejoice  while  we 
are  young').  It  was  first  |)rintcd,  in  a  somewhat 
coarser  form  tli.an  the  present,  ami  with  Latin  ami 
German  verses  alternating,  in  177();  and  follows 
rather  closely  the  thought  and  expression  of  an 
ancient  Latin  hymn  of  the  year  12t)7.  See 
Schwetsclike,  Zur  Geschichte  des  Gaudeamus  ( Halle, 
1877). 

(•aiidon,  -Joiix.    .See  EiKoN  Basimke. 

Gaimo.  or  Gagk,  an  apparatus  for  lueasuring 
any  special  force  or  tlimeiision ;  thus  we  have 
vi-ciaurcgaurie,  wind-f/aiif/c  (see  Ane.\IOMETEU), 
Itiiiii-fftiuijii  (q.v.),  >rirc-i;iti(f/c,  hiittoni/aiif/c,  iV'C. 
The  simplest  form  of  gauge  of  dimension  is  the 
common  wireg.auge,  hy  which  the  diameter  of  wire 
is  measured.  It  is  simply  an  oldong  plate  of  .steel, 
with  notches  of  dill'erent  widths  cut  ui)on  the  edge; 
the.se  are  numhered,  and  the  size  of  the  wire  is  de- 
termined hy  trying  it  in  the  ilill'erent  notches  until 
the  one  is  found  which  it  exactly  lits.  The  thick- 
ness of  sheet-metal  is  tried  hy  the  same  gauge. 
There  is  a  great  want  of  uniformity  in  these  gauges — 
the  Birmingham  g.aiige  for  iron-wire,  sheet-iron,  and 
steel  dilfering  from  that  used  for  hrass,  silver,  gold, 
&c. ;  and  these  again  from  the  Lancashire  gauges. 
It  has  been  i)roposed,  in  order  to  ohiaiu  uniformity, 
and  to  enable  delinite  descriptions  and  orders  to 
be  given  with  accuracy  and  certainty,  that,  instead 
of  the  arbitrary  numbers  of  varying  signilic.ition 
now  in  use,  decimal  parts  of  an  inch,  tenths,  hun- 
dredths, thousandths,  or  still  smaller  fiactiims,  if 
necessary,  be  used,  and  that  these  be  used  for  all 
diameters  and  thicknesses,  such  as  wires,  sheet- 
met.als,  buttons,  watch -ghvises,  &c.  ;  but  such  a 
scale  has  not  yet  come  into  general  use.  The 
Birmingham  wire-gauge  Iuls,  however,  been  wiilely 
adopted.  The  gauge  oommonly  iisecl  for  buttons 
and  such  like  larger  diameters  is  a  rule  with  a 
groove  cut  lengthwise  down  the  middle.  Another 
metal  rule,  with  a  bra.ss  head,  slides  in  this,  and 
bv  means  of  a  thumb-pin  may  be  pushed  out  at 
pleasure.  The  object  to  be  measured  is  placed 
Detween   a  and   h  dig.    1),   and   tlie   wiiltli   of  this 


^ 


space  is  measured  by  graduations  on  the  middle 
metal  slide. 

A  very  elegant  and  ilelicate  gauge  ia  used  for 
mea.siiring   watcli- 

ghvs.ses,  and  is  ap-  o  «* 

plicablc  to  many 
other  purposes. 
On  .111  oblong 
piece  of  sheet- 
metal  two  straight 
metal  ridges  are 
lixed  in  such  a 
manner  that  they 
shall  be  inclined 
at  a  given  angle 
to  each  other,  a-s 
'il,  and  (;(/(lig.  2). 
Now,  let  us  sup- 
pose the  .'ingle  to 
lie  such  that  the 
distance  between  a 


n' 


IS 


inches, 


I'in-  L 


and   that   between 
b  and  (/  is  1  inch, 

while  the  lengths  ah  and  cd  are  10  incheo. 
It  is  evident  that  for  every  inch  of  clcscpnt 
from  n  .and  r  towanls  It  and  d  there  will  be  a 
narrowing  eiiual  to  j'^th  of  an  inch  :  and  for  every 
tenth  of  an  inch  of  such  descent  there  will  be  a 
narrowing  of  iJ^th  of  an  inch,  and  so  on:  thus 
we  may,  by  graduating  downwards  from  ar  to  M, 
mea.sure  tenths  by  units,  hundredths  by  tenths,  and 
so  on  to  still  liner  quantities  if  required.  This  is 
applicable  to  lengths  as  well  ius  diameters.  By 
means  of  line  .screws  with  large  gradnate<I  lie.ads, 
Messrs  W'hitworth  have  nie.a.sured  small  ]>ieces  of 
steel  to  the  one-milliimth  of  an  inch  (see  MICRO- 
METER). Pressure  gauges,  wind  gauges,  &c.  will 
be  treated  under  the  .siiecial  .subjects.  —  In  railways, 
the  gauge  means  the  distance  between  the  rails  (see 
Kaiiavav.s).— The  term  GAfClNt;  refers  specially 
to  the  gauging  of  the  contents  of  casks;  and  an 
excise  otiicer  (as  ganging  casks  containing  excis- 
able lii|uors)  is  often  called  'ganger.' 

<>aulldti.     See  As.SAM. 

<iaiil.    See  France. 

iiaillt  (a  local  name  in  Cambridgeshire  for  clay) 
is  (me  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  Cretaceous  System 
(q.v.).  The  gault  is  a  stiti",  bluish-gray  cl.ay, 
which  here  and  there  contains  indurated  nodules 
and  septaria.  Now  and  again  it  becomes  somewhat 
calcareous,  or  .samly  and  micaceous.  In  some 
jiarts  of  Sus.sex  a  band  of  phospliatic  nodules  occurs 
at  its  biuse.  The  deposit  is  of  variable  thickness 
— reaching  in  some  places  over  300  feet,  while 
occasionally  it  hanlly  attains  a  greater  thickness 
than  50  feet,  and  forms  a  well-marked  geological 
horizon — forming  the  bottom  memljer  of  the  Upper 
Cretaceous  rocks.  It  is  abundantly  fossiliferous,  the 
remains  being  almost  exclusively  marine,  only  a  few 
iliifted  l<and-|ilants  having  been  met  with.  One  of 
the  best  exi>osures  of  the  gault  in  England  is  at 
Folkestone.  In  the  Isle  of  Wight  this  formation  is 
known  its  the  'blue  slipper,'  from  the  re.adinos  of 
the  overlying  beds  to  slip  or  slide  over  its  surface. 
The  pictiiresqiie  '  Underchir'  owes  its  origin  to  thii*e 
landslides.  'The  gault  is  exten.sively  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  liricks  and  tiles  ;  it  forms  a 
retentive  and  rather  unproductive  soil. 

Ciailltheria,  a  genus  of  small  procumbent 
evergreen  shrubs,  of  the  order  Ericace;e,  named 
by  the  Swedish  botanist  Kalm  in  honour  of  Dr 
Gaultier  of  (Quebec.  G.  prooimheii.s  is  a  common 
plant  in  North  America  .as  far  .south  as  Virginia, 
and  Iiears  the  names  of  Checkerberry,  Partridge 
I  Berry,  Deer  Berry,  Wintergreen,  and  Mountain 
Tea.     It  is  aliout  4  or  .">   inches   in   height,  with 


GAUNT 


GAUSS 


115 


small  whitisli  flowers  and  red  '  berries,'  which 
are  eatable,  but  not  safe  in  any  consdderable 
quantity,  because  of  the  pungent  volatile  oil  which 
tney  contain.  Brandy  in  which  they  have  been 
steeped  is  used  as  a  tonic.  The  whole  plant  has 
an  agreeable  aromatic  odour  and  taste,  ami  the 
volatile  oil  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant,  also 
for  flavouring  syrups,  and  in  perfumery,  under  the 
name  of  Oil  of  IVintcnjreeii.  An  infusion  of  the 
berries  (hence  called  '  tea- berries ')  was  used  as  tea 
during  the  war  of  independence.  The  berries  are 
employed  for  flavouring  beer  and  other  drinks,  as 
also  for  tooth- powdei-s  and  hair-waslies.  The  leaf  is 
astringent,  and  is  used  in  medicine. — The  Shallon 


Shallon  (Gaultheria  shallon). 

( G.  hIuiIIijii  )  Is  a  large  species  ( 2-3  feet ),  with 
pnrple  berries  ( '  salal-berries ' ),  which  are  largely 
eaten  by  the  Indians  of  north-west  America. 
It  grows  well  in  woods,  and  is  sometimes  planted 
in  Britain  Xm  affonl  food  for  game. — G.  hi-tpida 
(Wax-cluster)  is  a  native  of  Van  Diemerr's  Land, 
bearing  snow-white  berries. — Other  species,  some 
fragrant,  some  producing  edible  lierries,  ami  all 
beautiful  little  shrubs,  are  found  in  mountain 
regions  throughout  the  world.  The  Australian 
G.  aiitipuilii  Ls  .saiil  to  be  a  liner  fruit  than  G. 
hispida, 

Ciannt.  See  Ghent  ;  and  for  John  of  (iaunt, 
see  John  of  Gaunt. 

Ciaillltlct,  less  correctly  Gantlet  (formed 
with  iloul)le  diminutives  from  Old  Fr.  rjaiU,  'a 
glove,'  itself  a  word  of  Scandinavian  origin),  an 
iron  glove,  which  formed  part  of  the  armour  of 
knights  and  men-at-arms.  The  back  of  the  hand 
was  covered  with  plates  jointed  together,  so  as  to 
permit  the  hand  to  close.  (Jauntlets  were  intro- 
duced about  the  I3th  century.  They  were  often 
thrown  down  by  way  of  challenge,  like  gloves. 
They  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  heraldry. 

In  the  phrase  '  to  run  the  gantlet,'  the  word  is 
due  to  a  confusion  with  the  foregoing  of  the 
original  word  ffant/o/jc  or  ijitllope,  the  Swedish 
()atlo///i,  made  up  of  ifata,  'a  street,'  and  lo/t/j, 
'a  course,' from  lo/jn,  'to  run' — a  cognate  of  Eng. 
leap.  Professor  Skeat  suggests  that  the  word  may 
be  due  to  the  wars  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  who 
died  at  Liltzen  in  l(i:i2.  The  German  form  is 
ga.sseii/(iiif>ii.  '  laiie-ruii.'  botli  alike  meaning  a 
military  ))unishment,  which  consisted  in  n)aking 
the  culprit,  naked  to  the  waist,  pass  repeatedly 
through  a  lane  formed  of  two  rows  of  soldiers,  eacii 
of  whom  gives  liiui  a  stroke  as  he  passes  with  a 
short  stick  or  other  similar  weapon. 

Ciillir,  the  medieval  capital  of  Bengal,  also 
called  l.aklinauti,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
the  Vaidya  king  Lakshmanasena,  at  the  close  of 
the  nth  century,  and,  on  the  Mohammedan  con- 
quest, a  hundred  yeai-s  later,  becinie  the  chief  -seat 
of  the  viceroys  who  governed  Bengal  under  the 
Pathan  kings  of  Delhi,  and  afterwards  (but  not 
always)  of  the  independent  kings  of  Bengal.  On 
the  Mogul  conquest  in  lo/o  a  terrible  pestilence 
broke  out  at  Gaur.  ami  ihousamls  of  tlie  inhabit- 


ants perished;  and  from  that  time  the  city  dis- 
appears from  history,  and  its  place  is  taken 
successively  by  Tandan,  Dacca,  and  Murshidabad. 
The  ruins  of  Gaur  still  cover  a  space  of  seven  miles 
by  two,  on  a  branch  of  the  Ganges,  and  include 
Hindu  buildings  as  well  as  several  interesting  loth- 
century  Mohammedan  mosques,  besides  e.xteusive 
reservoirs,  channels,  and  embanked  roads.  The 
vast  accumulations  of  brick  testify  to  the  fonner 
deu.sity  of  the  population,  while  the  neighbouring 
ruins  of  I'anduah  and  Tandan  point  to  the  exist- 
ence of  important  suburbs,  many  of  which  have 
wholly  disappeared.  See  Ravenshaw,  Gaur,  I'ls 
JBuitus  and  Inscription.'i  ( 1878) ;  Fergusson,  Hittory 
of  Indian  Architecture  ;  Lane-Poole,  Cataloijue  of 
Indian  Coins  in  the  Britiih  Muneum. 

Ganr,  or  Goir  {Bos  Gaurus),  a  species  of  ox, 
inhabiting  some  of  the  mountain  jungles  of  India. 
It  is  of  very  large  size,  although  apijarentlv  inferior 
to  the  Arnee  (q.v.).  It  bears  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  the  Gayal  (q.v.),  but  ditt'ei's  from  it  in 
the  form  of  its  head,  and  in  the  total  want  of  a 
dewlap,  in  which  it  more  nearly  agrees  with  the 
Banteng  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  although  dis- 
tinguished fiom  it  by  important  anatomical  peculi- 
arities (see  Bantenc).  It  is  supposed  to  be  in- 
capable of  domestication  ;  frequent  attempts  for 
this  purpose  are  said  to  have  been  made  in\epal. 
From  its  ferocity  its  pursuit  is  reckoned  in  India 
as  exciting  as  that  of  tiger  or  elephant. 

tiaiiss.  J(JHANN  Karl  Friedrich,  German 
mathematician,  born  at  Brunswick,  30th  April 
1777,  in  1801  jiublished  an  important  work  on 
the  theory  of  numbers  and  other  analytical  .sub- 
jects, iJi.irjtiisitionet;  Arithnietica:  Shoitly  after- 
wards his  attention  was  attracted  to  astronomy  ; 
and  he  invented,  and  used  in  brilliant  fashion, 
new  methods  for  the  calculation  of  the  orbits 
of  planets,  comets,  &c.  The  fruits  of  Ids 
researches  in  tliis  de|(artment  appeared,  two 
years  after  his  ap|iointment  as  professor  of 
Mathematics  and  director  of  the  observatory 
at  Gottingen,  in  his  Thcoria  .Moltis  Corpornin 
Ca'lestium  (1809).  He  also  lalxmred  with  equally 
brilliant  success  in  the  science  of  geodesy,  Ijeiug 
appointed  by  the  Hanoverian  government  to  con- 
duct the  trigonometrical  survey  of  the  kingdom 
and  to  measure  an  arc  of  the  meridian.  Whilst 
engaged  in  this  work  he  invented  the  instrument 
then  called  heliotrope  (see  HelioGRAPHV).  Later 
in  life  (in  I84.3-t(i)  he  published  a  collection 
of  valuable  memoirs  on  surface  geometry,  in  Ueber 
Geifenstitndc  dcr  hohern  GeodiiA-ie.  In  the  mean- 
time he  had  also  begun  to  study  the  problems 
arising  out  of  the  earth's  magnetic  properties.  In 
18.33  lie  wrote  his  fii-st  work  on  the  theory  of 
magnetism,  Infensita.i  JV.v  jMuyneticw  Tcrrestris; 
and  in  c(mjuuction  with  AV.  E.  \Veber  he  invented 
the  declination  needle  and  a  nuxgnetometer.  He 
was  also  mainly  instnimeulal  in  founding  a 
Magnetic  Association,  which  published  valuable 
pai>ers,  entitled  Itesultatc  ( 183(}-;)9),  including  two 
by  Gauss  on  the  law  of  magnetic  attraction.  In 
applied  matlieiiiatics  he  investigated  the  problems 
connected  with  the  passage  of  light  through  a 
system  of  lenses,  in  Dioptri.schc  Unter.\uchiingcn 
(1840).  Besides  the  researches  already  mentioni'd 
he  wrote  papers  or  works  on  probability,  the 
method  of  least  squares,  the  theory  of  biquadratic 
residues,  constructed  tables  for  the  convei-sion  of 
fractions  into  decimals  .and  of  the  number  of 
classes  of  binary  quadratic  forms,  and  discussed 
hypcrgeometric  series,  interjiolation,  curved  sur- 
faces, and  the  projection  of  surfaces  on  maps,  all 
of  which,  with  others,  are  printeil  in  the  seven 
vols,  of  his  collected  works  (Gcitt.  I8G3-71).  Gauss 
ilied  at   (Jiittingen,  23d  February  1855.     See  Lives 


UG 


GAUSSEN 


GAVAZZI 


I)y  Sartorius  von  Waltereliaiisen  (2cl  cil.  1877)  anJ 
Winnecke  (1877). 

Gausscil.  FuANi;ois  8.  K.  Lui'is,  a  Swiss 
l{ef<>riii('il  tliool<);;iiui,'  Imni  at  liencva,  25tli  Au^nist 
1790,  Wiu^  [ijistiir  iit  S.iti;.'iiy  near  (Jeiieva,  ami  took 
in  active  part  in  the  eliiirrli  oontniversies  of  tlie 
•-inie.  until  ilisinissed  in  1831  l>y  tlie  State  ( 'onneil 
•if  Ceneva,  lieean.se  lie,  with  Merle  (l'.\ul>i}.'ne,  had 
taken  ]>art  in  estahlisliin^;  the  Sneiete  Evan'ieliiiue, 
one  olijeot  of  whieh  \vii.s  the  fonmlin^'  of  a  new 
theol();;ieal  .seliool  for  the  niainteiianee  of  the  ohl 
('alviiiisni.  From  is:i(i  till  his  retirement  in  1857 
he  leetureil  with  .snece.-..s  in  the  new  eollejie,  juiil 
(lied  at  I-es  Grotte.s,  Geneva,  18th  .Inne  1863.  Of 
his  writing  may  lie  named  La  T/irn/inciixtic,  uii 
PU'hic  Jiis/tinifioii  </t'A'  ^S(n'nti'S  Kri'itiiri'.'i  (  1840).  a 
defence  of  plenary  ins|iiration.  which  liecame  popular 
in  Enfilaiid  anil  America  ;  and  Lr  Vdiiini  liex  Hiiiiihs 
f!crHiiit:s  nil  iluiihli:  /mini  i/f  i:iic  ilc  la  Science  cl  dc 
laFiii  {  18(i0). 

Oaiitaiiia.    See  Buddhism. 

Gaillirr,  TiikiiI'HII.K.  one  of  the  most  ueeoni- 
plishicl  lit  reiciit  French  poets  and  prose  \vritc|-s, 
was  liorii  at  Tarlics,  .\u^;ust  ;il,  1811,  and  educated 
at  the  jjramiiiarschool  of  his  native  town,  and  after- 
wards at  the  Collc^'e  (_'harleiiia;,'nc  in  I'aris.  He 
applied  himself  at  lii'st,  lint  without  much  success, 
to  paintin',',  turned  to  literature,  and  attracted  the 
notice  of  S.aintelieuve  at  eijjliteen  liy  the  styh?  of 
sever.-il  e.s.says,  the  results  of  his  studies  in  the 
earlier  I'rench  literature.  He  soon  attached  him- 
self to  the  seliool  of  Victor  llu^;o,  and  outdid  all  the 
other  romanticists  in  the  extrava^'ance  of  his  admir- 
ation and  |iartisanship.  llis  belief  in  the  '  poet  of 
the  wind,  the  .sea,  and  the  sky  '  was  the  one  serious 
lielief  of  his  life.  In  18:«)  lie  puhlished  his  lii-st 
Ion;;  poem,  A/hirtiix,  an  e.xtiava^antly  iiicture.s<|ue 
legend,  full  of  the  promise  of  his  later  llexMiility  of 
diction,  followed  in  IS.fJ  liy  the  strikin;;  Ciniiiilir  de 
lit  Mull,  liut  llis  poetry  did  not  reach  its  lii^diest 
point  till  the  kimtiir  el  Ciiiiue.i{  18.">lj).  In  IKMy  ap- 
peared llis  celelirated  novel,  Madi.moi.scllc  dr  Mini- 
pin,  with  its  deliant  preface,  which  wa-s  taken 
seriously  liy  the  critics,  iiistciul  of  liein;;  re;.'arde<l 
as  merely  the  escapade  of  an  unscrupulously  clever 
youlli,  and  the  advertisement  of  a  pulilislier  who 
wanted  a  '  sensational '  novel.  He  wrote  many 
other  novels  and  shorter  stories,  the  chief  being 
Les  Jciinc- France  (18:J3),  Furlunio  (1838),  Unc 
Lannc  dii  Diahic  (1839),  Militona  (1847),  I.a  I'eau 
de  Tiifix  (18.52),  Jcllalina  (1857),  Le  Vapitainc 
Franusc  (I8(i3),  I.ii  liilli-  ./chh// ( 18(i5).  and  Spirili- 
( 186(5).  Merimee  alone  contests  with  him  the  palm 
as  the  prince  of  writers  of  short  stories.  He  was 
drawn  early  to  the  lucrative  task  of  finilUton 
writing,  ami  for  more  than  thirty  years  contriliuted 
to  the  I'aris  newspapers  criticisms  on  the  theatre 
and  on  the  salon.  The  lii-st  half  of  his  theatrical 
critieisnis  were  collected  in  18.59  in  6  volumes, 
under  the  ambitious  title  of  I.'lli.stoirc  dc  I'Arl 
Jlranialiiine  en  France  :  his  accounts  of  the  Salon, 
which  have  yet  to  be  republished,  form  perhajis  the 
best  history,"  if  the  least  didactic,  of  the  French  art 
of  his  day.  His  leisure  he  devoted  to  travels  in  Spain, 
Holland,  Turkey.  England.  Algeria,  and  Ku.s.sia,  of 
which  he  published  characteristic  accounts  in  his 
Caprices  ct  Ziiizuijx,  Cnnnlantinuple,  Voi/ai/r  en 
Hun-fie,  and  Vui/diie  en  Esparjne,  ailmiralile  feats  of 
descrijition,  relating  solely  to  the  look  of  the  coun- 
tries visited,  not  at  all  to  their  institutions,  yet 
fomiing  perhaps  the  most  delightful  iMioks  of  travel 
in  existence,  (lautier  died  in  Paris,  t)etolier  23, 
1872.  Other  works  were  an  enlarged  edition  of  his 
inimitable  ^nnni.r  et  Canii^cs  ( 1872) :  Leu  (jrulciijucs 
(1844),  on  the  writers  of  the  16tli  and  17tli  cen- 
turies ;  llonore  de  hidziir  (  18.58)  :  Meiiaf/rrir  hilinie 
(1869),  a  kind  of  informal  autobiography  ;  Uintuirc 


du  Uomantimne  (1872);  and  the  |Mistlmnious 
works,  I'vrlraits ct  Sonrrnirn  Litlfrairrx  ( 187.5),  and 
L^itrienl  (  1H77).  tiautier's  name  has  become  a  kind 
of  watchwiiril  and  battle-cry.  \\  ritei>  with  more 
enthusiiLsm  than  good  sense  have  niade  him  an  idol, 
and  elevated  the  paradoxes  of  his  .sci'pticism  into  a 
theory  of  life,  while  the  sturdy  moralists  of  the  press 
use  his  name  a.s  a  synonym  for  everything  in  art 
that  is  eil'emin.ite,  and  for  all  the  allecl.ilioiis  of  the 
boudoir  poet jistei.  The  truth  is  that  (lantier  wius 
noihing  greater  or  less  than  a  consummate  artist 
in  pro.se  and  vei>e.  He  is  neither  moral  nor  ini. 
moral  ;  has  ab.solutely  no  lixed  faith  of  any  sort, 
except  in  the  ]ile,i.santne.ss  of  plea-sant  impressions, 
holding  even  his  nsthetic  priiiei|iles  with  goiHl- 
Inimoured  laxit.v.  llis  whole  oliilosupliy  is  a  philo- 
sophy of  paradox,  bis  ideal  of  life  hardly  more  than 
a  pictniesipie  viciousne.ss.  His  besetting  sin  wiis  a 
chilillsli  desire  to  say  something  clever  and  wicked 
to  shock   the    I'hilistines.      He  himself   never  ex- 

Iiected  his  lewd  romance  to  be  taken  seriously,  to 
)e  adopted  !is  the  gospel  of  a  school,  and  charac- 
terised with  giave  aUsiirditv  ;us  '  the  golden  book  of 
sliiiit  and  sense.'  See  collections  of  remiiii.siences 
by  Feydeau  (1874)  and  Iteigeiat  ( 187.^ )  :  Henry 
James's  Frcnvh  I'uels  niui  Nunlists  (1878);  and 
the  monograph  by  Maxinie  du  Cani]i  (1890). 

4>ailZ0.  a  light  transparent  silk  fabric.  sujipiLsed 

to  have  derived   its   name  from    having  lirsl   been 

nianufactured  in  ( Jaza,  a  city  of  I'alcstine.      France 

j  and    Switzerland    produce    large    iinantities.      The 

openne.s.s  of  texture  is  obtained  by  crossing  the  warp 

threads   iH'tween  each    thread    of   the  weft,  so  tli.it 

'■  the  weft  pa.sses  through  a  succession  of  loops  in  the 

j  warp,  and  the  thicads  are  thus  kept  apart,  without 

!  the   liability   to   sliding   from    their  places,   which 

]  would  take   place  if  Hini])le  weaving  were  left  so 

loose  and  o|ien.      It  is  used  for  dre.ss  ]iurpo.scs,  and 

largely  also  for  sifting  Hour.     What  is  made  for  the 

latter   puri>o.se   is  sometimes   called    bolting-cloth. 

The   cotton   fabric   leiio  hius   the  same  structure  ius 

gauze.      Cheap  textiles  of  the  nature  of  gauze  are 

used  for  the  skirts  ol   ballet  girls.      For  wire  gauze, 

»CC  S.VFliTV-L.\MI",  WlltE. 

C>avarili,  PaiM,,  a  French  caricaturist  whose 
proper  name  wjis  Sulpice  (iuillauiiie  Chevalier, 
wxs  Ikuii  at  Paris  in  1801.  and  started  life  a-s  a 
mcchaniuil  engineer.  i>ul,  being  a  skilful  draughts- 
man, he  abandoned  engine-making  to  become  a 
caricaturist  for  /,t.v  (Icnn  du  Mi/ndt ,  and  after- 
wards for  I,c  Cliiiriniri.  During  the  early  jiart 
of  his  career  he  ridiculed  the  follies,  vices,  and 
h:ibits  of  the  citizens  of  Paris  with  a  sort  of  good- 
humoured  irony  ;  but  later  in  life  a  deeper  earnest- 
ness, and  .sometiiiie.s  even  bitterne.ss,  showed  itself 
in  the  productions  of  his  jiencil.  This  tendency 
was  greatly  strengthened  by  a  visit  to  London  in 
1849,  and  from  that  date  he  reproduced  in  the 
newspaper  L'llliiatridiun  the  scenes  of  misery 
and  degradation  be  had  witnessed  in  the  Engli.sh 
capital.  liavanii  al.so  illustrated  several  books, 
the  most  notable  being  Sni-'s  ./»//  Erriinl,  lialzae's 
works,  the  French  translation  of  Hodiiiann's  tales, 
\c.  He  died  at  Auteuil,  near  Paris,  23d  November 
1866.  A  collection  of  his  drawings,  engraved  on 
wood,  appeared  at  Paris,  under  the  title  of  (Jinrrrx 
C/iiiixieji,  with  text  by  .Janiii.  (lautier,  lialzac,  and 
others  (4  vols.  1845  48).  This  Wiis  followed  by 
a  second  collection,  I'crlcjicI  I'arurcn {2  vols.  1850). 

davazzi.  ALii.s.sANDKO,  a  iiopular  Italian 
preacher  and  reformer,  w:is  born  at  Itologna  in 
1809.  He  became  a  monk  of  the  Harnabite  iirder, 
and  was  ajipointed  ]irofessor  of  Klietoric  at  Naples, 
where  he  s|ieedily  aci|uireil  great  reputation  ius  an 
orator.  On  the  accession  of  Pius  I. '\.  to  the  papal 
chair.  Cavazzi  w;us  one  of  the  foremost  sujiporters 
of  the  lilieral  policy  that  inaugurated  that  pontitrs 


GAVELKIND 


GAY 


Hi 


i;; 


rein^i  ;  ami  liavini^  ie|)aire<I  to  Konie,  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  diffusion  of  political  enlightenment 
and  patriotic  aspirations  amonj;  the  masses  of  the 
Koman  population.  The  pope  sanctioned  his 
iiilitieal  laliours.  and  appointeil  him  almoner  of  a 
Hidy  of  1I>,00()  Koman  troops.  On  the  estahlisli- 
meiit  of  tlie  republic  at  Home,  he  was  appointed 
almoner-incliief  to  the  national  army.  Under 
his  superintendence,  efficient  military  hospitals 
were  orftanised.  Kome  havini;  fallen,  (iavazzi 
escaped  to  England,  where  he  delivered  addresses 
and  lectures.  He  separated  from  the  Catholic 
Cliurcli,  and  was  for  the  rest  of  his  life  a  strenu- 
ously anti-papal  advocate.  From  Scotland  the 
Italian  orator  proceeded  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  was  rather  coldly  received  ;  and  when 
he  went  to  Canad.a  his  public  appearances,  on 
more  than  one  occasion,  nearly  cau.sed  a  riot. 
Gavazzi  was  present  with  (iaribaldi  at  Palermo 
during  the  expedition  of  1860.  He  again  visited 
London  in  1S70;  and  after  that  repeatedly  visited 
England  and  Scotland,  preaching  and  lecturing  in 
aid  of  the  (  Protestant)  Italian  Free  Church  {Libera 
Chir.sa),  of  which  he  was  a  prominent  leader.  He 
died  9tli  January  1.S89. 

(liavelkind.  The  origin  of  this  legal  term  is 
involved  in  some  i>bscurity,  and  more  than  one 
derivation  has  been  given.  Lord  Coke's  opinion 
was  that  it  was  derived  from  dace  all  Iciiide  (Tent. 
qifeal  ci/ii ),  meaning  the  custom  which  gives  right 
of  succession  in  land  to  all  children  erjuallj'.  The 
better  opinion,  however,  seems  to  be  that  it  is 
(lerivcil  from  the  Saxon  word  </«(•<;/  (or  nafol). 
which  signifies  rent  or  customary  services  m  lieu 
thereof,  and  kind — i.e.  nature  or  quality.  Thus 
gavelkind  was  used  to  express  land  which  paid  this 
kind  of  rent-service,  as  distinguished  from  the 
orilinary  feudal  tenure  of  knight-service.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  Blackstone,  endorsed  by  Skeat,  that 
the  tnie  origin  of  this  custom  is  Celtic  (Irish. 
qtibhuilriiir),  while  some  recent  investigatoi's — as 
Elton  in  his  Oriiiiits  of  Eiigliili  Histoii/  (1881) — 
think  that  w^e  must  look  for  its  source  even  farther 
back  in  pre-Aryan  times. 

IJefore  10(56  gavelkind  prevaileil  all  over  England 
and  Wales  (see  Stephen's  Com.  i.  21.3),  hut  with  the 
Norman  Coni|uest  came  feudal  laws,  and  the  right 
of  primogeniture  took  its  place.  At  the  i)resent 
day  it  survives  only  in  the  county  of  Kent  and  a 
few  isolated  places  in  England.  It  wa-s  specially 
abolishe<l  as  regards  Wales  by  34  ami  .3.5  Henry 
VIII.  chap.  26.  In  Kent,  however,  the  cHst<un  is 
so  univei-sal  that  it  is  presumed  by  the  courts  of 
law  to  exist  in  any  question  afi'ecting  Kentish 
lands,  and  it  is  necessary  in  such  case  to  plead  that  [ 
the  lands  have  been  disgavelled  by  special  act  of  1 
parliament.  The  rea.son  why  the  county  of  Kent 
sho\ild  have  l>een  permitted  to  retain  this  ancient 
tenure  as  one  of  its  •  liberties,'  in  view  of  the  almost 
universal  introiluction  of  feiidal  rules  into  the  rest 
of  Knglaiid,  is  not  clear.  There  is  an  exjjlanation 
of  a  legend.uy  character  that  William  the  Cim- 
(jueror  owed  his  life  to  some  Kentish  men,  who 
immediatidy  after  the  battle  of  Hastings  surrounded 
him  with  Ixnigbs  so  as  to  form  a.  sort  of  moving 
wood,  and  that  he  out  of  gratitude  thereupon  con- 
firmed their  ancient  rights  to  them  and  tlieir 
fellows. 

The  main  characteristic  of  the  tenure  of  gavel- 
kinil  is  that  succession  to  the  lanil  p.usses  in  the 
right  line  to  all  the  sons  equally  and  not  to  the 
eldest  .son.  Failing  sons,  it  goes  to  all  the 
daughtei-s  as  heirs-portioners.  Further,  the  right 
of  representation  takes  place,  so  that,  if  one  of 
several  sims  should  die,  his  issue  (daughters  in  this 
event  equally  with  sons)  take  in  his  pl.ace. 
Successiiui  in  the  collateral  line  is  similar  ;  for,  if 
one   brother  die,   the  succe.ssion   passes  to   .all   his 


brothers  equally  and  their  i.«sne7«re  reprcsentationii. 
In  addition  to  these  peculiarities  in  the  matter  of 
succession,  the  following  features  of  gavelkinil 
tenure  may  be  notice<l  :  (  1 )  A  wi/e  takes  by  way  of 
dower  one-half  instead  of  one-third  of  the  land,  ami 
a  husband  becomes  tenant  by  courtesy  of  one-half 
of  the  land  (whether  issue  have  been  born  or  not) 
so  long  as  he  remains  unmarried  ;  (2)  the  tenant  is 
of  age  sufficient  to  make  a  contract  or  alienate  his 
estate  by  feoliment  at  the  age  of  fifteen:  (.3)  the 
gavelkind  lands  did  not  formerly  escheat  in  ca.se  of 
an  attainder  for  felony,  the  maxim  being  '  the  father 
to  the  bough,  the  son  to  the  plough  :'  but  all  lands 
now  stand  in  the  same  position  in  this  respect 
(Williams,  On  Heal  Projiertij,  1.30). 

Gavestoii,  Pier.s  de.    See  Edw.vrd  II. 

(■aTial  (Garialis),  a  genus  of  reptiles  of  the 
Crocodile  (q.v. )  order,  conspicuously  ditlering  from 
true  crocodiles  and  from  alligators  in  the  great 
length  and  slenderaess  of  the  snout.  The  teeth  are 
ver>-  numerous,  about  120  ;  they  are  more  equal  in 
size  than  those  of  the  other  animals  of  this  order. 


Gavial  I  (_f'ai-HtUs  gaiiyeticits). 


The  best-known  species,  G.  qatir/etirus,  inhabits  the 
Ganges.  It  attains  a  length  of  24  feet :  hut,  owing 
to  the  slendemess  of  its  snout,  it  is  esteemed  le.ss 
dangerous  than  a  true  crocodile  of  smaller  size. 
The  gavial  feeds  chiefly  on  fishes  and  carcasses, 
and  preys  more  casually  upon  mammals.  A 
cartilaginous  swelling  at  the  extremity  of  the 
nnizzle  seems  to  have  given  rise  to  .Klians  state- 
ment that  the  crocodile  of  the  Ganges  hail  a  horn 
at  the  ti])  of  its  snout.  In  some  parts — e.g. 
Malabar,  the  gavial  is  held  sacred,  worshipped, 
and  petted.  A  smaller  species  from  Borneo  and 
Java  is  distinguished  ius  G.  schlegelii.  See  Croco- 
dile. 

Gavotte,  a  French  dance  of  a  lively  yet 
dignified  character.  The  name  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  the  Gavots,  the  people  of  the  paiis 
ilf  liiij).  Tile  music  is  in  common  time,  inotlerately 
quick,  and  always  begins  on  the  third  heat  of  the 
bar :  each  of  the  two  sections  of  which  it  consists 
is  usually  repeated.  It  is  frequently  introduced  in 
the  suites  (.see  SUITE)  of  the  elder  classical  com- 
posers (Bach,  &e. ):  and  recent  imitations  of  this 
and  other  ohl  dances  are  so  numerous  as  to  be- 
come wearisome. 

Gay,  John,  the  youngest  son  of  William  Gay 
of  Barnstaple,  was  l>orn  in  168.5.  Although  of  an 
old  family,  his  father  was  in  reduced  circumstances; 
and  tiay,  after  being  educated  at  the  local  grammar- 
school,  w.as  apprenticed  to  a  London  silk-mercer. 
Disliking  this  occu|>ati(m,  he  soon  abandoned  it, 
.ami.  having  spent  some  months  .at  home,  returned 
to  London  to  live  by  letters.  In  1708  he  published 
bis  first  poem.    Wine,  in  blank  vei-se,  and  in   1711 


lis 


GAYA 


GAY-LUSSAC 


an  aiiDnyiiioiiH  painplilet,  called  the  Present  State 
iif  \VU.  "  Hy  tliix  tiiiM'  In;  Imil  niado  the  aoquaint- 
.iiice  of  I'olu',  Id  whoiij  in  ITl.'i  In-  ik'diciitiMl  a 
L,'<"orj;ie,  Itnrul  S/mrl.t.  i/Uo  in  the  previims  year 
111'  had  Ix'cn  ap|"diiteil  secretary  to  the  l)iielie!(.s  of 
Monmouth.  In  ITU  he  hrou^tht  out  The  Fan,  and 
following;  this,  'J'/ir  Slicphrnl's  W'rel:,  aeonlrilmtion 
;<)  I'o]ie's  erusade  aj;ainst  Anihrose  Philips.  Suh 
sequently,  resi^jninj;  his  post  with  tlie  Duclie.ss 
of  Monmo\itli,  he  aeeinniianied  Lord  ('larendon, 
then  envoy  to  Hanover,  as  secretary.  At  Annes 
deatli  he  was  a^'ain  in  I,on(h)n,  endeavourin;,'  to 
conciliate  fortune  hy  an  eiiisth?  to  the  newly- 
arrived  Princess  of  W'ales.  His  next  efl'ort  wjus  the 
What  it' i/c  ('till  It!  'a  trasi-conii-i)astoral  farce' 
(lilj).  Tririd,  a  clever  ]iicture  of  town  life  from 
a  ])edestrian's  jioint  of  view,  for  which  Swift 
suiiplicd  hints,  came  next :  and  later  he  hore  the 
hlanie  of  'ilirrr  llinirs  (ij'irr  Miirn'iii/r  (1717),  a 
play  in  which  I'lipe  and  Arliuthiiot  had  the  lar^;er 
part.  In  17'i()  lie  piildished  his  iioenis  hy  suli- 
scription,  clearin;;  £1000.  With  this  his  friends 
hoped  he  would  have  niiide  some  jirovisioii  for  the 
future,  hut  it  apparently  vanished,  as  ilid  also  some 
Scmtli  Sea  stock  which  had  hei'ii  iircsented  to  him.  j 
in  the  crash  of  1720.  In  1724  lie  ]iroilncid  /'he 
Captivex,  a  tra;;edy,  and  three  years  afterwards  the 
first  series  (if  his  popular /Vf/j/cv.  Ihil  his  j,'reate.st 
success  was  T/ir  Jlii/ifitr'.i  O/iira,  the  outcome  of  a 
suggestion  for  a  '  Newgate  jiastoral '  made  hy 
Swift  as  far  hack  iis  ITHi.  Us  popularity  was 
extraordinary  ;  it  ran  sixty-two  ni^'hts,  };ave 
cidelirity  to  its  actors,  and,  in  the  ]mpiilar  ]ihrasc, 
made  Kicli  (the  iiiana;,'er)  t,'ay.  and  (iav  (the 
author)  rich,  liv  tin-  thirty  sixth  nij,dil  he  had 
netted  helween  £700  and  £S00  :  and  he  forthwith 
set  ahout  a  seiiuel,  J'ull;/,  wliich  was  ju-ohiliited. 
This  step  only  served  to  f,'ive  the  |)lay  a  ;;reater 
sale  in  hook  form,  and  the  siihscrijitions  hrouf;lit 
(lay  £1200.  After  this  he  livcil  cliiclly  with  the 
DuKe  and  Duchess  of  (^ueenshcrry,  who  since  1720 
hail  heen  the  kimlest  of  his  many  patrons.  In 
1732  he  came  from  their  house  to  London,  jtroliahly 
in  connection  with  his  o|iera  of  ArhUlfs  (proiliiced 
in  1733),  wjvs  seized  with  an  inllammatorv  fever, 
and  died  in  three  days  (4th  Decemher  1732).  He 
was  huried  in  Westminster  .\hhev  'as  if  he  had 
heen  a  peer  of  the  ri'alni,' 

As  ,a  man  (lay  was  aniialile.  indolent,  and 
luxurious.  His  health  was  had,  and  he  w.usted  his 
life  in  vain  hopes  of  preferment.  Hut  no  man 
made  kinder  friends  :  and  that  Ik;  retained  them  is 
proof  of  his  personal  charm.  His  Fiilihs  have  still 
a  faint  vitality  :  folklorisls  and  antiijuaries  still 
stuily  Trirlti  and  Tla-  Slirjiliiril'.t  llvr/,-,  and 
ISth-century  specialists  d(di;;ht  in  the  chronicle  of 
his  two  haliad  operas.  On  the  whole,  however,  his 
iioetical  reputation  has  not  heen  mainlaiiieil.  Hut 
lie  was  a  charming  son;;  writer,  and  will  perhajis 
last  longest  hy  his  haliad  of  '  Itlack-eyed  Susan.' 
The  hest  ])ortrait  of  him  is  hy  Kneller's  pupil, 
William  Aikman. 

Stc  the  edition  of  the  Poetical  Woj-ks  by  Underhill 
( 2  vols.  1893 )  iind  his  edition  of  the  Letters  and  Prose 
Writings  (Muses  Library). 

4i!aya<  chief  town  of  a  district  in  IJengal,  57 
miles  S.  of  Fatna  hy  rail.  It  is  a  place  of  the 
greatest  sanctity,  from  its  a.ssociations  with  the 
founder  of  Itiiddhism,  and  is  annually  visited  hy 
ahout  l(KI,000  Hindu  pilgrims,  who  pray  for  the  souls 
of  their  anceslois  at  the  forty-live  sacred  shrines 
within  and  without  the  walls.  In  (lava  iirojier 
the  lirahmans  resiih^ ;  adjoining  is  Sahihganj,  the 
trading  and  ollicial  (luarter.  Six  miles  .south  is 
the  village  of  Ihiddha  tJaya,  the  home  <if  Buddha, 
with  a  famous  temple  and  pipal  tree  (see  IJUDOHI.SM, 
)..  517).  Joint  pop.  (ISill)  S(),3«3.— tiaya  is  also 
the  name  of  the  wine  suhiuh  of  Oporto  (([.v. ). 


Gayal  (Itibos  frontalis),  a  species  of  ox,  which 
is  found  wilil  in  the  mountains  of  Aracan,  Chit- 
tagong.  Tipuia,  and  Sylhil,  and  which  has  long 
heen  doniesticaled  in  these  countries  and  in  the 
eivstern  ]iart«  of  Itengal.  It  is  ahout  the  size  of 
the  Indian  liuH'alo,  is  dark  hrown,  and  hiu<  short 
ciir\'cil  horns. 

(■ay-lilissac.  Lm  is  diisi':i'ii.  chemist  and 
physicist,  wxs  horn  (itii  Decemher  177S,  at  Si 
l.eonard  (Haute  Vieniie).  Kntcring  the  Poly- 
technic School  in  I7!t7,  he  wjls  in  ISOl  promoted  to 
the  department  of  Pouts  et  (  haiissies  ;  and  shortly 
afterwards  liertholh^t  scdected  him  :is  his  a.ssistant 
in  the  government  chemical  works  at  Arciieil.  He 
now  hegan  a  series  of  original  researclaw  on  the 
ililatation  of  giuses,  the  tension  of  vapours,  the 
imjirovement  of  therniometers  and  haromelers,  tlie 
ileiisity  of  vapours,  hygromitry,  eva|ioiation,  and 
capillary  action.  Next,  lirsl  with  IJiol.  and  a 
month  later  alone,  he  iiiade  two  halloon  ascents  for 
the  jiurpose  of  investigating  tli<^  temperature  and 
moisture  of  the  air  and  the  laws  of  terrestrial  niag- 
netism.  Along  with  Alexander  von  llumholdt  he 
analy.sed  the  properties  of  air  hrought  ilown  from 
a  height  of  nearly  23,(«H»  feet,  and  their  joint 
memoir  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  (read  1st 
Octidier  1S04)  contained  the  lirst  announcement 
of  the  fact  that  oxygen  and  hydrogen  unite  to  form 
water  in  the  iirojiortion  of  one  volume  of  the  former 
to  two  volumes  of  the  latter  (see  AliiMti:  TllKiiKY). 
This  result  induced  him  to  study  tli'.'  comhining 
volumes  of  other  giLses.  and  thus  led  him  to  the 
im|ioitant  di.scovery  of  the  hnr  «/'  ruhiiiiis.  wliioli 
was  announced  in  IHOK.  A  year  later  he  W(ys 
ap]Mii?iteil  inolV.ssor  of  Chemistry  at  the  Polytechnic 
Schoid,  and  from  lH32also  tilled  the  corresponding 
chair  in  the  dardin  des  Plantes.  Davys  di.sci)veriej< 
of  ]iotassiuni  and  sodium,  hy  the  deconiiiosing 
action  of  the  voltaic  jiile.  stimulated  (lay-Lussac 
and  Thenard  to  ]iur.sui-  this  cla-ss  of  researches. 
The  results  aiipeared  in  their  Rnhirihrs  J'/iifxiro- 
rluiiilipics  (2  vols.  IHll),  .Amongst  the  most  ini- 
]iortant  of  the  discoveries  announced  in  tluwe 
volumes  were  a  purely  (diemieal  ])roce.ss  for  obtain 
ing  pota-ssium  directly,  the  separation  of  iMiroii 
from  Ixiracic  acid,  and  new  and  improved  methods 
of  analysing  organic  comiioiinds.  (  Uoron  was. 
however,  simultaneously  discovereil  in  Kngland 
hy  Davy.)  Although  the  discovery  of  iodine 
(in  1811)  is  due  to  tlonrtois,  (!ay-Lussac  shares 
with  Davy  the  merit  of  having  (in  1HI3)  first 
de.sciihed    its    distinctive    luoperties,    and    proved 

that  it  is  an   ele iilary   liody  :    h<^  was  also  the 

first  to  form  synthetically  the  compounds  of  iodine 
with  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  known  as  hydriodic 
and  iodic  acids.  In  1SI5  he  succeeded  in  isolating 
the  compound  radii  le  Cyanogen  (ij.v.).  the  lii^t 
known  example  of  a  com]iound  body  which  will 
unite  with  elementary  bodies  in  the  same  way 
as  these  unite  with  one  another.  Later  in  life  he 
exjierimented  upon  fermentation,  and  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Liebig  made  an  examination  of  fiilminic 
acid,  and  furtbi-i  improved  the  methods  of  (iiganic 
analysis.  Krom  this  timi^  a  good  ihsal  of  his  attcn- 
ticm  was  given  to  the  practical  application.s  of 
cliemistry.  In  this  department  his  investigations 
regarding  the  manufacture  of  suliihiirie  acid  (which 
led  to  the  introduction  of  the  Oay-Lussac  tower, 
(irst  erected  hy  him  for  the  recovery  of  wiuste  oxides 
of  nitrogen),  liis  es.says  on  the  bleaching  chlorides, 
his  method  of  using  the  centesimal  alcoholometer, 
and  his  ini]>roveinents  in  a-ssaying  silver  by  the 
wet  method  hy  means  of  a  standard  solution  of 
emninon  salt,  are  the  most  important.  In  l.S()5  he 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Arts 
and  Manufactures,  established  by  tin.'  minister  of 
Commerce,  in  IHIS  superinteinlent  of  the  govern- 
ment manufactory  of  gunpowder  anil  saltiietre,  and 


GAZA 


GAZETTEER 


119 


in  1829  chief  assayer  to  the  mint.  In  1839  he  was 
made  a  peer  of  France.  From  the  year  1816  he 
was  the  editor,  in  as.sociation  with  Arafjo,  of  the 
Aiiiialcs  dc  Chiviic  et  dc  Fliysiqne.  He  died  at 
Paris,  9th  May  1850.  As  a  clieniist  (Jay-Lussac  is 
distinf^nislied  by  great  accuracy,  descriptive  clear- 
ness, and  undoubted  genius.  A  complete  list  of 
his  ]iapers  is  given  in  tlie  Koyal  Society  s  catalogue. 
His  hirger  works,  besides  that  already  mentioned, 
include  Mcmoires  sur  I' Analyse  dc  I' Air  Atmo- 
spluriquc  (1804),  fours  de  I'/ii/sitjiie  (1827),  and 
Lerons  de  Chiinie  ( 1828). 

(■aZil  (now  called  Guzzeh),  one  of  the  five  chief 
cities  of  the  ancient  Pliilistines,  situated  in  tlio 
south-west  of  Palestine,  about  tliree  miles  from  tlie 
sea,  on  the  borders  of  the  desert  which  sei)arates 
Palestine  from  Egypt.  It  is  often  mentioned  in 
the  liistory  of  Samson,  and  was  the  scene  of 
constant  struggles  between  the  Israelites  and  the 
Pliilistines.  In  33.S  B.C.  it  was  taken  after  a  live 
months'  sie^e  by  Alexander  tlie  Great,  and  from 
that  time  down  to  1799,  when  the  French  under 
Kleher  cajitured  it,  it  witnessed  the  victories  of  the 
Maccabees,  the  Calif  Abu-bekr,  the  Templars,  and 
the  heroic  Saladin.  Constantine  the  Great,  who 
rebuilt  the  town,  made  it  the  seat  of  a  bisho|i. 
The  modern  Guzzeh  is  a  scattered  group  of  vil- 
lages.    Pop.  16,000. 

Gaza,  or  Gaza-Land,  a  large  Portuguese  terri- 
tory in  South-East  Africa,  between  Sofala  and  the 
Transvaal.  Much  of  the  land  is  fertile  ;  the  in- 
habitants are  IJantus. 

Gaza,  Theodoru.S,  Greek  scholar,  was  bom  at 
Thessalonica  in  1398,  fled  about  1444  before  the 
Turks  to  Italy,  where  be  became  teacher  of  Greek  at 
Ferrara,  next  of  piiilosophy  at  Rome.  After  the 
death  of  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  King  Alfonso  invited  him 
to  Naples;  but  the  death  of  this  new  patron  two 
years  later  drove  him  back  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
befriended  l)v  Cardinal  Bessarion,  who  obtained  for 
him  a  small  nenefiee  in  Calabria.  There  he  died  in 
1478.  Gaza  has  been  warmly  praised  by  subseiiuent 
scholars,  such  as  Politian,  Erasmus,  Scaliger, 
and  Mclanchthon.  His  principal  work  was  ,a  Greek 
gramm.ir  in  four  books,  lirst  i)ublished  by  Aldus 
Manutius  at  Venice  in  149.5.  He  translated  into 
Jjiitin  [lortions  of  Aristotle,  Theophrastus,  St  Chrys- 
ostoni,  Hippocrates,  and  other  Greek  writers. 

Gazelle  is  a  name  given  to  some  twenty  dif- 
ferent species  of  antelopes,  which  difl'er  from  each 
other  principally  in  the  form  of  curvature  of 
the  horns,  in  the  presence  or  absence  of  horns  in 
the  female,  and  in  the  colour.  The  true  g/izelle 
{<!ti~rllii  Dorcdn)  is  a  species  .about  the  size  of 
a  roebuck,  but  of  lighter  and  more  graceful  form, 
with  longer  and  more  slender  limbs,  in  these 
respects  exhibiting  the  typical  characters  of  the 
antelopes  in  their  highest  perfection.  It  is  of  a 
light  tawny  colour,  the  under  parts  white  ;  a  broad 
brown  band  along  each  llaiik  ;  the  liair  short  and 
smooth.  The  face  is  red<lish  fawn-colour,  with 
white  and  <lark  stripes.  The  horns  of  the  old 
males  are  9  or  10  inches  long,  liending  outward  ami 
then  inward,  like  the  siiles  of  a  lyre,  also  back- 
ward at  the  base  anil  forward  at  the  tips,  tapering 
to  a  point,  surrounded  by  thirteen  <ir  fnurtccii 
permanent  rings,  the  rings  near  the  base  being 
closest  togetlier  and  most  perfect.  The  horns 
of  the  female  are  smaller  and  obscurely  ringed. 
The  ears  are  long,  narrow,  and  pointed  ;  the  eyes 
very  large,  soft,  and  black;  there  is  a  tuft  of  liair 
on  each  knee;  the  tail  is  short,  with  black  hairs 
on  its  upper  -surface  only,  and  at  its  tip.  The 
gazelle  is  a  native  of  tlie  north  of  Africa,  and  of 
Syria,  Araliia,  and  Persia.  Great  herds  of  gazelles 
frei|uent  the  nortljern  borders  of  the  Sahara;  and 
notwithstanding  their  great  speed,  anil  the  resist- 


ance which  tliey  are  cajiable  of  making  when 
compelled  to  stand  at  bay — the  herd  closing  to- 
gether with  the  females  and  young  in  the?  centre, 
and  the  males  presenting  their  horns  all  around — 
liims  and  pantbei'S  destroy  them  in  great  numbers. 
The  speed  of  the  gazelle  is  such  that  it  cannot  be 
successfully  hunted  by  any  kind  of  dog,  but  in 
some  parts  of  the  East  it  is  taken  with  the  assistance 
of  falcons  of  a  small  species,  which  fasten  on  its 
head,  and  by  the  flapping  of  their  Mings  blind  and 
confuse  it,  so  that  it  soon  falls  a  prey  to  tlii'  hunter. 


GazfUa  Granti. 

It  is  also  captured  in  enclosures  made  near  its 
drinking-places.  Although  naturally  very  wild 
and  timid,  it  is  easily  domesticated,  and,  when 
taken  young,  becomes  extremely  familiar.  Tame 
gazelles  are  very  common  in  the  Asiatic  countries 
of  which  the  species  is  a  native  ;  .and  the  poetry  of 
these  countries  abounds  in  allusions  both  to  the 
beauty  and  the  gentleness  of  the  gazelle. — Some 
cimfusion  has  arisen  among  naturalists  as  to  the 
ap]plication  of  the  name  gazelle,  originally  Arabic  ; 
and  it  has  not  only  been  given  to  the  /eucori/x  of 
the  ancients,  a  very  ditVerent  sjiecies,  but  even  to 
the  gcmn/joc  of  South  Africa.  '1  he  true  gazelle  was 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  is  accurately  describeil 
by  /Elian  under  the  name  dorcax,  which  was  also 
given  to  the  roe. 

Gazette,  an  abstract  of  news,  ,a  newsjiaper. 
The  word  is  derived,  through  the  medium  of  French, 
from  Italian  r/azzctta,  '  a  gazette,'  which  may  have 
been  originally  a  mere  diminutive  of  f/ccza,  '  mag- 
pie,'with  the  sense  of  'gossi]),  tittle-tattle  ;'  or,  with 
greater  likelihood,  gazzcttii,  'a  small  coin'  ((!r. 
f/dzn,  'a  treasury,'  a  word  ultimately  of  Persian 
origin),  the  sum  charged  for  a  reading  of  the 
first  Venetian  newsjKqicr,  which  apjieared  about 
l."),36.  The  London  (!iizrt/r  is  an  oHicial  organ,  the 
pro]ierty  of  the  government.  It  was  founded  in  j 
UiO.'i,  and  aii|iears  twice  a  week.  It  is  recognised 
by  law  as  the  medium  of  official  and  legal  announce- 
ments, as  also  of  many  intimations  with  regard  to 
]iiivate  transactions  which  are  re(|iiired  by  law  to 
be  thus  published,  such  as  trust  ilecds  for  creditors. 
Similar  otlicial  gazettes  are  published  at  Edin- 
burgh and  Dublin.  To  be  '  put  in  the  gazette  '  is  in 
Kritain  a  ]io]iular  synonym  lor  becoming  bankrupt. 

Gazetteer  is  in  modern  English  a  geograidiical 
or  topographical  dictionary,  or  alphabetical  arrange- 
ment of  place-names,  with  a  more  or  less  abund- 
ant complement  of  information,  descriptive,  statis- 
tical, and  historical.  The  word  (like  the  corre- 
spcmding  French  (jazHier)  w.as  familiar  in  the  ISth 
century  in  the  sense  of  a  writer  in  the  gazettes  or 
newspapers.  That  imlustrions  conijiiler.  Laurence 
Echard   or  Eachard,   published  in  1703  Tke  Gazet- 


120 


GAZETTEER 


GECKO 


leer's  or  Neirsman's  Interpreter,  being  a  geo^raphieal 
index  of  all  the  eonsiilerable  Cities,  I'nlriarelishins 
.  .  .  Ports,  Forts,  Cdstles,  <{•<•.  ('«  Europe.  '  Tiie 
Title,'  lie  says,  '  was  i;ivrn  iiio  tiy  a  vprv  Piiiinont 
perxoii  whom  I  forlwar  to  iiaiiii'.'  In  llie  pn-face 
to  the  siH'oiiil  part  (  1701).  rchitiiij;  to  Asia,  Afiini, 
and  America,  ho  refers  to  liis  book  hrielly  as  'J'lie 
({azcttrer.  dther  eoiiipih-rs  soon  .i<hipte<l  the  con- 
venient alihrevi.ition.  The  word  wius  new,  Imt  tlie 
thinjr  was  of  ancient  date— e.};.  we  still  have  con- 
siderable frai;nients  of  the  (itiicentury  j,'eo},'rapliical 
dictionary  of  Stephanus  Uyzantius. 

Geni-rtil  (luzdlttrit.  — Tin.-  ideally  perfect  gazett^-or  wcmlil 
be  one  in  wliich  every  iilace-nauie  in  the  world  was  regis- 
tered and  its  history  recorded.  To  arty  one  who  know:* 
what  this  would  mean,  tlie  most  extensive  '  Universal ' 
gazetteer  must  appear  amusingly  meagre.  The  foUowini,' 
are  among  tlio  notewortliy  works  of  general  scope : 
Ferrarius,  edited  by  Baudraiid  (fol.  I'aris,  1(»701;  lirycc 
of  Exeter,  Univ.  Uco>j.  Oict.  nr  Untud  Ottzetteir  (2  vols  in 
1,  fob  Lond,  17.59:  a  remarkable  bit  of  work);  Hrooke 
(8vo,  Lond.  177.S;  Kith  ed.  1S1.5);  Walker,  edited  by 
Capper  (8vo,  Lond.  l.Sl.'i);  CVuttwell  (17iW),  afterwards 
incorporated  in  the  Eiliiihiir;ih  (•azctlcci-  (1  vol.  1H22  ;  2d 
cd.  G  vols.  182!l);  Landmann  («vo.  Lond.  \Ki,'>);  Maccul- 
loch  (1841-42);  Thomson  (8vo,  Kdin.  1842);  Fullarton 
(2.5,(XK)  names;  7  vols.  Kdin.  18."j0);  Blackie"s  Imprrinl 
(  2  vols.  Olasgow,  1850);  Johnston  ( 18.50  ;  new  ed.  1877) ; 
Lippincott,  /'lonoiincitii/  Oaz.  iif  the  ITorW  ( I'hila.  18()5  ; 
new  ed.,  with  12.5.01)0  places,  1880);  Bouillet,  Diet, 
if  Hist,  el  lie  (ieoij.  1 1857) ;  Knight's  £ne!ieli>p(riliii  (geog. 
division);  Kitter's  (Jemi.stat.  Lexikon  (2  vols.  I.«ip.  1874, 
edited  by  Henne  am  Khyii ;  new  ed.  by  Lagai,  1883); 
Saint-Martin  (4to,  Paris,  187.5  el  nf^.);  Oliver  and  JSoyd 
(8vo,  Edin.  18.S0);  Cliambert's  Cuneise  (iazdteer  of  the 
World  (8vo,  1895);  Loiuimmui  Clazettcer  of  the  World, 
edited  by  U.  T.  L'hisliolni  (4to,  London,  1895). 
Special  dtizftteers — 

Ameuic.v  (.\orth). — Amerieiin  flazcttecr  (3  vo\s.  Lond. 
1762);  Thomson  (4to,  Lond.  1812);  Davenport  (8vo, 
New  York,  1.S42);  Kidder  ( Burley's,  8vo,  Plnla.  1870); 
Colange,  U.S.  (lazMiyr  [Awn,  Cincinn.  18i<4|. 

Anciknt  Oeogr.vphv.— Ecliard  (12mo,  Lond.  1715); 
Macbcan  (8vo,  Lond.  1773);  Adam  (8vo,  Edin.  1795); 
Smith  (2  vols.  8vo,  18.52  .57). 

AtSTIl.vi.IA. — Gordon  i^  Gotch's  Australian  HantVjook, 
incorponttint/  New  Zialand,  <(r. 

Ar.sTIll.v-llL'.vc;.vuv.  —  I'nilauft,     Georj.      Namcnbueh 
{ 1885 ),  and  local  lexicons  issued  by  Statistical  Comnnssion. 
British  Empire.— Macculloch  (1837) ;  Knight  (2  vols. 
8»o,  Lond.  1853). 

CoMMERCi.vi..— Pencbet  (0  vols.  4to,  Parts,  180O);  Mac- 
culloch  (8vo,  Lond.  1832;  new  ed.  1882). 
Egypt  (Ancient). — lirngsch  (Lcip.  1877-80). 
En<;i..\NI). — Williim  Lambard  (born  1.5;W),  the  writer 
of  the  first  county  liistory,  is  also  the  author  of  the  first 
gazetteer  of  England,  though  tlie  work  did  not  ajtpear  in 
print  till  1730.  A  Uitttk  *>/  the  Ntime>t  uf  alt  J^arishts,  lir. 
(4to,  I.,ond.  1657);  .John  Adams.  Index  Villaris  (fol. 
Lonil.  ll>80);  Whatlev,  Kuiiland'n  Gazell'er  (3  vols. 
12mo,  Ix)nd.  1751);  Luckomlw  (3  vols.  12mo,  Lon<l. 
1790);  Carlisle  (2  vols.  4to,  Lond.  I80H);  Capper  (8vo, 
Lond.  18081  ;  Gorton  (3  vols.  8vo,  Lond.  1831  ;«);  Ball 
(8vo,  Glasgow,  1832);  Cobbett  (8vo.  LoinL  1832): 
Parliammlarii  Oazctteir  (4  vols.  4to,  Lund.  1S42) ;  Lewis 
(7th  ed.  4  vols.  4to,  Lond.  1S49);  Uugdale  &  Blanchard 
(8vo.  Lond.  ]8(i0)  ;  Wilson  (2  vols.  8vo,  Edin.  1800  09). 

Fr.vnce. — Few  countries,  if  any,  are  more  thoroughly 
gazetteered  than  France.  It  is  enouglt  to  mention  Gindre 
de  Nancy  (1874).  Joanne  (ild  eil.  1.S.S0),  and  the  great 
series  of  departmental  gazetteers  brought  out  by  the 
ministry  of  Public  rnstruction  (1801,  i^c). 

Germany.— Neumann,  tleoi/raphisches  Lexikon  des 
Deutsehtn  lieirht.i  (lji\\t.  1883). 

Great  Brmain.— Sliarp  (2  vols.  Lond.  1803);  Hamil- 
ton (3  vols.  4to,  Lond.  1808);  liceton  (8vo,  Lond.  1870); 
Bartholomew  (00,000  names,  8vo,  Edin.  1887);  CasselJ 
(IxJiid.  1893  el  scrj.) ;  .Mackenzie  ((ilasgow,  1893  el  set/.). 

India.— HamUton  (8vo,  Ijond.  1815);  Thornton,  Ga-. 
of  the  Countries  adjacent  to  India  on  the  N.W.  (2  vols. 
1844)  ;  Thornton,  Gaz.  of  the  Territories  under  thr  E.  I. 
Companii  (4  V"l<.  1.851 ;  1  vol.  1857,  new  ed.  by  Sir  Koper 
Lethbridge  and  A.  X.  Wollaston,  8vo.  1880);  Hunter, 
Gaz.  of  Indii  (20  vols.  8vo,  1875-77;   2d  ed.  1.885  87). 


^Numerous  gazetteers  for  the  several  states  have  been 
compiled  at  the  cost  of  the  government ;  some  of  them, 
as  that  on  Afghanistan,  are  hardly  obtainable. 

Italy. — Zuccagni  Orlandini,  t'^roi/rdjia  (15  vols-  1844, 
ic.) ;  IJepetti,  Viz.  delta  Tuseana  (0  vol's.  Flor.  18.3;{-40) ; 
Amati  (8  vols.  Flor.  18(HS,  kc.) :  Altavilla  (8vo,  Turin, 
1875). 

Ireland.- Seward  (12iiio,  DubUn,  1789);  Carlisle 
(4to,  L.mil.  1810);  Lewis  (4  to,  Lond.  18.37);  Lawson 
(12iiio,  Edin.  1842);  I'arliamentarii  Gmilterr  (3  vols. 
8vo,  Ixjiid.  1844-10);  I>cggatt  (8vo,'Lond.  1879). 

KussiA. — Scmenort",  in  Kussian  (1802-8C). 

SeoTI.AM). — Macpherson,  tStotiraphieal  Itlnstrations  of 
.Scottish  Historit,  eontaininf]  the  names  vu ntioned  in 
(%roniclis,tiC.  (4to,  Lnid.  1790) ;  Gaz'tteer  (8vo,  Dundee, 
1803;  2d  ed.  Edin.  18(Mi):  Carlisle  (2  vols.  4to,  Lond. 
1813);  Webster  (8vo,  Edin.  1817);  Chambers  (8vo, 
Edin.  1832);  Toimiraphieal  .  .  .  Ilazriteir  (2  vols.  4to, 
(.il.i.sgow,  1842):  ijomprrhensire  Gazetteer  (l2mo.  Glas- 
gow, 1840);  Wilson  (2  vols.  8vo.  Edin.  18.54-57); 
Ordnance  ilaz.  I  edited  by  F.  H.  Grooine,  3  vols.  8vo, 
Edin.  1.8.S2-85;  new  ed.  Glasgow,  1893). 

SPAIN.— Madoz  (1810  .50),  Mariana  y  Sanz  (1.><.S0). 

Sweden. — Hist.-oeoo.  L^x.  (8vo,  7  vols.  Stockholm, 
l*59-0)i);  Hosenberg'(  1881-8;?). 

SWITZERLAND.— Welier  (2ded.  188C). 

Coni]\^re  articles  cm  tlie  several  countries. 

<>a7.oK'4'iie.    See  -Vkkatei)  W.vter.s. 

4a<'UI*illSf«  '1  term  .applieil  to  the  maoliinety 
whirli  eoiiimuiiieates  motion  from  one  i>ait  of  a 
maehine  to  another,  ami  iii.av  consist  ot  toothed- 
wheels,  endless  bands.  \c.  When  the  conimniiica- 
tion  is  intenupted,  it  is  out  of  i/enr :  and  when 
restored,  in  ijeur.  SIriiifiht  t/eeiriiiif  is  used  wlien 
the  planes  of  motion  are  par.allel  ;  lierelleil  gearing, 
when  the  direction  is  ohantred.  Clearing  ni.ay  also 
be  '  mnltiplyiiif;'  or  retarding — i.e.  increasing  or 
diniinisiiing  the  original  velocity. 

4<4'lliiar4lt.  tIsKAK  vox.  was  born  at  Wesen- 
berg  in  I'.sthonia.  2'2il  .June  1844,  studied  llieidogy 
at  Dorpat,  Tiibingen,  Krlangen,  (iiittingen,  and 
Lei|>zig.  and  since  1.87.5  li.is  been  eng.aged  a.s  a 
librarian  at  Strasluirg,  Leipzig.  Halle,  (Jiittingen 
(18.S0),  and  lierlin  (  1884).  He  ha,s  edited  I'nlnem 
Apu.stolieoriim  Gperu  (with  Hariiack  and  /.ihn  ; 
3  vols.  Leip.  1875-78),  Ereingeliorutn  Voflex  Ilos- 
srincnsis  (with  Harnai-k ;  1880),  and  Texte  tind 
Uiitcrsnehungen  ziir  tle.trliie/itc  dcr  nltehri.illiehen 
I.ittertilitr  (with  Harnack;  vols.  i.-v.  1883-88). 
Since  1.88 1  he  Inus  re-edited  Tiscliendorf's  text  of 
the  New  Testament. 

Cifbira  or  Gkhkr.  T'mler  this  name  are  current 
several  works  on  alchemy  and  cheniistiv.  The 
liistory  of  the  real  author  is  so  shrondiMl  in  mystery 
tli.at  ids  existence  Ii;ls  been  clenied,  and  tiebir 
looked  uiion  as  a  mythical  personage.  He  is 
usually  iiientifie<l  with  Jabir  ihn  Haijaii,  a  cele- 
brated Arabic  alchemist  in  the  8tli  century.  His 
liirlhiilace  is  given  dill'erently  as  Harian  in  Me.so- 
(lotamia,  Tarsus,  and  Kufa;  lie  is  .said  to  have 
lesided  at  Damascus  and  Kufa.  and  to  have  died 
in  770.  The  |>iiiuipal  writings  wliicli  go  under  the 
name  of  (Jebir,  are  Siimmn  I'crfcetionis  (see 
Alcukmv);  Sunima  Collcetionis  Complenieiiti  Sec- 
rctoriim  Natitrte ;  Testamentum  ;  Liber  Inrcstiga- 
lionis :  and  two  tractates  on  spherical  triangles 
and  asti'onomr. 

f>4>hir4>l.  or  Oabiroi,.     .See  AviCEiiitox. 

<««'l»w«'ilor  ( I'r.  Giiebuiller),  a  town  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  at  the  foot  of  the  Vosges,  15  miles  SSW. 
of  Coliiiar,  h.as  a  l"2tli-centnry  church,  cotton-spin- 
ning and  weaving,  dve-works,  machine-factories, 
and  vineyards.      Pop.  (1,890)  12,300. 

(aCcko>  a  gicnip  t)f  lizards  constituting  a 
family,  (;eckotid:e,  wliich  have  been  clivided  into 
a  large  number  of  genera,  including  more  than  2(X) 
species.  The  geckos  are  of  small  size,  the  c<dours 
of  most  of  them  are  dull,  and  the  small  gnmular 
.sc.iles  with  which  thcv  .ire  covercil  are  in    general 


GED 


GEDDES 


1 


^ 


mingled  with  tuljercles.  The  legs  are  short,  the 
gait  usually  slow,  measured,  and  stealthy,  although 
geckos  can  also  run  very  ninihly  when  danger 
presses,  and  often  disappear  very  suddenly  when 
they  seem  almost  to  1)6  struck  or  caught.  The 
feet  are  remarkable,  being  adapted  for  adhering 
to  smooth  surfaces,  so  that  geckos  readily  clindj 
the  smoothest  trees  or  walls,  or  creep  inverted  on 
ceilings,  or  hang  on  the  lower  side  of  the  large 
leaves  in  which  tropical  vegetation  abounds.  The 
body  and  tail  are  never  crested,  but  are  sometimes 
furnished  with  lateral  membranes,  variously  fes- 
tooned or  fringed.  The  lateral  membrane  is  some- 
times even  so  large  as  to  be  of  use  to  arboreal 
.species  in  enabling  them  to  take  long  leaps  from 
liranch  to  branch.  The  geckos  feed  chieHy  on 
insects.  They  are  more  or  less  nocturnal  in  their 
habits.     They  are  nati\es  of  warm  climates,   and 


=g-igKK^7S^"^'K:«*-"^<«?-'?'5^^ 


-'  ^ 


■&■   ■'^    "if.-:. 


A 


S    \.;?4^ 


Fringed  Gecko  (Pliicho-oon  homalocephalum). 

are  veiy  widely  distributed  over  the  world,  being 
especially  numerous  in  the  Indian  and  Australian 
regions.  Two  species  are  found  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  both  of  which  frequently  enter  houses,  as 
ill)  the  geckos  of  Egypt,  India,  and  f)ther  warm 
countries.  The  name  gecko  is  derived  from  a 
peculiar  cry  often  uttered  by  some  of  the  species, 
and  which  in  some  of  them  resembles  syllables 
distinctly  jironounced,  whilst  others  are  described 
as  enlivening  the  night  in  tropical  forests  by  a 
harsh  cackle.  The  geckos  have,  in  almost  all 
l)arts  of  the  world  where  they  are  found,  a  l)ad 
reputation  as  venomous,  and  as  imparting  in- 
jurious i|nalities  to  food  which  they  touch  ;  but 
there  is  no  good  evidence  in  support  of  any  such 
opinion,  in  iiccordanee  with  which,  however,  an 
Egyptian  gecko  is  eviMi  known  as  '  the  father  of 
leprosy.' 

God.  Wii.T.lAM,  inventor  of  the  art  of  stereo- 
typing, was  an  Edinburgh  goldsmith,  born  in  IGiJO, 
who  from  17'2.)  onwards  lient  his  energies  to  the 
Stereotyping  (q.v. )  of  books.  He  entered  into 
partnership  with  a  London  capitalist,  and  was  com- 
mi.ssioned  by  the  university  of  Cambridge  to  stereo- 
type some  prayer-books  and  bibles,  though  only  two 
jirayer  books  were  actually  linislied  ;  for,  owing  to 
the  unfair  treatment  of  his  partner  and  the  injus- 
tice of  his  own  workmen,  Ged  was  com])elleii  to 
abandon  the  enter|)rise.  He  returned  to  Edinburgh 
a  disaiipointed  man,  and  died  there  on  lOtli  October 
1749.  His  most  noteworthy  ]iroiluction  after  his 
return  home  was  a  stereotyped  edition  of  Salhist 
(1739).     See  Mcmuir  by  Nichols  ( 17SI ). 

<Jeild«'S,  Al.KXANDER,  a  biblical  critic,  trans- 
lator, and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  at  Arra- 
dowl,  in  the  parish  of  Kuthven.  lianll'shire,  in  1737. 
His  parents  were  Uon)an  Catholics,  and  he  was 
educated  for  a  priest,  lirst  at  Scalan,   a  ujonastic 


seminary  in  the  Highlands,  next  at  the  Scots 
College,  Paris,  where  he  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
Hebrew,  (Ireek,  Italian,  French,  Sjianish,  German, 
and  Dutch.  In  1704  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and 
live  years  later  took  a  cure  of  souls  at  Auchin- 
halrig  in  lianll'shire,  where  he  remained  for  ten 
years.  Here  he  made  himself  conspicuous  by  a 
breadth  of  synq)athy  with  the  Protestants  around 
him,  so  extraordinary  .i-s  to  lead  to  his  being 
deposed  from  all  his  ecclesiastical  functions.  The 
university  of  Aberdeen  made  him  LL.I).  Geddes 
now  resolved  to  betake  himself  to  literature, 
and  proceeded  to  London  in  17S0.  He  had  long 
l^ilanned  a  translation  of  the  P.ible  into  English 
tor  the  use  of  Koman  Catholics,  and  he  was 
now,  through  the  munilicence  of  Lord  Petre, 
enabled  to  dm-ote  himself  to  the  work.  The  lir>t 
voluino  appeared  in  1792;  the  second  in  1793, 
carrying  tl)e  translation  as  far  as  the  end  of  the 
historical  books  ;  and  the  third  was  issued  in  1800, 
containing  his  Critiral  Rcmark.s  on  the  Heltrew 
Si-rijitiiri's.  These  volumes,  especially  the  last,  are 
startlingly  heretical,  and  offended  Catholics  .-ind 
I'rototants  alike.  They  exhibit  as  thoiough-going 
IJationalism  as  is  to  lie  found  in  Eichhorn  or 
Paulus,  eliminating  the  supernatural  element  from 
the  Scriptures;  such  stories  as  that  of  the  Crea- 
tion in  Genesis  being  merely  poetical  or  philo- 
sophical fictions,  and  such  figures  as  Moses  merely 
men  who  by  a  i)ious  fraud  contrived  to  add  a  divine 
-.inction  to  mere  human  wisdom.  These  o]iinions 
naturally  enough  ex)io.sed  (ieddes  to  the  charge  of 
intidelity.  He  died  in  London,  iGth  February 
1S02.  His  poems,  even  linnlomnrliiii,  are  now  of 
no  importance.  See  the  Life  by  Dr  Mason  Good 
(1803). 

Geddes,  Andrew,  a  painter,  was  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1783.  He  began  to  study  at  the 
Royal  Academy  in  London  in  1806,  and"  first  ex- 
hil)iteil  in  Edinburgh,  producing  successful  ])ictures 
in  1808  and  in  ISIO,  in  the  latter  year  the  '  Draught- 
players.'  This,  along  with  '  Tlie  Discovery  of  the 
Scottish  Regalia,' exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy, 
London,  in  1821,  and  'Christ  and  the  Woman  of 
Samaria,'  are  esteemed  his  best  pictures,  though  he 
also  excelled  in  portrait-painting.  He  ranks  higher 
as  an  etcher.  In  1831  he  was  elected  A.U.A.,  and 
died  in  1844. 

Geddes.  Jexnv,  an  obscure  wom.an  whose  name 
is  memorable  in  tradition  from  her  having  begun 
the  riotous  resistance  to  the  introduction  of  a 
Service-book  prepared  by  Laud  into  the  Church  of 
Scotland  in  lfi.S7.  The"  day  fixed  for  this  hated 
innovation  was  Sunday  the  2.3d  .Inly,  and  an  im- 
niense  crowd  filled  the  High  Kirk  of  St  t;iles, 
Edinburgh,  on  the  occasion.  On  Dean  Hanna's 
beginning  to  read  the  collect  for  the  day,  Jenny 
(ieddes,  who  kept  ,a  vegetable-stall  in  the  High 
Street,  threw  her  stool  at  his  head,  shouting:  '  Deil 
colic  the  wame  o'  thee;  out,  thou  false  thief!  dost 
thou  .say  ma-ss  at  my  lug  ? '  A  great  uproar  at  once 
arose,  and  both  dean  and  bishop  ( David  Lindsav) 
had  to  Hee  for  their  lives  from  the  fury  of  the  mo^). 
'riiis  tunuilt  proved  the  deathblow  of  the  liturgy  in 
Scotland.  This  famous  ex]ili)it  is  unfortunately 
hacking  in  historical  evidence  beyond  a  fairly  early 
;inil  persistent  tmdilion.  Still'  Sydserf  in  KiGl 
nu'ntions  'the  immortal  .lem^t  (ieiides.  prim-ess  of 
the  Trone  .adventurei-s,"  as  having  burned  'her 
leather  chair  of  state  '-evidently  an  object  already 
famou.s— at  the  Restoration  boniires.  and  the  story 
appears  with  name  and  full  detail  in  Phillips' 
CoiifiiiiKttion  of  Jlii/.rr'.i  C/irnnir/./c,  publislied  in 
liiOO,  the  heroine  being  stated  as  'yet  living  at 
the  time  of  this  relation.'  An  idle"  attempt  has 
been  made  to  set  up  a  rival  claimant  in  one 
Barbara  Hamilton  or  Alein,  but  Jenny  (leddes  still 


122 


GEDROSIA 


(iEIBKL 


)rio 

It  is  well  laid  out, 

mil  lin-s  some  liaiid- 

ISiirwon    fiirms   the 

.'vtid  .'{  miles  farther 


keeps  her  place  aiiiuiiK  the  worthies  of  Scottish 
history.  The  credulous  may  even  see  her  stool 
in  the  Antl(|uaries'  Museum  at  Kdinbur{;li.  See 
l)r  IxTss  .S7  Cilcs,  Edinbtinjlt  (18S9). 

AicdrosiiU    See  Ukluciiistan. 

(iiOeIoilK<  ''  <"•*>■  "f  \'iet<>ria,  is  picturesquely 
sitnati'd  cm  the  south  side  of  Corio  l!ay,  4r>  miles 
S\V.  of  .Mell)(>urue  liy  rail, 
abnunils  in  attractive  shops, 
some  buildin^rs.  The  river 
southern  boundary  of  the  city, 
spreads  into  tlie  Connewarre  Lakes,  falling;  into  the 
sea  at  Point  Flinders.  The  {;old  discoveries  in 
18.'>l  .added  to  the  prosperity  of  (leelon^,  which 
had  been  incorporated  jus  a  town  in  184!l,  ami 
became  a  principal  seat  of  the  woid  trade — the  fii-st 
woollen  mill  in  Victoria  beinj;  eri'cted  in  (ieelon;;. 
Alon;;siile  of  the  railw.ay  jetty  the  lar^'ost  ships 
can  load  and  dischar^'c,  and  there  are  three  other 
jetties  for  smaller  vessels.  Throu^di  the  bar  at  the 
entrance  to  Corio  liay  a  chanmd  h;us  been  dred^xed 
for  the  convenience  of  steamer  trallic.  The  dis- 
trict is  exceedingly  fertile :  the  liarrabool  Hills 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  H.irwon  are  covered  with 
farms  and  orchards,  but  the  vineyards  have 
been  destroyed  under  the  Phylloxer.a  Act.  Lime- 
stone .and  a  kind  of  m.arble  are  foiind  in  the 
neighbourhood.  I'liere  are  various  industries  carried 
on,  especially  the  manufacture  of  woollen  cloths 
and  paper,  meat-preservin;;.  tannin^',  rope  niakinj;, 
lishin;^,  \-c.  The  K.xhibition  Hall  and  j;eneral  pro- 
duce exchange,  theatre,  and  a-sscmbly  rooms  com- 
bined, stands  in  the  marketscpiare.     The  city  is 


li''ht<.'d    with    "a-s  ; 


supj> 


lied    with    water   from 


Stony  Creek  reservoirs  ami  the  river  Moorabool ; 
and  has  two  parks,  botanical  ^'ardens.  f;overnnient 
buildin(,'s.  ,a  town  hall,  .a  ni'W  post-oltiee  (1889), 
an  excellent  hi>spital,  a  chaml>er  of  commerce, 
mechanics"  institute,  fjrammar-school,  and  live 
newspapers.  Corio  Kay  is  a  favourite  batlunj.'- 
resort ;  and  on  the  eastern  bound.ary  of  the  town 
are  exteusive  limestone  ipiarries,  I'op.,  includinf; 
the  suburbs,  ( 1871 )  22,618  :  ( 18!ll )  24,2S.S,  of  whom 
lO.tKX)  were  within  the  munici|ial  boundary. 

(■relvillk  Bay  penetrates  12.'>  mile.s  south- 
ward into  the  we-lern  .arm  of  New  (Juinea.  Its 
entrance,  some  l.Vi  miles  wide,  is  protected  by 
several  islands  ;  its  shores  are  well  wooded,  Hal. 
and  fertile,  but  uidiealthy.  The  b.ay  is  separated 
by  a  narrow  isthmus  from  the  Alfuna  Sea  on  the 
south,  anil  by  a  still  narrower  isthmus  from 
M'Clure  (!iilf  on  the  west. 

GccstOllliilldc.  a  .seaport  of  Prussia,  situated 
at  the  conllueiice  of  the  (icestc  with  the  Weser, 
immediately  SK.  of  Hremerhaven,  owes  it.s  import- 
ance to  the  tlocks  and  wharves  constructed  in 
18.'>7-6.3.  It  ha-s  also  a  school  of  navii,'ation  ;  im- 
ports petroleum,  tobacco,  rice,  collee,  timber,  and 
corn  ;  and  carries  on  various  industries  connected 
with  shipping.     Pop.  15.452. 

Cieez,  or  Ge'ez.    See  Krnini'i.v. 

(•ello.  chief  town  of  the  Sweilish  Ian  of  Cetle- 
bor<;,  is  situated  on  an  inlet  of  the  (lulf  of  Bothnia. 
71  miles  by  rail  N.  by  \V.  of  Uiisala.  The  port  for 
Dalecarlia,  (Jelle  ranks  thircl  anion;;  the  com- 
mercial towns  of  Sweden,  comin;;  next  to  Stock- 
holm and  Ocjthenbur;.'.  Amon^'  the  noteworthy 
building  are  the  castle  ( 16tli  and  18th  century) 
and  the  town-hall,  (ielle,  which  has  been  rebuilt 
since  its  destruction  by  lire  in  1809,  ha-s  a  school  of 
navigation,  and  carries  on  siiipbuildiiig,  the  manu- 
facture of  sail-cloth,  cotton,  and  t(d)acco,  and 
fisheries.  It  carries  on  an  active  trade,  the  princi- 
pal exi)orts  being  iron,  timber,  and  tar;  whilst  its 
imports  consist  chietlv  of  corn  and  salt.  Pop. 
I  1874)  16,787;  ( 1894)  25,2.55. 


GcKCnbaiir«  Karl,  (jcnnan  comparative  ana- 
tomist, WiLs  born  on  21st  August  182fi,  at  Wiirzburg, 
where  he  w.o-s  educated,  and  wlicTi'  he  taught  until 
18.55.  In  this  year  he  wa-s  called  to  a  me<lical  ]iro- 
fessorship  at  .lena,  but  from  1858  to  1873  he  taught 
]>rincijially  anatomy.  Kenioving  to  HeiilellK'rg  in 
187.3,  lie  has  since  that  date  continued  to  lecture  (m 
the  same  .subject.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  (Iriind- 
visa  dvr  rrrfjiric/iriu/cu  Antititniir  t2d  e<l.  Leip. 
1878),  which  w.as  transl.ate<I  into  Knglish  tli.at  same 
yi-ar  by  I".  .1.  liell  and  E.  H.ay  Lankester.  Besides 
this  he  hius  published  J.ehrhurh  </rr  Anatomic  (leg 
Min.tf/ieu  (1883:  5th  ed.  1892),  and  .since  1875  hoM 
eilite<l  the  ilnri>liolurii.irliis  Jalirliudi. 

(ilrlienna.  the  tireek  form  of  the  Hebrew  (!r- 
/liniium,  or  Valley  of  Hinnoni.  This  valley,  or 
r.ather  narrow  gorge,  lies  south  an<l  west  of  the 
city  of  .lerus.alem.  Here  Solomon  built  a  high 
jilace  for  Moloch  (I  Kings,  xi.  7),  and  indeed 
(lelienna  seems  to  have  become  a  f,avourit<'  spot 
with  the  Later  .lewisli  kings  for  the  celebration  cif 
iriolatrous  rites.  It  Wiis  here  that  Aha/,  and 
.Mana.s.seli  m.ade  their  children  pass  through  the 
lire  'according  to  the  aVmmination  of  the  heathen;' 
.and  at  its  south-ea-st  extremity,  specifically  desig- 
nated Topliet  ('place  of  burning'),  the  hidecms 
]iractice  of  inf.ant  .sacrifice  to  the  lire-gods  w.is  not 
unknown  (.leremiah,  vii.  ,31).  When  King  .losiali 
came  forwanl  as  the  restorer  of  the  old  and  pure 
national  faith  he  'defiled'  the  Valley  of  Hinnom 
by  covering  it  with  human  bones,  and  after  this  it 
.aiipe.ars  to  have  become  '  the  common  cesspocd  of 
the  city,  into  which  its  sew.age  was  conducted  to  lie 
carried  oil' by  the  watei-s  of  the  Kidron,  jus  well  as 
a  liiystall,  where  ;ill  its  solid  lilth  was  collected. 
Hence,  it  becjinie  ;i  huge  nest  of  insects,  wlio.se 
l.arvje  or  "  worms  '  fattened  on  the  corruption.'  It 
is  also  s,aiil  that  fires  were  kept  const.antty  burning 
here  to  consume  the  bodies  of  crimin.als.  the  car- 
cjus.ses  of  animals,  and  wluitever  other  oHiil  might 
be  combustible.  Among  the  later  .lews  drlnnna 
and  Tti/ilicl  came  to  be  symbols  for  hell  and 
torment,  and  in  this  sense  the  former  word  is 
fre<|uently  emjiloyed  by  .lesus  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment -e.g.  Mark,  ix.  47,  48. 

Vcibrl.  Em.\M'EL  von,  one  of  the  most  popular 
of  modern  tierman  poets,  was  born  .at  LiibecK  on 
18th  ()ct<d)er  1815.  After  his  studies  at  Bonn  he 
lived  at  Berlin,  in  the  poetical  circle  of  Chamisso, 
(i.audy,  and  Kugler  ;  next  went  to  .■\thens  in  18.38  as 
tutor  in  the  family  of  the  Hiissian  amb;i.s.sador,  but 
returned  to  Liibeck  two  veal's  later  to  work  up  the 
m.aterial  he  had  collected  in  (ireece.  and  to  ]iuisuc 
his  studies  in  Italian  and  Spunish  literature.  At 
the  beginning  of  184.3  a  pension  of  3(X)  thalers  was 
bestowed  upon  him  by  the  king  of  Prussia.  Oeibel 
now  resided  alternately  at  St  Goar  with  Freili- 
grath,  at  Stuttgart,  Hanover,  Berlin,  and  Liibeck, 
till  in  18.52  he  w.as  a|i|iointed  professor  of  -Esthetics 
in  the  university  of  .\iiiiiich  by  the  king  of  Bavjiria 
— a  ]iost  he  ret.ained  till  18GS.  when  he  retireil  to 
Liil)eck.  He  contributed  translations  from  the  Greek 
poets  to  the  Vlassisrhc  Stinliiii  of  Ernst  Curtius 
(1840),  .and  in  the  same  vear  jmblished  his  own 
(Icdithtc  (120tli  ed.  1893),  the  beauty  and  religious 
tone  of  wliich  made  them  at  once  great  favourites 
with  the  (Jeriiums.  The  results  of  his  Siianish 
studies  were  the  tipanisclur  J'of/:slia/rr  vnff  Jiom- 
fnizin  ( 1843),  which  were  followed  by  the SjxiitiM/ias 
l.ia/crbiir/i  (18.52),  published  in  conjunction  with 
Paul  Heyse.  In  1857  appeared  his  tragedy  of 
Jlriiiiclii/f/.  and  in  1864  his  Gcdic/dc  und  Gcden/c- 
Uiittcr.  In  1868  he  publishe<i  another  tragedy 
called  Sonhonishr.  He  died  at  Liibeck.  6tli  April 
1884.  His  poems  are  distinguished  by  fervour 
and  truth  of  feeling,  richness  of  fancy,  and  a 
certain    pensive   melancholy,    and    have   procured 


GEIGER 


GEILER 


lL'3 


iiini  a  popularity — especially  among  cultivated 
women — suoli  as  no  poet  of  Germany  lia-s  enjoyed 
-inoe  the  days  of  L  lilanil.  An  edition  of  his 
(hmmmclle  ]i'er/:c  was  puljlished  at  Stuttgart  in 
8  vols  ( 1883  et  seq.).  See  Lives  by  Gaedertz  ( 1885) 
and  Litzmann  (1887). 

Cieiger,  Auraham,  a  Jewish  scholar,  was  bom 
at  Frankfort -on-tlie-Main,  May  24,  1810.  Accord- 
ing to  old  ralibinical  practice,  his  teachers  were 
his  father  and  elder  brother,  till  he  reached  the  age 
of  eleven.  After  that  he  went  to  the  gymnasiuni, 
ne.\t  to  the  universities  of  Heidelberg  and  Bonn, 
devoting  himself  to  plulosophy  and  the  oriental 
languages.  His  prize  essay,  (('«.«  Iiat  Mohdiiunrd 
ails  dem  Judriitliiini  a iifr/eiw in  1111:11  '  was  published 
in  18.S3.  In  November  IS.'B  he  was  called  as  rabl)i  to 
Wiesbaden,  and  there  he  devoted  himself  with  great 
zeal  and  in  a  scientilic  spirit  to  Jewish  theology, 
e.specially  in  its  relation  to  practical  life.  In  1835 
he  joined  with  several  able  .scholars  in  starting  the 
Zeitschrift  fur  Judischc  Tlieoloijic.  In  1838  he  was 
called  as  .second  rabbi  to  Breslau,  and  here  he  came 
into  serious  conflict  with  the  more  conservative 
Jews,  but  carried  with  him  all  men  of  learning 
and  thought.  From  1863  he  olHciated  as  rabbi  at 
Frankfort,  whence  he  was  called  in  1870  to  Berlin. 
Here  he  died,  2.3d  October  1874,  editing  from  1862 
till  the  last  the  Jiidischc  Zeitschrifl.  Of  his  many 
books  may  be  named  his  striking  Urschrift  iiiid 
Ucbcrsetzungeii  der  Bihd  (1857),  and  the  elaborate 
history.  Das  Jiidenthiim  iind seine  Gcsr/iichtc  ( 1864- 
65).  An  Allgemcinc  Einleitumj,  and  5  vols,  of 
Nnrhgelasscne  Schriften,  were  edited  by  his  son  in 
1875.      See  his  Life  by  Screiber  (Lcibau,  1880). 

Geiger,  L.\z.\rls,  philologist,  was  born  at 
Frankfort,  21st  May  1829,  studied  at  Bonn, 
Heidelberg,  and  Wiirzburg,  and  in  1861  became  a 
teacher  in  the  Jewish  school  at  Frankfort.  He 
died  29tli  August  1870.  He  wrote  much  cm  the 
relation  of  language  and  tliought,  atlirnung  that 
without  language  man  must  have  been  without 
reason.  His  principal  works  are  Sjirachc  iind 
Vernuiift  (1868-72),  anil  Ursprung  dcr  Sprache 
( 1869  ;  2d  ed.  1878).  See  Lives  bv  Peschier  ( 1871 ) 
and  Rosenthal  (1883). 

Geijer.  Euic  Gustaf,  Swedish  historian,  was 
born  at  Kansiiter,  in  Vermland,  January  12,  1783. 
He  was  sent  at  sixteen  to  the  university  of  I'p- 
sala,  and  in  1803  gained  the  jirize  awarded  by  the 
Academy  of  Stockholm  for  the  best  essay  on  the 
Swedish  administrator,  Sten  Sture.  From  this 
period  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
idstory  of  his  native  country.  Beginning  to 
lecture  at  Upsala  in  1810,  he  was  sliortly 
afterwards  nominated  to  a  ]iost  in  the  ottice  of 
the  National  Archives ;  in  1815  he  was  elected 
as.sistant-professor,  and  in  1817  professor  of  History 
at  Upsala.  Geijer  exercised  a  marked  influence  (m 
the  poetic  no  less  than  on  the  historical  literature 
of  Sweden.  As  early  as  1810  he,  along  with 
several  friends,  founded  the  Gothic  Society,  in 
whose  magazine,  the  Idiina,  first  appeared  several 
of  Geijer's  best  jioems,  and  the  early  cantos  of 
Tegncr's  Frithiof.  (ireat  as  is  the  value  of  ( ieijer's 
historical  works,  he  unfortunately  iliil  not  complete 
any  one  of  the  vast  undertakings  which  he  planned. 
Thus,  of  the  Scea  Rihcs  Hafdcr,  m-  Ueconls  of 
Sweden  ( 1825),  which  were  to  have  embraceil  the 
history  of  his  native  country  from  mythical  ages 
to  the  present  time,  he  finished  only  the  intro- 
ductory volume.  This,  however,  is  a  thoroughly 
good  critical  inquiry  into  the  sources  of  legendary 
Swedish  history.  His  next  gieat  work,  Svensla 
Folkcts  Hixturiii  (3  vols.  1832-36),  w,as  not  carried 
beyond  the  death  of  Queen  <'hristina.  To 
(ieijer  was  entrusted  the  task  of  exannning  and 
editing    the     papers    which    Gustavus    III.     had 


bequeathed  to  the  university  of  Upsala  with  the 
stipulation  that  they  were  not  to  be  opened  for 
fifty  years  after  his  death.  Thev  a))peared  in 
1843-46.  Geijer  died  at  Stockholm,  23d  April 
1847.  Uf  his  other  historical  and  political  works 
we  need  oidy  mention  si)ecially  TItr  Cundition  of 
Sweden  from  the  Death  of  Charles  XII.  to  the 
Accession  of  Gustavus  III.  (1838),  and  Fciidalis-m 
and  Republicanism  ( 1844).  Besides  these  he  edited 
the  continuation  of  Fant's  Scriptorr.s  lieruin  Sueci- 
caruin  j1/c(/«^(7  ( 1818-25),  and  Thorild's  Sainlade 
S/,riffer  (1819-25),  and,  along  with  Afzelius,  a  col- 
lection of  Sren.ika  Fullcvisor  (1814-16).  During 
the  last  ten  years  of  his  life  Geijer  took  an  active 
part  in  politics;  but,  although  his  p(ditical  writings 
possess  great  merit,  the  very  versatility  of  his 
powers  diverted  him  from  apjilying  them  methodi- 
cally to  the  complete  elaboration  of  any  one  s]iecial 
subject.  He  was  also  known  to  his  co\intrymen 
as  a  musician  and  composer  of  no  mean  order.  His 
collected  works  were  published  by  his  son,  with 
a  biographical  sketch  (13  vols.  1849,56:  new  ed. 
1873-75). 

Geikie,  Sir  Archibald,  geologist,  born  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1835,  and  educateil  at  the  High  School 
and  university.  In  1855  he  w.as  appointed  to  the 
(Geological  Survey :  In  1867  became  director  to 
the  Survey  in  Scotland  :  from  1870  to  1881  was 
Murchison  Professor  of  Geology  in  Kilinburgh  Uni- 
versity ;  and  in  1881  was  apjiointed  director- 
general  to  the  Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
being  at  the  same  time  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  London.  He  is  the 
author  of  Story  of  a  Boulder  ( 1858) :  Phenomena  of 
the  Glacial  Drift  of  Scotland  (ISm) ;  The  Scenery 
of  Scotland  rieiecd  in  connection  irith  its  Physieat 
Geology  (1865:  2d  ed.  1887);  Memoir  of  Sir  R. 
Miirehison  (1874);  a  Tcxtliook  of  Geology  (1882); 
The  Ancient  Volcanoes  of  Great  Britain  (1897); 
The  Founders  of  Geology  ( 1897) ;  besides  numerous 
class-books,  primers,  iSrc.  on  geidogA'.  He  was 
knighted  in  IS'.tl.— His  brother  Jamks  was  born 
at  Edinburgh  in  18.39,  and  educated  there.  Having 
served  on  the  Geological  Survey  of  Scotland  from 
1861  to  1882,  he  succeeded  Archibald  .as  Murchison 
Profe.s.sor  of  Geology  in  Edinburgh  University. 
He  is  the  author  of  J'/ic  Great  Ice  Age  in  its 
Relafioiito  the  Antiquity  of  Man  {]8H;  3d  ed.  1894); 
Prehistoric  Europe  ( 1881 )  ;  Outlines  of  Geology 
(1886:  2d  ed.  1888);  a  translatiim  of  Songs  and 
Lyrics  by  H.  Heine  and  other  Gcrmnii  Por /»■  ( 1 887 ) ; 
besides  a  large  number  of  geological  nuips,  sections, 
and  memoirs  published  by  the  ( Geological  Survey: 
and  he  has  written  the  geological  articles  for  the 
juesent  edition  of  this  work.  He  became  F.K.S. E., 
1871;  F.K.S.,  1875;  LL.D.  (St  Andrews).  1877: 
D.C'.L.  (Durham),  1889;  and  is  a  Fellow  of  nuiuy 
learned  societies  at  home  an<l  abroad. 

Oeiler    von    Kaisersberg,   Johannes,    a 

fanjous  pulpit-orator  of  Germany,  was  born  at 
Schatl'hausen,  10th  March  14."i5,  studied  at  Frei- 
;  burg  and  Basel,  and  in  1478  became  preacher  in  the 
■  cathedral  of  Strasburg.  w  here  he  died,  lOth  March 
1510.  tjeiler  von  Kaisersberg  was  one  of  the  most 
learned  and  original  men  of  his  age  ;  his  sermons, 
usually  comjiosed  in  Latin  and  delivered  in  (ier- 
I  man,  are  marked  by  gre.it  elo<juence  and  earnest- 
ness, nor  do  they  disdain  the  aids  of  wit,  sarcasm, 
and  ri<licule.  Of  his  writings,  which  have  now 
become  very  rare,  may  be  mentioned  Das  Sarren- 
schiff  (Lat.  1511  :  Ger".  by  Pauli.  1520),  comprising 
142  sermons  on  Sebastian  Brandt's  yarrenschiff'; 
Das  Irrig  Schaf  (1510);  Der  Seelen  Pttniilies 
(1510);  this  Schiff  der  Ponitcnz  und  Biissirirkung 
(1514);  Diis  Bii'ch  Gritnatapfcl  (\5\\) ;  Christliche 
Pilgcrschaft  zum  Euigcn  Vaterland  {\o\'2):  and 
Das  Erangelienbueh  (1515).     See   the  stuilies   by 


124 


GEISSLEU  TUBES 


GELATINE 


Amnion  ( Erl.  182G),  Uaclieux  (Paris  and  Strasb. 
I87l>),  and  l.iiiiliMiiiinn  (Kicilmr}.',  1S77). 

tii'issltT  TiiIm-s.    Sec  V,\<n  M  Triif>;. 

(aCla.  an  ancient  city  <>n  the  sontliern  poast  of 
Siiily,  near  the  site  ot  the  nuMlein  Terianuova. 
It  \va--<  foiindeil  l)y  a  eohniy  of  I'hoilians  ami 
Cretans,  (i'.lU  n.r.,  and  f,ne"'  so  rapidly  that  a<  early 
as  r>S'2  it  was  alile  to  fonnd  a  rcdony  at  A^'rixenlnni, 
wliieli  was  soon  to  ontstrij)  (!ela  itsidf  (see(!KI.i>N  I. 
Hero  .Ksi'liyhis  dieil  and  was  linried,  4."i(i  Itc. ,  and 
here  Apollodorus  was  liorn.  In  280  it«  inhabitants 
were  transplanted  to  I'liintias. 

GoIasillS.  the  name  of  two  popes.-  (lELASirs 
I.,  an  African  by  birth,  snceeeded  Felix  III.  in 
492.  anil  wjis  one  of  the  earliest  bishops  of  l{ome 
t<)  as.sert  the  snprem.-iey  of  the  papal  chair,  not 
only  over  tcmpor.al  authority,  lint  also  over  ^;eiieral 
councils  of  the  church.  lie  vigorously  repre.-sed 
I'ela^ianisni,  which  was  spreadinj.;  in  Daimatia, 
renewed  the  ban  of  his  preilecessor  a),'ainst  the 
oriental  patriarch,  ilrove  out  the  Maniclueans 
from  Home,  and  died  in  490.  There  are  e.\tant  a 
treatise  of  his  a-j.-iin^t  the  Kntycliians  and  Nes- 
torians,  lie  i/inilnis  in  I'/irhto  imtiiri.i.  several 
letteiM,  anil  a  ('mlij-  Srirrnmentririii.i. — (lEL.VSIl'S 
II..  formerly  John  of  (J.aeta,  was  educated  at  the 
Benedictine  .ibbey  of  Monte  Cassino.  was  cardiiuil 
and  chancellor  under  I'rban  II.  and  I'asch.al  II., 
and  on  the  death  of  tlie  latter  in  the  .lune  of  1 1  IS 
w.as  chosen  pope  by  the  party  hostile  to  the  Em- 
peror Henry  V.  Tlie  im)ierial  party  at  Uonie 
under  the  l''ranf,'ip;ini  seizecl  his  peison,  but  were 
forced  to  >et  him  free  by  the  menacin;;  attitude 
of  the  mob.  The  new  |)ope  lied  before  tlie  advanc- 
inji  imiierial  troops  to  (!aeta,  where  he  lirst 
received  his  consecration,  and  whence  he  fulmin- 
ated the  thunders  of  excommunication  Ji^'.ainst 
Henry  V.  and  (!re<;ory  VIII.,  the  antipope  he 
had  set  up.  Soon  after  he  wiis  .able  to  return  to 
Koine,  but  ere  Ion;;  h.ad  to  betake  himself  for  jiro- 
tectioii  to  France,  where  he  died  in  the  mona.stery 
of  Clu^rn.v,  early  in  1119. 

Gelatine,  in  chemistry.  Little  is  yet  defi- 
nitely known  of  the  chemical  n.atnre  of  gelatine. 
It  consists  approximately  of  carbon  40'6,  oxygen 
2.i4,  nitrogen  1S3,  and  sulphur  about  O'l  per 
cent.  It  i.s  soluble  in  hot  w.ater,  in  acetic  acid,  and 
in  cold  sulphuric  .vciil,  and  is  insoluble  in  alcohol, 
ether,  and  other  organic  lir|uiils ;  the  aoueous 
solution  is  precipitated  liy  tannic  acid,  clirome 
alum,  and  currosive  sublimate,  but  not  by  most 
acids,  salts,  or  alkalies  in  dilute  .solution.  Gelatine 
may  be  |)urilieil  by  dissolving  it  in  water  and 
pouring  the  solution  into  a  large  bulk  of  alcohol  : 
the  clot  which  forms  consists  of  nearly  [mre 
gelatine,  containing  only  a  tr.ice  of  ,isli.  I?y  dry 
distillation  gelatine  yields  a  i|uantity  of  carbonate 
of  ammonia,  and  a  foul  smelling  brown  oil  contain- 
ing carbonate,  sulphide  and  cyanide  of  ammonia, 
aniline,  methylamine.  picaline,  and  a  number  of 
pyridine  bases.  Celatine  solution  dis.solves  lime 
and  calcium  phosphate  much  more  freely  than  cold 
water,  forming  with  the  latter  a  definite  compound, 
which  prob.ilily  forms  part  of  the  tissue  of  bones. 

In  Technology,  the  term  gelatine,  although 
usually  applied  to  oidy  one  variety  of  the  sub- 
stance obtained  by  dissolving  the  soluble  portion 
of  the  gelatinous  tissues  of  animals,  nevertheless 
properly  belongs  also  to  Isingla.ss  (q.v.)and  (!lue 
(q.v.),  which  are  modifications  of  the  .same 
material.  \'egetable  jelly  is  also  analogous, 
(ielatine  and  glue  signify  the  more  or  less  pure  and 
carefully  prepared  jelly  of  mammalian  animals; 
but  the  term  isinglass  is  only  apjilied  to  certain 
gelatinous  parts  of  fishes,  wliicli  from  their  exceed- 
ing richness  in  gelatine,  are  usu.ally  merely  drieil 
and  used  without  any  other  preparation  than  that 


of  minute  <Uvision  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating 
their  action. 

Gelatine  proper  is  |>repareil  for  loiiimercial  pur- 
poses from  a  variety  of  animal  substances,  but 
chielly  from  the  softer  jiarts  of  the  bides  of  oxen 
and  calves  and  the  skins  of  sheep,  such  .as  the 
thin  purl  inn  which  covers  the  belly,  tin-  ears,  \c.  ; 
also  from  Imnes  and  other  parts  of  animals.  One  of 
the  best,  if  not  the  best  of  the  varieties  of  gelatine 
manufactured  in  (Jreat  Britain,  is  the  'sparkling 
gelatine'  of  Messrs  Cox  of  Gorgie,  near  Kdiiibiirgh. 
which  is  remarkable  for  its  great  ]iurity  and 
strength,  or  gelatinising  jiower,  and  is  purilied  by 
processes  patented  by  them.  The  mateiials  they 
use  are  carefully  selected  imrtions  of  ox  only 
imported  from  South  America.  Another  lueiiara- 
tion,  made  by  Mackay  of  Kdinburgh  from  calves - 
feet,  is  deserving  of  special  mention. 

The  general  method  adopted  with  skin-parings 
or  hide  clipiiings  is  first  tn  w.asli  the  ])ieces  very 
carefully  ;  tliey  are  then  cut   into  small  |iieces  and 

I  placed   in   a   weak   solution   of   caustic   .soda   for  a 

,  week  or  ten  days.  When  this  ]irocess  of  digestion 
has  been  sutticiently  carrieil  on,  the  pieces  of  .'■kin 
are  then  transferred  to  revolvini'  cylinders  sup]ilied 
with  an  abundance  of  clean  cold  water,  and  .after- 

:  wards  are  pl.aced  still  wet  in  aiiollier  chamber  lined 
with  wood,  in  which  they  are  bleached  and  pniilied 
by  exposure  to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulidiur  ;  they 
next  receive  their  final  witshing  with  cold  water, 
which    removes    the   sulphuriuis   acid.       The    next 

\  operation  is  to  transfer  them  to  the  gelatinising 
pots.  Water  is  poured  in  w  itli  the  pieces,  and  kejit 
at  .a  high  teniperatiire  by  means  of  the  steam  in  the 
c.a-ses  surroiinding  the  pots. 

By  this  means  the  gelatine  is  f|uite  dissolved  out 
of  tlie  skin,  and  is  strained  oil'  whilst  still  hot  ;  it 
is  poured  (Uit  in  thin  layers,  which  .as  soon  ,a.s  they 
.are   .sntliciently    cooled   and    consolidated    are    cut 

,  into  small  plates,  usually  oblong,  and  laid  on 
nets,  stretcheil  hori/ontally,  to  dry.  It  is  then  cut 
into  shreils  and  is  ready  for  market. 

Another  process,  introduced  by  Mr  .Swineburne, 
consists  in  treating  iiieces  of  calfskin  by  water 
alone,  without  the  soda  and  sulphur  processes;  the 
pieces,  after  simple  w.ashing,  being  transferred  at 
once  to  the  pots  to  be  acted  iip<m  by  the  steam. 
Inferior  gelatine  is  made  from  bones  and  other 
p.arts  of  anim.als  ;  and  it  is  undei'stood  that  the 
enormous  number  of  rats  killed  in  the  sewers  and 
abattoirs  of  I'aris  are  used  by  the  gelatine-makers. 
The  French  manufacturers  succeed  better  than 
any  others  in  clarifying  these  inferior  gelatines, 
.and  they  rarely  make  any  others;  they  run  their 
plates  out  very  thin,  which  gives  them  greater 
transparency  ;  an<l  they  colour  them  with  most 
brilliant  colours,  and  form  very  fine-rolled  sheets, 
tempting  the  eye  with  an  appearance  of  great 
delicacy  and  purity. 

Gelatine  should  never  be  judged  by  the  eye 
alone.  Its  purity  ni.ay  be  very  easily  testeil  thus  : 
.soak  it  in  cfild  water,  and  then  pour  upon  it  .a  small 
quantity  of  Ijoiling  water;  if  pure  it  will  form  a 
thickish.  clear,  straw-coloured  solution,  free  from 
smell,  but  if  made  of  inqiure  m.aterials  it  will  give 
off. a  very  ott'ensive  odour,  and  h.ave  a  yellow  gluey 
consistency.  No  article  manufactured  ref|uires 
such  careful  selection  of  material  and  such  nice  and 
cleanly  manipulation  to  ensure  .a  good  marketable 
char.acter ;  and  those  anxious  for  ])nrit.v  should 
.avoid  .all  artificially  coloured  varieties,  however 
temptingly  got  uji,  unless  they  are  required  for 
merely  decorative  purposes  and  not  for  food.  Of 
bate  yeai-s  the  commercial  uses  have  gre.atly 
incre.a-sed.  Gel.atine  is  the  foundation  of  the  dry- 
pkate  .system  of  ]iliotogi-apliy,  .and  by  its  means 
the  science  h.as  been  revolutionised  and  its  capabili- 
ties extended  to  an  extraordinary  degree.     To  the 


GELDERLAND 


GELLIUS 


125 


printin<;  iirocess  as  employed  by  Messre  (ioupil  of 
Paris  anil  others  the  work!  li  indebted  for  cheap 
and  at  the  same  time  liifjhiy  artistic  copies  of  many 
admiraljle  pictures.  It  is  furllier  very  extensively 
used  by  drug^dsts  for  coating  ]>ills  and  nauseous 
druj.'s ;  and  by  confectioners  for  some  kinds  of 
sweetmeats.  Chondrin,  clo.sely  akin  in  composition 
and  [iroperties  to  gelatine,  is  obtained  by  the  action 
of  boiling  water  on  cartilage.  For  gelatine  as 
food  and  in  jiicture  work,  see  Diet,  Ii.LU.stu.vtioS, 
PHOT()(;it.\PHV.     See  also  Glltkn,  IsiNGLASS. 

One  of  the  qualities  of  gelatine  is  its  power  to 
form  chemical  combinations  with  certain  organic 
matters  ;  lience,  when  it  is  mixed  and  dissolved  in 
a  fluid  containing  such  matters,  it  combines,  and 
the  compound  is  precipitated.  It  would  a)ipear 
that  this  ci>nibination,  however,  is  threadlike  in  its 
arrangement,  and  that  the  crossing  threads  form  a 
fine  network  through  the  Huid,  which,  in  falling, 
carries  down  all  floating  substances  that  by 
their  presence  render  the  liijuid  cloudy  ;  hence  its 
great  value  in  clarifying  beer  and  other  licjuids. 
For  this  reason  isinglass,  which  has  been  found  the 
best  gelatine  for  the  ]iurpose,  is  very  largely  con- 
sumed by  brewers. 

Various  kinds  of  animal  food  are  valued  for  the 
abundance  of  gelatine  they  contain,  as  the  Trepang 
and  Bechede-Mer  (species  of  Holothuria),  sharks' 
lins,  lish-maws,  rayskins,  eleiihant  hide,  rhinoceros 
hide,  and  the  softer  parts,  all  of  whicli  are  lu.xuries 
amongst  the  Chinese,  Japanese,  Siamese,  Malays, 
&c.  Turtle-shells,  or  the  upper  and  lower  parts  of 
the  shield  (compare  and  /dastran),  constitute  the 
callipash  and  calli|)ee  of  the  epicure,  and  form,  in 
the  hands  of  the  experienced  cook,  a  rich  gelatinous 
SOU)).  The  Hesliy  parts  of  the  turtle,  calves'  head 
and  feet,  and  many  other  things  might  l)e  enumer- 
ated as  valuable  chiefly  in  consenueuce  of  their 
richness  in  this  material. 

Ciieltlerlaud.    See  Guelderlakd. 

G6li(IilllU,  a  genus  of  A  lff<c  Floric/cti'  ( see  Se.v- 
WEEDS).  't.  cartilai/inciim  and  the  allied  Graci- 
laiUi  lalteiiuuks  are  said  to  be  utilised  in  the 
building  of  the  edible  birds'-nests,  so  much  prized 
by  the  Chinese  (see,  however.  Edible  Bikds'- 
NE.ST).  These  and  allied  species  are  largely  used 
for  food  in  the  East,  as  yielding  wholesome  jellies. 

Ciell.  SiK  NViLLi.vM,  English  anlii|uary  and 
classical  scholar,  was  born  at  Hoptoii  in  Derby- 
shire in  1777.  He  was  educated  at  Jesus  College. 
Cambridge,  graduating  in  179S,  after  which  he  held 
for  some  time  a  fellowship  at  Emmanuel  College. 
He  devoted  his  tiuie  principally  to  antiiiuarian 
research  and  geographical  studies,  and  published 
works  on  the  topography  of  Troy  (1804),  Pompeii 
(4  vols.  1.S17-32),  and  Rome  (1834);  itineraries  of 
Greece  (1810),  the  Morea  (1817),  and  .Attica  ( 1817  ), 
,'is  well  as  a  book  on  the  Gcufiniphii  and  A  iili)jiiitn.'i 
ii/  Itharit  (1808),  and  a  juunui/  in  f/ic  Murai 
(1823).  Of  these  works  the  best  was  that  on 
the  antiquities  and  topography  of  Pompeii.  For 
some  years  after  1SI4  lie  was  one  of  the  chamber- 
lains of  Caroline,  consort  of  George  W.  He  died 
at  Naples,  February  4,  1836. 

tJelllTt,  or  Kll-LHART,  the  famous  dog  of 
Prince  Llewellyn,  which,  left  in  charge  of  his 
infant  child,  after  a  des)ierate  battle  killed  a  wolf 
that  hail  entered  the  hou.se.  The  jirince  <m  his 
return,  seeing  the  craille  overturned  ami  the  lloor 
sprinkled  with  blood,  thought  the  liounil  had 
killed  his  child,  and  at  once  plunged  his  sword 
into  its  side.  A  moment  after  he  fouiul  the  child 
.safe  under  the  cradle  and  the  wolf  lying  dead,  and 
saw  too  late  the  faithfulne.-^s  of  his  di>g.  (lellert 
was  buried  under  a  tomb  which  stands  to  this  day 
in  the  lovely  village  of  Beddgelert.  near  the  south 
base  of  Suowdon.     The  story  is   the  subject  of  a 


beautiful  ballad  by  the  Hon.  AVilliam-Kobert 
Spencer  ( !7ti9-lS34),  second  son  of  the  fifth  Earl  of 
Sunderland,  who  became  also  third  Duke  of  Marl- 
Ijorough.  He  was  the  father  of  two  colonial 
bishops,  and  the  author  of  much  fashionable  poetry 
long  forgotten,  with  this  one  ballad  that  will  not  lUe. 
AV'elshmen  not  only  show  the  grave  of  the  faith- 
ful Gellert,  but  fix  120.5  as  the  date  at  which  he 
was  given  to  the  prince  by  his  father-in-law.  Lu- 
fortunately  for  them  the  story  Avas  long  before 
current  in  Europe,  with  a  snake  instead  of  a  wolf 
as  the  enemy.  It  is  the  first  tale  in  the  oldest 
Latin  prose  version  of  the  Seven  Wise  Musters, 
entitled  Dulvpatlujs,  written  about  1184,  and 
nearly  a  century  before  (about  1090),  it  had 
existed  in  SyntipKs,  a  (Ireek  version  of  the  Buuk 
of  Siiidibad,  the  eastern  prototype  of  the  Hecen 
iVise  Masters.  From  the  Latin  JJu/ojuit/ius,  or 
from  oral  tradition,  the  story  was  taken  into  sub- 
sequent vei'sions  of  the  Wise  Musters,  and  also  into 
the  Gesta  Eoiiianorum.  It  occurs  also  in  the  Liber 
de  Dunis  of  Etienne  de  Bourbon,  who  tells  us  that  the 
grave  was  visited  by  the  sick,  and  it  reaiipears  in  the 
Historia  Sejjfem  Sapientnm  Itonw,  the  parent  of 
Wyukyn  de  Worde's  Uistonj  of  t/ir  Serrii  ]l'isc 
Masters  of  Emne  ( 150.5 ).  The'  stor>-  of  the  Dog  and 
the  Snake  thus  occui-s  in  all  the  western  grouj)  of  the 
Book  of  Sindihiid :  and  of  eastern  texts  or  of  ver- 
sions derived  from  these,  it  is  found  in  the  Syiiae, 
Persian,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Latin  (John  of  Capua's 
Directorium  Humana:  Vita;),  and  the  old  Sjianish 
(translated  from  an  old  Arabic  version  now  lost). 
It  does  not  occur  in  the  modern  Arabic  version 
(the  Seven  Vazirs),  which  is  incorporated  with  the 
Boo/:  of  the  Thousand  and  One  Nii/ids.  In  the 
aindihud  Ncima  (written  in  1374),  a  Persian  metri- 
cal version,  a  cat  is  substituted  for  a  dog.  Again, 
in  the  Panrliatantra  vei'sion  it  is  a  mongoose  or 
ichneumon  that  kills  the  snake  ;  in  the  Ilitopadesa 
it  is  a  weasel.  Dr  Beal  has  translated  a  \ersion 
from  the  Vinatja  I'itaha  of  the  Chinese  Buddhist 
books  (412  .\.D.).  itself  said  to  be  due  to  a  much 
older  Indian  original,  sup]>osed  to  date  from  over 
200  B.C.  This  Dr  Beal  considers  the  oldest  form 
of  the  Punchatantra  stork'.  See  vol.  ii.  of  Popular 
Talcs  and  Fictions  ( 1887),  by  \V.  A.  Clouston,  who 
corrects  some  errore  in  the  account  in  Baring- 
Gould's  Popular  Myths  of  the  3Iiddlc  A;/cs. 

Gellert.  Christian  Furchtegott,  a  German 
poet  and  moralist,  was  born  July  4,  17L5,  at  Haini- 
chen,  in  the  Erzgebirge,  Saxony,  ami  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  Leipzig.  After  spending  some 
years  in  teaching,  in  17.51  he  received  a  profes.soi'ship 
at  Leipzig,  where  he  lectured  on  jioclry,  eloquence, 
and  morals,  to  large  and  enthusiastic  audiences, 
until  his  death,  13th  December  1700.  His  imjiort- 
ance  in  Gennan  literature  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
around  him  gathered  tlio.se  who  revolted  against 
the  pedantries  and  frigid  formalities  of  (lottsched 
and  his  school,  and  thus  pioneere<l  the  way  for  tlie 
more  brilliant  reaction  of  Goethe  and  Schiller, 
(iellert  came  to  occupy  this  position  partly  on 
account  of  his  writings,  but  more  on  account  of  his 
pcr.-ion.il  character.  A  man  of  sincere  pietv,  a 
moral  enthu.4ast,  and  with  a  genuinely  good  kind 
heart,  he  was  beloved  by  his  students,  and  they 
carried  his  authority  beyond  the  walls  of  his  lecture- 
room.  His  writings  consist  principally  of  Fubeln 
and  Erzahlunijen  and  Geistlichc  Licder,  both  sets 
great  favourites  from  the  simplicity  and  natural- 
ness of  their  style,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  latter, 
their  unall'ectcd  piety.  His  Sunnntliche  Wcrke 
aiq)eared  in  10  vols,  in  1769-74;  new  ed.  1867.  See 
his  Life  by  Doring  ( 1833). 

GellillS,  At^Lf-S,  a  Latin  author,  who  tlourished 
in  the  2d  century  of  our  era,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  been  born  at  Home,  and  to  have  studied 


126 


GELNHAUSEN 


OEM 


philosopliy  at  Alliens,  after  which  he  practi»eil 
law  at  Koine  without  almndoninf,'  his  literaiv  pur- 
suits.  His  wellkiiciwn  woik,  tliu  Xdclts  Attini, 
be;,'un  durin;;  the  loiij;  nights  of  winter  in  a  country- 
house  near  Athens,  ami  eoiiipleted  iluriii','  the  later 
years  of  his  life,  is  a  collection  of  miscellaneous  anil 
ill-arraii;;eil  matter  on  laii^,'ua;,'e,antic|uilies,histiirv, 
and  liteiatine,  in  'JO  Ixioks,  of  which  the  8th  is 
wanting'.  It  contains  many  extracts  from  (ireek 
and  Latin  autliors  no  longer  extant.  The  liest 
edition  is  that  of  llert.;  ('2  vols,  lierlin,  I,SS3  S.')) ; 
see  also  the  same  editor's  O/zitsciiht  (Idlianu  (188G). 

GelllllHIISCII.  a  town  of  Prussia,  stands  on  the 
Kiiixij;  and  on  the  slopi's  of  a  vine-clad  hill,  'Hi 
miles  NK.  of  l''r,uikfiirt-oii-tlie-Main.  Here,  on 
an  islanil  in  the  Kin/.ij;,  Frederick  IJarliarossa 
hnilt  an  im])erial  resilience  (the  'I'fal/.');  ami  in 
110!)  he  ((interred  uiiiin  lh(^  villa;;e  the  freedom  of 
the  emjiire.  .\ftcr  licin^;  tiansl'erred  to  the  counts 
of  Ilanau  in  14:!.'),  (Mdnhauseii  hefjan  to  decay.  It 
has  several  old  liuildiii;;s,  ,is  the  town-house,  .some 
towers,  the  ( '.itliidic  church.  ■  princes'  house,' i.Vc. 
Top.  (  l.Sil.->)  -W9G. 

ftielon,  tyrant  of  (!ela  and  afterwards  of  Syra- 
cuse, was  .1  scion  of  a  nohle  family  of  the  f(niiier 
eity,  and  contrived  to  become  successor  to  Hippo- 
crates, its  tyrant,  in  4!(1  n.c.  Si.x  yeai-s  later  he 
made  himself  master  of  Syracuse  al.so,  which  then 
hecame  the  scat  of  his  ^'overnment,  and  to  which 
he  transferred  the  majority  of  the  iiihaliit.-uits  of 
(!ela.  His  inllucnce  soon  extended  itself  over  the 
half  of  Sicily.  (!elon  refused  to  aid  the  (ireeks 
afjainst  Xerxes,  .-is  they  di-clined  to  comply  with 
his  demand  thai  he  should  he  aiiiiointed  com- 
mander-in-chief. He  liecame  emiiroilcd  with  the 
("artlia;;iiiians  hecanse  of  their  attack  upon  his 
ally.  'I'hcron  of  .V^'ri^'cntnm,  and  defeated  them  in 
a  f,'reat  victory  at  llimera,  on  the  same  day,  accord- 
\nn  to  tradition,  on  which  the  (Ireeks  won  the 
battle  of  .Salamis.  The  clemency  and  wisdom  of 
IJelon  rendered  him  so  j,'enerally  beloved  that 
when  he  ajipeareil  unarmed  in  an  a.s.sembly  of  the 
people,  and  declared  liims(df  ready  to  resi^;n  his 
power,  hi'  was  unanimously  hailed  as  the  deliverer 
and  soverei^cn  of  Syracuse.  (!elon  died  ill  478  li.r., 
and  bis  memoiy  was  held  in  such  respect  a  century 
and  a  half  after,  that,  when  Timoleon  razed  l(i  the 
■ground  all  the  statues  of  former  tyrants,  these  of 
CJelon  alone  were  spared. 

(•('Isomilllll  llitidlim  (<!■  .setiiptrvirenji),  the 
yellow  or  Carolina  jasmine  (  nat.  old.  LojjaniaceaO, 
i.s  a  climbing'  plant  of  the  .Atlantic  southern  I'nited 
.States,  having  lar;;e,  axillary,  fra;,'iaiit,  (•histered 
blos.soms  ami  pi'iennial  ilark-j;reen  leaves.  The 
dried  rhizome  and  rootlets  are  used  in  medicine, 
and  contain  an  alkaloid,  ^el.seniine,  (',|H|„N();,  to 
which  the  plant  owes  its  physiolojjical  action. 
When  the  powdered  rhizome,  (U'any  of  the  pharina- 
cenlical  iiie]iaratii)ns  made  from  it,  is  taken  inter- 
nally in  medicinal  doses  there  ensues  a  feelin;;  of 
lan;;uiir,  with  sli;,'ht  depression  of  the  circulation 
and  lowerin;;  in  the  fre(|uency  and  force  of  the 
jiulse.  In  laij;(M'  ilo.ses  it  acts  a.s  an  active  poison, 
causinj;  cardiac  depression,  muscular  weakness,  and 
iiiarkeit  disturbance  of  vision — wide  dilatation  of 
the  pupil  and  fiei|uently  sfpiinting  and  ))tosi.s.  The 
central  nervous  system  in  man  is  also  aliected,  the 
t;ait  becomes  sta;,';;ering,  general  sensibility  is  much 
iin|iaired,  the  respiration  is  slow  and  lal)oiired,  and 
the  bodily  tenqieiatuie  is  lowered.  If  death  results 
it  is  from  failure  of  respiration.  A  solution  of  tin- 
alkaloid  apiilied  directly  to  the  eye  causes  dilata- 
tion of  the  pupil  and  ]iaraly.sis  of  acc(miinoilation. 
In  medicine  gelsemium  is  used  to  reduce  the  tern- 
jierature  in  iiuiiarial  and  other  sthenic  fevers  ;  it  is 
al.so  used  in  neiiralgi.a,  rheumatism,  pneumonia, 
and  pleurisy,  and  by  dentists. 


<a«'ls4'llkir«'ll4>li,  :i  modern  manufacturing 
town  of  W  est]ihalia,  4  miles  N\V.  of  IJoclium.  H 
owes  to  coaJ  and  iron  its  ii.se  from  a  mere  village 
since  IStiU.     Pop.  (1880)  14,615 ;  (1890)  '28,0.37. 

(■t'lll,  a  term  often  used  to  signify  a  pieciouH 
stone  of  small  size,  such  as  may  be  used  for  setting 
in  a  ring,  or  for  any  similar  purpose  of  ornament ; 
but  sometimes  by  mineralogists  in  a  .sense  which 
they  have  themselves  arbitrarily  allixed  to  it,  for 
the  purpose  of  scieiitilic  classilicatiini,  as  the  desig- 
nation of  an  ordtr  or  Jiuitiljf  of  minerals,  generally 
hard  enough  to  .scratch  ipiartz,  iiisuliible  in  acids, 
infusilile  before  the  blow]iipe,  without  metallic 
lustre,  but  mostly  brilliant  and  beantifnl.  y\moiig 
them  are  included  some  of  the  minerals  which,  in 
popular  language,  are  most  generally  known  as  gems 
— ruby,  sapphire,  sjiinel,  topaz,  bcrvl,  emeiald, 
tourmaline,  liyacinth,  zircon,  v^o.  -  aii(l  some  other 
rarer  minerals  of  similar  character  ;  but  along  with 
these  are  ranked  minerals,  often  coarser  varieties 
of  the  same  species,  which  are  not  gems  in  the 
orilinary  sense  of  the  word,  as  emery  and  common 
corundum,  whilst  diamond  and  some  other  precious 
.stones,  mncli  used  as  gems,  are  excluded.  .See 
Streeter's  I'lecimi.i  Slonrs  tiiirl  (lii)ix(  1879).  While 
the  term  gem  is  thus  used  currently  to  denote 
jewels  and  precious  stones,  it  is  strictly  aiijdi- 
cable  only  to  such  hard  and  ])reci(ms  stone-s  aa 
have  been  worked  by  engraving.  When  the  en- 
graved design  is  sunk  in  the  stone  the  gem  forms 
an  intaglio,  signet,  or  seal,  and  when  the  subject  is 
in  relief  the  gem  is  a  Cameo  (ipv).  The  rarer  and 
mole  costly  precious  stones,  such  as  the  diamond, 
ruby,  emerald,  and  sajiiihiie,  ;iie  seldom  treated  by 
engraving,  because,  in  addition  to  the  excessive 
ditliculty  of  working  them  by  engravers'  methods, 
their  value  luiiicipally  depends  <ui  their  brilliance 
of  sparkle  and  colour.  The  stones  of  the  gem-en- 
graver aiealmost  exclusively  the  variously  coloured, 
mottled,  and  banded  varieties  of  cbalcedipiiy  (|uartz, 
which  are  dillereiitly  named  according  to  the  appear- 
ance they  present.  I'"ioin  the  gem-engraver's  jioint 
of  view,  the  most  imiiortant  stones  are  carnelian, 
sard,  chrysopra.se,  |>lasma,  blnodstiuie,  jasper,  agate, 
and  onyx.  As  these  names  indicate  only  dillerences 
of  colour  and  shades,  degrees  of  tianslucency,  and 
alternations  of  bands,  all  of  which  chaiacteristi<a 
merge  into  each  other,  they  are  incapable  of  precise 
delinilimi.  The  b.anded  stone,  generally  called 
Onyx  (q.v.),  is  used  as  the  principal  material  for 
cameo-engraving,  the  relief  subject  being  worked 
in  one  coloured  band  or  stratum  on  a  ground  of  a 
difl'erent  colour. 

The  .art  of  gem-engraving  developed  from  the 
customary  use  of  seals  among  the  ancient  Egy)>tians 
and  other  early  civilised  cmnmunities  of  the  K.a.st. 
In  .addition  to  abundant  remains  of  seals  of  high 
aiitii|uity,  we  have  .ample  testimony  to  their  im- 
iiortant functions  from  numerous  references  in 
early  literature.  Thus,  in 
(Jenesis,  xxxviii.  IS,  we 
read  that  Tamardemanded 
of  .ludah  his  signet  as  a 
iiledge  ;  and  I'haraoh,  in 
investing  .Iiiseph  with  the 
ollice  of  principal  minister, 
gave  him  his  signet-ling 
as  a  token  of  authority. 
The  early  .seals  of  the 
Kgyptians  were  cut  in 
the  form  of  the  .scarabaus 
or  sacred  beetle,  with  the  Fig.  1. — Carnelian  Etru.scan 
intaglio  design  engraved  Si^rabajus  :  Centaur  and 
in  a  Hat  ba.se  ;  and  in  this  Deer, 
form  they  were  followed 

by  the  early  Greeks  and  the  Etruscans.  Among 
the  Chaldeans,  Babylonians,  and  Assyrians  the 
primitive  seals  took  the  form  of  cylinders,  around 


GEM 


127 


which  the  intaglio  device  was  engraved.  An  im- 
pression in  soft  clay  or  other  medium  waa  obtained 
from  such  seals  by  gently  rolling  tlie  cylinder  over 
the  surface  to  be  impressed.  The  earliest  of  such 
intaglios  were  cut  in  steatite,  serpentine,  and  other 
comjiaratively  soft  stones  ;  but  these  materials 
by  degrees  gave  way  to  the  harder  and  more 
enduring  materials  in  which  it  was  possible  to 
.sculpture  tine  details  with  great  nunuteness. 
The  cylindrical  signet  of  Darius  I.  of  Persia, 
engraved  in  clialcedony,  and  preserved  to  the  present 
(hiy,  is  an  example  of  the  art  at  its  highest  develop- 
ment among  the  Asiatic  monarchies. 

From  the  nature  of  the  subjects  engraved  on 
gems,  and  from  the  method  in  which  they  were 
mounted,  it  is  evident  that  they  soon  came  to  be 
employed  otherwise  than  as  signets.  (!ems  came 
to  be  worn  as  personal  ornaments  mounted  in  rings 
and  in  other  settings,  they  were  treasured  as  works 
of  art,  and  they  were  treated  as  charms  to  avert 
evil  and  to  win  success  and  the  favour  of  gods  and 
men.  For  the  breastplate  of  the  .Jewish  high- 
priest,  Moses  was  instructed  to  '  take  two  ony.x 
stones,  and  grave  on  them  the  names  of  the  children 


Kg.  2. — Chalcedony  CyUnder  :  Signet  of  Darius  I. 

of  Israel.  .  .  .  With  the  work  of  an  engraver  on 
stone,  like  the  engravings  of  a  signet,  shalt  thou 
engrave  the  two  stones'  (Exodus,  .xxviii.  9-11). 
With  the  extension  of  the  u.ses  of  gems,  the  forms 
of  the  stones  also  changed  ;  in  the  case  of  cylinders 
lirst  into  cones  engraved  on  the  base,  then  into 
hemispherical  stones,  ultimately  taking  a  thit  thin 
form  through  which  the  light  would  pass  sullicient 
to  show  the  engraving  by  transmitted  light ;  and 
with  this  view  the  stones  were  sometimes  convex 
and  cut  t«  calmrhnn.  Ancient  gems,  like  ancient 
coins,  were  generally  irregular  in  outline,  but  at  all 
times  their  prevailing  form  was  oval. 

The  earlier  engraved  gems  of  the  Greeks,  as 
already  nuiutioned,  were  in  the  form  of  scarabs. 
In  these  the  engraved  intaglio  was  enclosed  in  a 
guillocho  or  engrailed  border,  .and  the  engraving 
was  stilt'  anil  formal,  in  every  respect  like  Etruscan 
work.  Gem-engraving  in  Greece 
reacheil  its  highest  |)erfection  dur- 
ing the  tliree  centuries  which  pre- 
ceded the  Ghristian  era,  and  the 
names  of  some  of  the  most  famous 

artists  of   that  period  hav(!  I n 

handed  down  to  the  present  day. 
In  Home  the  art  wius  encouraged, 
and  nourished  till  the  period  of 
the  .Antoninrs,  after  which  it 
rapidly  declined  ;  and  such  liy- 
/antine  work  as  exists  is  rude  in 
execution,  and  interesting  only 
from  the  fact  that  with  it  Chris- 
tian subjects  begin  to  appear  in 
gems.  Cameo-engraving  was  not 
practised  till  the  days  of  imperial  Rome. 

The  subjects  of  ancient  gems  embrace  the 
whole  circle  of  ancient  art,  and  follow  the  laws 
of  its  development,  animal  forms  lieing  succeedeil 


Fig.  3. 
Greek  Sard,  with 
Indian  liacchu.s. 


by  those  of  deities  and  subjects  derived  from  the 
battles  of  Greeks  and  Am.azons  and  Centaurs, 
the  exploits  of  Hercules  and  other  heroes;  then 
by  scenes  from  tragedians  and  later  myths ;  and 
finally  by  portraits,  historical  representations, 
and  allegories.  The  inscriiitions  consist  of  the 
names  of  deities,  heroes,  and  subjects ;  dedi- 
cations to  deities ;  the  names  of  artists,  some- 
times in  the  genitive  case,  but  often  accomjianied 
by  the  verb  cpoei,  '  fecit ;'  addresses  to  individuals  ; 
gnomic  or  other  sayings,  indicating  that  tlu^  gi'ms 
are  amulets  against  demons,  thieves,  an<l  various 
evils,  or  charms  for  procuring  love  ;  the  names  of 
the  possessors,  and  sometimes  a<ldresses,  occasion- 
ally even  distichs  of  poetry,  and  various  mottoes. 
Tliese  inscriptions  were  often  added  by  .subsequent 
possessors,  and  are  not  of  the  age  of  the  gem  itself. 

With  the  decline  of  the  arts  generally,  the  art  of 
gem-engraving  .sank  <luring  the  nuddle  ages,  to  be 
awakened  again  only  through  the  patronage  of  the 
Medici  family  in  Italy  in  the  15th  century,  and 
with  varying  fortunes  it  continued  to  be  practised 
till  the  early  part  of  the  Iflth  century.  Strictly 
classical  models,  and  to  a  large  extent  classical 
subjects,  have  been  chosen  by  modern  engravers, 
and  towards  the  end  of  the  IStli  century  the  practice 
of  foisting  modern  imitations  oti  buyers  of  gems  as 
genuine  Greek  works  of  the  best  jieriod  became 
very  prevalent.  Prince  Poniatowsky,  who  in- 
herited a  small  collection  of  ancient  gems  from 
Stanislaus,  l;ist  king  of  Poland,  employed  the 
most  skilful  engravers  of  his  day  to  fill  up  his 
cabinet  with  imitation  antiiiues  on  which  the 
names  of  the  most  eminent  engravers  of  antiiiuity 
were  forged.  The  I'oniatowsky  forgeries  did  nuu-li 
to  bring  gem-engraving  into  disrepute,  and  to 
lower  the  value  of  even  fine  and  undoubted  works. 
The  iliagnosis  of  gems  has  been  rendered  a  work  of 
extreme  difficulty ;  and,  as  the  modern  inutator 
Iiossesses  conveniences  for  his  task  which  were  not 
at  the  disposal  of  the  ancient  artist,  works  of  high 
artistic  merit  and  great  finish  are  more  likely  to  be 
modern  than  ancient. 

In  modern  times  a  considerable  trade  h.i.s  been 
carried  on  in  the  preparation  of  artificial  gems, 
both  cameos  and  intaglios,  for  jewelry  purjjoses  and 
for  the  cabinets  of  collectors.  The  most  f.amous 
and  successful  maker  of  pastes  was  James  Ta.s.sie, 
a  native  of  Polloksbaws,  near  (Jlasgow,  who  in 
the  latter  lualf  of  the  IStli  century  settled  in  Lon- 
don, anil  then,  with  niiirvellous  industry,  succeeded 
in  copying  ujiwards  of  15,000  of  the  most  famous 
and  artistic  gems  of  ancient  and  modern  times, 
lint  Tassie's  activity  was  not  coidiiied  to  the  co]iy- 
ing  of  gems  alone.  He  produced  in  cameo  a  large 
series  of  portraits  of  his  most  famous  contem- 
poraries, and,  while  his  whole  productions  are  now 
liighly  prized,  these  large  cameos  are  in  great 
rei|uest,  and  command  high  and  steadily-incrciising 
prices. 

Paste  copies  of  existing  gems  are  made  with 
comparative  ease,  by  obtaining  an  impression  from 
the  original  in  very  line  moist  Tripoli  earth  or 
rotten-stone,  which  mould  is  carefully  dried.  .\ 
piece  of  glass  of  the  reiiuired  colour  and  size  is  then 
laid  over  the  mould,  and  i>laced  in  a  furnace,  which 
is  raised  to  a  heat  sufficient  to  melt  the  ghuss, 
causing  it  to  flow  o\er  and  accurately  till  the 
mould.  When  a  cameo  is  being  made,  the  raised 
)iorthin  alone  is  so  moidded  in  opaijue  white  glass, 
and,  its  back  being  ground  Hat  and  smooth,  it  is 
cemented  to  a  mount  of  any  desired  colour.  In 
some  cases  the  mount  itself  is  melted  to  the  already 
formed  relief  ]iortion,  which  for  this  purjiose,  after 
grinding  away  of  the  superfluous  glass,  is  reintro- 
iluced  into  the  furnace  endiedded  in  !i  Tripoli 
mould  to  allow  of  the  mount  lieing  melted  over  it. 
I'lirtrait  cameos  are  made  from  wax  models,  castci 


128 


GEMARA 


GENDER 


of  which  are  taken  in  the  same  way  as  niouUU  are 
obtaiiietl  from  jieiiis. 

I'or  the  making'  of  imitation  };ems  or  precious 
Ktmu's  (en^'iavL'il  or  not )  from  <;la.«s  si»'oially  pre- 
|)are(l  ami  rolourcd,  as  well  as  for  tlie  iiroihu'tion 
of  actual  Imt  artilicial  ]iri'cious  stones  liy  chemical 
methods,  see  SroNKs  ( I'UKOlois),  as  also  Dia- 
mond, KlliV,  I'KAIU,,  iVc.     Kor  seals,  see  Sea  I,. 

The  chief  implement  used  hy  the  ancient  en- 
gravers appears  to  have  been  matle  hy  splitting' 
corundum  into  splints  hy  a  heavy  hamni>'r.  ami 
then  llxin;;  these  points  like  ^.'laziei's'  diamomls 
into  iron  instruments,  with  which  the  work  was 
executed  hy  the  hand  i/enu  iclusu).  The  drill, 
tcrchra,  was  also  extensively  used  for  hollowing; 
out  the  deeper  and  larf^er  parts  of  the  work,  and 
emery  powder,  the  siiiiiris  or  Naxiaii  stone,  for 
|iolishinj;.  The  so-called  wheel,  a  tninnte  disc  of 
copper,  secured  to  the  end  of  a  spindle,  and 
moistened  with  emery  powder  or  diamond  dust, 
and  ilriven  hy  a  lathe,  does  not  appear  to  have 
come  into  use  till  the  liyxantine  epoch.  It  has 
been  conjectured  that  the  artist  used  lenses  of 
.some  kind,  or  j,'lolies  lilled  with  water,  to  execute 
his  minute  work  ;  hut  the  ancient,  like  tlu^  modern 
en;,'raver,  rather  felt  than  saw  his  way.  All  these 
processes  were  not  employeil  liy  the  same  artist, 
for,  hesiiles  the  enj;raver  (arahitor  cavariiis,  t/ticty- 
liu;/h//i/ui!i),  there  was  a  polisher  (pulitor),  not  to 
mention  arran-jers  [coinjjusituris  i/cmiiuiriim),  and 
merchants  [t/cniiiutrii,  iiumr/oucs  f/cniiminim)  who 
drove  a  nourishing'  trade  in  emeralds  and  i)earls 
an<l  cn^r.ivcd  stones  in  the  ilays  of  Horace. 

The  principal  writers  of  anti(|nily  who  treat e<l  of 
f,'enis  are  Ononiacritns  or  tlie  I'scudo-t  )rpheus, 
Dionysius  l'erie;,'etes,  Theoiihrastns,  and  I'liiiy, 
whose  chapter  is  compiled  from  antecedent  (ireek 
and  Komaii  authors.  Jsidorus,  O.'SO  .\.I).,  j;'*'es  an 
account  of  the  principal  stones  ;  so  do  Psellus  and 
Marhodus  in  the  11th  century. 

Sec  Mariett*,  J'urrts  (r')vt,v'r<  (Paris,  17r)0) ;  Raspc, 
Dcscri/jtiie  Cataloi/ue  of  Enfiravnl  Ocmji  (Loud.  1701); 
ATillin,  fntrottitrtion  d  VKtnde  tks  Picrrr.i  (rrnrvcs 
(Taris,  17'.)7);  Krause.  Pi/n/oOlts  (Halle,  1850);  King, 
Antique  Genui  and  liintjA  (.'M  ed.  2  vols.  1S7-),  and 
Handbook  of  Ent/ravcd  (t'cms  (lid  ed.  18,S5) ;  Bucher, 
Oesch.  tier  ttchnhtchen  KihuiU:  (187-'));  liillin-^,  Science 
of  Geni^,  ic.  (Load.  J875I;  Pannier,  Les  Lapidaires 
Franfui-i  da  Moiirii  Aije  (Paris,  1S712);  Jones,  Hixtorii 
and  Mi/stcn/  of  Precious  Stoncx  (18.S0);  Gutty,  Cata- 
loi/ue  of  the  Enijrared  Gems  in  the  Collection  of  J.  Mui/er 
(1879) ;  Cataloijue  of  the  Engraved  Genu  in  tlie  Briiis/i 
Museum  (Lend.  188«). 

Cciiiara.    See  Talmud. 

Cieillilli  (the  Twins'),  the  third  constellation 
in  the  zodiac     See  C.vsTou  .VXD  PoLLL'X. 

Geiiiistiis.    See  Pletiio. 

C>«>iiiiii:iti»ii.    See  Kepkoduction. 

Goilillli  I'a.ss,  a  narrow  path,  nearly  2  miles 
lonK>  which  cro.sses  the  Alps  at  a  heijilit  of  T.Vi.S 
feet,  and  connects  the  Swi.ss  cantons  of  Bern  and 
Valois. 

GelllMt.  See  FOLK-MOOT,  ViLL.-VCiE  COMMUNI- 
TIES, \Vm;NA(;EMOTE. 

Gl'llls-b4»k  {Oryx  Oazella),  a  species  of  ante- 
lope, de.scriUed  hy  some  naturalists  as  the  Ury.x, 
but  which,  hcinj;  a  native  of  South  Africa  only, 
cannot  he  the  Oryx  of  the  ancients,  althou;;h  it 
is  certainly  a  nearly  allied  .species.  It  is  a  heavy, 
stout  animal,  ahoul  the  size  of  a  stag,  with  rough 
rever.setl  hair  on  the  neck  and  along  the  ridge  of 
the  back  ;  large  pointe<l  ears  ;  and  almost  perfectly 
straight  horns,  fully  two  feet  long,  in  the  plane  of 
the  forehead,  little  diverging,  and  obscurely  ringed 
at  the  hiuse.  The  colours  are  harshly  contrasted, 
dark  rusty  gray  above,  and  white  on  the  under  parts, 
oeparated  by  a  bruad  dark-brown  or  black  band  ; 


the  head  white,  with  black  transverse  banH.s ;  the 
thighs  black,  and  the  legs  white.     The  hoofs  are 


Geins-bok. 

remarkably  long,  adajited  to  the  rockv  mountain- 
ous districts  which  the  animal  frei|nents.  The 
(iems-hok  makes  such  use  of  its  horns  as  some 
times  even  to  beat  oil'  the  lion.  It  inhabits  dis- 
tricts free  from  wooil,  and  is  generally  found  in 
pairs  or  in  very  small  henls. 

4»4'lia7,/ailO.  a  small  town  of  4(X)S  inhabitants, 
27  miles  K.  of  Pome,  containing  an  ohl  castle  of 
the  L'olonna  family,  and  the  far-fauKMl  |iilgrinuige 
chapel  of  the  Madonna  del  liuon  Consiglio.  See 
The,  Vin/in  Mother  of  douil  Counsel,  bv  l)r  Ci.  F. 
Dillon  (iss.-)). 

(■«'IHlai'IUt>S  (Fr.,  'men-at-arms')  were  orig- 
in.Uly  iiiuurited  lancers,  arnieil  at  all  point.s,  anil 
attemleil  by  live  inferior  soldiers,  who  were  fur- 
IiLshed  by  the  holders  of  liel's  ;  thi'se  were  rei)laced 
by  Charles  VII.  s  roiu/uiijiiie.i  (t'onloiiiitoiir,  which 
were  (lis.solved  in  17S7,  one  company  of  genilar- 
nierie  being  retained  as  the  bodyguard  of  Louis 
XVI.  Since  the  Kevolution,  except  for  a  short 
I  interval  at  the  Ucstoration,  the  gendarmes  have 
constituted  a  military  ]>olice,  which  superseded  the 
old  iniirir/mu.i.icc,  and  comprises  both  cavalry  and 
infantry  ;  divided  into  legions  and  companies,  and 
these  latter  into  brigades,  the  organisation  of  the 
fince  corresponds  to  the  territinial  divisions  of  the 
army.  The  men  receive  much  higher  jiay  than  the 
rest  of  the  army,  of  which,  however,  the  corps  is 
a  iiart,  its  members  being  drafted  from  the  line 
for  this  .service,  (iermany  also  since  ISOS  has  had 
its  '/cNi/nrimu.     See  Pol. ICE. 

4iOII4l('r.   a   grammatical    distinction    between 

words  corresponding  directly  or  mcta])horically  to 
the  natural  ilistinction  of  sex.  Names  applied  to 
the  male  sex  are  said  to  be  of  the  iitascitlinc  gender  ; 
tho.se  applied  to  the  female  sex,  Jrmitiine  ;  while 
words  that  are  neither  ma-sculine  nor  feminine  are 
said  to  be  neuter  or  of  neither  gender.  In  modern 
Knglish  we  have  no  such  thing  iis  merely  gram- 
matical gender,  save  when  se.x  is  im)ilicd  meta- 
|ihorically  to  inanimate  things  (a  ship,  a  steam- 
engine,  &c. )  by  such  a  ligure  of  speech  .us  per- 
sonilication ;  but  in  Old  English,  as  well  as  in 
Sanskrit,  tireek,  and  Latin,  the  greater  part  of 
inanimate  things  are  either  masculine  or  feminine, 
the  others  being  neuter;  and  this  distinction  of 
gender  is  marked  hy  the  terminations  of  the  nom- 
inative and  other  ca.se-endings.  (Grammatical 
gender  went  gradually  out  of  use  after  the  Norman 


GENEALOGY 


GENERATIONS 


lL'9 


Concjuest.  the  northern  dialects  being  the  earliest 
to  dLscard  it.  In  Hebrew  there  is  no  neuter,  all 
names  being  either  masculine  or  feminine,  as  also 
in  the  modern  Romance  tongues,  Italian,  French, 
Spanish,  and  Portuguese.  German,  again,  in  this 
particular  resembles  Old  English  and  the  classical 
tongues.     See  Gr.\mm.\R. 

Genealogy.    See  Pedigree. 

Cieneral,  or  Gener.vl  Officer,  is  an  officer 
of  the  general  staff  of  the  army.  A  field-marshal 
or  general  commanding-in-chief  would  in  the  field 
usually  command  several  Army  Cor|)S  (((.v.),  a 
general  one  corps,  a  lieutenant-geneial  one  Divi- 
si<ra  ('(.v.),  a  major-general  one  Brigade  (q.v. ). 
Brigailier-generals  in  the  British  army  are  usually 
colonels  in  temporary  command  of  brigades.  In 
1901  there  were  S  lifeld-mai-slials  in  the  British  army, 
-3  generals,  32  lieutenant-generals,  and  115  major- 
generals  ;  there  were  also  10  surgeon-generals  and 
one  surgeon-colonel  ranking  as  major-generals.  If 
unemployed  for  five  years  in  either  rank  they 
are  compulsorily  retired.  Also,  a  major-general 
nmst  retire  if  he  reaches  sLxty-two  >nthout  being 
promoted,  and  a  lieutenant-general  or  general  at 
sixty-seven.  Promotion  amongst  the  generals  Ls 
by  seniority,  unless  there  are  good  grounds  for  a 
contrary  course,  but  promotion  to  field-marshal  Ls 
made  by  the  sovereign  without  respect  to  seniority. 
Colonels,  if  under  fifty-five  (sLxtv-two  if  holding 
temporary  rank  as  major-general),  and  stated  to 
be  competent  by  the  commander-in-chief,  are 
eligible  for  promotion  to  general's  rank,  and  the 
seniors  are  usually  taken  to  till  vacancies  as  they 
occur  ;  but  at  any  time  a  colonel  may  be  promoted 
for  distinguLshed  conduct. 

As  regards  pay,  when  actively  employed  a 
general  commanding-in-chief  receives  £10,  15s.  a 
day  ;  a  general  not  in  chief  command,  £8  ;  a  lieu- 
tenant-general, £5,  10s. ;  a  major-general,  £3 ;  and 
a  brigadier-general,  £2,  10s.,  all  exclusive  of  allow- 
ances for  forage,  &c.  When  on  half-pay  a  field- 
marshal  receives  £1300  a  year,  the  others  £800, 
£650,  and  £500  respectively.  When  retired  a  general 
receives  £1000  a  year,  a  lieutenant-general  £850, 
and  a  major-general  £700 ;  but  there  are  various 
modifications  affecting  these  amounts. 

The  rank  of  captaiit-yciicrnl,  superior  even  to 
field-marshal,  is  held  by  the  sovereign  ex  officio,  and 
is  borne  by  tlie  colonel  of  the  Honourable  Artillery 
Company  of  London,  but  otheruise  it  ha.s  not  been 
conferred  upon  any  officer  of  the  British  army  during 
the  19th  century. 

In  tlie  United  States  the  rank  of  general,  a 
higher  rank  than  had  before  existed,  was  created 
by  act  of  congress  in  1866,  and  conferred  on  General 
Grant.  It  was  subsequently  conferred  on  Sherman 
and  on  Sheridan.  The  highest  rank  held  by  Wasli- 
ington  w;i-s  that  of  lieutenant-general,  which  is 
al.so  usually  that  of  the  general-in-chief  of  the  army. 
There  is,  of  course,  but  one  lieutenant-general;  and 
by  law  there  can  be  but  three  major-generals  and 
six  brigadier-generals.  The  generals  yearly  pay 
is  §13,500;  the  lieutenant-general's  is  .§11,000  ;  tlie 
major-general's,  §7500;  the  brigadier-general's, 
§5500.  In  the  militia  there  are  ranks  with  like 
names,  and  the  title  of  general  as  a  form  of 
address  is  consequently  of  embarrassing  frequency 
in  the  United  States. 

Cleiieral,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the 
supreme  head,  under  the  pope,  of  the  aggregated 
communities  throughout  ChrLstendom  belonging 
to  a  religious  order  (though  the  abbas  abbatum 
of  the  BeneiUctines  is  not  actually  styled 
■  general ' ).  The  governing  authorities  of  the 
monastic  orders  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
may  lie  arranged  in  three  classes:  (1)  the 
^^uperiors  nf  individual  convents  or  communities, 
217 


called  in  different  orders  by  the  various  names  of 
abbot,  prior,  rector,  guardian,  &c. ;  (2)  the  pro- 
\iucials,  Avho  have  authority  over  all  the  convents 
of  a  '  province ' — the  provinces  being  usually  coin- 
cident in  limit  with  kingdoms  ;  (3)  the  general,  to 
whom  not  only  each  member  of  the  ortler,  but  all 
the  various  officials  of  every  rank  are  absolutely 
subject.  The  general  is  usually  elected,  commonly 
by  the  general  chapter  of  the  order,  which,  in  the 
majority  of  orders,  consists  properly  of  the  provin- 
cials ;  witli  these,  however,  are  generally  asso- 
ciated the  heads  of  the  more  important  monasteries, 
as  also  the  superiors  of  certaui  subdivisions  of  pro- 
vinces. The  office  of  general  in  most  orders  is  held 
for  three  years.  In  that  of  the  Jesuits  it  is  for  life  ; 
but  in  all  the  election  of  the  "eneral  chapter  must 
be  confirmed  by  the  pope.  In  most  orders,  too, 
there  is  assigned  to  the  general  a  consultor  ( ac/moni- 
fur)  or  associate  (sociiis),  who,  however,  is  only 
entitled  to  advise,  and  has  no  authority  to  control 
the  superior.  The  general  aLso  is  supposed  to  con- 
sult with  and  to  receive  reports  from  the  various 
local  superiors.  He  sends,  if  necessarj',  a  visitor 
to  inquire  into  particular  abuses,  or  to  report  upon 
such  controversies  as  may  arise,  and  he  holds  a 
fjeneral  chapter  of  the  order  at  stated  times,  which 
differ  according  to  the  usage  of  the  several  orders. 
The  general  is  exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdic- 
tion, being  subject  to  the  immediate  jurisdiction 
of  the  pope  himself.  He  resides  in  Rome,  Avhere 
he  enjoys  certain  privileges,  the  most  import- 
ant of  which  is  the  right  to  sit  and  vote  with 
the  bishops  In  a  general  council  of  the  church. 
See  Mox.\CHlSM,  and  the  articles  on  the  several 
orders. 


lieneral    Assembly. 

General. 


See     Assembly, 


Generalisation  is  the  act  of  comprehending 
under  a  general  name  a  number  of  objects  which 
agree  in  one  or  more  points.  These  points  are 
specially  attended  to  by  the  process  of  Abstraction 
(q.v.),  and  are  indicated  by  the  common  name. 
The  result  of  generalisation  is  a  common  name  or 
general  term,  which  stands  for  the  many  objects 
in  so  far  only  as  they  all  agree.  This  process  Is 
closely  akin  to  classification  and  to  definition ; 
and  the  higher  kind  of  generalisation  is  Induction 
(q.v.). 

In  logic  the  genus  is  a  higher  class  which  in- 
cludes a  lower,  the  lower  one  being  the  Species; 
but  the  distinction  is  only  relative.  That  which 
is  a  genus  in  relation  to  its  species  is  itself  a  species 
in  regard  to  a  higher  genus.  The  genus  has  the 
larger  Extension  (q.v.),  the  species  the  larger 
intension.  For  the  great  question  as  to  whether 
the  genera  and  species  have  a  real  existence,  see 
No>iix.\LlSM.  For  genus  in  natural  historj-,  see 
Genvs. 

Generation,  a  single  succession  in  natural 
ilescent,  the  children  of  tlie  same  parents  ;  in  years 
three  generations  are  accounted  to  make  a 
century. 

Generation,  Spostaseous.    See  Spoxtase- 

ous  Gexeratios. 

Generations.  Alterxatiox  of,  an  interest- 
ing complication  in  the  life-history  of  many  plants 
and  animals,  the  organism  producing  ofispring 
which  are  unlike  itself,  but  which  in  turn  give  rise 
to  forms  like  the  original  parents.  Thus,  a  zoo- 
phyte buds  off  a  swimniing-oell,  and  the  fertilii^ed 
ova  of  the  latter  develop  into  the  former.  Early 
in  the  century  tlie  poet  Chamlsso,  accompanying 
Kotzebue  on  his  circumnavigation  of  the  globe, 
called  attention  for  the  first  time  to  the  fact  of 
alternation  as  observed  in  one  of  the  locomotor 
tunicates  (Salpa):  the  progress  of  marine  zoologj- 
and  the  study  of  parasitic  worms  gave  many  natural 


130 


GKNKRATIONS 


isUt  plimiises  of  other  alternationB  ;  Imt  Steenstrup 
\V!Ls  tlie  first  to  jieneralisc  tlie  rcmiltH  in  liii*  work 
jmlilislied  ill  184'J,  entitled  '  <»n  tlie  Alternation  of 
(ienerations  ;  or  the  )ir(i]ianation  ami  ilevelci|iiiient 
of  animals  tliroii^h  alternate  ;;enerat ions,  a  peeiiliar 
form  of  fosteriiij;  the  yoiiii^'  in  the  lower  elasses  of 
animals.'  I'rom  liy<li<picls  and  Ihikes  he  i;ave  illus- 
trations of  the  'natural  ^)heln>mella  <if  an  animal 
proilucini,'  an  otVsiiring  which  at  no  time  resemhles 
Its  i)areut,  hut  which  itself  hrin<,'S  forth  a  progeny 
that  returns  in  its  form  and  nature  to  the  parent,' 
and  <listin;^uished  the  interpolated  (generation  as 
tUe  A  III  me,  »r  'wet-nurse.'  Ilis  e.s.sa,v  was  sternly 
criticised  hy  Owen  in  1849,  while  Leuckart  at- 
tempted to  treat  all  the  alternations  as  cases  of 
metamorphosis.  Criticism,  however,  has  only  ren- 
dered Steenstrup's  generalisation  nicue  i>recise,  and 
the  ohservations  of  some  of  the  foremost  natural- 
ists have  shown  that  the  phenomena  are  of  wider 
occurrence  than  w,is  ,at  first  sujiposed,  though  the 
form  of  the  alternation  varies  widely  in  the  difl'erent 
cases. 

(ii )  The  li/ii/l/im  hftirccn  Sexual  nil'/  Asexual  lie- 
piotlurtirm. — The  simplest  case  to  start  with  is  that 
of  many  hydroiils  where  a  sessile,  plant-like  zoo- 
phyte—a colony  of  numerous  nutritive  '  persims  '— 
produces  in  the  summer  iiionths  moilili(>il  reiuodne- 
tive  individuals  which  are  set  adrift  as  medusiiids. 
Tlies(>  liecome  sexual,  and  their  fertilised  ova 
develop  into  emhiyos  which  settle  down  and  give 
rise  to  the  sessile  zoophyte  from  whiih  we  started. 
The  life-history  may  be  written  in  the  I'nrmula  -. 


(where  M  ami  F  stand  for  male  and  female,  and  A 
for  asexual  generation). 

The  life-history  of  the  common  jelly-fish  ( Anrelia) 
(fig.    1)  illustrates  a  similar  contrast.     From  the 


Fig.  1.  — Life-history  of  the  conunon  .Jelly-fish  : 
1,  frcc-swiniiniiiR    eiiit>ryo  {)>lnnuhi)\    2m,   tlie    embryo    fixed 
ili-vrloping  into  a   *  hylra-tulwi,"   which  (7-JS)  divides  trans- 
versely into  a   pile  of   individuals;    these  in   turn   (9)  are 
lil)erated  and  grow  ( 10-U  J  into  jelly-fish.    (  From  Haeckel.) 

large  free-swimming  sexual  jelly-fish  embrj'os  are 
produced  which  ilevelop  not  into  jelly  fish  again, 
but  into  sessile  tubular  organisms  or  '  hydra-tub;e. ' 


A,  a.sexnal,  produces  S,  sexual,  from  fertilised  ovum  of  which 
A  again  arises. 

From  these,  by  growth  and  division  in  an  entirely 
asexual  fashion,  the  jelly-fish  are  in  turn  repro- 


duced. Here  the  sexual  generation  is  the  more 
stable  and  conspicuous — the  reverse  of  the  former 
case,  but  the  same  formula  apjilies,  or  the  jireceding 
graphic  notation.  In  the  frec'swimming  Tunicata 
(Salpa  and  Holioliim)  the  altein.ation  is  some- 
what more  comidex,  but  in  no  essential  respect 
ditlerent. 

(i)  A/lenitition  between  Sejiiril  ami  Degenerate 
Scj-iial  liipruiliieliun. — The  lifi>  history  of  the  com- 
mon liver-fluke,  sketched  in  the  article  Fm'KE,  is 
in  most  ca.ses  as  follows  :  From  the  fertilised  ovum 
of  the  fluke  an  embryo  develops,  which  luoduces 
.several  asexual  generations,  the  last  of  which  grow- 
up  to  become  sexual  flukes.  Now  the  asexual 
generations  are  not  products  of  division  or  budding, 
but  aiise  from  what,  though  not  ova,  maybe  called 
precocious  reproductive  cells;  in  fact,  they  arise  by 
a  degenerate  process  of  ]iarthenogenelic  reproduc- 
tion in  early  life.  The  facts  may  be  thus  ex- 
pressed : 


^^■heIe  A-  and  A'  represent  t«i)  of  the  interpolated 
asexual  generations. 

This  alternation  lietween  sexual  reproduction 
by  fertilised  ova  and  reproduction  by  means  of 
.special  cells  which  require  no  fertilisation  prevails 
in  many  plants — e.g.  ferns  and  mos.ses.  From  a 
fertilised  egg-cell  arises  the  ordinary  fern-]ilant 
with  which  all  .are  familiar.  This,  however,  pro 
duces  no  male  or  female  elements,  liut  simjily 
'spore.s,' which  are  able  of  themselves  (when  they 
fail  to  the  grimnd)  to  develop  a  new  organism — 
the  inconspicuous  but  sexual  '  ]irotballus.'  This 
bears  male  or  female  organs  or  both,  and  from  the 
fertilise<l  egg-cell  thus  jiroduced  the  conspicu- 
ous vegetative,  sexless  fern-plant  once  more 
arises.  The  facts  may  be  again  expressed  in 
notation  : 


A,  till-  vegetative  sexless  fem-plant  prwiueea  a  spore  («p.)  from 
which  the  sexual  *  pn)thalfns,'  8,  arises,  giving  origin  Uy 
fertilised  egg-cells,  and  thereby  recommencing  the  cycle. 

The  same  fonnnla  will  apply  to  the  moss.  The 
familiar  moss-]ilant  bears  male  and  female  repro 
diictive  organs.  From  a  fertilised  egg  cell  so  pro- 
duced a  sexless  spore-jiroducing  geneiation  at  once 
develops,  and  grows  like  a  |iar.isiie  on  the  apex  of 
the  moss  ]>lant.  The  sjiores  f.all  to  the  ground,  and 
grow  out  into  threads  ( '  luotonema '),  from  which 
there  is  finally  budded  the  mo.ss-plant  with  which 
we  started. 

liesiiles  the  above  altern.ations  there  are  other 
rhythms,  some  more  complex,  others  much  less 
frtMpient,  into  which  we  cannot  here  enter.  In 
some  cases  the  life-history  of  the  liver-fluke,  by  the 
division  of  the  embryo  (sporocyst),  combines  the 
alternations  (o)  and  [h);  in  some  midge  larv.-e 
juvenile  ]iarthenogenesis  alternates  with  the  adult 
sexual  process  ;  in  not  a  few  cases,  as  in  aphides, 
the  rhythm  is  between  parthenogenesis  and  normal 
sexual  reproduction  :  while  finally  there  is  an  alter- 
nation of  two  diflerent  sexual  generations  in  three 
threadworms  or  nematodes. 

Occurrence. — Alternation  of  generations  is  hinted 


GENESEE 


GENETTE 


131 


II. 

.  expresses  ordinary  al- 
ternation between  sex- 
ual (S)  anil  asexual  (As) 
generations;  in  II.  the 
asexual  is  increasingly 
subordinated  to  the  sex- 
ual (as  in  mosses);  in 
III.  tlie  sexual  is  sub- 
ordinated to  the  asexual 
(as  in  flowering  plants). 


at  in  the  colonial  Radiolarians,  in  definitely  seen  in 
tlie  fre.sh-water  sponge,  is  very  chaiacteiistic  of  the 
Cuulenterates,  prevails  with  curious  complications 
in  the  liukes,  is  doubtful  in  tapeworms,  occurs  in 
one  form  in  a  few  Nematodes  and  in  certain 
Cha'topods  (Syllids),  is  represented  by  the  rhythm 
between  pa,rtlienogenesis  and  sexual  reproduction 
in  crustaceans  and  insects,  and  is  very  emphatic 
where  it  was  first  observed — in  the  locomotor  tuni- 
cates. 

In  the  lower  plants,  alg.'e  and  fungi,  an  alterna- 
tion between  spore-producing 
and  truly  se.xual  generations 
is  fref^uent.  In  mosses  and 
ferns  it  is  almost  constant, 
A /-      V,,    I  and  yet  more  marked.    Occa- 

^'  '         ^" '  sionally    spore-formation    or 

sex-cell  formation  may  be 
suppressed,  and  the  life- 
histoi-y  thus  simplified.  In 
the  (lowering  plants  what 
corresponds  to  the  sexual 
generation  of  a  fern  is  much 
reduced ;  it  has  come  to 
remain  continuous  with  the 
vegetative  asexual  genera- 
tion, on  which  it  has  bad  a 
subtle  physiological  reaction. 
Hints  as  to  liatioiiale. — 
The  origin  and  import  of  the 
above  rhythms,  and  their 
relation  to  the  theory  of 
heredity,  are  difficult  prob- 
lems. To  some  extent,  iiow- 
ever,  it  is  easy  to  recognise 
that  some  of  the  alterna- 
tions only  express  with 
emphasis  the  fundamental  organic  antithesis  be- 
tween nutrition  and  reproduction.  A  fixed  hydroid 
— passive  and  well  nourished,  is  preponderatingly 
vegetative  and  asexual ;  the  re^■erse  habit,  the 
physiological  rebound,  finds  expression  in  the 
actively  locomotor  sexual  swimming-bell  or  medu- 
soiil.  In  the  same  way,  though  the  alternation  is 
less  strictly  between  asexual  and  sexual,  the  con- 
trast between  the  deeply-rooted,  leafy,  spore-l)ear- 
iiig  fern-plant  and  the  inconspicuous,  weakly-rooted, 
sliglitly-exposed,  se.xual  protballus  is  again  funda- 
mentally parallel.  Alternation  of  generations  is  in 
fact  an  emphasised  rhythm  between  the  anabolic 
and  k.atabolic  tendencies  so  fundamental  in  the 
individual  and  racial  life.  To  this,  however,  it 
will  be  necessaiy  to  return  in  the  article  Repro- 
duction. 

See  Stcenstrup,  '  On  the  Alternation  of  Generations ' 
I  Eng.  trans.  Kay  Society,  184.5);  0\\en\  ParUtcnoiicncsis 
{ 184!)) ;  Haeckel's  Oencrello  Morphologic  (Berlin,  186G) ; 
(ieddes  and  Thomson,  TJte  Evolution  of  Sex  (Lond. 
1889). 

C1CII6SOC,  a  remarkable  river  rising  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  llowing  nearly  'IW  miles  north  through 
western  New  York  into  Lake  Ontario,  7  miles  N. 
of  Rochester.  The  (ienesee  is  famous  for  its 
extraordinary  falls.  Three  of  these  occur  within 
a  distance  of  li  mile ;  two  are  respectively  (i.S 
and  90  feet  high,  and  the  Portage  Falls  are  110 
feet  high.  The  river  has  also  a  sheer  fall  of  9.") 
feet  at  Rochester,  utilised  for  water-i)ower ;  and 
another  cascade,  a  few  miles  below,  is  almost  as 
high. 

<ieiiesis  (Gr. ,  '  origin,'  'generation'),  the  name 
given  by  the  Septuagint  to  the  openini^;  liook  of  the 
Pentateuch.  In  the  Hebrew  Bible  it  is  named, 
from  its  first  word,  Bcresliith  ( '  in  the  beginning  '). 
Critics  are  agreed  that  the  book,  like  the  rest  of  the 
IVntateuch,  is  a  mosaic,  drawn  from  various 
sources.     A  general  description  of  these  is  already 


given  in  the  section  on  the  Law  and  Historical 
Books  in  the  article  BIBLE. 

In  Genesis  the  historical  thread  of  the  Priestly 
Code  runs  parallel  to  that  of  the  .Juhovistic  element, 
which,  in  the  view  now  prevailing,  is  the  earlier  of 
the  two.  The  Priestly  Code  opens  the  book  with 
its  account  of  the  creation  of  the  world  (i.  I — ii.  4«). 
which  is  immediately  followed  by  the  Jehovistic 
account  (ii.  46 — iii.  24).  After  these  are  given, 
both  in  the  Priestly  narrative  and  the  Jehovistic, 
the  transition  from  Adam  to  Noah  (iv.  v.),  the 
Hood  (vi.-ix. ),  and  the  transition  from  Noah  to 
Abraham  (x.  xi.).  In  Genesis  the  Priestly  narra- 
tive is  a  summary  of  facts  mainly  subordinated  to 
the  development  of  the  theocracy.  The  history  is 
broken  into  sections,  each  beginning  with  the  words, 
'  these  are  the  fjcncrations  of,'  &c.  ( vi.  v.  1 ;  vi.  9  ;  x.  1  ; 
xi.  10,  iSrc. ),  whence  the  name  Genesis  is  derived. 
The  whole  is  divided  into  three  periods,  each  intro- 
duced by  a  covenant — ( 1 )  with  Adam  ( i.  28 — ii.  4 )  ; 
(2)  witli  Noah  (ix.  1-1")  ;  and  (.3)  with  Abraham 
(xvii.).  Each  covenant  has  its  sign  :  the  first  ha.s 
the  Sabbath  (ii.  3),  the  second  the  rainbow  (ix.  12), 
the  third  circumcision  (xvii.  10).  These  three 
periods  and  covenants  lead  up  to  the  fourth  period 
and  covenant — viz.  the  Mosaic.  The  writer  pro- 
ceeds in  an  orderly  and  circumstantial  manner, 
giving  much  attention  to  chronology,  and,  for  the 
sake  of  clearness,  sometimes  repeating  details  more 
in  the  style  of  a  lawyer  than  a  historian  ( cf.  vii. 
13-16;  viii.  15-19;  xxiii.  17,  18,  20).  The  name 
for  God  used  by  him  in  Genesis  is  Elohim  or  El 
Shaddai  (see  Ex.  vi.  3).  The  pi'omises  are  by  hira 
confined  to  Israel,  and  have  no  reference  to  salva- 
tion through  Israel  for  Gentiles  (cf.  xvii.  6-8; 
x.xviii.  3,  4;  .x.xxv.  11,  12). 

The  '  skeleton  of  ethnographic  genealogy  '  which, 
in  both  narratives,  is  the  foundation  of  the  patri- 
archal history,  is  in  the  Jehovistic  '  covered  with 
Hesh  and  blood.'  Here  the  characters  are  living 
men,  and  their  passions  and  actions  are  traced  with 
the  deep  moral  and  religious  inspiration  and  the 
marvellous  epic  vividness  and  force  which  give  their 
imperishable  charm  to  the  stories  of  (Jenesis.  And 
it  IS  the  prophetical  narrative  that  shows  how  the 
Divine  purpose  included  from  the  lieginning  a 
remedy  for  the  world'.s  sin  (iii.  15),  reveals  the 
long-siitt'ering  mercy  of  the  Divine  mind  ( cf.  viii. 
21,  22;  xviii.  23  ct  sen.),  and  prophesies  that  'in 
Abraham's  seed  shall  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  be 
blessed' (xii.  3;  xviii.  18;  xxviii.  14).  For  the 
distinction  made  betAveen  difi'erent  parts  of  the  pro - 
phetical  narrative  (less  obvious  than  that  between 
the  prophetical  narrative  itself  and  the  Priestly 
Code),  see  Pentateuch.  How  the  conclusions  of 
science  have  affected  the  literal  faith  in  the  descrip- 
tions of  creation  given  in  Genesis  is  shown  in  the 
article  Cre.\tion,  and  in  Rielini,  Dcr  hihlische 
tiehiipfungsbcricht  (Halle,  1881). 

See  the  Commentaries  by  Luther,  Calvin,  Kosenmiillcr 
(1821),  Kimchi  (edited  by  Ginsburg,  1842),  Kalisch 
(LomL  1S.")S),  Wright  (ib.  IS.W),  Cook  and  others  ( rt. 
1871),  Tuch  (2d  ed.  by  Arnold  &  Merx,  1871),  Kcuss, 
F.  Delitzscb  (4th  ed.  Leip.  1872),  Laiige  (2d  ed.  1877), 
Keil  (od  ed.  1878),  Dillmann  (4tb  ed.  1882),  and  Dods 
(Edin.  1882).  See  also  Knobel.  Die  Volktrtafd  dcr 
Genesis  (Giessen,  1850) ;  AVellhausen,  Proleijomcnn  (Eng. 
trans.  1885);  and  Driver's  Notes  on  Lessons  from  the 
Pentateuch  (New  York,  1887). 

Goiiette,  or  Genet  (Gcncftd),  usually  regarded 
as  a  sejiarate  genus  of  carnivorous  mammals,  but 
by  some  included  in  the  genus  Civet  (q.v. ).  The 
genettcs  differ  from  the  civets  in  their  smaller 
size,  the  vertically  slit  pupil,  the  comjiletely  re- 
tractible  claws,  the  smallness  of  the  anal  ]iouch, 
and  the  f.iintness  of  the  characteristic  odour.  Of 
six  species  of  genette,  live  .are  finiinl  only  in  Africa; 
the  common  genette  is  found  also  in  the  south  of 


132 


OENETTE 


GENEVA 


Europe  ami  Syria.     Its  fur  i.x  gray  with  black  or 
brown  spots,  and  it  is  the  only  viverrine  animal 


t'uiiiiuon  Gcnette  {Oetietia  vulgaris). 


founil  in  Europe,  (ienettes  may  be  trained  to  catch 
mice  like  cats. 

GcilOVJI.  a  canton  in  the  soutliwest  of  Switzer- 
land, is  bounded  X.  by  the  canton  of  Vaud  and  the 
Lake  of  (ieueva,  and  S.,  E.,  ami  W.  l)y  the  terri- 
tories of  France.     Area,  IDS  m|.  miles;  pop.  (1H80) 

101, .W."):   (18S8)  10.'), 509,  of  wl more  tiian  lialf 

were  Catholics,  whilst  8."i  jier  cent.  s]ioUe  French  as 
their  mother  tongue.  It  is  watered  by  the  Khoue  and 
the  .\rve,  which  unite  about  '2  miles  from  the  south- 
west extremity  of  the  Lake  of  (leneva.  The  surf.ace 
is  hilly,  chief  eminences  being  the  steep  Salfeve 
(4.V2S  feet)  and  the  Ueculet  (."ii;;<l):  but  the  soil, 
which  is  not  naturally  fertile,  has  been  rendered  .so 
by  tlie  industry  of  the  inhabitants.  According  to 
the  constitution  of  1847,  since  amended,  all  male 
citizens  of  twenty  years  of  age  exercise  the  right 
of  electing  representatives  to  the  cantonal  council, 
the  supreme  legislative  body,  the  age  of  members 
of  which  must  be  jit  least  twenty-live  years. 
There  is  a  rei)resentative  for  every  iOOO  inliabit- 
ants.  The  executive  is  confided  to  a  council  of 
state  composed  of  seven  members,  nominated  for 
two  years  by  universal  suli'rage.  The  constitu- 
tion guarantees  civil  and  religious  liberty,  all  forms 
of  worship  being  allowed  by  law  ;  but  the  national 
church  is  the  Keforme<l  Calvinistic.  Primary 
education  is  compulsory,  but  free.  The  chief 
branches  of  industry  are  gardening,  vine  ami  fruit 
growing,  and  the  manufacture  of  articles  of 
bijouterie  and  watches.  In  the  two  last  named 
branches  the  annual  |)roduction  is  valued  at  nearly 
one  million  pounds  sterling.  Musical-Wxes,  chrono- 
meters, mathematical  instruments,  with  pottery, 
&c. ,  are  also  made.     The  chief  town  is  Geneva. 

Geneva  (Fr.  Gendve,  Ger.  Genf,  Ital.  Ginevra), 
capital  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  the  same  name,  is 
situated  at  the  e.xit  of  the  lihone  from  the  Lake 
of  tJeueva,  388  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Paris.  A  tJallic 
town  originally,  Geneva  acknowledged  Homan 
supremacy  in  1'20  B.C.  It  was  a  place  of  .some  im- 
portance imder  the  Burgundian  kings,  from  whom 
It  passed  in  r)34  to  the  Franks,  and  from  them 
towards  the  end  of  the  9th  century  to  the  new 
kingdom  of  Hurgumly.  It  had  been  made  a  bishop's 
seat  in  the  4th  century.  From  the  12th  century  a 
continual  feud  existed  between  the  bishops  ami  the 
Counts  and  Dukes  of  Savoy  with  regard  to  the 
supremacy — a  state  of  things  which  the  citizens 
took  advantage  of  to  obtain  a  consi<lerable  share  of 
municipal  liberty  for  themselves.  Having  secure<l 
Freiburg  (1519)  and  Bern  (1526)  for  allies,  the 
republic  of  Geneva  linally  won  its  complete  in- 
depenilence  from  Savoy.  The  acceptance  of  Pro- 
testantism   by    the    republic    a    few    yeai-s    later 


brought  to  an  end  xXn  alliance  with  the  Homan 
Catholic  rei>nblie  of  Freiburg,  and  exposed  it  to 
fresh  attacks  from  the  IIounc  of  Savoy  ;  and  it  was 
only  saved  l>y  the  timely  intervention  of  its  staunch 
ally  Bern  (15.')(i).  In  the  summer  of  that  .same 
year  Calvin  (i). v.)  arrived  at  Geneva,  ami  began  his 
reconstitution  of  the  political  and  so<'iiil  life  of  the 
city,  which  createil  it  (me  of  the  chief  strongholds 
of  Protestantism  in  Euro]ie.  In  l(i()2  the  last 
attempt  of  the  Dukes  of  Savoy  to  recover  the 
town  was  frustrated  by  the  citizens.  During  the 
18th  century  (icneva  was  distracted  by  unceiusing 
feuds  I)etween  the  aristocratic  and  i>o]iular  parties, 
until  in  1782  Bern,  Sardinia,  and,  in  particular, 
France  interfered  in  favour  of  the  aristocracy. 
The  French  llevcdution  led  to  a  new  crisis  :  the 
government  was  overthrown  in  .Inly  1794,  ei|uality 
in  the  eye  of  the  law  was  establisheil,  a  n.itlonal 
convention  api>ointed,  and  a  reign  of  terror  com- 
menced. In  1798  tJeneva  and  its  territory-  were 
annexed  to  France;  but,  after  the  overthrow  of 
Xapoleon,  they  recovered  their  independence  aixl 
joined  ixs  twenty-second  canton  the  Swiss  Confedera- 
tion under  the  sanctii>n  of  the  treaties  of  \'ienna 
and  of  Paris  (1815).  The  aristocratic  party  managed 
to  repossess  themselves  of  the  government  of  the 
city,  and  their  nile  was  only  superseded  by  a  more 
democratic  constitution  after  much  agitation  and 
several  risings  of  the  people  between  1842  and  1840, 
in  which  the  leading  spirit  was  Fazy  dj^.v.).  After 
1870  the  town  was  for  some  years  kept  m  a  state  of 
unrest  owing  to  the  attempt  of  tlie  Lltramon- 
lanes  to  revive  the  Roman  Catholic  bishopric  of 
tieneva. 

Formerly  Geneva  was  surrounded  by  walls,  and 
consisted  of  clusters  of  narrow  and  ill-drained 
streets ;  but  since  the  accession  of  the  radical 
[larty  to  power  in  1847  the  town  has  been  almost 
entirely  rebuilt  in  modern  style.  The  ancient 
ramparts  have  1>een  removed,  streets  widened  and 
well  paved,  new  and  commodious  (jnays  C(mstructed 
along  the  shores  of  the  lake  and  river,  and  x'arious 
improvements  introduced,  chief  amongst  which 
is  the  erection  of  a  breakwater,  within  which 
steamboats  are  received  and  lie  in  .safety.  In  its 
course  through  the  town  the  Rhone  forms  two 
islands,  on  one  of  which  still  exists  an  anti(|ue 
and  picture.s(|ue  cluster  of  buildings  ;  on  the  other, 
laid  out  as  a  public  pleasure-ground,  is  a  statue  of 
Rous.seau.  In  the  Place  des  Alpes  is  a  sumptuous 
nmnument  to  Duke  Charles  XL  of  Brunswick, 
who,  dying  liere  in  1873,  left  16,500,000  francs  to 
the  city.  Famous  as  a  theological,  literary,  anil 
scientific  centre,  lleneva  has  given  birth  to 
Rousseau  ;  to  the  ])hysicist  Dc  Saussure  ;  to  the 
naturalists  Charles  Bonnet  and  the  Pictets ;  to 
Necker,  father  of  Madame  de  Stael  ;  to  the  humor- 
ist ToeplFer  ;  to  Clierbuliez ;  to  Aniiel ;  and  to 
the  sculptor  Pradier.  The  principal  edifices  are 
the  Transitiim  cathedral  of  St  Peter,  which  dates 
from  1124;  the  tow ii  hall,  within  which  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Alalianja  (4. v.)  arbitration  met  in  1872; 
the  academy,  founded  by  Calvin  in  l.^O,  with  a 
library' of  110,000  volumes,  and  in  1873  converted 
into  a  university  (with  about  G(W  students);  the 
magnificent  theatre,  opened  in  1879,  which  ranks 
next  in  size  to  tlie  Paris  Opera  and  the  Court- 
theatre  of  Vienna;  the  Rath  l^Iu.seum  (1824  26); 
the  Fol  Museum,  with  c<dlections  of  Greek,  Roman, 
and  Etruscan  antiquities  ;  the  Athena'um,  devoted 
to  the  fine  arts ;  and  the  mu.seum  of  natural 
history,  containing  De  Saus.sure's  geological  collec- 
tion, atlmirable  collections  of  fossil  plants,  &c.  The 
staple  manufactures  of  the  town  are  watches, 
musical-boxes,  anil  jewelrj-.  Poji.  (1885)  51,537 
(with  the  suburbs  Plainpalais  and  Eaux  A'ives, 
74,453;  in  1900,  92,969).  See  works  by  Clierbuliez 
( 1868),  Blavignac  (  1872),  and  Roget  ( 1870-83). 


GENEVA 


GENGHIS    KHAN 


1 33 


The  Geneva  Convention  ( 1864),  signed  1)y  twelve 
delegates  from  various  countries,  mainly  regards  the 
succour  of  the  wounded  in  time  of  war,  and  forbids 
cruel  methods  of  warfare  (e.g.  the  use  of  explosive 
hullets).  The  resulting  international  code  was 
ultimately  adopted  l)y  all  civilised  jiowers  except 
the  t'niteil  States  ;  and  a  '  Red  Cro.ss  Society '  was 
estalilished,  wliich  became  very  prominent  and 
helpful  during  tlie  Franco-German  war  (1870-71), 
its  Hag,  with  the  '  Geneva  Cross,'  being  recognised 
a.s  neutral.  Other  international  conferences  for 
promoting  the  same  objects  were  held  at  Paris 
(1S()7)  and  Beriiu  (1869).  P'or  the  Geneva  Bible, 
see  IjIULE. 

Cieiieva.  a  town  of  New  York,  at  the  north  end 
of  Seneca  Lake,  26  miles  W.  of  Auburn  by  rail, 
with  tlouring-mills  ami  manufactures  of  engines, 
boilers,  &c.  It  is  the  .seat  of  Hobart  College 
(  Episcopal,  founded  in  1824).     Pop.  ( 1890)  7557. 

Geneva,  L.vke  of,  or  Lake  Leman  (Lacus 
Lemanus),  situated  between  Switzerland,  to  which 
the  larger  portion  belongs,  and  France.  It  lies 
1218  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  extends 
for  45  miles  from  east  to  west,  in  the  form  of 
a  crescent.  Its  greatest  breadth  is  9  miles,  its 
area  223  sq.  m.,  and  its  maximum  depth  is  1022 
feet.  This  lake  at  .some  periods  of  the  year 
presents  a  curious  idienomenon :  the  whole  mass 
of  water  oscillates  from  side  to  side  of  the  lake, 
causing,  especially  n(!ar  (jeneva,  a  rise  and  fall 
of  from  two  to  li\e  feet  in  the  course  of  about 
eight  or  ten  minutes  (seiche).  The  phenomenon  Is 
proliably  due  to  differences  of  barometric  pressure 
ou  ditlerent  parts  of  the  surface.  The  lake  abounds 
in  lish.  The  shore  on  the  side  of  the  Pays  de 
Vaud  is  a  classic  spot,  celebrated  by  J.  J.  Rousseau 
in  his  Nouvelle  Heluise  and  by  Byron  in  his  C'hilde 
Hfiiold  and  in  the  Pn'souKr  of  C'/iif/ou,  while  the 
names  of  Voltaire  and  of  Madame  de  Stael  are 
connected  witli  Ferney  and  Coppet  at  the  Geneva 
extremity.  Gibbon's  with  Lausanne.  The  southern 
French  shore  rises  solemn  and  stern,  with  the 
mountains  of  Savoy  in  the  background.  From 
the  Lake  of  Geneva,  Mont  Blanc  is  visible,  and 
although  60  miles  ilistant,  is  often  retlected  in  its 
waters.  Mirages  are  sometimes  obser\'ed  on  the 
lake.  The  Rhone  enters  the  lake  at  the  upper 
end,  turbid  and  yellow,  and  leaves  it  at  the  town 
of  Geneva  as  clear  as  glass,  and  of  a  deep  blue 
tint.  The  lake  receives  about  twenty  unimportant 
streams  along  its  northern  shore. 

CeiieviiM'e.  the  natron  saint  of  Paris,  was  born 
about  424,  in  the  village  of  Nanterre,  near  Paris, 
and  took  the  veil  in  her  fifteenth  year.  On  the 
death  of  her  parents  she  removed  to  Paris.  She 
aci|uired  an  extraordinary  reputation  for  .sanctity, 
which  was  increased  by  her  confident  assurance 
that  Attila  and  his  Huns  would  not  touch  Paris, 
aud  by  an  expedition  undertaken  for  the  relief 
of  the  starving  city  during  the  Krankish  invasion 
under  Childeric,  in  which  she  journeyed  from  town 
to  town,  and  return<'d  with  twelve  ship-loads  of 
provisions.  In  400  she  built  a  church  over  the 
tomb  of  St  Denis  (q. v.),  where  she  was  buried  at 
her  ileath  in  512.  See  her  Life  by  Saint-Yves 
I  IS45)  and  Lefeuve  (new  cd.  1S61). 

Genghis  Khan,  originally  called  Temujin, 
a  celebrated  Mongol  conqueror,  was  born  in  1162 
at  Deligun  Buhluk  on  the  river  Onon  (SE.  of 
Lake  Baik.al),  tiie  son  of  a  Mongol  chief  whose 
sway  extended  over  great  part  of  the  region 
between  the  Anuir  and  the  Great  Wall  of  China. 
Being  called  upon  to  rule  his  father's  people  when 
only  thirteen  veal's  of  age,  Temujin  had  to  struggle 
hard  for  several  years,  first  against  a  confederacy  of 
revolted  tribes,  then  against  different  confederacies 
of  hostile  tribes  ami  neighbouring  rivals,  whom  his 


uninterrupted  successes  and  rapidly-growing  power 
had  maile  jealous.  The  most  critical  period  of 
his  career  at  this  juncture  occurred  during  a  war 
with  Wang  Khan,  the  powerful  chief  of  the  Keraits. 
Temujin,  at  first  worsted,  was  compelled  to  retire 
to  a  desert  region  with  only  a  few  warriors  ;  but  in 
the  following  year  ( 1203 )  he  collected  another  arm\ , 
and  with  it  inflicted  upon  his  enemy  a  crushing  and 
decisive  defeat.  The  Keraits  thereupon  became 
subject  to  Temujin.  His  ambition  awakening  with 
his  continued  success,  the  Mongol  prince  spent  the 
next  six  yeai-s  in  subjugating  the  Naimans,  a 
powerful  Turkish  confederacy  who  occupied  the 
regiim  between  Lake  Balkhash  and  the  river  Irtish; 
in  conquering  Hia  or  Tangut,  a  Chinese  empire 
lying  between  the  Desert  of  Cobi  and  Chaidam  ; 
and  in  assimilating  the  results  of  the  voluntary 
submission  of  the  'Turkish  ligurs,  from  whom  the 
Jlongols  derived  the  beginnings  of  their  civilisa- 
tion, as  their  alphabet  and  laws.  It  was  during 
this  period — viz.  in  1206,  that  he  adonted  the  title 
of  Jenghiz  or  Genghis  Khan,  equivalent  to  '  'S'ery 
Mighty  Ruler.' 

Bent  npoDvet  more  ambitions  schemes,  he  in  1211 
refused  trilmte  to  the  Kin  emperor  of  North  China, 
and  invaded  and  overran  his  country  in  several 
campaigns.  Abont  this  same  time,  too,  his  atten- 
tion was  directed  to  the  west:  with  comparatively 
little  trouble  he  defeated  the  ruler  of  the  Kara- 
Cliitai  empire,  and  annexed  (1217)  his  country, 
which  extended  from  Lake  ISalkhash  to  Tibet. 
His  next  undertaking  was  the  most  formidable 
of  all,  an  attack  upon  the  powerful  empire  of 
Kharezm,  whose  confines  ran  conterminous  with 
the  Jaxartes  (Sihfln  or  Sir-Daria),  Ferghana,  the 
Indus,  Persian  Gulf,  Kurdistan,  Georgia,  and  the 
Casiiian  Sea.  Entering  this  extensive  country 
with  three  armies  in  1218,  the  Mongol  prince  anil 
his  captains  successively  took,  often  by  storm,  the 
populous  cities  of  Otrar,  Sighnak,  Aksi  Khojeml, 
Bokhara,  and  Samarcand,  hunted  down  from  one 
end  of  his  territories  to  the  other  Mohammed,  the 
ruler  of  Kharezm,  and  the  (irinces  of  his  family , 
captured  Lh-genj  or  Kharezm  (now  Khiva),  devas- 
tated with  most  horrilde  cruelties  and  barbarities 
the  beautiful  and  prosperous  province  of  Khorasan 
and  its  cities  ( Nessa,  Merv,  Nishapur,  and  Herat ), 
chased  Jelal-ud-Din,  son  and  heir  of  Mohammed, 
acro.ss  the  Indus  into  Imlia,  and  finally  returned 
home  in  1225  by  the  way  they  had  coiiie.  Two 
of  (lengliis'  lieutenants,  ('hcpc  and  Subutai,  who 
had  so  relentlessly  and  iiertinaciously  hunted  down 
Mohammed,  passed  on  from  the  soutbem  shore  of 
the  Caspian  northwards  through  Azerbijan  ami 
Georgia,  then,  turning  to  the  west,  they  traversed 
southern  Russia  and  penetrateil  to  the  Crimea, 
everywhere  routing  and  slaying,  and  finally  re 
turned  by  way  of  Creat  Bulgaria  ami  the  Volga, 
beyond  the  northern  en<l  of  the  Caspian — a  marvel- 
lous military  raid.  Meanwhile  in  the  far  east 
Mukuli,  one  of  tlie  most  capable  amongst  the 
group  of  the  great  conqueror's  clever  generals,  had 
comi>leteil  the  conquest  of  all  northern  China(  1217 
23)  except  Honan. 

(Jenghis  di<l  not  long  stay  quietly  at  lionie. 
-After  but  a  few  months'  rest  he  again"  took  to  the 
s.addle,  to  go  and  chastise  the  king  of  Hia  or 
Tangut,  w  ho  had  refused  him  obedience.  But  this 
wjvs  his  last  expedition,  for,  after  thoroughly  sulxlu 
ing  the  country,  Genghis  died  of  sickness,  im  18tli 
August  1227.  amongst  the  northern  ofl'sboots  of  the 
Kueii  Lun  called  the  Mountains  of  Liupan.  Tlie 
r.api<lity  ami  magnitude  of  his  conquests  seem  to 
have  been  as  much  due  to  the  admirable  discip 
line  and  organisation  of  his  armies  as  to  the 
methods  in  which  he  conducteil  his  campaigns. 
His  troops  were  all  horsemen,  hardy,  .abstemious, 
inured   to  fatigue,  inditt'erent   to  weather,   accus- 


134 


GENII 


GENOA 


tomed  to  go  days  and  ni;;hts  in  the  saddle  with- 
out restin;;.  Tlius  the  Miinfjol  armies  ciiuld  move 
with  extreme  celerity,  and  needed  little  ])rovisii>n- 
in^.  They  never  left  either  enemv  or  stron;;  ((iwn 
behind  their  harks  to  thre.aten  their  ccinimiiniea- 
tions :  all  the  former  were  ruthlessly  slain  or 
massacred,  all  the  latter  completely  razed  to  the 
;;roun<l.  The  hard  hihour  necessary  in  hesie^'in^' 
the  fortified  cities  was  done  hy  the  peiusantry 
of  the  country  in  which  they  were  situated,  and 
in  the  battles  the  same  wretched  people  were 
frequently  placeil  by  the  Mon;,'ols  in  the  fore- 
front of  the  lijiht  to  bear  the  brunt  of  their 
enemies'  onset.  (;enj,'liis  was,  however,  sdiiicthin^' 
more  than  a  warrior  and  comiueror :  he  was  also 
a  skilful  administrator  and  ruler  :  he  not  only 
conquered  empires  stretching;  from  the  lilack  Sea 
to  tiie  I'acilic,  but  he  or;;anise(l  them  into  states 
which  endured  beyond  the  short  span  that  usually 
meaiiures  the  life  of  Asi.itic  soverei^'alies. 

See  Howorth,  Hintorii  of  the  .Uuiiiioh,  part  1  (  1S7C) ; 
R.  K.  Doughis,  Life  of  Jciiijhiz  Khun  (1877);  and  com- 
pare Erdniann,  Tcmudschiu ,  der  Uiicr.iehultcrliclu;  {ISHi), 
and  D'Ohsson,  Histoirc  Ues  Motufolfn  (1852). 

(iiOllii.  anion};  the  ancient  Honians,  were  ])ro- 
tectiii;,'  s[]irits,  who  were  su|iposed  to  accompany 
every  createil  thiii};  from  its  origin  to  its  linal 
decay,  like  a  second  spiritual  self.  They  l>elonf;ed 
not  imly  to  men,  but  to  all  thin;;s  animate  ami  in- 
animate, and  more  especially  to  places,  and  were 
rej;ar(led  as  eflluences  of  the  Divinity,  and  wor- 
shipped with  divine  honours.  Not  only  had  every 
individual  his  };enius,  but  likewise  the  whole 
people.  The  statue  of  the  national  ;,'eiiius  was 
placed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Roman  forum,  and 
IS  often  seen  on  the  coins  of  Hadrian  and  Trajan. 
The  genius  of  an  iiulividual  was  represented  by  the 
Romans  as  a  li};uro  in  a  toga,  having  the  head 
veiled,  an<l  the  cornucopia  or  patera  in  the  hands  ; 
while  local  genii  appear  under  the  figure  of  serpents 
eating  fruit  set  before  them.  Quite  dill'erent  are 
the  genii  whose  Aral)ic  name,  Djinn  or  Jinn,  was 
translated  by  the  Latin  term  (irnhi.i,  for  want  of 
a  better  word,  or  from  the  casual  similarity  of  the 
sounds.     See  Dk.moxoi.ocjv,  and  F.VMir.lAU. 

Gcilipapa  Gcninri  iiiiiiriniiiit  ( t'inchonaceai),  a 
large  tree  of  the  West  Indies  aiul  warm  parts  of 
South  .Vmerica,  with  excellent  fruit.  The  jwarl- 
gray  timber  is  occasicmally  used  by  joiners. 

(il'llistu  (Celtic  (/(■//,  'a  shrub"),  a  leguminous 
genus  already  mentioned  umler  Broom  (see  also 
Creenwkkd).  (;.«»'///<■((,  a  small,  much  branched, 
very  spiny  shrul)  of  poor  soils,  is  called  Petty 
Whin  and  Needle  Furze  in  Kngland.  The  Genista 
of  Virgil  anil  other  Roman  classics  is  suppo.sed  to 
be  (!.  /lisjMnini,  of  southern  Kurope,  with  branched 
stiff  .spines.  The  name  I'lantagenet  is  from  I'/nnta 
Genista  ;  but  what  plant  was  intended,  and  wliether 
the  common  broom,  furze,  or  a  s])ecies  of  Genista 
is  not  so  certain.     See  I'i,.\NT.u;enet. 

<>4>liiliv<'.     See  (!k.\m.m.\u. 

<>flllis,  STEP1I.\N1E  KKI.K'ITli  DfCREST  DE 
Si  .\llilN,  ('OMTE.SSE  1)1'.,  was  born  at  Champc(5ri, 
near  .\utun,  in  Burgundy,  '1M\  .January  174(i.  .\l 
the  age  of  sixteen  she  was  married  to  the  Comte 
de  Genlis,  and  in  1770  wius  nuide  laily-in-waiting 
to  the  Duchesse  de  Cliartres.  In,  1782  the  Due  de 
Chartres,  afterwards  known  as  Egalite,  appointed 
her  'governor'  of  his  children,  including  Louis- 
Philipjie.  Madame  de  tienlis  wrote  a  variety  of 
works  for  her  pupils,  aniiuig  others  Thiatrc  d  fyln- 
cation  (1779-80),  a  collection  of  short  comedies; 
Annalcudc  la  Vcrtn  ( 1781  )  :  Adi-le  et  Theodore,  ou 
Leltrcs  siir  /'Adiiealion  ( 1782) :  and  Les  VeilUes  dii 
C/i«/'<i«  ( 1784).  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Re- 
volution Madame  de  (lenlis  took  the  lilieral  side, 
but  was  ultimately  compelled  to  seek  refuge  ( 179.3) 


io  Switzerland  and  tJerniany.  When  Bonaparte 
became  consul  she  returned  (1799)  to  Paris,  and 
received  fmni  him  a  pension.  She  dieil  at  Paris, 
.'list  December  18;!0.  Alailanie  de  (ienlis's  writings 
amount  to  about  ninety  volumes.  Amongst  them 
may  be  mentioned  the  ronumce  Mdllr.  de  Clennont 
(1802),  Mdnuires  InMils  snr  /,■  XVIII.  SiiVlr  ct 
la  LVrtt/nlian  Franraisc  (  10  \'ols.  182.">),  and  Diners 
da  liaron  d'llulliarli.  The  last  ci>ntains  a  great 
deal  of  curious  but  malicious  information  concern- 
ing the  freethinkers  of  the  18th  century.  See 
Bonhomme's  Mnie.  de  Genlis  (Paris,  ISSo). 

(•(■IIIH'sarot,  Se.\  of.     See  G.ALILEE. 

4>i'Iloa  (llal.  Genova,  Fr.  Genes,  anciently 
(r'cHim),  a  city  of  Italy,  situated  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean gulf  of  the  same  name,  at  the  foot  of  I  be 
.Vpennines,  is  the  capital  of  a  province  and  the 
most  important  seaport.  By  rail  it  is  801  miles 
Si:,  of  Paris,  171  NK.  of  Marseilles,  and  9.3  SSW. 
of  .Milan.  Pop.  of  the  town  ( 1881 )  i:!8,081  ;  of  the 
comiMMn<',  I70,.">l.'i;  pop.  of  the  commune  in  I'.toO, 
237,490. 

The  slope.s  of  the  hills  behind  the  city  down  to 
the  shore  are  covered  with  buildings,  terraced 
gardens,  and  groves  of  orange  and  i>omegranatc 
trees  ;  while  the  bleak  summits  of  the  loftier  ranges 
rising  still  farther  back  are  capped  with  a  line 
of  strong  f(uts,  batteries,  and  outworks.  The  line 
harbour,  semicircular  in  shape,  with  a  diameter  of 
rather  less  than  a  mile,  is  protected  .seawards  from 
the  south  and  south-esust  winds  by  two  piers.  In 
front  of  this  inner  harlxmr  another  one  has  been 
made  by  the  construction  of  two  outer  moles. 
Besides  this,  the  i|uays  of  the  inner  h;irbour  have 
been  greatly  imi)rove<l,  and  in  1889  graving  clocks 
and  other  works  were  comjdeted.  On  the  north 
side  of  the  port  is  a  naval  harbour  ami  a  marine 
arsenal ;  and  on  the  east  side  the  warehouses  of 
the  former  (until  1807)  free  port.  (Jenoa  is  the 
commercial  outlet  for  a  wide  extent  of  country,  of 
which  the  chief  exports  are  rice,  wine,  oli\e  oil, 
silk  goods,  coral,  ])ai>er,  macaroni,  anil  marble. 
The  imports  are  ]>rincipally  raw  cotton,  wheat, 
.sugar,  coal,  hides,  collee,  raw  wool,  lish,  petroleum, 
iron,  machinery,  and  cotton  and  woollen  textiles. 
The  annual  exjiort-s  of  Oenoa  are  yalued  at  nearly 
£4,00(),(MH).  while  the  imjiorts  are  returned  at  more 
than  11.">,(M»I,(HX).  .\bout  08OO  vessels,  of  2,970,000 
tons  burden,  enter  annu.ally,  and  about  ri7.50  of 
2,979,000  tons  clear,  three-fourths  of  the  vessels, 
with  nearly  one-half  of  the  tonnage  in  each  cla-ss, 
being  Italian.  The  princijial  industrial  establish- 
ments of  the  city  embrace  iron-works,  cotton  and 
cloth  mills,  macaroni-works,  tanneries,  sugar- 
relineries,  and  vesta  match,  liligree,  and  pjiper 
factories.  I'rom  70,<KH)  to  ltX),(Hl()  emigrants  sail 
every  year  from  (Jenoa  for  South  -America;  in 
some  years  the  inimber  hius  been  near  200,000. 

While  strikingly  graiul  as  viewed  from  the  sea, 
and  .so  far  worthy  of  being  entitled  Grmtm  la 
,Sn/ierha,  (Jenoa  is  in  reality  built  awkw.irdlv  on 
irregular  ri.sing  ground,  and  consists  of  a  labyrinth 
of  narrow  and  intricate  lanes,  accessible  only  to 
fool-pa.ssengers,  or  to  the  ii.ack-mules  by  the  use 
of  which  .a  large  portion  of  the  internal  gooils 
traliic  is  conducted.  These  thoroughfares,  itito 
wliicli  the  light  of  day  imperfectly  penetrates, 
are  lined  with  tall  buildings,  some  ot  them  of 
marble  and  of  handsome  architecture,  but  now 
in  many  c.a.ses  traiisforuied  into  hotels  or  Ijusi- 
ness  cs'tablLshments.  Of  the  i)alaces  the  most 
famous  are  the  ducal  ])alace  formerly  iidi.ibitcd 
ijy  the  doges,  now  a|)propriatcd  to  the  meetings 
of  the  senate ;  an(l  the  Doria,  presented  in 
I")29  to  the  great  Genoese  citizen  Andrea  Doria, 
who.se  residence  it  was  during  his  presidency  of 
the    rei>ublic.     The    palaces    Brignole-Sale,    Reale, 


GENOA 


GENRE-PAINTING 


135 


Durazzo-Fallavicini,  SpiiKila,  BalbiSenarega,  and 
others  possess  great  interest  on  account  of  tlieir 
historical  fame  and  architectural  beauty.  Many  of 
them  contain  galleries  of  [laintings  ;  the  Brignole- 
Sale  has  works  by  \'an  l)yck,  Kubens,  Albrecht 
DUrer,  Paolo  Veronese,  (iuercino,  &c.  Foremost 
amongst  the  churches  stands  the  cathedral  of  St 
Lorenzo,  a  grand  old  pile  in  the  Italian  Gothic 
style,  built  in  the  l'2th  century  and  frequently 
restored.  In  the  church  of  St  Ambrogio  (1589)  are 
pictures  by  Guido  Keni  and  Rubens,  and  in  that 
of  St  Stefano  an  altar-piece  by  Giulio  Koinano  ; 
the  interior  of  L'Annunziata  is  splendid  with  fine 
marbles  and  rich  gilding.  The  marble  municipal 
palace,  built  in  the  Late  Renaissance  style,  with 
a  magnihcent  vestibule,  courtyard,  and  galleries, 
and  the  palace  of  the  Dogana  must  also  be  men- 
tioned. The  university  (790  students  in  1886), 
originally  built  in  1623,  reorganised  in  1812,  has 
a  library  of  116,000  volumes.  Genoa  is  well  sup- 
idied  with  technical  schools  and  institutions  for 
higher  education.  The  great  ho.spital,  the  a.sylum 
for  the  poor  (provision  for  2200  persons),  the  deaf 
and  dumb  institution,  and  the  hospital  for  the 
insane  are  amongst  the  linest  institutions  of  their 
kind  in  Italy.  There  are  numerous  excellent 
)ihilanthropic  foundations,  as  the  Fieschi,  an  asylum 
for  female  orphans.  Furthermore,  we  must  men- 
tion the  public  library,  containinj;  50,000  volumes  ; 
the  Acailemy  of  Fine  Arts,  foundetl  (1751)  by  the 
Doria  fanxily  ;  the  Carlo  Felice  Theatre,  one  of  the 
linest  in  Italy  ;  and  the  Verdi  Institute  of  Music. 

The  Genoese  are  a  shrewd,  active,  laborious  race, 
and  possess  all  the  qualities  of  a  commercial  and 
maritime  community.  They  make  .skilful  and 
hardy  seamen,  and  are  still  remarkable  for  the 
spirit  of  enterprise  and  freedom  which  so  strongly 
characterised  the  period  of  the  republic.  To 
Columbus,  Genoa's  most  famous  son,  there  is  a  fine 
monument  (1862)  by  Lanzio. 

History.  — Genoa,  anciently  the  capital  of  Liguria, 
is  first  mentioned  as  a  place  of  considerable  import- 
ance in  the  second  Punic  war.  Having  been  de- 
stroyed by  Mago,  brother  of  Hannibal,  in  205,  it  was 
rebuilt  three  years  later  by  the  Konian  praHor  Sp. 
Lucretius.  On  the  <lismemberment  of  the  Latin 
empire  Genoa  fell  successively  under  the  sway  of 
the  Lombards,  the  Franks,  and  the  Germans ;  but 
amid  all  these  vicissitudes  it  preserved,  in  a 
singular  degree,  both  privileges  and  prosperity. 
At  length  it  succeeded  in  establishing  its  independ- 
ence as  a  republic.  Even  tlius  early  commerce  was 
the  source  of  its  power.  The  frequent  incursions 
of  the  Saracens,  by  whom  CJenoa  was  sacked  and 
pillaged  in  936,  led  the  Genoese  to  form  an 
alliance  with  Pisa  with  the  object  of  driving  the 
aggressors  from  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  their  strong- 
holds in  the  Mediterranean.  This  being  effected 
(1017-21),  the  Genoese  obtained,  by  papal  arbitra- 
tion, the  grant  of  Corsica,  while  Sardinia  was 
assigned  to  the  I'isans,  a  distribution  which  sowed 
the  seeds  of  future  discord  between  the  two  states. 
At  the  clo.se  of  the  Uth  century  Genoa  commanded 
large  land  and  naval  forces,  and  ranked  as  a  power- 
ful maritime  state,  governed  by  annual  magis- 
trates named  consuls.  The  Genoese  vigorously 
seconded  the  Crusades,  and  in  return  for  their 
eft'ective  co-operation  obtained  several  im])ortant 
maritime  possessions  and  commercial  privileges 
in  the  Holy  Land  (1109).  The  chief  events  of 
the  three  following  centuries  were  the  capture  of 
Minorca  (1146),  .\lmeria  (1147),  and  Tortosa 
(1148)  from  the  Moors;  the  wars  with  Pisa  and 
Venice  ;  and  tlie  civil  dissensions  by  whicli  Genoa, 
in  common  with  all  Italy,  became  distracteil  by 
the  Ciiielph  and  Ghibelline  factions.  In  1284,  at 
the  naval  battle  at  Meloria  the  Pisan  Republic  sus- 
tained ^uch   destructi\"o  losses  that  her  maritime 


inrtuence  and  public  spirit  never  revived.  The 
wars  with  \'enice  originated  about  1244  in  mutual 
jealousies  respecting  the  commercial  supremacy  in 
the  Levant,  and  continued,  with  various  vicissi- 
tudes, till  tlie  end  of  the  following  century,  when 
the  Genoese,  after  the  blockade  of  Chioggna  ( 1379), 
were  compelled  to  submit  to  disadvantageous 
terms  by  the  peace  of  Turin  ( 1381 ). 

Co-existent  with  this  troublous  external  his- 
tory, civil  dissensions  exhausted  and  demoralised 
the  state,  and  occasioned  an  infinity  of  changes 
in  the  prinutive  form  of  government.  In  1217 
the  consuls  were  superseded  by  a  magistrate 
termed  ])ocksfa,  generally  chosen  from  a  foreign 
state,  natives  of  Genoa  being  declared  ineli- 
gible. During  the  next  hundred  years  civil  feuds 
raged  inveterately,  not  alone  between  the  Guelph 
anil  Ghibelline  "factions,  but  also  between  the 
patricians  and  the  jjlebeians.  Various  other  modi- 
iications  of  the  government  preceded  the  election 
of  the  first  Genoese  doge  in  13.'?9.  This  supreme 
magisterial  office,  from  which  all  nobles  were  ex- 
cluded, continued  in  force  for  two  centuries,  its 
tenure  being  for  life.  But  even  then  matters  did 
not  improve  much.  Finally,  in  1396,  the  citizens, 
in  despair,  invoked  the  protection  of  the  French 
king,  Charles  VI.,  and,  after  alternating  between 
France  and  Milan,  at  last  .submitted  to  the  rule  of 
the  lords  of  Milan  ( 1464).  In  1407  was  founded  the 
bank  of  St  George,  which  eventually  became  a 
very  powerful  association,  not  only  financially  but 
also  politically.  From  the  invasion  of  Milan  by 
Louis  XII.  in  1499  Genoa  remained  subject  to  the 
French  until,  in  1528,  the  "enius  and  resolution  of 
Andrea  Doria  (q.v.)  freed  his  country  from  foreign 
invaders,  and  restored  to  her  her  republican  institu- 
tions. The  Fieschi  conspiracy,  which  had  for  its 
object  the  overthrow  of  Doria  and  the  destruction 
of  the  French  party  amongst  the  nobles,  was  sup- 
pressed in  1547.  The  17th  century  is  marked  by 
two  ware  against  the  Duke  of  Savoy  (1631  and 
1672)  and  the  bombardment  of  the  town  by  Louis 
XIV.  (1684).  The  last  important  exploit  of  the 
Genoese  was  the  expulsion  in  1746  of  the  Austrians 
after  an  occupation  of  three  months.  In  1768  Genoa 
ceded  to  France  the  island  of  Corsica ;  and  when 
Bonaparte  invaded  Italy  he  cimfeiTed  (1797)  on 
Genoa  the  name  of  the  Liguruin  licpublic,  which  in 
1802  was  abolished,  Genoa  becoming  the  chief  town 
of  a  department  of  France.  In  1814  Lord  Bentinck 
stormed  the  forts  and  captured  the  city,  whereupon 
he  restored  the  constitution  which  had  existed 
previous  to  1797.  In  1815,  by  a  decree  of  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna,  the  state  of  Genoa  was  made  a 
province  of  Piedmont.  Following  the  fortunes  of 
that  state,  it  was  finally  incorporated  in  the  king- 
dom of  Italy.  The  opening  of  the  St  Gothard  rail- 
way greatly  increasea  the  trade  with  Germany. 

See  J.  T.  Bent,  Genoa  ( 1880) ;  Bella  Duffy,  The  Tuscan 
Republics  {,mii ) ,  V.  W'.  Johnsun,  Genoa  the  Superb  (1892). 

Geuoa.  Gulf  of,  a  large  indentation  in  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  north  of 
Corsica,  has  lietween  the  towns  of  Oneglia  on  the 
west  and  Spezia  on  the  east  a  width  of  nearly  90 
miles,  with  a  depth  of  about  30  miles. 

Genre-pailltillS.  Genre  (French,  from  the 
Latin  (jrniia,  '  a  kind  ')  is  a  term  in  art  which  was 
originally  used  to  indicate  simply  any  class  or 
Ihitl  of  painting,  and  w;us  always  arcom|)anied  by 
a  distincti\e  adjective  or  epithet,  ;us  (imrc  histo- 
rique,  'historical  painting,'  genre  (In  jxii/snge, 
'landscape-painting.'  The  phrase  genre  or  genre- 
painting,  however,  has  now  come  to  be  apidied 
to  scenes  from  familiar  or  rustic  life,  to  all  ligure- 
pictures  which,  from  the  homeliness  of  their  sub- 
jects, do  not  attain  to  the  dignity  of  '  historical "  art. 
GeHi'f-painting,   in  its  most   typical  development, 


136 


GENS 


GENTIAN 


may  l>c  stnilie<l  in  the  inteiiors  and  nistic  suliject* 
<if  such  Dutch  fij,mrepainters  as  Tcniers,  Ostade,  De 
Iliiorli.  Jan  Steen,  and  Terlmrg.  In  France  tlie 
most  eminent  V(;ir<--|iaiMlcrs  were  Wattcan,  Laii- 
oret.  (Jren/e,  and  t'hardin  :  while  in  England  the 
works  of  Hogarth,  Wilkie.  Mulready,  and  the  ehler 
Leslie  may  he  mentioned  as  helonging  to  this  class. 

Gens.    See  Family  and  TitiiiE. 

Conscrlc  (more  correctly  Gaiseric),  king  of 
the  Vaiidiils.  was  an  illegitimate  son  of  (iodigiselns, 
who  led  the  Vandals  in  ilicir  invasion  of  (laul,  and 
perished  with  2(I,(K)(J  of  his  followers  in  a  defeat 
hy  the  Franks  (407  A.D.),  who  were  onlv  prevented 
from  completely  destroying  the  Vandals  hy  the 
timely  interveiition  of  "the  Alans.  In  the  year 
409  the  Vandals,  with  their  friendly  allies  the 
Suevi  and  the  Alans,  jioureil  over  the  Pyrenees 
into  Sjiain,  and  shared  its  territory  hetween  them. 
The  \  andals  were  divided  into  two  hranches,  the 
.\sdingi,  who  settled  in  (J.alicia,  and  the  Silingi, 
who  oocnpied  15;etica  in  the  south.  The  latter, 
after  sulfering  crushinj;  ilefeats  from  the  Romans, 
joined  tlie  former  under  their  king  (Junderic,  son 
of  tiodigisehis.  whose  nation  soon  hee.ame  the  most 
powerful  in  the  Peninsula,  (innderie  dieil  in  427, 
.and  Av.as  succeeded  hy  tJenserie.  Invited  to  the 
inv.osinii  of  Africa,  hv  Bonifacius,  Count  of  Africa, 
who  ha'I  heen  go.adeil  on  to  rehellion  through  the 
m.ochinations  of  his  rival  Aetius,  the  comiueror  of 
Attila,  (Jenseric  hrst  crushed  the  Suevi,  and,  after 
numliering  his  united  Vandals  and  .\lans  on  the 
,\ndalusi:in  sliore,  cros.sed  over  to  Nuniidi.-i  in  4'2.s. 
( »uly  when  it  was  too  late  ilid  lionifaeius  repent 
his  treaeherous  designs  .and  attempt  in  v.ain  to  drive 
hjick  the  Vandals,  .\fter  a  thirteen  months'  siege, 
in  the  course  of  whidi  the  great  St  Augustine  died, 
the  city  of  Hipim  Regius  fell  (4.'?0),  and  was  given 
over  to  all  the  fury  of  wanton  and  lirutal  outrage. 
With  such  ferocit.v  dill  the  Van<lals  lay  w.uste  and 
destroy  churches,  fields,  and  cities  .a-s  to  leave  their 
name  after  fourteen  centuries  a  .synonym  for  de- 
structive harharism.  .Ml  Africa  we.st  of  Carth.age 
iiuickly  fell  into  the  h.ands  of  Genseric,  wlio  seized 
th.at  city  itself  in  439,  and  m.ade  it  the  capital  of 
his  new  dominions.  lie  d.ated  his  reign,  which 
l.a-sted  thirty-seven  rears,  from  tlii.s  conquest. 

With  a  capacity  for  .ad.apting  himself  to  new  con- 
ditions which  shows  his  genius,  he  ipiickly  huilt 
up  a  formid.ahle  m.aritime  power,  and  his  fleets 
.scoureil  the  .Meiliterr.anean  and  carried  the  terror 
of  his  name  to  Sicily,  the  southern  coiusts  of  Itjily, 
Illyricum,  and  the  Peloponnesu.s.  He  next  por- 
tioned out  the  soil  of  the  province  of  Carth.age 
.among  his  soldiers,  .and  settled  the  .succession.  .\ 
liigotcd  Arian  in  his  theology,  he  persecuted  the 
orthodox  Catholics  in  his  ilominions  with  ferocious 
rapacity  and  cruelty.  The  murder  of  the  great 
.\etius  (4.54),  and  of  his  murderer  and  ni.oster 
V.alentinian  III.,  opened  up  a  new  lield  for  his 
amhilion.  Eudoxia,  the  widow  of  V.alentinian, 
eager  for  revenge  upon  her  hushand's  murderer 
Maxinius,  invited  tieuseric  to  Rome.  The  Vandal 
fleet  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Tiljer  in  .June  4.').'). 
The  wretched  Maximus  had  alreatly  fallen,  and 
the  city  could  ofVer  no  resistance  ;  all  Pope  Leo's  en- 
treaties did  not  save  it  fourteen  days  of  dev.astat- 
ing  plunder.  On  leaving  the  city  Genseric  carried 
with  him  the  emjiress  .and  her  two  d.anghters,  one 
of  whom  hee.ame  the  wife  of  his  son  Huneric  The 
empire  twice  endeavoured  to  avenge  the  indig- 
nities it  li.ad  sulVered,  hut  without  succes.s.  First 
the  Western  emperor,  M.ajorian,  fitted  out  a  fleet 
.against  the  Vand.als  in  4.')7,  which  wa.s  destroyed 
hy  Genseric  in  the  hay  of  Carth.agena ;  next,  the 
Eivstem  emperor,  Leo,  sent  .an  expedition  under 
the  commaml  of  Heraclius  .and  others  in  4(kS, 
which   was   also  destroyed   ofl'  the   city   of   Bona. 


Genseric  died  in  477,  in  the  pos-session  of  all  his 
conquests,  leaving  hehind  him  the  reputation  of 
heing  the  greatest  of  the  Vandal  kings.  His 
appearance  was  not  imposinjj ;  .lordanes  descrities 
hini  a-s  of  low  stature,  and  lame  on  account  of  a 
fall  from  his  horse,  deep  in  his  designs,  taciturn, 
avei'se  to  pleasure,  subject  to  transports  of  fury, 
greedy  of  conquest,  and  cunning  in  sowing  the 
seeds  of  iliseord  .among  nations,  ami  exciting  them 
against  each  other.  He  w.o-s  nithless  in  his  cruelty, 
and  seems  to  have  fouiiil  impulse  in  the  fierce  and 
fanatical  higotry  of  his  religion.  Once,  when  leaving 
the  harl)our  of  Carthage  on  an  expedition,  the 
pilot  asked  him  whither  he  was  going.  '  Against 
all  who  have  incnned  the  wrath  of  (!od,'saiil  the 
conqueror. 

ticiltiail  (  Gentiatia — so  called  after  the  Illyrian 
king  (ientius,  who  is  said  hy  Pliny  to  have 
introduced  G.  liitca  into  medicine),  a  genus  of 
( Jentianacea'.  There  are  more  than  100  species, 
natives  of  north  temperate  regions,  verj'  often 
growing  in  high  mountain  pastures  and  meailows, 
which  the.v  cover  with  their  he.autiful  hlue  or 
yellow  flowers.  The  roots  of  the  Common  (Jentian 
or  Yellow  (lentian  ( '■'.  hilin)  are  collected  hy  the 
pea.sants  of  the  Alps  (along  with  the  less  valuahle 
roots  of  a.  iiaiiiiuniici,  piirpiirrn,  ,an<l  punrtata) 
to  furnish  the  gentian  root  (radix  getiliamr)  of 
pharmacy,  which  is  largely  employed  as  an 
excellent  bitter  and  stomacliic.  The  nic<licinal 
i)roperties  are  essentially  due  to  the  presence  of  a 
hitter  glycoside  {r/ciiliopirrin) :  pectin  (see  FUUIT) 
.and  also  sugar  .are  present  in  i|uantily  ;  hence  the 
peasants  of  the  Al])s  prepare  alcoholic  hitters  - 
their  Eiiziatif/eisI — hy  the  fermentation  of  the  fresli 
roots.  U.  Catcshai  is  u.sed  as  gentian  root  in  North 
America,  an<l  (i.  Knrroo  in  the  Himalayas. 

The  florist  recognises  two  main  groups  of  these 
beautiful  hardy  plants,  the  first  strong  .and  easily 
grown  in  borders,  of  which  the  Willow  (lentian  ('/. 
asclcpiadca)  and  G.  liiha  are  sjiecially  common. 
The  former  can  also  he  grown  with  goo<l  effect  under 
trees  and  among  gra.ss.  The  ilwarf  kinds  require 
more  careful  treatment,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Common  (Sentianella  {(!. 
acaii/is),  which  readil.y 
forms  edgings  and  carpets. 
The  name  Gentianella  is 
sometimes  also  applied  to 
the  allied  Ciccndia  filifor- 
mis,  a  small,  slender,  and 
graceful  plant  with  yellow 
flowers.  G.  renin  (Vernal 
Gentian )  can  be  grown  well 
in  deep  s.andy  loam,  with 
.abundant  moisture  and  sun- 
shine. Bavarian  (ientian 
( G.  bavarica )  and  Crested 
Genthan  (G.  scptcmfdn)  of 
the  Caucasus  require  more 
moisture.  Gther  species 
can  be  cultivateil  with  care. 
Of  North  American  species 
G.  criiiitu  Is  specially  cele- 
brated for  the  beauty  of  its 
flowers  ;  the  genus  in  fact 
mjiy  fairly  be  allowed  the 
very  first  place  among  the 
j  floral  glories  alike  of  Alpine 
regions,  in  which  they  range 
up  to  the  snow-level,  and 
of  the  alpine  garden.  Seve- 
ral species  of  Gentian  are  popularly  called  Bald- 
money.     See  Alpine  Plants. 

Gcntianacem  form  an  order  of  corollifloral  ilicoty- 
ledons.  The  500  s])ecies  .are  almost  exclusively 
iierbaceons,  and  are  usually  natives  of  temperate 
and   cold    latitudes    and    altitudes.      M.any    have 


Crested  CJentian 
( O'entiana  tcptemfida ). 


GENTILE 


GENUFLEXION 


137 


flowers  of  great  beauty,  and  a  general  astringency 
pervades  tlie  order,  whence  many  are  of  past  or 
present  medicinal  repute.  See  Chirata,  Buck- 
iif^AN,  and  Centaury". 

Ol'lltile  (Lat.  gentilis,  from  ijcns,  'a  nation), 
in  Scrijiture,  a  member  of  a  non-.Jewish  nation,  an 
alien,  an  unbeliever,  a  non-Christian.  The  Heh. 
tioim,  pi.  of  r/o(,  '  nation,'  is  used  both  of  foreigners 
in  general  and  foreigners  as  enemies,  as  heatliens  : 
so  in  the  New  Testament  the  Greek  ct/inc,  'nations,' 
and  Hellenes,  'Greeks,'  though  sometimes  meaning 
simply  foreigners,  nonJews,  usually  had  tlie  invidi- 
ous sense  of  unbeliever,  heathen.  Compare  the 
Greek  use  of  Barbarian  (q.  v. ). 

Cieiitilc  da  Fabriaiio.    See  Fai!i;ia.\i). 

<i!oiltiIlV«  a  southern  suburb  of  Paris,  on  the 
circular  railway,  at  the  foot  of  the  Bieetre  hill.  It 
has  a  number  of  villas,  tanneries,  and  manufactures 
of  liiscuits,  vinegar,  mustard,  and  soap.  Pop. 
(1891)  15,017,  many  of  them  employed  in  the 
neiglibouring  quarries  and  in  washing. 

Cieiltleinan.  in  its  original  and  strict  sense,  a 
)ierson  of  noble  descent.  The  first  part  of  the  wonl 
comes  from  the  Latin  gentilis,  which  signities 
belonging  to  a  gens  or  family.  The  terms  gentle- 
man anfl  nobleman  were  formerly  identical  in 
meaning  ;  but  the  popular  signification  of  each  has 
become  gradually  modilied,  that  of  the  former 
having  widened,  of  the  latter  having  become  more 
restricted.  The  continental  noble  ( Fr. )  or  udel  ( Ger. ) 
still  retains  the  original  sense  of  our  gentleman.  The 
broadly-marked  distinction  between  the  nobleman 
or  gentleman  and  the  rest  of  the  community  is 
one  of  the  most  prominent  features  of  medieval 
life,  and  the  source  from  which  the  less  abrupt 
gradations  of  rank  in  modern  society  have  been 
developed.  The  gently  of  England  had  formerly 
many  privileges  recognised  by  law.  If  a  churl  or 
iie.'isant  ilefamed  the  honour  of  a  gentleman,  the 
latter  had  his  remedy  in  law,  but  if  one  gentle- 
man defamed  another,  the  combat  was  allowed.  In 
equal  crimes  a  gentleman  was  punishable  with  less 
severity  than  a  churl,  unless  the  crime  were  heresy, 
treason,  or  excessive  contumacy.  A  gentleman 
<-<)iidemned  to  death  was  beheaded  and  not  hangeil, 
and  his  examination  was  taken  without  torture. 
In  giving  evidence  the  testimony  of  a  gentleman 
outweighed  that  of  a  churl.  A  churl  might  not 
cliallenge  a  gentleman  to  combat,  rpiin  mnditiones 
itn/xires.  After  the  introduction  of  heraldry  the 
right  to  armorial  ensigns  or  insignia  gentilitia  be- 
came (as  the  jus  imaginum  had  been  .among  the 
Romans)  the  test  of  gentility  or  nobility.  Gentility 
was  of  course  inherited  ;  but  it  was  also  within  the 
prerogative  of  a  sovereign  prince  to  ennoble  or  make 
a  gentleman  of  a  person  of  a  lower  grade  whom 
he  thought  worthy  of  the  distinction,  and  whose 
desconilaiits  accordingly  became  gentlemen.  We 
have  examples  in  England  of  the  direct  exercise 
of  this  prerogative  by  the  sovereign  as  late  a-s  the 
reign  of  Henry  VT..  the  patent  of  gentility  or 
nciliility  being  accompanied  with  no  title  of  honour, 
but  merely  with  a  coat  of  arms,  the  grant  contain- 
ing the  words  '  tiobilitamus  nohilenxjuc  facimtis  et 
rreamus  .  .  .  et  in  signum  htij itsmncli  nobilitatis 
iirmn  et  armorum  insignia  tlanius  et  coneedimus.' 
Letters  of  nobility  of  a  similar  description  are 
granted  by  the  emperor  in  (Tcrmany  and  Austria 
to  the  present  day,  confemng  no  title,  but  <mly  the 
status  of  w/cH nobleman  or  gentleman)  indicated 
by  the  prefix  vun  to  the  surname.  A  gentleman 
of  ancestry  was  (or  is)  something  beyond  a  gentle- 
man of  blood  and  coat-armour  :  lie  must  be  able 
to  show  ]iurity  of  blood  for  five  generations — i.e. 
that  his  ancestors  on  every  side  for  four  genera- 
tions back — viz.  his  eight  great  great-grandfathers 
and  eight  great  great-grandmothers — were  all  en- 


titled to  coat-armour.  This  purity  of  blood  is 
still  insisted  on  for  certain  office.s'  in  Germany 
and  Austria.  In  England  the  conce.s.sion  of  in- 
signia gentilitia  (or  of  creating  a  gentleman)  ha.s 
long  been  deputed  to  the  kings  of  arms,  the 
prerogative  of  the  .sovereign  in  the  matter  of 
rank  being  directly  exercised  only  in  creating  peers, 
baronets,  or  knights.  In  our  own  day,  while  the 
stricter  meaning  of  the  word  is  retaineii  in  tlie 
expres.sion  'gentleman  by  birth,'  the  less  abrupt 
gradation  of  ranks  and  the  courtesy  of  society  have 
caused  the  term  gentleman  to  be  applied  in  a  some- 
what loose  sense  to  any  one  whose  education, 
profession,  or  perhaps  wliose  income,  raises  him 
above  ordinary  trade  or  menial  .service,  or  to  a 
man  of  polite  and  refined  manners  and  idea-s.  See 
Esquire,  Xobilitv. 

Gentleman-commoner.     See   Oxford 

(  Universitji). 

Gentlemen-at-arms    (formerly   called    the 

Gextlemex-pexsioner.s),  the  bodyguard  of  the 
British  sovereign,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the 
yeomen  of  the  guard,  the  oldest  cori)s  in  the 
British  serv'ice.  It  was  instituted  in  1509  by 
Henry  VIII.,  and  now  consists  of  1  captain,  who  re- 
ceives £1200  a  year;  1  lieutenant,  £.'M);  1  standard- 
bearer,  £310;  1  clerk  of  the  cheque,  £1'20;  and 
40  gentlemen,  each  with  £70  a  year.  The  pay  is 
issued  from  the  privy  purse.  Until  1861  the  com- 
missions were  purchasable,  as  in  other  regiments ; 
but  by  a  royal  command  of  that  year  this  system 
was  abolished,  and  commissions  as  gentlemen-at- 
arms  have  since  only  been  given  to  military  officers 
of  service  and  distinction.  The  attendance  of  the 
gentlemen-at-arms  is  only  required  at  drawing- 
rooms,  levees,  coronations,  and  similar  important 
state  ceremonies.  The  appointment,  whiclx  is  in 
the  sole  gift  of  the  crown,  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  commander-in-chief,  can  he  held  in  conjunc- 
tion with  half-pay  or  retired  full-pay,  but  not 
simultaneously  with  any  appointment  which  might 
involve  absence  at  the  time  of  the  officer's  .services 
being  required  by  the  sovereign. 

GentOO'  (Portuguese  Geniio,  'Gentile'),  the 
term  applied  by  old  English  writers  to  the  Hindus, 
or  natives  of  India ;  antl  in  esj)ecial  to  the  Gcnt'io 
laws,  a  code  compiled  by  Sir  William  .lones. 

Gentz,  Friedrich  vox,  politician  and  writer, 
was  born  at  Breslau,  2d  May  1764,  and,  shortly 
after  entering  the  Pnissian  civil  service,  pub- 
lished liis  fii-st  work,  a  translation  of  Burke'^j 
lissag  on  the  Freneh  Reeolntion  (179.3).  In  I78ti 
he  entered  the  public  service  of  Prussia,  but  in  ISO'i 
exchanged  into  that  of  Austria,  h.aving  a  short 
time  previously  paid  a  visit  to  England,  where  he 
became  acquainted  with  Mackintosh,  (Irenvillc, 
Pitt,  and  other  public  men.  Throughout  the 
struggle  against  Napoleon  he  distinguishe<l  himsell 
by  writings  full  of  burning  hatred  to  the  French 
emperor.  At  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1814 
Gentz  was  appointed  fii-st  secretary,  and  he  held 
the  same  post  in  nearly  all  the  subsequent  con- 
ferences down  to  that  of  Verona  (IS'22).  From 
1810  onwards  he  laboured  as  an  adherent  of 
Mettemich.  His  writings,  which  are  of  a  mis- 
cellaneous character,  are  distinguished  for  the 
elegance  and  correctness  of  their  style.  But  his 
pen  was  always  on  sale  to  the  highest  bidder  : 
ami  he  ilrew  the  supplies  by  which  he  met  his 
lavish  private  expenditure  from  more  than  one 
government  outside  Austria.  He  died  9tli  .lune 
18.12.     See  his  Life  by  K.  Mendelssolin-Bartholdy 

(i8r>7). 

Genuflexion,  tlie  act  of  bending  the  knees  in 
worship  or  adoration.  It  is  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  the  ritual  of  the  Catholic  Church :  Catholics 
genuflect   passing  before  the  tabernacle  where  the 


138 


GENUS 


GEOFFRIN 


sacrament  is  reserved  ;  the  priests  geiiullect 
repeateilly  (luring  mass,  itc.     See  Knkelixc. 

GcnilS  (I.iit.,  'a  kind'),  in  Natural  Histoiy, 
a  ;^r()up  of  Speoit's  (<i.\'. )  flciscly  coniu'ftrd  hy  t-om- 
nion  I'liararti'i's  or  natural  atlinity.  In  all  liranclii's 
i)f  zoold^ty  and  liotany  tlie  nanir  of  the  genus  foruis 
the  first  part  of  the  scientilic  name  of  each  organ- 
ism, and  is  followed  hy  a  second  word — either  an 
a<ljective  or  a  sulistantive — which  distingnislu's  the 
particular  species.  This  hinomial  nomenclature 
was  introduced  liy  Linn:cus,  and  has  heen  of  great 
advantage,  making  names  serve,  in  some  measure, 
for  the  indication  of  allinities. 

Some  genera  are  more  satisfactory  than  others, 
the  question  turning  on  the  nature  of  the  com- 
ponent Species  (q.v. ).  A  genus  may  contain  a 
single  species — e.g.  the  genus  Ornithorhynchus  ;  or 
it  may  include  several  hundreds,  ami  in  such  cases 
especially  it  is  often  split  uji  into  suli-genera. 
(Iroups  of  related  genera  form  a  J'aniilij,  groups  of 
alliecf  families  f<irm  an  tin/n\  anil  almve  ordei"s  are 
rlaxs  and  jilii/huii.  lint,  again,  we  may  have  an 
order  with  oidy  a  cou|de  of  living  representatives, 
as  in  Prohoscidea  (elephants),  or  with  only  one, 
as  in  the  Hyracoidea  (conies).  The  real  ditliculties 
concern  species,  and  will  he  discussed  under  that 
title.      See  also  (JkN'KK.VI-IS.VIIUN. 

(■('Iiziino,  a  town  of  Italy,  on  the  Via  Appia, 
16  miles  SE.  of  Kome,  lies  near  the  lake  of  Nemi, 
and  contains  the  ( 'esarini  palace.  It  is  noted  for 
its  annual  llower  festival  (////('orate  di  (jc/iztiiio), 
held  on  the  eighth  day  after  Corpus  Christi,  which 
attracts  many  visitoi-s.     I'op.  ;")291. 

<iIcOCCIltrir  means  having  the  earth  for  centre. 
Thus,  the  irioon's  motions  are  geocentric;  also, 
though  no  other  of  the  heavenly  hodies  revolves 
round  the  earth,  tlieir  motions  are  spoken  of  as 
geocentric  when  referred  to,  or  considered  <as  they 
appear  from,  the  earth.  The  geocentric  latitude  of 
a  planet  is  the  inclination  to  the  plane  of  the  eclip- 
tic of  aline  connecting  it  and  the  earth;  the  geo- 
centric longitude  heing  the  distance  nu'asured  on 
the  ecliptic  from  the  first  point  of  Aries  to  the  point 
in  the  ecliptic  to  which  the  planet  a-s  seen  from  the 
earth  is  referred. 

Clo'odes  (Or.,  'earthy')  are  rounded  hollow 
concretions,  or  iiulurated  nodules,  either  empty 
or  containing  a  more  or  less  solid  and  free  nucleus, 
and  having  the  cavity  frequently  lined  with  crys- 
tals. They  are  sometimes  called  '  ])otato  stones,' 
on  account  of  their  size  and  slia|>e.  They  were  the 
(ictite.i  ( '  eagle  stones  ')  of  the  tlreeks,  who  asserted 
they  were  found  only  in  eagles'  nests.  The  eagles 
could  not  hreed  without  their  aid,  and  the  ai-tites 
were  su])posed  to  he  henelicial  to  women  in  lahour. 

Geodesy,  the  science  of  measuring  or  survey- 
ing extensive  portions  of  the  earth's  .surface  liy 
triangulation  (see  ORDNANCE  Survey).  The 
objects  of  the  survey  are  generally  to  determine 
the  contour  and  ilimensions  of  the  earth,  and  in  a 
secondary  dei;ree  to  acquire  materials  and  measure- 
ments for  accurate  maps. 

Geoffrey  of  Illoninoiltll,  a  famous  Latin 
chronicler,  who  was  Anhileacon  of  Monmouth,  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  St  .\sapli  in  11. ">2,  ami  died 
about  1154.  His  chief  work,  the  C'hronicoH  sive 
llistoria  Briloiiiim,  was  dedicated  to  Kolx^rt.  Earl 
of  Gloucester,  and  must  therefore  have  been  com- 
posed previous  to  1147,  the  date  of  the  latter's 
death.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  it  |iosses.ses 
little  value  as  history,  but  there  is  perhaps  but  one 
other  book  that  has  exercised,  directly  or  indirectly, 
so  profound  an  intluence  upon  English  literature. 
Its  author  professes  to  have  merely  translated  his 
work  from  ii  chronicle  entitled  Unit  ;/  llrnihiurd. 
a  Historj'  of  the  Kings  of  Britain,  found  in 
I'rittanv,    and    comnuinicate<l    to    him    by   Walter 


Calenius,  Archdeacon  of  Oxford ;  but  the  work  is 
really  nothing  more  than  a  miusterpiece  of  the 
creative  imagination  working  freely  <ui  materials 
found  in  (lildius,  Nennius,  and  such  chroniclei's, 
as  well  as  early  legends  now  dillicull  to  t.ace. 
In  the  dedicatory  epistle  (leoflrey  describes  his 
original  as  '  a  very  ancient  book  in  the  British 
tongue,  which  in  a  continued  regular  story  and 
elegant  style  related  the  actions  of  them  all,  from 
Brutus,  the  first  king  of  the  Britains,  down  to 
t'adwalladcr  the  son  of  t'adwallo.'  An  abridgment 
of  the  JJixforiii  wius  made  by  Alfreil  of  Beverley 
as  early  lus  1150,  and  it  wius  translated  into  Norman- 
French  V>y  (ieoll'rey  tlaimar  in  1154,  and  by  Wace 
( /,/■  Eonidiis  de  Brut)  with  new  matter  in  IISO. 
Layamon's  Brut  (early  in  13th  century)  was  a 
semi-Saxon  paraplirase  of  Wace,  and  kobert  of 
(Uouccster's  Vliruiiirle  wiis  a  fresh  rhymed  ]>ara 
phrase  of  the  same,  whi(di  being  in  the  native 
tongue  helped  to  make  the  legends  invented  by 
(JeoH'rey  widely  known.  The  ccuivincing  circum 
stantiality  of  the  story,  and  the  ingenuity  of 
its  etymological  connection  of  existing  ]dace- 
names  with  epimymous  heroes,  as  well  as  its 
irresistible  identilications  and  clovctailings  into 
British  historv'  of  details  of  srii])Iur;il  and  of  Konian 
story  were  sutlicient  for  an  uncritical  age ;  and 
henceforward  the  Trojan  origin  of  the  British  jicople 
became  a  |>oint  of  i)atriotisni  and  an  established 
historical  fact.  The  stories  of  King  Lear  and  of 
Cymbeliiu',  the  prophecies  of  Merlin,  and  the  legend 
of  the  famous  Arthur  in  the  form  in  which  vm' 
know  it,  owe  their  origin  to  the  rich  imagination 
of  tieoil'rey  of  Monmouth,  who  still  inllnences  us 
enormously  in  our  Malory,  I)rayt(m,  Shakespeare, 
SiJcnser,  Slilton,  and  Tennyson.  Chaucer  gives 
'Englyssb  Caunfride'  a  niche  in  his  IIou.sc  of  Fame 
as  being  '  besye  for  to  here  up  Troye.'  Yet  the 
book,  even  in  its  own  day,  did  not  altogether 
escape  the  censure  of  more  severe  historians.  ,\ 
Yorkshire  nuuik,  William  of  Newburgh,  denounces 
tk'oflrey  with  honest  indignation  as  having  '  lied 
saucily  and  shamelessly.'  'A  certain  writer  has 
come  up  in  our  times  to  wipe  out  the  blots  on  the 
Brit<ms,  weaving  together  ridiculous  ligments  about 
them,  and  raising  them  with  im|)udent  vanity  high 
above  the  virtue  of  the  Macedonians  and  Konians. 
This  man  is  iiame<l  (ieollrey,  and  has  the  by-name 
of  Artunis,  because  he  cloaked  with  the  honest 
name  of  history,  coloured  in  Latin  i)hra.se,  the  fables 
alxmt  Arthur,  taken  from  the  old  tales  of  the 
Bretons,  with  increase  of  his  own.'  (Jiraldus  Cam- 
brensis,  writing  within  fifty  years  after,  distinctly 
speaks  of  the  book  as  fabulous,  an<l  gives  us  a 
somewhat  singular  but  i>erfectly  conclusive  proof 
of  this  by  relating;  the  story  of  a  Welshman  at 
Caerleon  named  Melerius,  who,  'having  always 
an  extraordinary  familiarity  with  unclean  sj/irits, 
by  .seeing  them,  knowing  them,  talking  with  them, 
and  calling  each  by  his  proper  name,  was  enabled 
through  tlieir  assistance  to  foretell  future  events. 
.  .  .  He  knew  when  any  one  spoke  falsely  in  bis 
presence,  for  he  saw  the  devil  as  it  were  lc.Ti)in;,' 
and  exulting  on  the  tongue  of  the  liar.  ...  If  tin' 
evil  spirits  opjues.sed  bini  too  much,  the  Gospel  of 
St  John  was  jilaced  on  his  bosom,  when,  like  binls, 
they  immediately  vanished  ;  but  when  that  book 
was  removeil,  and  the  History  of  the  Britons  by 
Geoffrey  Arthur  was  substituted  in  its  place,  they 
immediately  reappeared  in  greater  numbers,  and 
remained  a  longer  time  than  usual  on  his  body  and 
on  the  book.' 

fJeolTrey's  Chronicle  was  printed  as  early  as  1508.  An 
Knglish  translation  by  Aaron  Tliouipsoii  apiwari-d  in  1718, 
and  was  issued  in  Bohn's  '  Antiquarian  Library  '  in  1848. 

GeofTrill.  Marie  Tiikrese,  born  at  I'aris,  2d 
.Iniie  l(i!l!).  wiis  the  ilaughter  of  a  valet  de  chambre 
named    Bodet,   a  native  of  Dauphine;    and   in   lier 


GEOFFROY 


GEOGRAPHICAL 


139 


fifteenth  year  was  maiiied  to  a  very  rich  citizen 
in  tlie  Faubourg  St  Antoine,  who  died  not  long 
after,  leaving  her  an  immense  fortune.  Madame 
(jeoti'rin,  though  herself  but  imperfectly  educated, 
had  a  genuine  love  of  learning  and  art,  and  her  house 
soon  became  a  rendezvous  of  the  men  of  letters  and 
artists  of  Paris.  Every  illustrious  foreigner  was 
welcomed  to  her  circle,  but  her  dearest  friends  were 
the  p/iilosop/ies,  and  upon  them  in  their  necessities 
she  showered  her  money  with  etiual  delicacy  ami 
liberality.  Among  her  friends  she  numliered 
Montesquieu,  Marmontel,  Morellet,  Thomas,  and 
Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  afterwards  king  of  Poland. 
The  last  is  said  to  have  announced  to  her  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  throne  in  the  words:  'Maman,  votre  fils 
est  roi.'  In  1766  he  prevailed  on  her  to  visit  War- 
.saw,  where  she  was  received  with  the  greatest 
distinction,  and  subseqiiently  in  Vienna  she  met 
the  same  reception  from  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa 
and  her  son,  Joseph  II.  Madame  Geotl'rin  died 
in  October  1777,  leaving  legacies  to  most  of  her 
friends.  Towards  the  publication  of  the  Envyclu- 
pidie  she  contributed,  according  to  the  calculations 
of  her  daughter,  who  was  no  friend  to  her  mothers 
pet  philosophers,  more  than  100,000  francs.  The 
panegyrics  of  D'Alembert,  Thomas,  and  Morellet 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Elogcs  clc  Madame  Geoff liii 
(1812).  Morellet  likewise  published  her  treatise 
Hiir  la  Conversation,  and  her  Lcttres. 
Geoffroy  Saint-IIilaire,  Etiennk,  French 

zoologist  and  biologist,  was  born  at  Etampes  ( Seine- 
et-Oi.se),  15th  April  1772.  He  was  at  hrst  destined 
for  the  clerical  profession,  but  sluntly  after  begin- 
ning his  studies  at  Paris  he  came  into  contact  with 
Brisson,  who  awakened  in  him  a  taste  for  the 
natural  sciences.  He  subsequently  becaine  a  pupil 
of  Haiiy,  Fourcroy,  and  Daubenton.  In  June  1793 
he  was  nominated  professor  of  Vertebrate  Zoology 
in  the  newly-instituted  Museum  of  Natural  History 
at  Paris.  That  same  year  he  commenced  the  found- 
ation of  the  celebrated  zoological  collection  at  the 
.lardin  des  Plantes.  The  year  1795  is  marked  by 
his  introduction  to  his  subsequent  friend  and 
scientific  opponent,  Georges  Cuvier.  In  1798 
Geoffroy  formed  one  of  the  scientific  commission 
that  accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  and  he  re- 
mained in  tliat  country  until  the  surrender  of  Alex- 
andria in  1801.  He  succeeded  in  bringing  to  France 
valuable  collections  of  natural  history  specimens  ; 
his  Labours  in  connection  with  this  e.xpedition  led 
to  his  election,  in  1807,  into  the  Academy  of 
Sciences.  In  1808  he  was  sent  by  Napoleon  to 
Portugal,  to  obtain  from  tlie  collections  in  that 
kingdom  all  the  specimens  which  were  wanting  in 
those  of  France.  On  his  return  he  was  apjiointed 
( 1809 )  to  the  professorship  of  Zoology  in  the  Faculty 
of  Sciences  at  Paris.  All  his  imi)ortant  works  were 
published  between  this  date  and  his  death,  which 
took  place  on  19th  June  1844.  Throughout  almost 
all  his  writings  we  find  him  endeavouring  to 
establish  one  great  proposition — viz.  the  unity  of 
plan  in  organic  structure  (see  Evolution,  Vol.  IV. 
p.  4S1 ).  This  was  the  point  on  wbicli  be  and  Cuvier 
mainly  dill'ered,  Cuvier  being  a  firm  believer  in  the 
invariability  of  species,  and  grouping  the  Linnean 
genera  untler  the  four  divisions  of  vertebrates, 
molluscs,  articulates,  and  radiates.  Geott'roy  also 
rai.sed  teratology  or  the  study  of  monstrosities  and 
anatomical  malformati<ms  to  the  rank  of  a  science, 
principallv  in  his  I'kilosop/iic  Analoniiqiie  (2  vols. 
1818-20).'  In  addition  to  this  he  wrote  Siir  I'Unite 
de  Composition  Organiqiic  ( 1828 ) ;  L'Uistoire  Natu- 
rellr.  des  Mammifires  (1820-42)  with  F.  Cuvier; 
Philosojihic  Zi>olo(jiqiie  (1830) ;  Etudes  I'roi)irssives 
d'ltn  Naturalistc  ( 1835) ;  besides  numerous  papei's, 
mostly  on  comparative  anatomy,  scattered  tlnough 
magazines.  See  Life  (1847)  by  his  son  Isidore, 
which  contains  a  bibliograpliy  of  his  works  ;   also 


the    Appendix    to    vol.    i.    of    De    Quatrefages's 
Rumbles  uf  a  Kattirulist  ( 1863). 

His  son  Isidore,  biologist  and  naturalist,  wa-s 
born  in  Paris,  16th  December  180.5.  Educati'd 
in  natural  history  by  his  father,  he  became  assist- 
ant-naturalist at  the  zoological  museum  in  1824. 
He  too  made  a  special  study  of  teratology, 
publishing  in  1832-37  Histoire  des  Anomalies  de 
I'Orffanisatioii  ehcr,  V Homme  et  les  Animaux. 
As  zoological  superintentlent  he  was  led  to  study 
the  domestication  of  foreign  animals  in  France ; 
and  the  results  of  his  investigations  appeared  in 
Domestication  et  Naturalisation  des  Anirnaux  Utiles 
( 1854) ;  in  the  same  year  he  founded  the  Acclima- 
tisation Society  of  Paris.  In  1838  he  proceeded  to 
Bordeaux  to  organise  a  faculty  of  sciences.  On 
the  retirement  of  his  father  three  years  later,  Isidore 
was  appointed  to  the  vacant  chair,  which  in  1850 
he  resigned  for  that  of  Zoology  at  the  Faculty  of 
Sciences.  In  1852  he  published  the  first  volume  of 
a  great  work  entitled  Histoire  (ientrale  des  Rignes 
Ori/iiniqiies,  in  which  he  intended  to  develop  the 
doctrines  of  his  father,  but  he  died  at  Paris, 
10th  November  1861,  before  completing  the  third 
volume.  He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  the  use  of 
horse-Hesh  as  human  food,  and  championed  his 
views  in  Lettres  sur  les  ,Substances  Alimentaires,  et 
partienl iercment  sur  la  Viande  de  Cheval  (1856). 

Geognosy  (Or.  ge,  '  the  earth  ; '  gnosis,  '  know- 
ledge'), the  study  of  the  materials  of  the  earth's 
substance,  Ls  a  teriu  now  superseded  by  Petrography. 
See  Geology. 

Geographical  Distribution.  There  is  no 
branch  of  scientific  inquiry  the  interest  and  im- 
portance of  which  have  grown  more  rapidly  in 
recent  years  than  that  which  forms  the  sub- 
ject of  the  present  article.  In  chief  measure 
this  is  due  to  the  totally  difl'erent  complexion 
given  to  the  inquiry  by  the  publication  of  the 
Darwinian  views  of  the  Origin  of  Species.  As 
long  as  it  was  held  that  each  specit's  must  have 
been  created,  as  a  general  rule,  within  the  geo- 
graphical area  which  it  now  occupies,  the  most 
curious  facts  of  distribution  could  be  regarded  only 
with  'sterile  wonder.'  But  when  the  idea  came 
to  be  entertained  that  allied  s])ecies  have  ha<l  a 
common  origin,  it  was  obviously  implied  that  they 
or  their  ancestors  must  have  had  a  common  birth- 
place ;  and  consequently,  when  we  find  membei's  of 
a  group  severed  from  their  nearest  kindred,  we  feel 
bound  to  inquire  how  this  came  about.  Thus, 
when  it  is  ol)served  that  all  the  West  Indian 
mammals,  with  one  exception,  arc  allied  to  those 
of  America,  we  at  once  infer  that  the  ancestors  of 
these  animals  must  have  been  derived  from  that  con- 
tinent, and  we  have  to  determine  how  the  passage 
was  made  from  the  mainland  to  the  islands  ;  and 
the  problem  becomes  much  more  ditlicult  when  we 
find  that  the  single  exception  referred  to  '  belongs 
to  an  order,  Insectivora,  entirely  absent  from 
South  America,  and  to  a  family,  Centetidie,  all  the 
other  species  of  which  inhabit  Madagascar  only  ' 
(Wallace,  Geographieal  Distriltution  of  Animals). 
Similarly,  we  have  to  explain  how  the  tapirs  are 
confined  to  the  Malayan  region  and  South  America; 
the  Camelid;e  to  the  deserts  of  Asia  and  the  Andes; 
marsu]iials  to  the  Australian  region  and  America  ; 
how  the  mammals  aiul  birds  of  North  America 
resemble  those  of  Europe  more  than  those  of  South 
America  ;  how  the  fiora  uf  Japan  presents  greater 
affinities  to  that  of  the  Atlantic  than  to  that  of  the 
Pacific  States  of  North  America  ;  and  so  on. 

The  consi<lerations  that  nnist  he  taken  into 
account  in  dealing  with  the  imdilems  of  distribu- 
tion are  far  too  numerous  ana  complex  to  be  gone 
into  fully  within  tlie  limits  of  an  cnryciiqKiilia 
article,  and  all  that  can  Vie  done  under  this  head  is 


140 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DTSTRIBUTIOX 


to  indicate  the  nature  of  the  more  important  facts 
all'eotin{^  the  »<>hitiiin  of  these  prolileiiis.  One  of 
the  prinoipiil  nicaiin  of  throwing  lij;ht  on  tliis  sub- 
ject must  nlivimisly  1«'  to  consider  liy  what  means 
animals  and  ]ilants  arc  aide  to  disperse  themselves 
across  the  harrici-s  at  present  existin;;. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  ilraw  attention  to  the 
facilities  for  dilliision  possessed  Iiy  animals  endoweil 
with  great  locomotive  powers,  and  especially,  anionjr 
land-animals,  l>y  those  having  the  power  of  (light  ; 
and  in  connection  with  this  means  of  dispersal  the 
most  important  thing  to  note  is  that  some  animals, 
which  in  the  adult  slate  have  oidy  feeble  jiowers  of 
locomotiim,  are  better  endowed  in  this  respect  in 
an  earlier  stage  of  existence.  Such,  for  example, 
are  univ.alve  and  bivalve  marine  molluscs,  which 
,are  all  developed  from  free-sw  iniming  larva". 

But.  besides  the  normal  tiieans  of  locomotion,  there 
are  many  otlier  modes  of  dispersal  whidi  it  is  highly 
important,  with  reference  to  the  i)resent  inipiiry,  to 
take  into  account.  Fii'st,  there  is  the  power  of 
winds  as  a  ilLstributing  agent.  The  carrying  power 
of  winds  is  known  to  be  sufficient  to  bear  along  in 
the  air  line  dust  across  seas  many  hunrlreds  of  miles 
in  width;  and,  that  being  the  case,  we  have  in  that 
agencv  alone  an  adecpiate  means  of  accounting  for 
tlie  dispersion  of  all  plants  propagated  by  minute 
spores.  For  that  rc.uson  the  distribution  of  most 
cryptogamic  plants  hardly  forms  part  of  the  problem 
unaer  consideration,  and  is  generall.v  left  out  of 
account  by  those  who  have  devoted  them.selves  to 
this  investigation.  What  part  winds  may  have 
played  in  carrying  the  seeils  of  phanerogamous 
plants  .across  arms  of  the  sea  is  a  more  doubtful 
])oiMt :  but  there  are  observations  which  show  that 
even  for  such  seeds,  especially  when  ]>roviiled  w  itli 
some  kind  of  feathery  appendage,  winds  may  occa- 
sionally serve  as  a  means  of  transjKirt  for  very  long 
distances.  Thus,  Iterthelot  records  that  after  a 
violent  huiTicane  he  saw  an  annual  beloiiLfing  to  the 
Coiji|)osit;e  ( luii/iron  iimbiijnii.i),  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  Mciliterranean  region,  suddenly 
appear  at  various  R[)ots  on  the  Canary  Islands, 
where  it  was  previouslv  unknown,  so  that  there 
could  be  hardly  any  doubt  that  the  seeds  had 
been  blown  across  from  Portugal  or  North  Africa. 
Nevertheless,  De  Candolle  has  shown  that  seeds 
provided  with  a  pappus  are  not  on  an  average 
more  widely  distributed  than  those  membei-s 
of  the  Compositjc  which  are  not  so  provided, 
so  that  such  a  ea.se  as  that  just  mentioned  must 
be  looked  upon  as  fjuite  exce]>tional.  But  it  is 
exceptional  means  ot  transport  that  is  most  im- 
portant to  consider  with  reference  to  the  problems 
of  distriliution. 

But,  in  the  case  of  animals  also,  winils  are  a  more 
important  means  of  transport  than  one  nuglit  at 
first  suppose.  Birils  and  msect-s  are  often  blown 
immense  distances  out  of  their  course  ;  and  to  this 
cause,  for  instance,  is  due  the  arrival  every  year  of 
American  birds  on  the  Iterniudas.  Insects  have 
been  caught  on  board  of  ships  upwards  of  3(X» 
miles  from  land.  Further,  there  are  well-authenti- 
cated cases  of  even  craljs,  frogs,  and  lislies  being 
carried  long  distances  by  storms  ;  and  in  this  way 
it  is  possible  to  account  /or  the  transference  of  fish, 
&c.  from  one  river-system  to  another.  Still  more 
frequently,  in  all  probability,  are  the  eggs  of  such 
creatures  transported  by  this  means. 

Next,  marine  currents  also  form,  Iteyond  douVit,  a 
highly  important  means  of  dispersal  both  for  plants 
anil  animals,  and  that  in  v.arious  w.iys.  First,  seeds 
may  lloat  on  the  snrf.ace  of  the  ocean,  and  be 
carried  by  currents  for  hundreds  of  miles,  and 
become  stranded  on  a  distant  shore  still  in  a  con- 
dition fit  for  germination.  The  well-known  experi- 
ments of  Darwin  to  determine  the  vitality  of  seeds 
in    sea-water    first   enabled   us   to   appreciate   the 


importance  of  thif*  factor  in  the  distribntion  of 
plants.  In  one  ex|>eriment  he  found  that,  out  of 
87  kinds  of  seed.s,  t>4  germinated  after  an  immersion 
of  28  days,  and  a  few  survived  an  iiumiTsion  of  137 
days;  and  in  another,  that,  out  of  !I4  dried  plants, 
18  floated  for  alK>ve  28  days  ;  anil,  combining  the 
results  of  the  two  experiments,  he  concluded  that 
1-1  plants  out  of  every  UK)  in  the  Mora  of  a  country 
might  be  lloated  by  currents  moving  at  the  average 
rate  of  the  .several  Atlantic  currents  a  distance  of 
924  miles,  anil  might,  on  l>eing  stranded,  furnish 
seeds  capable  of  germinating, 

But  further,  marine  currents  often  carry  on  their 
surface  various  kinds  of  natural  rafts,  which  may- 
be the  means  of  transport  both  for  plants  and 
animals.  In  the  polar  regiims  icebergs  and  ice- 
floes may  sene  this  pur|>ose ;  and  el.sewhere 
trunks  of  trees,  .and  even  fragments  torn  from  the 
land.  Such  fr.agments,  forming  small  islands  with 
erect  trees  upon  them,  have  been  seen  at  a  distance 
of  100  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  (langes  and 
other  rivers.  Wallace  jxiints  out  that  ocean 
waifs  of  one  kind  or  another  are  almost  the  only 
means  we  can  imagine  by  which  land-shells  can 
have  acquired  the  wide  distribution  for  which  they 
are  remarkable.  Tlie.se  iiinlluscs  perish  veiy  readily 
in  sea-water,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  are  very 
tenacious  of  life  in  other  circumstances;  and  this 
tenacity  of  life  obviously  favimrs  their  chance  of 
Ijeing  carried  in  chinks  of  floating  tinilier,  or  other- 
wise, across  the  ocean. 

Again,  locomotive  animals  are  veiy  fioouently 
the  means  of  ilispersing  both  plants  ami  other 
animals.  Seeds  may  be  attached  to  the  fleece  or 
fur  of  mamiii.als  or  the  jilumage  of  birds,  or  may 
be  enclosed  in  cluiii]>s  of  earth  clinging  to  the  feet 
or  some  other  ])art  of  bird  or  bea.st,  even  of  insects. 
To  Darwin  we  are  again  indebted  for  an  instance 
showing  how  likely  a  means  of  transport  this  is. 
He  informs  us  that  he  received  from  Professor 
Newton  the  leg  of  a  red-legged  p.artridge  {Caccahis 
riifa)  with  a  bull  of  hard  earth  weighing  CJ  ounces 
adhering  to  it.  The  earth  had  been  kept  for  three 
years ;  but  when  broken,  watered,  and  covereil  by 
a  bell-glass,  .as  m.any  .xs  eighty-two  plants  sprang 
from  it.  Hooked  fruits,  such  as  those  of  agrimony, 
geum,  &C. ,  and  fruits  covered  with  a  viscous  sub- 
stance, like  those  of  some  thistles,  mistletoe,  and 
others,  are  the  most  likely  to  be  transported  in 
this  way.  It  seems  probable  that  .aqu.atic  birds 
and  water-beetles  have  been  the  means  of  distrib- 
nting  aquatic  plants  and  fresh-water  molluscs, 
which  are  reinaiKable  fur  their  wide  diliusimi ;  and 
the  spawn  of  amphibians  .and  freshwater  fishes 
may  be  conveyed  from  one  IkmIv  of  fresh  water  to 
another  by  the  same  means. 

Ag.ain,  seeds  with  hard  -shells  are  known  in  many 
cases  to  be  capable  of  pa.ssing  through  the  digestive 
organs  of  birds  uninjured  ;  and  consequently  fruits 
enclosing  such  seeds,  or,  like  the  strawberry,  covered 
with  them,  may  be  devoured  by  birds  in  one  place, 
and  ileposited  l>y  thciii  in  a  state  fit  for  germina- 
tion at  another,  hundreds  of  miles  distant.  And 
what  is  of  .still  more  iiniiortance.  seeds  which  would 
be  destroyed  if  they  pa.s.sed  through  the  digestive 
organs  of  a  bird  are  quite  uninjured  as  long  as 
they  remain  in  the  criqi,  where  they  m.ay  be  re- 
tained for  twelve  or  eighteen  hours  ;  and  thus  birds 
killed  with  food  in  their  crop  may  be  the  means  of 
scattering  seed  which  has  travelled  .'iOO  miles.  It 
is  obvious  that  the  migratory  habits  of  certain 
birds  are  of  great  importance  with  reference  to  both 
the  means  of  trans]port  just  mentioned.  Some 
seeds  retain  the  power  of  germination  even  after 
pa.ssing  through  the  digestive  organs  of  ruminants. 
There  is  a  well-established  case  of  a  tree  belonging 
to  the  order  Legumino.sie  h.aving  lieen  introduced 
into  the  West   Indies  through  cattle  brought   from 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION 


Ul 


South  America,  tlie  cattle  liaving  been  fed  on  the 
voyage  with  the  pods  lieloiiging  to  the  tree. 

Further,  the  parasitic  halnts  of  certain  animals 
enable  them  to  be  carried  about  from  place  to 
place,  when  they  have  theraselv&s  no  power,  or 
only  a  very  feeble  power  of  locomotion.  And,  with 
regard  to  the  subject  now  under  consideration,  it 
makes  no  difference  whether  the  animals  are  truly 
parasitic,  feeding  at  the  e.\pense  of  the  host  to 
which  they  are  attached,  or  merely  commensalists, 
gaining  their  own  food  independently,  like  the  sea- 
anemones  so  frequently  attached  to  the  shells  of 
hermit-crabs. 

Lastly,  man  is  often  unintentionally  the  means 
of  conveying  lioth  plants  and  animals  from  one 
region  to  another.  The  foreign  plants  found  grow- 
ing on  ballast-heaps  are  instances  of  this,  and  so 
also  are  tlie  plants  which  have  sprung  from  seed 
introduced  with  imported  grain  or  other  articles  of 
import.  Since  the  discovery  of  America  the  whole 
of  the  northern  part  of  the  continent  is  said  to 
have  been  more  or  less  overrun  by  European  weeds  ; 
and,  according  to  Agassiz,  the  roadside  weeds  of  the 
New  England  states,  to  the  number  of  1.30,  aie  all 
European.  Wherever  European  sailors  have  gone, 
the  Euro|)ean  rats,  both  black  and  brown,  have 
accompanied  them  ;  and  the  shrew,  the  death's- 
head  moth,  the  Sphinx  coni-oleuli,  &c.,  are  also 
known  to  have  been  introduced  into  various 
countries  in  ships. 

In  the  i)recedmg  summary  of  the  more  important 
means  of  diffusion  for  plants  and  animals,  some  of 
the  obstacles  to  dirtusion  have  been  incidentally 
referre<l  to ;  but  it  will  be  convenient  to  make  a 
general  survey  of  these  also. 

For  all  land-plants  and  land-animals  the  most 
obvious  and  effective  barrier  is  a  wide  expanse  of 
ocean  ;  aiul  where  the  exjjanse  is  ver>'  wide  it  is 
seldom  i)assable  except  with  the  aid  of  man.  For 
land-mammals  the  ocean  is  an  ab.solutely  im- 
passable barrier,  and  hence  native  mammals  are 
always  absent  from  oceanic  islands  (i.e.  islands 
that  have  never  been  connected  with  the  main- 
lanil ) ;  and  this  barrier  is  almost  equally  effective 
for  serpents  and  amphibians,  which  also  are  nearly 
always  wanting  where  there  are  no  native  mam- 
mals. Lizards  are  more  freqtiently  found  indigen- 
ous on  oceanic  islands,  though  their  means  of 
transit  from  the  mainland  is  unknown.  Arms  of 
the  sea  and  broad  rivere  are  likewise  generally 
impassable  for  the  creatures  mentioned,  though 
some  of  them  have  greater  powers  of  swimming 
than  is  generally  supposed.  The  jaguar,  the  bear, 
and  the  bison  are  capable  of  swimming  the  widest 
rivers ;  jiigs  have  been  known  to  swim  ashore 
when  carried  out  to  sea  to  a  distance  of  several 
miles ;  and  even  a  boa  constrictor,  it  is  said,  has 
swum  to  the  island  of  St  ^'incent  from  the  South 
American  coast — a  distance  of  200  miles. 

Mountains,  and  especially  high  nuiuntains,  are 
also  frequently  etl'ective  barriei's  to  the  migration 
of  l.md  plants  and  animals  ;  but  it  must  Ije  noticed 
that  in  some  cases  they  serve  for  both  a-s  a  means 
of  communication  between  one  region  and  another, 
enabling  plants  and  anim.als  belonging  to  a  cold 
climate,  for  exam|>le,  to  spread  into  latitudes  where, 
in  the  plains,  the  climate  is  too  hot  for  them. 
Again,  deserts  act  as  a  barrier  to  the  majority  of 
plants  ,and  aninuils  ;  forests  are  a  barrier  to  the 
camel,  hare,  zebra,  giraHe,  \c.  :  treeless  regions  to 
apes,  lemurs,  and  many  monkeys  ;  plains  to  wild 
goats  and  sliee[).  Hroad  ri\  ers  also  act  occasionally 
a-s  barriei-s  to  distribution,  and  that,  strange  to 
say,  even  in  the  case  of  some  species  of  birds. 

Another  important  barrier  is  that  of  climate ; 
but,  with  reference  to  this,  it  must  be  observed  that 
the  question  of  climate  alVects  the  problems  of 
geographical   distribution,   in   the  proper  sense  of 


that  term,  only  in  so  far  as  climatic  conditions 
may  shut  off  i)lants  and  animals  fiom  means  of 
conmiunication  Ijetween  one  region  and  another, 
and  not  where  climate  merely  limits  the  range  of 
a  species  or  group  within  a  continuous  area.  In 
the  case  of  many  animals  climate  acts  only  in- 
directly as  a  banier  through  limiting  the  food- 
supply  required  bv  them. 

Another  set  of  liarriers  may  be  classed  under  the 
general  head  of  organic,  inasmuch  as  they  are  all 
connected  with  the  vegetable  or  animal  life  of  the 
region  where  such  baiTiere  exist.  Under  this  head 
may  be  mentioned  first  the  fact  that  certain 
animals  require  for  their  subsistence  a  special 
kind  of  vegetable  food.  The  range  of  insects  is 
peculiarly  liable  to  be  limited  in  this  way,  certain 
insects  being  attached  to  particul.ar  species  of 
plants,  and  others  to  genera  or  families ;  and  for 
this  rea.son  insects,  in  spite  of  the  exceptional 
facilities  for  dispersal  which,  as  we  have  alreadj- 
seen,  they  enjoy,  are  remarkable,  as  a  rule,  rather 
for  the  restriction  of  their  areas  of  distribution 
than  for  their  vide  dillusion.  Again,  the  presence 
of  enemies  is  sufficient  in  some  cases  absolutely  to 
exclude  certain  forms  from  certain  areas,  as  the 
well-kno\\Ti  tsetse  fly  does  horses,  dogs,  and  cattle 
from  a  ^^■eH-deflned  area  in  South  Africa ;  and 
another  kind  of  tly  prevents  hor-ses  and  cattle  from 
running  wild  in  Paraguay,  as  they  do  in  abundance 
both  to  the  north  and  south  of  that  region. 

But  a  more  important,  because  more  generally 
operative,  organic  barrier  consists  in  the  fact  of  a 
region  being  already  fully  occupied  by  a  native 
flora  and  fauna,  so  that  there  Is  no  room  for  new- 
comers. Hence  it  happens  that  seeds  may  be 
wafted  in  plenty  from  one  countrj'  to  another 
without  a  single  plant  growing  from  these  seeds 
being  able  to  establish  itself ;  and  there  may  even 
be,  as  in  South  America,  a  free  comnmnication 
with  another  regdon  while  the  fauna  remains 
strikingly  distinct,  simply  because  that  portion  of 
the  American  continent  is  already  completely 
stocked  with  a  fauna  perfectly  adapted  to  the 
physical  conditions  there  prevailing. 

The  barriei-s  to  the  spreail  of  marine  creatures 
are  not  so  numerous  as  in  the  case  of  terrestrial 
forms.  The  freedom  of  communication  between 
one  part  of  the  ocean  and  another  makes  it  im- 
possible to  mark  out  any  marine  zoogeographical 
regions,  though  many  seas  and  coasts  are  ilis- 
tinguished  by  characteristic  fishes  and  other  maiine 
creatures.  The  principal  bariiei's  for  fish  are 
temperature  aiul  the  intervention  of  land.  Thus, 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  at  present  a  comj)lete 
barrier  for  fishes  requiring  warm  seas. 

If  all  the  barriei's  to  migration  had  existed  in 
all  past  time  as  they  are  now,  it  would  be  quite 
impossible  to  explain  the  present  distribution  of 
plants  and  animals  on  the  supiio.sition  that  kindred 
groups  have  had  a  common  birthplace.  But  the 
solution  of  the  problems  of  distribution  is  to  be 
found  in  the  fact  that  all  the  barriers  are  liable 
to  change.  Of  changes  of  sea  and  land  geologj' 
supplies  us  with  abundant  evidence.  Portions  of 
the  mainland  now  continuous  were  .at  one  time 
severed  by  arms  of  the  sea  :  and  islands  have  been 
formed  by  the  severance  of  portions  of  land  that 
once  belonged  to  the  nuiinland.  Such  islands  are 
known  as  continental  islands,  and  the  study  of 
their  faunas  and  floras  is  one  of  peculiar  interest 
in  connection  with  geographical  distribution. 
These  faunas  and  Horas  show,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, a  greater  or  less  degree  of  correspondence 
with  those  of  the  mainland  from  which  the  islands 
have  been  cut  oft';  and  the  resemblance  is  the 
clo.ser  the  more  recently  the  land  connection  has 
been  destroyed.  The  relative  date  of  the  <lisunion 
is  usually  ap]iroximately  indicated  by  tlie  ilrpth 


142 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTIUBUTION 


of  the  sea  which  now  separates  island  and  main- 
land, shallow  seas  dividinj;  portions  of  land  that 
have  only  recently  heen  <lisconneote<l,  and  deeper 
seas  separating  those  which  have  lieen  longer 
apart. 

The  most  remarkahle  case  of  isolation  is  pre- 
sented l>v  the  Australian  region,  the  fauna  and 
llora  of  which  are  the  most  peculiar  in  the  world. 
In  the  widest  sense,  this  region  includes  not  only 
the  vast  island  of  Australia  itself,  hut  also  New 
(iuinea  and  all  the  Malayan  and  Pacific  islands 
to  the  eiist  of  a  deep  channel  hctween  the  islands 
of  Bali  and  Lomliok — a  channel  the  signilicance 
of  which,  as  a  boumlarv  line  for  plants  ami 
animals,  was  first  ])ointed  out  hy  \\  allace,  the 
great  authority  on  animal  distrihution,  and  hence 
known  as  Wallace's  Line.  The  great  feature  of 
this  region  (so  far  as  animal  <listrilmtion  is  con- 
cerned) is  'the  almost  total  ahsence  of  all  the 
forms  of  mammalia  which  abound  in  the  rest  of 


the  world,  their  place  lieing  taken  by  a  great 
variety  of  marsupials.'  The  family  just  mentioned, 
thougli  now  restricted  in  the  manner  stated  at  the 
lieginning  of  this  article,  was  at  ime  time  spread 
over  the  whole  world,  but  has  in  most  parts 
l>ecome  extinguished  by  the  competition  of  later 
types ;  thus  presenting  one  of  the  best  examples 
of  what  are  known  as  discontinuous  areas  of 
distribution,  and  otlering  an  illustration  of  the 
moile  in  which  such  iliscontinnity  is  usually 
brought  about.  The  early  severance  of  the 
Australian  regiim  from  the  .Asiatic  continent  (a 
severance  which  must  be  referred  to  some  period 
in  the  Secomlary  Age  of  geologists)  saveil  the 
Aiistralian  mai-su]>ials  from  the  competition  which 
almost  extinguishcil  the  group  elsewhere. 

Turning  now  to  marine  distribution,  we  lind 
evidence  of  the  former  absence  of  a  laml-barrier  at 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  in  the  identity  of  many 
sjipcies  of  (ish  on  both  -ides  of  the  isthmus. 


40  80 


120  190 


Sab-recions  of  Paliearctic  Region— 

1.  European. 

2.  Mediterranean. 

3.  Siberian. 

4.  Manchiirian. 
Sub-resions  of  Ethiopian  Region— 

1.  East  African. 

2.  We.1t 

3.  South      ,. 

4.  Malagasy. 


The  Zoogeograpliical  Regions  according  to  A.  15.  Wallace  : 


Sub-regions  of  Oriental  Region— 

1.  Indian. 

2.  Ceylonese. 

3.  Indo-Chinese. 

4.  Indo-Matayan. 
Sub-regions  of  Australian  Region- 

1.  Austro-Malayan. 

2.  Australian. 

3.  Polynesian. 

4.  New  Zealand. 


Sul>-repion8  of  Xeotropical  Region- 

1.  Chilian. 

2.  Brazilian. 

3.  Mexican. 

4.  Antillean. 
Sub-regions  of  Nearctic  Region— 

1.  Californian. 

2.  Hf>cky  Mountain. 

3.  Alleghanian. 
i.  Canadian. 


Changes  in  the  climatic  barrier  have  also  h.ad  an 
imi>ortant  intluence  on  geographical  distribution  ; 
and  it  is  by  such  changes,  combined  with  changes 
in  the  continuity  of  land  in  the  north  (inlar  regions, 
that  the  affinities  between  the  Hor.as  of  .lapan  ami 
eastern  North  America  must  l)e  explained.  When 
these  affinities  were  first  pointed  out  by  Asa  Gray, 
that  distinguished  Ijotanist  divined  tlie  tnie  ex- 
planation— viz.  that  in  former  geological  epochs  a 
genial  clim.-ite  must  have  prevailed  even  within  the 
I>olar  circle,  so  as  to  allow  of  the  existence  of  a 
remarkably  uniform  flora,  .suitable  to  such  a 
climate,  all  round  the  pole  in  very  high  latitudes  ; 
and  that  as  the  climate  l)ecame  colder  in  the  north 
this  flora  was  driven  southwanls,  and  l>ecame 
differentiated  according  to  the  differences  of  climate 
in  the  more  southerly  latitudes  to  which  it 
.advanced.  Hence  the  eastern  parts  of  America 
and    Asia,    as    they   correspond    pretty   much    in 


climate,  came  to  corresiMind  also  more  closely  than 
other  tracts  in  the  same  latitude  in  the  character 
of  their  floras.  The  sonndne.ss  of  this  surmise  was 
afterwards  confirmed  by  the  discovery  of  abundant 
jilant  rem.ains  of  the  Miocene  age,  indicating  a 
warm  climate  in  Greenland,  .Spitzbergen,  and  else- 
where. The  effects  on  distribution  of  the  changes 
of  climate  belonging  to  the  period  known  as  the 
(JIacial  Period  {<i.v. )  or  Ice  Age  must  be  alluded 
to  here,  but  there  is  no  s])ace  to  do  more. 

As  the  result  of  all  the  i>roces.ses  of  dispersal 
across  the  various  barriers  to  migration,  and  of  the 
changes  in  these  barriers,  we  have  the  present  dis- 
tribution of  plants  and  animals,  which  is  .such  as 
to  enable  us  to  divide  the  terrestrial  surface  of  the 
globe  into  more  or  less  well-marked  regions.  For 
animals  the  regions  ailopted  by  Wallace  are 
nearly  the  same  as  those  first  suggested  by 
Sclater  as  applicable  to  the  distribution  of  birds; 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION 


U.3 


for,  in  spite  of  the  exceptional  facility  which  birds 
have  for  crossing  barriers  impassable  by  mammals, 
Wallace  finds  that  the  distribution  of  mammals 
(which  att'i)ril  the  best  means  of  marking  off  zoo- 
geographical  regions)  corresponds  with  that  of 
V>irds  to  an  extent  that  one  would  not  perhaps 
have  previously  anticipated.  But  with  regard  to 
these  regions  it  must  be  remembered  ( 1 )  that  it 
is  impossible  in  most  cases  to  draw  any  very 
clearly  marked  boundary  line  between  one  region 
and  anotlier ;  ( 2 )  that  tlie  degree  of  divergence 
between  ditierent  regions  is  ditlerent  in  different 
cases  ;  and  ( 3 )  that,  when  any  two  regions  are 
compareil,  we  liave  not  the  same  degree  of  diverg- 
ence between  different  groups  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, or  between  animals  and  plants  Ijelonging  to 
the  two  regions.  Obviously,  the  degree  of  corre- 
spondence depends  largely  on  the  facilities  for  dis- 
persal, and  largely  also  on  the  geological  age  of 
different   gioups ;    and   both  of   these  are   varving 


factors.  These  considerations  being  premised,  we 
may  now  state  briefly  the  limits  of  tlie  six  zoologi- 
cal regions  adopted  by  Wallace,  a.s  given  in  his 
Island  Life.  In  the  space  to  whicli  the  present 
article  is  necessarily  restricted  it  is  impossible  to 
give  even  the  mo.st  fragmentary'  sketch  of  the 
characteristic  life  of  the  different  regions,  for  which 
the  reader  must  be  referred  to  the  works  cited  at 
the  end  of  the  article. 

( 1 )  Patearctic  Eegion,  including  Europe  and  north 
temperate  Asia  and  Africa  to  the  northern  borders  of  the 
Sahara. 

(2)  Ethiopian  Eegion,  consisting  of  all  tropical  and 
South  Africa,  together  with  Madagascar  and  the  Mas- 
carene  Islands. 

(3)  Oriental  Region,  comprising  all  Asia  south  of  the 
Pal^arctic  limits,  and  along  with  this  the  Malay  Islands 
as  far  as  the  Philippines,  Borneo,  and  Java. 

(4)  Australian  Kegion,  as  already  defined  and  charac- 
terised. Celebes  might  be  referred  almost  witli  equal 
right  to  this  or  the  previous  region.     New  Zealand  is 


The  Terrestrial  Floral  Domains  according  to  Oscar  Drude : 
Northern.  I        5.  Central  North  American.  9.  Tropical  American. 

Inner  Asiatic.  6.  Tropical  African.  10.  Soutli  African. 

Mediterranean.  |        7.  East  African  Islands.  11.  Australian. 

Eastern  Asiatic.  !        8.  Indian.  12.  New  Zealand. 


13.  Andine. 

14.  Antarctic. 


treated  by  "Wallace  as  a  highly  peculiar  sub-region  of 
this  great  region. 

(5)  Nearctic  Region,  comprising  all  temperate  and 
arctic  North  America,  including  Greenland,  and  extend- 
ing on  the  south  to  an  irregular  bne  running  from  the 
Rio  Grande  del  Norte  on  the  east  to  a  point  nearly 
opposite  Cape  8t  Lucas  on  the  west. 

(t>)  Neotropical  Region,  the  American  continent  south 
of  this  line,  together  with  the  West  Indian  Islands. 

Heilprin  (see  below)  and  others  advocate  the 
union  of  the  Xearcticand  Pahearetic  regions  under 
the  name  of  Holarctic,  and  introduce  three  transi- 
tional tracts  (the  Mediterranean,  embracing  south- 
ern Euiope,  northern  Africa,  ami  western  Asia 
south  of  the  Caspian  and  west  of  India,  but  exclu- 
sive of  the  southern  half  of  Arabia  :  tlie  Sonoran 
tract,  embracing  the  north-west  of  Mexico ;  and 
the  Austro-Malaysian  tract,  embracing  Celebes  and 
the  smaller  islands  lying  between  it  and  New 
Guinea  and  Australia).  Otherwise  his  major 
fannal  divisions  of  the  globe  are  similar  to  those  of 
Wallace. 

On  plant  distribvition  the  most  important  recent 
works  are  those   of   Engler  and   Drude   (cited   at 


the  end  of  the  article).  Engler  attempts  to  trace 
the  history  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  since  the 
Tertiary  period,  and  comes  to  the  conclusion  that 
already  in  the  Tertiary  ]ieriod  four  '  lloral  elements ' 
(Ftorenclemente)  could  be  distinguished — namely  : 

(1)  The  Arcto-tertiary  element,  characterised  by  an 
abundance  of  conifers  and  numerous  genera  of  trees  and 
shrubs  now  prevalent  in  North  America,  or  in  extra- 
tropical  eastern  Asia  and  in  Europe. 

(2)  The  Palaeotropical  element,  characterised  by  the 
presence  of  the  familres  and  sub-families  dominant  in  the 
tropics  of  the  Old  World  ;  and  still  more  by  the  absence 
of  certain  families,  groups,  and  genera  foond  in  the 
territory  of  the  Arcto-tertiary  element. 

( 3 )  The  Neotropical  or  South  American  element,  which, 
according  to  Engler,  must  have  had  in  Tertiarj-  times 
much  the  same  character  as  that  now  possessed  by  tropi- 
cal Brazil  and  the  West  Indies. 

( 4 )  The  old  Oceanic  element,  consisting  of  forms  which 
possessed  the  power  of  traversing  considerable  stretches 
of  ocean  and  developing  further  on  islands. 

The  modem  jirovinces  of  the  vegctaVde  kingdom 
are  subordinated  by  Engler  to  these  great  di\-isions. 
Drude,  in  the  fii-st  place,  distinguishes  the  oceanic 


144 


GEOGRAPHY 


( marine )  flora  from  the  terrestrial  forms,  and  the 
latter  he  (iividp.s  into  three  f;reat  •iroiiiw,  and  these 
a^ain  into  fourteen  lli)riil  domains  ( /VorfHrciV'/ic), 
the  limits  of  which  are  shown  on  the  accomiianyinj; 
map. 

Sue  P.  I/.  ScUter's  paper  on  the  Geograiihical  DistriliH- 
tion  of  Birds,  in  the  Jour.  Linn.  Soe.  (iZoo/. ),  vol.  ii., 
and  his  .Vdclress  to  tlie  Biological  Section  of  the  Brit. 
Assoc,  at  Bristol,  187.5;  A.  K.  Wallace's  Gioirraiildcal 
Dhtrihuti'iii  of  AiiimnU  (2  vols.  Lond.  1876),  and  his 
Island  Lift  (Lond.  1880);  A.  Murray's  Gtoiimiihiml 
Distriliution  nf  Mammals (lMni.\^i>) ;  Anjjtlo  Heilprin, 
The  Oeoiirnphical  and  Geoloiiical  DMribulion  of  Animals 
(New  York  and  Lond.  1887);  Benthani's  Trcsidential 
.\ddrcss  to  the  Linnean  .Society,  Jour.  Linn.  Sik.,  x. 
(  Botany,  introd.) ;  A.  de  C'andolle  s  Geographic  Botaniquc 
(2  vols.  Paris,  1855);  Sir  J.  Hooker's  Introduction  to  the 
Flora  of  Tasmania,  and  Handliook  of  the  Flora  of  New 
Zealand  :  also  papers  hy  him  On  Insular  Ploras,  Brit. 
Assoc.  18(>(i,  and  On  the  Distribution  of  Arctic  IMants, 
Trans.  Linn.  Soc,  x.tiii.  ;  .\sa  tiray's  Forest  Geography 
and  Arch;eolojjy,  in  Amer.  Jour,  of  Science  and  Arts 
(ser.  iii.  vol.  xvi.  1875) ;  Grisebach's  Veijctation  dtr  Krile 
(Leip.  1872;  2d  ed.  1884;  French  translation  with  valu- 
able additional  notes  by  Tchihatchcf,  1875-78);  F. 
Beddard,  Textbook  of  Zooiieoijraphii  (18'.)5);  Engler's 
Entwicklunijsiitschichte  der  I'flanzenwell  (187'J-82);  Oscar 
l)rude,  Die  Florenreirhe  der  Erde  (  Erganzungsheft,  No. 
74,  to  I'ctermaiin^s  Mitteilunfjen,  Gotii&y  1884);  and  tho 
cliapters  on  Geographical  Distribution  in  Darwin's  Oritjin 
of  Upecies,  as  well  as  chap,  xxxviii.-xhi.  ol  LyeU's 
Principlts  of  Gcoloijii. 

Geography  ( Gr.  gc.  '  the  earth  ; '  ffraphcin,  '  to 
describe)  etyiiiolo^tically  means  a  description  of 
the  earth,  'f  he  term  :is  miw  acceiited  liy  its  most 
competent  students  is  applied  to  lliat  department 
of  science  who.se  function  it  is  to  inveslij,'ate  the 
features  of  tlie  earth's  surface,  and  the  distribution 
and  mutual  topographical  relations  of  all  which 
that  surface  sustains.  It  thus  involves  a  study  of 
the  atmospliere  or  air-covering' ;  the  j,'eosi)here  or 
land  surface:  and  the  hydrosphere  or  water-covering. 
The  basis  of  {,'eoj;rapiiy  is  topo^raidiy,  including 
topographical  relations  and  distribution.  Hut  to 
undei-stand  this  thoroughly  a  certain  elementary 
knowledge  of  various  deoartments  of  science  is 
neces.sary  ;  and  this  knowledge  is  often  included  in 
what  is  somewhat  vaguely  known  as  Physiography 
(q.v.).  To  uiulerstand  what  may  be  regarded 
as  tlie  subject  proper  of  geograjdiy — viz.  the 
features  of  the  earths  surface,  their  distribution 
and  relations,  anil  the  distribution  and  relations  of 
the  denizens  of  the  surface — some  knowle<lge  is 
required  of  the  relations  of  the  earth  to  the  sun  and 
the  otlier  members  of  the  scdar  system,  and  of  the 
celestial  sphere  generally.  For  e.\act  topographical 
observation  (see  SuKVKVlNi;)  a  precise  knowledge 
of  certain  astronomical  data  is  reciuired.  This 
department  is  treated  in  the  ordinary  te.xt-hooks 
under  the  heading  of  A.stronomical  or  Mathe- 
matical (ieography.  An  elementary  acquaintance 
is  al.so  .advisable  \vith  certain  physical  anil  chemical 
facts  and  laws,  in  order  to  understand  the  action 
of  the  atmos]iliere,  of  wind,  rain,  ice,  and  water 
(rivers,  laki's,  the  ocean),  and  those  other  factors 
which  help  to  constitute  climate,  and  which  do  so 
much  to  shajie  those  features  with  which  geography 
liius  chielly  to  deal.  Equally  useful  is  a  general 
knowleilge  of  the  character  of  the  great  cUisses  of 
rocks  which  compose  the  surface,  and  of  the  lead- 
ing families  of  plants  and  animals  which  cover  it, 
especially  those  of  economical  importance.  This, 
though  strictly  preliminary,  is  often  included  along 
with  a  study  of  the  features  themselves,  in  Physical 
Geography.  The  investigation  of  the  ocean  and  its 
denizens  has  recently  been  made  a  new  department 
under  the  title  of  Ueeanogr.aidiy  or  "rlmla-sso- 
grapliy.  Again,  to  an  account  nf  the  ditl'erent 
stales  or  co?nmunities  into  wliich  man  is  divided 
the  term  Political  Geography  i*  commonly  ajiidied. 


Commercial  Geograpliy  discusses  the  various 
countries  and  regions  of  the  earth  with  special 
reference  to  their  jiriMlucts  ami  their  reciuirementa 
as  atlecting  trade  and  commerce  ;  and  Medical  tieo- 
graphy  deals  with  localities  jus  liable  to  become 
the  seals  of  special  diseases  or  groups  of  di.seasc.s. 

Of  course  any  section  of  geography  may  be  treated 
and  stuilied  by  il.self,  just  as  m  tlie  ca.se  of  geology, 
or  chemistry,  or  jthysics.  Hut  for  purposes  of  re- 
search, for  practical  results,  and  even  for  educa- 
tional uses.  It  is  now  considered  more  satisfactory 
to  treat  geogra|iliy  Jis  one  whcde,  dealing  with  the 
characteristics,  distribution,  and  mutual  relations 
of  the  great  features  of  the  earth's  surface,  the 
great  classes  of  plants  and  animals  which  cover 
that  surface,  and  of  man  himself.  Such  a  stii<ly,  it 
is  maintaineil,  is  not  only  an  e,\ccllent  discipline, 
hut  the  knowledge  of  facts  and  laws  so  (dilained 
can  be  applied  in  many  useful  practical  directions. 
Most  of  all  it  may  be  applied  to  the  distribution  of 
man  in  communities  or  .states,  and  .so,  combined  with 
other  considerations,  lead  to  a  rational  study  of 
political  geography  and  the  course  of  history.  In 
the  same  way  the  know  ledge  may  be  applied  in  the 
interests  of  industry,  of  commerce,  of  cidonisation, 
and  in  many  other  economical  directions.  Geo- 
graphy, w  hen  thus  treated,  is,  it  is  m.aintained,  l«itli 
more  interesting  and  more)irolitable  th.an  when  dealt 
w  ith  as  a  mere  collection  of  unconnected  facts  and 
factors.  It  has  long  been  so  treated  in  Germany  by 
such  geographers  as  Hitter  anil  Peschel,  and  their 
followers,  and  similar  views  are  rai>iilly  prevailing 
in  Kngland  and  .\merica.  In  (lermany  tlie  subject 
is  often  divided  into  general  idiysieal  and  i)oliliial, 
.and  special  pliysical  and  political  geography,  the 
latter,  of  coui-se,  dealing  with  jiarticuLir  countries  or 
regions.  Of  course,  like  all  other  de|>artments  of 
learning,  the  subject  may  be  broken  ui)  into  sections, 
and  dealt  with  for  teaching  inirposes,  and  in  a  more 
or  less  elementary  manner.  For  the  most  element- 
arv  stage,  it  is  now  generally  considered  advisable 
to  begin  with  the  immediate  topographical  surrouml- 
ings  of  the  pupil  and  proceed  (mtwards.  It  should 
he  stated  tiial  the  eminent  German  geographer, 
Profes.sor  G.  Gerland,  maintains  that  i;eograpliy 
has  to  do  with  the  earth  <'is  a  whole,  and  that  the 
human  side  of  it,  or  anthropogeography,  belongs 
exclusively  to  liistoiy. 

Special  aspects  of  geography  will  be  found  treated 
under  Anthropology,  Astbonomv,  Ci.imatk,  Clouds, 
Earth,  Ethnoloc;y,  Gkookai'Hical  Distuibution, 
Geoi-Ogt,  Globe,  Heat,  Lake.s,  Latitide  and  Longi- 
tude, Mountains,  Rain,  Rivers,  Sea,  Winds,  &c.  As 
authorities  to  consult  on  the  various  aspects  of  geography 
referred  to,  may  be  mentioned  Ritter's  Erdkuudc ; 
Mrs  Soiucrville's  Phiisical  Gcotjrai>hi/  ( latest  edition ) ; 
Pcschel's  Phi/sische  A'rdkundc,  Abhandlunficn  zur  Erd- 
vnd-Volkerkunde,  and  Ncue  ProUeme der  Veriileichenden 
Erdkunde ;  Suess,  Das  Antlitz  der  Erdc ;  Ratzel,  An- 
throjxiiieoijrapliie  ;  Uttser  Wissen  ron  der  Erde  :  I.  All- 
flimeine  Erdkunde;  Hinman's  Eclectic  Physical  Geo- 
\irujihy;  the  volume  of  'Education  Reports'  issued  by 
the  Royal  Geograpliical  Society,  and  the  lectures 
contained  therein;  General  R.  Strachey,  Lectures  in 
Gemraphji ;  '  The  Scope  and  Methods  of  Geograiihy,'  by 
H.  J.  Mackinder  in  Proc.  Boti.  Geo;/.  Sue.  ( vol.  ix. ) ;  '  Scien- 
tific Earth-knowledge  as  an  Aid  to  Commerce,'  by  H.  K 
Mill  in  .Soo(.  Geoi/.  Ma;i.  (vol.  v.  p.  302);  '  Applied  Geo- 
graphy,' by  J.  S.  Keltic  in  ConUmp.  Her.  (Sept.  1K.S8); 
Chisholm's  Handbook  of  Commercial  Georiraphij  ( 188'J). 

'I'be  facts  of  Political  Geography  wiU  be  found  under 
the  headings  of  the  different  continents,  countries,  and 
towns  in  this  Encyclopedia.  As  authoritative  works 
on  the  subject  (both  general  and  political)  may  be 
mentioned  Rcclus,  G^oyraphic  unircrs'lle  (with  its 
English  translation);  and  Stanford's  Compendium  of 
Giofiraphy  and  Travel. 

For  the  purposes  of  geograjdiical  discover)",  oi  the  geo- 
graphical knowledge  of  various  parts  of  the  earth,  reference 
must  be  made  to  the  articles  on  continents  and  oceans, 


GEOGRAPHY 


145 


and  also  to  the  articles  on  Charts  and  Maps.  Here  only 
general  reference  can  be  made  to  the  progress  of  correct 
notions  of  the  earth  and,  in  connection  therewith,  of  a 
i^eneral  knowledge  of  the  extent  and  form  of  the  earth's 
surface.  As  the  earliest  efforts,  within  the  historical 
period,  to  extend  a  knowledge  of  the  earth's  surface 
began  with  the  Mediterranean  nations  of  antiquity,  it  is 
natural  and  right  to  start  there,  although  in  one  sense 
exploration  is  coeval  with  humanity. 

The  earliest  deliiiite  iilea  formed  of  the  eartli  by 
nations  eiiieij^'ing  from  a  primeval  condition  seems 
to  have  been  that  of  a  Hat  circular  disc,  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  water,  and  covered  by  the 
heavens  as  witli  a  canopy,  in  the  centre  of  which 
their  own  land  was  supposi'd  to  be  situated.  The 
Phccnicians  were  tlie  tirst  people  who  communicated 
to  other  nations  a  knowledge  of  distant  lands  ;  and, 
although  little  is  known  as  to  the  exact  period  and 
extent  of  their  various  discoveries,  they  had,  before 
the  age  of  Homer,  navigated  all  parts  of  the  Euxine, 
and  penetrated  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean into  the  Western  (Jcean  ;  and  they  tlius  form 
the  lirst  link  of  the  great  chain  of  discovery  which, 
2500  years  after  their  foundation  of  the  cities  of 
Tartessus  and  Utica,  was  carried  by  Columbus  to 
the  remote  shores  of  America.  Besides  various 
settlements  nearer  home,  these  bold  adventurers 
had  founded  colonies  in  Asia  Minor  about  1'2U() 
B.C. ;  a  century  later  they  laid  the  foundation  of 
Gades,  Utica,  and  several  other  cities,  which  was 
followed  in  the  course  of  the  9th  century  by  that 
of  Cartb.age,  from  w  hence  new  streams  of  colonisa- 
tion continued  for  several  centuries  to  tiow  to 
parts  of  the  world  Idtherto  unknown.  The 
Phccnicians,  although  less  highly  gifted  than  the 
Egyptians,  rank  next  to  tlieni  in  regard  to  the 
influence  which  they  exerted  on  the  progress  of 
human  thought  and  civilisation.  Their  know- 
ledge of  mechanics,  their  eiirly  use  of  weights  and 
measures,  and,  what  was  of  still  greater  importance, 
their  employment  of  an  alphabetical  form  of  writing 
facilitated  and  conlinned  commercial  intercourse 
among  their  own  numerous  colonies,  and  formed 
a  bond  of  union  which  spce<lily  embraced  all  the 
civilised  nations  of  Sc-mitic  and  Hellenic  origin.  So 
rapid  was  the  advance  of  geogiapliical  knowledge 
between  the  age  of  the  Homeric  jioenis  ( which  may 
be  regarded  as  representing  the  ideas  entertaine<l 
at  the  commencement  of  the  9th  century  B.C. )  and 
the  time  of  Hesiod  (800  B.C.)  that,  wliile  in  the 
former  the  earth  is  supposed  to  resemble  a  Hat 
circular  shield,  surrounded  by  a  rim  of  water 
spoken  of  as  tlie  parent  of  all  other  streams,  and 
the  names  of  Asia  and  Europe  are  applied  only,  tlie 
former  to  the  upper  valley  of  the  Cayster,  and 
the  latter  to  Greece  north  of  Peloponnesus,  Hesiod 
mentions  parts  of  Italy,  Sicily,  Gaul,  and  Spain, 
and  is  acquainted  with  the  Scythians  and  with  the 
Ethiopians  of  .southern  Africa.  During  the  7th 
century  B.C.  certain  I'lucnicians,  under  the  patron- 
age of  Neku  or  Necho  II.,  king  of  Egypt,  undertook 
a  voyage  of  discovery,  and  are  reported  to  ha\e 
circumnavi>'ated  Africa.  This  expedition  is  re- 
corded by  Herodotus,  who  relates  tliat  it  entered 
the  Southern  Ocean  by  way  of  the  Ked  Sea,  and 
after  three  years'  absence  returned  to  Egyjit  by 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  The  fact  of  an  actual  cir- 
cumnavigation of  IhC'  Afric'.an  continent  has  biM>n 
doubted,  but  the  most  convincing  proof  of  its  prob- 
ability is  afforded  by  the  observation  which  seemed 
incredible  to  Herodotus — viz.  '  that  the  marinei-s 
who  sailed  round  Libya  (from  east  to  west)  had  the 
sun  on  their  right  hand.'  The  7th  and  6th  centuries 
B.C.  were  memorable  for  the  great  advance  made  in 
regard  to  the  knowledge  of  the  form  ami  extent 
of  the  earth.  Thales,  .and  his  pupil  Anaximan<ler, 
rep\ited  to  have  been  the  lirst  to  draw  maps,  ex- 
ploded many  errors,  and  paved  the  way  by  their 
218 


observations  for  the  attainment  of  a  sounder  know- 
ledge. The  logographers  contributed  at  this  period 
to  the  same  end  by  tlie  descriptions  which  they  gave 
of  various  parts  of  the  earth  ;  of  these  perhaps  the 
most  interesting  to  us  is  the  narrative  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian Hiniilco,  who  discovered  the  British  Islands, 
including  the  CEstrvmnides,  which  he  described  as 
being  a  four  months'  voyage  from  Tartessus. 

With  Herodotus  of  Halicarnassus  (born  484  B.C.), 
who  may  be  regarded  as  the  father  of  geography 
as  well  as  of  history,  a  new  era  began  in  regard 
to  geographical  knowledge.  Although  his  chief 
object  was  to  record  the  struggles  of  the  Greeks 
and  Persians,  he  has  so  minutely  described  the 
countries  which  he  visited  in  his  extensive  travels 
(which  covered  an  area  of  more  than  ,31°  or  1700 
miles  from  east  to  west,  and  24°  or  1660  miles 
from  north  to  .south)  that  his  History  gives  us  a 
complete  representation  of  all  that  was  known  of 
the  earth's  surface  in  his  age.  This  knowledge 
was  extremely  scanty.  It  was  believed  that  the 
world  was  bounded  to  the  south  by  the  Red  Sea  or 
Indian  Ocean,  and  to  the  west  by  the  Atlantic, 
while  its  eastern  boundaries,  although  admitted  to 
be  undefined,  were  conjectured  to  be  nearly  identi- 
cal with  the  limits  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  its 
northern  termination  somewhere  in  the  region  of 
the  amber-lands  of  the  Baltic,  which  had  been 
visited  by  Phoenician  mariners,  and  with  which  the 
people  of  Massilia  (the  modern  Marseilles)  kept  uji 
constant  intercourse  by  way  of  Gaul  and  Germany. 
In  the  next  century  the  .achievenients  of  Alexander 
the  Great  tended  materially  to  enlarge  the  bounds 
of  human  knowledge,  for  while  he  carried  his  arms 
to  the  banks  of  the  Indus  and  Oxus,  and  extended 
his  conquests  to  northern  and  eastern  Asia,  he 
at  the  same  time  promoted  science,  by  sending 
expeditions  to  e.vplore  and  survey  the  various  pro- 
vinces which  he  subdued,  and  to  make  collections 
of  all  that  was  curious  in  regard  to  the  organic  and 
inoiganic  products  of  the  newly-visited  districts  ; 
and  hence  the  victories  of  the  Macedonian  con- 
(jneror  formed  a  new  era  in  physical  inquirj'  gener- 
ally, as  well  as  in  geographical  discovery  specially. 

Whili'  Alexander  was  opening  the  East  to  the 
knowledge  of  western  nations,  Pytheas,  an  adven- 
turous navigator  of  Massilia,  conducted  an  expedi- 
tion past  Spain  and  Gaul,  through  the  Channel, 
and  round  the  east  of  England  into  the  Northem 
Ocean.  There,  after  si.x  days'  sailing,  he,  accord- 
ing to  some,  reached  Tliule  (conjectured  to  be 
Iceland,  although  the  actual  locality  is  very  un- 
certain), but  according  to  the  most  competent  in- 
teriueters  of  the  story  only  heard  of  it.  Kcturning, 
he  pa-ssed  into  the  Baltic,  where  he  heard  of  the 
Teutones  and  Goths.  Discovery  was  thus  being 
extended  both  in  the  north  anil  ea.st  into  regions 
\\  hose  very  existence  had  never  been  suspected,  or 
« liich  had  hitherto  been  regarded  as  mere  chaotic 
wastes.  An  important  advance  in  geography  was 
made  by  Eratosthenes  (born  276  B.C.),  who  lirst 
used  parallels  of  longitmle  and  latitude,  and 
constructed  maps  on  mathematical  principles. 
His  work  on  geogiapliy  is  lost,  yet  we  learn 
from  Strabo  that  he  considered  the  world  to  be 
a  sphere  revolving  with  its  surrounding  atmo- 
sphere on  one  .and  the  s.anie  jixis,  .and  having  one 
centre  ;  although  the  belief  in  the  spherical  form  of 
the  earth  was  at  the  time  contined  to  the  learned 
few.  He  believed  that  only  about  one-eighth  of 
the  earth's  surface  was  inhabited,  while  the  extreme 
lioints  of  his  habitable  world  were  Thnle  in  the 
north,  China  in  the  east,  the  Cinnamon  Coast  of 
Africa  in  the  south,  and  the  Prom.  Sacrum  (Cape 
St  Vincent)  in  the  west.  During  the  interval  be- 
tween the  ages  of  Eratosthenes  and  Strabo  (bom 
66  B.C.)  many  voluminous  works  on  geography  were 
compiled,  which  have  been  either  wbolly  lost  to  us, 


146 


GEOGRAPHY 


or  only  very  partially  preser%-ed  in  the  records  of 
later  writei-s.  Strabo's  preat  work  on  peograpliy, 
wliieli  is  said  to  have  ln'cn  coiniiosed  wlien  lie  was 
eighty  years  of  ajje,  lias  heen  considered  as  a  model 
of  wfiat  such  works  should  be  in  regard  to  tlie 
methods  of  treating  tlie  subject ;  but,  while  liis 
descriptions  of  all  the  places  he  has  himself  visited 
are  interestin;;  and  instructive,  he  seems  unduly  to 
have  discardc<l  lliu  authority  of  precedinj;  writei-s. 

The  wars  and  oomiucsts  of  the  Komans  hud  a 
most  important  bearing  upon  geograjihy,  since  the 
practical  t;enius  of  the  Koman  people  led  them  to 
the  study  of  the  material  resources  of  every  ]>ro- 
vince  and  state  brought  under  their  sway  ;  ami  the 
greatest  service  was  done  to  geogiaphical  know- 
ledge by  the  survey  of  the  empire,  which  was  begun 
by  .Julius  t'a'sar,  and  completed  by  Augustus.  This 
work  comprised  a  description  and  measurement  of 
every  province  by  the  most  celel)rated  geometricians 
of  the  day.  I'liny  ( born  '23  .\.  n. ),  who  liad  travelled 
in  Sjiain,  Gaul,  Cermany,  and  Africa,  has  left  us 
a  compendium  of  the  geographical  and  physical 
science  of  his  age  in  the  four  books  of  his 
Historin  Xatiira/it!  which  he  devotes  to  the  su))- 
icct.  He  collected  with  imlefatigable  industry  the 
information  contained  in  the  works  of  Sallnst, 
Ca>sar,  and  others,  to  which  he  added  the  results 
of  his  own  observations,  without,  however,  dis- 
criminating between  fact  and  liction.  The  ])rogress 
that  had  been  made  since  Ca'sar'.s  time  in  geo- 
graphical knowledge  is  evinced  by  Pliny's  notice 
of  arctic  regions  and  of  the  Scamlinavian  lands, 
and  the  accounts  which  he  gives  of  Mount  Atlas, 
the  course  of  the  Niger,  and  of  various  settlements 
in  dill'erent  parts  of  Africa ;  while  his  knowledge 
of  Asia  is  more  correct  than  that  of  any  of  his  pre- 
decessoi-s,  for  ho  correctly  atlirms  that  Ceylon  is 
an  island,  and  not  the  commencement  of  a  new 
continent,  ,as  had  been  generally  sup]>osed. 

The  stinly  of  geography  in  ancient  times  may 
be  said  to  have  terminated  with  C.  I'tolemy,  who 
nourished  in  the  middle  of  the  2d  eenturj-  of 
our  era.  His  work  on  Geography,  in  eight  books, 
which  continued  to  be  regarded  as  the  most 
perfect  system  of  the  science  through  the  dark 
and  middle  ,ages  down  to  the  16th  century,  gives 
a  tolerably  correct  account  of  the  well-known 
countries  of  the  world,  and  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, Eu.\ine,  and  Caspian,  together  with  the 
rivers  which  fall  into  those  seas  ;  but  it  added 
little  to  the  knowledge  of  the  north  of  Europe,  or 
the  extreme  boumlaries  of  Asia  or  Africa.  Yet, 
from  his  time  till  the  14th  century,  when  the 
records  of  the  travels  of  the  Venetian  Marco  Polo 
opened  new  liehls  of  inf]uiry,  the  statements  of 
Ptolemy  were  never  questioned,  and  even  during 
the  loth  century  it  was  only  among  a  few  German 
scholars  at  Nuremberg  that  the  strange  accounts 
given  of  distant  eastern  lands  by  the  Venetian 
traveller  were  received  a-s  trustworthy  where  he 
differed  from  Ptolemy.  Marco  Ptdo  had,  however, 
unfortunately  made  no  astronomical  oliservations, 
nor  had  he  even  recorded  the  length  of  the  day  at 
any  )ilace,  and  hence  the  Nuremberg  geographers, 
who  had  no  certain  data  for  estimating  the  extent 
of  the  countries  which  he  had  traversed,  were  the 
means  of  juopagating  errors  which  led  to  results 
that  were  destined  to  influence  the  historj'  of  man- 
kinil.  For,  taking  Ptolemy's  tables  as  their 
basis,  they  incorporated  on  their  globes  and  maps 
the  results  of  tiieir  own  rough  estimates  of  the 
length  of  Marco  Polo's  days'  joumevs,  and  they 
thus  represented  the  continent  of  Asia  as  extend- 
ing across  the  Pacilic,  and  having  its  eastern 
shores  somewhere  in  the  region  of  the  Antilles. 
These  erroneous  calculations  misled  Christopher 
Columbus  to  the  fal.se  assumption  that,  by  sailing 
120   \V..  he  would  reach  the  wealthy  trading  marts 


of  China,  and  the  result  of  this  conviction  was  his 
entering  upon  that  memorable  expedition  which 
tcrminalcd  in  the  ilisiovery  (in  M'.I2)  of  the  con- 
tinent of  America.  Although  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  American  continent  was  vLsited  in 
the  9th  and  10th  centuries  by  Northmen,  the  event 
remained  without  inllnence  on  the  history  of  dis- 
covery, and  cannot  therefore  iletract  from  the 
claims  of  Columbus.  This  momentous  discoverj', 
which  ha<l  been  preceded  in  14.S0  by  the  exjiloiation 
of  the  African  coast  as  far  as  the  Cape  of  (iood 
Hope  (which  was  doubled  by  Viusco  ifa  Gama  in 
1497),  wius  followe<l  by  a  rajdd  succession  of  dis- 
coveries. Within  thirty  years  of  the  date  of 
the  lirst  voyage  of  Columbus  the  whole  coast  of 
Aniericii  from  Giecnland  to  Cape  Horn  liad  been 
ex]>lored,  the  Pacilic  Ocean  had  been  navigated, 
anil  the  world  circumnavigated  by  Magellan  (q.v. ) ; 
the  coa.sts  of  eastern  Africa,  Arabia,  Persia,  and 
India  had  been  visited  by  the  Portuguese,  and 
numerous  islands  in  the  ln<lian  Ocean  discovered. 

The  loth  century  was  marked  by  continued 
attempts,  successful  and  unsuccessful,  to  extend 
the  si]hi're  of  oceanic  discovery  ;  and  the  desire 
to  reach  India  by  a  shorter  route  than  those  of 
the  Cajie  of  Good  Hope  or  Cfijie  Horn  led  to 
many  attempts  to  discover  a  north-west  pass.age, 
which,  though  they  signally  failed  in  their  object, 
had  the  etlect  of  very  materially  enlarging  our 
knowleilge  of  the  arctic  regiims.  The  expedi- 
tions of  Willoughbv  and  Fiobisher  in  l.').").S  and 
l.')70,  of  Davis  (loH^S),  Hudson  (1U07),  and  HalHn 
(1610),  were  the  most  inipcirtjint  in  their  results 
towards  this  end.  The  17lh  and  ISth  centuries 
gave  a  new  turn  to  the  study  of  geography,  by 
bringing  other  sciences  to  bear  upon  it,  which, 
in  tlieir  turn,  ilcrivcd  elucidation  from  the  exten- 
sion of  geographical  knowledge ;  and  it  is  to 
the  aid  derived  from  history,  astronomy,  and  the 
physical  and  natui;i,l  sciences  that  we  owe  the 
completeness  which  hius  characterised  modem  works 
on  geography.  In  the  17tli  century  the  Dutch, 
under  Tas!ii.an  and  Van  Diemen,  made  the  Austral- 
asian i.slands  known  to  the  civilised  world  ;  and  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  ISth  centiny  Captain  Cook 
(r|.y.)  extended  the  great  oceanic  ex])lorations  by 
the  discovery  of  New  Zealand  and  many  of  the 
Polynesian  grou)is,  and  by  jnoving  the  iion-exi.st- 
ence  of  a  '  great  Antarctic  continent,'  stretching  far 
north  in  the  Pacilic.  The  antarctic  lands  were  first 
visite<l  in  1840  by  American,  English,  and  Krench 
expeditions,  under  their  respective  conim.anders, 
Wilkes,  Koss,  and  Dumont  d  Crville.  Pohar  ex- 
iiloration,  after  liaving  been  for  a  time  in  abeyance, 
Ili-s  within  late  years  lieen  vigonmsly  pro.secuted  by 
the  I  iiitcd  Slates  .aiiil  various  European  countries; 
and  in  1879-80  Haron  Nonlenskjold  succeeded  for 
the  lirst  time  in  history  in  navig.ating  the  north- 
east passage  round  Europe  and  Asia.  In  America 
the  travels  of  Humlioldt,  Lewis  and  Clark,  Fr6- 
niimt,  and  others,  ami  the  work  of  the  United 
States  and  Canadian  Surveys,  of  the  Argentine 
government  exploicis,  and  of  r.ailway  ])ioneers, 
have  done  much  to  make  us  acquainted  with  broad 
general  features,  but  much  remains  to  be  done  in 
regard  to  special  districts  of  central  and  southern 
America.  In  Asia  numerous  tiavellei's,  geographers, 
and  natur.alists,  combined  with  the  expeditions  of 
Russian  armies,  and  ex]}loiers  like  the  late  (leneral 
Prejevalsky,  have  contributed  to  render  our  know- 
ledge precise  and  certain  in  respect  to  a  gieat 
part  of  the  continent,  whose  natural  characteristics 
liave  been  more  es])ecial!y  represented  by  the  great 
])liysicist  Ritter ;  while  we  owe  a  large  debt  of 
gratitude  to  the  .Jesuit  missionaries,  whose  in- 
defatigable zeal  hiis  furnished  us  with  a  rich  mass 
of  inform.ation  in  regard  to  minor  details  of  Asiatic 
life  and  nature,  nor  must  the  work  of  the  Indian 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOLOGY 


U7 


Survey  and  its  European  and  native  explorei-s  be 

forgotten.  In  Africa  niucli  light  has  been  thrown 
on  the  cliaraeter  and  condition  of  tlie  African 
continent  liy  many  of  il.s  greatest  explorers — as 
Bruce,  Park,  Clapperton,  the  Landers,  Burton, 
.Spekc,  Harth,  Vogel,  Livingstone,  Cameron,  Stan- 
ley, Thonison,  Schweiiifurth,  Nachtigal,  Junker, 
an<l  Emin  Pasha;  General  (Jordon  and  his  sub- 
ordinate ottieers  ;  the  French  in  Senegambia  and  on 
the  Upper  Niger  ;  Wissmann  and  Pogge,  and  other 
ottieers  of  the  Congo  Free  State  ;  German  explorers 
in  east  and  central  Africa,  and  the  missionaries 
of  various  detiominations.  In  Australia,  although 
much  still  remains  to  be  done,  the  obscurity  which 
hung  over  the  interior  has  been  to  a  great  extent 
diminished  by  the  explorations  of  Sturt,  Eyre, 
Leichhardt,  and  the  brothers  Gregory ;  and  still 
more  by  the  highly  important  labours  of  Burke 
and  Wills,  who  in  18(50  crosseil  the  Australian 
continent  from  Melbourne  to  Carpentaria.  The 
establishment  in  1S7'2  of  a  telegraph  line  from 
Adelaide  to  Port  Darwin  right  across  the  continent, 
and  the  maintenance  of  stations  along  the  line, 
formed  an  aflmirable  base  for  further  ex|iloration. 
Giles,  Warburton,  and  Forrest  forced  their  way  in 
nearly  parallel  lines  to  the  west  coast.  The  labours 
of  these  and  other  explorers  indicate  that  much  of 
the  continent  of  Australia,  though  often  covered 
with  dense  growth  of  spinifex,  acacia,  and  eucalyp- 
tus, is  not  available  for  colonisation  by  Europeans. 

The  government  surveys  of  the  various  European 
countries,  of  the  British  possessions,  and  of  other 
civilised  states  have  not  only  added  to  a  detailed 
knowledge  of  the  face  of  the  earth,  but  given  us 
more  precise  ideas  of  its  shape.  Again,  various 
deep-sea  exploring  expeditions  of  recent  years,  the 
chief  among  wliich  was  that  sent  out  by  the  Enjjlish 
government  in  tlie  Challciiricr  (q.v. ),  have  added 
greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  the  geography  of  the 
oceans. 

The  progress  of  recent  discovery  has  been  aided 
by  the  encouragement  given  to  exploration  by  the 
governments  of  dirt'erent  countries,  and  by  the 
elibrts  of  the  numerous  geographical  societies,  of 
which  there  are  now  over  one  hundred  ;  while  the 
constantly  increasing  mass  of  information  collected 
by  scientilic  explores  is  rapidly  difi'using  correct 
information  in  regard  to  distant  regions. 

On  the  s\d)ject  of  geo^'raphical  di.scovery,  the  following 
works  may  be  consulted  with  advantage :  Bunbury's 
Hisfovii  of  AiirUnt  Geonraplii/  (ISSO) ;  Vivien  de  Sainte- 
Martin's  HUtoire  de  <!toiivaphie ;  Kiepert's  Manual  of 
Ancient  Gio'jraphii  ( 1881 ) ;  I'ricis  de  (reoiirapkie  Unirer- 
nrlfe,  by  Malte  Brun  ;  Huniholdt's  Hi»t.  t'vit.  de  VHist,  dc 
fa  G-'of/raphii',  and  the  Cosmos ;  Hitter's  Aaien  :  Kloeilen's 
Erdknnde :  Keclus,  Nnitrdli:  G'^oijrapkie  Univernclle : 
Stanford's  Comptuflumi  of  Giography  and  Travel^  based 
onHellwald;  H.F.Tozer,  Jl  History  of  Ancient  Geoijraphy 
( 1897 ) ;  C.  R.  Beazley,  The  Dumi  of  Modern  Geography 
(1897).  And  see  Peturniann's  Mitteifunr/eiL,  tlie  Proc. 
Hoy.  Geog.  Soc^  and  the  Gcographixdits  Jahrbueh. 

Geology  ( Gr.  gc,  '  the  earth  : '  loijos,  '  a  dis- 
course') is  the  science  of  the  earth — that  science, 
namely,  which  has  for  its  (diject  the  study  of  the 
various  constituents  of  the  earth's  crust,  with  a 
view  to  discover  how  those  materials  have  been 
agj;regated  anil  caused  to  assume  the  appearances 
wliich  they  now  present.  (Jeology,  in  short,  is  an 
inquiry  into  the  history  and  development  of  the 
earth's  crust,  and  of  the  several  tlor.us  and  faunas 
which  have  successively  clotheil  and  peiiple<l  its 
surface.  As  a  science  geology  is  comparatively 
young,  although  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that 
from  a  very  early  period  the  phenomena  with 
which  it  deals  must  have  claimed  some  attention. 
It  is  ea.sy,  indeed,  to  trace  in  old  mythologies  and 
legends  the  inlluence  of  the  geological  features 
of  the  land  upon  the  human  imagination.    Volcanic 


eruptions,  earthquakes,  avalanches,  and  landslips, 
the  havoc  of  torrential  waters,  and  the  destructive 
action  of  waves  and  breakers  have  uniiuestionably 
left  their  impress  upon  the  superstitions  and  beliefs 
of  all  primitive  peoples.  One  may  believe  that 
many  of  the  remarkable  scientific  premonitions 
which  are  met  with  in  oriental  cosmogonies  and 
the  early  writings  of  the  Greeks  may  have  been 
suggested  by  geological  phenomena.  The  occur- 
rence of  sea-shells  in  the  rocks  of  mountains  and 
regions  far  removed  from  the  sea  may  well  have 
given  rise  to  the  oriental  belief  in  the  alternate 
destruction  and  renovation  of  the  world.  Pytha- 
goras and  Strabo  both  recognised  th;it  changes  had 
taken  place  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  but  neither 
appears  to  have  got  beyond  the  observation  of  a 
few  obvious  phenomena — their  explanations  of 
which  are  hardly  entitled  to  be  considered  more 
than  vague  guesses.  It  is  not  until  we  reach  the 
close  of  the  loth  century  that  we  lind  geological 
phenomena  attracting  the  attention  of  competent 
observers.  With  the  investigations  of  the  cele- 
brated painter,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  together  with 
those  of  Fracastoro,  a  new  departure  was  taken. 
The  numerous  fos.sil  shells  discovered  in  engineer- 
ing operations  were  appealed  to  by  them  as  evidence 
of  former  geogiaphical  changes — their  method  of 
reasoning  being  consistent  and  logical.  Unfortu- 
nately it  did  not  conxince  either  their  contem- 
poraries or  immediate  successors — some  of  whom 
held  the  extraordinary  view  that  shells  and  other 
fossil  organic  remains  were  not  really  what  they 
appeared  to  be,  but  the  result  of  a  plastic  force 
which  had  somehow  fashioned  them  in  the  bowels 
of  the  earth.  Fossils  were  further  supposed  to  be 
the  results  of  the  fermentation  of  fatty  matter,  or 
of  terrestrial  exhalations,  or  of  the  influence  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  or,  finally,  to  be  simply  earthy 
concretions  or  sports  of  nature.  Others,  however, 
while  maintaining  that  fossils  were  in  truth  the 
relics  of  formerly  living  creatures,  held  the  opinion 
that  all  these  had  been  buried  at  the  time  of  the 
Noachian  deluge.  This  controversy  lasted  for  more 
than  a  hundreil  years,  but  long  after  the  true 
character  of  fossils  had  become  generally  admitted 
their  entombment  in  the  strata  continued  to  be 
attributed  to  the  actimi  of  the  deluge.  This  belief 
prevailed  through  the  17th  and  )8th  centuries,  and 
sadly  interfered  with  the  growth  of  geology  ;  the 
prolonged  infancy  of  \xliich  must  be  largely  attrib- 
uted to  its  inlluence.  Steno,  a  Dane,  who  lived 
in  Italy  in  the  mi<ldle  of  the  ITtli  century.  Mould 
appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  obserxe  a  succession 
in  the  str.ata.  Hitherto  stratified  rocks  had  not 
been  dill'erentiated  ;  they  were  all  lumped  together 
as  rei)resenting  the  tumultuous  deposits  of  the 
Noachian  deluge.  Steno,  however,  distinguislie<l 
between  marine  and  fresh-water  formations,  and 
showed  that  there  were  rocks  older  than  the  fossili- 
ferous  strata  in  which  no  organic  remains  occurred. 
Nevertheless,  this  clear-sighted  observer  could  not 
free  himself  from  the  fashionable  hypotheses  of  his 
day.  While  a  belief  in  the  universality  of  the 
Noachian  deluge  was  pre\alent,  many  strange 
'theories  of  the  earth,'  such  as  that  by  Bishoji 
Burnet,  saw  the  light.  These  showed  not  only 
how  the  wmld  had  been  evolved  out  of  chaos,  how 
it  f.ired  before,  during,  and  after  the  deluge,  but  in 
what  pr 
up  and  c 

in  detail,  but  their  imaginative  authors  agreed  in 
the  notion  of  an  interior  abyss,  whence  at  the  time 
of  the  Noachian  catastrophe  the  waters  rushed, 
breaking  up  and  bursting  through  the  crust  of  the 
earth  to  cover  its  surface,  and  whither,  after  the 
deluge,  they  returned  again. 

Leibnitz  (1680)   proposed  the  bold  theory  that 
the  earth  was  originally  in  a  molten  state,  and  that 


w  hat  precise  manner  it  was  eventually  to  be  wounrl 
ip  and  eonsumeil.   The  '  theories'  referred  to  dill'ered 


148 


GEOLOGY 


the  primary  rocks  were  formed  by  the  cooling  of 
the  surface,  which  also  prodiu-fd  tlie  primeval 
ocean  by  condi'iisiii^'  the  surrouiidiii};  vupimrs. 
The  sediincntarv  wtraui  resulted  from  the  Kulisi<linj,' 
of  the  watei-s  wliicli  had  been  put  in  motion  by  the 
collapse  of  the  crust  on  the  contraetin;,'  nucleus. 
The  process  was  several  limes  repeated  until  at 
last  ciiuilibrium  was  established. 

Hooke  (HiS.S)  and  Hay  (IG'JO)  considered  the 
cs.sential  onndilion  of  the  f,'lcilie  to  be  one  of  change, 
and  that  the  forces  now  in  action  would,  if  alloweil 
sullicient  time,  produce  changes  as  great  as  those 
of  geological  date.  In  Italy,  A'allisneri  (1720), 
Lazzaro  Moro  (1740),  and  his  illustrator,  Cirillo 
Generelli,  taught  that  there  ha<l  been  depres.sions 
of  the  land,  during  which  marine  fo.ssilifcrous  strata 
were  deposited,  and  that  subsequently  the  sea- 
bottom  had  been  elevated  by  the  subterranean 
forces,  and  converteil  into  dry  land.  Moro  main- 
tained the  imi>ossil>ility  of  the  whole  earth  having 
been  covered  by  the  w.aters  of  the  sea  up  to  the  tops 
of  the  highest  niounlaius.  The  continents,  he 
saiil,  h.ad  been  upheaved,  and  the  fractures  aiul 
(lislocations  of  the  strata  were  pointed  to  in  con- 
lirmation  of  this  view.  Generelli  insisted  up(ui  the 
gradual  degradation  of  the  land  by  running  water, 
and  held  that  the  waste  Wiis  so  great  that  event- 
ually the  mountains  nnist  be  washed  down  to  the 
sea.  This  inevitable  <legradation  of  the  surface, 
however,  would  be  counterlialaneed,  he  inleried,  by 
elevation  of  the  land  elsewhere.  Hut  as  Italian 
geologists,  in  common  with  those  of  other  countries, 
believed  that  the  world  was  only  some  (iOOO  years 
idd,  Moro  and  ticncrelli  found  some  dillicnlty  in 
explaining  how  so  many  thousands  of  feel  of  strata 
could  have  been  .acciiuiulated  within  the  limited 
period  allowed  by  the  orthodo.\  chronology.  They 
suggested,  therefore,  that  the  materials  entering 
into  the  formation  of  the  strata  had  been  largely 
derived  from  volcanic  eruptions. 

Eventually  the  more  advanced  views  held  in 
Italy  spread  into  France,  (Jerniany,  and  England. 
Buli'on  (1749),  by  the  publication  of  his  T/icori/  of 
the  Etirth,  evoked  a  spiiit  of  infiuirv  in  Fiance; 
Lehmann  (17.">t)),  Fuchsel  (17(i'2),  and  others  in 
Germany  did  much  to  establish  mine  correct  methods 
of  observation  and  interpretation  of  geological 
phenomena  than  had  hitherto  ]nevailcil  ;  while  in 
England  a  distinct  advance  was  made  by  Michell 
( I7t)U)  in  his  e.s.sav  on  the  Cause  and  Phenomena  of 
Earth(|uakes.  Tlie  next  name  that  comes  into  ]>ro- 
minence  is  that  of  Werner,  professor  of  .Mineralogy 
at  Freiburg  in  Saxony  (177o).  This  celebrated 
writer  framed  a  classilication  or  system  of  the  rocks 
of  the  Harz  .Mmmtains,  in  the  order  of  their 
8UCce.ssion,  and  eonsetjuently  in  that  of  their  for- 
mation, and  inainlaineil  that  this  order  would  be 
found  to  prevail  generally  throughout  the  world. 
Werner's  classilication  luus  ]iroveil  inadcr|uate,  ami 
even  in  many  respects  erroneous.  Nevertheless,  to 
him  belongs  the  great  merit  of  having  brought  into 
prominence  a  delinite  principle  in  the  construction 
of  the  earth's  crust,  and  a  precise  method  of  geo- 
logical investigation.  This  dlseovery  of  the  fad 
that  strata  occur  in  a  certain  order  of  su]ierj)osition 
had  been  anticipate<l  by  several  Italian  g<Mdogists, 
and  by  Lehmann  in  Gennany,  but  Werner's  fame 
as  a  brilliant  investigator  and  attractive  teacher 
overshadowed  and  eclipsed  the  most  of  his  pre- 
decessors. In  some  resi)ects  the  views  of  this 
eminent  man  were  retrograde.  He  maintained,  for 
example,  that  his  'formations'  were  universal,  .ami 
had  been  |)recipitated  over  the  whole  earth  in 
succession,  from  a  common  menstruum  or  chaotic 
fluid.  The  igneous  rocks,  according  to  him,  were 
chemical  precipitates  from  water ;  he  believed  that 
no  volcanoes  existed  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  world, 
but  that  volcanic  action  was  exclusively  of  modern 


date.  "Vet  the  tnie  nature  of  igneous  rocks  hud 
already  been  recogniseil  in  Italv,  France,  England, 
and  Germany.  With  the  publication  of  Werner's 
views  on  tins  subject  a  great  eonlrovei-sy  began, 
which  wius  carried  on  with  an  acrimony  that 
is  now  hard  to  realise.  Those  who  \ipheld  the 
igneous  origin  of  such  rocks  iis  basalt  «ere  styled 
X'uleanists,  while  those  mIio  folliiwed  Werner 
became  known  as  Neptunists.  The  gieat  ajiostle 
of  Vulcanism  in  IJritain  was  James  Mutton  ( 17S8). 
He  not  only  insisted  upon  the  igneous  nature 
of  basalt  rocks  but  demonstrated  in  the  licld 
that  granite  likewise  was  of  igneous  migin. 
This  philos(i]>liical  thinker  deprecated  the  calling- 
in  of  hypothetical  oauset.  to  explain  geological 
phenomena.  The  only  agents  of  change,  aceor<ling 
to  him,  were  those  which  are  now  at  work  in 
modifying  the  earth's  crust.  The  pa-st,  therefore, 
was  to  be  interiireted  through  the  iiresent.  It  was 
only  through  our  knowledge  of  the  methods  cm- 
liloye<l  by  natnie  in  carrying  <m  her  operations  in 
our  own  day  that  we  could  hojic  to  interpret  the 
recoril  of  the  rocks.  The  Hulti>nian  thiory  was 
fortunate  in  having  for  its  expounder  .lohn  i'lay- 
fair,  whose  famous  J/ltistratiotis  (1802)  has  long 
been  held  in  the  highest  esteem,  and  is  Btill 
studied  by  geologists.  Another  friend  and  dis- 
cijile  of  Ilutton,  Sir  .J.  Hall,  became  the  founder 
of  exiJeriniental  geology,  and  iliil  mmOi  towards 
the  estulilishment  of  the  cardinal  doctrines  of  his 
teacher.  Ilutton's  observations  were  eonlined  to 
[Scotland,  in  which  fossiliferous  strata  are  not 
prominently  developed.  It  was  the  igneous  masses 
— the  crumpled  and  shattered  rocks  of  mountain 
and  glen  and  sea-coast,  and  the  never-ab.senl 
evidence  of  denudation  and  decay  th.it  fascinated 
him.  He  saw  'the  ruins  of  an  oliler  world  in  the 
present  structure  of  the  glolie,'  but  he  knew  nothing 
of  that  lou"  suecessiim  of  ruined  worlds,  each 
characterised  by  its  own  life  forms,  with  which 
William  Snnth  (1790)  was  shortly  to  astonish  geo- 
logists. This  able  investig.ator  .alone  .and  unaided 
had  explored  all  ICiigland  on  foot,  and  succeeded 
in  completing  a  geological  map  of  the  country  on 
which  the  stiala  were  lor  the  hist  time  delineated 
and  thrown  into  natural  divisions.  His  views  as  to 
the  law  of  superposition  annuig  strata  were  arrived 
at  indei)endently  of  Werner,  and  he  was  the  iirst 
to  point  out  how  e.ach  rock-group  w.as  distinguished 
by  its  own  peculiar  fossils.  Hence  Smith  is  justly 
entitled  to  be  called  the  founder  of  historical  or 
stratigiajdiical  geology.  Since  then  the  |)rogiess 
of  geology  has  been  rapid.  Fossils  which  at  Iirst 
were  valued  chielly  .is  marks  by  which  one  forma- 
tion coulil  be  ilistinguished  from  another  by-and- 
by  claimed  fuller  attention — the  classic  researches 
of  (,'uvier  in  the  I'.aris  b.osin  foi  iiiing  a  great  eimcli 
in  Paheontology  (q.v.),  or  the  study  of  fo.ssil  organic 
remains. 

In  closing  these  remarks  on  the  histfny  of  the 
geological  sciences,  it  would  be  unjust  to  omit 
the  name  of  Lyell,  wlio>e  great  Principles  of 
Gco/off!/  (1830-.S3)  did  invaluable  service.  His 
labours  were  based  on  those  of  Ilutton  and  Play- 
f.iir,  but  he  carried  out  their  doctrines  further  in 
some  directions  tli.in  either  of  these  geologists  were 
prepared  to  go,  while  in  other  directions  he  did  not 
.advance  so  far.  Uefore  the  apjiearance  of  Lyell's 
well-known  work,  the  Huttonian  philosophy  had 
conspicuously  triumphed,  but  geologists  were  still 
prone  to  account  for  what  ap]ieared  to  be  '  breaks 
in  the  succession  '  by  the  hyjiothesis  of  vast  catas- 
trophes. They  conceived  the  ])ossibilily  of  world- 
wirle  destruction  of  lloras  and  faunas,  and  the 
Midden  introduction  or  creation  of  new  forms  of 
life,  after  the  forces  of  nature  had  sunk  into  re- 
pose. The  full  meaning  of  denud.ition  had  not  as 
yet  been  generally  appreciated,  and  subterranean 


GEOLOGY 


149 


action  was  still  frequently  appealed  to  in  explana- 
tion of  ()roj;rapliic  features  wliioli  are  now  recog- 
nised to  lie  the  work  of  epij,'ene  aetion.  Such  views 
gained  for  tlicir  ujiholders  the  name  of  Cataclys- 
mists  or  Catastrojiliists.  Lyell's  main  idea  tliat  the 
present  is  the  type  of  all  preceding  ages,  so  far  as 
these  are  revealed  !)v  the  fossilifeious  strata,  has 
gained  for  his  school  the  title  of  Uniformitarian. 
But  within  recent  years  many  of  his  disciples  have 
departed  somewhat  from  tlie  teaching  of  their 
master,  an<l  maintain  that  the  o|)erations  of 
nature  have  been  the  same  in  kind,  hut  not  neces- 
sarily in  c/ciirnc.  The  impulse  gi\'en  to  the  advance 
of  hiological  science  by  the  ))ul)lication  of  the  Orii/in 
of  iSpecics  ( 1859)  has  also  att'ected  geology,  and  not 
on  its  paheontological  side  alone.  In  the  depart- 
ments of  i)hysical  and  stratigraphical  geology  one 
may  note  a  larger  and  broader  method  of  treatment 
since  the  appearance  of  Darwin's  famous  work — the 
dominant  tone  in  geological  literature  at  present 
being  rather  evolutional  than  uniformitarian  in  the 
narrow  sense.  Another  distinguishing  feature  of 
geological  science  in  our  day  is  the  great  attention 
paid  to  Petrography  (q.v.),  the  study  of  which  had 
fallen  into  comparative  neglect  in  tliis  country  for 
ni.any  years.  Interest  in  it,  hc>we\'er,  was  revived  by 
Dr  Sorby,  who  showed  how  much  might  be  learned 
by  examining  thin  slices  of  rocks  and  minerals 
under  the  microscope.  The  introduction  of  the 
microscope  into  petrogi'apbical  investigation  has 
thus  opened  up  a  wide  and  novel  field  of  inquiry, 
from  the  assiduous  cultivation  of  which  much  may 
be  expected. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  point  out  as  shortly  as 
possible  the  order  of  development  of  the  geological 
sciences.  Unquestionably  the  earliest  to  take 
shape  was  Mineralor/ij — a  work  on  descriptive 
mineralogy  by  Agricola  having  appeared  in  1546. 
In  fact,  several  complete  treatises  had  been  pub- 
lished before  the  middle  of  tlie  18th  century. 
Geognosy,  or  the  study  of  the  various  rocks  of 
which  the  earth's  crust  is  composed  without  special 
reference  to  the  mode  of  their  arrangement,  was 
the  kind  of  geology  whicli  chielly  occupied  the 
attention  of  the  earliest  investigatJors.  The  term 
is  iu)w  practically  disused,  and  in  its  place  we 
have  I'i'trmirapliy.  When  employed  by  modern 
writers  it  has  usually  a  wider  signilication  (see 
Geoonosv).  .Struct iirid  Gcolof/i/,  or  the  mode 
in  which  rocks  are  built  up  in  the  earth's  crust, 
next  began  to  come  into  prominence,  and  Dynam- 
ical Geolof/y,  or  the  study  of  causes  now  in  action 
soon  followed — the  system  advocateil  by  Hutton 
and  Playfair  being  that  which  has  gained  general 
acceptance.  Thereafter  followiid  Experimental 
Gcoloyy,  of  whicli  Hall  was  the  fatlier.  Although 
some  11  regress  had  been  made  by  Lehmann,  Fuchsel, 
and  Werner  in  the  method  of  determining  the 
succession  of  strata  and  of  grouping  these  in 
chronological  oriler,  yet  Historical  or  Stratirjraph- 
teal  Geolof/y  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  existed 
as  a  science  before  the  date  of  William  Smith's 
classical  researches.'  Pnlmintolof/y  is  of  still  more 
recent  origin,  the  names  of  Cuvier,  Lamarck,  and 
Brongniart  being  conspicuous  among  its  earliest 
exponents. 

A  brief  outline  may  now  be  given  of  the  various 
departments  of  geology,  properly  so  called. 

DvN.\MIC.\L  Geohigy. — The  modern  system  of 
geology  is  liased  on  the  iirinciplc  that  the  past  is 
to  be  interpreted  through  the  present.  In  other 
words,  the  geologist  believes  in  the  constancy  of 
nature,  and  that  Ijy  studying  the  elt'ects  produced 
by  the  action  of  her  various  agents  in  the  present 
he  will  be  able  to  interpret  the  records  of  such 
action  in  the  past.  The  study  of  such  natural 
operations  constitutes  dynamical  geology. 

Tlie  various  forms  of  energy  from  which  geo- 


logical changes  arise  may  be  divided  into  two 
series — viz.  hypogene  action  and  epigene  action. 

Hypogene  Action. — Under  this  head  come  the 
changes  which  are  induced  by  the  interaal  heat  of 
the  earth,  those  changes,  namely,  that  are  in  pro- 
gress beneath  the  earth's  surface.  In  this  category 
are  included  volcanoes  and  volcanic  action,  volcanic 
products,  and  the  chemical  and  mechanical  changes 
which  are  superinduced  in  such  products  and  upon 
the  rock-masses  with  which  these  come  into  contact 
during  volcanic  eruptions  (see  VOLCANOES).  Lava 
(q.v.)  and  Tuir  (q.v.)  are  studied  as  regards  their 
comjiosition,  texture,  and  structure,  while  the  man- 
ner ill  which  these  and  other  volcanic  products  are 
built  up  is  likewise  investigated.  All  this  is  done 
witli  a  view  to  comparing  such  volcanic  products 
with  similar  crystalline  and  fragmental  rocks  which 
occur  in  regions  where  volcanic  action  may  have 
become  quite  extinct.  Another  most  important 
set  of  hypogene  phenomena  are  movements  of  the 
earth's  crust.  See  Earthqu.^ke.s,  UPHEAVAL, 
Beache.s  (Raised),  Submarine  Forests. 

-Epigene  action  has  reference  to  those  operations 
that  afl'ect  mainly  the  superllcial  portion  of  the 
earth's  surface.  The  epigene  agents  are  the  atnio- 
s]jhere,  rain,  brooks  and  rivers,  ice,  the  sea,  and 
life.  The  effects  of  atmospheric  action  are  seen  in 
the  general  disintegration  of  rocks,  the  formation 
of  Soil  (q.v.),  and  the  accumulation  of  dust  and  sand 
(see  Drift).  In  the  diffusion  of  life  over  the  globe, 
wind  has  also  no  doubt  ]dayed  in  all  ages  an 
important  part.  Rain,  again,  charged  with  the 
carbonic  acid,  &c.,  which  it  absorbs  from  the  atmo- 
sphere and  vegetable  .soil,  acts  chemically  upon 
rocks — all  of  which  are  more  or  less  permeable. 
Much  rock-disintegration  is  thus  induced,  the 
'  weathered  '  materials  being  dispersed  or  accumu- 
lated locally  by  the  mechanical  action  of  the  rain. 
The  chemical  action  of  rain  is  not  confined  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  for  much  water  filters  down 
through  natural  cracks,  fissures,  &c.,  and  is  thus 
enabled  to  soak  into  the  rocks  at  all  depths.  The 
underground  water  which  is  not  absorbed  in  the 
interstitial  pores  of  rocks  rises  eventually,  and  is 
discharged  at  the  surface  as  Springs  (q.v.),  which 
are  more  or  less  impregnated  with  dissolved  mineral 
matter  abstracted  from  below.  These  springs  are 
either  cold  or  thermal,  and  constant  or  inter- 
mittent. In  some  volcanic  regions  the  water 
comes  to  the  surface  in  eruptive  fountains  (see 
Geyser).  The  destructive  action  of  such  under- 
ground waters  is  seen  in  the  excavation  of  caves, 
tunnels,  and  other  sulilerranean  pa.ssages  (see 
Cavk),  and  in  the  production  of  Landslips  (q.v.) 
and  rock-falls ;  while  their  reproductive  action  is 
familiarly  illustrated  by  the  formation  of  Stal- 
actites and  Stalagmites  (q.v.),  and  the  accumula- 
tion of  great  masses  and  sheets  of  siliceous  Sinter 
and  Calcareous  Tufa  (q.v.).  Brooks  and  rivers 
act  as  ^intent  agents  of  change.  By  means  of 
the  tietntiis  which  they  sweep  along  or  carry  in 
suspension,  they  rub,  grind,  and  erode  the  rocks 
over  which  they  flow,  and  thus  in  time  ravines 
and  valleys  have  been  excavated.  The  eroded 
materials  are  constantly  travelling  from  higher  to 
lower  levels  until  they  come  to  rest  in  lakes  or  the 
.sea.  Hence  lakes  and  the  sea  in  many  places  are 
being  gradually  silted  up — the  growth  of  Deltas  (q.v.) 
being  one  of  the  most  notable  evidences  of  epigene 
action.  The  action  of  rain  ami  running  water  is 
greatly  aided  by  frost,  which  is  a  powerful  disin- 
tegrator of  rocks.  Water  freezes  a^s;  well  in  the 
minute  pores  of  rocks  as  in  the  fissures  by  which 
rocks  are  travereed,  and  thus  when  thaw  ensues  the 
loosened  grains  and  particles  are  ready  to  be  carried 
a>\ay  by  wind,  rain,  and  melting  snow  ;  while  dis- 
jointed blocks,  iS;c.  may  fall  asunder  and  topple 
from  cliil's  or  roll  down  steep  slopes.     In  regions  of 


150 


GEOLOGY 


perennial  snow-fields  the  avalanche  and  the  glacier 
likewise  act  as  important  ilemulers  of  the  surface, 
and  transporters  of  rockilcliris  from  higher  to  lower 
levels  (see  Avalanche-s,  tlLACiKUs,  ]{i>rLi>Eit- 
CLAY,  iVc. ).  Again,  in  certain  latitudes  lake  and 
river  ice  are  conspicuous  agents  of  change— acting 
especially  as  rafts  for  the  transport  of  stones  and 
deoris  (see  Anchorice).  Thus  the  whole  surface 
nf  the  land  from  the  highest  mountains  down  to 
the  sea  is  being  gTaduallv  degraded  or  lowered  l>y 
the  combined  action  ot  many  epigene  agents. 
There  is  a  continual  and  universal  disintegratiim 
of  rocks  going  on,  and  a  no  less  continual  tians|iort 
of  material  and  l)uilding  up  of  this  into  new  forma- 
tions. Alluvial  Hats  .and  terraces,  ileltas,  &c.  may 
be  cited  .as  ]>rominent  examples  of  the  sedimentary 
series  of  modern  accumulations,  while  the  cliemical 
series  is  well  represented  by  the  calcareous  forma- 
tions of  springs  and  Ijrooks,  and  the  precipitations 
of  common  salt,  .sulphate  of  lime,  I'Cic,  which  are 
taking  place  in  saline  lakes  (see  Lakes). 

The  sea  as  a  geological  agent  acts  in  three  ways  : 
it  erodes  rocks,  and  transports  and  accumulates 
sediment.  The  work  of  erosion  is  conlinc<l  for  the 
most  part  to  tliat  nuirginal  belt  within  which 
waves  and  breakers  work.  These  by  means  of  the 
shore-detritus  batter  and  undermine  dill's,  and 
cause  them  gradually  to  recede,  and  hence  the  sea 
may  be  saiil  to  act  like  a  great  horizontal  saw. 
The  materials  brought  down  by  rivers  or  detached 
from  the  shore  by  the  action  of  the  sea  itself 
are  distributed  by  currents  over  the  sea-floor,  the 
coarser  detritus  gathering  in  shallow  water,  while 
the  liner  sediment  is  swej)!  out  to  greater  depths 
and  spread  over  wiiler  areas.  Such  terrigenous 
materials  extend  outwards  from  the  sIkuc  to  a 
distance  of  GO  to  .300  miles,  and  to  ilei>tlis  of  '2000 
feet  or  more.  They  are  confined,  therefore,  to 
a  comp.aratlvely  narrow  belt  of  the  sea-bottom. 
Over  the  abysmal  depths  of  the  sea,  the  only 
accuniulatir>ns  in  progress  are  organic  ooze  and  a 
peculiar  red  clay  which  is  believed  to  be  the  result 
of  the  chemical  action  of  sea-water  on  products  of 
volcanic  origin  (see  AnvsMAL  Accuml'I^ation.s). 
Now  and  again,  stones  and  debris  may  be  carried 
out  to  sea  by  icebergs  and  dropped  beyond  the  zone 
of  terrigenous  sediment.ation.  Similarly,  rock-frag- 
ments entangled  in  the  roots  of  trees  or  buoyed  n|) 
by  seaweeds  may  now  and  again  come  to  rest  in 
abysmal  regions.  Reference  li.is  been  made  to  the 
geological  action  of  the  ice  of  lakes  and  riveis,  but 
the  icebergs  and  ice-rafts  of  high  latitudes  must 
not  be  omitted.  Much  rock-debris  is  distributed 
by  such  agencies  over  the  sea-bottom,  tletached 
fr.agments  of  the  'ice-foot'  (see  ICE,  vol.  vi.,  p.  59) 
being  the  mor-t  iiot.ible  carrici's  of  stimes. 

The  action  of  pl.ants  and  animals  is  not  ignored 
by  geologists.  Plants  aiil  iu  the  ilisintegration 
and  rupture  of  rocks  by  means  of  their  roots  and 
the  organic  .acids  derived  from  them  during  decay. 
Rocks  are  drilled  and  bored  by  some  kinds  of 
marine  nmlluscs,  annelids,  echini,  and  sponges, 
and  are  thus  weakened  and  more  readily  yield  to  the 
action  of  waves  and  breakers.  Burrowing  animals 
.also  bring  aliont  changes,  the  common  earthworm 
being  an  ellicacious  agent  in  the  formation  of 
soil  (see  Earthworm).  Plants  occosion.ally  act 
as  conservative  agents,  a.s  in  the  fixing  of  blown 
sands  (see  Dines),  and  in  protecting  the  banks  of 
lakes  and  rivers.  Again,  forests,  by  equ.alising  and 
regulating  the  How  of  the  water  of  precipitation, 
prevent  the  destruction  of  soils  ana  subsoils  by 
torrential  action.  In  some  regions  also  the  rocks 
along  a  seashore  are  partially  protected  from  the 
waves  by  seaweed,  sponges,  zoophytes,  and  gre- 
garious molluscs.  Amongst  formations  of  organic 
origin  may  be  mentioned  soil  ( in  [lart ),  peat-bogs, 
morasses,    mangrove-swamps,     bog-iron    ore,    &c. 


Some  calcareous  alga;  also  form  considerable  beds, 
as  among  the  reefs  of  the  Klorida  seas  ;  while  certain 
marsb-loviiig  and  fresh-water  plants  have  the  power 
of  abstracting  carbonate  of  lime  from  water  and 
encrusting  them.selves  therewith.  Thick  miusses  of 
calctula  have  originated  in  this  way.  The  organic 
oozes  of  the  deep  seas  are  goi«l  exain|)les  of  de- 
posits foniied  of  the  exuvi;e  of  minute  pelagic 
organisms;  and  the  great  coral-reefs  (see  CoitAL) 
of  the  warmer  oceans  are  still  further  evidence  of 
the  im|iortance  of  life  in  the  production  of  new 
fornuitions.  Such  arc  some  of  the  accumulations 
which  are  almost  wholly  composed  of  organic  debris; 
but  animals  and  pl.ints  contribute  to  the  growth 
of  many  other  deposits.  The  marine  terri;;enoiis 
formations  are  charged  more  or  less  abiinilantly 
with  the  relics  of  animal  and  jilant  life;  nor  are 
similar  remains  wanting  in  the  alluvial  deposits  of 
rivers  and  lakes. 

Petroi.ogv. — From  tlie  study  of  causes  now  in 
action  the  geologist  learns  that  many  of  the 
rocks,  with  which  every  <me,  whether  (djservant  or 
not,  necessarily  makes  some  ac(|uaintance,  are  of 
i  the  same  character  as  epigene  and  hypogene  pro- 
ilucts.  For  a  i)articnlar  account  of  the  rocks  them- 
selves, Petrih;ha1'1IV  and  the  articles  therein  cited 
may  be  consulted  ;  here  all  that  can  be  attenii)tcd  is 
to  ]ioint  out  very  brietly  bow  far  a  knowlcilge  of 
formations  now  in  i)rogre.ss  enables  us  to  explain 
the  nature  and  origin  of  rocks. 

(1)  Itjticoiis  Docks.— \n  tireat  Britain  and  other 
countries  where  at  jnesent  there  is  no  volcanic  action 
we  meet  with  various  gla.'isy  rocks,  such  as  tiitcli- 
stime  and  obsidian,  witli  semi-civstallinc  rocks,  as 
trachyte,  phonolite,  liparite,  amlesite.  basalt,  iVc, 
with  crystalline  rocks,  such  as  cert.ain  dolerites, 
and  with  fragmental  rocks,  like  tuH'  and  agglo- 
merate, which  in  every  essential  particular  resemble 
the  products  of  modern  volcanoes.  But,  as  might 
have  been  expected,  the  older  igneous  rocks  are 
often  more  or  less  altered,  such  alteration  having 
been  sui)erinduced  Itv  the  chemical  acticm  of  percolat- 
ing waters,  by  ])ressure,  by  crushing,  or  liy  these 
and  other  causes  combined.  There  is  a  class  of 
crystalline  rocks,  however,  which,  although  they 
consist  of  the  same  mineral  ingredients  as  occur  in 
many  igneous  rocks,  yet  dili'er  so  materially  in 
character  from  laviis  that  geologists  are  warranted 
in  believing  that  they  could  not  have  been  con- 
solidated at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  earth.  This 
cla-s-s  is  represented  by  such  rocks  as  granite, 
.syenite,  gabbio,  and  certain  diorites,  dolerites, 
nuaitz-|)orphyries,  \c.  A  study  of  the.se  rocks  under 
tlie  microscope  and  in  the  field  as  rock-masses  leads 
to  the  belief  that  they  are  indeed  of  igneous  origin, 
but  have  cooled  ami  consolidated  at  some  depth  in 
the  earth's  crust,  their  .appearance  at  the  surface 
being  due  to  subsequent  deniulation.  Thus  two 
classes  of  igneous  rocks  are  recognised — viz.  vol- 
canic or  superficial,  and  ji/iitonic  or  deep-se.ated. 

(2)  Derivative  Jioc/.s. — Under  this  bead  are 
included  all  the  products  of  e]iigene  action.  They 
are  termed  derivative  inasmuch  as  most  of  them 
are  composed  of  materi.als  which  have  been  derived 
from  pre-existing  rocks  by  the  chemiral  or  mechan- 
ical acti(m  of  epigene  agents,  while  others  are 
ma«le  up  of  organic  debris.  Tliey  may  be  roughly 
cl.a.ssitied  as  follows  : 

Meeliaiiicallij-formcd  Rods. — These  consist  of 
fragmental  materials.  They  are  granular  non- 
crystalline .aggregates,  the  constituent  ingredients 
of  w  hich  m.ay  be  angul.ar  or  rounded  in  form,  .and 
m.ay  or  may  not  be  arranged  in  layei-s.  They 
consist  of  ( « )  Eolian  or  A  erial  rocks,  such  as  blown 
siind  (dunes)  and  dust-deposits.  The  products  of 
the  '  weathering'  action  of  the  atmo.spliere,  such  as 
rock-debris  (breccia),  certain  clays,  &c.,  are  also 
in  part  of  eolian  origin.      (6)  Sedimentary  rocks, 


GEOLOGY 


151 


as  conglomerate,  breccia  (in  part),  sandstone, 
graywacke,  various  clays,  mudstones,  shales,  &c. 
(c)  Glacial  rocka,  as  rock-debris,  erratics,  moraines, 
boulder-clay,  &c. 

Chemkaily-funned  Rocks. — The  rocks  included 
under  this  sulxlivisioii  are  sometimes  earthy  in 
character,  but  more  frequently  show  a  crystalline 
or  compact  sub-crystalline  texture.  Among  the 
more  typical  kinds  are  kaolin  and  various  other 
clays,  stalactites  and  stalagmites,  calc-tufa  and 
its  varieties,  geyserite  {siliceous  sinter),  rock-salt, 
dolomite,  gypsum,  flint,  chert,  various  ironstones, 
kc. 

Orqankalhj-ihrivcd  rocks  are  made  up  of  the 
relics  of  animal  and  plant  life.  They  include  a 
great  variety  of  limestones,  diatom-earth  (tripoli), 
flint  (in  part),  various  phosphatic  deposits,  peat, 
lignite,  coal,  anthracite,  oil-shale,  various  iron  ores, 
&c. 

No  hard  and  fast  line  can  be  drawn  between 
the  older  and  younger  products  of  epigene  action. 
It  is  obvious  that  conglomerate  and  sanilstone  are 
merely  compacted  gravel  and  sand  ;  breccia  is  only 
consoiiilated  rock-debris  ;  while  lignite  and  coal  are 
simply  vegetable  matter  more  or  less  mineralised. 
The  thick  fossiliferous  limestones  of  the  earth's 
crust  are  paralleled  by  the  coral-reefs  and  organic 
oozes  of  existing  oceans,  and  have  evidently  had  a 
similar  origin.  Every  derivative  rock,  indeed,  can 
be  compared  with  a  like  product  of  modern  epigene 
action.  The  older  products,  it  is  true,  are  most 
frecjuently  solidified,  while  tlie  younger  are  oftener 
more  or  less  incoherent  ami  unconsolidated.  But 
this  difference  is  not  essential,  and  is  only  what 
ndght  have  been  expected.  The  oliler  products 
have  for  a  long  time  been  exposed  to  the  action  of 
percolating  water.  In  many  ca.ses  they  have  been 
subjected  to  the  influence  of  subterranean  heat  .and 
enormous  pressure,  and  we  need  not  wonder,  there- 
fore, that  tliey  should  have  acquired  a  more  or  less 
indurateil  cliaracter.  But  solidification  does  not 
invariably  characterise  the  older  products,  nor  are 
modern  accumulations  always  incoherent.  There 
are  indurated  conglomerates  and  sandstones  of  very 
recent  formation,  and  some  modern  coral-rock  is  as 
hard  and  compact  as  the  older  limestones.  Hence 
the  term  rork  is  applied  to  all  tlie  products  of 
epigene  and  liypogene  action  alike,  whether  the 
material  so  designated  be  yielding,  as  clay  and  peat 
and  blowing  sand,  or  hard  and  resisting,  as  con- 
glomerate, limestone,  or  granite. 

(3)  Metamorpliic  Hocks. — All  rocks  sooner  or  later 
undergo  some  process  of  alteration  whereby  their 
original  cliaracter  becomes  mollified.  Thus,  by  the 
chemical  action  of  percolating  water  some  lime- 
stones li.ave  been  more  or  le.ss  changed  into  dolo- 
mite ;  olivine  rocks  have  been  altered  into  serpen- 
tine ;  some  samlstones  have  been  converted  into 
quartzites.  Derivative  rocks  at  the  point  of  contact 
with  igneous  rocks  are  very  frequently  altered  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent.  Thus,  ordinary  limestone 
becomes  crystalline  nuirble,  coal  is  changed  into 
graphite,  sandstone  into  quartzite,  clay  and  sliale 
into  porcellanite.  When  alteraticm  of  a  rock,  how- 
ever caused,  has  proceeded  so  far  as  to  produce  a 
rearrangement  of  the  constituent  elements  of  a 
rock,  and  to  develop  a  crystalline  or  seniicrystalline 
structure,  such  extreme  alteration  is  termed  mcta- 
morphism.,  and  the  rocks  so  altccted  are  described 
as  metamorphie.  Rocks  of  this  kind  are  .sometimes 
confusedly  crystalline  or  massive  in  structure,  and 
in  hand  specimens  might  be  mistaken  for  plutonic 
igneous  rocks ;  but  by  far  the  larger  number  are 
distinguished  by  a  peculiar  flaky  or  iiseudo-lamin- 
ated  structure  which  is  termed  Foliation  (q.v.). 
In  foliated  or  .schistose  rocks  the  constituent 
minerals  are  arranged  in  alternate  lenticular  layei's 
which  merge  into  each  other.      Such  arrangement. 


it  must  be  underetood,  has  no  relation  to  the  layers 
of  deposition  so  frequently  present  in  derivative 
rocks  like  shale,  sandstone,  I'vic.  The  foliated 
structure  has  been  superinduced  in  rocks,  .some  of 
which  may  have  been  igneous  and  others  aqueous 
in  origin.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  the  study 
of  causes  now  in  action  can  throw  little  light  on 
tlie  origin  of  foliation.  We  may  study  the  changes 
induced  in  rocks  by  contact  with  the  products  of 
modern  volcanic  action,  and  these  will  doubtless 
enable  us  to  understand  how  certain  alterations 
in  rocks  have  been  brought  about ;  but  schistosity 
is  not  superinduced  in  rocks  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  modern  volcanic  orifices.  In  Britain  and  other 
countries,  however,  denudation  has  exposed  the 
interior  and  ba.sal  portiims  of  ancient  volcanoes, 
and  we  can  now  study  in  detail  the  fractured  and 
baked  rocks  through  which  heated  gases,  molten 
matter,  &c.  have  been  erupted.  Nay,  in  some 
cases,  we  can  even  examine  enormous  masses  of 
plutonic  crystalline  rock  which  are  believed  to  Ije 
the  reservoirs  from  which  the  molten  matter  of  our 
ancient  volcanoes  Avas  pumped  to  the  surface.  Such 
great  plutonic  ma-sses  are  frequently  surrounded  by 
a  zone  or  belt  of  crystalline  schistose  rocks,  such  as 
gneiss,  mica-schist,  &c.  The  rocks  are  most  crystal- 
line and  schLstose  in  the  immediate  proximity  of 
the  igneous  mass,  but  gradually  lose  these  char- 
acters as  they  recede  from  its  neighbourhood,  until 
by-and-by  they  pass  into  ordinary  derivative  rocks 
such  as  giaywacke,  shale,  &c.  Some  schistose 
rocks,  therefore,  undoubtedly  owe  their  origin  to 
contact  with  deep-seated  igneous  masses.  Again, 
it  has  been  observed  that  where  rocks,  whether 
igneous  or  derivative,  have  been  subjected  to 
enonnous  crushing  and  pressure,  they  not  infre- 
quently become  crystalline  and  schistose.  There 
are  some  schistose  rocks,  however,  the  origin  of 
which  is  still  very  obsctire.  Geologists  cannot  yet 
assert,  therefore,  that  all  schistose  rocks  are  nieta- 
morphic  (see  Arch.ean  System).  Among  the 
most  characteristic  metamorpliic  rocks  are  quartzite, 
marble,  phillite,  mica-schist,  talc-schist,  chlorite- 
schist,  hornblende-schist,  actinolite-schist,  gneiss, 
granulite,  eclogite,  &c. 

STRrcTUR.iL  or  Geotectoxic  Geolooy  is  that 
branch  of  the  science  that  deals  with  the  arrange- 
ment or  stnicture  of  rock-masses. 

:itructure  of  Igneous  Hocks. — Igneous  rocks  are 
grouped  under  two  series — viz.  (a)  Contemporane- 
ous and  (6)  Intrusive  eruptive  rocks. 

(a)  Contemporaneous  eruptive  rocks  are  either 
crystalline  or  fragmental.  The  crystalline  rocks 
are  simply  old  lava-flows,  while  the  fragmental 
rocks  consist  of  tutt'  and  its  varieties.  They  are 
in  short  the  products  of  volcanic  action,  and  have 
been  eru[ited  at  the  earth's  surface,  accumulating 
either  upon  the  land  or  under  water.  Many  of 
these  rocks  have  apparently  been  erupted  from 
vents  of  the  ordinary  modern  type,  but  others 
appear  to  have  come  up  along  lines  of  fissure  in 
the  earth's  crust — the  lavas  overflowing  the  surface 
in  broad  floods.  Successive  outflows  of  this  kind, 
accompanied  frequently  by  the  ejection  of  frag- 
mental materials,  have  built  up  some  great 
plateaus.  Contemporaneous  lava-s  are  generally 
more  or  less  scoriaceous  or  porous  aliove  and  below. 

(6)  Intrusive  eruptive  rocks  are  also  crystalline 
and  fragmental.  Xecks  are  approximately  cylin- 
drical funnels  filled  with  either  crystalline  igneous 
rock  or  fragmental  materials,  or  witli  both.  They  are 
obviously  the  plugged  throats  of  old  vcdcanoes,  the 
upper  parts  of  which  have  been  removeil  by  <lenuda- 
tion.  Intrusive  Sheets  are  more  or  less  lenticu- 
lar masses  of  crystalline  igneous  rock  which  have 
been  erupted  amongst  strata  in  a  direction  more  or 
less  closely  conformaVile  with  the  planes  of  bedding. 
They  seldom  show  any  scoriaceous  structure,  and. 


152 


GEOLOGY 


generally  bake  and  alter  overlyin"  a-s  well  as 
underlying  rocks— tlms  clearly  indicatin-j;  tlioir 
subsequent  origin.  Di/I.cs  (q.v. )  consist  generally 
of  crystalline  rock  which  has  been  erupted  in 
approximately  vertical  and  even-sided  fissures,  thus 
giving  rise  to  wall-like  intrusions.  Occa-ionally 
IragMiental  igneous  rocks,  .such  as  agglomerate,  are 
met  with  in  similar  i)ositions.  Veins  is  the  term 
applie<l  to  smaller  irregular  and  more  or  less  tortu- 
ous intrusions  of  crystalline  rock.  Bosses  (see 
Neck)  are  amorphous  ma-^ses  of  eryslalline  rock, 
rising  more  or  less  vertically  through  surrounding 
rock-ma.sses.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  many 
of  these  'bosses'  are  the  deep-seated  reservoirs 
from  which  volcanoes  were  supjilied  with  lava. 
'Dykes,'  'veins,*  and  sometime-s  'sheets'  jiroceed 
from  them  into  the  adjacent  rocks,  which  are  often 
much  altered  and  metamorphosed. 

Structure  of  Deri  rat  ire.  liorhs. — The  most  char- 
acteristic feature  of  these  rocks  is  their  bedding  or 
stratification— a  structure  which  is  due  to  the  mode 
of  their  accumulation.  Hence  they  are  often  s])oken 
of  as  the  'stratified  rocks.'  But,  as  we  have  seen, 
stratification  likewise  characterises  contemporane- 
ous eruptive  rocks.  As  far  the  larger  number  of 
derivative  rocks  are  simply  aqueous  mechanical  and 
chemical  sediments,  they  are  also  often  tenned 
'aqueous'  and  'sedimentary  rocks.'  Individual 
be(ls  in  a  gionp  of  strata  are  lenticular  or  wedge- 
shaped  ;  so  that  when  any  particular  stratum  is 
followed  in  one  direction  it  eventually  tliins  awav 
and  dies  out.  And  the  same  is  the  case  witli 
groups  of  strata.  Finegrained  deposits  such  as 
shale  and  limestone  tend  to  be  more  persistent 
and  to  cover  wider  are.a-s  than  sandstones  and 
conglomerates.  Almost  any  diversity  of  strata 
may  occur  in  a  group  or  series,  but  it  is  more 
usual  to  find  certain  kinds  of  rock  associated 
together;  thus,  line  sanrlstone  alternates  with  shale, 
conglomerate  with  grit,  limestone  with  fine  shales, 
&c.  Again,  individual  beds  are  often  found  to 
change  their  character  as  they  are  followed  in 
certain  directions.  Conglomerate,  for  example, 
pa.sses  Laterally  into  sandstone,  sandstone  l>ecomes 
argillaceous  and  jjasses  into  shale,  while  shale,  by 
the  grailiial  increase  of  calcareous  matter,  becomes 
marly  and  often  pa-sses  into  limestone.  Sometimes 
the  stratification  is  extremely  regular,  at  other 
times  the  beds  thicken  and  thin  out  very  irregu- 
larly, and  not  infrequently  they  show  what  is 
va.\\ei\  fiilsc-bcflflinif  or  ciirrcutbcfh/inf/ — a  structure 
which  is  seen  both  in  aqueous  and  eolian  accumula- 
tions ( see  DuXE-S ).  Amongst  the  surface-markings 
seen  in  sedimentary  rocks  the  most  common  aie 
ripple-marks,  sun  cracks,  rain-prints,  and  tracks, 
trails,  burrows,  &c.  of  worms,  crustaceans,  mol- 
luscs, reptiles,  birds,  iSrc. 

Strata  are  not  often  quite  horizontal ;  they 
usually  dip  at  a  less  or  greater  angle,  and 
such  inclined  strata  are  as  a  rule  the  remaining 
portions  of  large  curves  or  undulations,  the  upper 
portions  of  which  have  been  removed  by  denuda- 
tion, so  that  the  tnincated  .strata  crop  out  at  the 
surface  (see  OfTCROP,  STRIKE).  The  simplest 
form  of  curve  assumed  by  strata  is  a  monocline 
but  anticlinal  and  synclinal  folds  occur  much 
more  frequently  (see  AXTICI.INK).  In  strata 
with  a  moderate  dip  the  strata  on  opposite  sides 
of  an  anticlinal  axis  incline  at  approximately  the 
same  angle.  But  in  more  steejily  inclined  beds  the 
dip  is  often  greater  on  one  side  than  the  other, 
the  beds  on  the  steeper  side  of  the  fold  becoming 
doubled  in  below  their  equivalents  on  the  other 
lide.  This  is  what  is  termed  '  Inversion  ' — a  struc- 
ture which  when  repeated  gives  us  what  are 
called  'Isoclinal  Folds'  (see  MofNTAlx.s).  In 
regions  of  highly  folded  strata  the  fossils  and  even 
the    stones  in  conglomerates  are  often  flattened 


!  and  squeezed  out  of  shape.  Such  deformation 
likewise  characterises  whole  rock-ma.s.se8,  am  is  well 
seen  in  the  structure  termed  Slaty  Cleavage  (q.v.). 
As  an  extreme  result  of  enormous  pre.ssure  we 
occasionally  find  that  clastic  rocks  have  been  con- 
verted into  crystalline  schist.s. 

Most  rocks,  n.s  well  igneous  as  derivative,  become 
grailually  more  and  more  consolidated.  Soft  inco- 
herent sands  and  clays  are  compressed  ;  lavas  cool 
and  harden.  All  rocVs  therefore  tend  to  contract, 
and  in  doing  so  they  become  cracked,  regularly  or 
irregularly  as  the  case  may  be.  During  the  ])ro- 
cess  of  folding  they  have  likewise  yielded  to  stress 
and  strain  by  cracking  across.  Such  cracks  are 
termed  Joints  (q.v.).  But  rocks  are  not  only 
jointed  ;  frequently  they  are  traversed  by  great 
fissures  of  displacement  called  Faults  or  Dislocations 
(q.v.),  which  may  s(uuetimes  be  traced  across  the 
whole  breadth  of  a  countrj'.  That  the  phenomena 
of  folding,  fracturing,  and  displacement  are  the 
result  of  earth-movements  cannot  lie  doubted,  and 
there  is  abundant  evidence  to  show  that  such  dis- 
turbances have  tak(?n  place  again  and  again,  some- 
times over  limited  regions,  at  other  times  over  very 
much  wider  areas.  This  is  proved  by  the  pheno- 
mena of  Unconformity  (q.v.),  in  which  one  set  of 
)>eds  rests  on  the  upturned  and  denuded  ends  of  an 
oilier  series. 

The  fissures  and  cavities  of  rocks  are  in  some 
places  filled  up  again  by  the  introducti(m  of  various 
kinds  of  mineral  matter  through  the  chemical  acticm 
of  percolating  water.  In  many  cases  such  mineral 
de]M)sition  may  have  taken  place  from  heate<l  solu- 
tions, under  gieat  pressure,  and  at  great  depths  from 
the  surface.  This  is  jjrobably  the  origin  of  many 
of  the  Ore-deposits  (q.v.)  met  with  as  lodes  or 
veins. 

Pal;eoxtolocical  Geology.— A  study  of  the 
physical  characters  of  rocks  enables  the  geologist  to 
arrive  at  many  interesting  conclusions  as  to  the 
mode  in  which  rocks  have  originated.  By  such 
evidence  alone  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  discover 
the  successive  changes  which  some  ]>articular  region 
has  undergone.  Tlius,  the  phenomena  of  igneous 
and  glacial  accumulations  tell  tlieir  own  storv-,  and 
even  in  the  ease  of  many  sedimentary  deposits 
geologists  are  able,  without  the  aid  of  fossils,  to 
distinguish  between  deep-sea  and  shallow-water 
strata ;  while  certain  rocK-structures,  such  as  un- 
conformity, yield  him  evidence  of  changing  physical 
conditions.  Without  fossils,  however,  investiga- 
tiims  into  the  successive  phases  through  which  tlie 
earth's  surface  has  passed  could  not  proceed  far : 
historical  geologj-  would  be  impossible.  It  is 
chiefly  by  means  of  Fossils  (q.v.)  tliat  the  deep-sea 
or  shallow-water  origin  and  the  marine  or  fresh- 
water character  of  strata  are  determined,  and  the 
climatic  comlilions  under  which  they  were  deposited 
are  ascertained.  \Vhen  we  learn  that  many  fossils 
belong  to  extinct  species  and  even  genera,  and 
that  dillerent  groujis  of  fossils  occur  in  different 
series  of  strata,  it  might  seem,  at  first,  as  if  this 
would  tend  rather  to  confuse  than  aid  the  geolo- 
gist. But  the  cause  of  such  apparent  discrejiancies 
lies,  of  course,  in  the  simi)le  fact  that  the  fossili- 
ferous  strata  l)elong  to  difi'erent  ages — some  are 
much  older  than  others.  In  the  uiq)ermost  or 
youngest  series  the  organic  remains  approach  nmst 
nearly  to  the  life-forms  of  the  present  day,  while 
in  the  lower  and  therefore  older  strata  the  fossils 
recede  farther  and  farther  from  existing  types  as 
we  follow  them  to  lower  and  lower  geological  hori- 
zons. From  this  it  would  ajipear  that  there  has 
been  a  gra<lual  coming-in  and  (lying-out  of  species, 
and  observation  has  shown  that  when  a  particular 
flora  or  fauna  has  dieil  out  it  never  reappeai-s  in 
younger  strata.  When  William  Smith  discovered 
that  each  well-marked  group  of  strata  was  charac- 


GEOLOGY 


153 


terised  by  its  own  suite  of  fossils  he  had  got  the 
key  to  the  history  of  a  long  succession  of  geologi- 
cal changes ;  for  the  fossils  enabled  him  to  recog- 
nise each  group  in  whatever  part  of  the  country 
it  occurred,  and  however  much  its  i>etrograiihical 
character  might  have  changed.  If  three  conform- 
able series  of  strata  occur  in  the  order  A,  B,  C — 
IJ  superimposed  on  A,  and  C  upon  B,  that  order  is 
never  reversed  elsewhere.  Each  term  of  the  series 
may  not  always  be  present — either  one  or  more  may 
be  absent — but  those  that  do  occur  always  occupy 
the  same  relative  position.  In  such  a  conformable 
seq^uence  each  group  may  contain  fossils  peculiar 
to  itself,  but  a  larger  or  smaller  number  will  usually 
be  found  to  range  from  one  group  to  another, 
or  even  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  whole.  The 
fossils  will,  in  short,  indicate  a  gradual  change  of 
fauna  and  tlora,  a.s  we  pass  from  below  upwards — 
old  forms  disappearing,  new  forms  apjiearing.  But 
should  the  middle  term  of  the  series  (group  15) 
be  wanting,  then  the  passage  from  A  to  0,  owing 
to  the  absence  of  the  connecting  forms  belonging 
to  B,  will  be  more  or  less  abrupt.  A  conformable 
sequence,  like  A,  B,  C,  points  to  the  persistence 
of  similar  physical  coiulitions  during  a  longer  or 
shorter  period.  If  the  fossils  in  each  group  indicate 
a  sea  of  moderate  depth  while  the  stratum  attains 
a  thickness  of  several  thousand  feet,  the  inference 
will  be  that  sedimentation  has  taken  place  during 
a  slow  movement  of  subsidence.  In  other  words, 
the  silting-up  of  the  sea  ha-s  been  retarded  by  the 
gradual  sinking-down  of  its  bottom.  On  the  sup- 
positicm  tliat  tlie  accumulation  of  the  strata  has 
been  a  very  protracted  process,  the  marine  fauna 
will  have  undergone  more  or  less  moditication. 
Such  change  in  tlie  life-forms,  however,  will  prob- 
ably have  been  very  gradual ;  some  species  remain- 
ing longer  unmodified  than  others,  while  a  few 
may  persist  unchanged  through  the  whole  jieriod 
of  sedimentation.  In  the  case  of  an  unconformalile 
sequence — where  C  rests  directly  on  A,  the  ph.ysi- 
cal  conditions  have  evidently  not  remained  con- 
stant. After  the  deposition  of  A,  a  movement 
of  upheaval  has  ensued  ;  the  sea  has  disappeared 
and  land  ha.s  taken  its  place.  Should  land- 
conditions  have  continued  for  a  very  prolonged 
period  before  subsidence  supervened  and  the  area 
once  more  became  submerged,  the  marine  fauna 
will,  in  the  meantime,  have  undergone  more  or  less 
modihcation  in  those  regions  to  which  it  migrated 
while  elevation  was  in  progress.  Thus  the  sedi- 
ment (group  C)  which  subsequently  accumulated 
over  the  drowned  land-surface  would  come  to  con- 
tain a  suite  of  organic  remains  that  might  difl'er 
greatly  frjui  those  occurring  in  the  immediately 
subjacent  group  A.  And  the  longer  the  interval 
between  A  and  C,  the  more  strongly  marked  would 
be  the  break  in  the  succession  of  life  forms.  Such 
'breaks  in  the  succession'  are  of  common  occur- 
rence— local  and  more  widely-spread  movements  of 
depressicm  and  elevation  having  characterised  the 
formation  of  the  fossiliferous  strata  everywhere. 
When  it  is  remembered  that  every  bed  of  .aqueous 
rock  li.os  been  formed  out  of  the  ruins  of  preexist- 
ing  rocks,  igneous  or  derivative,  or  both,  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  the  fossiliferous  strata  cannot  possibly 
contain  a  perfect  record  of  all  the  forms  of  life 
which  m.ay  originally  have  been  entombed  in  sedi- 
ment. Many  fossils  must  have  disappeared  along 
with  the  rocks  which  contained  them.  Thus,  in 
the  case  of  such  a  '  Ijreak  in  succession '  as  that 
just  described,  it  is  obvious  that  the  strata  of  group 
A  would  1)6  more  or  less  denuded  before  group  C 
liegan  to  be  accumulated — C  would  rest  uncon- 
formably  upon  A.  Nor  can  we  believe  that  the 
life-forms  of  earlier  ages  were  ever  more  fully 
represented  by  fossils  than  existing  faunas  and 
floras  will  be  6y  the  remains  of  living  things  which 


are  now  being  buried  in  sediment.  Of  the  myriads 
of  existing  terrestrial  plants  and  animals  how 
few  wU  leave  any  relic  behind  them  !  Aquatic, 
and  more  especially  marine  fomis,  will  doubtless  be 
preserved  in  far  greater  variety  and  abundance ; 
but  amongst  these  are  many  delicately-fashioned 
and  soft-bodied  creatures  which  can  only  become 
fossils  by  accident,  as  it  were.  Such  considerations 
as  these  should  lead  us  to  expect  that  the  fossilifer- 
ous strata,  even  when  these  have  apparently  been 
accumulated  in  a  continuous  manner,  will  contain 
a  most  imperfect  record  of  the  past  life-historj'  of 
the  globe.  But  notwithstanding  this  imperfection 
of  the  geological  record  there  is  yet  ample  evidence 
to  show  that  gradual  extinction  of  ol<l  and  evolu- 
tion of  new  faunas  and  floras  has  been  the  mle. 
Life  has  been  persistent  from  its  introduction,  but 
subject  to  endless  modifications.  With  this  con- 
tinuity in  geological  history  it  is  obvious  that  any 
subdivisions  of  past  time  that  we  choose  to  make 
must  be  arbitrary,  for  the  germ,  as  it  were,  of  one 
so-called  period  must  have  begun  in  the  period 
that  preceded.  But,  just  as  in  human  history  it  is 
^•onvenient  to  use  such  terms  as  the  'Middle  Age.s," 
the  'Elizabethan  Period,'  &c.,  so  in  geologj' it  is 
useful  and  indeed  necessarj-,  for  purposes  of  descrip- 
tion and  correlation,  to  group  the  records  into 
so  many  subordinate  divisions.  '  Unconformities,' 
'  breaks  in  succession,'  &c.  often  enable  this  to  be 
done  with  more  or  less  ease  ;  but  in  the  case  of  the 
better-preserved  portions  of  the  stony  record  it  is 
often  very  hard  to  say  wliere  a  division-line  should 
be  drawn. 

Historical  Geology.— The  forms  of  life  that 
existed  during  some  prolonged  period  of  the  past 
have  a  certain  fades  which  serves  to  distinguish 
them  as  a  group  from  the  living  things  that  flour- 
ished in  preceding  and  succeeding  ages.  And  the 
strata  which  contain  such  a  well-marked  assem- 
blage of  fossils  are  included  under  the  term 
Si/stem.  By  this  term,  then,  is  understood  all  the 
deposits,  whether  terrestrial,  fresh-water,  or  marine, 
which  accumulated  over  the  earth's  surface  upon 
land,  in  lakes,  or  in  the  sea,  at  a  time  when  the 
world  was  characterised  by  the  presence  of  some 
particular  and  peculiar  fauna  and  flora.  By  com- 
paring and  correlating  the  fossiliferous  strata 
throughout  the  world  geologists  have  been  able 
to  arrange  the  various  systems  in  chronological 
order.  Ihe  following  table  shows  the  larger  divi- 
sions and  subdivisions  in  the  order  in  which  they 
would  appear  if  they  all  occurred  in  one  and 
the  same  section.  ( Each  system  will  be  found 
described  under  its  own  title.) 
4.  Qu.\TERNABV  OR  PosT-TER-  (  Reccnt  Syst«m. 
TiARV.  1  Pleistocene  M 

i  riioceue       II 

3.  Terihrv  or  CAnJOZOic.      \  ni'f  ^„!,'1L    " 
I  OliL'ocene     m 

I  Eocene         n 

{Cretaceous  m 
Juras.sic  II 
Trias.'iic  h 
^Permian  n 
Carboniferous  System. 
Old  Red  Sandstone  and  Devonian 

System.  , 

Silurian  System. 
Cambrian    u 
^ArchKan     n 

Physiographical  Geology. — Under  this  head 
is  discussed  the  origin  of  the  surface-features  of 
the  land — mountains,  valleys,  &c.  The  study 
of  causes  now  in  action  shows  that  everywhere 
rocks  are  umlergoing  disintegration,  the  resulting 
detritus  gradually  travelling  from  higher  to  lower 
levels  until  eventually  it  reaches  the  sea.  This 
continuous  and  univei-sal  deniidation  is  easily  read 
in  the  present  appearance  of  the  rocks  forming  the 
surface  of  the  land.  The  phenomena  of  truncated 
strata,  faults,  &c.  (see  DENUDATION)  demonstrate 


1.  Priuabt  or  Pai-sozoic. 


154 


GEOLOGY 


that  thousands  of  feet  of  rock  have  been  gradaally 
removed  in  the  form  of  detritus.  To  ai>]>reciiite 
this  fact  some  knowledge  of  stnictmal  geology  is 
necessary.  In  regions  which  have  long  been  ex- 
posed to  deniidiitiiui  we  recognise  a  very  remarkahle 
connection  hetwecn  the  conlignration  of  tlie  ground 
anil  tlie  naliire  and  niciilc  of  arrangement  of  the 
rocks.  The  valleys  ami  low  grounds,  for  example, 
coincide  in  a  general  way  with  the  dislrihution  of 
the  le.ss  durable  rocks,  while  e.scari>mcnts,  hills, 
and  riilges  mark  out  the  sites  of  the  more  resisting 
rock-masses.  Again,  in  the  case  of  undulating  and 
folded  strata,  it  most  frequently  happens  that  anti- 
clines insteail  of  forming  hills  give  rise  to  valleys, 
while  svnclines  correspond  as  a  rule  not  to  valleys 
but  to  liills.  The  reasons  are  obvious,  for  relatively 
hard  rocks  resist  denudation  better  than  .softer 
rocks;  and,  while  an  anticlinal  arrangement  and 
the  jointing  i>f  strata  favour  the  actinn  of  the 
denuding  agents,  in  the  case  of  synclinal  strata  the 
rock-structure  has  just  the  op|Hisite  ell'ect  (see 
L.vSD.si.irs,  Mi)iNT.\lNS).  Thus  the  features  ini- 
pres.sed  upon  the  land  by  denudation  depend  partly 
upon  the  compositinn  and  texture  of  the  rocks,  ami 
partly  upon  their  structure  as  rocknias.se.s.  In  the 
case  of  a  triu'  niDuntainrange  of  recent  elevation  the 
larger  features  of  the  surface  correspond  in  a  general 
way  with  thefohls  of  thestratiu  Thus  the  mountain- 
ridges  often  run  in  the  ilirectiop  of  great  anticlinal 
axes,  while  the  long  parallel  valleys  coincide  with 
synclinal  axes  (see  Ali'S).  But  even  in  the  case 
of  mountains  of  elevation  denudation  Inis  often 
profoundly  niodilicd  such  features.  Anticlinal 
mountains  are  very  unstable  ;  rock-falls  and  land- 
slips from  time  to  time  take  place  ;  and  the  tendency 
is  for  all  mountains  of  that  character  to  become 
ollaccil.  Sooner  or  later  the  orograpliical  features 
change,  .and  are  eventually  determined  by  the  epi- 
gene  agents,  directed  and  controlled  by  the  com- 
position and  structure  of  the  various  n)ck-mas.scs. 
ueologists  recognise  three  kinds  of  uKmntains  :  ( 1  ) 
Muuntuins  of  Arrumulalion,  such  as  volcanoes  ;  (2) 
Mounlnins  of  I'phritral,  such  as  true  nio\intain- 
ranges  like  tlie  .Vlps  ;  and  {'A)  MuiintaiiixoJ  Cii'dun- 
(lenudatiun,  wliich  owe  their  origin  to  the  removal 
of  material  that  formerly  surrounded  them,  such  as 
the  mountains  of  the  Hrltish  Islands. 

A  jilafcaii  or   tableland  is  simiily   an   elevated 

f)lain,  and  may  consist  either  of  apiiroxiniately 
lorizontal  sheets  of  rock,  like  the  |ilateau  of  the 
Colorado,  or  of  more  or  less  highly  folded  and  even 
contorted  strata,  which  have  been  planed  down  to 
one  general  level,  like  the  jilateaus  of  Scandinavia 
and  the  Scottish  Highlands.  Both  kinds  of  table- 
land are  usually  traversed  by  valleys,  which  have 
been  excavated  by  running  water,  and  sometimes, 
as  in  tlie  case  of  the  Scottish  llighhuuls,  they  are 
so  higldy  denuded  that  their  plati'aii-character 
Incomes  obscure.  Plateaus  owe  their  elevation 
to  upheaval,  those  which  are  built  up  of  horizontal 
strata  being  termed  iihiteniis  of  accumulation,  while 
those  which  consist  of  folded  and  contorted  strata 
are  known  as  jilnteaits  of  dciuidation.  1'lain.i  are 
only  less  elevated  jdate.aus.  Some  of  these,  as,  for 
example,  the  wide  alluvial  plains  and  deltas  of  great 
rivers,  owe  their  origin  to  accumulation.  Otliei-s, 
again,  consist  of  low-lying  land,  the  level  of  which 
ha.s  been  reduced  during  a  protracted  period  of 
denudation.  Should  such  an  area  eventually  be 
elevated  it  would  become  a  plateau  of  denudation. 
SPKCl'L.XTlvi-:  Geoloov.  ^There  are  certain  great 
physical  problems  the  data  for  solving  which  are 
more  or  less  incomplete,  or  in  the  very  nature  of 
tilings  beyond  <mr  knowledge.  Amongst  such  is 
the  questiim  of  the  ar/e  of  the  sun's  heat.  This,  of 
course,  is  rather  a  physical  than  a  geological  ijues- 
tion,  and  yet  geology  furnishes  evidence  on  the 
subject  which  the  physicist  cannot  ignore.     >Some 


physicists  are  of  opinion  that  the  sun's  heat  is  due 
to  gravitation — that,  as  Sir  \V.  Thomson  remarks, 
the  sun's  matter,  before  it  came  together  and  became 
hot,  may  have  existed  in  the  condition  of  two  cool 
sidid  bodies  which  collided  with  the  velocity  due  to 
heir  mutual  gravitation.  If  gravitation,  therefore, 
be  the  only  source  of  the  sun's  heat,  that  luminary 
cannot  have  been  giving  out  heat  at  the  i>resent 
rate  of  radiation  for  a  longer  period  than  '2(l,()00,()00 
years,  or,  as  Profcs.sor  Tait  maintains,  10,UOO,(IOO 
years,  lint  no  geologist  will  ailniit  that  all  the 
changes  that  have  taken  place  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face since  the  lirst  appearance  of  life  can  ]io,ssibly 
be  induileil  within  such  narrow  limits.  Accord- 
ing to  UrCroll,  however,  the  sun  probably  origin- 
ated from  the  collision  of  two  boilies  moving  directly 
towarils  each  other  with  velocities  greater  than  the 
velocities  due  to  their  mutual  gravitation.  As  the 
heat  generated  by  the  iiiijiact  of  two  such  bodies 
would  dc]ieiid  upon  tliir  velocity  [losscssed  by  each 
before  collision  took  place,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
energy  stored  u]i  in  our  sun  may  be  iiilinitely 
greater  than  that  which  could  have  been  derived 
from  gravitation  alone.  So  far,  therefore,  as  a 
possible  source  of  the  sun's  energy  is  concerned, 
I)r  Croll  is  of  opinion  that  life  might  quite  well 
have  begun  100,000,000  years  ago. 

Condition  of  the  ImiIIi's  Interior. — This  is  another 
physical  problem  in  the  solution  of  which  geology 
IS  necessarily  interested.  Several  views  have  been 
advanced  by  physicists,  the  more  generally  received 
opinion  Iwing  that  the  earth  is  a  more  or  less  soli<l 
glolie.  Others  favour  the  hypothesis  of  a  thin 
crust  enclosing  a  liquid  or  vi.scous  interior ;  while 
yet  others  think  that  a  liquiil  substratum  separates 
the  crust  fnim  a  solid  nucleus.  The  appearance  of 
volcanoes  ,and  thermal  springs  shows  us  that  a  high 
lemper.iture  exists  beneath  the  crust,  and  similar 
evidence  of  internal  heat  is  furnished  by  borings 
and  mines.  The  mean  of  many  olwervations  shows 
that  temperature  incrciuses  1'  V.  for  every  54  feet 
of  descent,  so  that  if  the  temperature  at  the  surface 
be  50',  the  boiling  point  of  water  (21'2')  will  be 
reached  at  the  depth  of  about  a  mile  and  a  half. 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  at  a  comparatively 
short  distance  from  the  surface  the  heat  would  be 
sullicieiit  (at  atmospheric  pressure)  to  melt  all  kinds 
of  mineral  matter  w  itli  w  Inch  we  are  acquainted.  It 
is  supiposed,  however,  by  those  who  niiiintain  that 
the  earth  is  solid  throughout,  that  the  substance  of 
the  earth's  interior  is  kept  tioiii  liipiefying  by  pres- 
sure. So  far  as  geidogical  facts  go  they  are  opposed 
to  the  view  of  a  solid  globe  or  of  an  enormously 
thick  crust.  The  folding  and  contortion  of  strata 
seem  to  imply  the  presence  of  an  underlying  yield- 
ing ma.ss  upon  which  the  s<did  crust  may  liave  a 
certain  freedom  to  move  during  the  shrinking  and 
contraction  that  must  result  from  the  secular  cool- 
ing of  the  earth  (see  EARTH,  MoiNTAl.N.s). 

The  ori(/in  of  volcanic  action  has  also  been  a, 
much-canvas.sed  question,  and  is  variously  ex- 
plained according  as  the  hypothesis  of  a  solid  or  of 
a  vi.scous  interior  is  held  to  be  the  more  probable 
(see  Voi,c.\SOE.s).  Closely  connected  with  such 
problems  is  that  of  the  origin  of  oceanic  /jiixi>i.\  and 
continental  area.':.  Of  late  years  the  belief  has 
gained  ground  that  these  dominant  features  of 
the  earth's  surface  are  of  primeval  antiquity — 
that  in  their  origin  they  antedate  the  oldest  of 
the  sedimentary  formations.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  hitherto,  amongst  the  various  formations 
that  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  land  of  the 
f'lobe,  no  trace  of  any  abysmal  accumulations  has 
been  met  with.  On  the  contrary,  the  aqueous 
rocks  aiijiear  to  have  been  deposited  as  a  rule  in 
relatively  shallow  seas.  Many  o.scillations  of  level 
have  taken  place  .at  successive  periods  within  each 
continental  area,  by  which  the  extent  and  outline 


6EOLOGY 


155 


of  the  land  have  heen  again  and  again  modified, 
but  the  great  continental  ridges,  according  to  the 
geological  evidence,  would  appear  to  have  persisted 
from  the  earliest  times  as  dominant  elevations  of 
the  earth's  crust.  '  The  continents,'  as  Professor 
Dana  remarks,  '  have  never  changed  |)laces  with 
the  oceans.'    See  Abysm.vl  Accuml'Latio.n.s. 

Changes  of  Climate. — The  geological  record  every- 
where hears  testimony  to  the  fact  that  the  climate  of 
the  glohe  has  from  time  to  time  undergone  changes. 
In  ovir  day  climate  is  dillerentiated  into  zones ;  there 
is  a  marked  cliange  in  the  temperature  as  we  pa-ss 
from  tlie  equator  to  the  poles.  I^atitude,  and  the 
relative  ]iositions  of  the  great  land  and  water  areas, 
are  douhtless  the  chief  factors  in  the  determination 
of  the  present  climates  of  the  glolie,  and  must  have 
had  a  similar  influence  on  the  climate  of  much 
older  periods.  Sir  Charles  Lyell  and  others  have 
held,  therefore,  that  such  climatic  vicissitudes  as 
we  have  evidence  of  in  the  fossiliferous  strata  were 
probably  induced  by  changes  in  the  distribution 
of  land  and  sea.  Others  have  doubteil  whether 
this  will  e.Kplain  the  facts.  If  it  be  true  that  the 
great  continental  ridges  are  of  primeval  antiquity, 
then  continents  and  .seas  could  not  have  changed 
places,  as  Lyell  supposed.  The  climatic  conditions 
of  the  Glacial  Period  (q.v. )  cannot  possilily  be  due 
to  such  revolutions,  for  the  distribution  of  land  and 
sea  during  Pleistocene  times  was  practically  the 
same  as  at  present.  Stated  briefly,  the  facts  of 
geological  climate  are  these  :  In  t'ahcozoic  ages 
the  climate  would  appear  to  have  been  singularly 
genial  and  uniform  over  the  globe.  All  through. 
Mcsozoic  times  similar  genial  conditions  seem  to 
have  e.xtended  from  what  are  now  temperate  up  to 
polar  regions.  But  the  evidence  indicates  appar- 
ently that  the  climate  of  the  latter  was  somewhat 
le.ss  genial  than  that  of  more  southern  latitudes.  In 
Cainozoic  ages,  likewise,  the  climate  continued  to 
be  ndld  even  in  high  Arctic  lands,  but  towards 
the  close  of  the  Tertiary  era  a  general  lowering  of 
the  temperature  took  [ilace.  Thereafter  followed 
the  Quaternary  period  with  its  extraordinary 
climatic  changes  (see  Gl.\ci.\l  Period,  Plei.sto- 
CEXE  System).  It  is  possible,  as  some  suppose, 
that  the  uniform  climates  of  the  earlier  geological 
periods  may  have  been  due  in  part  to  the  former 
greater  heat  of  the  earth.  But  ])robably  the  chief 
factor  was  the  peculiar  disposition  of  land  and 
water.  The  continental  areas  apjiear  for  long 
ages  to  have  been  represented  by  groups  of 
larger  and  smaller  islands — a  condition  of  things 
which  would  allow  of  the  more  or  less  free  cir- 
culation of  oceanic  currents  round  the  world. 
Under  such  conditions  atmospheric  temperature 
and  i)ressure  would  have  a  very  ditterent  dis- 
tribution from  the  present.  It  can  hardly  be 
doubted,  also,  that  cosmical  causes  must  have 
had  some  influence  upon  former  climates.  Dr 
Croll  belii;ves  that  the  strongly  contrasted  climates 
of  till!  Pleistocene  period  (glacial  and  inter- 
glacial  epochs)  were  the  indirect  result  of  in- 
crea.sed  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orl)it  conibineil 
with  the  precessiim  of  the  etiuinox.  It  has 
been  objected  to  this  theory  tliat  we  have  no 
evidence  in  the  older  geological  periods  of  such 
remarkable  climatic  changes,  which,  if  the  theory 
be  true,  ought  to  have  happcne<l  again  and  again 
during  jirece<ling  periods  of  high  eccentricity  of 
the  orbit.  We  are  not.  however,  without  evi- 
dence of  ice-action  in  Paheozoic,  Mesozoie,  and 
Cainozoic  times.  The  eviilence  is  not  abundant, 
but,  considering  the  conditions  of  sedimentation, 
it  is  i)crhaps  as  much  as  could  have  been  expected. 
It  is  d<)ul)tful,  however,  whether  the  arrangement 
of  land  and  water  in  our  hemisphere  at  any  period 
anterior  to  later  Cainozoic  times  could  have 
favoured  such  enormous    accumulations  of    snow 


and  ice  as  those  of  the  Pleistocene.  AVlien  the 
continents  were  represented  by  groups  of  islands, 
the  conditions  for  the  massing  of  such  great  ice- 
fields could  not  have  existed.  And,  if  it  be  true 
that  the  climate  of  the  globe  in  the  earliest  geo- 
logical ages  was  influenced  bj'  the  greater  inter- 
nal heat  of  the  earth,  the  effects  flowing  from  great 
eccentricity  of  the  orbit  might  often  be  modified  or 
neutralised. 

Among  the  many  subjects  connected  with  geology 
«hich  have  separate  articles  a-ssigned  to  them  in 
this  work,  not  to  speak  of  the  sections  on  the  geo- 
'"gj'  "f  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America,  Australia, 
and  the  several  countries,  are  the  following  : 


Abysrual  Accumulations. 

Archaean  System. 

Artesian  Wells. 

Asar. 

Boulder-clay. 

Cambrian  System. 

Carboniferous  System. 

Cavef*. 

Coal. 

Coral  Lslands. 

Cretaceous  System. 

Denudation. 

Dislocations. 

Drift. 

Earthquakes. 

Eocene  System. 

Fossils. 

Glacial  Period. 

Joints. 

Jurassic  System. 

Lakes. 

Landslips. 


Mineralogy. 

Miocene  System. 

Mountains. 

Old  Red  Sandstone. 

Oligocene  System. 

Ore  Deposits. 

Pal;eontolosy. 

Peat. 

Permian  System. 

Petrography, 

Pleistocene  Sy.stem. 

Pliocene  System. 

Postglacial  System. 

.Sand. 

Sea. 

Silurian  System. 

Spring.s. 

Strata. 

Triassic  System. 

UnconlVinnity. 

Upheaval  and  Depression. 

Volcanoes. 


See,  for  General  Geology,  Lyell's  Principles  of  Geolo'jy 
(1876);  De  la  Beche's  Owlojical  Vbsemr(lS5'A)\  Lyell's 
EJcmnits  of  Geoloijy  (18G.0);  A.  Geikie's  Texi-fjook  of 
(holorjii  (1887);  Prestwich's  Geoloijy  (2  vols.  188l»-88); 
Phillips'  Geolofjy,  edited  by  Etheridge  and  Seeley  ( 2  vols. 
1885);  Green'sPhi/sical  Geoloijy  ( 1882 ).  The  following  are 
less  elaborate  treatises:  Lyell's  StudenVs  Elements  of 
Geology  (1885);  A.  Geikie's  Class-book  of  Geology  (188tj); 
.T.  Geikie's  Oiitliiies  of  Geology  (18S8);  Jukes-Brown's 
Hanelbook  of  Geology  (2  vols.  1884-86);  Page  and 
Lapworth,  Introductory  Text-book  of  Otoloi/y  (18.S8). 
Of  American  and  continental  test-books  may  be  men- 
tioned;  Dana's  Manual  of  Geology  (1875);  Le  Contc's 
Compend  of  Geology  (1884);  Credner's  Ekmente  der 
Geologie  (1887);  Kaumann's  Lehrbuch  der  Geognnsic 
(3  vols.  1858-72);  Altyemeine  Erdktinde,  by  Haim,  Von 
Hochstetter,  and  Pokorny  ( 1881 ) ;  De  Lapparents  'J'raile 
de  Geologie  {lS84);  Stoppani's  Cnrso  di  Geoloi/ia  (1871). 
Hutton's  Theory  of  the  Earth  ( I'MS)  is  interesting  as  con- 
taining the  groundwork  of  the  modern  system  of  geology. 
See  also  Playfair's  Khistrafi'ins  of  the  Huttonian  Theory 
( 1822 ).  Of  works  dealing  with  special  branches  of  geology 
the  following  may  be  cited :  For  Cosmical  Aspects  of 
Geology,  see  Sir  W.  Thomson,  'On  the  Age  of  the  Sun's 
Heat,'  in  Popular  Lectures  and  Addresses  (vol.  i.  1889) ; 
CrciU's  Climate  and  Time  (1875),  Climate  and  Cosmology 
( 18.85),  and  Stellar  Evolution  (1889 ).  For  Pctrograidiical 
Geology,  see  references  under  Petkography.  For 
Dynamical  Geology,  see  Darwin's  Geological  Observations 
on  Volcanic  Islands  (18JS4),  and  Obsirvations  on  South 
America  (18-16;  both  works  in  1  vol.  1876);  Scrope's 
Volcanoes  of  Central  Ei-ance  (1858),  and  Volcanoes  {  1872); 
Judd's  Fu;caiioe«(1881);  E.  and  J.  W.  MaHet's  Earthquake 
Catalogue  (18o8|;  Milne's  Earlki/uakes  (1886);  Fuchs's 
Vulcanc  and  Erdbeben  (1875);  Fouche's  Les  Tremble- 
ments  de  Terre  (1888)  ;  Twelfth  Annual  Keport  of  U.S. 
Geological  and  Geographical  Survey  of  the  Territories 
(1883;  for  Geysers);  Fisher'sPhusicsof  the  Earth's  Crust 
(1882) :  T.  G.  Bonney,  The  Story  of  our  Planet  ( 1894) ; 
Bischoff's  Chemical  and  Physical  Geology  (1854-59),  and 
the  Supplement  ( in  German,  1871);  Koth's  Allgenuine 
und  chcMische  Gcolngie  (1879);  Agassiz'  Etudes  sur  la 
Glaciers  (1840);  Forbes's  Trarels  through  the  Alps 
(1843),  and  Pa/icrs  on  the  Theory  of  Glaciers  (18491; 
Tyndall,  The  Glaciers  of  the  Alps  (1857);  Darwin's 
Veiielable  Mould  anrl  EarUitcorms  (1881),  and  Coral 
Pe'efs  (1874);  Dana's  Corals  and  Coral  Islands  {\»7f)). 
Fuither  references  to  special  works  dealing  with  dyna- 
mical geology  will  be  found  in  the  larger  text-lmoks  of 
geology.     For  Structural  or  Geotectonic  Geology,  consult 


ISG 


GEOMANCY 


GEOMETRY 


tlio    standard   text-books  of  ecology;    see  also   article 
STRATLSI.       For   Experimental  Geolouy,   see    Daubree  9 
Ktuden  Si/ntlietiquin  de   (l.uliKjk  A'x/<tri«i«n(a/f   ( IS.V  I. 
For  works  dealing  witli  Palajontology,    sec   under  tl.iit 
article.     For   riiysiograiiliiail  tieoluKy,    »co   Memoirs  ot 
Geological  Surveys  of  British  Islands,  jxiMim  ;  l!ams_ay  s 
J'hysical  aet-iiaphi/  and  Ucuhxjii  «l (Jnut  Jintain  ( IS, S | ; 
A.    Geikie's   Secure  awl  (Ituloijil  uf  Scotland    (Vm)\ 
Hull's  I'hriskal  limirajiliij  and  deuloffy  ol  Ireland  ( 1S|8) ; 
Dntton's  '  Tertiary  History  of  tlic  Grand  Carton  District, 
JUonmiraph.1  of  U.S.   lleol.  Survni  (vol.    ii.  1882);  also 
Annual  Keports  of  U.S.  Geol.  and  Geonraph.  Survey  of 
Territories    (lSt)7-78l,    passim;     l)e    la    Noe    and    Ue 
Margerie,   Lts  Formes   da   nrrain  (1888).       For   Geo- 
lo"y   of   Hritish  Islands,  see  Maps  and  Memoirs  o'  *''<; 
Geological  Survey  ;  works  by  Kaiiisay,  A.  Geikie,  and  Hull 
alrea<ly  cited;  Woodward's ^Vo/w/.v o/  Knijland  and  Waka 
( 1887 ) ;  Kiiiahan's  (!eolo<jii  of  Ireland  { 1878 ) ;  Murclusoii's 
Silurki  ( 18()7 ) ;  Maccullocli's  Wenlem  Islands  of  Scotland 
(1819);  Nicol's  Guide  to  the  Geoloyi/ of  Scotland  (_1SW) 
—these  last  two  works  rather  out  of  date  ;   Miller's  Old 
Red  Sandstone  (1858);  Green.  Miall.  and  others.  Con/ . 
its  Histoni  and  Uses  (1878);  Hull's  Coalfields  of  Great 
Britain  (1881)  ;  Meade's  Coal  and  Iron  Industries  of  the 
United    Kingdom   (1882);    Phillips'  Geohniy  of  Oxford 
and  the   Valleii  of  the   Thames  (1871),  and  Geology  ol 
the  Yorkshire 'Coast  (1875);  Tate  and  Blake,  Thf  York- 
shire Lia.i  (1870).     For  further  references  to   treatises 
dealing  with  the  geologj-  of  England  and  Wales,  see  especi- 
ally Woodward's  work  cited  above.     The  following  works 
deal  witli  Pleistocene  Geology  and  the  Antiquity  ot  Man  : 
Lyell's  Antie,uit!i  of  Man  (1873);  Lubbock's  Prehistoric 
Times  ( 1878 ) ;  Evans'  A  ucient  Stone  Implements  of  Great 
Britain    (1872);     Dawkins'    Care-huntimj    (1874),    and 
Earh,  Man  in  BrUain  (1880) ;  J.  Geikie's  Great  Ice  A<je 
(1877)    and  Prehistoric   Kuro/ie   (1881);    Dawson,    Ihc 
Earth  and  Man  (1887);    De  Quatrefages,  The  Human 
Species  ( 1879) ;  Joly's  Man  before  Metals  ( 1883) ;  Penck  s 
Die  Vergletscherunei  derdiutsehn  Al/nn  (1882);  Falsan, 
La  I'iriode  Glaciaire  ( 1889) ;  Wright's  Ice  Aye  in  North 
America,  etc.  (1889).    For  treatises  bearing  on  Geological 
Climate,   see   CroU's  works   already   cited;    also    J.    D. 
Wliitney,    The  Climatic   Chamjes    of  Later    Geological 
Times  { 1882 ).     Amongst  works  on  Economic  Geology  the 
following  m.iy  be  mentioned  :    Page's  Economic  Geology 
(1874);    Williams'    ^/)/)/i«/  '.'to'<W/  (  188(5) ;    Penning's 
Enyinecrinr/  Geoloqv  (ISSO);  Nivoit's  6'.'w%ic  apphqnic 
a  rA  rl  de  CIniMuen  i-  ( 1887  ).     For  methods  of  geological 
observation  and  the  making  of  geological  maps  see  the 
larger  text-books.  Sir  A.  Geikie's  Outlines  of  Field  Gcolo:iy 
(1879),    and    Penning's   Fiild   Geology   (18r6).    /'■r /\- 
Geikie,   The    Founders    of   Geology  (1897),   deals  with 
Desmarest,  Guettard,  and  other  early  geologists. 

Cicoiiiniu-y.    f'^pf  niviN.vnos. 

<;«>OUU>trical  Moan  "f  two  numbers  is  that 
minilier  (he  si|iiaie  of  which  is  equal  to  tlie  iiroduct 
of  the  two  numbers;  tliii.'*,  the  geometrical  mean  of 
9  anil  16  i.s  12,  for  9  x  Iti  =  144  =  12-.  Hence  the 
geometrical  mean  of  two  numbers  is  found  by 
multiplying  the  two  niinibers  together,  and  extract- 
ing tlie  square  root  of  {\\t-  inodurt. 

Geometrical  Progression.  -V  series  of 
quantities  is  said  to  be  in  geometiical  progression 
when  the  ratio  of  each  term  to  the  preceding  is  the 
same  for  all  the  terms— i.e.  when  any  term  is  equal 
to  the  product  of  the  preceding  term  and  a  factor 
which  IS  the  same  thronghout  tlie  series.  This 
constant  ratio  or  factor  is  termed  the  common  ratio. 
For  example,  the  numbers  2,  4,  8,  16,  &c.,  and 
also  the  terms  «,  «r,  tii-,  ar',  &c.,  are  both  ex- 
amples of  geometrical  progression  or  series.  The 
sum  of  such  a  series  is  obtained  as  follows  :  Let  « 
lie  the  first  term,  «  the  number  of  the  terms  wluise 
sum,  .?,  is  required,  and  let  r  be  the  common  ratio. 
Then  s  =  a  +  ar  +  ar-  +  .  .  .  +  ar"  -  '  ;  also  from 
multiplication  of  both  sides  of  this  equation  by 
r,  sr  =  ar  +  ai-  +  ar'  +  .  .  .  +  ar".  Subtraction 
of  tlie  former  from  the  latter  expression  gives  sr  - 
s  =  ar"-a;    or    «(r  -  1 )  =  a(r"  -  1),   and    hence 

*-     r-1    • 


Geometry  is  that  branch  of  the  science  of 
niatheiiiatics  which  treats  of  the  liroiiertiesof  sjiace. 
When  the  pruiHities  investigated  relate  to  figures 
described  or  supposed  to  be  descrilied  on  sjiace  of 
two  dimensions,  there  arise  such  subdivisions  as 
iilane  and  spherical  geometry,  according  to  the 
surface  on  which  tlie  figures  are  drawn.  If  the 
properties  relate  to  figures  in  space  of  three  dimen- 
sions they  fall  under  what  is  called  solid  geometry, 
or  now  niore  frequently,  geiimetiy  of  three  dimen- 
sions. -Viiain,  from  the  mo<le  in  which  the  luo- 
peitics  (it  liguied  space  are  investigated,  arise  two 
other  subdivisions,  pure  and  analytical  geometry. 
The  somewhat  arbitrary  subdivision  into  element- 
ary and  higher  geometry  arises  fmiii  the  fact  that 
tlie  geometrical  books  of  Kuclid's  oelebiatcd  woik, 
the  Kkmoits.  treated  only  of  nlane  figures  roni- 
po.sed  of  straight  lines  and  circles,  of  solid  ligures 
with  plane  laces,  and  of  the  three  round  bodies,  the 
sphere,  the  cvliiidcr,  and  the  cone. 

Other  subdivisions  of  geometry  arise  from  the 
threefold  classification  that  may  de  made  of  the 
properties  of  space.  These  iiroperlics  may  be  toiio- 
logical,  graphical,  metrical.  The  first  class  of  pro- 
iieities  are  indeiiendent  of  the  magnitude  or  the 
form  of  the  elements  of  a  figure,  and  depend  only 
on  the  relative  situation  of  tlie.se  elements.  Per- 
haps the  simidest  examide  that  could  be  given  of 
this  cla.ss  of  properties  is  that  if  twci  clo.sed  contours 
of  any  size  or  sliajie  traverse  one  another,  they 
must  do  so  an  even  number  of  times.  No  systematic 
treatise  on  this  jiart  of  geometry  has  ever  been 
drawn  u)),  and  it  is  oiilv  in  papers  scattered  here 
and  there  in  scientific  journals  that  contributums 
towards  such  a  treatise  are  to  be  found.  The  iirin- 
cipal  names  under  which  such  contributions  are  to 
be  looked  for  are  Euler,  Gauss,  Listing,  Kirknian, 
and  Tait.  . 

The  graidiical  or  projective  projierties  of  space, 
which  constitute  the  subject  of  projective  geometry, 
are  those  which  have  no  reference  to  nieasurement, 
and  wliich  iiiipiv  only  the  notions  of  a  straight  line 
and  a  jilane.  A  simple  example  of  this  cla.ss  of 
properties  is  the  well-known  theorem  of  Desaigues  : 
If  two  triangles  be  situated  so  that  the  straight 
lines  joining  conesponiling  vertices  are  concurrent, 
the  points  of  intersection  of  corresponding  sides  are 
collinear,  and  conversely. 

The  metrical  pnqierties  of  space  are  those  winch 
are  concerned  with  measurement.  An  example  of 
a  metrical  property  is  the  theorem  of  the  three 
squares  :  The  square  on  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  sfjuares 
on^the  two  sides.  The  geometry  of  Euclid's  Ele- 
ments is  metrical. 

De.scriiitive  geometry  is  not  so  much  a  jiart  of 
science  as  an  art.  It  has  for  its  object  to  reiircsent 
on  a  iilane  which  po.ssesses  only  two  dimensions, 
length  and  breadth,  the  form  and  i>osition  in  space 
of  bodies  which  have  three  dimensions,  length, 
breadth,  anil  height.  This  object  is  attained  by 
the  metliod  of  projections. 

Analytical  geometry  is  a  method  of  representing 
curves  anil  curved 
surfaces  by  means 
of  equations.  Be- 
fore showing,  how- 
ever, how  a  curve 
can  be  represented 
by  an  equation,  it 
will  be  necessary 
to  explain  what  is  ;; 
meant  by  the  co- 
ordinatesof  a  point. 
If  two  axes,  XX', 

W.   cutting   e.ach  .  . 

other  perpendicularlv  be  taken,  the  position  of  a 
point  P  in  the  same  plane  as  the  axes  is  determined, 


GEOMETRY 


157 


if  we  know  the  distances  of  P  from  XX'  and  YY' 
— i.e.  if  we  know  MP  and  OM.  OM  is  called  the 
ahscis.sa,  MP  the  ordinate  of  tlie  point  P,  and  the  two 
together  are  called  the  co-ordinates  of  P.  It  is 
usual  to  denote  OM  and  MP  by  ■'-  and  y.  If  the 
point  P  be  .supposed  to  move  in  the  idane  according 
to  some  law,  a  certain  relation  will  e.xist  between 
its  co-ordinates ;  this  relation  expressed  in  an 
equation  will  be  the  equation  to  the  curve  traced 
out  by  P.  To  take  a  simple  example.  Let  the 
law  according  to  which  P  moves  be  that  its 
distance  from  XX'  shall  always  lie  double  its 
distance  from  YY' ;  then  the  equation  to  the 
curve  traced  out  by  P  will  he  y  =  1x.  If  it  be 
required  to  draw  the  curve  traced  out  by  P,  we  may 
assume  any  values  for  .c,  and  from  the  equation 
determine  the  corresponding  values  for  y.  If  we 
assume  the  values  1,  2,  3,  &c.  for  x,  the  correspond- 
ing values  of  y  will  l)e  2,  4,  6,  &c.  Determine  then 
the  points  whose  co-ordinates  are  1  and  2,  2  and  4, 
3  and  6,  &c. :  these  will  be  points  on  the  curve. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  discover  that  the  curve  is  in 
this  instance  a  straight  line. 

If  the  law  according  to  which  P  moves  in  the 
plane  be  that  it  shall  always  be  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  a  lixed  point,  we  have  <uily  to  specify 
the  distance  (say  c),  and  the  co-ordinates  of  the 
fixed  point  (say  a  and  6),  and  we  shall  find  the 
equation  which  expresses  this  law  to  be 

(x  -  a)-  +  (?/  -  b)-  =  C-. 

If  the  distance  be  c,  and  the  fixed  point  be  the 
origin   O    whose    coordinates    are  0    and    0,   the 

eqiiation  will  be 

a;2  +  y"-  =  <;"-. 

These  last  two  equations  are  those  of  a  circle. 

As  two  co-ordinates  are  sufficient  to  determine  a 
point  in  a  plane,  so  a  plane  curve  described  accord- 
ing to  a  certain  law  will  be  represented  by  an 
equation  between  two  variables,  x  and  y ;  viz. 
V  (x,  y)  =  0.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  equations 
of  the  first  degree  represent  straight  lines,  those  of 
the  second  degree  represent  some  form  of  a  conic 
section,  those  of  higher  degrees  represent  curves 
wliich  in  general  take  their  name  from  the  degree 
of  their  equations.  The  position  of  a  point  in 
space  is  fixed  when  its  distances  from  three  planes, 
usually  taken  porpenrlicular  to  each  other,  are 
known  ;  in  other  words,  tliree  co-ordinates  a-,  y,  z 
determine  a  point  in  space.  Hence,  if  a  curved 
surface  is  given  in  form  and  position,  and  we 
can  express  algebraically  one  of  its  characteristic 
properties,  and  obtain  a  relation  F  (.r,  i/,  2)  =  0 
between  tlie  co-ordinates  of  each  of  its  points,  this 
equation  is  the  equation  of  the  surface  ;  and  every 
equation  F  (.r,  y,  z)  =■  0,  whose  variables  x,  y,  z 
are  tlie  co-ordinates  of  a  point  referred  to  three 
planes,  perpendicular  or  oblique  to  each  other, 
represents  some  surface,  the  form  of  which  depends 
on  the  way  in  which  the  variables  are  combined 
with  each  other  and  with  certain  constant  quan- 
tities. 

The  system  of  co-ordinates  explained  above  is 
called  tlie  Cartesian,  from  Descartes.  There  are 
other  systems,  but  a  concise  account  of  them  would 
be  unintelligible. 

Of  the  history  of  geometry  only  the  briefest 
outline  can  be  given  here,  ami  this  outline  must 
be  restricted  mainly  to  pure  geometry.  Tradition 
ascribes  (and  modern  reseaicli  tends  to  confirm 
rather  than  to  invalidate  the  a-scription  )  the  origin 
of  geometry  to  the  Egyptians,  who  were  coiupelled 
to  invent  it  in  order  to  restore  the  landmarks 
effaced  by  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  but  our 
knowledge  of  their  attainments  is  meagre.  From 
a  papyrus  in  the  lirilish  Museum  written  by 
Ahmes,  pos.sibly  about  1700  B.C.,  we  infer  that 
the  Egyptians  discusseil  only  particular  numerical 


j)roblenis,  such  as  the  measurements  of  certain 
areas  and  solids,  and  were  little  acquainted  with 
general  theorems.  The  history  of  geometry,  there- 
fore, as  a  branch  of  science  begins  with  Tliales  of 
Miletus  (640-542  B.C.).  The  principal  discovery 
attributed  to  him  is  the  theorem  that  the  sides  of 
mutually  equiangular  triangles  are  proportional. 
After  Thales  came  Pythagoras  of  Samos  (horn 
about  580  B.C.).  It  is  dilficult  to  separate  the 
contributions  wliich  Pythagoras  made  to  geometry 
from  those  of  his  disciples,  for  everything  was 
ascribed  to  the  master.  The  Pythagoreans  appear 
to  have  been  acquainted  with  most  of  the  theorems 
which  form  Euclid's  fii-st  two  books,  with  the 
doctrine  of  proportion  at  least  as  applied  to  com- 
mensurable magnitudes,  with  the  constniction  of 
the  regular  solids,  and  to  have  combined  arithmetic 
with  geometry.  The  theorem  of  the  three  squares, 
one  of  the  most  useful  in  the  whole  range  of 
geometry,  is  known  as  the  theorem  of  Pythagoras. 
Hippocrates  of  Chios,  who  reduced  the  problem  of 
the  duplication  of  the  cube  to  that  of  finding  two 
mean  proportionals  between  two  given  straight 
lines ;  Arcliytas  of  Tarentum,  who  was  the  fii-st  to 
duplicate  the  cube  :  Eudoxus  of  Cnidus,  the  in- 
ventor of  the  method  of  exhaustions  and  the 
founder  of  the  doctrine  of  proportion  given  in 
Euclid's  fifth  book  ;  Memcchmus,  the  discoverer 
of  the  three  conic  sections ;  Deinostratus  and 
Nicomedes,  the  inventors  of  the  quailratrix  and 
the  conchoid ;  and  Arista-ns,  are  the  principal 
predecessors  of  Euclid.  To  Euclid  (about  300  B.C.) 
is  due  the  form  in  which  elementary  geometry 
has  been  learnt  for  many  centuries,  and  his  treatise, 
the  Elements,  seems  to  have  completely  superseded 
all  preceding  writings  on  this  subject.  Those 
IjooKs  of  this  treatise  which  are  concerned  with 
geometry  are  so  well  known  that  it  is  superfluous 
to  refer  to  their  contents.  Archimedes  of  Syracuse 
(287-212  B.C.)  is  the  greatest  name  in  Greek 
science.  Besides  his  important  contributions  to 
statics  and  hydrostatics,  lie  wrote  on  the  measure- 
ment of  the  circle,  on  the  quadrature  of  the 
]iarabola,  on  the  sphere  and  cylinder,  on  conoids 
and  spheroids,  and  on  semi-regular  jiolyhedrons. 
Ajjollonius  of  Perga  (260-200  B.C.)  wrote  on 
several  geometrical  subjects,  but  the  work  which 
procured  him  in  his  lifetime  the  title  of  '  the  great 
geometer,'  was  his  treatise  on  the  conic  sections. 
Ptolemy,  author  of  the  Almaycst,  Hero,  and 
Pappus  are  the  last  important  geometers  belonging 
to  the  Alexandrian  school. 

After  the  destniction  of  Alexandria  (about  640 
A.D. )  the  study  of  geometry  underwent  a  long 
eclipse.  The  Koni.ans  cimtributed  nothing  either 
to  geometrical  or  indeed  to  any  kin<l  of  mathe- 
matical discovery.  The  Hindus  from  the  6th  to 
the  12th  century  A.D.  cultivated  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  trigonometry,  but  in  geometry  they 
produced  nothing  of  any  importance.  A  some- 
what similar  statement  may  be  made  regarding 
the  Arabs,  but  it  ought  to  be  remembered  that 
they  translated  the  works  of  the  great  Greek 
geometei's,  and  it  was  through  them  that  mathe- 
matical science  was  in  the  12tli  century  intro- 
duced into  western  Europe.  From  that  time  till 
the  close  of  the  16th  century,  though  editions  of 
the  Greek  geometers  were  published  and  com- 
mented on,  little  or  no  advance  wjis  made  in 
geometry  comparable  to  w  hat  took  )dace  in  other 
branches  of  pure  or  applied  mathematics. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  Kepler 
and  De.sargues  laid  the  foundations  of  modern  pure 
geometry,  the  former  by  his  enunciation  of  the 
jirinciple  of  continuity,  and  by  his  extension 
of  stereometry  to  solitls  of  which  the  spheroids 
and  conoids  of  Archimedes  were  particular  cases, 
the  latter   by  his  introduction  of   the   method  of 


158 


GEOEGE 


GEORGE    I. 


projection.  In  1637  Descartes  gave  to  the  world 
nis  invention  of  analytical  <;<'""'<'''■>'•  thus  placing 
in  the  lmn<ls  of  inatlicniaticians  one  of  the  nioxt 
[OTwerfnl  instrunH'iit.s  of  research,  and  witlulrawinK 
their  attention  from  pure  ^'eonietry.  Pa^cil  (  ItJ'i.S- 
62),  whose  c!Xtraorilinary  |)reccK-ity  has  often  lieen 
cited,  wrote  an  essay  on  conic  sections  at  the 
age  of  sixteen.  He  afterwards  wrote  a  complete 
work,  one  of  the  properties  of  which  is  the 
theorem  of  tlie  mystic  liexa;,'rnm.  His  last  work 
was  on  the  cycloid.  With  the  mere  mention  of 
the  names  of  Wallis,  I'eriiiat,  Harrow,  Huygens, 
we  pass  to  Newton,  whose  great  work,  the 
Principin,  is  the  glory  of  science.  C'hasles  thinks 
Newton's  hest  title  to  fame  is  that  he  luus  raiseil 
such  a  monument  of  his  genius  l>y  the  niethoils 
and  with  the  resources  of  the  geometry  of  I  lie 
ancients.  The  names  of  Halley,  Maclanrin, 
Robert  Simscm,  and  Kuler  hring  us  down  to  near 
the  end  of  the  IHtli  century.  During  the  l!)th 
century  a  revival  of  interest  in  pure  geometry  ha.s 
been  brought  about  by  Monge,  the  inventor  of 
descriptive  geometry,  by  Carnot,  the  author  of  the 
theory  of  transversals,  by  I'oncelet  and  Gergonnc. 
Tiiese  have  been  succeeded  by  Mobiiis,  Steiner, 
C'hasles,  and  Von  Staudt. 

The  best  works  on  tlie  history  of  Orcek  Geometry  arc 
Allman's  (inrk  Gcometrtj  from  Thdkx  to  KuctUl  ( ISH'J) ; 
Paul  Tannery's  /m  (Jiomttric  (jrecqiie  (1887);  Bret- 
sohneider's  Die  OcomctrU  und  die  Geomcler  vor  Eukiidea 
(1870).  Cliasles's  Apirfu  kiatorique  sur  rOriijine  (tie 
DSrffoppeinnit  drs  mtthodes  en  GtomHric  (1837or  1S7.'») 
and  lii.s  R'lppnrt  sitr  le  Prorirh  de  la  Giomitrie  (  1870) 
embrace  the  whole  field  of  Geometry.  The  following 
more  general  histories  may  also  be  consulted  :  Cantor's 
Vorlc8itn;/fH  iiher  Grschichte  dcr  Mathematik  (1880); 
Hoofer's  HiMoirc  des  Mnthcmalii/iKs  ( 1874 ) ;  Marie's  His- 
toire  des  Sriettrt:a  MathttiHiti'{iif»  it  Phijui'/iun  (12  vols. 
1883-88);  Montucla's  Histoiredts  Mathimali'iun<  ( 1802); 
Gow's  Short  Historii  of  Greek  Mathematici  ( 1884 ) ;  and 
Ball's  Short  Account  of  the  Hintory  of  Mathcmatio  ( 1888 ). 

CeoriSC',  a  division  of  the  western  province  of 
Cape  C(dony,  on  the  south  coast,  ea-st  of  Cape- 
town. It  contains  '2(iOO  sij.  m.,  and  about  11,000 
inhabitants.  It  is  valuable  chielly  for  its  pastur- 
age an<l  its  timber.  The  town  of  George  stands 
G  miles  N.  of  the  coa-st,  and  ha.s  a  poiiulatiou  of  over 
2000.     On  the  coast  is  the  port  of  Alo.ssel  Bay. 

ftJeoPiie.  St,  the  e.special  patron  of  chivalry, 
and  tutelary  saint  of  England.  Although  venerated 
l)nth  in  the  Kastern  and  Western  churches,  bis 
history  is  extremely  obscure,  the  extant  accounts 
containing  very  much  less  history  than  legend. 
The  story  in  the  Arta  Sanctorum  is  that  he  was 
bom  of  noble  Christian  parents  in  Cap|)adocia, 
became  a  distinguished  soldier,  and,  after  testifying 
to  bis  faith  before  Diocletian,  wivs  tortured  and 
]i\it  to  death  at  Nicomedia,  April  2.'{,  30.'i.  l!y 
many  writers,  as  by  Gibbon,  he  has  lieen  ccm- 
founded  with  the  turbulent  and  unscrupubms 
Arian  partisan,  (ieorge  of  Cappadocia,  who  after 
a  troubled  life  as  army  contractor  and  tax-gatherer 
became  Archbishop  of  Alexandria,  an<l  after  live 
years  of  niisgovernnient  was  torn  in  pieces  by  a 
furious  mob.  Most  authorities.  Catholic  and  I'ro- 
testant,  agree  in  admitting  the  great  improbability 
of  this  identification.  Dr  Peter  Heylin  is  of  one 
mind  in  this  matter  with  the  tJesuit  I'apebrocb, 
and  Dean  Milman  with  the  Uonian  Catholic  Hisliop 
Milner.  Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  unhistorical 
character  of  St  George's  martyrdom,  the  fact  of 
his  being  honoure<l  as  a  martyr  by  the  Catholic 
Church,  of  churches  l)eing  dedicated  to  him,  and 
of  the  Hellespont  lieing  called  '  St  George's  Arm,' 
is  traced  by  Fapebroch,  by  Milner,  and  by  other 
writers  to  so  early  a  date,  and  brought  so  imnie- 
diately  into  contact  with  the  times  of  the  angry 
conflicts  in  which  (Jeorge  of  Cappadocia  ligurcd  as 
an  Arian  leaiier,  that  it  is  impossible  to  believe 


that  the  Catholics  of  the  East — while  the  tomb  of 
Athanasius  was  hardly  closed  upon  his  honoured 
relics — would  accept  .as  a  sainted  martyr  his  cruel 
and  unscrupulous  pcr.secut(n-.  'i'lie  St  (ieorge  of 
the  Eiustern  Cliinch  was  no  doubt  .a  real  peivonage 
of  an  earlier  date  than  tieorge  of  Cajipadocia,  but 
beyond  this  we  can  .say  nothing  of  him.  His  name 
was  early  obscured  in  fable — one  oriental  story 
making  him  sutler  as  nuiny  as  seven  martyiiloms, 
reviving  after  each  save  the  last.  The  .same  story 
exists  even  in  Mu.ssnlman  legends,  whose  Chwolson 
identilies  the  hero  with  the  Seniilic  Tanimux. 

The  famous  story  of  St  (ieorge's  struggle  with 
the  dragon  is  first  found  in  V'oragine's  J.rifcniln 
AiuT.a,  but  soon  found  its  way  into  the  otfice-liooks 
of  the  church,  until  left  out  by  Pope  Clement  VII. 
To  slay  a  dragon  was  a  common  exploit  for  the 
saints  and  heroes  of  Cliristendom  as  well  as  of 
Teutonic  and  Inilian  antiquity ;  and  St  (jeorge 
here  touches  so  closely  the  common  myths  of  tlie 
-Aryan  family  as  to  have  hini.self  been  explained, 
by  liaring-Gould  and  others,  .as  in  this  aspect 
merely  a  mythical  form  of  the  sun-god  dispelling 
the  darkness  by  his  beams  of  light. 

Churches  were  dedicated  to  St  George  from  very 
early  times;  the  Crusades  gave  a  great  impetus 
to  his  cultns,  and  be  was  adopled  as  the  soldier- 
.saint  who  leil  his  votaries  to  battle.  Many  new 
chivalrous  orders  assumed  him  as  their  jiatron,  ami 
he  was  adopted  as  their  tutelary  saint  by  England, 
Aragon,  and  Portugal.  In  1.34S  Edward  III. 
founded  St  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  and  in  l.'i44 
the  celebrated  Order  of  the  tiarter  was  instituteil. 
See  Haling  (iould's  Curious  Mijths  of  the  Miildlr, 
Ages,  ami  tlie  article  Dli.voo.N. — The  cross  of  St 
George,  red  on  a  white  ground,  was  worn  as  a 
badge  over  the  armour  by  every  ICnglish  sohlier 
in  tlie  14tli  and  subsequent  centuries.  Eor  the 
banner  of  .St  George,  now  represented  in  the  Union 
flag,  see  Flag. 

Ceorge  I.,  son  of  Ernest  Augustus,  Elector  of 
Hanover,  and  of  Sophia,  graiuldaughter  of  .James 
I.  of  England,  was  bom  in  Hanover  on  28th 
Sl.ay  1660.  Immedi.ately  after  (Jiieen  Anne's  death 
on  1st  August  1714,  he  was  procl.-iimed  king  of 
Great  Britain  and  of  Ireland  in  London,  the  pro- 
clamation at  Edinburgh  taking  place  four  days, 
and  at  Dublin  five  d.ays  later.  He  li;ul  been  Elector 
of  H.anover  since  1698,  and  he  wjis  the  first  monarch 
of  the  House  of  Hrunswick  who,  in  accordance  with 
the  Act  of  Settlement,  succeeiled  to  the  throne  of 
this  country.  He  arrived  at  (iieenwich  on  29tli 
September,  and  was  crowned  at  Westminster  on 
31st  October  1714.  He  had  commaiide<l  the 
imperial  forces  in  the  war  against  France  in  which 
Marlborough  acquired  distinction,  and,  though  less 
successful  than  >IarllMirongb  as  a  general,  he  was 
as  chagrined  as  he  when  the  Tory  party,  under 
the  insjiiration  of  liolingbroke,  made  peace,  and 
sanctioned  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  In  1682  he 
married  his  cousin,  the  Princess  Dorothea  of  Zell. 
Twelve  years  later  he  obtained  a  divorce  on  the 
ground  of  her  intrigue  with  Count  Konigsmark, 
and  caused  her  to  be  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of 
Alilden,  where  she  died  on  2d  November  1726. 
While  punishing  his  consort  for  her  frailty,  he  lived 
openly  with  mistresses,  and  was  neither  ashamed 
ot  his  conduct  nor  made  to  suffer  for  it. 

The  Tories  and  .Jacobites  who  clung  to  the 
banished  House  of  Stuart  were  the  objects  of  his 
avei-sion,  and  the  Whigs  were  favoured  by  him. 
Bolingbroke  and  the  Duke  of  Orniond  fled 
to  France ;  both  of  them,  and  (Jxford,  who 
remained  l)ehind,  were  impeached.  In  Scotland  a 
.J.acobite  rising,  heailed  by  the  Earl  of  Mar,  took 
place  in  171.t;  a  battle  .at  Sherill'muir  on  the  13th 
November,  though  indecisive,  dispirited  the  rebels, 
who  afterwards  dispersed.     Another  body  marched 


GEORGE    II. 


GEORGE    III. 


159 


into  England,  proclaimed  James  king  at  Penrith, 
and,  being  suiTovinded  after  reaching  Preston,  laid 
down  their  arms  on  the  day  of  the  hattle  at 
Sheriffnuiir.  The  Earl  of  Derwentwater  and 
Viscount  Kenniure  were  executed  on  Tower  Hill  ; 
many  otliers  were  shot,  and  many  were  transported. 
A  year  after  this  abortive  rel)ellion,  parliament 
passed  the  Septennial  Act,  in  order  that  by  Jiro- 
longiu''  its  own  existence  for  four  years  the  acces- 
sion of  the  Tories  to  power  might  be  hindered. 
More  serious  than  any  rebellion  was  the  ri.se  and 
fall  of  the  South  Sea  Scheme  (g.v.),  the  En"lish 
counterpart  of  the  Mississippi  Scheme  ^vnich 
beggared  Fi'anee.  The  king's  jjcrsonal  part  in  the 
history  of  the  reign  was  but  slight,  tlie  actual  ruler 
being  Sir  Robert  Walpole.  George  I.  could  not 
speak  English  ;  Lord  Gran\ille  was  tlie  only  one  of 
his  uiinisters  who  could  converse  with  him  in 
German  ;  the  king  and  Walpole  interchanged 
views  in  bad  Latin.  On  this  account  the  king 
did  not  preside  at  meetings  of  the  cabinet.  Queen 
Anne  is  the  last  sovereign  of  Great  Britain  who 
was  present  at  a  cabinet  council.  It  was  the 
delight  of  George  L  to  live  as  much  as  possible  in 
Hanover,  and  to  obtain  as  niucli  money  as  possible 
from  Great  Britain.  He  died  suddenly  at  Osna- 
briick,  on  his  return  from  Hanover,  on  9th  June 
1727.  Lady  Wortley  Montagu  styles  George  I.  '  an 
honest  blockhead.'  If  he  had  been  an  abler  man 
he  might  have  proved  a  worse  sovereign.  He  was 
a  useful  figurediead  in  a  constitutional  government, 
and  rendered  greater  serxice  than  he  may  have 
intended  to  the  country  which  adopted  him. 

See  the  Histories  of  England  by  Stanliope,  Ilallam,  and 
Lccky ;  tlie  Stuart  Papers  j  the  Life  of  Wulpule,  by  Coxe ; 
the  Historical  Register. 

George  II.  succeeded  bis  father  as  Elector  of 
Hanover  and  king  of  Great  Britain  and  of  Ireland. 
Born  in  Hanover  on  30th  October  1GS.3,  he  was 
created  Duke  of  Cambridge  in  1700,  and  declared 
Prince  of  Wales  in  council  in  1714.  In  1705  he 
married  Caroline  of  Anspach,  a  woman  of  many 
attainments  and  great  force  of  character.  She  exer- 
cised great  intluence  over  her  husband,  and  winked 
at  his  inhdelities.  When  on  her  deathbed  in 
November  1737  she  implored  him  to  marry  again,  he 
replied,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  that  he  would  rather 
keep  a  mistress.  Though  Gecjrge  interfered  mor(^  in 
the  government  than  his  father  had  done,  the  policy 
|>ursued  during  his  reign  was  Hi-st  that  of  Walpole 
and  second  that  of  Pitt.  During  the  greater  part 
of  Walpole's  administration  of  the  government 
peace  was  preserved  ;  during  the  period  tliat  Pitt  was 
almost  supreme  wars  were  fought  and  much  glory 
was  gained.  In  1743  George  II.  was  present  and 
showed  courage  at  the  battle  of  Dettingen,  tlie 
last  occasion  this  on  which  an  English  sovereign 
has  played  a  part  in  actual  warfare.  The  rebellion 
in  1745  was  ended  at  Culloden,  where  the  ailherents 
of  the  Young  Pretender  made  their  last  stand.  The 
Pretender  had  defeated  General  Cope  at  Preston- 
pans,  and  marched  as  far  as  Derby  before  succumb- 
ing to  the  roy.al  forces  under  the  command  of  the 
king's  second  son,  the  Duke  of  Cuniberland,  whose 
cruelty  in  dealing  with  the  rebels  caused  him  to 
be  stigmatised  as  'the  Butcher.'  The  country 
prospered  so  well  that  in  17411  the  funds  rose  above 
par.  Pelham,  the  Chancellor  of  the  Excheiiuer, 
(■(lected  a  saving  by  reducing  the  interest  on  the 
national  debt  from  4  to  3.\,  and  then  to  3  per  cent. 
Among  the  victories  which  made  this  reign  glorious 
was  that  of  Clive  at  Pl.assey  and  that  of  Wolfe  at 
Quebec.  The  earlier  yeai-s  of  the  reign  are  pro- 
nounced by  Hallain  to  be  '  the  most  jirosperous 
season  that  England  had  ever  ex])('ricnced.' 
George  II.  died  suddenly  on  '25tli  October  1700. 
He  had  no  conspicuous  virtues.  He  may  be 
credited,    however,   with   a  few  pointed   sayings. 


One  was,  '  What  a  strange  country  is  this  !  I  have 
never  known  but  two  or  three  men  in  it  who  under- 
stood foreign  ali'airs.'  Another  was,  '  Confidence  is 
a  plant  of  slow  growth  in  an  aged  bosom.' 

See  the  Histories  of  England  by  Stanhope  and  by 
Lecky;  Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  George  II.,  by 
Harvey;  Dodington's  Diary;  and  Horace  Walpole's 
Memoirs  of  the  last  Ten  Years  of  the  Reign  of  George  II. 

George  III.  was  the  eldest  son  of  Frederick 
Lewis,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  was  born  in  London, 
at  Norfolk  House,  St  James's  Stpiare,  on  4tli  June 
1738.  Being  a  seven-months'  chihl,  and  very 
weakly,  the  ooy  was  not  expected  to  sur\'ive,  and 
at  eleven  at  night  he  was  privately  baptised  by  Dr 
Seeker,  who  was  Bislio])  of  Oxford  and  rector  of  the 
])arisli  of  St  James.  On  '2d  July  the  bishop  per- 
formed the  ceremony  publicly,  the  boy  being  named 
ticorge  William  Frederick,  and  his  sponsors  bein" 
the  King  of  Sweden,  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Gotha,  and 
the  Queen  of  Prussia.  On  'ioth  October  1760  George 
II.  died  suddenly,  and  his  grandson  ascended  the 
throne.  The  new  king  was  the  first  member  of  the 
House  of  Brunswick  who  commanded  general  re- 
spect on  becoming  the  sovereign  over  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  At  the  same  time  he  became  Elector 
of  Hanover,  a  title  which  was  exchanged  for  that 
of  king  in  1815,  when  he  was  incajiacitated  for 
performing  his  duties,  and  unconscious  of  what 
passed  in  the  world.  He  was  the  only  one  of 
the  four  Georges  who  never  visited  his  German 
dominions.  In  his  first  speech  to  parliament  he 
said:  'Born  and  educated  in  this  country,  I  glory 
in  the  name  of  Briton,  .and  the  peculiar  happiness 
of  my  life  will  ever  consist  in  promoting  the  welfare 
of  a  people  whose  loyalty  and  warm  afl'ection  to  me 
I  consider  the  greatest  and  most  ]iermanent  security 
of  my  throne.'  These  words  were  inserted  by  him- 
self in  the  speech  composed  by  the  Earl  of  Hard- 
wicke  and  approved  by  the  ministry.  At  the  outset 
George  III.  conciliated  all  classes  of  his  subjects. 
Horace  Walpole  thus  describes  from  personal  obser- 
vation the  nature  of  the  change  :  '  For  the  king  him- 
self, he  seems  all  good  nature  and  wishing  to. satisfy 
everybody.  All  his  speeches  are  obliging.  I  saw 
him  yesterday,  and  was  surjirLsed  to  lind  the  levee- 
room  had  lost  so  entirely  the  ,air  of  the  lion's  den. 
The  sovereign  does  not  stand  in  ime  spot  with  his 
eyes  fixed  royally  on  the  ground,  and  dro)iiiing  bits 
of  German  news.  He  walks  about  and  speaks 
freely  to  everybody.  I  saw  him  afterwards  on  the 
throne,  where  he  is  graceful  and  genteel,  sits  with 
dignity,  and  reads  his  addresses  well.'  On  8th 
September  17t)l  he  married  Charlotte  Sophia, 
Princess  of  Mecklenlnirg-Strelitz,  his  bride  being 
in  her  eighteenth  and  he  in  his  twenty-third 
year.  A  fortnight  after  their  marriage  they  wcxc 
crowned.  As  a  younger  man  he  was  sujiposed  to 
have  had  children  by  Hannah  Lightfoot,  a  beauti- 
ful Quakeress,  and  to  have  marrieil  her,  but  no 
)uoof  of  this  marriage  has  ever  been  advanced. 
It  is  less  open  to  doubt  that,  after  ascending 
the  throne,  he  wished  to  marry  Lady  Sarah  Lennox, 
and  that  his  mother  used  her  intluence  to  bring 
about  a  marriage  with  one  w  ho,  like  herself,  was  a 
German  juincess. 

George  III.  owed  it  to  bis  mother  that  he  was 
strongly  imbued  with  a  desire  to  govern  as  well 
as  reign.  '  George,  be  kinj;,'  was  the  phrase  which 
she  repeated,  and  the  training  which  he  hail  re- 
ceived made  him  give  heed  to  it.  BolingbroUe,  in 
writing  the  Idea  oj'a  Fatriut  Kinij,  had  the  expecta- 
tion of  persuading  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  and 
father  of  George  III.,  to  act  the  part.  The  substance 
of  Bolingbroke's  teaching  was  that  a  king  should  be 
the  father  of  his  people,  that  he  was  the  man  best 
qualitied  to  know  wliat  would  be  for  their  gooil, 
and  the  one  best  entitled  to  make  them  do  as  h" 
deemed  right.     Thus  George  III.  felt  certain  that 


160 


GEORGE    I  IT. 


his  own  way  was  the  true  one,  and  that  were  it 
followed  all  would  f;o  well.  Thi-  friction  wliioli 
soon  became  niaiiilcst  betwoeii  liiiii  iiikI  Ids  pcoiile 
wa.s  cldedy  due  to  Ids  <lotcrndniitii)u  to  have  Ids 
own  way.  I'itt  wns  ilic  jiopuliir  iilol  ;  hut  the  kinj; 
disliked  I'itt  and  Ids  |Hilicy,  and  the  Karl  of  liute 
became  priiuendnister  in  the  iilace  of  the  Duke 
of  Xewejistle.  It  was  commonly  believed  that 
Bute  was  both  the  favourite  of  the  kinj;  and  the 
lover  of  Id.s  mother;  he  was  a  Scottish  nobleman 
who  di.spensed  patronage  to  his  countrymen,  and  lie 
was  execrated  on  account  of  his  birth,  his  pusiiiim, 
and  his  conduct.  If  he  hail  been  a  strong'  man, 
he  nd;;lit  have  justified  his  promotion,  but,  beiny 
both  timid  .and  incompetent,  In;  succunilied  to  poou- 
lar  clamour.  Ilis  premiership  lasted  from  .\l.ay 
1762  till  -April  17ti.'{.  Geor};e(;renville,  Ids  successor, 
was  premier  for  two  years.  The  Mari|ius  of  Hock- 
ingharn,  who  followed  him,  held  the  iiirne  for  eleven 
months,  the  Karl  of  t"hath:im  for  fourteen  numths, 
and  the  Duke  of  (irafton  held  it  for  three  years. 
These  sliort  lived  .adndnistrations  were  due  to 
the  kin;;  pittin;;  one  section  of  the  Whig  party 
against  the  other,  in  order  to  e.scape  falling  under 
the  dondnation  of  the  great  Whig  families,  the 
result  being  that  a  parly  was  formed  which  was 
known  as  '  the  king's  friends. '  (ieorge  1 1 1,  found  in 
Lord  North  a  ndnister  after  his  own  heart,  and  Lord 
North  remained  at  the  head  of  the  government  from 
January  1770  till  March  17!S'2.  During  the  .adminis- 
tration of  Lord  North  the  thirteen  nidted  colonies 
proclaimed  and  achieved  their  indepen<lence,  and 
were  ackiiowleilged  by  France  and  Spain  lus  the 
United  States  of  America.  The  delernunation  of 
the  king  not  to  grant  any  concessions  to  those 
whom  he  deemed  rebels  caused  the  struggle  to  be 
protracted,  and  shut  the  door  against  compromise 
while  couiprondse  was  possible.  The  subserviency 
of  ])arli.iment  and  the  accpncscence  of  the  country 
enabled  the  king  to  have  Ids  own  w.ay.  Lord  Nortli 
was  succeeded  by  the  Mar(|uis  of  Hockingham, 
who  died  after  he  had  been  three  miuiths  in  ollice. 
Among  Ids  colleagues  were  Charles  .James  I'"o.\, 
Burke,  and  Sheriilan,  three  of  the  most  brilliant 
members  of  the  Opposition,  and  three  men  whom 
(ieorge  III.  detested.  Lord  Shclburne,  who  was  a 
mcnd)er  of  thi'  same  adndnistration,  took  Rocking- 
ham's i)lace,  but  the  colleagues  just  named  and 
others  refused  to  .serve  with  him  ;  on  the  other 
hand,  he  secured  the  services  of  William  I'ilt 
as  Chancellor  of  the  E.\chei|uer.  The  frien<Is  of 
Charles  .lames  Kox  and  the  followers  of  Lord  North 
coalesced,  and  overthrew  the  Shelburne  .adminis- 
tration after  it  hail  been  ten  months  in  olhce  ;  anil 
the  Duke  of  I'ortland  became  the  head  of  a  coali- 
tion ndnistry  which  entered  ollice  in  .\pril  17N.'?,  and 
wius  compelled  to  leave  it,  owing  to  the  underhand 
action  of  the  king,  in  December  of  that  ye.ar.  In 
the  interval  the  deliidtive  treaty  of  peace  with  the 
I'nited  States  of  America  wius  signed,  and  the  India 
Bill  was  brought  before  parliament,  a  measure  of 
which  Burke  was  the  chief  author,  Fox  the  warm 
advocate,  .and  (ieorge  III.  the  irreconcil.able  foe. 

In  December  1783  William  I'itt,  then  in  Ids 
twenty-fcmrth  ye.ar,  formed  an  adudnistr.ation  in 
which  he  was  ( 'hancellor  of  the  Kxchei|uer  as  well  .as 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  and  he  remained  in  ollice 
for  eighteen  years.  The  crushing  victory  of  his 
party  at  the  gener.al  election  in  17S4  was  a  triumph 
for  the  king  as  much  as  for  I'itt.  From  that  date 
there  wa-s  an  end  to  the  supreui.acy  of  the  old  Whig 
families.  The  Toiy  party  had  been  consolidated  and 
was  prepared  to  give  effect  to  the  policy  of  George  1 1 1. 
The  struggle  h.a<l  been  long  and  severe,  .lohn  Wilkes 
had  taken  p.art  in  it,  and  by  his  .audacious  resist- 
ance he  had  led  to  the  .abolition  of  gener.al  warr.ants. 
The  writer  whose  letters  were  signed  Junius  had 
denounced  the  ministers  whom  tlie  king  trusted, 


and  had  warned  the  king  luniself  that,  as  his  title 
to  the  crown  '  was  accjuircd  by  one  revolution,  it  may 
be  lost  by  another.'  That  popular  feeling  ran  hig'li 
ag.ainst  the  sovereign  for  .a  time  is  uni|nesti<mable, 
yet  he  gradually  regained  the  affections  of  Ids  sub- 
icct.s  ;  hence,  when  it  wius  announced  in  17S8  that 
lie  had  lost  his  rea.son,  there  was  a  widespread 
sympathy  with  him.  His  eldest  s<in  had  displayed 
vices  from  which  he  was  free,  and  the  peojile  did 
not  think  the  substitution  of  the  I'rince  of  Wales 
for  the  king  would  be  a  gain  to  the  country.  Two 
years  before  a  mad  wmnan,  named  .Margaret  Nichol- 
son, had  tried  to  .-lab  the  king,  and  the  iiddresses 
of  congratulation  upiui  his  escajie  then  showed  how 
Ijencial  was  the  po]>ular  feeling.  In  17<>.")  he  had  an 
illness  la.sting  two  nnmlhs,  in  which  his  leascm  was 
allected.  On  Ids  recovery  at  that  time  there  was 
no  rejoicing  such  as  took  place  when,  on  '2.3d 
-Vpril  17S!<,  he  went  to  St  Paul's  to  render 
thanks  for  Ids  recovery.  The  I'rince  of  Wales, 
who  h.ad  counted  upon  becoming  regent,  openly 
dis|)layed  ill-humour  al  his  father's  reception.  A 
proof  of  ])ublic  feeling  w.as  that  a  )il.av  in  which  Mrs 
Siddons  took  a  leading  part  had  to  be  withdrawn 
from  the  stage  after  one  representation,  because  it 
bore  the  obnoxious  name  of  'The  Kegent.'  The 
marri.age  of  this  son  to  Princess  Caroline  of  15runs- 
wick  g.ave  the  king  much  gratilication.  It  took 
place  on  .Sth  April  17!M.  Three  years  later  the 
Princess  Koyal  became  the  wife  of  the  hereditary 
Prince  of  Wiirtemberg.  The  king's  second  son,  the 
Duke  of  York,  h.ad  imirried  the  eldest  d.aiighter  of 
Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  in  1791.  tieorge  HI.  had  a 
large  family  :  it  numlierid  nine  sons  and  six  daugh- 
ters, the  first  child,  the  Prince  of  Wales,  being  born 
in  17()2,  and  the  last,  the  Princess  .\melia,  in  1783. 
The  king  had  no  fear  of  his  children  acting  like 
his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  when  he  mar- 
ried -Mrs  Ilorton,  or  like  the  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
when  he  married  the  Countess  of  Waldegrave.  The 
Koyal  Marriage  Act,  which  was  passed  at  his 
instance  in  1772,  forbade  the  members  of  the 
royal  family  marrying  without  the  consent  of  the 
sovereign,  if  under  twenty-live,  or  doing  so  after 
that  age  unless  a  twelvemonth's  notice  had  been 
given  to  the  Privy-council,  and  jjarliament  had  not 
expressed  di.sap|)robation  within  that  jieiiod. 

Though  George  III.  was  averse  to  war,  he 
was  strongly  in  favour  of  restoring  the  Bourbons 
to  the  throne  of  F'rance.  When  the  union  be- 
tween Ireland  and  Great  Britain  was  proposed 
he  wrote  to  Pitt  characterising  it  as  one  of 
the  most  useful  measures  of  bis  reign  ;  hut  when 
the  union  w.as  effected,  and  Pitt  proposed  carry- 
ing out  his  pledges  with  regard  to  the  emancipation 
of  the  Komaii  Catholics  and  the  endowment  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  miests,  the  king  refused  his  a.ssent, 
saying,  as  Lord  Eldon  records,  '  I  can  give  up  my 
crown  and  retire  from  power;  I  can  quit  my  jialace 
and  li\c  in  a  cottage  ;  I  can  lay  my  head  on  a  block 
and  lo.se  my  life  ;  but  I  can  vol  break  my  corona- 
tion oath.'  Pitt  resigned  ;  George  III.  refused  his 
advice  to  form  a  strong  administration,  including 
Fox.  The  king's  hatredof  Fox  nmounteil  to  m.ania ; 
he  wrongfully  attributed  the  bad  conduct  of  the 
Prince  ot  Wales  to  a.s,sociation  with  the  great  Whig 
leader.  Hence  the  king  entrusted  Addington  with 
the  task  of  forming  an  .administration,  which  held 
oflice  till  war  with  I'rance  was  renewed,  and  the 
necessity  for  a  lirmer  hand  at  the  helm  was  a|i- 
parent.  Pitt  resumed  the  oliice  of  premier,  and 
dieil  in  1806.  A  ministry  was  formed  on  ."itli 
March  1806,  in  which  Fox  and  Sidmouth  held 
oliice,  and  of  which  Lord  Grenville  was  the  head  ; 
it  was  reconstituted  after  F'ox's  death  on  13th 
September  in  that  year,  and  it  w.as  succeeded  in 
1807  by  one  of  which  the  Duke  of  Portland  was  the 
head,  and  in  which  Perceval  was  Chancellor  of  the 


GEORGE    III. 


GEORGE    IV. 


161 


Excliequer,  and  Canning  a  secretary  of  state.     In 

1809  Perceval  succeeiletl  to  tlie  premiersliiji,  ami 
this  was  the  last  administration  in  forming  wliicli 
George  III.  had  any  share.  His  juhilee  \v;i.s  cele- 
brated amid  ]iopiilar  rejoicings  on  the  i.Jth  Octolier 
1S09.  In  ISIO  Princess  Amelia,  his  yonngest  and 
f.-ivoiirite  child,  became  dangeronsly  ill  ;  tiie  un- 
lil<elilio<id  of  her  recovery  preyed  \\]><>n  him  an<l 
hastened  an  attack  of  mental  derangement,  which 
incapacitated  him  for  reigning.  He  had  snHered 
from  this  malady  more  than  once  since  17S9.     In 

1810  the  Prince  of  Wales  was  apjiointed  regent. 
Till  his  death,  on  29tli  Jannary  IS'iO,  at  Wind.sor 
Castle  (he  was  the  first  English  king  who  died 
there),  George  III.  was  hopelessly  insane.  He 
lost  his  sight  as  well  as  his  senses. 

Though  not  a  drop  of  Englisli  I>loi>d  ran  in  his 
veins,  yet  George  III.  was  a  typical  Englisliman.  He 
wa.s  well-meaning  and  intensely  ii;itriotic  ;  he  was 
truly  ]iious  and  a  pattern  of  the  domestic  virtues. 
His  reign  was  marked  by  many  vicissitudes,  and 
it  extended  over  sixty  years.  Decisive  l>attles  in 
America,  India,  and  Europe  were  fought  iluring  its 
course,  ami  many  grand  conquests  were  achieveil. 
Great  statesmen,  such  as  Chatham,  Pitt,  and  Fox, 
adorned  it ;  great  captains,  such  as  Xelson  and  Wei 
lington,  made  their  names  immortal  ;  the  greatest 
names  in  modern  English  literature  then  rose  above 
the  horizon ;  parliamentary  oratory  was  at  its 
zenith,  and  nothing  was  wanting  to  render  the  reign 
the  most  glorious  in  the  country's  annals  but  greater 
discretiou  on  the  pait  of  the  king.  If  George  III. 
had  been  a  little  le.ss  of  the  typical  Englishman,  he 
might  have  been  a  more  admirable  sovereign.  It 
was  chietly  owing  to  his  prejudices  being  respected 
by  those  who  ou'dit  to  have  opposed  them  that  war 
took  the  place  of  conciliation  in  America,  and  that 
war  was  prosecuted  against  France,  when  the  in- 
terests of  the  country  demanded  neutrality  anntng 
the  contending  powers  on  the  Continent.  When 
George  III.  ascended  the  throne  the  national  debt, 
in  round  numbers,  was  £138,0O0,0fXI  sterling  ;  before 
his  death  it  was  upwards  of  £800,000,01X1.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the 
country  made  gigantic  strides  during  his  reign. 
At  his  accession  the  exports  did  not  exceed 
£12,000,000  sterling  ;  at  his  death  thev  were  up- 
wards of  £.50,000,0<X).  The  imports  between  that 
I)eriod  rose  from  £8,000,000  to  £30,0(J0.OOO  sterling. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  last  forty  years  of  his  reign 
the  number  of  newspapers  in  the  three  kingdoms 
was  61  ;  at  his  death  the  number  was  222.  Several 
years  before  he  died  the  Time.i  newspaper  was 
printed  by  steam,  ami  the  foundations  ot  the  daily 
pres.s  as  it  now  exists  were  laid  in  the  reign  of  a 
sovereign  who  was  no  favourer  of  news]>apers.  The 
greatest  of  his  misf(ntunes  was  to  be  the  father  of 
the  eldest  son  who  succeeiled  him,  and  it  is  when 
George  IV'.  is  considered  that  the  merits  of  (Jeorge 
III.  become  the  more  cons))icuous,  and  that '  Farmer 
George,'  as  he  was  familiarly  called  during  his 
lifetime,  appeal's  a  nobler  figure  in  history  than 
the  '  First  Gentleman  iu  Europe,'  as  his  eldest  son 
was  styled. 

See  the  histories  of  England  by  Stanhope,  Massey, 
Martineau,  and  Leckj';  the  Mtmoirg  and  Lcttrrs  of 
U.  Walpnle;  the  GrenviUe  Papers .  the  Cliatliam,  Kocking- 
hani,  Bedford,  Auckland,  and  Mahnesbury  C'orrcspun'i- 
ence;  tlie  Letters  of  Gtor;/e  I/I.  to  Lord  North  ;  Burke's 
AVorks;  the  Letters  of  Junius;  the  Antiuat  liriiiiter ; 
anil  Tilt  (>/ifX}sitioii  under  Geoiyc  III.,  by  Frascr  Rae. 

<it'orjie  IV.,  the  ehlest  son  of  (Jeorge  III.,  was 
born  in  St  James's  Palace  on  12th  August  1762. 
He  became  Prince  Regent  in  December  1810, 
after  both  houses  of  parliament  had  pa.^sed  res(du- 
tions  to  the  cll'ect  that  the  king  wa>  miMitally  in- 
capacitated for  discharging  the  duties  of  his  ollice. 
He  ascended  the  throne  of  the  I'nited  Kingdom  of 
219 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland  after  his  father's  deatli 
on  29th  .lannary  1820.  Till  the  age  of  nineteen  the 
prince  was  kept  under  strict  discii)line,  ag.ainst 
which  he  sometimes  rebelled.  When  he  was  four- 
teen one  of  his  tutors  resigned  on  the  grouml  of  "  the 
ungovernalile  temper  of  his  charge.'  The  15i.-<hop  of 
Lichfield,  who  then  became  his  preceptor,  gave  the 
following  forecast  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  :  '  He  will 
be  either  the  most  polished  gentleman  or  the  most 
accomplished  blackguard  in  Europe  ;  iiossibly  an 
adndxture  of  both.'  At  the  age  of  eighteen  the 
prince  had  an  intrigue  with  Mrs  Robinson,  an 
actress,  who  olitained  from  him  a  bond  for  £20,000, 
and  letters  which  she  threatened  to  make  public; 
she  surrendered  the  letters  for  £.')(XM),  and  the 
bond  in  return  for  an  annuity  of  £4f)0.  When 
twenty  he  went  through  the  ceremony  of  mar- 
riage with  Mrs  Fitzherbert  (i|.v. ),  a  Roman  Catholic, 
ami  by  so  doing  forfeited  his  title  to  the  crown. 
When  the  matter  was  mooted  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  he  desired  Fox  to  deny  there  had  been 
a  maniage,  and  then  he  found  fault  with  Fox  for 
making  the  statement.  Late  in  life  he  said  to 
Lady  Spencer,  when  consulting  her  about  a  gover- 
ness for  his  daughter,  '  Above  all,  I  must  teach 
her  to  tell  the  truth.  You  know  that  I  don't 
speak  the  truth,  and  my  brothers  don't,  and  1  find 
it  a  great  defect  from  which  I  would  have  my 
daughter  free.  We  have  been  brought  uji  badly, 
the  queen  having  taught  us  to  equivocate.'  The 
prince  led  a  wild  life.  Out  of  antagonism  to  his 
father  he  afl'ected  to  be  a  Whig,  and  a.ssociated 
with  the  leading  members  of  the  0]]position. 
When  a  lad  he  annoyed  his  father  by  shouting 
in  his  presence,  '  Wilkes  and  Number  4.>  for  ever  '. ' 
When  writing  about  his  eldest  son  to  Lord  Nurlli. 
the  king  styled  him  an  'ill-advised  young  man,' 
and  much  of  the  king's  aversion  to  Fox,  Hurke, 
and  Sheridan  was  due  to  their  associating  «ith 
and  advising  the  Prince  of  Wales.  In  179.5  he 
married  Princess  Caroline  (q.v.)  of  Brnn.swick, 
being  imluced  to  do  so  by  parliament  agreeing  to 
pay  liis  debts,  which  amounted  to  £6.50,000.  The 
prince  had  shown  himself  an  uiulutiful  son  ;  he 
now  showed  himself  to  be  a  bad  husband  ;  ami  his 
conduct  to  his  daughter  and  only  child,  the  Princess 
Charlotte  (q.v.),  Avas  that  of  a  calUms  father. 
After  becoming  king  he  endeavoured  to  get  a 
divorce  from  his  wife,  who  was  not  more  guilty 
than  himself  of  conjugal  crimes :  but  her  death 
on  7th  August  1821  terminated  a  struggle  which 
had  become  a  public  .scandal,  and  in  which  the 
people  symjiathised  with  the  queen.  Nothing  in 
the  reign  of  George  IV.  was  more  remarkable  than 
his  coronation,  which  was  celebrated  with  as  great 
pomp  as  that  of  any  previous  monarch,  and  with 
far  greater  sidendour  than  that  of  William  IV.  or 
(Jueeii  Victoria.  It  took  place  on  19th  .July  1821. 
and  it  was  described  in  the  Ju/iiiljiirr//i  It'ri/./i/ 
Journal  by  one  who  signed  himself  '  An  Eye- 
witness,' and  who  was  Sir  Walter  Scott.  Eleven 
days  after  his  coronaticm  the  king  left  London  for 
Ireland,  while  his  queen  lay  on  her  deathbed. 
In  the  Irish  Aruter,  By  ion  writes  of  'George 
the  triumphant '  sjieeding  '  to  the  long-cherished 
isle  which  he  loved  like  his — bride.'  In  October  of 
the  same  year  he  went  to  Hanover,  and  was 
crowned  king.  He  stopped  at  Brussels  on  the  way 
and  visited  Waterloo,  the  Duke  of  Wellington  act- 
ing as  his  guide.  In  August  1822  he  went  to  Eilin- 
burgh  by  water,  where  he  had  a  magnificent  recep- 
tion, of  which  Sir  Walter  Scott  wa.s  the  organiser. 
The  last  king  who  had  visited  Scotland  before  him 
was  Charles  II.  Though  a  ]>rofes.sed  Whig  when 
Prince  of  Wales,  George  IV.  governed  as  his  father 
had  done  by  the  aid  of  the  Tories.  Spencer  Per- 
ceval, Lord  Liverpool,  Canning,  Viscount  C.oderich, 
and  the  Duke  of  Wellington  successively  held  cdfice 


162 


GEORGE    V. 


GEORGETOWN 


as  premiers  wliile  he  was  recent  and  king.  The 
nioveinent  fcir  iTfiniii  \\  liii  li  lii-jjan  in  tlie  reign  of 
(ieorge  III.  was  i>|i|m)>('(|,  with  the  liing's*  concnr- 
renre,  hy  tlie  ailvi.siTs  of  (Jeorge  IV.,  tlie  massacre 
at  I'eterloo,  whore  the  inha)>itants  of  Mancliester 
held  a  reform  meeting  on  20tli  August  I8'20, 
l)eiiig  the  most  regrettahle  of  many  sad  inci- 
dents. On  this  occasion  tlie  open-air  meeting 
wa-s  charged  hy  cavalry  and  yeomanry,  with  the 
result  that  eleven  ]ici-sons  were  killoil  and  ahoiit 
six  hnndre<l  wounded.  l>n  the  ground  of  his  reli- 
pious  convictions,  George  IV.  followed  liLs  father 
m  oi)posing  the  emancipation  of  the  Homan  Catho- 
lics :  hut  in  1829,  when  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
declared  that  the  me.i.sure  was  imperative,  the  king 
withdrew  his  opposition  anil  the  mea.snre  Uecaiiie 
law.  His  failings  and  vices  wore  conspicuous  ;  it 
cannot  he  said  tliat  thev  were  whollv  redeemed  hy 
his  taste  for  music,  hy  liaving  a  goi«l  voice  for  sing- 
ing, anil  hy  playing  fairly  on  the  llule.  It  was 
creditahle  to  him  that  he  read  and  admired  the 
iniinitahle  romances  of  .lane  Austen  and  Sir  Walter 
.Sciitt.  Vet  he  did  mil  adorn  the  throne,  and 
when  he  died  on  itith  .lanuary  IS.'iO,  he  wa-s  least 
regretted  hy  (ho.se  who  knew  him  liest.  See  Justin 
M'Carthv,  .1   Ilistori/  of  tlie  I-'uiir  (Itorges  (4  vols. 

18S'J  (7  jtVyY.). 

Cloorgo  v.,  of  Hanover.     See  H.\xover. 

<;«'Orse  ( '  the  Bearded  '),  Dukeof  Sa.xony  (q.v.). 

CJcorge,  Henry,  was  horn  in  Philadelphia, 
Septemhor  2,  1S39,  went  to  sea  at  an  early  age,  and 
in  1858  arrived  in  California,  copyriuiit  1990  in  f.s 
where  he  hecame  a  jonnieyman  bj  i.  b.  Lippincoit 
iirinler  and  married.  Afteranum-  comimor. 
nor  of  vcars  sjient  at  the  ease,  he  rose  to  the  edi- 
torial desk,  conducted  several  pajiers,  and  took  an 
active  part  in  the  discussion  of  pul)lici|nestii>ns.  In 
IH70  he   pulilishcd   Our  l.iiiid  iind  Lmul  Polki/,  a 

fiamphlet  outlining  the  views  which  have  since  made 
dm  widely  known,  but  which  had  onlv  a  local  cir- 
culation. In  October  1879  appeared  I'lo/fiess  ami 
I'oinii/  in  California.  In  .lanuary  1880  it  wa.s 
published  in  New  Vork,  and  in  1881  in  London 
and  Derlin.  It  has  since  gone  through  many 
editiims,  l>een  translated  into  the  principal  lan- 
guages, and  h.ad  a  circulation  without  precedent 
in  economic  literature.  I'lor/ress  antl  Funrty  \s 
an  inijuiry  into  the  cause  of  industrial  dejiressions, 
and  ol  the  increase  of  want  with  increase  of  wealth, 
in  the  coni^e  of  which  some  of  the  most  important 
of  the  hitherto  accepted  doctrines  of  political 
economy  are  recast.  Denying  the  dictum  that 
wages  are  limited  by  capital,  he  argues  that 
w.-iges  are  produced  by  the  labour  for  which  they 
are  paid ;  and,  denying  the  Malthnsian  theory,  he 
contends  that  increase  of  population  instead  of  caus- 
ing w.ant  should  tend  to  greater  plenty.  Then,  by 
an  examination  of  the  laws  of  distribution,  in  which 
the  laws  of  wages  and  interest  are  shown  to  cor- 
relate with  the  hitherto  accepted  law  of  rent,  he 
comes  to  the  conclusion  that,  a-s  produce  eijuals  rent 
plus  wages  plus  interest,  therefore  produce,  minus 
rent,  equals  wages  plus  interest.  The  increase 
of  economic  rent  or  land  values  explains  why  the 
increa.se  of  productive  power  so  marked  in  nioilern 
civilisation  does  not  commensurately  increase  wages 
and  interest.  To  the  tendency  of  the  ste;iily  increase 
in  land  values  to  beget  specul.ation  in  land,  which 
prevents  the  application  of  labour  and  capital,  he 
traces  the  recurring  seasons  of  industrial  depres- 
sion. The  remedy  he  proposes  is  the  appropriation 
of  economic  rent  to  jmblic  uses  by  a  tax  levied  on 
the  value  of  land  exclusive  of  improvements,  and 
the  abolition  of  all  taxes  which  fall  upon  industry 
and  thrift.  Meeting  objections  which  m.iy  lie 
urged  against  this  propositi<in  on  the  ground  of 
justice  and  public  policy,  he  finally  brings  it  to  a 


larger  test  in  an  exanunation  of  the  law  of  human 
progiess,  which  he  delhns  to  lie  that  of  a-socialion 
in  ei|uality.  Other  works  are  Tin-  Irish  J.itiid 
(^iiextion  (1881),  .Socittl  Problems  (  1882),  I'mttcliun 
ami  Free  Trade  (1886),  ,1  J'er/de^ed  J'/iilusoji/icr 
(against  Herl>ert  S|iencer's  views  on  land,  1893). 
He  visited  Ureat  lirilain  ami  Ireland  in  IS8!,  Iss3, 
1S84,  18S8,  and  1889.  and  Australia  in  189(1.  In 
Issii  he  ran  for  the  po^l  of  mayor  of  New  Vork  a.s 
an  independent  candidate  noMuiialed  by  the  work- 
ing men.     In   188"  he  established   the  Standard,  a 

I  weekly  paper  in  New  Vork.  He  died  suddenly  on 
the  29th  October  1897,  in  the  midst  of  a  second 
candidature  for  the  mayoralty  uf  New  Vork.  His 
J'riiiei/iUs  11/ Politind  Keoiioiiii/  was  postlmmonsly 
publisiieil.  Though  sometimes  styled  socialistic, 
tieorge's  views  were  for  the  most  p.-ut  diametrically 
opposed  to  state  socialism.  His  aim  w.is  to  sweej) 
aw.iy  all  interferences  with  the  production  anil 
distribution  of  wealth,  and  only  to  resort  to 
state  control  where  competition  is  impossible— to 
leave  to  individuals  all  that  individual  energy  or 
thrift  accumulates,  and  to  take  for  the  use  of  the 
community  all  that  is  due  to  the  general  growth 
and  improvement. 

I  ftiOorgO,  L.VKK,  called  also  Iloricon,  a  lieautiful 
lake,  .32  miles  long,  near  the  eastern  Ixnder  of  New 
York  state.  It  forms  the  head  waters  of  Lake 
Cham^ilain,  is  studiled  with  hundreds  of  jdctur- 
esque  islands,  and  its  shores  cont.ain  sever.al  lavour- 
ite  summer-resorts,  especially  the  village  of  Cald- 
well or  Lake  George.  Here  was  fought  the  battle 
of  Lake  George,  in  which  the  rrencli  and  .Mgon- 
quins  under  Baron  Dieskau  were  utterly  defeated 
by  the  English  and  Imnuois  under  Sir  William 
.Johiisrin,  on  8th  September  1755. 
Goorae,  Tiit:.  .See  Garter  (Order  of  the). 
t!eor}I«'tOWII.  a  .port  of  entry  in  the  District 
of  Columlda.  is  now,  as  iiractically  a  part  of  Wash- 
ington, usually  called  West  Wiushiiiglon.  It  is 
situated  (partly  on  several  eminences)  on  the  Poto- 
mac, at  the  head  of  navigation.  The  heights  are 
occupied  by  elegant  vilkis,  and  command  a  line 
view  of  the  country  arouml.  Here  the  Chesajieake 
and  Ohio  Canal  is  carried  across  the  Potomac  hy 
means  of  a  great  viaduct  1446  feet  long.  The  city 
contains  a  number  of  educational  institutions,  in- 
cluding a  liomaii  Catholic  college  (1789);  and  its 
many  Hour-mills  ciijuy  a  wide  reputation.  For  its 
administration,  see  liisTliK  T  OF  CoLL'.MBI.-\.  Pop. 
(1880)  12..-)78;  (  1S90)  14,046. 

Clooraotowil  (formerly  the  Dutch  Slahrocl), 
capital  of  British  Guiana,  is  situated  on  the  right 
liank  of  the  Demerara  Uiver,  not  far  from  ita 
mouth.  It  is  handsomely  built,  and  consists  of 
wide,  clean  streets,  intei-secting  at  right  angles :  the 
brightly  painted  wooden  iiouses,  with  their  Swiss 
eaves  developed  into  handsome  verandahs,  are 
generally  r.aised  on  piles  a  few  feet  alxive  the  un- 
healthy soil,  and  embosomed  in  trees,  of  which  the 
cabbage-palm  and  cocoa-nut  are  the  chief.  Some 
of  the  streets,  with  their  long  colonnades  of  palms, 
are  traversed  by  wide  trenches  or  canals,  with 
bridges  at  the  cross  streets.  The  principal  public 
edilices  are  the  goveiTiment  building,  the  cathedral, 
the  t/ueen's  College,  and  a  museum  and  library. 
There  are  botanical  gardens,  several  hospitals,  an 
icehouse,  and  two  markets.  Water  for  ordinary 
purposes  is  supplied  from  a  canal,  the  mains  being 
laid  through  most  of  the  iirincipal  streets ;  and 
artesian  wells,  liesides  taiiKs  for  the  storage  of 
rain,  have  to  some  extent  snpplietl  the  lack  of 
drinking-water.  There  is  a  short  railw.iy  to 
Mahaiia,  and  a  telephone  exchange  has  been 
established  in  connection  with  the  government 
telegraph  system.  There  is  a  good  harbour,  with 
a  lighthouse,   and  defences  erected   within  recent 


GEORGIA 


163 


years ;  the  foiei<;n  trade  is  virtually  that  of  the 
colony  (see  (Uian'A,  ISiutish).  Pop.  (1891) 
53,170,  incliitlirig  many  coolies  and  scarcely  5000 
wliites.     See  also  Gambia,  I'exaxg. 

GeurgiiU  the  most  southerly  of  the  original 
thirteen  slates  which  conij^sed  the  American 
confederation,  is  li<iuniled  N.  hy  copjTight  la*)  in  us. 
Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  and  by  J.  b.  Uppiucott 
.South  Carolina  ;  E.  by  the  Savan-  compsny. 
nah  Kiver,  which  separates  it  from  South  Caro- 
lina, and  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ;  S.  by  the  St 
Mary  River  and  Florida  ;  and  AV.  by  the"  Chatta- 
hoochee Itiver  anil  Alabama,  it  lies  between  .30° 
31'  39"  and  35'  N.  hit.,  ami  in  81"— 85'  .53'  38" 
W.  long.,  and  has  a  maximum  length  and  breadth 
of  320  an<l  "256  miles,  and  an  area  of  59,475  si|.  m. — 
a  little  more  than  the  area  of  England  and  Wales. 
Upon  the  Atlantic  Ocean  it  fronts  for  a  distance 
of  128  miles  ;  but  the  co.ast,  low-lying  and  sandy, 
is  bordered  with  islands,  between'  which  and  the 
mainland  are  a  number  of  sounds  and  creeks  ;  so 
that  the  total  coastline  Ls  said  to  be  about  4S0 
miles. 

The  territory  of  Georgia  presents  live  physical 
divisions  :  ( 1 )  The  Sea  Islands,  famous  for  their 
cotton  (see  Cottox),  and  covered  with  a  growth  of 
oak,  palmetto,  magnolia,  cedar,  pine,   and  myrtle  ; 

(2)  the  Swamp  Kegion,  consisting  of  rich  alluvial 
lands  and  deltas,  formed  by  the  fresh-water  rivers, 
verdant  with  a  dense  and  semitrojiical  vegetation, 
and  admirably  adapted  to  the  |)roduction  of  rice  ; 

(3)  the  Pine  Barrens,  with  a  thin  soil,  lying  between 
these  marsh  grounds  and  the  undulating  red-clay 
lands  of  the  interior,  sheltered  by  vast  forests  lif 
pitch-pine,  which  are  highly  prized  as  lumber  and 
for  naval   purjjoscs,  but  lonely  and  monotonous ; 

(4)  Middle  Georgia,  fertile,"  salubrious,  hilly, 
crowned  with  forests  of  oak  and  hickory,  the 
home  of  the  short-staple  cotton-plant,  a  tine  fniit 
region,  and  yielding  Indian  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and 
other  cereals;  and  hustly  (5)  Cherokee  Georgia, 
alx)unding  in  mmintains,  with  fertile  valleys, 
streams,  and  waterfalls.  Cereals,  grasses,  and 
cotton  are  prolitably  grown  among  the  valleys 
ancl  upon  the  hillsides  of  Upper  Georgia ;  and 
incroiising  attention  is  being  bestowed  upon  the 
breeding  of  stock.  In  the  central  area  of  the  last- 
mentioned  division  occurs  the  watershed,  giving 
direction  to  the  streams  which  tlow  respecti\ely 
into  the  (Julf  of  .Mexico  on  the  one  hand,  anil 
into  the  .\thiutic  Ocean  on  the  other.  "The  entire 
state  is  well  watered.  Of  the  rivers  emptying  into 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  the  most  noteworthy  are  the 
Savannah,  navigable  jis  far  (vs  .\ugnsta  ;  the  llreat 
Ogeecliee ;  the  .\ltamaha,  through  its  tributaries 
the  Oconee  and  the  Ocmulgee  navigable  a-s  high 
as  Milledgeville  and  Macon  ;  the  Satilla  ;  and  the 
St  -Mary.  The  streams  belonging  to  the  Gulf 
sy.stem  are  the  upper  waters  of  the  Coosa;  the 
Chattahoochee,  navigable  as  far  a.s  Columbus:  the 
Flint,  navigable  up  to  .VIbany  ;  and  the  .Vlapaha. 

With  the  e.xccption  of  the  swamp-region  in  tlie 
south  and  south-e:uit  of  the  state,  the  climate  is 
salubrious  and  agreeable.  The  mean  tem|ieratuie 
is  78°  in  summer  and  47°  in  winter ;  the  annual 
rainfall  nearly  .10  inches.  In  the  lowlands  oranges 
and  other  semi-tropical  fruits  readily  mature, 
whilst  in  the  u|ilands  peaches,  apples,  pears,  >.Vcc. 
tlourish ;  and  fruits  and  market  vegetables  gen- 
erally, being  earlier  than  in  the  North,  are 
e.xported  in  considerable  ipiantities.  The  forests 
contain  numerous  species  of  oak,  including  the 
evergreen  live-oak,  which  Ii,t.s  been  styled  the 
king,  as  the  Miiijitu/in  iiriiin/t/ltjra  has  been  styled 
the  ijueen  of  the  southern  woods.  Of  great  value 
is  the  long-leaf  pine,  furnishing  both  choice  tinilwr 
iind  naval  stores.  The  list  of  useful  native  woods 
includes  also  the  red,  tlie  white,  and  the  post  oak, 


the  water-oak,  the  black  walnut,  the  red  cedar, 
the  cypress,  the  poplar,  and  the  locust.  Among 
the  indigenous  Hora  are  found  valuable  medicinal 
herbs  and  dye-plants  ;  and  the  liowers  often  are  of 
great  beauty.  Game  is  still  abundant,  in  spite  of 
the  injury  resulting  from  the  failure  to  enact  and 
enforce  stringent  laws  for  its  ])reservation.  Sea- 
fowl  throng  the  coast  and  estuaries,  alligators  are 
numerous  in  the  rivei-s,  and  food-lishes,  oysters. 
clauLs,  turtle,  &c.  are  abundant.  By  reaison  of 
the  denudation  of  their  banks,  rendering  their 
watei-s  turbid  and  causing  unruly  currents,  the 
fresh-water  streams  have  suH'ered  material  diminu- 
tion in  their  animal  life.  F'rom  them  food-lishes, 
once  so  abundant,  have  largely  disajjpeared,  and 
the  pearl-bearing  unio  is  now  seldom  seen  ;  but  the 
United  States  Fish  ComniLssion  Una  been  success- 
ful in  the  introduction  of  some  varieties  of  fishes 
better  suited  to  the  changed  condition. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Georgia  is  apparent  in 
the  gold-bearing  strata  of  the  Cherokee  region, 
which  for  the  pa.st  lifty  years  have  l.)een  success- 
fully worked,  in  extensive  ile|>osits  of  coal,  in  iron, 
copper,  silver,  and  lead  ores,  in  marbles  of  attrac- 
tive varieties,  in  vast  fields  of  granite  and  slate, 
and  in  the  presence  of  gypsum,  limestone,  syenite, 
marl,  buhrstone,  soapstone,  asbestos,  shales, 
tripoli,  lluor-spar,  kaolin,  clays,  porcelain,  aragon- 
ite,  tourmaline,  emerald,  carnelian,  ruby,  opal, 
chalcedony,  agate,  amethyst,  jasper,  garnets,  rose- 
(piartz,  beryl,  and  occasional  diamonds.  In  1837- 
th  the  United  States  branch  mint  at  Dahhmega 
coined  gold  bullion  to  the  value  of  over  six  million 
dollars,  mostly  from  metals  extracted  from  the 
auriferous  rocks  of  the  ajljacent  territory.  To  the 
development  of  these  mineral  resources  of  the  state 
much  attention  is  being  paid,  and  with  prolitable 
results.  Prior  to  the  civil  war  the  inhalntants  of 
Georgia  were  almost  exclusively  engaged  in  agri- 
culture and  commerce  ;  but  more  recent  industries 
are  the  lumber  trade,  and  extensive  cotton, 
woollen,  and  other  manufactures.  The  most 
important  mills  are  at  Augusta,  Columbus, 
Atlanta,  Athens,  and  Koswell.  Kecent  statistics 
show  that  there  are  now  within  the  state  54  cotton 
and  woollen  mills,  with  350,000  spindles  an<l  8000 
looms ;  while  the  lumber.  Hour,  grLst,  and  pulp 
mills,  v*v;c.  are  being  nmltiplied,  and  the  iron  and 
steel  trade  in  the  nortli-western  part  of  the  state 
is  overtaking  the  cotton  manufacture  in  import- 
ance. 

Althoui'h,  since  the  civil  war,  the  i>roduction  of 
black-seed  cotton  on  the  sea  islands  ami  along  the 
coast  has  materially  diminished,  the  yield  of  short- 
staple  cotton  has  greatly  increased.  "  'The  average 
crop  of  this  variety  will  now  approximate  1,000,000 
bales,  worth  at  the  point  ot  consumpthm  or  of 
export  over  .540,000,000.  Of  the  other  yeariy 
.agricultural  products  of  (Jeorgia  the  rice"  crop 
(25.000,000  pounds),  the  Indian  corn  (25,000,000 
bushels),  wheat,  oats,  sweet  potatoes,  and  tobacco 
are  important ;  an<l  there  is  a  ye«irly  yield  of 
tX)0,000  gallons  of  syrup,  650  hogsheads  of  cane- 
sugar,  5,000,0(X)  pounds  of  butter,  and  700,000 
pounds  of  honey.  From  the  )>orls  of  Savannah. 
Darien,  Bninswick,  and  St  Mary  shiimients  of 
lumber  and  na>al  stores  are  annually  increasing. 
Navigable  rivei-s  and  an  admirable  system  of  rail- 
way.s  (over  3000  miles),  besides  three" short  canals, 
furnish  conveuient  transportation  from  the  inte- 
rior. Notably  at  .Savannah,  coastwise  anil  foreign 
iHjund  steamers  and  sailing-vessels  convey  the 
products  of  the  region  to  the  desirable  luaikets  of 
the  world. 

The  state  is  divided  into  137  counties,  10  con- 
gressional districts,  1  supreme  judicial  district,  21 
judicial  ciroiits,  .and  numerous  militia  districts. 
Atlanta  is  the  capital,  and  Savannah  the  commercial 


164 


GEORGIA 


metropolis.  Augusta,  Macon,  Cohinilms,  and 
Athens  may  ho  mentinncd  aiiioii^;  tin'  lliiiiin^' cities 
and  towns  of  this  commonwealth.  'I'lic  ]iii|nilation 
lias  steadily  incicasi'<l  from  S2,r)48  in  ITitO  to  (  IHO(l) 
l,()r)7,2S();"(lS70)  l,lH4,10y:  (l.SH(()  l,542,ltS0;  and 
at  the  census  of  IH'.tO  to  l,,s;j7,:{,">3,  of  whom  tlie 
whites  form  sli;,'htly  more  tlian  lialf. 

Tliere  exists  in  "(;eor;,'ia  a  tlioron<,'h  system  of 
free  common  scliools ;  .se|>arate  .schools  are  con- 
ducted for  both  white  and  cohnned  ]iu]>ils. 
Opportunities  for  lii;;lier  education  are  atl'ordeil 
by  the  university  of  lleorjiia,  at  Athens,  liy  its 
dependent  coUejies  at  Dahlonc'^a,  Milled;.'evillc, 
Thoniasville,  Cuthhert,  and  Atlanta,  and  liy  sundry 
denominational  colle^'Cs.  At  the  university  of 
tJeorj.'ia  and  its  ilcpendent  colle^ies  tuition  for 
Geor;;ians  is  free,  lieor^'ia  h;i.s  also  a  school  for  the 
blind  at  Macon,  for  the  education  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb  at  Cave  Spring,  and  an  a.-ylum  for  lunatics 
near  Milledgeville. 

History.  — The  colony  of  (leorfjia  was  founded  by 
James  O;;letliori)0  (q.v.)  in  ITS.'J,  as  a  refu^re  for 
poor  debtors  arid  for  the  jierseculed  Protestants  of 
(iermany,  and  received  its  name  in  honour  of 
tieorjie  II.  In  l'ii'2  Htjlethorpe  surrendered  his 
charter  to  the  British  };overnment.  (leorjria  wa-s 
thereafter clius.sed  lusan  Kn^dish  province,  until,  willi 
her  sister  colonies,  she  succeeded  in  cjistitij,'  otl  her 
alle^'iance  to  the  crown.  Save  durinj;  the  few 
yeai"s  of  the  civil  war,  she  ha.s  since  continued  a 
component  member  of  the  confederation  of  the 
Uniteil  States  of  America,  and  luus  lonj;  been 
rej,'ar<led  a-s  the  Kmpiie  State  of  the  South. 
Despite  the  lilieration  of  her  slave  population, 
which  in  ISliO  numbered  4.i(),03.'?,  and  was  valued 
at  S.'50'2,C94,So5,  and  in  the  face  of  ■.oievous  losses 
occasioned  by  the  war,  the  state  liius  durinj;  the 
last  i|uarter  of  a  century  luiinifested  recu])erative 
powers  of  a  marvellous  sort. 

Georgia,  the  name  formerly  apjdied  to  the 
central  portion  of  what  is  now  Russian  Trans- 
cauca-sia  (q.v.),  boumled  by  the  Caucasian  moun- 
tains on  tlie  north  and  by  the  Armenian  inountains 
on  the  south.  The  Russian  name  is  (nuzia;  the 
Persian  Ourjestan,  from  which  form  the  name 
tieorjiia  i>robably  arose,  it  beinj;  perhaps  a  oorru|i 
tiim  of  (Juria,  the  name  of  one  of  the  western 
provinces.  The  early  history  of  the  Georjnans, 
who  pretend  to  trace  their  orijjfin  to  Tharganios, 
a  f;reat-t,'randson  of  Japhet,  is  wrapped  in  fable. 
Mtskhetlios,  who  is  said  to  liave  built  Mt.sketha, 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  country,  situated  near 
Titlis,  but  now  reduced  to  a  mere  village,  jplays  a 
prominent  p:irt  in  it.  NVe  have  also  to  deal  with 
legend  in  the  story  of  the  Argonauts  and  Medea, 
who  is  saiil  to  have  been  born  at  Kutais.  The 
Georgians  first  appear  in  authentic  history  in  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  to  whom  they  sub 
mitted.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  in  323  B.C. 
they  gained  their  indejiendence  under  Pliarnavas 
(.302-237  IJ.f. ).  With  Pliarnavas  begins  the  series 
of  the  kings  (a  title  iendere<l  in  Georgian  by  the 
word  mcjihc),  who,  under  various  dyni-v^ties,  ruled 
the  country  almost  uninterruptedly  for  more  than 
2(X)0  years.  In  26,5  .\.l).  the  Sa.ssanian  ilynasty 
a-sceniled  the  tlirone  in  the  person  of  King  Marian, 
and  ended  with  iiakour  III.  in  .")70.  Towards  the 
close  of  the  4th  century  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced by  the  preaching  of  St  Nina,  and  in  iff.) 
Vakhtaiig  built  the  city  of  Tillis  (Tbilisi),  so 
called  from  the  hot-springs  found  there.  Soon 
after  tlie  death  of  .Mnhammed  his  followers  entered 
the  country  and  forced  many  of  the  inhabitants  to 
embrace  Islam.  The  S;us>aniiles  were  succeeded 
by  the  powerful  dvnastv  of  the  IJagiatides,  one 
of  whom,  Bagrat  III.  (flso  KXW),  extended  his 
dominions  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Caspian  ;  but 
during  the  eleventh  century  the  Georgians  t>vice 


sutl'ereil    from   an    inva.sion   of    the   Seljuks,    who 

committed  great  devastations. 

The  country  reached  the  height  of  it.s  glory  in 
the  reign  of  t/ueen  Tliamar  or  Tumara  ( 11S4  1212), 
the  ilaughter  of  (ieorge  III.  With  her  marriage 
to  the  son  of  the  Kiissiaii  prince,  Andrew  liogo- 
liubski,  may  be  said  to  begin  the  connection  be- 
tween Uiissia  and  Georgia.  The  dominions  of 
Taiuara  were  more  extensive  than  those  of  any 
other  native  sovereign,  and  lier  court  was  graced 
by  the  presence  of  inany  men  of  letters.  But  evil 
ilays  were  in  store  for  (ieorgia.  In  122(1  and  1222  we 
hear  of  Mcmgolian  invasions,  and  Tillis  was  harried 
with  lire  and  sword.  Towards  the  end  of  the  14th 
centurv  the  country  fell  into  the  hamls  of  Tiiuour, 
who,  ^lowever,  was  driven  from  it  in  1403  by 
George  VII.  One  of  George's  successors,  Alexander 
(1413  42),  committed  the  fatal  error  of  dividing 
the  kingdom  between  his  three  sons.  The  general 
history  of  tieorgda  now  separates  into  two  p;irt»  : 
that  of  the  eastern  states,  Karthli  and  Kakhetli, 
anil  that  of  the  western  states,  including  Iinereth, 
.Miiigrelia,  and  <;uria.  Prom  the  Kith  to  the  l.sili 
ceiiluiy  the  (ieoigians  sulVered  grievously  from  the 
Persians.  In  ItJlS  Shah  Ablias  invaded  the 
country,  and  Teimuraz  I.  applied  for  help  to  the 
Czar  Alichael  ;  in  163H  Levan,  king  of  Mingrelia, 
took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Alexis  ;  it  was  only 
from  their  co  religionists  that  the  Georgians  could 
liojie  fur  succour  in  their  hour  of  need.  They  also 
suHeied  from  the  encroachments  of  the  Turks. 
In  179.")  the  savage  .\ga  Moliamiiied  Shah  invaded 
(ieoigia,  and  levelled  Tillis  to  the  ground,  cairving 
away  a  great  number  of  captives.  The  aged  king 
Heraclius  II.,  an  able  sovereign,  seeing  that  all 
resistance  was  in  vain,  lied  to  the  mountains, 
where  he  soon  afterwards  died.  His  .son,  (!eoige 
XIII.,  resigned  the  crown  in  favour  of  Paul, 
eniperm-  of  Bu.'^sia,  in  1799;  but  bis  brother 
Alexaniler  did  not  aci|iiie.sce  in  this  arrangement, 
and  held  out  for  some  time,  but  was  defeated  in  a 
battle  on  the  hanks  of  the  lor.  George  died  in 
l.S(K),  and  in  the  following  year  Alexander  of 
Russia  formally  annexeil  the  country.  In  IHIO 
the  prince  of  imeieth  attempted  a  revolt,  which 
was  (luickly  suppressed.  Guria  was  finally  united 
with  liussia  in  IS29. 

The  former  kingilom  of  Georgia  is  mainly  in- 
cluiled  in  the  governments  of  Kutais,  Titlis,  and 
Elizabcthiiol.  The  district  is  very  fertile,  lieing 
abiiiidaiitly  productive  of  cereals,  wine— especially 
the  Kakhetian  — honey,  and  silk,  of  cattle  and 
horses,  whili'  the  iMoiiiitains  teem  with  mineial 
wealth,  '.\>  yet  little  utilised.  The  (jeorgians  belong 
to  the  Kartveli  stock,  forming  the  southern  group 
of  Cauciusian  peo]des.  Their  numbers  have  been 
variously  estimated.  Some  fix  them  at  about 
911,000,  but  \'oii  Kickert  {Iki-  Kaukasiis  tnul  seine 
Viilher,  Leip.  1887)  gives  the  following  calcula- 
tion, !us  based  in  the  main  on  the  last  censtis  of 
1881  : 

Georgians  (in  tlie  restricted  sense  of  the  tenii)  350,000 

liiiert-tiaiis  and  Ciuriana 480,000 

Adcharians  and  Lazes 20.000 

I'sliavi;^,  living  in  the  iiioiiiitains 9.000 

Tliushes                ,r                ,<            6,000 

Klievsnrs            »               n            7,000 

MiiifcTclians 215,000 

SuaUL'tians    13,000 

1,100,000 

To  this  work  is  appended  an  excellent  etlinologicat 
inaji.  The  (Jeorgians  and  their  congeners  are  of 
the  Caucasian  or  Pair  race  (as  opjiosed  to  the 
Mongolian  or  Yellow  race).  They  are  celebrated 
for  their  beauty,  ami  under  the  Mohaniniedan  rule 
the  white  slaves  of  western  Asia  and  of  Kgyiit 
were  mostly  drawn  from  among  them  and  the 
Circassians.      To  the  great  credit  of   Russia  this 


GEORGIA 


165 


disgiaceful  traffic  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  treaty 
of  KuclmkKainanIji  in  1774.  Tlioiif;h  endowed 
by  nature  with  mental  no  less  tlmn  iiliysical  ad- 
vantages, the  long  course  of  oivpressiiin  to  which 
they  have  been  subjected  has  had  its  etl'ect  upon 
their  characters.  But,  despite  the  supremacy  and 
brutal  tyranny  of  their  Mohammedan  con(|uerors, 
they  have  as  a  nation  remained  faitlifnl  to  the 
Christian  religion,  acconling  to  the  doctrines  of 
the  Greek  Church.  In  Guria,  however,  and  tlie 
country  of  tlie  Lazes,  large  numbers  of  the  inliabit- 
ants  were  forced  by  persecution  to  emlirace  Islam, 
and  in  these  districts  the  ruins  of  many  churches 
may  still  be  seen.  The  southern  Caucasians,  with 
niagnilicent  physique,  fertile  .soil,  and  enervating 
climate,  are  somewhat  iiubjlent ;  they  are  passion- 
ately fond  of  singing  and  nmsic. 

The  four  chief  tongues — Georgian,  Mingrelian, 
Suanetian,  and  Lazian,  which  some  have  called  the 
Iberian  group— stand  to  each  other  more  in  the 
relation  of  languages  than  dialects,  although  they 
certainly  all  had  a  common  origan  ;  Mingrelian 
especially  has  greatly  diverged.  Cieorgian  alone 
of  the  four  has  a  literature,  if  we  except  the  few 
folk-tales  of  the  Mingrelians.  These  languages 
are  of  the  agglutinative  type  ;  the  chief  dilticulty 
lies  in  the  verbs,  which  incorporate  the  pronominal 
prefixes  and  suffixes.  In  their  structure  they 
resemble  Basque,  but  no  affinity  can  be  established 
between  these  two  families  of  languages,  as  their 
vocabularies  have  no  word  in  common. 

The  Georgians  u.se  two  alphabets — the  Ichutsiiri 
or  ecclesiastical,  and  the  ml/ict/rii/i  or  civil  :  the 
first  is  only  employed  in  the  religious  books.  They 
are  very  old,  and  legendary  accounts  are  given 
of  their  origin.  The  ecclesiastical  resembles  the 
Armenian  alphabet ;  the  civil  is  a  very  pretty 
character,  with  many  rounded  letters,  which  make 
it  somewhat  resemble  Burmese.  (Jeorgian  litera- 
ture is  by  no  means  poor.  Professor  Tsagarelli  gives 
a  list  of  94(3  Georgian  MSS.  known  to  exist ;  they 
are  preserved  in  monasteries  at  Jerusalem,  on 
Mount  -Vthosand  Mount  8inai,  ami  at  Titlis,  in  the 
lil)rary  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Educa- 
tion among  the  Georgians.  Besides  these,  there 
are  'Mi  MSS  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  in  Paris, 
ami  :U  in  private  hands  at  Tillis.  Further  search 
will,  no  doulit,  bring  to  light  others.  As  far  as  it 
can  be  traced  back,  the  literature  begins  about  the 
5tli  centurv  .V.D.,  with  translations  of  the  Scrip- 
tures and  tlie  Fathers,  and  later  on  we  get  versions 
of  the  Greek  classical  authors,  including  Plato, 
Aristotle,  and  Josephus.  To  the  7th  century 
belongs  a  line  psalter  on  papyrus,  and  there  is  a 
complete  manuscript  of  the  Bilile  of  the  lOth, 
]in'scrvcd  at  Mount  Athos.  The  great  literary 
development,  however,  of  the  covmtry  was  during 
the  lull  and  l'2th  centuries,  and  especially  in  the 
reign  of  Queen  Tamara.  To  this  period  belongs 
the  popular  epic,  '  The  Man  in  the  Panther's  Skin  ' 
(  VrpldJiris-tlcao.siini),  a  poem  narrating  the  love 
of  .Vvtanilil  fen' Tinatina,  daughter  of  the  .\iabian 
king  Kostevan,  and  tliat  of  Tariel  for  Nestan  I)ar- 
edjan,  daughter  of  the  Indian  king  Paisadan.  It 
is  a  richly-coloured  work,  as  if  written  by  an 
oriental  Tasso,  and  enjoys  great  popularity  among 
the  Georgians  at  the  present  day,  many  of  the 
couplets — it  is  written  in  quatrains — having  passed 
into  proverbs.  The  author,  Shota  Uustavcii,  was 
the  glory  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Tamara,  and  is 
said  to  have  died  at  .leriisalem  as  a  monk  in  I'ilo. 
A  handsome  illustrated  edition  of  this  work  ap- 
peared at  Tillis  in  ISSS.  Of  Shavtel,  another  poet 
of  the  lime  who  also  enjoyed  considerable  reputa- 
tion, only  a  few  odes  have  come  down.  Chakli- 
riikliadze  compo.sed  a  long  and  rather  tedious  jioem 
in  honour  of  the  famous  inieen  ;  prose  tales  were 
wriitiMi  by  Sarkis  of  Thmogvi,  tlie  most  celebrated 


being  the  Visiximiani,  and  a  poem  by  Mose  of 
Klioni,  called  Darecljanian  i .  Now  that  the 
Georgians  have  been  secured  by  Russian  luotection 
from  their  Moslem  foes,  they  are  busy  in  studying 
their  old  literature  and  editing  their  MSS.  Some- 
where about  the  same  time  as  these  authors 
nourished  was  begun  the  Georgian  chronicle,  called 
Krirt/i/i.s  Tsklirivnijit,  or  life  of  Georgda,  the  first 
part  of  which  is  anonymous,  and  carries'  the  history 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  year  I •224;  a  con- 
tinuation, also  anonymous,  brings  it  down  to  the 
year  144.5. 

But  this  brilliant  jieriod  was  destined  to  a 
temporary  eclipse  ;  during  the  14th  and  the  next 
two  centuries  the  country  was  a  prey  to  Mongols, 
Tartars,  Persians,  and  Turks ;  the  cities  were 
deva.stated,  many  of  the  inhalutants  were  carried 
into  captivity,  and  valuable  MSS.  were  lost  or 
destroyed.  In  the  17th  century,  however,  matters 
liegan  to  mend.  Towards  the  close  Hourislied  Saba 
Sulkhan  Orbeliani.  one  of  the  most  learned  men 
of  his  time,  who  visited  Paris,  where  he  was  well 
received  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  Koine.  To  him  his 
countrymen  are  indebted  for  the  first  dictionary 
of  their  language,  called,  in  oriental  style,  '  The 
Bouquet  of  Words  ; '  it  was  edited  at  Tillis  in 
1S84.  His  also  was  the  popular  work,  '  The  Book  of 
Wisdom  and  Falsehood  '  (  Tsigni  Sihrmni-sitsruisa), 
a  collection  of  amusing  fables  and  apologues,  some 
of  his  own  invention,  and  others  drawn  from  the 
stores  of  Georgian  and  other  oriental  folk-tales. 
A  Russian  translation  of  this  interesting  book  has 
been  published  l.iy  Professor  Tsagarelli  of  St  Peters- 
burg. 

In  1709  King  Vakhtang  VI.  established  a  print- 
ing-press at  Titlis.  One  of  the  works  wliicli  ap- 
peared was  'The  Man  in  the  Panther's  Skin,'  to 
which  he  added  a  curious  mystical  commentary, 
giving  the  book  a  religious  meaning,  perhaps  to 
rehabilitate  it  among  the  clergy,  who  regarded  it 
as  a  profane  work.  \'akhtang  also  lalioured  at  a 
translation  of  the  Kalihih  am/  IhnniKi/t,  in  which 
he  was  assisted  bv  Sulkhan  Orbeliani  (edited  at 
Titlis  in  1S86).  This  king,  thinking  his  country 
lost  on  account  of  a  fresh  invasion  of  the  Turks, 
emigrated  to  Russia  with  many  (Jeorgian  families, 
and  in  consequence  of  their  presence  in  the  country 
the  great  Georgian  Bible  was  publisheil  at  Moscow 
in  1743.  To  this  century  also  belong  the  Darithi- 
(iiii,  a  poem  by  Guramishvili,  and  the  first  Georgian 
grammar,  by  the  Catholicos  (Primate)  Anthony, 
besides  other  works.  Vakhusht,  the  son  of  Vakh- 
tang, continued  the  chronicle  of  his  country  till 
174.T,  and  wrote  a  geographical  description  of  it,  a 
work  of  great  value.  Since  the  ]ieacefiil  settle- 
ment of  tieorgia  under  the  Russians,  literature 
has  been  greatly  developed.  The  line  lyric  poets, 
-Alexander  Chavchavadze  (wlio.se  daughter  married 
Griboiedov,  the  Russian  dramatist  I,  Rajdiael  Eris- 
tavi,  Nicholas  Baratashvili,  and  .Vkaki  Tsereteli, 
have  appeared.  The  most  conspicuous  literary 
man  of  Titlis  at  the  present  time  is  Prince  Ilya 
Chavchavadze,  author  of  some  of  the  most  grace- 
ful lyrics  in  the  language,  and  some  spirited  tales 
in  which  he  has  satirised  the  luxury  and  other 
weaknesses  of  his  countrymen.  He  is  editor  of 
the  Georgian  literary  and  political  daily  journal, 
Iberia.  Some  of  the  plays  of  Shakespeare,  anion" 
othei-s  Hom/ct  ami  Ot/itt/u,  have  been  translated 
by  Prince  Machabeli.  Altogether,  Georgian  litera- 
ture may  be  said  to  be  in  a  tlourisliing  condition. 

The  pioneer  in  the  study  of  Georgian  history  ami 
philology  was  Brosset,  who  published  Ett}iiicnls  de  la 
LaiH/ue  Gcorgifunc  (Paris,  1837),  an  elaborate  edition  of 
the  Georgian  Chronicle  |.st  Petersburg,  184'J-.">!S),  and 
many  other  works.  Chubiiiuv's  Griizinvko-nissK-o-fraiU- 
unskii  Sfotar^  iJictioimairc  Georffien-fran^ais-ritsse  (St 
Petersburg,     1840;,    and    Jiiissian-Georgian    Dictionary 


166 


GEORGIA 


GERARD 


(184C;  new  cd.  1886);  Prof.  A.  Tsagnrelli's  notices  of  | 
r;t'(iri;mn  literature  and  (ienr^^ian  studiex  (in  Kussian) 
and  d'lcuiiu'tits  illtislrating  <  Icor^iaii  literature  ( St  Peters- 
burg, ISSli  !(.">);  and  A.  I^'ist's  <lior(iutt  (l>8.'i)  and 
treori/isr/f:  Dichicr  irnlciitHfht  ( Leip.  1887)  may  lie 
nientione<l.  See  also  French  books  on  Georgia  by  Lang- 
lui.s  and  \'illeneuve  ;  Wardrop,  Tht  Kitvjdum  of  fifinyta 
( 18S.S  ),  and  (loinjiim  Futk  T'llia  ( 1S'.)4).— For  the  Church 
in  Georgia,  sec  GBEEK  CHlincH,  \'ol.  V.  p.  400. 

Georgia,  (!i"LK  ok,  an  arm  of  the  rucific, 
Iictwccii  Vancouver's  Isl.and  and  the  mainland  of 
British  ('(diiniliia,  eomninnicaliiiK  willi  tliu  oce.an 
by  Queen  Charh)tte".s  Sound  in  the  north,  and  liy 
the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Tuoa  in  the  soulii.  It  is 
250  inile.s  Ion;;  liy  a  little  over  30  broad. 

G<'orsi:iii  Kay.     See  Htitox  (L.\ki;). 

€it>ori;iiiiii  Sidiis.    See  Hkr-sciikl.  Tlanets. 

Cii4'Ol*U[S\valdo<  a  town  on  the  northern  border 
of  liidiiMMJa.  1 1'i  miles  N.  of  l'rn;.'ue  by  rail,  «ilh  a 
mineral  s|iriii^'  and  linen  niannfaetuies.     l'o\\,  .5808. 

fi4'I>Iiyri'a«  a  ela.ss  of  tinsegmented  marine 
worms,  divided  into  two  distiuet  snli.;;rou]is  :  (a) 
the  (lephyreans  ]iroiier.  without  bristles  {(!. 
arhtit(i)—c.'^.  Sipuiieulus  (((.v.),  Priapulus,  l^ha-sco- 
losoma  ;  .and  {,!>)  the  Echiuroiils  or  arnieil  (Jepliy- 
rean.s  (6'.  r/iitii/cra) — c.j,'.  Kcdiinnis,  Tlialasseuia, 
Bimellia  (q.v.).  They  live  at  the  bottom  of  the 
sea,  in  sand,  mnd,  or  amonj;  locks.  While  the 
adults  of  both  sub  ■,'roups  are  not  segmented,  the 
larvie  of  the  Kchinroids  are,  and  on  this  and  other 
grounds  many  authorities  place  them  apart  from 
the  other  (Jepliyreans  and  nearer  the  Annelids. 

•See  Selenka,  *  Gephyrca,'  ChnUntf/rr  Kep.  .\iii.  (1S8.'5); 
De  Mace,  Biilow,  and  Stdenka,  'Die  Sipunculiden,'  in 
Sempcr's  Iivi:*nt  im  Archijtef  tifr  PhHip}nncn^  part  ii. 
(1.884);  Kiet.sch,  'Monograph  of  £chiurid;e,'  Itecueil 
Zuiil.  SiiiKsi;  iii.  (188G). 

C>(']>i4l;r>  a  people  of  (Jermanie  origiti,  wlnmi  we 
first  read  of  as  settled  about  the  mouth  of  the 
Vistula  in  the  M  century.  IJefiue  the  .">th  century 
they  had  migrateil  to  the  Lower  Danube,  where 
they  were  subjugated  by  the  Huns;  but,  revolting 
against  Attila's  son,  they  recovered  their  fr<!edom 
and  established  themselves  iii  Daei.a.  There  their 
power  grew  so  gre.at  that  they  levied  tribute  from 
the  liyzantiue  emperors  down  to  Justinian's  days. 
In  the  enil  of  the  oth  century  a  powerful  enemy 
arose  to  them  in  the  Ostrogoths  ;  and  after  them 
came  the  Lougobards,  who,  in  alliance  with  the 
Avars,  inllicted  a  crusliing  defeat  ujion  the  (Jejiiihe 
in  5GG.  A  part  of  the  last-named  then  submitted 
to  the  Avars,  whilst  a  jiart  accompanieil  the  I.ongo- 
bards  to  Italy.  Henceforward  we  hear  of  them  no 
more. 

CiC'rsu  a  town  of  fJermany,  capital  of  the  small 
princip.ility  of  I'.euss  Schleiz,  is  pleasantly  .situated 
on  the  White  Elster,  4'2  miles  L.  by  S.  of  Weimar 
by  rail.  Nearly  destroyed  by  lire  in  1780,  it  is  for 
the  most  part  a  mo<lern  town,  with  broad  and 
regular  .streets,  but  its  cdder  buildings  include  a 
castle  anil  a  line  town  hall.  There  .are  over  a 
score  of  extiuisive  woollen  factories,  besides  cotton- 
works,  dyeing  ami  printing  works,  m.anufactnres 
of  nuichinerv,  leather,  tidiacco,  and  beer  for  export, 
and  four  publishing  houses  :  and  eight  establish- 
ments, employing  l.JOO  hands,  turn  out  thousands 
of  melodeons,  acconlions,  ami  jews'-har|)s  ve.arlv. 
Pop.  (184:^)  11, .300;  (1880)  '27,118;  (1895)  42,300, 
nearly  all  I'rotestants. 

Goraoo,  .a  town  of  southern  Italy,  4  miles  from 
the  .sea,  and  ,■{7  (.">S  by  rail)  NE.  of  Keggio.  It  h.as 
a  cathedr.al,  rebuilt  after  the  carthfjuake  of  178.3, 
and  a  trade  in  wine,  esjiecially  the  esteemed 
Lficrimti  di  Gerace.  There  are  iron-mines  .and  <a 
hot  sulphur-spring  close  by,  and  on  a  neighb(mring 
pliiin  are  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Locri.     Pop.  5'26.3. 

Geraiido.    See  Deoer.vndh. 


lii'railiaren',  an  order  of  thalamifloral  dicoty- 
leilons,  herbs  <h-  nndersbrubs  of  temperate  coun- 
tries, particularly  abiimlant  at  the  (ajie,  and  of 
which  the  leailing  gi'uera  (li'iiinitim,  I'elaigonium, 
and  Krodiiim  yiehl  a  great  number  of  garilen  and 
greenhouse  plants  (see  IJKll.VNllM ).  In  a  wider 
.sense  the  order  is  extended  to  incluile  the  closely 
related  Lints  (Linaee.-e)  and  Sornds  (<  »xali<lnce»'), 
together  with  the  curiiuisly  specialised  lialsam- 
inacea>,  and  sometimes  .also  the  Trop;eolacere  (see 
TitiiP.KOl.rv*.  of  which,  however,  the  allinity  is 
more  doubtful.  , 

(■<'railillllU  I  be  typical  genus  of  ( ieraiiiace.e, 
wliiili  iiicludcs  about  KM)  perennial  .and  annual 
herbs.  The  |io|pular  name  ( ('rane's-bill )  is  derived 
from  the  resemblance  to  the  crane's  beak  pre- 
.sented  by  the  beak-like  process  attached  lo  the  fi  uit, 
this  curiously  a,ssists  in  the  distribution  of  the 
seed  by  its  characteristic  mode  of  splitting  sjiirally 
into  awn  like  proccs.ses  and  carrying  the  seed 
along  with  them.  Twelve  s|>ecies  are  natives  of 
the  woods,  hedgerows,  and  Holds  of  Britain.  Of 
these  several  are  cultivated  in  gardens,  especially 
G.  s(i>igi(ineiiiii,  with  its  variety  laiiriislrinisc,  and 
the  double-llowercd  form  of  G.  sylvittlrum,  one  of 
the  liandsomest  of  border  flowers,  while  among 
pretty  exotic  s]>ecies  in.ay  be  nameH  (1.  nrmnnim, 
j>/ali//>rtii/>im,  Sec      Several  arc  of  old  medicinal 


Herb  Robert  {Qei-anium  Robertianum 


repute,  notably  G.  Hoheiiirunim  (Herb  Ilobeit  or 
Stinkiu';  Crane's-bill),  which  emits  a  strong  dis- 
agreeable odour  that  is  said  to  banish  bugs  :  it  is 
indigenous  in  the  I  nite<l  States.  G.  mtini/atiiin 
is  the  .Mum  Koot  of  North  America  -a  root 
so  ])owcifully  astringent  .-is  to  be  eni]iloyed.  both 
by  the  Indians  and  the  Eurojican  settlers  in  the 
L'nited  States,  in  domestic  medicine  for  many 
disorders  requiring  the  exhibition  of  astringents. 
G.  caroliiii'cniiim  is  another  American  species.  A 
few  speciesjiroduce  edible  tubei-s — e.g.  G.  tuberosum 
of  South  Europe,  and  i:.  jinrriJJnriim,  the  Native 
f'arrol  of  Tasmania.  The  name  (Jcraninm  is,  how- 
ever, often  iiopularly  misapplieil  to  the  members 
of  the  allied  genus  Pelargonium  ;  witness  the  so- 
called  'scarlet  geranium,'  'ivy-leaved  geranium,' 
&c.      See  PEL.\RGOXirM. 

Cit'rard.  Etiesxe  M.-^urice,  Co.mtfc,  Marshal 
of  France,  wa.s  born  at  Ilamvillieis,  in  Liuraine, 
4th  April  177.3.  Volunteering  into  the  army  in 
1791,  he  a-ssociateil  his  fortunes  for  some  years  with 
those  of  Bernadotte,  serving  on  the  P.hinc,  in  Italy, 
in  the  Vendee  cam]iaign,  in  (Icrmany,  and  in  Spain, 
where  lie  especiallv  ilistinguished  himself  at  Kuentes 
de  Onoro.  For  his  brilli;int  .services  at  Austerlitz 
(1805)  he  w.a-s  appointed  general  of  brigade;  he 
also  took  a  notable  jiart  at  .lena  (180G),  F.rfurt 
(I80C),  and  Wagram  (1809).  During  the  Kussian 
campaign  of  181 '2  he  rendered  conspicuous  service 
at  the  capture  of  Smolensk,  in  the  battle  of  A'.alon 


GERARD 


GERM 


167 


tina-Oora,  and  at  the  passajre  of  tlie  IJeresina.  Alter 
Na]inleoii"s  return  from  Ellia  lie  ooninianiled  a 
division  at  Lij,'ny,  and  was  wonniled  at  Wavre. 
Tlie  second  restoration  coniiiolled  liini  to  leave 
France,  and  lie  did  not  retnrii  till  1S17.  In  1831 
he  commanded  the  F'rench  army  sent  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Belgians  af^ainst  the  Dutch,  whom  he 
drove  ont  of  Flanders,  and  on  27tli  Decemlier  1832 
com|iellcd  the  citadel  of  Antwerp  to  ca]iitnlate. 
After  the  Jnly  revolution  of  1830  he  was  ai>iiointeil 
marshal  and  war-minister  by  l-ouis-l'lMlippe ;  he 
was  again  war-minister  from  July  to  (Jctober  in 
1834.     He  died  at  Paris,  ITtli  April  18o2. 

Gifrard,  Baeon  Francois  Pascal,  paintei-, 
liorn  of  French  parentage  at  Rome,  11th  March 
1770,  at  ten  was  brought  to  Fi-ance,  and  at 
sixteen  became  the  pupil  of  David.  In  1795 
he  exhibited  'Belisarius,'  which  llrst  brought 
him  into  notice ;  shortly  afterwards  he  paintc<l 
'  Psyclie  receiving  the  First  Kiss  from  (_'u])id.' 
Pre\  ious  to  this  he  had  already  begun  to  work 
at  ]iortrait-painting,  his  portrait  of  Madame  Bona- 
parte in  1799  being  the  beginning  of  his  careei'  as 
the  'painter  of  kings.'  Almost  all  the  royal  and 
otber  celebrities  who  visited  Paris  between  1799 
and  1837  were  painted  liy  Gerard,  who  owed  his 
success  not  alone  to  his  skill  as  a  portraitist,  but 
also  to  the  charm  of  his  manners  and  conversation. 
The  grandest  of  his  works  are,  however,  historical 
pictures,  the  'Battle  of  Austerlitz '  (1810)  and  the 
'Entry  of  Henry  IV.  into  Paris'  (1814).  (ieranl 
was  appointed  lirst  court-painter  and  raised  to  the 
rank  ot  baron  by  Louis  XVIII.  He  died  at  Paris, 
lltli  January  1837.  Gerard's  most  celebrated  jior- 
traits  are  those  of  Napoleon  in  his  coronation 
robes,  the  Queen  of  Naples  and  her  Children, 
Talleyrand,  Talma,  Louis-Philippe,  and  Madame 
Uecamier.  See  books  by  Adam  (3  vols.  1852-57) 
and  II.  Gerard  (18(j7). 

Gorsird,  John,  herbalist,  was  born  at  Nautwich, 
in  Cheshire,  in  1545.  Settling  in  London,  he  kept 
Lord  IJurghley's  gardens  for  over  twenty  years, 
practised  as  a  barber-surgeon,  becoming  nuister 
of  the  com|iany  in  1008,  and  died  in  l(il2.  His 
famous  HeiliiiU  was  publisheil  in  1597,  mainly 
baseil  ujion  i\ie  Stirpiitin  Hinturiw  I'ciiii/fai/es  { 1583) 
by  Ueml)crt  Dodoens.  An  enlarged  edition  of 
Geriird's  Ilcrba/l  was  issued  liy  Thomas  Johnson 
in  1033. 

Ciorard.  caricaturist.     See  GliAxnyiLi.E. 

C>«'rJirdllier  ('the  Queen  of  the  Vosges'),  a 
liciliilay  resort  much  frequented  by  Parisians,  and 
famous  for  its  cheese,  is  in  the  dep.  of  Vosges,  32 
miles  SE.  of  E|iinal  by  rail.      Pop.  7300. 

CJor'si.sa,  in  the  time  of  the  Romans  a  flourish- 
ing city  of  Palestine,  was  situated  among  the 
mountains  of  Gilead,  about  20  miles  east  of  the 
Jordan.  Parts  of  the  city  wall  are  still  in  good 
preseivation  ;  two  theatres  and  several  temjdes  can 
tie  iilcntilied  ;  and  230  columns  are  still  standing. 

iicrliert.    See  Sylvester  II. 

<>t'rliai'dt.  Karl  Friedrich,  chemist,  born 
at  Strasburg,.  21st  August  1810,  at  lifteen  was  sent 
to  the  Polytechnic  School  of  Carlsrulie,  and  after- 
wards studied  chemistry  at  Lei]izig,  and  under 
Liel>ig  at  Giessen.  In  1838  he  arrived  in  Paris, 
where  be  lectured  on  chemistry,  and  wliere  with  his 
friend  Caliours  lie  commenced  his  researches  on  the 
essential  oils.  In  1844  he  was  ajipoiiited  professor 
of  Cliemistry  at  Montpellier.  About  this  time  he 
published  his  Precis  dc  Cliimif  (Jri/ini/ijiii\  in  which 
lie  sketches  the  idea  of  '  Homologous  ami  Hetero- 
logous Series.'  In  1845-48,  in  association  with 
Laurent,  he  published  the  Voiiiphs  irnt/iis  (A.v 
Trunin. r  (le  Chiinic.  In  1848  he  resigned  his  ch.-ur 
and  returned  to  I'aris  in  order  to  follow  out  unin- 


terruptedly his  Kjiecial  investigations ;  and  in  that 
cit.y  he  establishetl,  lietween  the  years  1849  and  1855, 
in  successive  memoirs,  his  views  of  series  and  the 
theory  of  types  with  which  his  name  is  associated 
in  the  history  of  chemistry.  It  was  there,  al.so, 
that  he  gave  to  the  scientific  worlil  his  remark- 
able researches  upon  the  anhydrous  acids  and  the 
oxides.  In  1855  he  became  ]irofessor  of  Chemistry 
at  Strasburg.  All  his  iileas  and  his  discoveries  are 
embodied  in  his  Trailt  dr  Chiinir  (Jriiiiriirjm:  (4  vol.s. 
185.3-56).  He  had  hardly  completed  the  correc- 
tion of  the  last  proof  of  this  great  work,  when, 
after  an  illness  of  only  two  days,  he  died  on  lOlli 
August  1856.     See  the  Life  by  his  friend  Cahours. 

C>ei'Iiardt,  Pail,  perhaps  the  best  writer  of 
hymns  that  the  German  Lutheran  church  has  jiro- 
duccd,  was  born  at  Griifenbainichen,  in  Saxony, 
12th  March  1607,  became  dean  at  the  church  of  St 
Nicholas  in  Berlin  in  1657,  but.  in  conser|uence  of 
his  opposition  to  the  elector  Fredcrick-'William's 
attempt  to  bring  about  a  union  of  the  JjUthernu 
and  Reformed  churches,  was  banished  from  Branden- 
burg in  1660.  The  last  seven  years  of  his  life  he 
was  pastor  of  LiiViben,  where  he  died,  6tli  June 
1676.  He  wrote  1"23  hymns,  all  excellent,  and 
many  of  them  worthy  to  be  placed  amongst  the 
choicest  productions  of  Protest.ant  sacred  jioetry. 
The  one  beginning  'Commit  thou  all  thy  ways' is 
well  known  in  England  from  Wesley's  translation. 
Other  exquisitely  tender  lyrics  are  '  Nuii  rulien  alle 
Wiilder'  (Now  all  tlie  woods  are  sleeping),  'O 
Haupt  voll  Blut  und  Wuiiden  '  (()  wounded  lie.ad 
and  bleeding),  '  I)u  bist  zwar  iiiein,  und  bleibcst 
niein  '  (Thou  'rt  mine,  yes,  still  thou  art  mine  own  ). 

Gt'ricault.  Theodore  (1791-1824),  military 
painter  and  lithographer,  was,  with  Delacroix,  one 
of  the  first  Romanticists  (see  Painting,  Vol.  VII.  |i. 
700).  He  was  born  at  Rouen,  studied  under  Vernet 
and  Guerin,  began  to  exhibit  in  the  Salon  in  1802 
(with  the  'Mounted  Chas-seur  of  the  Imperial 
(Juard'),  worked  for  a  year  or  two  in  Italy  after 
1816,  and  died  at  Paris.  His  favourite  subjects 
were  soldiers  (especially  cavalry)  and  horses,  but 
his  '  Raft  of  the  Medusa '  became  the  manifesto  of 
the  natuialist-romantic  movement. 

Gerizim  and  Ebal,  the  two  highest  moun- 
tains ill  the  central  Palestine  chain  (3000  feet), 
separated  from  each  other  liy  a  deep  narrow  valley, 
in  which  stands  the  town  of  Nflblus  (q.v. ).  The 
valley  between  them  is  very  fertile.  Jacob's  well 
stands  wliere  the  vale  j<iins  the  plain  of  Moreli.  <  )ii 
the  slope  of  Ebal  to  the  north  of  the  well  is  Sychar 
(now  'Askar).  Mount  Gerizim,  along  with  Mount 
Ebal,  was  the  scene  of  a  grand  and  impressi\e  cere- 
mony, in  which  the  whole  jieople  of  Israel  took  [lai  t 
after  crossing  the  Jordan,  in  obedience  to  a  command 
which  Moses  had  .given  them(Dcut.  xxvii.).  The 
half  of  the  tribes  siandiii.g  on  (ierizim  responded  to 
and  allirmed  the  blessings,  thoseoii  Eb;il  the  curses  as 
pronounced  by  the  Levites.  The  Samaritans  built 
a  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim  as  a  rival  to  that  of 
Jerusalem,  and  organised  a  rival  priesthood  ;  and 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  closeil  the  Decalogue 
with  the  injunction,  'Thou  shalt  build  a  temple  on 
Mount  Geri/im.  and  there  only  shalt  thou  worship.' 
And,  though  the  Samaritan  tem|ile  was  destnned 
by  II\  nanus  aliout  '200  years  after,  the  mountain 
oil  wliich  it  stood  continued  to  be  held  .sacred  by 
the  Samaritans.  It  was  to  Mount  Gerizim  that 
the  '  woni.an  of  Samaria'  referred  when  she  said 
to  our  .'Saviour;  'Our  fathers  worshipped  in  lliis 
mountain,  and  ye  say  that  in  Jerusalem  is  the 
idaie  where  men  ought  to  worship.'  SuU-equently, 
a  Christian  church  in  honour  of  the  'N'irgin  was 
built  on  it. 

tit'I'lll.  a  name  apjdied  to  the  egg-cell  of  plani 
or  animal,   either  from   the   lirst   or  in   its   early 


168 


GKRM 


staged ;  but  also  used  in  reference  to  micro- 
organisms  iissooiated  witli  ilisoasc  (see  li.vCTKitlA, 
&v.).  liy  't;eniiccllN'  ilio  ii'iiiiMliieiive  oleijienls. 
especially  tlio  ova,  arc  meant;  while  '^erm- 
pltLsina'  is  a  very  common  mixlern  wonl  for  the 
most  essential  jiarts  of  the  nnclei  in  the  repro- 
ductive cells.      See  K.MllKYOI.DCY,  IlKltEDITV. 

CiKKM  TiiKOHY  i)K  DisKASK,  as  the  name 
implies,  seeks  to  liml  the  cxjilaiialion  of  certain 
wellreeoj;nised  eomUtions  of  disease  in  the  prcsenre 
anil  action  of  specilic  living;  organisms  witliiii  the 
atlccted  hoily.  Thonjfh  comparatively  recently 
introduced  as  an  ellicicnt  working;  hvpothcsis  in 
the  investij;ation  of  some  hitherto  ill  iinderslood 
patholoi;ical  piienomenn,  the  correctness  of  the 
theory  is  now  ;,'enerally  admitted.  The  facts  which 
it  has  aided  in  estaldisliin;;  and  the  numberless 
investit,'ations  which  it  has  inspired  have  crcateil 
an  important  de])artnient  of  medical  science.  The 
study  of  bacterioto;;y  (see  li.VCTKUIA  )  has  awakened 
fresh  interest  in  almost  every  branch  of  medicine  ; 
and  the  subject  possesses  a  larj,'c  and  extensive 
literature  of  its  own. 

The  evolution  of  the  theory  was  due  mainly  to 
two  factors  :  (  1  )  The  discussions  and  investij;ations 
which  circled  round  the  process  of  fcrmi'nlation  ; 
(2)  the  application  of  more  perfect  microscopical 
methods  to  the  study  of  tlie  lowest  forms  of  plant 
and  animal  life. 

(1)  The  familiar  process  of  Kermentation  (i|.v.) 
gave  birth  to  much  debate.  The  earlier  chemists 
((!ay  I.ussac,  and  nmrc  recently  l.icbij,')  held  that 
fernientatiiin  was  merely  the  n'^ujt  of  the  procos 
of  ilecay  of  organic  matter.  Various  mod ilical ions  of 
this  doctrine,  which  cannot  be  considered  here,  were 
enunciated,  but  the  {general  conclusion  remained 
the  .same.  On  the  other  hand,  so  early  .-us  1812, 
Appert  had  demonstrated  from  the  practical  side 
that  or^'anic  substances  capable  of  fermentation  or 
imtrefactiim  could  lie  prcsi-rvcd  intact  if  kept  in 
closely  stop|iered  bottles  which  wiue  afterwards  e\- 
poseil  to  the  temperature  of  boilin;;  water.  In  1S3(3 
Cagniard-Latour  described  an  organism,  the  yeast 
plant,  which  he  allirmi'd  to  be  constantly  present 
in  the  fermenting  lluiil.  Its  growth  and  rcpioduc- 
tion  he  lielieved  to  |iiiicee<l  sym-hromiusly  with  (he 
fermentation.  Schwann  (IsMTt  ilcscribed  this 
organism  independently,  and  Ilclmhollz  ( ISl."})  con- 
lirmed  the  observation.  They  maintained  that  the 
juocess,  in  place  of  being  a  mere  decomposition, 
wa.s  vital  and  depended  on  the  presence  of  the 
organism  they  hao  discovered.  This  revolution- 
ary doctrine  was  further  elaborateil  ]irc-eniinently 
by  Pasteur  and  by  Schnltz,  Schroedei-,  Dusch, 
Lister,  Tyndall,  ami  others.  Their  researches 
showed  th.it  fermentation  was  caused  by  the  pres- 
ence of  these  <prganisms  ;  that  the  exclusion  of 
these  from  lluids  ca|iablc  of  fcrmentatiim,  by  vari- 
ous methods  of  sterilisation  !ind  liltration  of  the 
air  in  which  they  were  abundantly  present,  was 
snllicient  to  prevent  it.s  occurrence  ;  that  the 
iloctrine  which  attiibuteil  the  iiroiluction  of  fer- 
mentati<Mi  to  tlu;  inllucnce  of  certain  gases— e.g. 
oxygen  ( Clay- Lus.s.ic)— was  erroneous  ;  that  the  idea 
of  the  spontaneous  generation  (see  Sl'oNT.VNlcofS 
GEXEItATIox)  of  such  organisms  within  properly 
sterilised  and  protecteil  lluids  (  Needham,  liiistian, 
Pouchet,  Huizmga)  was  fallacious;  and  that  the 
so-callcil  putrefaction  wa.s  but  one  variety  of  fer- 
mentation. 

(21  (Jne  result  of  these  discussions  wa.s  to  develop 
a  refinement  of  the  methods  of  microscopical  re- 
search, more  especi.illy  with  reference  to  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  lowest  forms  of  life  (see  Hac- 
TEltl.V).  Though  bacteria  had  been  recognised  and 
docribed  in  the  17th  century  (  Leeuwenhoek),  it  is 
mainly  to  the  researches  of  the  latter  half  of  the 
19tli  century  that  we  are  indebted  for  an  .ainiroach  t<p 


an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  life-history  of  these 
organisms.  Uy  the  masterly  lalnMirs  of  f'cdin,  He 
Itary,  Zopf,  \  an  Ticghcm.  Nagcli,  Klfbs.  Koch,  and 
many  others,  the  melhoils  of  ili'inoustration  have 
been  imjiroved  to  an  extraordinary  degree.  The 
elaboralion  of  staining  methods  alone,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  use  of  perfected  lenses,  has  made 
possible  the  detection  and  examination  of  minute 
organi>ms  hitherto  unrecogni>able. 

It  is  inipiissible  to  say  when  the  idea  of  an 
analogy  between  the  familiar  phenimiena  of  fer- 
mentation and  those  of  acute  ilisease  lirst  arose. 
It  is  certain  that  befcue  the  liltli  century  there 
had  been  prevalent  an  ill-delined  feeling  after  some- 
thing of  the  kind.  More  than  two  hundred  years 
ago  Kob.-rt  lioyle  (  KVJT  01),  in  his  •  Kssay  on  the 
Patliidogical  I'iut  of  I'liysik,"  clothes  ihi.  idea  in 
words  whicli.  as  Tyndall  has  said,  'have  in  them 
the  forecast  of  |iiophccy.'  The  idea  received  more 
delinite  formulation  in  conscipience  of  the  re- 
.searches  into  the  nature  of  fernu'iitation  just 
referred  to.  In  184S  Knclis  staled  that  he  had 
discovered  bacteri.i  in  animals  which  hail  died  of 
septiianiia.  In  IH.Id  it  was  announied  (  Ilavaine, 
Hraiiell,  I'ollender)  thiit  bacilli  had  been  detected 
in  the  carcasses  of  animals  afl'i'ited  with  anthrax. 
The  discovery  was  conoborated  by  various  ob- 
servers. But  it  was  not  till  the  disease  had  been 
induced  by  the  inoculation  of  healthv  animals  with 
a  minimal  i|Uantity  of  the  organism  (Ilavaine) 
that  the  Ilmi/his  (iiilliraris  was  recognised  as  the 
cause  of  the  disease.  Thus  was  atrorded  the  first 
substantial  proof  of  the  germ  theory.  This  success 
inspired  fuither  research  on  kindled  lines.  In 
coniiiarativcly  i|uick  succession  other  discoveries 
were  announced,  till,  in  1SH2,  Koch  described  the 
I!iii-i/hi.s  tiiOiiTiilusis  as  the  organism  responsible 
for  the  scourge  of  consumiition,  and  in  l.S,S3  the 
bacillus  of  cholera. 

I'.riiph.-isis  must  be  laid  on  the  statement  that 
the  discovery  of  an  organism  in  the  circulation  or 
tissues  of  a  disea-sed  animal  cannot  be  accepted 
n.s  ]iroving  the  causal  ellicacy  of  the  former.  ,A]iai't 
from  further  experiment,  it  were  perfectly  fair  to 
argue  that  such  organism  was  a  mere  accomiiani- 
nienl  of  the  morbid  state,  llourisliing  on  the  ilying 
or  diseased  tissues.  And,  in  fad,  such  secondary 
factors  are  recognised.  It  has,  moreover,  fre- 
i|nently  ha]ipeneil  that  competing  claims  have 
been  advanced  in  exidanation  of  the  same  disea-se. 
It  was  necessarv,  therefore,  that  there  should  be 
formulated  (  Kle^is,  Koch)  certain  conditions,  since 
known  its  Koch's  postulates,  which  must  be  fill- 
lilled  by  an  organism  whiise  caus.il  relationship 
with  a  given  disease  is  maintained.  These  are  as 
follows  :  (1)  The  organism  must  be  demonstrated 
in  the  circulation  or  tissues  of  the  disciised  animal  j 
(2)  the  organism,  so  dcmonstiatcd,  must  be  c.npalile 
of  artilii'ial  cultivation  in  suitable  media  outside 
the  body,  .-11111  successive  generations  of  //»/■<;  iiilti- 
riilii'/i  olitaiiicd  :  (.'!)  such  ]iure  cultivation  must, 
when  intiodiiccd  into  a  healthy  and  susceptible 
animal,  produce  the  given  disease;  (4)  the  organ- 
ism must  .again  be  found  in  the 
tissues  of  the  inoculated  animal, 
organisms  which  fail  to  meet  these 
be  set  aside  to  await  further  inoof. 

The  number  of  diseases  wliose  specific  orii'in  is 
now  geneiallv  admitted  is  comparatively  large, 
but  of  few  of  these  can  we  speak  with  the  same 
certainty  as  may  be  done  regarding  consumption 
(tuberculosis)  and  s|ilenic  fever  (anthra.x).  In 
other  words,  the  fiillilnient  of  all  four  postulates 
by  many  of  them  has  not  been  denionsti.-ited  or 
has  been  disputed.  Besides  anthrax  and  tuber- 
culii>is,  the  list  includes  leprosy,  cholera  (.Asiatic), 
ii-bipsing  fever,  typhoid  fever,  vellow  fever,  malaria, 
liilihtlieiia,  dysentery,  syphilis,  acute  pneumonia, 


circulation  or 
The  claims  of 
demands  must 


GERM 


GERMAN    CATHOLICS 


169 


gonorrhea,  septicemia,  erysipelas,  actinomycosis, 
iV'c.  Witli  PDiisiilerable  probaljility  we  may  aiM 
wliooping-CDH^'li,  measles,  scarlatina,  typhus,  siiiall- 
iiox,  hydrophobia,  tetanus,  British  cholera,  \'c.  ; 
but  the  evidence  regarding  these  and  others  is 
defective,  and,  in  some  cases,  less  substantive  than 
analogical. 

The  si)ecific  organisms  associated  more  or  less 
exactly  with  those  diseases  are  members  of  the 
groujis  («)  Coccaceaj  and  (6)  Cacteriacea>  (sec 
Bacteiua). 

The  atlmission  that  certain  diseases  are  due  to 
the  presence  and  action  of  specific  living  organisms 
raises  the  further  questions:  (1)  How  do  they 
enter  the  body?     (2)  How  do  they  act? 

(1)  How  do  they  enter  the  body?  It  has  been 
conclusively  shown  that  the  Bitrilhis  tiibeirii/osis 
may  obtain  access  by  the  inhalation  of  genu  laden 
air,  by  the  ingestion  of  affected  ndlk  and  possibly 
of  tubercular  meat,  perhaps,  too,  through  a  cut 
or  sore.  It  seems  also  likely  that  the  bacilli  may 
be  transmitted  from  motlier  to  fu-tus  by  way  of 
the  circulation.  Sinular  lines  of  attack  may  be 
predicated  of  all  the  pathogenic  organisms.  Not- 
ably, in  connection  with  woimds,  it  is  important 
to  bear  in  nund  the  possiliility  of  infection  with 
the  germs  which  induce  septicaemia — a  fact  on 
which  was  based  the  great  advance  in  surgery 
associated  with  the   name  of   Lister.     See   Anti- 

SKI'TIC  SURGERV. 

The  possibility  of  infection  varies  much  accord- 
ing to  the  conditions  of  growth  of  the  particular 
organism  and  the  receptivity  of  the  host.  This 
cx[ilains,  on  the  one  liand,  the  popularly  accepted 
view  that  certain  diseases  are  much  more  infective 
than  others.  Tlius,  ty]ihoid  fever  dill'ers  widely 
from  scarlatina  in  respect  of  degree  of  contagious- 
ness. On  the  other  hand,  some  persons  undoubtedly 
are  more  susceptilde  to  the  attacks  of  certain  organ- 
isms. Tims,  among  the  subjects  of  tuberculosis,  it 
is  probable  that  preparedness  of  soil  jilays  an 
important  part  in  the  production  of  the  disease. 
And  so  with  other  pathogenic  organisms.  These 
))rocesses  have  their  analogy  in  the  more  connnon 
phenomena  of  vegetable  life.  Sow  some  seeds  and 
they  will  germinate  and  grow  on  any  soil,  however 
unlikely.  I  tther  seeds  may  be  scattere<l  i)rofHsely, 
but  will  not  develop,  unless  the  soil  has  been  care- 
fully iiri'pared  ami  the  other  conditions  of  growth 
be  fuirilled.  It  is  inqiossilile  to  enter  here  on  the 
iliscussion  of  those  conditions.  Necessarily  they  vary 
much  with  dillerent  organisms.  But  it  is  important 
to  realise  the  extreme  value,  from  the  therapeutic 
point  of  view,  of  their  careful  study.  The  first  step 
to  a  rational  treatment  of  such  diseases  is  to  kiioir 
the  responsible  organism.  This  knowledge  must 
include  not  only  its  shape  iind  other  [diysical  char- 
acters, but  tlie  life-history  of  the  nucrobe,  and  the 
conditions  which  assist  or  retard  its  development 
and  reproduction.  Such  knowledge  all'ords  the  only 
sound  basis  for  a  system  of  jirerrntirc  meilicine. 
which  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  depait- 
nients  of  practical  hygiene.  Although  still  in  its 
infancy,  the  preventive  treatment  of  endemic,  epi- 
demic, .and  otiicr  contagions  diseases  has  now  become 
Rcieniific. 

l'2)  How  do  the  organisms  act?  This  is  a  much- 
debateil  ipiestion.  It  has  l)een  the  subject  of  some 
of  the  most  valuaVile  of  recent  researches  in  this 
departnuMit.  I>o  tbey  act  iiu'cbanically  as  irritants? 
Or  is  their  a<-tion  privative,  liy  stealing  from  the 
tissues  elements  which  are  necessary  to  their  de- 
velopment? Or  have  they  a  power  of  elaborating 
(or  secreting)  new  products,  which  exert  a  to.xic 
inlluence  on  the  affected  body?  This  last  view  is 
sujiported  by  weighty  evidence  and  by  the  analogy 
of  the  fcrnu'utation  processes  already  referrcil  ti>. 
It  would  therefore  seem  that  the  ndcrobc  has  the 


power  of  disturbing — or  rather  that,  in  order  to 
the  preservation  of  its  own  life,  the  microbe  is 
compelled  to  disturb — the  molecular  arrangement 
of  the  elements  in  the  medium  in  which  it  is  de- 
veloping. The  products  thus  elaborated  have  been 
termed  Ptomaines  ( I'tdm/i ).  They  were  so  named 
by  Selnii,  who  discovered  their  presence  in  the  ilead 
body  during  various  stages  of  putrefaction.  The 
ptomaine  doctrine  has  been  accepted  in  explana- 
tion of  the  process  of  se[)tica>nda,  and  there  is  good 
reason  for  extending  its  application  to  the  other 
infective  processes.  It  is  essential,  however,  to  re- 
member that,  after  the  microbe  has  succeedetl  in 
invading  the  tissues,  its  further  progress  is  not  un- 
o])posed.  There  is  a  constant  warfare  between  the 
living  cells  of  the  host  and  the  living  and  multijily- 
ing  cells  of  tlie  invader,  the  contest  being  decided 
in  favour  of  the  stronger.  The  researches  of  Metsch- 
nikoff  and  others  seem  to  show  that  the  bacilli  can 
be  destroyed  by  the  white  corpuscles  of  the  bhiod. 

Granted  that  the  organisms  have  entered  the 
tissues  or  circulation,  there  still  remain  for  the 
physician  two  modes  of  attack  :  {(i)  by  attempting 
to  exterminate  the  microbe  itself  tlirough  sueli 
agents  as  may  be  discovered  to  be  possessed  of 
germicidal  jn'operties  ;  {h)  by  endeavouriiig  to  anta- 
goni.se  the  poison  which  the  microbe  is  distributing 
through  the  system.  Many  difficulties  attend  both 
methods,  inasmuch  as  agents  sufficiently  potent  to 
effect  either  object  are  themselves  likely  to  prove 
injurious  to  the  infected  tis.sues.  The  aim  of  ciira- 
tivc  medicine  is  the  discovery  of  remedies  capable 
of  preventing  the  growth  of  the  microbe,  yet 
innocuous  to  the  host. 

Reference  must  be  made,  in  conclusion,  to  the 
question  of  immunity.  It  is  well  ascertained  that 
certain  animals  are  not  .susceptible  to  the  attacks 
of  certain  pathogenic  organisms,  and  that  others 
suffer  comparatively  slightly.  In  man  there  may 
be  traced  the  occurrence  of  individual  immunity. 
Such  facts  have  not  yet  received  a  satisfactory 
explanation.  The  almost  universal  immunity  after 
a  first  attack  of  certain  fevers  and  the  com]iarative 
immunity  from  smallpox  conferred  by  Vaccination 
(q.v. )  are  of  interest  in  this  connection.  The  exjieri- 
ments  of  Pasteur  and  others  on  ISdcil/iis  toitliriiris 
indicate  that  by  repeated  cultivation  under  special 
conditions  it  is  possible  to  lessen  the  virulence  of 
the  most  virulent  of  organisms  and  that  inocula- 
tion with  this  altered  bacillus  confers  immunity 
against  further  attack.  More  striking  still  are  the 
experiments  of  Pasteur  in  connection  with  rabies 
(Hydrophobia,  q.v.).  By  a  special  method  that  ob- 
server has  accomplished  an  attenuation  of  the  \irus 
— the  microbe  not  having  been  deterndned — where- 
by tlie  worst  features  of  the  disease  are  disturbed. 
Hy  this  means  it  has  been  found  possible  in  cases  of 
infection  to  anticipate  a  serious  attack  by  the  intro- 
duction of  this  modified  virus.  In  explanatiiui  of 
this  it  li.as  been  supposed  that  a  poisonous  ptomaine 
is  germinated  during  the  process,  which,  when  in- 
jceted  in  quantity  during  the  stage  of  iiu'ubation 
of  the  disease,  prevents  the  development  of  the 
supposititious  germ.  Those  and  other  kindred 
observations  di.sclose  a  most  boiieful  development 
of  the  germ  theory  in  the  direction  of  preventive 
inoculation. 

The  literature  is  a  very  large  one.  For  general  pur- 
poses the  following  niay  be  consulted  :  Tyndall,  L'ttMips 
on  the  Fhtttiiuj  Matlir  of  the  Air;  Watson  C'heyiie, 
Antiufptic  iurgeri/  ;  Pasteur.  &ttttfies  on  I'ermentation  ; 
DucIaux,  Fenneittn  et  Mittadien ;  Fliigge,  Fermeutc  und 
Mikfuptirasiten  ;  Schutzeiiberger,  Les  Fermentations ; 
Gussenbauer,  Piio-hiimie  und  Fyo-Sephthiimic ;  and  the 
works  of  Lister,  Klein,  ic. 

Ori'iiinii  Itariii.    See  Ye.\.st. 

<>4Tlliail  <'iltllolit'S  (Ger.  Uetttschketlholikcn) 
is   the   name   given   to   a   body  in   Gernumy   that 


170 


GERMAN    CATHOLICS 


fiKHMANICUS    Ci^SAR 


separateil  from  tlie  Koinnii  Cutliolic  Cliuicli  in  1844. 
\A1iatever  iiii;;lit  I>e  llie  (lei'|ier  causes  of  llie  scliisin. 
tlie  iiiiinc<liato  occasion  of  it  was  the  exiiiliitioii  of 
the  Holy  Coat  at  Treves  fi|.v.).  In  I.S44  liishop 
Ainolili  a|i|)oiiite(l  a  siH'eial  ipil^,'iiMia^'e  to  this  iclic. 
This  inooccilinf;  calleil  fortli  a  protest  from  .lohannes 
Kon^e  ( 1S13-S7),  a  jiriest  in  Silesia,  who,  having; 
quarrelled  with  the  authorities  of  his  church,  hail 
l>een  suspeniled.  I{on;,'e  aihlresseil  a  puhlic  letter 
to  Hi-hop  Arnohli  in  which  he  characteriseil  the  ex- 
hibition of  the  coat  as  idolatry.  .\  sliort  time  |)re- 
viously,  Czerski,  a  priest  at  ScliMeideniidil,  in  I'osen. 
had  secedeil  from  llio  Homan  Catholic  Church,  and 
hail  formed  a  con<;rej.'ation  of  'Christian  .Apostolic 
Catholics.'  Czerski  and  Him^'e  were  naturally 
drawn  into  confederacy.  Hon^e  addres.sed  an  a]ipcal 
to  the  lower  onlers  of  the  priesthood,  callin;;  upon 
them  to  use  their  inlluence  in  the  |)ulpit  and  every- 
where to  lireak  the  ]iowcr  of  the  jiapal  curia,  and 
of  priestcraft  in  tjcneral,  thr<ui;;liout  Germany;  to 
set  up  a  nati(mal  German  Church  independent  of 
Rome,  and  fioverned  l>y  councils  and  synods  ;  to 
abolish  auricular  confession,  the  Latin  mass,  and 
the  celibacy  of  the  priests  ;  and  to  aim  at  liberty  of 
conscience  for  all  Christians. 

The  lii-st  con;,'ret.'.alion  of  the  new  church  was 
formed  at  Sclineidemiihl,  and  took  the  name  of 
'Christian  (.'atholic'  The  confession  of  faith, 
which  was  drawn  up  by  Czerski,  ditl'ered  little  in 
point  of  cloctriiie  from  that  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
The  confession  drawn  tip  by  Houfie  for  the  con^;re- 
gation  at  Hreslau,  on  tlie  other  hand,  comj>lclely 
departed  from  the  doctrine  and  ritual  of  the  |{onian 
Catholic  Churi-h.  Tlie  S<Miptiire  wa.s  laid  down  to 
be  the  sole  rule  of  Christian  lailh,  and  no  external 
authority  was  to  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  the 
free  interpretatiim  of  it.  The  essentials  of  belief 
were  restricted  to  a  few  doctiines  :  belief  in  God  a.s 
the  Creator  ami  Governor  of  the  world,  and  the 
Father  of  all  men  ;  in  Christ  as  the  Saviour,  in  the 
Holy  Sjiirit,  the  holy  Christian  church,  the  for^'ive- 
ness  III  sins,  and  the  life  everlastiiij,'.  liaplism 
and  the  Lord's  Supper  were  helil  to  be  the  only 
sacraments,  tliouj;h  conlirmation  was  retained.  At 
the  first  council  of  German  Catholics,  held  at 
Leipzig'  in  184.3,  the  principles  of  the  IJreslau 
Confession  were  .substantially  adopted  ;  and  by  the 
end  of  the  year  there  were  some  300  con^'iei,'alions. 

l!ut  (ierman  Catholicism  w.-xs  destined  soon  to 
find  enemies  both  within  and  without.  To  say 
nothinj;  of  orthodox  Catholics,  conservative  I'lo- 
testanti.sm  began  to  suspect  it  as  undermiiiinf,' 
reli;iion.  And,  as  the  movement  fell  in  with  the 
liberal  tendencies  of  the  times,  the  governments 
took  the  alarm,  and  set  themselves  to  check  its 
sjiiead.  Saxony  took  the  lead,  and  I'russi.a  soon 
followed,  in  iniposin<r  vexatious  restrictions  upon 
the  '  Hissidents  ; '  in  Baden  they  were  denied  the 
rights  of  citizens,  while  -Vustria  expelled  them  from 
her  territories.  It  was  more,  howeier,  internal  dis- 
agreements than  state  persecutions  that  checked 
tlie  pros|)erity  of  German  Catholicism.  Czerski 
and  bi>  adherents  held  closely  by  the  doctrines  and 
ritual  of  Koine ;  while  Konge  s  party  aiipro.aclied 
nearer  and  nearer  to  the  extreme  Hationalists,  and. 
leaving  the  province  of  religion  altogether,  occupied 
themselves  with  freethinking  theories  and  demo- 
cratic politics.  'When  the  great  storm  of  1X48 
burst,  lionge  was  active  in  travelling  and  preach- 
ing, and,  altliougli  his  freethinking  and  iiolitical 
tendencies  were  repudiated  by  numbers  of  the 
body,  they  iiredominated  in  many  places.  After 
the  political  reaction  .set  in,  strong  measures 
were  taken  against  the  German  Catholics.  The 
early  enthusiasm  of  the  movement  apparently  died 
out,  and  after  the  di.-solution  of  the  Frankfort 
parliament  Konge  retired  to  London  (in  1801  he 
returned   to  Germanv,   aiicl   lived   succe.ssivelv   at 


Breslau,  Frankfort,  DarmsUult,  and  \'ienna).  In 
18jO  a  conference  wa.s  liehl  between  the  Gerniau 
Catholics  and  the  'Free  Congregations'  (I'n.ie 
(!tiiiiiiiiliii),  an  as.sociation  of  freethinking  con- 
gregations which  had  been  gradually  forming  since 
1844  by  secession  from  the  I'lolestant  Church,  and 
with  which  an  incorporate  union  was  etlected  in 
1850.  Six  years  later  the  council  refused  to  commit 
itself  to  belief  in  .a  ]ieisonal  (lod.  From  a  mem- 
bership of  l.'f.OOO  in  ISOT  ill  Prussia  and  Saxony, 
the  body  has  gr.iilually  dwindled  to  almost  total 
extinction.  The  Old  Catholics  (i].v.)  may  be  re- 
garded as  having  superseiled  tlie  German  t'atholic 
movement.  See  Kanipe's  Gcschichte  dcs  Dcutsch- 
k(ill,(,ll'-ixtiiiis{Wm). 
iioriiuiii.  <'oiisiii-.    See  Cou.siN. 

(al'riliaildoi*  {Ti  urn' II III),  a  large  and  widely 
distributed  genus  of  labiate  herbs,  of  which  all  the 
European  species  are  of  old  medicinal  repute  on 
account  of  their  aromatic,  bitter,  and  stomachic 
properties.  The  species  are  numerous.  The  Wall 
Germander  or  True  Germander  (T.  c/iiiiiiii(/ri/.i), 
often  found  on  ruined  walls,  has  probably  been 
introduced  from  the  .south  of  Europe.  With  the 
German  T.  Jt'/tii/i,  it  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  in 
the  treatment  of  gout.  Wood  Germander  or  Wood 
Sage  (7'.  Siorut/oii ia )  is  a  very  common  British 
jilant,  in  dry  bushy  or  rocky  places.  It  is  very 
bitter  and  .-lightly  aromatic.  It  is  used  in  Jersey 
as  a  substitute  i'or  hops.  Water  Germivnder  ( /'. 
Siordiiiiii ).  in  wet  meadows,  has  ,a  .smell  like  garlic. 
Cat  or  Sea  Thyme  (  7'.  Miinnn  ),  of  .southern  Europe, 
like  catmint  and  valerian  root,  lia.s great  attractive- 
ness for  cats.  It  is  still  sometimes  used  in  the 
preparation  of  sneezing  powders. 

Goriliniliciis  C'a'.sar,  a  distinguished  lioman 
gciicr.il.  was  the  son  of  Niro  Claudius  Drusus,  and 
of  Antonia,  daughter  of  Mark  Antony  and  niece  of 
Augustus.  He  was  born  1.")  li.c.  and  by  desire  of 
Augustus  \v,i.s  ailojited  in  the  year  4  \.  Ii.  by  TiberiiLs, 
whom  he  accompanied  in  the  war  against  the  I'an- 
nonians,  Dalmatians,  and  (iermans.  In  the  year  12 
he  was  consul,  .and  next  year  was  a])pointeil  to  the 
command  of  the  eight  legions  on  the  Kliiiie.  In  J4 
In  was  .at  Lugdunum  Itatavorum  when  news  came 
of  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Augustus  and  of  the 
mutiny  for  more  ]iay  and  shorter  service  among  the 
.soldiers  in  Geriii.any  and  lllyricuiii.  (Jcriiiaiiicus 
hastened  to  the  camp  and  <|Uclled  the  luniull  by 
his  iiersonal  popularity  ;  and  at  once  led  his  soldiers 
against  the  enemv.  Crossing  the  Kliine  below 
Wesel,  lie  attacked  and  routed  the  Mami,  and  next 
year  marched  to  meet  the  redoubtable  Arminius 
(q.v.),  the  conf|ueror  of  N'arus  and  his  legion- 
aries, whose  bones  li.ad  lain  whitening  for  six 
veal's  in  the  Teutoburg  Forest.  With  solemn 
rites  his  soldiei's  buried  tlie.se  sad  relics  of  disaster, 
then  advanced  against  the  foe,  who,  retiring  into 
a  dilliciilt  country,  managed  to  .save  himself,  and 
wa-s  not  subdued  until  the  year  after,  when  Ger- 
maniciis  again  carried  a  part  of  his  army  uii  the 
Ems  in  sliijis,  crossed  to  the  Weser,  and  completely 
overthrew  Arminius  in  two  des]ierate  battles.  The 
victories  thus  achieved  were  to  have  been  followed 
up  in  the  succeeding  years,  but  Tiberius,  jealous  of 
the  glory  and  popularity  of  Germanicus,  reialled 
liiin  from  (iermany  in  the  year  17,  and  sent  him  to 
settle  alt'airs  in  the  Last,  at  the  same  time  appoint- 
ing as  viceroy  of  Syria,  in  order  secretly  to  counter- 
act hiiii,  the  haugiity  and  envious  Cu.  Calpurnius 
Piso.  Germanicus  died  at  Kpidaiilina^near  Aiitioch, 
9tli  October  lit,  probably  of  poison,  to  the  inofound 
sonow  of  provincials  and  Honians  alike.  His  wife, 
Agripiiina,  and  two  of  her  sons  were  put  to  death 
j  by  order  (rf  Tibeiius  ;  the  third  son,  Caligula,  was 
I  spared.  ()f  the  three  daughters  who  survived  their 
■  father,   Agrijipina   became  as    remarkable   for   her 


GERMANIUM 


GERMANY 


171 


vices  as  her  mother  had  been  for  her  virtues.  Ger- 
iiianieus  is  one  of  tlie  most  attractive  lieroes  of 
Koman  liistory.  The  courage  anil  success  of  the 
S'>liliersliii)  that  had  hlotted  out  a  groat  national 
disgrace,  the  noble  magnanimity  of  his  |)rivate 
character,  the  simplicity  ami  purity  of  his  life,  and 
the  shadow  of  impending  death  that  touclied  him 
with  romantic  interest,  comljined  to  make  him  the 
darling  of  his  contemporaries,  and  has  left  him,  as 
portrayed  in  the  pages  of  Tacitus  (Annals,  i.  and 
li. ),  still  a  figure  of  unique  interest  to  us. 

(jici'lliaililllll.  a  metallic  element  discovered 
in  lfSS.3  liy  Dr  Winkler  in  a  silver  ore  (argyrodite) ; 
svmbol,  Ge  ;  atomic  weight,  72'3.  It  ha.s  a  melt- 
ilig-point  about  1650=  F.  (90O'  C);  is  oxidised 
when  heated  in  air  ;  crystallises  in  octahodra  ;  has 
a  perfectly  metallic  lustre,  and  is  of  a  grayish- 
white  colour.  As  gallium  had  been  named  from 
France,  the  new  metal  was  named  after  Germany. 
Fifteen  years  liefore  its  discovery  its  existence  was 
prophesied  by  Mendeleett'  as  required  to  Hll  the 
gap  in  the  periodic  table  between  silicon  and  tin. 
See  Atomic  Theory. 

Oeriuaii  Oreau.    See  Xoeth  Sea. 

(liC'I'Iliail  Silver.  This  is  a  triple  alloy  of 
copper,  nickel,  and  zinc,  and  is  sometimes  called 
nickel  silver.  The  l)est  quality  of  it  consists  of 
four  parts  copper,  two  parts  nickel,  and  two  parts 
zinc,  but  this  quality  is  the  most  ilifficult  to  work. 
F'or  some  purposes  the  proportion  of  copper  is 
slightly  increased,  and  for  articles  which  are  to  be 
cast  instead  of  stamped  or  hammered  about  2  per 
cent,  of  lead  is  added.  To  make  a  good  malleable 
alloy,  the  three  metals  of  which  it  is  composed 
should  all  be  of  the  best  quality.  German  silver 
has  a  tendency  to  crack  in  Annealing  (q.v.),  and  is 
all  the  more  liable  to  do  this  if  its  comp<inent 
metals  are  impure.  Its  crystalline  .structure  is  got 
rill  of  by  hammering,  rolling,  and  annealing.  It  is 
harder  ami  tougher  than  biass,  and  takes  a  line 
jwlisli.  In  colour  it  is  sufficiently  near  silver  to 
make  it  valuable  for  plating  with  that  metal. 
This,  together  with  its  hardness  in  resisting  wear, 
has  caused  a  great  demand  for  German  silver  for 
certain  wares  made  in  Birmingham  and  Sheffield. 

Sjioons  and  forks  of  this  alloy  are  made  in  im- 
mense numbers.  Such  articles  a.s  salvers,  dish- 
covers,  jugs,  tea])ots,  and  tlie  like  are  also  largely 
made  of  it,  but  these  objects,  or  at  lea.st  some  of 
them,  are  still  more  largely  made  of  Britannia 
Metal  (q.v.),  a  greatly  inferior  alloy,  because  natch 
softer.  German  silver  has  a  co|ipery  odour,  and 
is  readily  attacked  by  acid  liquids,  such  as  vinegar, 
which  coat  it  with  verdigris.  Spoons  and  forks 
made  of  this  alloy  shotild  therefore  either  be  plated 
with  silver  or  caiefully  kept  clean. 

Of  late  years,  through  care  in  prejiaring  a  suit- 
able alloy,  large  objects,  such  as  the  bodies  of  jugs 
and  coirce-i)ots.  can  be  formed  of  sheet  lierinan 
silver  liy  '  spinning' it  on  the  lathe,  instead  of  by 
stamping  or  by  the  slow  process  of  hammering. 
Formerly  it  wa-s  only  a  sott  alloy  like  Britannia 
metij  that  could  be  so  treated.  For  some  time 
past  there  has  been  a  tendency  ti>  substitute  for 
electroplate — i.e.  German  silver  plated  with  real 
silver — white  alloys  having  nickel  for  their  b.a.sis. 
The.-*e,  however,  are  but  varieties  of  (ierman  silver 
known  under  dilVerent  names,  such  as  silveroid, 
argentoid,  navoline.  and  niekeline.  Some  of  them 
contain  small  (|uantities  of  tin,  cadmium,  and  other 
metals.  Mountings  for  ship-cabins,  bar-littings, 
ami  also  forks  and  spoons  have  been  manufactured 
on  a  considerable  scale  from  these  new  alloys. 

Ciicriiian  Tinder.    See  Amadou. 

GeriliailtOM'II,  a  former  borough  of  Pennsvl- 
vaui.i,  included  since  iJS.-'-t  in  the  liiidts  of  Phila- 
delphia.    Here  an   attack   liy   Wa-hingtcm  on  the 


British  camp,  in  the  early  morning  of  4th  October 
1777,  wa.s  repulsed,  the  Americans  losing  1000  "len, 
the  British  600. 

CierilinilllS,  St,  was  Bishop  of  Anxerre.  and 
is  said  to  have  been  invited  over  to  Britain  to 
combat  Pelagianism  in  429.  Acting  under  his 
directions  the  Christian  Britons  won  the  bloodless 
'Alleluia  Victory  '  over  the  Picts  ami  Saxons.  In 
1736  a  column  was  erected  on  the  supposed  site, 
Maes  Garnion  (Gernianus'  field),  in  Vlintshire. 
There  are  several  churches  in  \Vales  and  Cornwall 
dedicated  to  St  Gernianus. 

Oeriliaiiy  (from  Lat.  Gennania)  is  the  English 
name  of  the  country  which  the  natives  call  Deutsch- 
land,  and  the  French  L'Allemagne  (see  Ale- 
Jr-\NXI).  The  word  is  .sometimes  used  to  denote 
the  whole  area  of  the  European  continent  within 
which  theGermanic  race  and  language  are  dominant. 
In  this  broad  sense  it  includes,  be.'^ides  Germany 
jiroper,  parts  of  Austria,  Switzerland,  and  perlia]>s 
even  of  the  Netherlands  ;  but  in  the  juesent  article 
the  name  is  to  be  understood  as  denoting  the  exist- 
ing Germanic  empire,  of  which  Prussia  is  the  liea<l. 
Germany  occupies  the  cential  portions  of  Eurojie, 
and  extends  from  5^  52'  to  22'  53'  E.  long.,  and  from 
47°  16'  to  55°  54'  N.  lat.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N. 
liy  the  German  Ocean,  the  Danish  peninsula,  and 
the  Baltic ;  on  the  E.  by  Kussia  ami  Austria ; 
on  the  S.  by  Austria  and  Switzerland  ;  and 
on  the  W.  by  France,  Belgium,  and  the  Nether- 
lands. The  population  in  1871  was  41,tl5S,792;  in 
1880,  45,234,001  ;  in  1895,  52,279.901.  Its  area  is 
211,168  sq.  m.,  or  about  yVth  of  that  of  all  Eurojie 
— slightly  larger  than  France,  but  not  twice  a.s 
large  as  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  coastline 
measures  about  950  miles. 

Germany  is  composed  of  a  federation  of  twenty- 
five  states,  with  one  common  imperial  province, 
the  names  of  which,  with  their  areas  and  pojmla- 
tions  in  1895,  are  given  in  the  following  list.  Heli- 
goland was  ceded  by  Britain  to  tiermany  in  1890. 
riie  population  of  the  empire  in  1890  was  49,428,80.3. 


Kingdoms — 

1.  Prussia 

2.  Bavaria 

3.  Saxony 

4.  Wiirt<?inbcrg 

Gbasd-dcciiies — 

5.  Baden 

6.  Hesse 

7.  Mecklenburg-Schwerin 

8.  Saxe- Weimar 

9.  Mecklenbiirg-Strclitz 

10.  Oldenburg 

DCCHIES— 

11.  Brunswick 

12.  Saxe-Meiningen 

I'i.  Saxe-Altenburg 

14.  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 

15.  Anhalt , 

Princip.\lities — 

16.  .Scliwaizburg-Sondersliausen. 

17.  Scluvarzburg-Rudolstadt 

IS.  Waldeck 

19.  Reuss-Greiz 

■10.  Reuss-Schleiz 

21.  Soliamnburg-Lippe 

22.  Lippe-Detlnpld 

Fbee-Towns  — 

23.  Lulieck 

24.  Bremen 

25.  Han>l  uig 

RElenSLAND — 

26.  Alsace-Lorraine 


136073 
29,632 
5,856 
7,619 

5,891 
3.0J0 
5.197 
1.404 
1,144 
2,50S 

1.441 
964 
517 
765 
917 


367 
438 
123 
323 
133 
475 

116 
100 
160 

5,663 


Pop.  Id  1605. 


31,855,123 
5,815,544 
3,787,6SS 
2,081,151 

1,725,404 
1,039,020 
597.4.1(; 
339,217 
101,540 
373,739 

434,213 

234,005 
180,:>13 

siu.coa 

293,29S 

78,074 
88,6S3 
57.766 
67,463 

132.130 
41,224 

134,t54 

83,324 
19(>,4a4 
6S1.U32 


These  several  sovereign  states  varv  enormously 
in  area  and  influence.  Thus,  wliile  Prussia  alone 
exceeds   the   British    Islands   in   area,    Bavaria   is 

almost  ,is  large  as  Scotland,  \Viirteniberg  is  larger 


172 


GERMANY 


than  Wales,  and  Haden  and  Saxony  are  neither  of 
them  equal  tii  Vorksliire.  Waiileck  is  !il>imt 
ei|iial  to  Ik'dforil.  ami  UfUssCrei/  is  smaller  tli:iii 
Uiitlaml,  llu'  siiiiillest  Kii^lisli  county.  The  l>uke 
of  Sutherlaiurs  istates  (ISSS  si|.  m.)are  larger  in 
area  than  all  .MeckleuliurjiStrulitz,  or  than  all 
Ihunswiek,  respectively  tenth  and  ninth  in  si/e  of 
the  (Jerman  states.  The  Kuke  of  liucclench's 
Scottish  estates  alone  (tiTC  si|.  ni.)  exceed  in  area 
Saxe-.\ltenliur;r  or  any  of  the  eleven  smaller  states. 

In  IS'.I.')  licrlin.  the  capital  of  the  empire,  had 
l.tiTT.'i'U  iiili.iWiiaTils  ;  ihiiiihui^;,  ()'.'.">. ."i.V2  ;  l!re>lan, 
3r:{,lU;i;  .Munich,  41)7, , 'id?  :  DrcMlcn.  .■«(),44(l ; 
Leipzi",',  30'.l,!Mi:i.  Tlieie  were  in  all  28  towns  with 
a  population  of  ahove  lOO.OOO:  ll(i  hetween  •in,mm 
and  1(K).»MH);  ()S:t  hetween  5000  and  •2(),IM) ;  and 
I'J.'.l  hetween  ^(HH)  and  ^OIM). 

Meside.s  the  political  ilivisirms  ahnvc  mentioned, 
there  are  certain  distinctive  ap]iellalions  applied  to 
dillerent  parts  of  ( lermany.  w  hich  have  heen  derived 
either  from  the  names  and  settlements  of  the  ancient 
tJermanic  trihes.  or  from  the  circles  and  other  great 
sulidivisions  of  the  old  emjiire.  Thus,  the  name  of 
'Swahia'  is  still  a|iplied  in  common  parlance  to  the 
districts  emhraiing  the  fxreater  part  of  Wiirtem- 
lieri;,  southern  Baden,  southwestern  li.avaria,  and 
Holien/ollern  :  '  I'lauconia,' to  the  .Main  clislricts 
of  l!and)eri;,  Scliweinlurt,  and  Wiirzhurf; :  "thi' 
Palatinate,"  to  Khenish  liavaria  and  the  north  of 
Baden  ;  '  the  Khineland,'  to  portions  of  Haden, 
Khenish  Prussia,  liavaria,  I Ies.se- Darmstadt,  and 
Nassau;  '  Voigtiand,' to  the  lii};li  ^.'round  hetween 
Hof  and  I'lauen  ;  'Thnringia,'  to  the  districts  lying 
iK'tween  the  Tpper  Saale  ami  the  Werra.  as  Saxe- 
Weimar,  iVc.  :  '  Lusatia,'  to  the  eastern  part  of 
Saxony;  '  Kast  Kriesland,' to  the  country  hetween 
the  Lower  We.ser  and  Kms ;  and  'Westphalia,'  to 
the  district  extendinfr  hetween  Lower  Saxony,  the 
Netherlan<ls,  Thuringia,  and  llesse,  to  the  tJerinan 
Ocean.  The  four  Saxon  duchies  and  the  four 
Sidiwarzburg  ami  Heuss  princijialit  ies  are  frequently 
grouped  together  as  the  ■  TlnniMj;i,ui  States. 

P/ii/xirii/  C/iiinirtir.' -liiMnia.ny  [iresents  two  very 
ilisiinct  physical  formations.  (1)  A  range  of  high 
tahleland,  occupying  the  centre  and  .southern  parts 
of  the  country,  interspersed  with  nunuMous  ranges 
anil  gr()U])a  of  mountains,  the  most  inqiortant  of 
which  are  the  Harz  and  Tcutohurgerwald,  in  the 
north  :  the  Taunus,  Thiiriiigerwald.  Krzgcliirge, 
and  Kiesengehirge,  in  the  miildle;  and  the  lilack 
Forest  (Schwarzwald ),  Kauhe  .Vlh,  and  Bavarian 
Alps  in  the  south  :  and  containing  an  area,  includ- 
ing .\lsace  and  Lorraine,  of  110,0tK)  sip  m.  The 
Hrocken  is  3740  feet  high  ;  the  V'osges  reach  47(K) ; 
the  I'eldherg  in  the  Black  Forest  is  4!)(«  :  and  the 
Zugspitz  in  the  Noric  .\lps  of  Bavaria,  the  highest 
peak  in  (lermany,  is  iHili.")  feet  in  height.  (2)  .-\  vast 
sandy  plain,  which  extends  from  the  centre  of  the 
empire  north  to  the  German  tJcean,  and  including 
Sleswick-Holstein,  contains  an  area  of  ahont  9H,(M)0 
»[.  m.  This  great  plain,  stretching  from  the  Hus- 
sian  frontier  on  the  east  to  the  Netherlands  on  the 
west,  is  varied  hy  two  terrace-like  elevations.  I'he 
one  stretches  from  the  Vistula  into  Mecklenhurg,  at 
no  great  distance  from  the  coast  of  the  lialtic,  and 
has  a.  mean  elevation  of  MHt  to  fi(MI  feet,  rising  in 
one  point  near  Danzig  to  lO'iO  feet  ;  the  other  line 
of  elevations  begins  in  Silesia  .and  terminates  in  the 
moorlands  of  Ijiinehurg  in  Hanover,  its  course 
being  marked  hy  several  sunnidts  from  .jOO  to  800 
feet  in  height.  A  large  porticm  of  the  plain  is 
occupied  by  sanily  tracts  interspersed  with  deposits 
of  peat  :  but  other  parts  are  moderately  fertile,  and 
adnut  of  successful  cultivation. 

The  surface  of  (lerniany  may  be  regarded  as 
belonging  to  three  dr.ainage  basins.  The  Danube 
(q.v. )  from  its  source  in  thi!  Black  Finest  to  the 
borders    of    Austria    belongs    to    (iermanv;     ami 


througli  its  channel  the  waters  of  the  greater  part 
of  Bavaria  are  poureil  into  the  BlacK  Sea.  Its 
chief  tributaries  are  the  I  Her,  Lech,  Isar,  am!  Inn 
on  the  light  ;  and  the  .Vltmiihl,  Nab,  and  Kcgen 
on  the  left.  By  far  tin'  greater  part  of  thi'  surface 
(about  18."), 000  .s(|.  111.)  Iia.s  a  noithern  slope,  and 
belongs  partly  to  the  basin  of  the  North  Sea,  partly 
to  that  of  the  Baltic.  The  chief  (Jerman  streams 
llowiiig  into  the  North  Sea  are  the  Bhiiie  (q.v.), 
with  its  tributaries  the  Neckar,  .Main,  Lahn,  Sie", 
Wupper.  Kuhr.  and  Lijipe  on  the  right,  and  the  111 
and  .Moselle  on  the  left  :  the  Weser  (q.v.),  \}illi  its 
trilaitary  the  Aller;  and  the  Kibe  (q.v.),  with  its 
tributaries  the  Havel.  .Mnlde,  and  Saale.  Into  the 
Baltic  How  the  Oder  (q.v.),  with  its  tributaries  the 
Wartlie,  Neisse.  and  Bober  ;  the  Vistula  (q.v.),  or 
in  tierman  W  eichsel,  w  itii  its  tiibutaries  the  Narew, 
Drcweiiz,  and  Bnihe  ;  the  Meiiiel  :  and  the  Piegel. 

The  natural  and  artilieial  waterways  of  (Germany 
are  extensive,  es|iecially  in  the  northern  |ilain. 
The  most  imiiortant  of  the  minierous  canals  «  hich 
connect  the  great  river  systems  of  (lermany  are 
Ludwig"s  Canal  ( 1 10  miles  long)  in  Bavaiia,  which, 
by  uniting  the  Danube  and  -Main,  opens  a  com- 
munication between  the  Black  Sea  and  thedeniian 
Ocean;  the  Finow  (40  miles)  and  I'rieilrich  Wil- 
lielm's  (20  miles  I  canals  in  Biandenburg  ;  the  Plane 
Canal  (20  miles),  between  the  FIbe  and  the  Havel; 
the  Kiel  and  Eider  Canal  (21  miles),  uniting  the 
Baltic  and  (Jerman  Ocean  ;  and  the  canals  between 
the  Oder  and  \"istiila,  Hhineand  Phone  (22")  miles), 
and  Kliine,  .Maine,  and  Seine  (11)5  miles).  The 
North  Sea  and  Baltic  Canal,  from  Brunsbiitlel  at 
the  iiioulh  of  the  FIbe  to  Kiel,  begun  in  1887  and 
linislied  in  1895,  was  designed  mainly  for  the  use  of 
warships.  Nnmcrinis  lakes  occur  both  in  the  table- 
land of  southern  (lermany  (Bavaria)  and  in  the 
low  lands  of  the  northern  districts,  but  few  of  them 
are  of  any  great  size.  The  so-called  '  Hatl's  '  of  the 
north  coasts  are  extensive  bays  of  the  sea,  but  .so 
curiously  landlocked  as  to  tpiactically  form  huge 
salt-water  lagoons  or  coast  lakes.  The  chief  are 
the  Stettiner  Hall',  the  Frisehe  Hall'  at  Kiinigs- 
l)erg,  and  the  Kurische  Hall'  at  Memel.  tier- 
many  abounds  in  swamps  and  niarsh-lands,  which 
are  especially  numerous  in  the  low  noithern  dis- 
tricts. Its  mineral  springs  occur  piiiieipally  in 
Nassau,  WUrtembeig,  Baden,  Bavaria,  and  Kheiiisli 
Prussia.  .Many  of  llie.sc  s]iriiigs  have  retained  their 
high  reputation  from  the  earliest  ages. 

Gco/iir/i/. — The  great  plain  of  North  Ciermany 
consists  of  strata  of  the  same  age  as  the  Tertiary 
strata  of  the  Paris  basin,  covered  with  very  recent 
sand  and  mud.  Newer  Tertiary  beds  occupy  the 
river  basin  of  the  lihine  north  from  Mainz;  they 
consist  of  line  light  (•uloiiied  loam,  and  contain 
the  bones  of  the  iiiamniiith,  rhinoceros,  and  other 
contemporaneous  mammals.  Fanatics  are  scattered 
over  the  north  of  Cermaiiy.  The  whole  district  in 
the  centre  of  tlermany,  from  the  Danube  north- 
wards to  Hanover,  consists  of  Secondary  strata. 
The  rocks  of  the  Trias  period  are  best  known  in 
(lermany,  the  typical  rocks  of  liunter  Sandstein, 
.Musclielkalk,  and  Keuper  being  devehqied  here 
so  as  to  justify  the  name  Trias.  The  Trias  is 
highly  fossiliferous,  abounding  especially  in  marine 
shells,  and  containing  several  genera  of  remark- 
able labyiinthodont  saurians.  Jura-ssic  rocks 
occur  in  central  (lermany;  at  Hanover  they 
consist  of  clays  and  marl,  with  beds  of  sandstone 
and  limestone,  containing  coal  and  ironstone  of  such 
value  tlijtt  they  have  been  extensively  wrought. 
Intruded  igneous  rocks  have  tilled  the  bids  of  the 
Cretaceous  strata  in  some  districts  to  a  nearly 
vertical  ])osition,  and  have  metamorphosed  them 
into  crystalline  marbles  and  siliceous  .sandstones.   "* 

Of  the  Paliiozoic  rocks,  the  Carboniferous  strata 
are   almost   entirelv   absent   from    (lermany.     The 


GERMANY 


173 


coal  obtained  in  the  country  is  from  rocks  of  a  later 
aj;e.  True  coal-1)eds  are  fouml  in  Rlienisli  I'russia. 
Tlie  seilinientarv  rocks  of  tlie  Harz  Mountains  are 
cliietly  Devonian  ;  to  the  southeast,  near  Harz- 
geroil'e,  they  are  Upper  Sihirian.  They  are  all 
greatly  dislueated  by  granite  and  other  intrusive 
rocks.  The  Harz  Mountains  are  surrounded  Ijy  a 
zone  of  Permian  rocks.  The  stratilieil  rocks  of  the 
Thiiringerwald  are  also  Devonian,  resting  on  Lower 
Silurian  strata,  the  lower  portion  of  whicii  is  lugldy 
metamorphosed  into  quartzose  schists ;  the  re- 
mainder consists  of  graywacke,  slate,  and  sand- 
stone, with  limestone  and  alum  slates.  There  are 
numerous  fucoid  and  annelid  impressions  in  the 
(dder  beds,  and  giaptolites,  ortnoceratites,  and 
trihdjites  in  the  newer.  The  basaltic  rocks, 
trachytes,  and  other  volcanic  products  are  largely 
developed  in  the  Eifel,  Siebengebirge,  ^\'estel■wald, 
Vogels,  Khringebirge,  and  other  mountain-systems 
of  central  (Jermany. 

Climrite. — The  climate  of  tlennany  presents  less 
diversity  than  a  lirst  glance  at  the  map  might  lead 
one  to  infer,  for  the  greater  heats  of  tlie  more 
southern  latitudes  are  considerably  modilied  by  the 
hilly  character  of  the  country  in  those  parallels, 
while  the  cold  of  the  northern  plains  is  mitigated 
by  their  vicinity  to  the  ocean.  The  average 
decrease  in  the  mean  temperature  is,  in  going  from 
south  to  north,  about  1'  F.  for  every  52  miles; 
and  in  going  from  west  to  east,  about  1°  F.  for 
every  72  miles.  The  line  of  perpetual  snow 
varies  from  7'200  to  8000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  mean  annual  rainfall  is  20  inches. 
The  rainfall  is  heaviest  on  the  coast  and  in  the 
mountains;  least  in  Silesia,  on  the  Danube  at 
Sigmaringen,  in  Rhenish  Bavaria,  and  at  Wustrow 
in  Mecklenburg.  The  rainfall  in  tlie  Upper  Harz 
reaches  66  inches.  The  ditt'erenee  between  the 
greatest  heat  ami  the  greatest  cold  in  Geruiany  is 
about  130'  F.  January  is  the  coldest  ami  July  the 
warmest  month.  The  following  table  shows  the 
mean  annual  records  of  the  temperature  at  dirterent 
points  of  the  continent  ; 

Aiiiiiinl  iiii-.nn.  Summer.  Winter. 

Hamburg il' V.  W"  F.  30' F. 

Drt'scl™ 48  67  29 

Frankfort-on-the-Main 485  66  31 

Berlin 46-5  66  27 

Hanover 4S  63  33- 

Konigsbcrg 43  62  24 

Proditrtx. — The  mineral  products  of  Germany 
are  very  rich  and  varied,  ami  their  exjdoitation 
forms  a  most  important  industry.  The  chief  min- 
ing anil  smelting  distnets  are  in  Silesia,  on  the 
Lower  Hhine,  in  the  I  p]ier  Harz.  and  in  Saxony. 
Silver  is  found  in  the  Upper  Harz  and  Saxony. 
I  rim  occurs  in  numerous  mountain-ranges,  especi- 
ally in  Upprr  Silesia  and  in  Hhenish  \Vesti>halia. 
Als.ace  and  Lorraine  contain  a  great  part  of  per- 
haps the  largest  iron-deposit  in  Europe,  which 
stretches  into  France  and  Luxemburg.  The  iron 
of  the  Thiiringerwald  is  fine,  though  not  abundant. 
The  chief  coallields  are  in  Silesia,  Westphalia 
(on  the  Kuhr).  and  Saxony — the  lirst  containing 
the  largest  coallield  in  Euroiie.  I'russia  yields 
nearly  one-half  of  the  zinc  annually  produced  in  the 
world.  Lead  is  found  in  the  Harz,  in  other  jiarts 
of  Prussia,  and  in  Saxony.  A  little  cojiper  ismineil 
at  MansfeM.  Tin  ami  tungsten  are  yielded  by  the 
Erzgebirge  ;  manganese  at  Wiesbaden  ;  (|uicksilvcr 
in    Westphalia :   antimony   in   Thuringia.     Salt    is 

Iirodnced  at  Halle,  Stassfiirt,  and  other  iiarts  of 
;'russia.  (Jermany  is  rich  in  clays  of  all  kinds, 
from  the  finest  to  the  coai-sest  :  the  porcelain  of 
Meissen,  the  pottery  of  Thuringia,  and  the  glass 
of  Silesia  and  ISavaria  are  celelirated.  Building 
stone  is  well  distributed  ;  marble,  alaba.ster,  slates, 
and   lithographic   stones    also   occur ;    and    cobalt, 


arsenic,  sulphur,  saltpetre,  alum,  gyp.suni,  bismuth, 
pumice-.stone,  Tripoli  slate,  kaolin,  emery,  ochre, 
and  vitriol  are  all  among  the  exports  of  Germany. 
The  following  table  shows  the  ]n-oducti(m  of  the 
live  years  1882-86,  with  the  yearly  average,  and 
the  produce  for  1887  and  1894,  of  the  chief  mine- 
rals of  Germany  (including  the  Duchy  of  Luxem- 
burg): 

1882-1886  Ycnrly  Pn>Ou«  In        Produce  in 

Arera^e.  l-*^.  I*^^ 

toils.  tons.  tons.  tun^ 

Antliracite    281,672.500  66,334,600  60,334,000  ri;,772,700 

Lignite 73,620,300  14,724,060  16,898,600  22,103,400 

Salt            7,061,700  1,410,340  1,4S5,600  735,500 

Iron  ore 43,669,300  8,733,860  9,351,100  12,403,800 

Zinc  ore 3,390,300  678,060  900,700  723,600 

Lead  ore 826,700  165,340  ]57,<XK)  iC2,70O 

Copper  ore 2,890,100  578.020  507,600  58j,200 

In  the  returns  for  1894  there  are  also  1,643,600 
tons  of  pota.ssic  salt  and  290,500  tons  of  'other 
products.'  .Silver  to  the  amount  of  4.50  tons  was 
produced  in  1893,  with  3074  kilograms  of  gold ;  and 
nickel,  bismuth,  vitriol,  ami  other  chemical  manu- 
factures of  a  total  weiglit  of  29,098  tons. 

Cereals  are  extensively  cultivate<l  in  the  north, 
but  the  value  of  the  wheat,  barley,  oats,  ami  rye 
imported  exceeds  the  value  of  that  exporteil  by 
£2,500,000  a  year.  The  export  of  potatoes  exceeds 
the  imports  by  £400,000.  Hemp  and  llax,  ni.adder, 
woad,  and  saft'ron  grow  well  in  the  central  districts, 
where  the  rine,  the  cultivation  of  which  extends  in 
suitable  localities  as  far  north  as  51%  is  brought  to 
great  perfection.  The  best  wine-i>roducing  districts 
are  the  valleys  of  the  Danube,  Rhine,  Main, 
Neckar,  and  Moselle,  which  are,  moreover,  generally 
noted  for  the  excellence  of  their  fruits  and  vege- 
tables. The  best  tobacco  is  grown  on  the  Ujiper 
Rhine,  on  the  Neckar,  and  in  Alsace,  but  inferior 
qualities  are  largely  produced  elsewhere.  The 
hops  of  Bavaria  have  a  high  reputation,  and  the 
chicory  grown  in  that  country,  anil  in  the  district 
between  the  Elbe  and  Wesei'.  is  used  all  over  Euiope 
as  a  substitute  for  coH'ee.  Magdeburg  is  the  centre 
of  a  large  beetroot-growing  industry.  According 
to  the  survey  of  1883,  corrected  for  1887,  487  per 
cent.  (65,779,920  acres)  of  the  entire  area  of  the 
empire  was  given  up  to  arable  land,  gaiden-land, 
and  vineyards.  Anhalt  had  the  highest  jiroportion 
of  such  land  ;  and,  excluding  the  domains  of  the 
free  towns,  Oldenburg  had  the  lowest.  About  20'3 
])er  cent.  (27, ,361, 428  acres)  was  occupieil  by  heath, 
meadow,  and  pasture,  Oldenburg  containing  the 
greatest  jiroportion,  and  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  the 
lowest.  The  chief  crops  in  1887  were  meadow- 
hay,  14,77S,6.')0  acres;  rye,  14,605,700  acres;  oats, 
9,525,610  acres;  potatoes,  7. 295, .368  acres;  wheat, 
4,799,200  acres:  barley,  4.327,800  acres;  and 
spelt.  926,790  acres.  In  1887-88  tobacco  occujiied 
.53,665  acres;  in  1881-82,  68,120  acres.  Vines 
covered  300,.525  acres  in  1887-88,  and  yielded 
52,624,924  gallons  of  wine.  The  most  extensive 
forests  are  found  in  central  Germany,  while  the 
deficiency  of  wood  in  the  north-west  parts  of  the 
great  plain  is  in  some  degree  met  by  the  abund- 
ance of  turf.  Germany  in  1883  had  34,770,995 
acres  (25'7  per  cent,  ot  its  area)  in  woods  and 
forest.  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  had  the  highest 
proportion  of  area  devoted  to  forest  :  and,  excluding 
the  free-towns,  Oldenburg  had  the  lowest.  The 
largest  forests  are  of  firs  and  red  jiines  (as  in 
the  Blaek  Forest,  Up|ier  Harz,  Thiiringerwald,  and 
Riesengehirge),  beech  (Lower  Harz  and  Baltic 
coast ),  pines  ( east  of  EUie,  Bavaria,  I'ranconia,  and 
on  the  Rhine),  and  oaks  (Lower  Rhine,  West- 
ph.alia,  Odenwald,  and  I'pper  Silesia). 

Germany  has  long  l>een  noted  for  the  good  breed 
of  horses  raised  in  the  north  ;  Saxony,  Silesia,  and 
Brandenlmrg  have  an  equal  rcimtation  for  their 
sheeii  and  the  fine  quality  of  the  woid  which  they 
yiefd  :   and  the  rich  alluvial  Hats  of  Mecklenburg 


174 


GEUMANV 


anil  Hanover  are  celebratcii  for  llieir  cattle.  Tlie 
forests  of  nortlieni  ami  central  (Jerniaiiy  alioiind 
in  small  jjame  of  various  kimls ;  ami  a  few  still 
shelter  wilil  Imkih*.  The  Bavarian  Al]>s  allord 
shelter  to  the  lar^'er  animals,  as  the  chamois,  the 
red  ileer  ami  wild  j;oat,  the  fox  and  marten. 
Wolves  are  still  found  in  Itavaria,  the  e:ustern 
provinces  of  I'russia,  and  in  Lorraine.  The  tx'ar  is 
now  extinct,  and  the  heaver  nearly  so.  In  all  the 
plains  in  the  north  storks,  wild  geese,  and  ducks 
are  ahundant.  .Among  the  lishcs  of  Clermany  the 
most  generally  distributed  are  carp,  salmon,  trout, 
anil  eels  ;  the  rivers  coutain  also  crayhsh,  pearl- 
tiearing  mussels,  and  leeches.  The  oyster,  herring, 
and  cod  lisherics  constitute  important  branches  of 
industry  on  the  German  shores  of  the  Baltic  and 
Kortli  Sea.  Germany  stands  next  to  tJreat  Britain 
in  regard  to  the  care  and  success  with  which  its 
agricultural,  mining,  and  other  natural  capabilities 
have  been  cultivated.  .VU  the  German  states, 
and  especially  I'russia,  Saxony,  and  Bavaria, 
encourage  agriculture,  and  have  endeavoured,  by 
the  establisliment  of  agricultural  colleges  and 
exhibitions,  to  dill'use  among  the  people  a  know- 
l&lge  of  recent  scientilic  appliances.  Forestry 
receives  almost  as  much  attention  in  Germany  a^ 
agriculture  :  and,  like  the  latter,  is  elevated  to  the 
rank  of  a  science.  The  larger  woods  and  forests  in 
most  of  the  states  belong  to  the  government,  and  are 
under  the  care  of  special  boards  of  management, 
which  e.xercise  the  right  of  supervision  and  con- 
trol over  all  forest  lands,  whether  public  or  private. 
MdiDiftirtiiirs. — The  oldest  and  most  important 
of  the  German  industrial  arts  are  the  manufactures 
of  lineu  and  woollen  goods.  The  chief  localities  for 
the  cultivation  and  prejiaration  of  Max,  and  the 
weaving  of  linen  fabrics,  are  tlie  mountain-valleys 
of  Silesia,  Lusatia,  Westphalia,  and  Saxony  ( for 
thread-laces):  while  cotton  fabrics  are  principally 
made  in  Hhenish  Prussia  and  Saxony.  The  same 
districts,  together  with  I'omerauia,  Bavaria,  Alsace, 
Wiirtenil>erg,  and  Baden,  manufacture  the  choicest 
woollen  fabrics,  including  damasks  and  carpets. 
The  silk  industry  has  its  central  point  in  Hhenish 
Prussia,  with  a  special  development  in  the  district 
of  Dii.sseldorf.  Germany  rivals  France  more  keenly 
in  the  production  of  .satins  than  in  that  of  heavier 
all-silk  goods.  .lutesiiinning  is  carried  on  in  Bruns- 
wick, at  Meissen,  anu  at  Bonn  ;  thread  is  manu- 
factured in  Saxony,  Silesia,  and  the  Rhine  pro- 
vinces ;  and  hosiery  is  most  largely  produced  in 
Saxony  and  Tliuringia.  The  making  of  toys  and 
wooden  clocks,  and  wooil-carving,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  almost  a  S|)eciality  of  (!erman 
industry,  flourish  in  the  billy  districts  of  Saxony, 
Bavaria,  and  the  Black  Forest.  Paper  is  inaile 
chietly  in  the  districts  of  Aix-la-f 'hapelle,  Arnsberg, 
and  Licgnit/,  and  in  Saxony.  Tanning,  especially 
in  the  south-west,  is  an  ancient  German  imhistry. 
The  best  iron  and  steel  manufactures  belong  to 
Silesia,  Hanover,  and  Saxony  :  in  bS'j:}.  4,!tS6,fJO0 
metric  tons  representing  a  value  of  £10,>Sf»0,00(]^ 
were  handled  in  the  foundries  of  Germany.  Silesia 
iirobably  ]iosscsses  the  finest  gla.ss-manufactories, 
tiut  those  of  Bavaria  are  also  important :  while 
Saxony  and  Prussia  stand  pre-eminent  for  the 
excellence  of  their  china  and  earthenware.  Augs- 
bur<;  and  Nuremberg  dispute  with  .Munich  and 
Berlin  the  title  to  preeminence  in  silver,  ;Iold,  and 
jewelry  work,  and  in  the  manuftvcture  of  philo- 
sophical and  nmsical  instruments  ;  while  Leipzig 
and  .Munich  claim  the  (irst  rank  for  typefounding, 
printing,  and  lithography.  The  trading  cities  of 
northern  tJermany  nearly  nionopoli.se  the  entire 
business  connected  with  the  preparation  of  tobacco, 
snutr,  &t  ,  v.ie  distillation  of^  spirits  from  the 
potato  and  other  roots,  and  the  manufacture  of 
Leet-root  sugar ;   while  vinegar  and  oils  are  *pre- 


pared  almost  exclusively  in  central  and  southern 
t;ermany.  In  189«-<J7,  l,3.V2,a.'?S,lMJO  gallons  of  beer 
were  brewed  in  the  tiermaii  empire,  the  chief  i>ro- 
diicing  states  being  Prussia  ( (MIS, i.MJtJ.iHMi  gals.)  and 
Bavaria  (350,S.')U,<)0'J  gals. ).  The  annual  coiisiiiiip- 
tioii  per  head  of  the  pojiiilutinn  is  'Jl  gallon.s. 
.\ccoriling  to  the  industrial  census  of  ISSJ,  the 
number  of  iiersons  in  Gerniany  engaged  in  manu- 
factures and  commerce  was  7,"JUC,7s;i.  The  follow, 
ing  figures,  showing  the  distribution  of  that  total, 
allord  a  view  of  the  comparative  iiii)H>rtance  of 
the  various  industiies  :  Clothing,  washing,  iVc, 
1,334,007:  building  and  related  industiiis.  iH(),.")83; 
retail  trading,  8o3,827  ;  textile  industries,  8.V),.s.">9; 
nictnl- working,  carriage  and  shin  building,  «!vc., 
813,906;  preparation  of  food  and  food  materials, 
063, '2*26 ;  mining  (including  founding  and  salt- 
winning),  d52,0'20  ;  workers  in  wood  and  wicker, 
5'2I,660;  postal  service,  transport,  &c.,  437,040; 
lodging  and  refreshment.  '279.4.J1  :  industries  in 
stone,  earth,  clay,  S'JI.iHiO:  ii.i]>er  and  leather 
working,  ■2'20,0.39;  chemicals  ami  lighting  materials, 
88,397;  printing,  iSrc,  69,643;  art  industries, 
23,893:  niLsccUaneous,  91,226.  Besides  these, 
8,(X).l,3o0  were  engaged  in  agriculture,  91,630  in 
forestry  and  hunting,  o5,168  in  horticulture,  and 
24,348  in  lisliing. 

Cummcnc  itnd  ShippiiKj. — The  niultiplicitv  of 
small  states  into  which  the  tJerman  land  was  long 
broken  up  opiposed  great  obstacles  to  the  develop- 
ment of  commerce  ;  but  the  dilliculty  was  to  some 
extent  obvi<ated  by  the  establishment  of  the  Zoll- 
\erein  (ipv. ),  or  Customs  and  Trade  Confederation, 
and  partly  also  by  the  absoi-])tion  of  several  of  the 
smaller  states  by  Prussia.  In  1871  a  Zullutid 
IliimlrlsUehiit  (Customs  ;inil  Trade  Territory- )  was 
formed  in  (lerm.iny.  inilinliiig  Luxemburg  ( 1010  sq. 
m.  :  213,283  inhabitants  in  18S.'))  and  the  Austrian 
district  of  Jungholz(212  inhabitants  >.  but  exclud- 
ing Hamburg.  Bremen,  and  |)arts  uf  Uldenburg, 
Pru.ssia,  and  Baden  (together  140  »q.  m.  ;  754,705 
inhabitants).  Un  Octolier  15,  1888,  however,  all 
these  districts  entered  the  union,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Baden  territory  (4()."i4  iiibal>itaiits),  and 
part  of  the  ohl  free  port  of  Ilaiiiburg  (l.">2  inhab- 
itants). The  old  ZoUveiein  parliament  is  repre- 
sented by  the  I'eichstag,  and  the  Zollverein  council 
by  the  Bundesrath,  which  appoints  three  perman- 
ent committees — for  linaiice,  for  excise  and  cus- 
toms, and  fur  trade.  The  revenues  of  the  union  are 
derived  from  customs  duties  upon  imports,  and 
from  excise  duties  on  tobacco,  salt,  beetroot-sugar, 
brandy,  malt,  iVc,  and  are  divided  among  the 
dillerent  states  accordiii'r  to  the  populations. 

The  following  table  .sTiows  the  exjiorts  of  home 
prixluce  and  the  imports  for  home  consumption  in 
1888,  for  the  customs  union  as  constituted  before 
October  of  that  year: 


OfflcijU  CUm. 

EzporU. 

Importa. 

£4,725,350 

£7,783,200 

2.  Seeds  and  plaiitd 

1,308,900 

2,12i),800 

3.  Aiitijkal  products 

1,057,550 

4,051,100 

4.  Fuel 

5,754,960 

3,560,000 

10,589,450 
1,330.000 

37,564,350 
10,763,960 

tt.  Tallow.  oiI«.  &c 

-^i 

7.  CheoiJcals  and  drugs... 

S^ 

11,805,450 

12,142,250 

8.  Si'.ne.  clay,  and  glass.. 

5,870,450 

2,559.850 

9.  Metals  and  metal  floods 

^^ 

24,334,950 

15.857,500 

10.  WotMl  and  wickerwork.. 

■•J- 

5,850,400 

8,134.800 

11.  Far>er 

s.i 

4,731,550 

711,:i00 

12.  Leather  and  hides 

*  = 

11,840,11X1 

8,366,050 

,  13.  TextiU-s  and  felt 

=  ? 

53.761,950 

61,271,250 

14.  Caoutchouc •' 

" 

1,45-2,300 

1,420,100 

15.  Carriajtes,  furniture.  &c 

142,350 

25,500 

'  m.  Macliinen*  and  instruiueuts. . 

6,667,100 

2,472,500 

4,288,450 

1,276,000 

IS.  Literature,  art,  &c 

3,619.800 

1,314,560 

3.1,050 

Total 

£107,730,100 

£171,793,350 

GERMANY 


175 


Tlie  total  exports  for  the  same  year  were 
£-'43,154,0.50:  iinpoits,  £2.'54,710,Sf)0.  In  1898  the 
total  exports  of  lioiiie  |iro(luw  luid  iiicrea^eil  to 
f'iOd.oSi.'i.JO,  wliile  tlie  iniiiorts  for  home  consuinp- 
tioii  were  £-271, 983,800.  In  ISSl  the  exports  of 
home  produce  from  (lermanv  to  Uritaiu  were 
£23,050,28.5,  ami  in  1898  £28;534,1.59 ;  while  the 
imports  of  British  produce  were  respectively 
£17,431,439  and  £-22,525,937.  Includiii','  foreign 
and  colonial  produce,  the  imports  fimn  Hritain 
in  1898  were  £33, .331, 701.  Amon^'  the  principal 
articles  exported  to  Biitain  in  1S9S  were  sugar 
aTid  glucose,  £9,570,784:  wood,  £1,271,210;  wool 
and  woollen  manufactures,  £974,717 :  ghtss, 
£898,000;  iron  manufactures,  £830,211;  hides 
and  leather,  £814,109;  cotton  .and  yarn,  £805,155; 
egg^.  £788,844  ;  butter  and  margarine  (ilecreasing), 
£251,374.  The  luincijial  articles  importeil  from 
Britain  were  woollen,  cotton,  and  alpaca  goods  and 
yarns,  iron,  machiuery,  coal,  herrings,  and  linen. 

The  (ierman  mercantile  fleet  is  the  fourth  in  the 
N.oild,  being  excelled  only  by  those  of  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  and  Norway.  In  1895 
it  consisted  of  2622  sailing  ships  of  600,856  Ions 
burden,  and  1043  steamers,  of  893,046  tons;  mak- 
ing a  total  of  3065  vessels  of  1,. 553, 902  tons.  The 
leading  ])orts  are  Hamburg,  Brenierhaven  (for  Bre- 
men), Stettin,  Danzig,  Kiel,  Lilbeck,  and  Kfinigs- 
herg.  In  1893  there  entered  Geiinan  ports  60,055 
vessels,  of  14,021,034  tons,  ami  cleared  07,219 
ships,  of  14,724,0.58  tons.  Of  the  shipping  enter- 
ing 3,052,450,  tons  were  British,  and  699,000  tons 
Danish  ;  5, .591,000  tons  were  German.  Besides 
this  maritime  shijjping  trade,  Germany  carries  on 
a  very  active  commerce  between  its  own  internal 
ports,  by  means  of  20,.390  vessels  (1153  steamers), 
plying  On  the  numerous  navigable  rivers  and 
canals. 

In  her  commercial  policy  Germany  has  of  late 
years  committed  herself  more  and  more  to  protec- 
tion ;  and  by  a  law  of  July  1879  a  protective 
poli<-y  was  substituted  for  the  previous  free-trading 
principles  of  the  empire.  The  chaos  of  coinages 
in  \ise  before  the  establishment  of  the  enijjire  has 
been  rectified  by  the  substituti<m  (1873)  ot  a  uni- 
form imperial  system,  the  standard  being  gold  (see 
BiMKTALMSM).'  Tl:e  silver  mark,  superseding 
guldens  and  thalers,  is  almost  exactly  e((ual  to  a 
shilling  in  value.  Since  1872  the  metrical  system 
of  weights  and  measures  has  been  in  use. 

liitilioiijs,  <tr. — The  lirst  railway  in  Germany 
was  the  Ludwigsbahn  between  Nuremberg  and 
FUrtli,  ciMiipleted  in  18.35  ;  but  the  lirst  of  any 
length  was  built  between  Leipzig  :inil  Dresden  in 
1837.39.  In  1900  the  railways  in  Germany,  com- 
pleted and  open  for  traltic,  amounted  to  32.000 
English  miles.  Of  these  only  3000  miles  belonged 
to  jirivate  companies,  all  the  remainder  being 
Government  lines;  about  900  miles  had  narrow- 
gauge  lines. 

The  postal  ami  telegraphic  systems  of  all  the 
German  sttUes,  except  Bavaiia  and  Wiirtendierg, 
are  now  under  a  central  imiierial  administration  : 
and  since  1872,  in  accordance  with  treaties  con- 
cludccl  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  a  llerman- 
Austrian  postal  union  has  been  established.  At 
the  cud  of  the  century  there  were  30,000  post- 
offices  in  the  empire,  and  23,000  telegraph  oHices : 
while  900  towns  had  telejihonic  communication. 
The  total  length  of  telegraph  lines  was  about 
80,000  English"  miles,  with  30". (MID  English  miles 
of  wires.  The  total  number  of  hands  employed 
w.o-s  2iX),03O.  The  total  receipts  were  close  ou 
£2l),(llHi.llO(),  and  the  expeniliture  £18,000,000. 

I'ujiiilation,  etc. — Four-fifths  of  the  population 
of  this  country  are  of  the  race  called  m  English 
Germans,  in  French  Allemands,  but  by  the  people 
themselves    Deutsche.       The     term    Deiitsch,     in 


Gothic  thhulisk,  in  Old  High  Ger.  diutisc{  Latinised 
into  theotiscus),  Ls  derived  from  the  Gothic  substan- 
tive//(('((fA/,  '  people,'  and  therefore  meant  originally 
the  popular  language ;  or,  in  the  mouth  of  the 
learned,  the  vulgar  tongue.  In  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries  it  became  the  accepted  designation  botli 
of  this  widespread  tongue  ami  of  the  race  that 
speak  it. 

The  German-speaking  inliabitants  of  the  emjiire 
nnnd^er  upwards  of  43,000,(100  ;  but  a  considerable 
proportion  of  these  are  not  of  the  Germanic  stock. 
Among  the  peoples  retaining  their  own  language 
(about  3i  millions)  are  Poles  (exclusively  in  eastern 
and  north-eastern  Prussia),  2,450,000;  Wends 
(in  Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and  Saxony),  140,tKiO; 
Czechs  ( in  Silesia ),  50,000  ;  Lithuanians  ( in  eastern 
Prussia),  1.50,000;  Danes  (in  Sleswick),  140.000; 
French  (in  Pihenish  Prussia,  Alsace,  and  Lorraine) 
and  Walloons  (about  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  Khcni.sh 
Prussia),  280,000.  The  Germans  are  divided  into 
High  and  Low  Germans ;  the  language  of  the 
former  is  the  cultivated  language  of  all  the  German 
states  ;  that  of  the  latter,  known  as  PlattDeittsih, 
is  spoken  in  the  north  and  north-west.  As  to  the 
colour  of  the  hair.  Professor  ^'irchow  causeil  obser- 
vations to  be  made  on  the  hair  of  1,758.827  school 
children,  four-fifths  of  the  total  number.  The 
result  sliowed  that  31  80  per  cent,  belonged  to 
the  blonde  type  :  1405  to  the  brunette  type:  and 
5415  to  the  intermediate  type.  The  blondes  were 
most  numerous  in  North  Germany,  the  brunettes 
in  South  Germany. 

It  is  computed  that  there  are  23,000,000  Germans 
beyond  the  boundary  of  the  empire,  of  whom  9A 
millions  are  in  Austria,  7  in  the  t'nited  States,  2 
in  Switzerland,  400,000  in  Poland  (besides  800,000 
German  Jews).  There  are  also  many  in  the 
Volga  country,  in  middle  and  south  Kussia, 
Roumania,  and  Turkey. 

The  average  density  of  the  pojiulation  of  Ger- 
many is  about  222  jier  sq.  m.  The  most  densely 
populated  country  of  the  empire  is  Saxony,  with 
513  per  sq.  m.  ;  the  most  sparsely  populated  is 
MecklenburgStrelitz,  with  87  per  s<|.  in.  The  con- 
centration of  the  population  in  large  towns  is  not 
so  common  in  Gernumy  as  in  some  other  countries. 
Although  in  1885  there  were  137  towns  with  20.000 
inhabitants  and  upwards,  only  one  of  these  reached 
a  million,  three  others  250,000  (see  p.  172).  and 
seventeen  others  100,000 ;  twenty-three  had  be- 
tween 50,000  and  100,000. 

Emigration. — During  the  last  fifty  years  emi- 
gration from  Germany  h.o-s  assumed  very  large 
proportions  ;  but  since  1881,  when  the  highest  total 
(220,798)  was  reached,  the  annual  number  of 
emigrants  has  greatly  decreased.  Between  18.30 
and  1887  it  is  calculated  that  about  4,200,000  emi- 
grants left  the  ccmntry,  five  sevenths  of  whom  were 
bound  for  the  United  States  of  North  Americii. 
The  others  went,  in  varying  proportions,  to  So\ith 
America,  Australia,  Canada,  Africa,  and  Asia. 
In  1851-00  about  1.130,000  emigrants  left  Germ.inv  ; 
in  1860-71,  970,0(«);  in  1871-80,  .595,1,50;  and  in 
1881-88,  1,143..570.  In  1886  the  number  was 
83,218;  in  1887,  103,055;  and  in  1888,  98,515, 
besides  about  4000  sailing  from  French  ports.  By 
far  the  largest  proportion  of  emigrants  come  from 
the  northern  parts  of  the  emjiire :  in  1888  the 
]u-ovinces  of  I  osen  and  West  Prussi.a  each  con- 
tributed o\  er  12,000  to  the  Prussian  total  of  63,000. 
Bavaria  sent  12,200:  Wiirtemberg.  6.5(HI ;  Saxony, 
231X1.  In  1.894  the  total  number  of  emigrants 
was  only  40,964.  On  the  other  hand  there  were 
in  1890,  ,508, ,594  foreignei's  in  (iermany,  of  whom 
205,545  were  Austrians  and  15,534  were  born  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Colonics. —  The  steady  stream  of  emigration 
from  Gernumy  renders   it   natural   that  ticrmany 


176 


CKKMANV 


should  wish  to  extt'iiil  lier  lenilory,  ami  in  188+;-89 
liiese  regions  (licwiilcs  Kiaocliow,  'cedeil '  liv  Cliiiia 
ill  KS97  ;  tlie  Sanioiiii  I>liunls,  Saviiii,  ami  l'|iolii, 
Lv  tiiMlics  witli  riiileil  Staler  ami  Itiitaiii,  IS'.IS; 
aiid  llii>  CaioliiH",  I-adioiif,  ami  IVIew  Ulamli*,  liy 
treaty  wiili  Spain,  1.S'J1»)  have  heioino  Keriiiaii  \«»i- 
Befsioiis  or  come  under  CJerman  inoleetioii  : 


AkrU'a — 

Tojjiilnnil,  on  the  Slave  Coast. 

Ciiiticrooii 

Daiimralalid  and  Great  Xuliia- 
qliahilitl 

Usagiini,  &c,,  in  East  Africa. . 

Witulanti 

Geriniin  Protectorate,  a;,'riH'il 
uiKtn  with  Urilain  ami  Zali- 
zioar 

[,    PoLVSESIA  — 

111  Muntliall  Ulandit 

Kaiser  Willielin  Land,  In  New 

Oiiinea 

Bismarck   Arcliii^'lago    (New 

Britain,  kc  ) 

In  Sul'>ni<>n  Island:* — 


AraA  lu 
iq.  mllM. 


400 
116,000 

230,000 
00,001) 
5JO,000 


240,000 

160 

70,300 

1>,150 
8,500 


PuIHilaUou. 


40,000 
200,000 


10,000 
100,000 


183,000 
80,000 


EdiicatiuH. — Education  is  more  penerallv  difliised 
in  Oerinany  than  in  any  other  country  ot  Eniojie, 
and  is  cultivated  with  an  earnest  and  systeniatie 
devdlion  not  met  with  to  an  eipial  extent  aiming 
other  nations.  lie.sides  the  Academy  at  Miinster 
(fiiuiiiled  1780:  47l> students)  ami  the  small  Lyceum 
at  liraunsher^'  (l.">liS),  wiiich  have  only  the  two 
faculties  of  l'liilosci|ihy  and  Catliolic  'I'licolo^'y, 
there  are  20  universities:  lleidelher^'  (l;iSO), 
Wiir/hurj;  (140-J),  Leipzig'  (1409),  I'lostock  (1419), 
(;reifs\vald  (U.'iG),  Krcihiii',' ( 14.')7),  .Munich  (1472), 
Tiiliinf;cii  (1477),  MarhuiK  (1-V27),  KiUii;;sl.eij; 
(l.")44),  .leiia  (l.').")7),  tlicssen  (1007),  Kiel  (IGU.")), 
(;(.tlin;;eii  (  I7.'!4),  Krlan^'eu  (174:!|,  Iterliii  (l.sOO), 
]{ie:-lau  (IMll),  Halle  (1N17),  lionn  (ISIS),  Stiiis- 
hui;;  (1872).  Tlie.se  institutions  emhiace  the  four 
faculties  of  Tlieoloj;y,  Law,  .Medicine,  ami  I'liilo- 
sophv:  in  lSS9tliey  Iiad22li0|>rofe.ssi)rsand  te.icliei-s, 
ami  "ill  ISMS  ,S9  ("winter  session)  2S,.").jO  student.s. 
Uerliii  ( 571H)  students),  Leipzig  (;U:«M.  and  Munich 
(.S(i02)  are  the  larj;est  universities  :  .Jena  (4G.'i)  and 
Kostock  (.■$40)  the  smallest.  t)f  the  universities,  14 
are  I'rotestant — i.e.  in  the  department  of  theolojiy 
they  teach  only  Protestant  llieiilo}.'y  :  three  are 
Koman  Cjitholic — viz.  Frcihiir;,',  Munich,  and  Wiirz- 
burj;;  three— viz.  Honii,  lireslau,  and  Tuhintxen 
are  mi.xed,  I'ldlcstantism  prevailing'  in  the  liist 
two,  and  Koman  CathnliciMii  In  the  last.  There 
are  also  IG  polyleclmic  iiistilutiuns  ;  7S7  ;_'vmnasia, 
realschulen,  &c.  ;  numerous  special  scliools  of 
technolojry,  agriculture,  forestry,  niiiiing,  com- 
merce, military  science,  &c.  ;  several  seminaries 
for  teachers,  .and  for  the  niinistei"s  of  ditlerent  reli- 
gious denominations  ;  ami  nearly  GO.OOO  elementary 
schools.  The  attendance  of  chlldicn  at  schoul,  for 
at  le.ist  four  or  live  years,  is  made  coni|iulsory  in 
nearly  all  the  (■erniaii  states,  and  hence  the  jiro- 
portion  of  persons  who  cannot  read  and  write  is 
exceedingly  small.  Among  the  military  recruits 
of  18S7-SS  only  071  jier  cent,  were  unahle  either  to 
reail  or  write.  In  Kast  I'russiii  the  perccnlage  w:is 
4'IG— the  highest  in  tlii-  empire.  In  all  the  other 
states,  except  MecUlenliiirg-.Schwerin  (127).  the 
nuniher  of  illiterate  recruits  wius  less  than  1  per 
cent.  Several  of  the  smaller  states  li.ad  no  recruits 
unahle  to  reail  .and  write. 

Puhlic  lihr.'iries,  iiiiiseiims,  hotanieal  gardens,  art- 
collections,  picture-galleries,  .schools  of  music  and 
design,  and  academies  of  jvrts  ami  sciences  are 
to  he  met  with  in  mo^t  of  the  capitals,  and  in 
many  of  the  country  towns,  upwaids  of  200  of 
which  possess  one  or  more  ]ieriiiaiieiitly  estahlished 


theatres.  In  no  country  is  the  Imok  anil  puhlishing 
traile  more  univers.ally  patronised  than  in  Ccrinany, 
where  the  chief  centres  are  Leipzig  and  Siiillg.irt. 
The  )jiess  annually  sends  forth  from  SIMHI  to  lO.OIN) 
works,  while  ahout  3(XK)  papers  and  journals  arc 
circulated  thriMighoiit  the  empire.  <*f  the  current 
iiewsiiapei-s  a  comparatively  small  niimher  only 
exert  any  marked  inllueiice,  hut  many  of  the 
German  scientilic  and  literary  jieriodicals  enjoy  a 
world  wiile  reputation  (see  liniiK  TltAliK,  \'ol.  II. 
page  31')).  The  censorship  of  the  ]ir<'ss  was 
aholished  hy  a  decree  of  the  diet  of  1S4S,  and 
freedom  of  the  press,  under  certain  restrictions 
which  were  promulgated  in  1854,  haa  been  inlin 
duced. 

Ii'i/iiiioii. — In  regard  to  religion,  it  may  he  stated 
genenilly  that  I'rcitcstaiitisni  iircdomlnates  in  the 
north  ami  middle,  and  Koman  ratholicism  In  the 
south,  e.a-st,  and  west,  although  very  few  slates 
exhihit  exclusively  either  form  of  faith.  The  Pro- 
tcstants  belong  ehielly  either  to  the  Luthi'r.in  con- 
fe.s.sion,  which  prevails  in  Saxony,  Thiirlngia, 
Hanover,  and  Itavarla  cast  of  the  Khiiie,  or  to 
the  Keforineil  or  (alvlnlstic  Church,  which  jirc- 
vails  in  Hesse,  Aulialt,  ami  the  Palatinate.  A 
union  between  these  two  churches  hius  taken  place 
in  Pru.ssia.  There  are  six  Koman  Catholic  arcli- 
bishoprics  and  eighteen  Koman  Catholic  bishoprics 
in  (Jermauy. 

The  following  is  the  proportion  of  the  dilVerent 
denominations,  according  to  the  census  of  1S8.") : 

»_,— .      .        lloliiAil  other  ,„_.,        OtlHT 

Prnssia 18,244,405  9,621,703  S2,03O  300,575  3,(197 

Bavaria 1,521,114  3,8311,440  5,731  63,087  217 

.Saxonv 8,075.901  S7,762  10,26:t  7.7.'i5  26> 

Wlirte'niljerg 1,378,216  608,:)39  5,322  13,171  187 

Hailcn 666,327  1,014,388  3,822  27,104  114 

Hesse 643,681  278,450  8,005  20,114  101 

Mecklenburg       ).  (j«5  on  45^0  381  2,844  75 

Dnehies 1 

(ll.lenl.iiri; 264  304  74,363  1,180  1,660  28 

1  lMirin,'iali  States  1,187,533  20,073  1,461  3,652  154 

Kree-t.i'wns 701,877  22,.554  3,2.12  18,.S;)2  5,801 

Other  States 607,347  23,995  906  5,202  100 

Alsace-Lorraine..  312,941  1,210,325  3,771  36,876  442 

Total 29,369,847  10,78.1,734  126,673     663,172  11,278 

Percentage. 62  63  35-62        0-27  12  03 

Jiidirial  Si/siem. — In  terms  of  the  .Judicature 
Acts  of  1877  and  1878,  a  uniform  system  of  law- 
courts  was  adopted  liy  the  ditierent  states  in  1879. 
The  a]ipoiiitment  of  the  judges  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  courts  arc  left  in  the  hands  of  the  in- 
dividual federal  states,  except  in  the  ca,se  of  the 
lU-ichsfiericht.  The  Aiii.slii/rrir/d,  with  one  judge, 
is  comjictent  for  civil  cases  not  iiivulvlrig  more  llian 
ill.")  value,  and  for  various  minor  olleiices.  More 
imjiorlant  criminal  cases  are  tried  by  the  S<-hii(jin- 
(jen'r/if,  in  which  two  Scltiijfin  (lussessors),  chosen  hy 
rotation  from  among  the  giialilicd  private  citizens, 
sit  with  the  judge.  It  deals  with  crimes  whose 
]iiinishmciit  is  not  more  than  three  months'  ini- 
lirlsonment  or  a  hue  of  .t.'iO,  and  with  theft,  fraud, 
\c. ,  in  which  the  dam.age  is  not  more  than  2.">s. 
Alpove  these  Is  the  Laiitlijericht,  divided  into  civil 
and  criminal  chanibei-s  {hammcrii],  ami  consisting 
of  a  juesident,  directors  (who  preside  over  the 
chambei-s),  and  ordinary'  members.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  Lamlgeriiht,  jury  courts  (Svhviir- 
f/eiirhlc)  are  periodically  held  to  try  the  more 
serious  cases.  These  consist  of  three  judges  and 
twelve  jurymen.  A  concurrent  jurisdiction  with 
the  Lamlgericht  in  commercial  mattei-s  is  jios- 
ses.sed  by  the  chambers  for  comnierci.il  cases 
iJ/riii</r/sxficlieii),  in  which  a  judge  sits  as  presi- 
dent along  with  two  arbiters  (IlnKililsriihlrr) 
ap|iointcil  for  three  years  from  among  the  (in.ililied 
citizens.  A  revising  jurisdiction  over  the  courts 
below  is  |>o.asessed  by  the  Oln  rliiiidcxgrrirlil,  which 
is  divided  into  civil  and   criminal  senates,  each  of 


c 


GERMANY 


177 


which  must  contain  four  councillors  and  a  presi- 
ilent.  The  supreme  court  of  apjieal  for  the  wholo 
eni]iirc  is  the  Rckhsfjcrivht  at  Leipzij,',  to  which 
appeals  lie  even  from  the  jury-trials.  It  possesses 
an  orii;iiial  jurisdiction  in  the  case  of  treason 
ajjainst  the  empire.  It  also  is  divided  into  civil 
and  criminal  senates,  with  a  general  ]>resident, 
senate-presidents,  and  councillors,  ajiiiointed  by 
the  enijieror  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Bundes- 
rath.  Seven  members  are  rer|uiied  to  be  present 
ill  order  to  give  a  valid  decision  in  any  of  the 
si'iiatcs ;  anil  in  the  jihnum  one-third  of  the 
ini'iiibers  must  be  present. 

The  [lenal  and  commercial  codes  are  now  uni- 
form tbroiigliout  Germany  ;  but  the  Code  Civil  is 
still  administered  in  Alsace-Lorraine  and  Khenish 
Prussia,  the  Prussian  land  laws  in  the  greater 
part  f>f  Piussia.  and  German  comuKjn  law  in 
fSavnny,  parts  of  Prussia,  liavaria.  iK:c. 

Afinij.—\n  1S71  the  Prussian  mililaiy  system 
was  extended  to  the  whole  empire;  alterations  were 
introduced  in  1SS,S  and  1S93.  The  Army  Act  of 
1893  r.aised  the  annual  levies  by  about  U(J,000  men, 
and  reduced  the  term  of  service  with  the  colours 
from  three  to  two  years  for  the  infantry,  that  for 
cavalry  and  horse  artillery  remaining  three  yeais 
as  liefore.  About  4<JO,000  young  men  annually 
reach  the  age  of  twenty,  and,  deductions  made  for 
jibysical  unlitne.ss,  &c.,  about  300,000  are  annually 
available— more  than  is  required  in  all  cases  by 
the  legal  limitations.  The  reiiuire<l  numbers  are 
obtained  by  lot,  the  rest  serve  twelve  years  in  the 
iM'satz,  a  kind  of  reserve.  Ij.y  the  regulations  in 
force,  every  German  who  is  capable  of  bearing  arms 
must  be  in  the  standing  army  for  si.x  years  (gener- 
ally his  twenty-lirst  to  his  twenty-seventh  year). 
Two  years  must  be  spent  in  active  service  and  the 
remainder  in  the  army  of  reserve.  He  then  spends 
live  years  in  the  lirst  class  of  the  Landwehr  ((|.v. ), 
after  which  he  belongs  to  the  second  class  till  his 
thirty-ninth  year.  Besides  this,  every  (ierman, 
from  seventeen  to  twentv-one  and  froiu  thirty-nine 
to  forty-live  is  a  member  of  the  Landsturm,  a 
force  only  to  be  called  out  in  the  last  necessity. 
Those  wlio  piuss  certain  examinations  require  to 
serve  only  one  year  with  the  colours,  and  are 
known  as  'volunteers.'  The  land  forces  of  the 
empire  form  a  united  army  under  the  command  of 
the  emperor  in  war  and  peace.  The  .sovereigns  of 
the  principal  states  have  the  right  to  select  the 
lower  grades  of  oliicers ;  but  even  their  selections 
re(|uire  to  obtain  the  approval  of  the  em])eror, 
whose  a\itborit;\'  is  paramount.  The  imperial 
army  is  divided  into  19  army  corps  (  besides  the  Prus- 
sian (uuirds  iuid  the  Hessiiui  division),  ami  on  tiie 
jieace  footing  of  1899-19U0  contained  •_'3, '.'HO  oliicers, 
i5(i2,ii(J6  rank  and  file,  and  98,038  hordes.  There 
are  215  regiments  of  infantry,  with  19  battalions 
oi  jm/er  ov  rillemen  ;  93  regituents  of  cavalry  ;  60 
regiments  of  artillery  ;  besides  corresponding'num- 
bers  of  engineers  and  other  non-combatants.  On 
its  w:ir  footing  the  total  is  about  3,O0O,U0U  men, 
besides  the  Landsturm.  The  cost  of  the  armv  for 
1899  w.is  .f'2r),9O0,O0U. 

Xtiri/. — The  formation  of  a  German  navy,  due  to 
the  initiative  of  Prussia,  dates  from  1848,  and  of 
late  years  rapid  progress  li.os  been  maile.  In  1889 
the  lleet  consisted  of  77  vessels,  while  in  1900  there 
weie  194,  16  being  battle  shijis,  19  coast-defence 
armoured  ships,  13  cruisers  of  the  .secon<l  and  tliird 
class,  S  torpedo-gunboats,  35  torpedo-boats  of  the 
lirst  class  and  l03  of  the  second  and  third  clas.s. 
Six  battle-ships  and  2  cruisers  are  building,  while 
no  less  than  40  battle-ships,  8  coast-defence  shijjs, 
68  cruisers,  and  114  torpedo-boats  are  luojected. 
The  /jrrmniiel  for  1900  consisted  of  19,tX)0  sea- 
men and  boys,  6312  warranl  and  petty  oliicei-s, 
and  1118  oliicers.  The  seafaring  oopvilation  of 
220 


Germany  are  liable  to  service  in  the  navy  instea<l 
of  in  the  army.  The.v  are  estimated  at  80,000,  of 
wluun  48,000  are  serving  in  the  merchant  navy  at 
home,  and  about  6000  in  foreign  n.avies.  After 
tliree  years'  active  service,  four  years  are  spent  in 
the  naval  reserve  and  five  more  in  the  lirst  class  of 
the  Scewehr,  those  who  have  not  served  in  the  navy 
forming  the  second  class.  The  em|)ire  h.as  two  ports 
of  war:  Kiel  (q.v.),  and  Willielmshaveu  (<|.v.)  in 
the  North  Sea ;  and  the  ships  are  divided  into  the 
Baltic  and  \orth  Sea  stations,  transference  from  one 
force  to  tlie  other  being  f.acilitated  bytlio  KaiseiWil- 
helui  Canal  from  KieLto  the  Elbe  ( see  B.VLTic  SiCA ). 

Revenue. — The  revenue  of  the  German  empire  is 
derived  (1)  from  the  customs  dues  on  tobacco,  salt, 
and  beet-root  sugar,  which  are  entirely  made  over  to 
it  b.y  all  the  states;  from  those  on  brandy  and 
malt,  which  are  also  assigned  by  most  of  the  states; 
from  taxes  on  playing-cards  and  stamps,  from  jiosts, 
telegraphs,  and  railways,  the  im]ierial  bank,  and 
various  miscellaneous  sources;  (2)  from  extra- 
ordimiry  sources  — as  votes  for  public  buildings  and 
loans;  and  (3)  from  the  proportional  contributions 
(Matrihnlar-beitrage)  of  the  \'arious  states.  The 
chief  items  of  expenditure  are  the  maintenance  of 
the  Reichstag  and  various  government  olHces,  the 
army  and  navy,  posts  and  telegrajihs,  railways, 
justice,  pensions,  and  other  miscellaneous  claims. 
The  average  income  for  the  live  vears  1881-82  to 
1885-86  was  £30,121,470,  and  the  average  expendi- 
ture £.30,564,200.  In  1891-96  the  revenue  increased 
from  £54,.573,000  to  £58,919,700;  in  1894-95  the 
expenditure  was  £64, .327, 000,  in  1895-96  £6 1 ,962,.500. 
In  1894-95  the  total  funded  debt  of  the  empire, 
£95,785,700 — partly  at  3  and  jiartly  at  4  per  cent. 
There  is  also  an  unfunded  debt 'of  £60,000,000. 
Against  this  there  are  large  invested  funds,  as 
£22,800,000  of  a  invalid  fund;  while  the  war 
treasure  of  £6,000,000  is  kept  in  gold  at  Sjjandau. 
The  'matricular'  contributions  of  the  several 
states  amounted  in  all  to  £17,842,115  in  1895; 
of  which  Prussia  paid  £11,659,000,  Saxe-Weiniar 
only  £126,900. 

Social  Organisation. — All  the  states  of  the 
empire  recognise  four  distinct  orders— ^iz.  the 
nobilitv,  clergj-,  burghers,  and  pe.asantrv,  and  all 
distinguish  three  distinct  grades  of  nobility.  The 
highest  of  these  includes  the  menibei's  of  reigning 
houses,  and  the  descendants  of  f.amilies  who 
belonged  at  the  time  of  the  old  empire  to  the 
sovereign  nobility  of  the  state,  and  were  reichs- 
iinmittclbar,  or  <lirectly  connected  with  the  empire, 
as  holding  their  domains  directly  under  the 
emperor,  but  whose  houses  have '  subsequently 
been  mediatised,  or  depri\ed  of  sovereign  jiower 
in  accordance  with  special  treaties  between  the 
state  and  the  princes.  There  are  at  present  tifty 
princely  and  tiftv-one  gnijtiehe  (counlly)  media- 
tised families,  who,  in  accordance  with  the  act  of 
the  diet  of  1806,  have  equality  of  rank  with  reign- 
ing houses,  and  enjoy  many  of  the  special  privi- 
leges which  were  accorded  to  the  high  nobles  of 
the  empire.  The  second  grade  of  inibilit.v  is  com- 
posed of  counts  and  barons  not  belonging  to  reign- 
ing or  mediatised  houses,  whilst  the  third  and 
lowest  grade  includes  the  knights  and  hereditary 
patiimonial  proprietois  of  Germany. 

Before  we  proceed  to  consiiler  the  jiolitical 
organisation  of  the  new  German  empire,  we  shall 
briefly  descril)e—(  1 )  the  principal  features  of  the 
constitution  of  the  old  Gerjiianic  eni]nie,  which 
was  overthrown  by  the  first  Napoleon  in  lStl6: 
and  (2)  that  Bund  or  federal  government  which 
lasted  from  1815  to  1866,  when  Austria  w.a.s  ex- 
cluded from  the  Confederation,  .and  the  hegemony 
of  Germany  was  transferred  to  Prussia. 

The  Old  Germanic  Empire. — The  states  of  this 
empire  comprised  three  chambers  or  colleges  ;  ( 1 ) 


178 


GERMANY 


The  Electoral  College,  wliicli  consisted  of  the  arclii- 
C|iisoii|>al  electors  of  Miiiiiz,  Treves,  anil  Coloj;;ne, 
anil  tlic  secular  electors,  of  whom  there  were  oripn- 
ally  only  fonr,  1ml  whose  nuiiiher  wits  sulisei|uenlly 
ineroiiseil  to  live,  anil  who  at  the  ilissoliition  of  the 
eiii|iire  were  re|ireseMleil  hy  the  sovereij;ns  of 
lioheniia,  li.ivaria.  Saxony,  Uranilenhnr<;,  anil 
l!rnn.--wickliunelpurg  or  Hanover  (see  Kl,ECTOU.s). 
(2)  The  Collt'tre  of  the  Princes  of  the  Kinjiire.  who 
hail  each  a  vole  in  the  iliet,  anil  were  ilivuleil  into 
spiritual  ami  temporal  princes.  (3)  The  l''ree 
impeiial  Cities,  which  forjjieil  a  college  at  the  iliet, 
ilivideil  into  two  henclics,  the  Klienish  with  fonr- 
teen  cities,  ami  the  Swahian  with  thirty -seven  ; 
each  of  these  hail  a  vote.  These  collef;es,  each  of 
which  voted  separately,  formed  the  diet  of  the 
empire.  Wlien  their  respective  decisions  ajrreed, 
the  matter  under  discirxsion  wiis  snlimitted  to  the 
emperor,  who  could  refuse  his  ratilication  of  the 
decisions  of  the  diet,  althou^'h  lie  had  no  power 
to  miidify  them.  Ordinary  meetinj;s  were  usually 
summoned  twice  n  year  hy  the  emperor,  who  speci- 
fied the  ])lace  at  which  the  siltinjjs  were  to  be  held  ; 
during  the  later  periods  of  the  eni|>ire  they  were 
held  at  Uegensburg  (Itatisbon).  The  diet  had  the 
right  to  enact,  abrogate,  or  modify  laws,  conclude 
peace  and  decl.are  war,  and  impose  taxes  for  the 
general  e.x|icnses  of  the  state.  The  Aniic  Cham- 
ber, and  the  Cameral  or  chief  tribunal  of  the 
empire,  decided  in  cases  of  dispute  between  mem- 
bers of  the  diet.  The  em|)eroi's  were  chosen  by  the 
electors  in  person  or  by  their  dejiuties  ;  and  after 
their  election  and  coronation,  which  usually  both 
took  |ilace  at  rraukfort-on  the-.Main,  the  emjieror 
swore  to  the  '  capitulation  '  or  constitution  of  the 
empire.  After  the  di.-^solulion  of  the  empire  in 
ISOU,  its  place  was  nominally  taken  by  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Ithine,  which  owed  its  existence 
to  Napoleon,  and  which  Ia.sted  till  ISl.l. 

Gcnii'iiu'c  Coii/rilemtiuii. — The  Cermanic  Confed- 
eration was  established  by  an  act  of  the  Congress 
of  \'ienna  in  ISI."),  on  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon. 
It  was  an  indis.soluble  union,  from  which  no 
single  state  could  at  its  own  pleasure  retire.  Its 
central  point  and  its  executive  and  legislative 
powem  were  repre.sentcd  by  the  federative  diet, 
which  held  its  meetings  at  Frankfort-ou-the- 
Main,  and  wa.s  composed  of  delegates  from  all 
the  confederate  states,  chosen,  not  by  the  people, 
Imt  by  the  various  governments.  The  diet  lUdib- 
erateil  either  in  a  limited  council  (the  I'ederativc 
government)  or  as  a  general  assembly  ( /7i;«»/«). 
In  the  limited  council  there  were  seventeen  votes, 
of  which  eleven  of  the  principal  states  had  each 
one,  while  the  remaining  states  divided  the  six 
collective  votes  between  them.  The  Plenum, 
which  met  only  when  any  org.anie  change  was  to 
he  ellected  in  the  diet  itself,  embraced  seventy 
votes,  of  which  Austria  and  the  five  Ceniian  king- 
doms had  each  four,  while  the  other  states  had 
three,  two,  or  one  vote  each  in  proportion  to  their 
indiviilual  importance.  It  rested  with  the  limited 
council,  which  executed  the  enactments  of  the 
I'leniim,  ami  ilesi)atclieil  the  ordinary  business  of 
the  Confederation,  to  decide  (by  a  majurity  of 
voices)  whether  a  question  slioiild  be  submitted  to 
the  I'lenum,  where  it  was  not  debated,  but  siini)ly 
decided  by  a  majority  of  ayes  or  noes.  Austria 
presided  in  both  assemblies,  and  had  a  casting 
vote  in  cases  of  ei|uality.  The  diet,  as  a  collective 
body,  had  the  right  of  concluding  peace  and 
alliances,  and  declaring  w.ar  :  liut  this  power  could 
onlv  be  exercised  for  the  in.aintenance  of  the  inde- 
pendence and  external  security  of  Germany  and 
the  individual  integrity  of  the  several  federative 
states,  which  on  their  part  were  bound  to  submit 
to  the  diet  the  consideration  of  all  i|Ucstions  in 
dispute    between    themselves  and    other    powei-s. 


Where  such  dillerences  could  not  he  settled  by  the 
committee  emi)owered  by  the  Plenum  to  consider 
them,  they  were  limilly  referred  to  a  sjieiial  tri- 
bunal known  as  the  '  .Austriigal'  Court,  which  was 
com|ii>si>d  of  several  members  of  the  Confederatiun 
inve.-ted  for  the  time  with  full  powers.  Prom  KSIJU 
to  1S7I  the  place  of  this  Ihind  was  held  by  the 
North  tierman  Confederation,  which  is  described 
in  the  historical  part  of  this  article. 

J'rrsciit  Urimoii  liiiipirc. — The  seventy  ninth 
.article  of  the  constitution  of  the  North  Cernian 
Confederation  jirovided  for  the  adjnis.-iii)n  of  the 
South  Cerman  stales  into  the  new  Ituiid  ;  and  the 
war  between  Prance  and  tienii.iny.  which  broke 
out  in  .July  1S70,  and  in  which  all  the  (lerman 
princes  and  peoples  took  ])arl,  gave  an  irresi.stible 
impetus  to  the  desire  for  national  unity.  On  the 
loth  November  1,H70  the  giand-dnchies  of  li.ulen 
and  Hesse  joined  the  ISuiid  :  Itavaria  followed  ou 
the  2.'}d,  ami  WiMlemberg  on  the  "J.'ith  of  the  same 
month.  Shortly  after,  the  king  of  llavaria  wrote 
.a  letter  to  the  king  of  Pnissi;i,  urging  him  to 
re-establish  the  (ierman  em|)iie.  This  brought 
the  question  under  the  notice  of  the  liund  ;  and 
on  the  10th  December  lf>70  it  was  agreed,  by  188 
votes  to  0,  that  the  empire  should  be  restored,  and 
that  the  king  of  Prus.--ia  should  be  acknowledged 
hereditary  <  Jernian  emperor.  The  latter  solemnly 
accepted  the  new  dignity  at  Versailles,  Iblh  Janu- 
ary 1871. 

'J"he  constitution  for  the  new  empire  was  |)ro- 
mnlgatcil  by  an  imperial  decree  of  A])ril  10,  1871, 
and  is  contained  in  seventy-eight  articles,  under 
fourteen  sections.  Alsace  and  Lorraine  were 
lironghl  under  its  provisions  from  .Ianu;uy  1,  1X74. 
The  preamble  expressly  declares  th.it  all  the  slates 
of  (lerm.any  form  an  eternal  union  lor  the  prolec- 
thni  of  the  territory  of  the  liund,  and  for  the  care 
of  the  welfare  of  the  (lerman  people.  The  empire 
pos.sesses  the  exclusive  right  of  legislation  on  all 
military  and  naval  allairs  :  on  civil  and  crimin.al 
law  for  gener.al  application  ;  on  iuiperi.al  linance 
and  commerce  ;  on  posts,  telegr.aphs,  and  railways 
in  so  far  ius  the  interests  of  the  national  defence 
and  general  tr.ade  are  concerned.  Wherever  the 
haws  of  the  eini)ire  come  into  collision  with  those 
of  particular  states  of  the  Uunil,  the  l.itler  must  be 
held  as  abrogated  ;  and  in  all  disputes  that  arise 
among  the  individual  states,  the  imperial  jurisdic- 
tion is  sii]>reme  and  linal. 

There  are  two  legislative  bodies  in  the  empire — 
the  Hii)i(/isi(il/i,  or  Pederal  Council,  the  members 
of  which  .are  annually  appointed  by  the  govern- 
ments of  the  \  arions  stales ;  and  the  Jieic/islaff, 
the  members  of  which  are  elected  bv  univei'sal 
suffrage  and  ballot  for  a  period  of  three  years. 
The  former  deliberates  on  ])ropos;ils  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  latter,  .and  on  the  resolutions 
received  from  it.  A  simple  majority  is  snllicient 
to  carry  a  vote  in  the  IJundesratli.  Acting  under 
the  direction  of  the  chancellor  of  the  empire,  the 
Bundesrath.  in  addition  to  its  legislative  functions, 
represents  also  a  supreme  administrative  and  con- 
sultative board,  and,  as  .such,  has  eleven  standing 
committees — viz.  for  the  army  and  fortresses; 
naval  matters;  tarill',  excise,  and  taxes;  trade 
.and  commerce ;  railw.ays,  posts,  and  lelegrajihs ; 
civil  and  criminal  law  ;  financial  accounts ;  foreign 
allairs;  Als.ace-Lorraine ;  matters  affecting  the 
constitution  ;  and  the  arrangement  of  business. 
E.acli  committee  consi.sts  of  representatives  of  at 
lea-st  four  states  of  the  em])ire,  besides  the  pre- 
sident ;  but  the  foreign  affairs  committee  includes 
the  representatives  of  the  kingdoms  of  IJ.ivaria, 
Saxonv,  and  Wiirtemberg,  and  of  two  other  states 
annu.ally  selected  by  the  liundesralh. 

The  Heichstag  contains  ap|ooximately  one  mem- 
ber for  every   120,000  inhabitants;    in  1889  there 


GERMANY 


179 


were  397  members.  The  Reichstag  must  be  con- 
veiiuil  aiiiuiall.v,  Ijiit  cannot  lie  asseniljleil  unless 
tbi'  IJiiriik'sralb  is  also  in  session.  Its  iiroceedings 
aii:  |iublic;  the  menibers  are  uti]iaicl,  but  enjoy 
various  privilej^es  and  immunities.  A  di-ssolutiou 
of  ibe  Iteiclistag  before  tlie  end  of  three  years 
rei|uire.s  the  eonsent  of  tlie  JJundesratli ;  and  tlie 
new  election  must  take  place  within  si.\tv  days, 
anil  the  meeting  of  the  new  Ueichstag  witliin 
ninety  days  after  the  dissolution,  iiy  a  law  jiasMcd 
in  ISSS,  to  come  into  force  in  1S!J0,  the  legislative 
pvriod  lias  been  increased  to  live  years.  The 
Reichstag  elects  its  own  ])resi<lent.  The  members 
of  the  iJundesrath  may  claim  a  right  to  speak  in 
the  Keichstag ;  but  no  one  can  be  a  member  of 
botli  assemblies  at  once.  All  im])erial  laws  must 
receive  the  votes  of  an  absolute  majority  of  both 
boilics,  and,  to  be  valid,  must,  in  addition,  have 
the  assent  of  the  emperor,  and  be  countersigned 
when  [iromulgated  by  ilie  Ucirhsl.iiiizlrr,  or  chan- 
cellor of  the  empire,  who  is  ajipointed  by  the 
emperor,  and  is  ex  officio  president  of  the  liundes- 
ratii. 

The  votes  in  the  two  assemblies  are  apportioned 
as  follows  :  Prussia  lias  17  votes  in  the  Bundesrath 
and  L'ljii  in  the  Keichstag;  Uavaria  lias  respectively 
ti  ami  4S  ;  Wiirtemberg,  4  and  17  ;  Sa.\ony,  4  and 
•23;  IJaden,  3  and  14;  Mecklenburg-.Schwerin,  2 
iuiil  (! ;  Ilcsse,  3  and  9;  Oldenburg,  Saxe-Weimar, 
■and  Hamburg,  each  1  and  3;  Brunswick,  2  and  3; 
8axc-.Mciningen,  Saxe-Coburg-tjotlia,  and  Anhalt, 
1  and  2  ;  and  the  remainder  1  vote  in  each  a.ssemlily. 
Alsace-Lorraine  has  15  votes  in  tlie  iveichstag,  but 
in  tlie  IJundesiatU  is  represented  only  liy  4  comniis- 
sioners  [Kominissare)  without  votes,  appointed  by 
the  Statthalter.  To  assist  the  Keichskauzler  in 
managing  imperial  affairs,  a  number  of  ollices  ( not 
ministries)  have  developed  in  the  course  of  time 
f(u-  ihe  dillerent  departments  of  state. 

.According  to  the  eleventh  article  of  the  constitu- 
tion, the  (ierniau  emperor,  with  the  consent  of  the 
liundesrath,  can  declare  war,  make  peace,  enter 
into  treaties  with  foreign  nations,  and  ap[ioint  and 
receive  ambassadors.  If,  however,  the  territory  of 
the  empire  is  attacked,  he  does  not  iei|uire  the 
consent  of  the  IJundesrath  to  declare  war,  but  can 
act  inile]iendenlly.  Changes  in  the  constitution 
C4U1  be  ell'ecled  only  by  imperial  law,  and  they  are 
held  to  be  rejected  if  14  votes  are  given  against 
tlK'ni  in  the  Bundesrath. 

I'ulUkal  I'artks. — There  is  no  imperial  respon- 
sible ministry  in  Germany,  and  the  government 
is  independent  of  changes  in  the  relative  strength 
of  the  various  ]iarties  in  the  Keichstag.  For  years 
t'rince  I'.ismarck  fcnmed  alliances  now  with  this, 
now  with  that  |iartv,  according  to  tlie  aim  he 
had  in  view  ;  and  his  opponents,  even  when  they 
ilefeated  his  measures,  had  no  thought  of  suiierseil- 
ing  him  in  the  chancellorship.  The  chief  political 
parlies  in  the  Keichstag  may  be  roughly  groupeil 
under  the  names  Liberal,  Conservative,  and 
Clerical.  Of  the  lirst,  the  Xational  LiOenilx,  a 
iiarty  dating  from  the  crisis  of  18ti(i,  who.se  object 
IS  a  united  Oermany  on  constitutional  lines,  were 
long  the  most  inlluential  supjiorters  of  Bismarck. 
In  1>S79,  however,  they  ditlereil  from  him  on  the 
<)uestions  of  the  new  protectionist  and  military 
policies;  and  in  consequence  they  snii'ered  a  severe 
defeat  at  the  next  election.  The  advanced  wing  of 
the  Liberal  party,  known  .as  the  Fuitschril/x/Hii/ii, 
formed  a  coalition  in  1S84  with  a  considerable 
number  of  'Secessionists'  from  the  National  Libe- 
rals, and  founded  the  present  f>ii<tsrh-Fnisiii)iifie- 
piirlei,  under  the  leadership  of  Kugen  Kichter, 
with  a  radical  programme  including  demands  for 
a  responsible  ministry,  annual  budgets,  freedom 
of  s))eecli,  meeting,  and  press,  and  |iayment  of 
members.     The  reorganised  National  Liberal  party 


once  more  approached  Bismarck,  and,  having  in  1888 
joined  the  Conservatives  in  supjiort  of  the  govern- 
ment mea-sures,  now  forms  part  of  the  so-called 
Cartcll/iitrtei,  or  Coalition  party.  The  Conserva- 
tives include  the  JJcutsrhc  Kunservulircii,  a  dis- 
tinctly reactionary  group,  and  the  Dcuimhi:  llciclis- 
jjaiici or  Frci-Ko/iservatiuen,  best  perhajis  described 
as  Liberal-Conservatives,  aiming  at  a  fair  imperial 
government  as  the  iir.st  necessity  of  their  country. 
The  Centra  or  I'ltramontane  party,  organised  by 
A\'iiidthorst  since  1871,  is  essentially  the  Koman 
Catholic  clerical  party,  and  has  offered  the  most 
determined  and  best-organised  resistiince  to  Bis- 
marck. A  temporary  alliance,  however,  with  this 
ptirty  enabled  the  chancellor  to  carry  his  pro- 
tectionist propo.sals  in  1889.  The  Elmsser,  the 
French  party  of  Alsace,  generally  vote  with  the 
(,'entre.  Among  the  smaller  parties  the  most 
signilicant  is  tliitt  tif  the  jovial  Donorrdia^  who, 
in  spite  of  all  the  hostile  socialist  legislaticm,  rose 
from  2  votes  in  1871  to  48  in  1897.  The^  smaller 
parties,  with  special  and  more  private  views,  ;ire 
known  as  Purtktditriaten  ;  they  include  the  Poles, 
aiming  at  the  separation  of  I'olish  Prussba  from 
Ciermany,  U'cl/eit,  or  Hanoverian  royalists,  and 
some  individual  members.  In  1890  the  National 
Liberals  had  41  votes  as  against  91  in  1887  ;  the 
Imperialists  or  New  Conservatives,  20  instead  of 
38  ;  the  Centre,  117  for  101  ;  the  Social  Democrats, 
35  for  11  ;  the  Freisinnige,  ti6  for  36. 

See  Stathlilc  des  Deutschen  Stkhs,  published  periodi- 
cally by  the  Imperial  Statistical  Otiice,  and  the  Slutis- 
tisc/ics  Ja/trbuch  (annually  since  1880).  The  Jalirlnich 
for  188!)  contains  an  index  to  the  Statistik  since  1S7L 
Kutzen,  Das  Deutsche  Land  (3d  ed.  1880);  Bcrj;liaus, 
Deutschland  und  eeine  Bewuhner  (2  voh.  18()0) ;  Daniel, 
D.  nach  sehien  jjki/.^ischeii  und  politisctten  Vtr/ialtnissen 
(2  vols.  5th  ed.  1878);  Delitsch,  Forschumjeii  zur  D. 
Landes-  u.  FuWsAuhc/c  (1885);  Neumann,  iio«  Dcutsclie 
Reich  in  Geo'j.,  Statist.,  und  Tupofjraph.  Bfzichun;/  ( ls72  - 
74),  and  O'cor/.  Lexikon  des  D.  Bcichs  (1883) ;  S.  lianii;;- 
Gould,  Germany,  Past  and  Present  (2  vols.  1881); 
Baedeker's  Travellers'  Handbooks ;  and  the  Handljuch 
fiir  das  Dtut!<chc  Ptich,  Kiii-schner's  Staatsltandbuch,  the 
Siatesnians  Year-hook,  and  the  Almanack  de  (7othu  for 
the  current  year.  On  the  Constitution,  Stork's  Hand- 
bueh  der  Deutschen  Verfassunij  (1884). 

History. — The  earliest  information  we  have  of 
the  Germans,  the  peoples  and  tribes  who  dwelt 
among  the  dense  forests  that  stretched  from  the 
Khine  to  the  A  istula  and  from  the  Danube  to 
the  Baltic  Sea,  comes  to  us  from  the  Komaiis,  the 
principal  authority  being  Tacitus.  The  term 
Germans  is  of  Celtic  origin,  though  its  meaning 
is  not  precisely  known.  It  was  in  all  luobability 
borrowed  by  the  Komans  from  the  Gauls.  The 
Germans  were  not  one  honM)gi'neous  n;ition.  but 
a  multitude  of  separate  and  indeiiendent  tribes, 
who  had  racial  origin,  language,  and  similarity  in 
their  mode  of  life  for  their  only  links  of  connec- 
tion. The  lirst  tribes  of  Germanic  race  to  come 
into  collision  with  the  arms  of  Kome  were  the 
Cinibri  and  Teutones,  who  in  113  B.C.  hail  invaded 
Styria,  and  there  met  with  defeat  from  the  troo])s 
of  the  consul  Baiiirius.  The  iie.xt  Koman  general 
who  made  trial  of  their  |)rowess  Wiis  C:isar.  When 
in  58  ti.c.  he  began  his  campaigns  in  Gaul,  he 
found  several  hordes  of  tJermans,  mostly  Maico- 
manni  and  Suevi,  settled  between  the  Khine  and 
the  Vosges,  and  even  on  the  western  side  of  these 
hills.  Apjiealed  to  by  the  Gauls  of  those  regions 
to  free  them  from  their  lierman  oppressors,  Ca'sar, 
in  spite  of  the  redoubtable  stature  and  strength 
of  his  enemies,  and  of  their  pei-sonal  valour,  inllicted 
a  crushing  defeat  upon  their  ambitious  chieftain, 
Ariovistus,  and  chased  him  and  his  followers  across 
the  Khine.  Then,  cimlintiing  his  campaign,  he 
drove  back  (55  li.c.)  behind  ibe  same  river  those 
tribes   that    had    settled    ou    its  western   side   in 


180 


GKUMANY 


15fl;,'iiim,  and  even  followed  tliem  into  their 
oiijliiial  scats  in  (ioimanv  in  two  slioit  cain- 
pai^'iis.  The  tranciuillity  which  was  established 
thniii^h  his  exertions  W!is,  hmvever,  so  seriously 
dislurlicil  a;;ain  l>y  l.'i  ii.c.  that  Augustus  felt  it 
necessary  to  make  a  scrions  ell'ort  to  suhjiigate 
these  troulilesonie  neij,'hlioni's  of  Gaul.  Accord- 
ingly Drusus  wivs  sent  (12  li.c. )  at  the  head  of 
ei^llit  lej,'ions  across  the  frontier;  and  in  four  cam- 
paigns he  was  so  far  successful  that  he  suhducd 
the  liatavians,  Frisians,  and  other  tribes  as  far  as 
the  Elbe,  and  likewise  the  Chatti  on  lh(!  Main. 
After  the  death  of  Drusus  in  !)  Ii.c.  Tiberius  ron- 
ciuered  the  Tencleri  and  I'siiietes,  who  lived  on  the 
midille  Hhine,  and  afterwards  the  Sicaiiibri  and 
othei-s  settled  on  the  lands  at  its  mouth.  In  li  A.I), 
the  work  was  taken  up  l)y  Varus ;  but  \arus,  in 
attempting  to  consolidate  the  Koman  power  by 
ileprising  the  (Jeruians  of  their  national  institu- 
tions and  imposing  upon  them  those  of  the  empire, 
i)rovokeil  a  general  revolt  of  the  subject  peopli>s. 
The  animating  sidril  of  this  patriotic  movement 
was  Arininius  (o.v. ),  chief  of  the  Cherusci,  who  not 
only  overthrew  Varus,  and  slew  him  and  his  legions 
(9  A.D.)  at  one  blow  in  the  Tentoburg  Kore.st, 
but  witli  irresistible  ilait  swept  the  llomans  before 
him  until  he  had  expelled  them  from  (iernian 
soil.  The  struggle  w;is  reneweil  by  (iernianicus, 
who  defeated  Arminius  and  avenged  the  Koman 
lionour,  but  at  length,  in  16  A.D.,  withdrew  his 
le'dons.  Ilencefortli  the  Uomans  contented  lliein- 
selvcs  with  guarding  their  long  frontier  next 
Germany ;  and  in  this  tiusk  they  succeeded  for 
some  time  as  much  by  Stirling  n|)  dissension 
amongst  the  chiefs  of  thoir  focmen  ;is  by  their 
own  military  skill.  Vet  they  manageil  to  bring 
the  Frisians  and  Hataviaus  under  their  inllueiice, 
until  in  6i)  a  lierce  revolt  broke  out  amongst 
the  latter  people,  a  revolt  which  was  oidy  <iuelled 
after  a  terrible  struggle.  About  one  hundred  years 
later  the  (Jermans  l)ag.ir.  to  reverse  the  miler  of 
things.  In  the  period  IGU  174  Aurelius  wivs 
engageil  in  beating  back  a  formiiiable  iiictirsion 
of  the  MarcomaiMii  and  (^uadi  into  Koman  terri- 
tory. From  the  3d  century  we  no  longer  read  of 
single  tribes,  but  of  great  confederations  of  tribes, 
as  the  Goths,  Alenianni,  Franks,  Frisians,  Saxons, 
Thuringians,  and  others.  These  iiowerful  cimi- 
binations  began  to  hara.ss  the  Koiuaiis  all  along 
their  frontier  line,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Khine 
to  the  middle  Dainibe,  attacking  the  towns  and 
forts,  and  breaking  down  the  walls  they  had  liuilt 
to  keep  this  boundary.  In  ST")  began  the  movement 
before  which  Kome  eventually  succumbed.  The 
Huns  invaded  Kurope,  and  by  their  coming  gave 
rise  to  what  is  known  as  the  '  Volkerwanderungen  ' 
or  '  Migrations  of  the  Peoples.'  The  races  who  lay 
next  to  Koman  territory  were  being  pressed  upon 
more  and  more  by  those  behind,  upon  whom  the 
full  brunt  of  the  Hunnic  attack  had  fallen,  and  at 
last  they  began  to  jiour  across  the  boundary  in 
such  broad  ileep  streams  that  the  dams  of  the 
Komans  were  broken  completely  down  before  their 
onrush.  Of  the  history  of  (Jernumy  itself  we  learn 
little  more  that  is  authentic  until  we  come  down  to 
the  times  of  the  I'ranks,  except  that  the  Slavic 
nations  following  in  the  wake  of  the  Huns  .seize<l 
anil  occupied  the  lands  left  vacant  by  the  tiernian 
emigrants  who  had  gone  Koniewards,  and  that  of 
the  confederations  still  remaining  at  home  in  their 
original  lands  the  most  important  were  the  Ale 
luanni.  the  ThuringiaMs,  Saxons,  Bavarians,  and 
Franks.  The  historian  turns  his  attention  more 
especially  towards  the  l.-vst-named,  since  by  them 
the  kingdoms  of  France  and  Germany  were  subse- 
quently formed.     See  F'kanc'e,  and  I'rank.s. 

After   the  gradual   expulsiiui  or    retirement    of 
the   lionians   from   Germany,    the    country   neces- 


sarily became  subdivided  into  numerous  petty 
states,  each  governed  by  its  own  chief.  The 
erection  of  tlie  FVanko-Merovingian  empire  in 
France  had  given  preponderance  to  the  Frankish 
power  on  both  sides  of  tlu'  Khine,  ami  when 
Charlemagne  succeeded  in  771  to  the  (Jermaii  as 
well  iLs  the  (lallic  pos.sessions  of  his  father,  IVpin 
the  Short,  he  found  himself  )>ossessed  of  an  amount 
of  territory  and  a  degree  of  inlluence  which  speedily 
enabled  him  to  a.ssert  suprenuicy  over  tin-  whole 
of  the  west  of  (lermany,  while  his  comiuests  over 
the  heathen  Saxons  in  the  north,  and  the  Avars 
who  then  held  I'aiuKuda  in  the  south-east,  ex- 
tended his  (icrman  dominions  from  the  North  Sea 
to  the  Alps,  and  from  the  Ithiiu'as  far  as  Hungary. 
With  Charleuuigne,  who  re<-eiveil  the  imperial 
crown  at  the  hands  of  the  pope  in  WOO,  began  the 
liuig  line  of  emperors  ami  kings  who  occnpieil  the 
Gernwin  throne  for  more  than  a  Ihinisano  yeai's ; 
and  with  him,  too,  emled  the  stability  of  the  vast 
fabric  which  he  had  rcarc<l  on  the  ruins  of  Koman 
power,  for  at  his  death  in  S14  no  member  of  his 
family  was  competent  to  wield  the  imperial  sceptre. 
Although  in  S-l.S  some  jiortions  of  his  German 
po.sse.ssions  fell,  in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of 
Verdun,  to  his  grandson  I-mlwig.  surnameil  '  the 
German,'  who  was  recognised  as  king  of  Germany 
or  Fast  Francia.  the  linal  .'ind  absolute  partition 
did  not  take  place  till  !SIS7,  when  .\rnnlf  seized  the 
eastern  throne.  On  the  extinction,  in  911,  of  the 
degenerate  t'arlovingian  dyn;i.sty  in  the  person  of 
Liulwig  "the  Chilli.'  the  provincial  rulers,  who, 
together  with  the  archbishops,  bishops,  and  abbots, 
constituted  the  chief  members  ot  the  diet  or 
national  .-issi^ndily,  arrogated  to  themselves  (in 
imitation  of  the  pr.aclice  of  the  nobles  of  the 
ancient  German  tribes)  the  right  of  electing  their 
sovereign,  who,  however,  could  not  iLssnme  the 
iniiierial  title  till  he  had  been  crowned  by  the 
pope.  At  this  period  there  were  in  Gernuiiiy  live 
nations— the  Franks,  Saxons,  Kavarians,  Swabians, 
and  l.orrainers.  The  Franks,  as  the  dcscciulants 
of  those  who  had  coni|Uered  the  land  and  fo\inded 
the  emjiire,  enjoyed  a  pre  eminence  over  the  othei's  ; 
and  heme,  mi  the  extinction  of  the  Carlovingian 
race,  the  choice  of  the  prince-electors  seems  to  have 
fallen  almost  as  a  matter  of  course  on  the  chief  of 
the  Franks,  the  Duke  of  F'ranconia,  who  reigned 
as  king  of  (Jermany  from  911  to  !)1S.  umler  the 
title  of  Conrad  I.  At  his  own  instigation,  his 
rival  and  adversary,  Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony,  was 
cl'.oseu  iis  his  successor,  and  proved  himself  an  able 
and  warlike  prince.  The  conijuests  of  this  great 
prince  over  the  Danes,  Slavs,  and  especially  over 
the  terrible  Magyars,  were  conlirmed  find  extended 
by  his  son  and  successor,  Otho  I.  {9:i6-'J~'.i),  who 
carried  the  boundaries  of  the  empire  beyond  the 
Elbe  and  Saale.  and  who,  by  his  acquisition  of 
Lombarily.  laid  the  foundation  of  the  ndalions 
which  existed  for  many  ages  between  the  rnlei-s  of 
Germany  and  the  Italian  nation.  Othos  corona- 
tion festival  was  eventful,  as  it  formed  the  )ire- 
cedent  for  the  exercise  of  tlio.se  olhces  which,  till 
the  dissolution  of  the  empire,  were  regarded  its 
connected  w  ith  the  dignity  of  the  secular  electors  ; 
for  on  that  occasion,  w  hile  the  emperor  dined  w  ith 
his  three  spiritual  electors,  he  was  waited  upon 
by  the  .secular  princes — the  Elector  of  Kavaiia 
(aftei  wards  of  Saxony)  serving  as  grand-marshal  ; 
of  Swabia  (afterwards  of  liohemia),  a.s  grand- 
cupbearer:  and  of  Lorraine  (afterwards  of  liran- 
denburg),  .as  aicli-chamberlain. 

Otho  II.  (973  9S.3),  Otho  III.  (98.3-1002),  ami 
Henry  U.  (1002-24)  belonged  to  the  House  of 
Saxony,  which  was  succeeded  by  that  of  Franconia, 
in  the  ])erson  of  Conrad  II.  (1024-39),  an  able 
ruler,  who  added  Burgundy  to  the  em])ire.  His 
son   and   successor,   Henry  111.   (1039-5(5),  tempo- 


GERMANY 


181 


rarily  extended  German  supremacy  over  Bohemia, 
Denmark,  and  Hungary,  while  lie  repressed  the 
insdienie  and  despotism  of  the  "reat  nohles  of 
Germany.  And  while  his  stem  piety  moved  him 
to  interfere  with  force  in  the  strife  over  the  papal 
chair,  he  also  gained  the  respect  of  his  contempo- 
raries hy  his  zeal  for  justice  and  his  valour  in  the 
field.  The  minority  of  his  son  and  successor, 
Henry  IV.  ( 10,J6-1106),  enahled  the  nohles  to 
recover  much  of  their  former  power,  and  to  apply 
a  check  to  the  further  consoliilation  of  the  imperial 
authority,  which  had  been  con>ideral)ly  e.xtended 
under  the  two  preceding  reigns.  Henry's  constant 
f|uarrels  witli  the  astute  Gregory  VII.  entan'ded 
him  in  difficulties  and  mortifications,  which  cuimi- 
nateil  in  his  humiliation  at  Caiiossa,  and  only 
ended  with  his  life,  and  which  plunged  Gennany 
into  .anarchy  and  disorder.  The  emperor's  most 
fortnidahle  rival.  Rudolidi  of  Swahia,  was  defeated 
and  slain  in  1080.  With  his  son  and  successor, 
Henry  V.  (1106-2.3),  who  made  peace  with  the 
papacy  by  the  Concordat  of  Worms  in  11'22,  the 
male  line  of  the  Franconian  dynasty  became  e.v- 
tinct ;  and  after  the  crown  ha<I  been  worn  (1125- 
37)  by  Lothair  of  Saxony,  who  made  a  bold 
attempt  to  recover  some  of  the  prerogatives  of 
which  at  his  election  the  empire  liati  been  ileprived 
through  papal  intrigues,  the  choice  of  the  electors, 
after  a  season  of  dissension  and  intrigue,  fell  upon 
Conrad  III.  (1138-52),  Duke  of  Flanconia,  the 
first  of  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty.  His  rei'jn,  in 
which  the  civil  warsof  the  (nielphs  (q.  v. )  and  Gliibel- 
lines  began,  was  distracted  by  the  dissensions  of  the 
great  feudatories  of  the  empire,  while  the  strength 
of  (nniuany  was  wasted  in  the  disastrous  Crusades, 
in  whiih  Conrad  took  an  active  jiart.  On  his 
death  the  electoral  college  for  the  first  time  met 
at  Frankfort,  which  retained  the  honour  of  liein" 
the  place  at  which  the  sovereign  was  elected  ami 
crowned  till  the  dLssolution  of  the  empire  in  the 
10th  century.  Frederick  I.  (1152-00),  surnamed 
Barbarossa,  Duke  of  Swabia,  was,  at  the  recom- 
mendation of  liLs  uncle  Conrad,  chosen  a.s  his 
successor,  and  the  splendour  of  his  reign  fully 
warranted  the  selection.  By  the  force  of  his 
character  Fretlerick  acquired  an  influence  over 
the  diets  which  had  not  been  possessed  by  any  of 
his  innnediate  predecessors,  and  during  his  reign 
many  important  changes  were  efl'ected  in  the 
nmtual  relations  of  the  great  duchies  and  counties 
of  ( lermany,  while  we  now  for  the  first  time  hear 
of  the  liereditartj  ri^ht  possessed  by  certain  princes 
to  exercise  the  privilege  of  election.  Unfortunately 
for  Germany,  this  »reat  monarch  sutlered  the 
interests  of  his  Italian  dominions  to  draw  him 
away  from  those  of  his  own  country,  whilst  his 
participation  in  the  Crusades,  in  which  both  he 
and  the  llower  of  his  chivalry  perished,  was  only 
memoral)le  for  the  misfortunes  which  it  entailed  on 
the  eiii|piie.  The  interval  between  the  death  of 
Frederick  Barbarossa  (1190)  and  the  accession  of 
Itudolf  I.  (1273),  the  first  of  the  Haosburg  line, 
wliich,  through  a  female  branch,  still  reigns  in 
Austria,  was  one  of  constant  struggle,  internal 
dissension,  and  foreign  wars.  Individually,  the 
princes  of  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty  were  |>opular 
monarchs,  their  many  noble  and  chivalrous  quali- 
ties having  endeareil  them  to  the  people,  while 
one  of  the  race,  Frederick  II.  (1212-50),  was, 
after  Charlemagne,  perhaps  the  most  remarkable 
sovereign  of  the  middle  ages  ;  but  their  ambitious 
designs  on  Italy,  and  their  constant  but  futile 
attempts  to  destroy  the  papal  power,  were  a  source 
of  misery  to  Germany,  and  with  Frederick  II. 
eniled  the  glory  of  the  empire,  till  it  w.os  partially 
revived  by  the  Austrian  Ilimse  of  Hapslinri'.  His 
son,  Conrad  IV.  (1250-5-t),  with  whom  the  Hohen- 
staufen   line   ended    in    Ccrmanv,    was   succeeded. 


after  a  brief  and  troubled  reign,  by  various 
princes,  who  in  turn,  or  in  some  cases  contem- 
poraneously, bore  the  imperial  title  without  exer- 
cising its  legitimate  functions  or  authority.  This 
season  of  anarchy  ( known  as  the  Great  Interreg- 
num) was  terminated  at  the  accession  of  Rudolf  I. 
( 1273-91 ),  who,  by  the  destruction  of  the  strong- 
holds of  the  nobles,  and  the  stringent  enforcement 
of  the  laws,  restored  order.  HLs  chief  efforts  were, 
however,  directed  to  the  aggrandisement  of  his 
Austrian  possessions,  which  embraced  Styria, 
Carinthia,  Carniola,  and  Tyrol. 

For  the  next  200  yeai-s  the  histoiy  of  the  German 
empire  presents  very  few  features  of  interest,  and 
may  be  IjrieHy  passed  over.  Adolf  of  Na-ssau,  who 
was  elected  to  succeed  Rudolf,  was  compelled  in 
1298  to  yield  the  crown  to  the  son  of  the  latter, 
Albert  t.  (1298-1308),  whose  reign  is  chiefly 
memorable  as  the  period  in  which  three  Swiss 
cantons,  Unterwalden,  Scliwyz,  and  L'ri,  estab- 
lished their  independence.  After  the  murder  of 
Albert  the  throne  was  occupied  in  rapid  succes- 
sion by  Henry  VII.  (1308-13),  who  added  Bohemia 
to  the  empire,  and,  conjointly,  by  Frederick  III.  of 
Austria  and  Ludwig  IV.  of  Bavaiia  (1313-47). 
Charles  IV.  (1347-78)  of  Luxemliurg  was  the 
successful  candidate  among  many  rivals  ;  and,  al- 
though he  attended  specially  to  the  interests  of 
his  hereditary  possessions  of  Bohemia,  Moravia, 
Silesia,  and  Lusatia,  he  did  not  entirely  neglect 
those  of  the  empire,  for  which  he  provided  by  a 
written  compact,  known  as  the  Gulden  Bull  (1356), 
which  regulated  the  rights,  privileges,  and  duties  of 
the  electors,  the  mode  of  the  election  and  coronation 
of  the  eniperoi's,  the  coinage,  customs,  and  com- 
mercial treaties  of  the  empire,  and  the  rights  and 
obligations  of  the  free  cities.  His  son,  Wenceslaus 
(1378-1400),  who  was  finally  deposed,  brought  the 
royal  authority  into  contempt,  from  which  it  wa.s 
scarcely  redeemed  by  Rupert  of  the  Palatinate 
(1400-iO).  The  nominal  reign  of  Sigmund  ( 1410- 
37),  the  brother  of  Wenceslaus,  would  demand  no 
notice  were  it  not  for  his  connection  with  the 
Council  of  Constance  in  1414,  at  which  Huss  was 
condemned,  and  which  was  followeil  by  the  dis- 
astrous Hussite  wars.  The  readiness  with  which 
Sigmund  lent  himself  to  the  interests  of  Henry  V. 
of  England,  and  of  all  other  princes  who  ministered 
to  his  love  of  personal  di.-^play,  brought  discredit 
on  the  imperial  dignity,  while  his  dishonourable 
desertion  ot  Huss  will  ever  attach  ignominy  to  his 
name.  Albeit  II.  of  Austria  ( 14.38-39 ),  after  a  reign 
of  less  than  two  years,  in  wliich  he  gave  evidence 
of  great  capacity  for  governing,  was  succeeded  by 
his  cousin,  Frederick  IV.  (1440-93),  an  accom- 
plished but  avaricious  and  indolent  prince,  who^e 
chief  object  seemed  to  be  the  aggiaiulisemeiit  of 
the  House  of  Hapsburg,  with  which  the  title  of 
emperor  had  now  become  permanently  connected 
(see  AlsTElA),  while  he  neglected  the  interests 
of  Germany  collectively,  and  sutlered  the  Turks 
to  make  unchecked  advances  upon  its  territory. 
Maximilian  I.  ( 149:i-1519),  the  son  and  successor 
of  Frederick,  resembled  him  in  few  respects,  for  he 
was  active,  ambitious,  and  scheming,  but  ileficient 
in  steatliness  of  purpose.  His  marriage  with  Marv, 
the  rich  heiress  of  her  father,  Charles  the  Bold 
of  Burgundy,  involved  him  in  the  general  politics 
of  Europe,  while  his  opposition  to  the  reformed 
f,aith  preached  by  Luther  exasperated  the  reli- 
gious differences  which  disturbeil  the  close  of  his 
reign.  Maximilian  had,  however,  the  merit  of 
introducing  many  improvements  in  regard  to  the 
internal  organisation  of  the  state,  by  enforcing 
the  better  administration  of  the  law,  establishing 
a  police  and  an  organiseil  army,  and  introducing 
a  postal  system.  With  him  originated,  moreover, 
the   special  courts   of  jurisdiction   known   as   the 


182 


GERMANY 


■  Imperial  ClmiiilxT '  and  the  'Aulic  Council;' 
ftnd  in  liis  ii-i^'ii  the  enipiie  \vx«i  divided  into  ten 
circles,  each  under  its  hereditaiy  |>resiilent  and  its 
liereditarv  |>rincc-C(>nvok"er.  ^la\irniliall  lived  to 
Bee  the  iK^fjinninj;  of  the  Heforiiiation,  and  the 
success  that  .ittended  Luther's  iireachiu;,' ;  hut  the 
lirm  estahlisliMient  in  Germany  of  the  refoniieii  faith, 
and  the  reli;,'ious  dissensions  liy  which  its  success 
was  attended,  l)elonjr  iirincipally  to  the  rei-^jn  of  his 
grandsiin,  Charles  I.,  kin^' of  S])ain,  the  son  of  the 
Archduke  l'hilii>and  of  doaniia,  the  heiress  of  Snain. 
who  succeeded  to  the  empire  under  the  title  of 
Charles  V.  (l.'>19-o6).  The  management  of  his 
vast  possessions  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  tiie  Nether- 
lanils,  and  the  wars  with  France,  in  whicli  he  was 
so  lon^'  ini;licated,  diverted  him  from  his(!ennan 
territories,  which  he  committed  to  the  care  of  his 
brother  Ferdinand.  The  princes  of  (lermany  were 
thus  left  to  settle  their  relijrious  dill'erences  amon^ 
themselves,  and  to  quell,  unaided  l>y  the  head  of 
the  state,  the  formidahle  insurrection  of  the  peas- 
ants ( l.")2-t-2.")),  which  threateneil  to  nnderndne  the 
very  foundations  of  society,  and  which  had  fol- 
lowed close  upon  the  nohles'  war  ( l.")'2'2-2.'i), 
raised  hy  I'lrich  von  Hut  ten  and  Francis  von 
Sickinj;en  in  the  vain  hope  of  securing;  a  more 
united  (lermany  under  the  emperor.  The  risinj;  of 
the  lower  orders  was  due  to  the  pre.achin;;  of  the 
fanatic  Miinzer,  and  other  leadei-s  of  the  .sect  of 
Anabaptists  (q.v.),  which  had  arisen  from  a  per- 
verti'il  interpretation  of  some  of  the  tenets  advanced 
by  Luther.  Charles's  determine<l  ojiposition  to  the 
reformers  rendered  all  settlement  of  these  relijrions 
dirt'ereuces  inipracticahle  ;  and  althoii;,'h,  hy  the 
aid  of  his  ally,  Maurice  of  Saxony,  he  hroko  the 
confederation  of  the  I'rotestant  i)rinccs  known  as 
the  Lea;;ue  of  Schnialkald,  he  was  forced  hy  his 
former  all.v  to  ai^n  the  ]ieace  of  Aufrshurf;  in  l.'iS"), 
which  granted  tolerance  to  the  Lutherans  ;  and,  in 
his  dis),'ust  at  the  coniplicateil  relations  in  which  he 
wa.s  ]ilaced  to  both  parlies,  he  alMlicated  m  favour 
of  his  brother  Ferdinand  ( l.VWi -64 ),  who  put  an 
end  to  much  of  the  relif,'ious  dissension  that  had 
hitherto  distracted  the  empire,  hy  grantin;;  entire 
toleratiim  to  the  Protestants.  Altlionj,di  Ferdinand 
was  personally  mild  and  pacific,  his  reign  was 
troubled  by  domestic  and  foreign  aggressions — the 
did'erent  sects  disturbing  the  peace  of  the  enniire 
at  home,  while  the  French  and  the  Turks  a-ssaded 
it  from  abroad. 

During   the   next   lifty  years  the  empire  was  a 

?rey  to  internal  disrjniet.  Maximilian  II.  (1.564- 
6)  was  indeed  a  wi.se  and  just  prince,  but  the 
little  he  was  able  to  eli'ect  in  reconciling  the 
adherents  of  the  different  churches,  and  in  rais- 
ing the  character  of  the  im])erial  rule,  was  fatally 
counteracted  by  the  bigotrv  and  vacillaticm  of 
his  .son  and  successor,  IJudoU  II.  (I.i76-ltil2 ).  in 
whose  reign  (lermany  was  torn  by  the  dissensions 
of  the  opposite  religious  factions,  while  each  in 
turn  called  in  the  aid  of  foreigners  to  contribute 
towards  the  univereal  anarchy  which  culminated 
in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  begun  under  Kudolf's 
brother  ami  successor  .Matthias  ( lt)l'2-l!)) ;  con- 
tinued under  Ferdinand  II.  (1619-37).  an  able, 
but  cruel  and  bigoted  man  ;  and  endeil  umler 
Ferrlinancl  III.  (1637-57),  bv  the  treaty  of  West- 
phalia, in  1648.  The  effect' of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  (i|.v.)  was  to  depo]mlate  the  rural  districts 
of  (Jermany,  destroy  its  commerce,  burden  the 
people  with  taxes,  erijiple  the  alreaiiy  debilitated 
power  of  the  emperors,  and  cut  up  the  empire  into 
a  multitude  of  petty  states,  the  rulers  of  which 
exerciseil  almost  absolute  power  within  their  own 
territories.  Leopold  I.  (1658-170.5),  a  haughty, 
pedantic  man,  did  not  avail  himself  of  the  oppor- 
tnnities  alfordeil  by  peace  for  restoring  order  to 
the  state,  but  suffered   himself  to  be  drawn  into 


the  coalition  against  France,  whilst  his  hereditary 
states  were  overrun  by  the  Turks,  and  were  in- 
debted for  their  s.afety  to  JSobicski,  king  of  I'olaml. 
Although  success  often  attended  his  arms,  the 
cnnidng  of  Louis  XIV.  j)rcvcnted  ]ieace  from  l)riiig- 
ing  the  em])eror  any  signal  advantages  ;  ami  it 
was  in  this  reign  that  Stra-sburg  wius  attached 
to  the  French  empire.  The  reigns  of  Joseph  I. 
(1705-11)  anil  Charles  VI.  (1711-40),  with  whom 
expired  the  male  line  of  the  Hajisbiirg  dymusty, 
were  signalised  by  the  great  victories  won  )>y  the 
im|)erialist  general,  I'rime  Kugene,  in  conjunrliDn 
with  Marlborough,  over  the  French,  in  the  war 
of  the  Spanish  succession  (170'2-13).  Hut  the 
treaty  of  I'trecht  (1713)  brought  no  soliil  advan- 
tage to  the  empire.  The  disturbed  condition  of 
Spain  and  Saxony  opened  new  channels  for  (Jer- 
man  interference  abroad.  ( iermany  was  further  dis- 
tracted, after  the  death  of  Charles,  by  the  dissen- 
sions occasi(med  by  the  contested  succession  of  his 
daughter,  Maria-Theresa,  who  claimed  the  empire 
in  virtue  of  the  I'ragmatic  Sanction  drawn  up 
by  her  father  in  1713,  and  through  her  of  her 
husband,  Francis  I.  of  Lorraine,  after  their  rival,  the 
Bavarian  F2lector,  Charles  VII.,  had  by  means  of 
Prussian  aid  been  elected  in  174'2  to  the  imperial 
throne.  Charles,  however,  was  obliged  to  ce<le 
his  crown  after  a  brief  oc('U|iation  of  three  years. 
Constant  <listurbances,  intensilied  during  the  Seven 
Y'eai-s'  War  (1756-63),  when  Frederick  the  (Ireat 
of  Prussia  maintained  his  character  of  a  skilful 
general  at  the  expense  of  the  Anstrians,  made 
the  reign  of  Francis  I.  (1745-65)  one  of  trouble 
and  disaster.  Joseidi  II.,  his  son  (1765-90),  during 
the  lifetime  of  Mari.i-Tlieresa,  who  retained  her 
authority  over  all  the  Austiian  states,  enjoyed 
little  beyimd  the  title  of  emperor,  to  which  he 
had  succeeded  on  his  father's  death.  Hut  when 
he  ultimately  acquired  his  mother's  vast  patri- 
mony he  at  once  entered  upon  a  course  of  rchirms, 
which  were,  however,  premature,  and  unsuiled 
to  the  ca.ses  to  which  tiiey  were  applied  ;  whilst 
his  attem|its  to  reestaldish  the  sui)remacy  of  the 
imperial  ))ower  in  the  south  of  Germany  were 
frustrated  by  Prussian  inllucnce. 

Leopold  il.,  after  a  short  reign  of  two  years, 
wa-s  succeeded  in  179"2  by  his  son  I'rancis  II.,  who, 
after  a  series  of  defeats  by  the  armies  of  the  French 
Kepublic,  and  the  adhesion,  in  1805,  of  many  of  the 
(ierman  princes  to  the  alliance  of  France,  which 
led  to  the  suliseijucnt  formation  of  the  Khenish 
Confeileration  under  the  protect<Hate  of  Naiiolenn, 
resigned  the  (lerman  crown,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  Kmperor  of  Austria.  (See  for  further  iletails 
At'STlil.v,  N.M'OLKDX,  Fii.VNCE,  l'Rls.si.\,  and  the 
articles  on  the  other  (!erman  states.)  From  this 
period  till  the  Congress  of  Aienna  of  IH1+-15 
Germany  wa.s  almost  entirely  at  the  mercy  of 
Na|)oleon,  who  deposed  the  established  sovereigns, 
and  dismembered  their  states  in  favour  of  his 
partisans  and  dei>endants,  while  he  crippled  the 
trade  of  the  country,  and  exhausted  its  resources 
by  the  extortion  of  subsidies  or  contributions. 
The  seconil  peace  of  Paris  (1814)  restored  to 
Germany  all  that  had  belonged  to  her  in  1792; 
anil,  as  a  reconstruction  of  the  old  empire  was 
no  longer  possible,  those  states  which  still  main- 
tained their  sovereignty  combined,  in  1815,  to 
form  a  German  Confederation.  Of  the  3(M)  states 
into  which  the  emidre  had  once  been  divided 
there  now  reniained  only  39,  a  number  which 
was  afterwards  reduced  to  35  by  the  extinction 
of  several  ))etty  dynasties.  The  diet  was  now 
reorganised,  and  a]ipointcd  to  hold  its  meetings 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  after  having  been  form- 
ally recognised  by  all  the  allied  states  as  the 
legislative  and  executive  organ  of  the  Confedera- 
tion ;    but  it  failed  to  satisfy  the  expectations  of 


GERMANY 


183 


the  nation,  and  soon  Itecame  a  mere  political  tool 
in  the  hands  of  the  princes,  who  simply  made  its 
decrees  subservient  to  their  own  efforts  for  the 
suppression  of  every  progressive  movement.  The 
festival  of  the  Wartlmrg,  and  tlie  assassination 
of  Kotzebue,  were  seized  as  additional  excnses  for 
reaction  ;  and  tlioiigh  the  French  revolution  of 
1830  so  intluenceil  some  few  of  the  German  states 
as  to  compel  their  rulers  to  grant  written  con- 
stitutions to  their  sulijects,  the  ert'eet  was  tran- 
sient, and  it  was  not  till  1848  that  the  German 
nation  gave  expression,  by  open  insurrectionary 
movements,  to  the  discontent  and  the  sense  of 
oppression  which  hail  long  possessed  the  minds  of 
the  people.  The  princes  endeavoured  by  hasty 
concessions  to  arrest  the  |)rogress  of  repnblican 
princii)les,  and,  fully  recognising  the  inefficiency  of 
the  diet,  they  gave  their  sanction  to  the  convo- 
cation, by  a  [provisional  self-constituted  assembly, 
of  a  national  congress  of  representatives  of  the 
people.  Archduke  John  of  Austria  was  elected 
Vicar  of  the  newly-organiseil  national  government; 
but  he  soon  disappointed  the  hopes  of  the  assembly 
by  his  evident  attempts  to  frustrate  all  energetic 
action  on  the  .side  of  the  parliament,  while  the 
speedy  success  of  the  anti-republican  party  in 
Austria  and  Prn.ssia  damped  the  hopes  of  the  pro- 
gressionists. The  refusal  of  the  king  of  Prn.ssia 
to  accept  the  imperial  crown  wliich  the  parliament 
ottered  him  in  1840  was  followed  by  the  election 
of  a  provisional  regency  of  the  empire ;  but  as 
nearly  half  the  members  had  declined  taking  part 
in  these  proceedings,  or  in  a  previous  measure,  by 
which  Austria  had  been  excluded,  by  a  single  vote, 
from  the  German  Confederation,  the  assembly  soon 
lapsed  into  a  state  of  anarchy  and  impotence, 
which  terminated  in  its  dis.solution.  The  sangui- 
nary manner  in  whic-h  insurrectionary  movemeuts 
h.ad  in  the  meanwhile  been  suppressed  by  Prussian 
tioops  both  in  Prussia  and  Saxony  put  an  ellectual 
end  to  republican  demonstrations ;  and  in  1850 
Austria  and  Prussia,  after  exhibiting  mutual 
jealousy  and  ill-will  which  more  than  once  seemed 
likely  to  end  in  war,  combined  to  restore  the 
diet,  whose  first  acts  were  the  intervention  in 
Sleswick-Holstein  in  favour  of  Denmark,  and  the 
abolition  of  the  free  constitutions  of  several  of  the 
lesser  states.  From  that  period  the  diet  became 
the  arena  in  which  .\ustria  and  Prussia  strove  to 
secure  the  supremacy  and  championship  of  Ger- 
many ;  every  measure  of  public  interest  was  made 
subservient  to  the  views  of  one  or  other  of  these 
rival  powers  ;  and  the  Sleswick-Holstein  ditliculties 
were  the  princiiial  ([uestions  under  discussion  in  the 
feileral  parliament,  ilown  to  the  rupture  between 
Prussia  and  Austria,  and  the  dissolution  of  the 
liund  in  ISGIi. 

The  immediate  occasion  of  the  war  of  ISGG  was 
the  ditl'erence  that  arose  between  Prussia  and 
Austria,  after  the  convention  of  Gastein  (186.5), 
as  to  the  occupation  ami  disposal  of  the  territory 
taken  from  l);!nniark  in  the  short  war  of  18IU  (.see 
Sleswick  ).  liut  the  real  grounds  lav  in  that 
rivalry  between  the  two  states  for  the  leadership 
of  Germany,  the  germ  of  which  is  as  oltl  as  the 
time  of  the  (Jreat  Klector  (see  Fredehick- 
Willi.vm),  and  which  h:is  shown  itself  at  many 
epoclis  of  tlicir  history.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  the  feeling  of  the  German  jieople,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  princes  and  bureaucracy,  had, 
in  recent  times  at  le;i.st,  been  iu  favour  of  the 
purely  German  Prussia  as  their  leader,  rather  than 
Austria.  And  when  the  parliament  of  Frankfort 
in  1849  ofVered  the  imperial  crown  to  the  king  of 
Prussia,  the  unity  of  Germanv  might  have  been 
secureil  without  bloo<lshed,  liad  the  monarch  been 
le.ss  scrupulous,  or  had  he  hail  a  liismarck  for  his 
adviser.     But  that  opportunity  being  let  slip,  and 


the  incubus  of  the  '  Bund '  being  restored,  it 
became  apparent  that  the  knot  must  be  cut  by  the 
sword. 

By  the  treaty  of  Gastein  Austria  ami  I'nissia 
agreed  to  a  joint  occupation  of  the  Kibe  duchies; 
but  to  prevent  collision  it  was  judged  )iruilent 
that  Austria  should  occui)y  Flolstein,  and  Prussia 
Sleswick.  Already  a  difference  of  policy  had  begun 
to  show  it.self  :  Prussia  was  believed  to  have  the 
intention  of  annexing  the  duchies  ;  while  Austria 
began  to  favour  the  claims  of  Prince  Frederi(d<  of 
Augustenburg.  In  the  meantime,  both  nations 
were  making  ready  for  the  struggle  ;  and  Italy, 
looking  u]>ou  the  i|uarrel  as  a  iirccions  opportunity 
to  strike  a  blow  for  the  liberation  of  Venetia,  had 
secretlv  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Prussia. 

In  tlie  sitting  of  the  German  diet,  ,lune  1,  1866, 
Austria,  disregarding  the  convention  of  Gastein, 
placed  the  whole  matter  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Bund,  and  then  jiroceeded  to  convoke  the  states 
of  Holstein  'to  assist  in  the  settlement  of  the 
future  destination  of  the  duchy.'  Prn.ssia  ]iro- 
tested  against  this  as  an  insult  and  a  violation  of 
treaty;  ilemanded  the  re-estalilislnnent  of  the  joint 
occnpaticm  ;  and,  while  inviting  Austria  to  send 
troops  into  Sleswick,  marched  troops  of  her  own  into 
Holstein.  Instead  of  responding  to  this  invitation, 
Austria  withdrew  her  forces  altogether  from  Hol- 
stein, under  protest ;  and  then,  calling  attention  to 
this  '  act  of  violence '  on  the  part  of  Prn.ssia,  pro- 
posed that  the  diet  should  decree  '  fedeial  execu- 
tion '  against  the  enemy  of  the  empire.  This  event- 
ful resolution  was  carried  by  a  great  majority  on 
the  14th  June  1866;  Hanover,  Saxony,  Hesse- 
Cassel,  and  Hesse-Darmstadt  voting  for  it.  The 
resolution  having  passed,  the  Prussian  plenipo- 
tentiary, in  the  name  of  his  government,  declared 
the  tJerman  Confederation  dissolved  for  ever,  and 
innnediately  withdrew. 

Thereupon  identical  notes  were  sent  by  Prussia 
to  the  courts  of  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Hesse-Cassel. 
The  terms  were  not  accepted,  and  the  Prussian 
troops  at  once  took  nulitary  possession  of  the  three 
kingdoms  without  resistance.  War  was  now  de- 
clared against  Austria  :  the  Prussian  host,  num- 
bering in  all  •2'25,400  men,  with  774  guns,  invaded 
liohemia  at  three  several  points.  The  Austrians, 
who  had  been  surprised  in  a  state  of  ill-organised 
unreadiness,  had  assembled  an  army  of  •2()2,400 
men  and  716  guns ;  and  the  greater  portion  of 
these  were  stationed,  under  General  Benedek, 
behind  the  Kiesengebirge,  expecting  the  attack 
from  Silesia.  The  Prussian  armies  meanwhile 
cro.ssed  the  Erzgebirge  without  opposition,  drove 
the  Austrian  army  steadily  and  cjuickly  back 
with  heavy  losses,  and,  after  effecting  a  junction, 
moved  steadily  forward  to  meet  the  Austrian  army, 
now  concentrated  between  Sadowa  and  Kiinig- 
grjitz.  Here,  on  July  3,  was  fo\ight  the  decisive 
Tjattle.  The  Austrian  cavalry  made  heroic  etl'orts 
to  turn  the  tide  of  victory  ;  but  the  stern  trained 
valour  of  the  Prussi.-ms,  armed  with  the  till  then 
little  known  breech  loading  'needle-gun,'  was 
invincible,  and  the  Austrian  army  was  liroken  and 
dissolved  in  precipitate  flight.  The  Prussians  lost 
upwards  of  9000  killed  and  wounded  ;  the  Austrian 
loss  was  10, '23.')  killed  and  wounded,  and  ■2'2,684 
prisoners.  After  this  decisive  defeat,  which  is 
known  as  the  battle  of  Ktiniggriitz  or  Sadow.a, 
all  hone  of  staying  the  advance  of  the  Prussians 
with  tlie  army  of  IJeuedek  was  at  an  end  ;  a  truce 
w;is  asked  for,  but  refused  ;  and  not  till  the 
victorious  Prussians  had  pushed  forward  towards 
Vienna,  whither  Benedek  had  drawn  his  beaten 
I  forces,  was  a  truce  obtained  through  the  agency  of 
'  the  em))eror  of  the  French,  the  peace  of  Prague 
( .\ngust  20).  Italy  (q.v.l,  though  more  than  lialf- 
I  inclined  to  stand  out  for  the  cession  bv  .\ustria  of 


184 


GERMANY 


the  Ticntino,  as  well  as  Venetia,  reluctantly  agreed 
to  the  urriiisticc  (Aiij,'H;-t  12). 

A  hrief  c.iiii|iin^;M  sulliifil  fi)r  tlie  defeat  of  the 
minor  states  of  (leniiaiiy  that  had  joineil  Austria 
— viz.  Itavaria,  Wiirleniherf;,  liaden,  ami  Hesse- 
DarnistiMit ;  and,  after  peaee  had  at  liust  heen 
arranjted,  some  of  them  were  forced  to  suhtnit  to 
a  certain  loss  of  territory.  Saxony  only  escaped 
incorporation  with  Prussia  tlirou;;h  the  resolute 
oppiisilioM  nl  .\nstrla  supported  liy  Krance  ;  liut  the 
little  kin^'doni,  like  all  the  other  states  that  had 
taken  arms  a^'ainst  I'russia,  wa-s  forced  to  pav  a 
heavy  war  indemnity.  Even  the  little  principality 
of  l{'eus.s  had  to  pay  10(»,(HH)  thalers  into  the  funll 
for  Prussian  invalids.  The  slates  north  of  the 
Main  which  hail  taken  up  arms  afjjainst  Prus.sia 
were  completely  incorporated  -viz.  Hanover,  Hesse- 
Ca.ssel,  Nassau,  Krankfort.  and  a  small  iiortion  of 
HesseDarmstailt.  :us  well  as  Sleswick  Holstein  anil 
Lauenhur;,' :  and  the  other  states  north  of  the  Main 
were  united  with  I'ru.ssia  in  a  confederacy  of  a 
more  intimate  nature  than  before  existed,  called 
the  iVoi7/i  Gcnniin  Coiifcilcrdtion. 

Austria,  l>y  the  treaty  of  l'raj;uo  (20th  August 
1866),  w.as  completely  excluded  from  participation 
in  the  new  or^'anisation  of  the  tJiTiiian  states,  and 
formally  a^;reed  to  the  surrender  of  Venetia  to 
Italy,  to  the  incorporation  of  Sle.swick-  Holstein  with 
Prussia,  and  to  the  new  arrangements  made  l>v 
Prussia  in  (lerniany.  A  portion  of  the  fifth  article 
of  this  treaty  secured  that,  if  the  '  inhaliitants  of 
the  northern  districts  of  .Sleswick  declare,  hy  a  free 
vote,  their  ilesire  to  he  united  to  Denmark,  they 
shall  he  restored  accordingly  ; '  liut  this  was  with- 
drawn in  1878  hy  secret  treaty  between  Austria  and 
Germany.  Though  losing  no  territory  to  Prussia, 
Austria  had  to  pay  40  millions  of  thalers  for  the 
expense  of  the  war. 

The  North  (lermau  Confederation,  as  thus  con- 
stituted, pos.sessed  a  common  parliament,  elected 
by  univei'sal  sutlVage,  in  which  each  state  was  re- 
ju'esented  according  to  its  population.  The  first  or 
constituent  parlianu'Ut  met  early  in  1807,  and 
adopted,  with  a  few  modificatiims,  the  constitution 
proposed  by  Count  Hismarck.  The  new  elections 
then  took  ]dii(e,  and  tlie  first  regular  North  (ierman 
parliament  met  in  September  1867.  Acconling  to 
this  constitution,  there  was  to  be  a  coinmon  army 
ami  fh'cl,  umler  the  sole  command  of  I'russia;  a 
coiiimon  di|domatic  representation  al)road,  of  neces- 
sity little  else  than  Prussian  ;  and  to  Prussia  also 
\vas  entrusted  the  m.anagement  of  the  posts  and 
telegraphs  in  the  Confederation. 

The  .southern  tieriuau  states  which  up  to  this 
point  had  not  joined  the  l!und,  were  Bavaria, 
IJaden,  Wiirtemberg,  Hesse  Darmstiidt,  and  Liech- 
tenstein, with  a  joint  area  of  43,!I90  sfi.  m.,  and  a 
total  population  (1866)  of  8,.524,460.  But,  though 
these  states  were  not  formally  members  of  the 
Bund,  they  were  so  ))ractically,  for  they  were 
bouml  to  i'rus-sia  hy  treaties  of  alliance  oll'ensive 
and  defensive,  so  that  in  the  event  of  a  war  the 
king  of  Prussia  would  have  at  his  dispo.sal  an 
arnu^d  force  of  upwards  of  1,1(X),(M)0  men. 

During  the  ne.xt  few  years  the  North  German 
Confederation  was  employed  in  consididatiug  and 
strengthening  it.self,  and  in  trying  to  induce  the 
southern  states  to  join  the  league.  The  ZoUverein 
(q.v. )  Wius  remodelled  .and  exteniled,  until  by  the 
year  18G8  every  part  of  (lermany  was  a  member 
of  it,  with  the  exception  of  the  cities  of  Hamburg 
an<l  Bremen,  and  a  siji.iil  part  of  liaden.  This  paveil 
the  way  for  the  formal  entrance  of  the  southern 
states  into  the  confederation  ;  but  they  still  Imng 
back,  though  the  iileal  of  a  united  Germany  was 
gradually  growing  in  force  and  favour. 

In  the  spring  of  1867  a  war  between  Prussia  and 
I'rauce  seemed  imminent,  from  difficulties  arising 


out  of  the  occupation  of  Luxemburg  hy  the  former; 
but  by  the  good  ollices  of  the  British  government 
a  congress  of  the  great  jioweix  (Italy  included) 
was  assembled  at  London,  at  which  .in  arrange- 
ment satisfactory  to  both  nations  was  amicably 
agreed  uimn,  Luxendmrg  remaining  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  king  of  Holland.  It  was  evident,  how- 
ever, that  hostilities  hail  only  heen  postjmned,  and 
on  both  siiles  extensive  military  preparations  were 
carried  on. 

In  1H70  the  long  threatened  war  between  Prussia 
and  Krance  broke  out.  On  .I\ily  4  of  that  year  the 
provisional  government  of  Spain  cdected  I'rince 
I^eopold  of  Hohenzollern.  a  relative  of  King  William 
of  Prussia,  to  till  their  vacant  throne.  This  step 
gave  the  greatest  umbrage  to  the  Prench  govern- 
ment ;  and  though  by  the  advice  of  William  I.  of 
Prussia  Prince  Leopidd  resigned  his  candidature, 
it  was  luit  satisfied,  liut  deuumded  an  assurance 
that  Prussia  would  at  no  future  period  sanction  his 
claims.  This  assurance  the  king  refused  to  give; 
and  on  the  19th  of  .liily  the  emperor  of  the  French 
proclaimed  war  against  Prussia.  Contrary  to  the 
expectation  of  France,  the  southern  German  states 
at  once  decided  to  supiiort  Prussia  and  the  northern 
states,  and  placed  their  armies,  whirh  were  event- 
ually commanded  by  the  Crown  prince  of  Prussia, 
at  tlie  disposal  of  King  William. 

By  the  end  of  July  the  forces  of  both  countries 
were  congregated  on  the  frontier.  Napoleon,  how- 
ever, lost  a  fortnight  in  delays  after  the  declaration 
of  war,  and  it  was  discovered  that  the  French  army 
was  by  no  means  in  a  state  of  satisf.actory  prepara- 
tion, while  the  tJermans  were  splendidly  oiganised, 
and  much  superior  in  number.  The  result  was 
that  the  French,  instead  of  marching  to  Berlin  aa 
they  anticijiated.  never  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  had 
to  hght  at  a  disadvantage  in  .\lsace  and  Lorraine. 

On  August  2  the  French  oblained  some  trifling 
success  at  Saarliriick,  but  the  rapidly  following 
battles  of  Weissenburg  (. August  4),  Wiirth,  and 
S]>icheren  (both  August  6)  W're  important  tier- 
man  victories.  The  tierman  advance  was  hardly 
checked  for  a  moment,  though,  the  losses  on  both 
sides  were  very  heavy.  The  battle  of  Gra\elotte, 
in  which  King  William  commanded  in  person,  was 
fought  on  the  18th  ;  and,  though  the  tiermans 
sufl'ered  immense  loss,  they  were  again  victoriou.s, 
and  forced  Bazaine  to  shut  himsilf  u|p  in  Metz. 
The  Emperor  Naimleon  and  .Marshal  MacM.ihon  in 
vain  attempted  to  proceed  to  the  relief  of  liazaine. 
They  were  surrounded  at  Sedan,  and  completely 
defeated  with  heavy  loss.  The  emperor  surren- 
dered on  the  2il  September,  with  his  whole  army, 
about  90,000  men,  and  was  sent  as  a  pri.soner  into 
(Jermany.  By  the  19lh  of  September  the  Prussians 
had  reached  Paris,  and  commenced  a.  vigorous  siege. 
Strasburg  caiiitulated  on  the  27th  after  a  severe 
bombardment;  and  on  28th  October  Bazaine  sur- 
rendered Metz  with  an  army  of  6000  officers  and 
17.3.IMX)  men,  400  pieces  of  artillery,  100  mitrailleu.ses, 
and  .")3  eagles.  Verdun  capitulated  on  the  8tli 
November;  Thionville  followed  on  the  24th  ;  after 
which  there  were  several  capitulations  of  lesser 
import.ince. 

The  French  made  extraordinary  efforts  to  raise 
armies  and  relieve  Paris,  but,  with  the  excejition  of 
a  momentary  gleam  of  success  on  the  Loire,  they 
met  with  nothing  but  severe  defeats.  Of  these  may 
be  mentioned  the  battle  of  December  ,3  in  the  Forest 
of  Orleans,  and  that  of  Le  Mans,  .January  12,  in 
which  contests  Prince  Fre<Ieri<-k Charles  took  alto- 
gether .30,000  prisoners.  After  numerous  unsuc- 
cessful sorties,  and  enduring  great  suH'erings  from 
famine,  Paris  surrendered  on  the  29tli  of  .Jannarj', 
and  the  war  was  virtually  at  an  end.  The  French 
army  of  the  cast,  80, (KK)  strong,  under  Bourbaki, 
was  compelled  to  retire  to  Switzerland  on  the  31st. 


GERMANY 


185 


By  the  peace  of  Frankfort  (May  10,  1871)  France 
was  conilemneil  to  pav  a  war  indemnity  of  5  mil- 
liards of  francs,  or  £200,000,000  ;  and  tlic  province 
of  Alsace,  along  with  the  German  part  of  Lorraine, 
was  ceded  to  Germany. 

A  very  important  result  of  the  war  was  to  com- 
plete the  fusion  of  the  northern  and  southern  states 
of  Germany.  The  southern  states  joined  at  once 
in  tlie  war  aj;ainst  France;  in  November  of  1870, 
lladcu  and  Hesse  leading  the  way,  they  all  became 
members  of  the  German  Confederation  ;  and  next 
month  the  re-establishment  of  the  (ierman  emjiire 
was  almost  unanimously  resolveil,  with  the  king 
of  Prussia  as  hereditary  emperor.  It  was  at 
Versailles,  on  IStli  January  1871,  that  the  king 
was  proclaimed  emjieror  of  (.Germany. 

The  new  German  empire  set  vigorously  to  work 
to  organise  itself  as  a  united  federation,  under  the 
skilful  leadership  of  Prince  Bism.arck,  who  was 
appointed  Reichskanzler  or  Imperial  Chancellor. 
Almost  at  once  it  found  itself  involved  in  the 
ecclesiastical  contest  wi-th  the  Church  of  Rome, 
known  .as  the  '  Kulturkampf,' which  had  ])revions]y 
lieguM  in  Prussia.  The  origin  of  the  struggle  was 
an  eltbrt  to  vindicate  the  riglit  of  the  state  to  inter- 
fere, snmewh.at  intimately,  with  the  beliaviour, 
appointments,  and  even  educational  all'airs  of  all 
religious  .societies  in  the  country.  The  Jesuits 
were  expelled  in  1872,  and  Pope  Pius  IX.  retorted 
by  declining  to  receive  the  German  ambassador. 
The  famous  Falk  or  May  Laws  were  passe<l  in 
Prussia  in  1873-4-5,  and  some  of  tlieir  provisions 
were  extended  to  the  empire.  Several  German 
prelates,  refusing  obedience,  were  expelled  from 
(Icrmany  ;  and  the  disorganisation  in  ecclesiastical 
all'airs  became  so  serious  that  the  Reichstag  passed 
a  law  in  1S74  making  marriage  a  civil  rite.  The 
pope  issued  an  encyclical  declaring  the  Falk  laws 
invalid,  and  matters  seemed  for  a  tiuie  to  be 
at  a  deadlock.  On  the  election  of  a  new  pope, 
Leo  XIII.,  in  1878,  attempts  were  made  to  arrange 
a  compromise  between  the  empire  and  the  papal 
see.  Falk,  the  Prussian  '  Kultus '-minister,  re- 
signed in  1879,  and  certain  moditications  were  made 
in  the  olmoxious  laws  in  1881  and  1883.  Bismarck 
took  ii  further  step  towards  Canossa  in  188.")  when 
he  |>roposed  the  pope  as  arbiter  between  (lermany 
and  Spain  in  the  dispute  as  to  the  possession  of  the 
Caroline  Islands  ;  and  he  practically  owned  him- 
self beaten  in  the  conce.ssioirs  which  lie  granted  in 
revisions  of  the  politico-ecclesiastical  legishation  in 
1886  and  1887.  Another  semi-religious  ditliculty 
whicdi  demanded  government  interference  was  the 
social  persecution  of  the  Jews  (Jmlcnhctzc),  which 
reached  a  climax  in  1880-81. 

In  more  strictly  political  alYairs  the  rapid  spread 
of  socialism  exciteil  the  alarm  of  the  government. 
Two  attempts  on  the  life  of  the  emperor  (in 
May  and  June  1878)  were  attributed  more  or  less 
directly  to  the  Social  Democrat  organisation,  and 
gave  the  signal  for  legislative  meas\ircs  conf(!rring 
very  extensive  powers  upon  the  .adndnistration  to 
he  used  in  suppressing  the  iujluenci'  of  socialism. 
These  socialist  laws,  though  linuteil  in  duration, 
have  invariably  been  renewed  (sometimes  with 
added  stringency)  before  their  valiility  expired  : 
in  188!)  several  of  the  most  important  towns  of 
the  empire  were  in  what  is  called  'the  minor  state 
of  siege  '  for  jiolice  ]iurpo.ses,  and  a  new  socialist 
law'  was  carried,  which  remained  in  force  till 
(tetober  1800.  A  plot,  happily  futile,  to  blow 
up  the  emperor  and  otiier  (ierman  rulers  at  the 
inauguration  of  the  National  Monument  in  the 
Niederwald  in  1883  was  considered  by  government 
to  justify  its  repressive  measures.  Prince  Hismarck, 
however,  was  not  content  with  repressive  measures; 
he  had  endeavoured  by  inqiroving  the  condition  of 
the  workiug-cla-sses  to  cut  the  ground  from  beneath 


the  feet  of  the  socialistic  propagamlists.  Tlie 
acknowledgment  in  the  emperor  s  message  to  the 
Keiehstag  in  1881,  that  the  working-classes  have  a 
right  to  be  considereil  by  the  state,  was  followed 
by  laws  compelling  employers  to  insure  their  work- 
men in  case  of  sickness  and  of  accident,  and  by 
the  introduction  ( 1888)  of  comnulsory  insurance  for 
workmen  against  death  and  ohl  age — measures  that 
have  been  by  some  called  '  state-socialism.' 

The  energetic  commercial  pidicy  of  government 
•also,  which  since  1870  h.asbeen  strongly  protection- 
ist, has  its  springs  in  similar  considerations;  and  the 
recent  colonial  policy,  which  began  in  188-t  with  the 
acquisition  of  Angra  Pe(|Uena,  may  be  considered 
to  be  stimulated  partly  liy  the  desire  to  gratify 
the  national  self-respect,  and  jiartly  to  jirovide  new 
outlets  under  the  German  Hag  for  tlii;  surplus  popu- 
lation, and  new  markets  for  the  home  manufactures. 
None  of  the  German  colonies  as  vet,  however,  either 
in  Africa  or  the  Pacilic  Ocean,  liave  proved  of  any 
great  commercial  value.  The  assembling  of  the 
Congo  Congress  at  Berlin  in  1885  fitly  marked 
Germany's  admission  to  the  list  of  colonial  powers. 
On  the  maintenance  and  improvement  of  tlie  army 
and  navy  the  German  government  has  bestowed 
the  most  unremitting  care,  urged  es]iecially  by  the 
attitude  of  the  '  Revanche '  party  in  France,  though 
hitherto  the  imperial  policy  has  been  entirely  pacilic. 

Considerable  parliamentary  friction  has  been 
caused  more  than  once  by  the  unwillingness  of 
the  Reichstag  to  vote  military  supplies  to  the 
.amount  and  in  the  manner  dem.andcd  by  the 
emperor  and  chancellor.  The  latter  desire  to  have 
practically  a  free  hand  in  military  matters,  while 
the  national  parliament  seeks  to  exercise  a  consti- 
tutional control  over  the  army  resembling  that 
illustrated  in  Great  Britain  by  the  annual  ^lutiny 
Act.  A  compromise  was  effected  in  1874  in  virtue 
of  which  the  military  strength  was  fixed  and  the 
supplies  granted  for  periods  of  seven  years  at  a 
time.  In  1886  the  government  projiosed  to  ter- 
minate the  current  Scjitouial  in  1887  instead  of 
in  1888,  and  to  immediately  add  largely  to  the 
peace  strength  of  the  army.  On  the  rejection  of 
the  hill  the  Reichstag  was  dissolved  (January 
1887)  by  the  emperor  and  an  a]ipeal  maile  to  the 
country.  The  Iron  Chancellor  still  possessed  the 
confidence  and  the  gratitude  of  the  ]ieople,  and 
the  new  elections  in  February  1887  resulted  in  a 
crushing  defeat  for  the  opponents  of  the  govern- 
ment, notably  the  Freisinnige  and  the  Social 
Democrats.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  features 
of  this  election  was  a  letter  written  by  the  pope 
in  favour  of  tlie  army  bill,  for  which  lie  subse- 
r|Uently  received  a  qiiu/  jiru  qiiu  in  a  further 
nioililication  of  the  May  laws.  The  Military 
Septennate  Bill  was  ininiediately  passed,  and  was 
followed  in  1888  by  a  Military  Organisation  Bill, 
which  made  several  changes  in  the  conditions  of 
service  in  the  landwehr.  The  subse((Uent  budgets 
show  an  enormous  increase  in  the  extraordinary 
military  expenditure.  While  thus  seeking  peace 
by  ]preparing  for  war,  Germany  has  not  failed  to 
use  diiiloniacy  Un-  the  same  end. 

\  personal  meeting  of  the  emperors  of  (!erm,any, 
Austri.a,  and  Russia  in  187'2  was  considered  a  proof 
of  a  political  alliance  (Di-cihii.sri-hiind) :  and,  when 
Russia  drifted  somewhat  a^iart  from  (Jerinany  in 
1878,  an  otl'ensive  and  defensive  alliance  was  formed 
between  Austria  and  (iermany  in  1870.  Italy 
afterwards  entered  this  Triple  .\lliance.  (iermany  s 
inlluence  on  the  Kastern  (Question  w.as  recognised 
in  IS7S,  when  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  powci-s 
met  at  the  Congress  of  Berlin. 

(3n  nth  Marcii  1888  the  Emperor  \Villiam  I.  died. 
His  son  Frederick,  ;it  that  time  sull'ering  from  a 
cancerous  alt'ection  of  the  throat,  immediately  issued 
a  proclamation,  in  which   he  pioini.scd   to  consider 


18G 


GERMANY 


'national  neeils.'  Hut  liedieil  in  June,  ami  William 
II.,  Ills  son,  ipoiiircil  to  liisiiiarck's  policy.  Kie  long 
(lill'prpnces  between  the  youn;;  eni]ieror  and  the 
clmni-i'lliir  on  social  politics  led  to  liisniaick's  retire- 
ment ill  IHiKi,  his  successors  liein;,'  ( Jcneial  \'on  Cap- 
livi  (  IsilO  <t4)  and  I'liiiee  Iloheiilolie.  AntiSeinite 
controversies  coiiliniied,  ami  nie;tsiires  for  repressinj; 
Socialism  ;  and  a  law  wa.s  passed  ( 1S93)  for  a  ^neat 
increase  in  the  war  stren^'lh  of  the  army  (nltinmtely 
calculated  at  4,3()0,()00).  There  Jiave  been  many 
prosecutions  for  lese-majesty  of  late  veal's.  I$ut  the 
great  features  of  recent  (!erman  history  have  l>een 
the  growth  of  (ierman  trade  and  commerce,  the 
great  colonial  expansion  in  .Africa  and  I'olyiiesia, 
and  the  r.ipid  incrca.se  of  her  navy.  The  amicalile 
agreement  with  Mritain  about  the  Samoa  Islands 
an<l  the  boundaries  of  Togoland  helped  to  create 
a  more  friendly  feeling  between  the  two  countries 
than  had  existed.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  l!o.\cr 
rebellion  in  China  in  1900,  resulting  in  the  murder 
of  the  (ierman  minister  at  I'ckiu  and  the  siege 
of  the  foreign  embassies,  (iermany  acted  in  uniiui 
with  the  other  European  |iowers  in  sending  a  force 
which  occn]ded  the  ("liinese  capital,  ami  a  special 
Anglo  German  agreement  was  entered  into  in 
regard  to  China. 

SccliistoriesbyDalin,Dove,'W.  Menzel,  Midler  (lltli  cd. 
Bcr.  1S.S4);  Stacke,  DniUche  (icsdiiclUe  Leip.  (1880  81); 
Tnitscbke,  Deutsche  Gearhiclitc  im  l!)ten  JahrhumtrrI  (5 
vols.  beip.  187n  et  sc/.);  Ranke,  Uciil.  Gruehichle  im  ZcUulter 
tier  litjormation  (Gtli  ed.  6  vols.  1880-82;  Eng.  trans. 
1845-17);  Miillcr's  Politische  Genchirhle  der  Oeiiemrarl 
fan  annual  historical  register  ;  with  a  rfeumiS  translated 
into  English  by  Peters,  1876 1.  Also  works  by  Ludcn, 
K.  It.  Menzel,  Leo.  Waitz,  Souchay,  iSiigenlicini.  ic.  ;  see 
also  under  Fkkdehick  the  Gre.vt,  Thihty  Ye.\us'  War, 
BisM.MiCK,  and  other  s|>ecial  articles. 
^^\'orks  in  English :  J.  Hrycc,  Hotii  Roman  Empire 
(7th  ed.  1884);  J.  Simc,  Histoiii  of  Gvrmanii  {\>i'i,  in 
I''reenian'.s  '  Historic  il'  series);  C.  T.  I./ewis,  Histori/  of 
OtriiKiiiii  (1874);  !S.  ISaring-Gould,  (•'cimaiiii,  I'vesntt 
unit  Pii.it  (2  vols.  1879);  Baring-Ooidd  and  Oilman, 
dcrmanii  (188C,  '  Stiry  of  the  Nations'  series);  S. 
Whitman,  Impn-ial  Orrmnn;/  (\SS9) ;  Official  (Oerman) 
Account  of  t'ranco-Onmiin  War,  translated  by  Major 
Clarke  (1S72-84);  Sceley's  Life  of  Slcin  (1870) ;  Malle- 
son's  liefoundinijofthe  (Ierman  ATm/ji re  ( 1 892 ) ;  Harbutt 
Dawson's  Gtrmani/  and  the  Germans  (1894);  E.  F. 
Henderson's  Hialortj  of  Germanu  in  the  Middle  Ariet 
(1894). 

LANGfAOE  .\XD  LiTER.vTfRE.— The  nnnicrons 
dialects  spoken  by  the  tribes  of  ancient  tJermany 
were  all  derivatives  from  one  branch  of  the  .Aryan 
or  Indoticrmanic  family  of  languages  We  can 
tr.ace  the  coexistence  of  the  two  branches  of 
Teutonic  speech  known  as  Low  (ierman  and 
High  German  as  far  b.ack  as  the  7th  century, 
but  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  they  cxisleil 
a.s  common  unifmiu  languages,  from  whiih  their 
variously  nioditied  dialects  were  respectively 
derived.  According  to  Max  Miiller,  there  never 
>vas  one  common  Teutonic  language,  which 
diverged  into  two  streams ;  while  the  ntnmst 
we  can  venture  to  a.ssert  in  regard  to  the  vari(uis 
High  .and  Low  (ierman  dialects  is  that  they  resi>ec- 
tively  passed  at  ditb-rcnt  tinu-s  through  the  same 
stages  of  grammatical  development.  The  High 
German  branch — which  wa.s  spoken  in  the  dialects 
of  Swabia,  Havaria,  and  Franeonia — m.ay  be  clas.si- 
fied  under  three  jieriods— the  Old  High  tierman, 
dating  from  the  7tli  century  and  extending  to 
the  period  of  the  Crusades,  or  the  12th  century: 
the  Nlidille  High  German,  beginning  in  the  12th 
century  and  continuing  till  the  Keformation  ; 
and  the  New  High  German,  dating  from  Luther's 
time  to  otir  own  days.  This  New  High  ( ierman  iloes 
not  represent  the  victory  of  any  one  High  German 
dialect  over  the  others  :  it  is  rather  tlie  result  of 
a  compromi.se,  which  arose  in  the  public  tribunals 


of  the  empire.  Luther  found  this  comproniise- 
speecli  best  suited  to  his  purpose  in  translating 
ttie  liible,  and  his  selection  ol  it  ellectually  con- 
tirmed  it  in  its  literary  supremacy.  The  chief 
modern  High  German  dialects  are  the  Itavariau, 
spoken  with  variations  in  liavaria,  Salzburg,  Tyr(d, 
I  I'per  and  Lower  .Austria,  and  Slyria;  Swabian, 
spoken  in  Wiirtemberg  and  the  adjacent  |iarts  of 
liavaria  ;  and  the  Alemannic,  spoken  in  Alsace, 
the  south  of  liaden,  and  German  Switzerland. 
The  Saxon,  Thuringian.  Silesian,  I'ranconiau, 
and  other  High  (ierman  ilialeets  are  grouped  to- 
j;ether  as  Middle  ( ierman  dialects.  ICach  of  these 
has  a  living  literature  of  its  own.  Low  (ii'rman 
embraced  two  nuiin  blanches.  Lower  Kianeonian 
and  Old  .Saxon.  The  former,  in  which  we  have 
a  fragment  of  a  9th-ceiiliiiy  translation  of  the 
I'snilrr.  developed  a  tcdeiably  rich  literature  in 
the  l.'ith  century,  which  subse(|Uently  gave  birth 
to  the  Dutch  and  I'lcmish  tongues.  The  ohlest 
literary  monumciil  of  Old  Saxon  .also  belongs  to 
the  9th  century:  it  is  a  Christian  ejdc  known  as 
Ilcr Hrli(iti(l((\.\.) — i.e.  The  Healeror  Saviour.  Old 
Saxon  developed  into  Middle  Low  German  after  the 
l.'itli  century,  with  a  copious  enough  literature,  of 
which  Hchiil.e  \'os  (rirra  1490),  a  translation  from 
the  I'utch  branch,  is  the  iiKist  important  relic;  and 
there  are  traces  of  pojiuhir  Low  (ierman  literature 
down  to  the  17th  ceiitiiiy.  'i'lie  chief  extant 
dialects  are  the  l-'risian  (i|.v.)  and  I'lattDentscli 
(q.v.).  In  .addition  to  the  various  dialects  which 
are  commonly  included  under  the  heads  of  High 
anil  Low  tierman,  an  important  evidence  of  the 
cultivation  of  a  form  of  (ierman  dillering  e(|ually 
from  the  High  ;tii<l  Low  grou|is  has  been  ]neserved 
to  us  in  the  (iothic  translation  of  the  liible, 
which  was  niaile  in  the  4tli  century  by  liishop 
ritila.s.     See  (iiiTlls,  l'iiii,(i|.ni;v. 

The  difliision  of  Christianity  among  the  (iermanic 
tribes  li;ul  the  etl'ect  both  of  sup|iressing  the  use 
of  the  Kunic  characters  th.at  had  been  common 
to  them  and  of  changing  the  character  of  their 
literature,  for,  instead  of  the  heroic  sagas  jind 
■beast-e|)ics  '  (  Tliicr-cpus)  of  a  sjinguinary  pagiinism, 
scriptural  jiaraphrases,  legends,  and  hymns  -were 
now  selected;  while  the  ancient  system  of  allitera- 
tion by  degrees  gave  place  to  the  rhyming  arrange- 
ment of  the  Latin  versification  common  in  the 
early  periods  of  the  middle  ages.  Charlemagne 
hiiiiselt  made  a  collection  of  German  jiopiilar 
poetry  ;  and  under  his  successors  in  the  9tli  and 
10th  centuries  some  of  the  heroic  ei)ics  dating  from 
heathen  times  were  written  down  (e.g.  ilie  J/i/r/e- 
liraiK/sfictl),  while  the  matter  of  otliere  received 
a  Latin  dress  at  the  hands  of  monkish  poets. 
I'nder  the  Saxon  emperoi-s  Latin  became  the 
language  of  the  court,  the  church,  and  the  law, 
while  (ierman  was  left  entirely  to  the  iieo|de, 
down  to  the  liist  tloiirishing  ]ieriod  of  (ierman 
lioetry  under  the  emperors  of  the  Hohenstaiifen 
line.  The  Italian  wars  of  this  dyn.asly,  the  stir- 
ring events  of  the  Crusades,  and  the  inteicoiii>e 
with  the  chivalry  of  Franei!  and  Italy  kindled  a 
love  for  literature  and  romance  in  the  princes  and 
nobles  of  (iermany.  The  vernacular  dialects  were 
once  more  used  for  literary  purposes,  especially  the 
Swabian  or  coiirts|ieecli.  jiany,  both  nobles  and 
men  of  lower  degree,  belonged  to  the  order  of  the 
Minnesuugcr  (or  Singers  of  Love),  who  roamed 
from  castle  to  castle  and  from  court  to  court, 
exhausting  their  ingenuity  in  devising  new  jne- 
scntments  of  their  usual  subject,  the  romantic 
passion  of  love,  and  in  inventing  new  and  elabo- 
rate forms  of  veisilication.  The  ejiic  subjects 
chiefly  selected  during  the  13tli  and  I4tli  centuries, 
by  both  courtly  and  popular  singei-s,  were  based 
on  the  hi.stoiT  of  Troy,  the  deeds  of  Alexander  the 
Cireat,  the  legendary  lore  of  Charlemagne  and  his 


GERMANY 


187 


paladins,  and  Kinj;  Aitlinr  and  his  kniglits,  and  of 
tlic  Saii|y;rael ;  and  it  is  to  tliis  ppiiod  tliat  «e  must 
refer  the  Nihehnu/en  Lied  and  Hiidnni,  which  rank 
as  the  "reatest  treasures  of  German  national  litera- 
ture. It  was  to  these  tales  of  Parzival,  Lohengrin, 
and  the  Nibelungen  that  Richard  Wagner  turned 
in  his  efibrts  to  create  a  national  school  of  music- 
drama  in  the  19th  centuiy.  Among  the  most 
successful  romantic  and  epic  poets  and  minne- 
singers lielonging  to  the  Swaliian  period  we 
may  specially  indicate  Heinrich  von  Veldeke, 
Gottfried  of  Strashurg,  Ulrich  von  Lichtenstein, 
Hartmann  von  der  Aue,  Neidhart  of  Bavaria, 
Wolfram  von  Esehenliach,  Walther  von  der  Vogel- 
weide,  and  Heinrich  von  (Jfterdingen.  The 
Kririj  nil/  der  Wnrthnrr/,  which  has  lieen  classed 
among  tiie  didactic  poems  of  this  age,  relates  a 
mythical  contest  of  poetic  skill  between  the  three 
last  named.  The  taste  for  the  Thier-cjios  received 
a  new  impetus  among  the  people  in  the  middle 
of  the  12th  century  by  the  re-translation,  from  the 
French  into  German,  of  the  ancient  poem  of 
licinluird  Fid'hs,  which,  according  to  the  distin- 
gnished  philologist  Jakob  (irimm,  originated  with 
the  Frankish  tribes.  mIio  carried  it  with  them  when 
thev  crossed  the  Rhine  and  founded  an  empire 
in  Gaul,  and  from  whom  it  was  ditlused  among 
the  neighbouring  tribes  of  northern  France  and 
Flanders.  German  now  began  to  be  used  for 
public  proclamations  and  in  collections  of  laws, 
of  which  the  Siichscnsjiierjcl  (12.'50)  and  the 
Si'lDrahi'impieficl  (1270)  are  the  most  noteworthy. 

The  jieriod  which  .succeedeil  the  <l»'cline  of 
chivalry  was  marked  by  a  thorougli  neglect, 
among  tlie  higlier  cla,sses,  of  national  literature, 
which  thus  fell  into  tlie  hands  of  the  people. 
Yet  some  few  chronicles,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  those  of  Limburg,  Alsace,  and 
Thuringia.  were  composed  in  the  century  from  1330 
to  1430.  This  was  the  age  of  the  3Ieistersfi»r/ri;  or 
artisan-poets,  who  formed  themselves  into  guilds 
like  their  trade  guilds,  and  composed  their  verses 
in  conformity  with  the  strict  guild  rules.  '  Meister- 
gesang '  was  at  its  zenith  at  the  era  of  the 
Reformation  ;  its  most  famous  represent.ative  was 
Hans  Sachs,  the  shoemaker  of  Xuremberg,  who 
also  wrote  epics,  fables,  and  dialogue-jneces.  The 
most  honcmrable  place  among  the  i)ioneer  cultiva- 
tors of  (Jerman  prose-writing  belongs  to  Meister 
Eckhart,  Tauler,  Suso,  and  their  followers,  the 
mystics.  To  this  age  belongs  also  a  great  mass 
of  the  Volhslicdcr,  or  national  ballads,  in  which 
(Jermany  is  specially  rich  :  the  fables  and  satires  of 
Brandt  (  Xarrcnschiff,  or  Ship  nf  Fools)  and  Miirner, 
and  the  romances  of  the  satinst  Johann  Fischart. 
Most  of  the  Volkshiir)ifr  too,  such  as  Die  Meiiixiiie, 
Die  II((i/noiis/:i/ider,  Kniser  (trt'tritt/iits,  Wifjalois^ 
Tijll  Eidenxjiierjel,  Dr  FfiKxt,  and  iJie.  Sc/ii/dhiir(fer, 
were  written  in  the  1.5th  and  16th  centuries  to  meet 
the  demand  of  the  people  for  imaginative  literature. 
The  mysteries  and  passioii-i>lays,  which  were  at 
their  height  in  the  l.itli  century,  and  still  linger  at 
Oberammergau,  in  Ijiper  Bavaria,  ami  one  or  two 
other  places,  may  be  said  to  have  given  origin  to 
the  German  drama,  which  numbered  among  its 
earliest  cultivatms  Sachs,  Rebhuhn.  and  Ayrer. 
The  close  of  the  loth  century  jiroduced  several 
satires  on  the  clergy  and  numerous  theological 
writings  for  and  against  the  tottering  power  of  the 
Romish  ("liurch. 

The  writings  of  Luther,  particularly  liis  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible,  which  lixed  a  literary  language 
for  the  (ierm.ans,  and  the  works  of  I'lrich  von 
Huttcn,  Zwingli,  and  of  many  of  the  other  reformei's, 
were,  however,  the  most  impcutant  events  in  the 
history  of  German  literature  fioni  the  close  of  the 
loth  to  the  middleof  the  lUlh  centuiy.  l!ut  Luther 
addressed  himself  to  tlic  minds  of  his  counlrvmen 


not  merely  through  his  polemical  writings,  but  also 
by  those  noble  hymns  which,  since  his  day,  have 
constituted  one  of  the  greatest  literary  treasures 
of  the  kind.  Many  beautiful  Kirclten-licder,  or 
church  songs,  were  composed  during  the  next 
centuries  ;  to  the  17th  belong  those  of  Gerhardt, 
Franck,  and  Schefflei',  who  may  be  counted  among 
the  best  hymn-writers  of  Germany.  Nor  should 
the  Roman  Catholic  hymns  of  Angelus  Sile.sius  be 
passed  over.  The  example  of  Luther  as  a  writer  of 
prose  German  was  laudably  followed  bv  Sebastian 
Franck  in  his  historical  books,  by  the  mystic 
Jacob  Biihme,  and  Arndt,  the  most  widely  read 
religious  writer  of  the  IStli  centuiy. 

The  fervent  etlusions  of  the  devout  and  elo- 
quent reformers  were  followed  by  a  jierioil  of 
literary  degeneration  and  stagnation,  wliich  is  in 
a  great  mea.sure  to  be  a-scribed  to  the  demoralising 
ettects  of  the  Thirty  Years'  \\:\\\  when  Germany 
was  a  prey  to  all  tlie  evils  inseparable  from  civil 
strife,  fostered  by  foreign  interference.  The  indirect 
result  of  this  period  of  anarcliv  was  to  quench  the 
national  spirit  and  vitiate  the  popular  taste ;  for, 
while  the  pett.v  courts  aped  the  habits,  language, 
and  literature  of  Versailles,  the  lower  orders  forgot 
their  own  literature,  with  its  rich  treasures  of 
legends,  tales,  and  ballads,  and  acquired  a  taste  for 
the  coai-se  camp-songs  imported  by  foreign  mercen- 
aries, and  the  immoral  romances  borrowed  from 
impure  French  and  Italian  sources.  Almost  the 
only  names  that  break  this  barren  wilderness  are 
Moscherosch,  a  satirist  ;  (irimmelshausen,  who  has 
left  vigorous  pictures  of  the  Thirty  ^'cars'  \V.ar; 
and  Abraham  a  Santa  Clara,  a  satirical  preacher, 
possessed  of  both  wit  and  humour. 

What  is  known  as  the  first  Silesian  school  of 
German  poetry  was  formed  under  the  iiitluence  of 
the  correct  but  cold  Opitz  ( 1.597-1G39)  :  and  he  was 
staunchly  supported  by  the  lyric  poet  Fleming  and 
the  epigiaminatist  Logan.  The  succeeding  secomi 
Silesian  school,  headed  by  Holt'man  von  Hollnians- 
waldau,  sought  inspiration  in  the  inferior  Italian 
poets,  and  produced  atlected  and  extravagant 
pastorals.  But,  on  the  whole,  the  study  of  the 
national  literature  was  neglected,  and,  although 
a  host  of  learned  societies  were  formed  whose 
professed  object  was  to  purify  and  elevate  the 
public  taste,  the  results  were  lamentably  unsalis- 
factoiy.  The  poems  of  Hagedoin  (1708-54)  and 
Haller  (1708-77)  stmck  a  tnier  and  niore  natural 
note.  But  it  was  not  till  Gottsched  (1705-tjti) 
succeeded,  in  liis  Critictd  Art  of  J'oelr;/,  in  draw- 
ing attention  to  the  turgid  pedantry  and  artilicial 
stiti'ness  of  the  classicist  school  that  a  better  Lvte 
was  awakened.  In  opposition  to  the  Leipzig  school, 
of  which  Gottsched  was  the  centre,  there  arose  the 
Swiss  or  Zurich  school,  in  which  Bodnier  ami  Breit- 
inger  were  the  leaders.  An  adverse  criticism  l>y 
Gottsched  of  Bodmers  translation  of  Piirtidi.ie  Lost 
])recipitated  a  contro\ersy,  known  as  the  Bodmer 
Streit.  The  Lei)>zig  school  attached  all  importance 
to  the  purely  intellectual  and  mechanical  correct- 
ness of  poetry  :  while  Bodmer  and  his  disciples 
considered  rather  the  iniagiii.ative  and  emotional 
elements.  As  more  or  less  the  outcome  of  this  con- 
test arose  the  Saxon  school,  tlie  leading  member  of 
which  was  the  hymn-writer  and  fabulist  (iellert, 
who  for  some  years  posed  as  the  literary  dictator  of 
Germany  :  the  Halle  school  with  (Ileim  at  its  head  ; 
and  the  tierman  lesthetic  school,  under  the  guidance 
of  A.  Baumgarten. 

In  the  end  of  the  17tli  century  German  jdiilo- 
sojihy  fii-st  lifted  tip  its  head  in  the  writings 
of  Leibnitz,  C.  Wolf,  and  Thomasiu.s.  Rabener 
and  other  contributoi-s  to  the  lircmer  Bcitrurje, 
a  gioup  of  lyric  and  dramatic  writei's  \\hn 
nourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century, 
were     perhaps     the     lirst     to      bring     literature 


188 


GERMANY 


ajrnin  into  iiiinie<liate  tonoli  with  popular  life. 
Hilt  it  is  with  the  iiiiiiios  of  Klopstock,  Lessiii;;, 
Wiel.iiul,  Hiiil  lleiiler  that  the  hiilliiiiit  epiicli  of 
iiioileni  (leiTiiiin  literature  hc^jiiis.  Their  iiilluenre 
was  aliUe  ;;ioat  and  varieil  ;  for,  while  Kliipstoi-U's 
poem  of  the  Mt:sxiit/i,  ami  his  (h/cr:,  in  whicli  he  hail 
taken  Milton  as  his  nioilol,  reechoeii  the  teiuler 
piety  of  the  oM  reformers,  and  were  so  thoiou^dily 
(ierman  in  their  spirit  that  lliev  at  onee  met 
with  an  enthnsiastie  response  in  the  hearts  of  the 
people,  l,es>^inj^'s  comedy  of  Minim  t'oii  littni/tr/ni 
aiiil  his  drama  of  Xnf/nin  i/ir  llV/.sr  may  he  said  to 
h.ive  ereated  anew  the  dramatie  art  in  (ierniany. 
Wielanil,  on  the  other  hand,  was  the  complete 
antithesis  of  Klopstock,  althouj;h.  like  Klopstock 
and  I.essinj;,  he  w<as  the  founder  of  a  new  style. 
He  j;ave  a  fjiaceful  llexiliility  to  tierni.an  diction 
which  it  li.ail  never  hefon^  hcen  made  to  assume, 
imparled  to  his  numerous  talcs  and  romances 
an  uiiilis;;uised  sensuous  m.atcrialism,  which,  like 
his  style,  had  hcen  horrowcd  from  the  French  philo- 
sophers of  his  ilay,  and  thus  introduced  into  the 
laiif;ua;;e  ami  literature  of  (ierniany  the  ;;eriiis  of 
many  ilefects,  ,as  well  as  <;l•.^ces,  to  whicli  they  li.ad 
hitherto  remained  stran-^ers.  Ilcnler  is  the  typical 
representative  of  those  who  resorted  for  their  in- 
spiration to  the  simplii'ity  of  the  I'nlkslicilfr  nwl 
the  poetry  of  iiaturi!  and  of  the  ( Irient.  His  jne- 
domiiiant  tendencies  are  indicated  in  his  favourite 
motto,  '  Lijjlit,  love,  life.'  \\v\  he  also  did  adiiiir- 
ahle  work  .as  a  iihilosopher  and  critic.  In  fact,  his 
iiliilosophical  critiques  of  foreign  and  (ierinan 
literature  coiitrihuted  materially  to  the  comjilete 
literary  revolulion  wliicli  ushered  in  the  modern 
period  of  (IiMiuan  poetry.  The  intluence  exerted 
on  (oMiiian  literature  hy  these  writers,  who  iiiav 
he  re;,'arded  as  its  re^'enerators,  wii.s  soon  appreei- 
ahle  in  every  hranch  of  knowleil^e.  The  Swiss 
Salomon  Gessiier  shows  .some  literary  kinship 
with  Klopstock  in  his  sweetly  sentimental  idylls, 
r.liiiiiauer  and  Kortum.  seeking;  to  perpetuate  the 
irony  of  Wiclaiid,  made  travi'sly  of  more  serious 
elliisions.  .\iid  it  was  in  the  same  vein,  hut  sea- 
soned with  stroii;;er  satire,  that  Lichtenheif;  wrote. 
From  the  impulse  communicated  hy  I.essiiif;  came 
the  critical  a-sthetic  writin^rs  of  Winckelmanii,  and 
the  hooks  of  men  like  Zimmi'rmann  (author  of 
On  Siililiiilr)  and  Moses  Mendelssohn.  The  aims 
which  Herder  li.ad  set  hefore  him  were  adojitcd  hy 
a  hand  of  writers  whose  chief  eliar.acteristics  con- 
ferred upon  the  age  tlwy  lived  in  the  name  of  the 
Stiiriiiiiii(II>iiiiiij  period.  Hut  the  poetic  spirit 
raged  in  them  too  violently  and  refused  to  he  snh- 
jected  to  the  laws  and  restraints  of  artistic  pro- 
duction. Klinger,  one  of  whose  dr.amas  gave 
title  to  the  school,  and  '.Maler'  Miiller  were  the 
chamiiions  of  the  movcinent.  Hamann,  in  spite 
of  his  oracular  and  enigmatical  utli-rances,  had 
much  in  comnion  with  this  school,  though  he  ilid 
not  helong  to  it. 

Among  the  g.alaxy  of  great  names  which  have 
imparted  renown  to  the  literary  and  scientilic  annals 
of  (Ierniany  during  the  last  hundred  years  we  can 
only  instance  a  few  of  the  i>rincipal  writers  who 
have  more  especially  enriched  the  several  dcpart- 
nieulsof  learning  with  which  they  have  hcen  associ- 
ated. I'hilosopliy,  which  originated,  .as  stateil,  with 
Leihiiitz  ( l(;i()-1716),  who,  however,  wrote  in  L.atin 
and  French,  .o-ssiimed  a  degree  of  indiviiluality  ami 
completeness  through  the  intellectual  acumen  ami  \ 
suhtle  analysis  of  KanI,  Fichte.  Schclling.  .and 
Hegel  which  have  no  parallel  in  any  other  country. 
Other  names  worthy  of  mention  in  this  ilepailment 
are  Fries,  .I.acohi,  Herhart,  Schopenh.auer,  Zeller, 
Fenerh.acli,  15a.ader,  I'd.  von  Hartmann,  I.otze, 
Hiieckel,  Fechner,  Wiindt,  and  I'lleiderer.  In  theo- 
logy Iteinh.ard.  I'aulus,  Schleiermaclier,  De  Wette, 
Marheineke,  Xeander,  Julius  Miiller,  Liicke,  B.aur, 


Strauss,  Miihler,  Dollinger,  Ewald,  Hase,  Lipsius, 
Doriier,  Kitschl,  Wellhausen,  Holt/manii,  and  a 
host  of  othei>  have  infuseil  new  life  into  hlhlical 
iin|iiiiy.  Iiivalu.ahle  results  have  hcen  allaineil 
hy  the  philological  .and  crilii'al  researches  of  !•',  .\. 
Widf,  lii'rmann,  .Miiller,  ■).  and  W.  (iiimm,  i!opp, 
La.sseii,  tiesenins,  Schlegel,  \V.  Humholdl.  I.cpsins, 
liun.sen.  Von  der  Hagen,  I.achm.aiin,  Simrock, 
Morit/.  Haiipt,  Henfey,  I'olt,  Schleicher,  Stciiilhal, 
Diez,  \c.  In  archaology,  history,  and  jniispni- 
deiice  all  nations  owe  a  dcht  of  gnititndc  to 
Willi  kelm.anii,  Ilecieii,  I.olieck,  \'on  U.iumer, 
Sehlosscr,  \'on  Haiumer,  tlervinns,  llahliiiann, 
Waitz,  Uauke,  Bluntschli,  Niehuhr,  .Mommsen, 
and  Duncker. 

In  poetry  ami  lielleslettres  the  name  of  (!oelhe 
is  a  host  in  itself.  In  his  Leiden  tlen  .Innijrn 
Wcitliir  ('The  Sorrows  of  Voiiiig  Werllier') 
he  carried  the  sentimental  tendencies  of  the 
Sliiiniiniillhtniii  school  to  their  culminatiiig 
point ;  hut  his  own  Later  and  very  numerous  works 
iiecame  in  time  more  anil  more  free  from  its 
hlemishcs,  and  rose  to  an  almost  Olympic  calm, 
a  Hellenic  strength,  and  grace,  .and  proportion. 
In  (hielhe's  middle  period  li('  was  iiitimatcdy 
associated  with  Schiller  (17.")!)  IHdo),  whose  early 
works,  I'lie  Jlulilnrs.  fiisrti.  and  J></n  Ciii/iix,  threw 
the  whole  (Jcrnian  people  into  .a  frenzy  of  excite- 
ment. Schiller's  later  dramatic  works,  if  less 
exciting  than  these,  gave  evidence  of  more  matured 
ta.ste,  while  some  of  his  hallads  and  lyrics  iii.ay  he 
said  to  stand  unrivalled.  The  tendency  of  I  he 
(iernian  poets  for  drawing  together  into  schools 
was  again  cxeniplilicd  in  the  case  of  the  (!iillini/er 
Dirliti  rhiiiiil,  formed  at  (Jottiiigeii  .alioiit  1770.  Its 
leading  spirit  was  Voss,  hettcr  known  for  his 
translation  of  the  Homeric  poems  than  for  his 
idyllic  I.uise.  With  him  were  a.ssociated  more  or 
less  closely  IJiirger  (author  of  Lcnnrc),  Hiilty,  the 
two  Counts  Stolherg,  and  Claudius.  They  took 
Klojistock  for  their  hij;h- priest,  and  sang  of  frieiid- 
shiji,  lovi'  of  country,  and  all  high  and  iiohle  ideals. 
Among  the  works  of  prose  liction  which  appeared 
soon  .alter  this  ]ierioil  are  the  novelettes  of  Zschokke, 
the  romantic  tales  of  Vulpius.  the  artistic  romances 
of  Heiiise,  .and  the  humorous  idin.ances  of  llipjul 
and  J.  (I.  .Miiller.  Ittl.and  attained  great  rejiiilalion 
as  .a  writer  of  .sensatiiuial  dramas,  and  Kotzehne 
as  an  inexhaustihle  composer  of  light  ell'ective 
comedies. 

'I'he  IJomantic  school,  which  succeeded  the  Sliirni- 
vnil-hiiinij  ]ieriod,  found  for  a  while  its  inspiration 
in  the  mediev.al  romances  and  in  Shakespeare, 
ailmiiahly  translated  hy  Schlegel  and  Ticck.  Its 
chief  representatives  and  defenders  were  .\.  W. 
Schlegel,  Friedrich  von  llardcnherg,  helter  lioown 
.as  Novalis  ( 177'2  1801  ),  Tieek,  Fr.  Schlegel.  Schcll- 
ing, and  \\  ilheliii  von  llumholdt.  Kleist  is  the 
chief  drani.atist  of  the  school.  Among  the  writei-s 
who  were  smitten  with  the  .same  tendencies  are  the 
poet  Ilolderlin.  and  I»e  la  .Motte  F<m(|ne,  K.  T.  W. 
Hofl'niann,  and  Chamisso,  who  loved  to  dwell  on 
the  mysterious  agencies  of  nature,  which  they 
attempted  to  individualise  and  hring  into  as.so- 
ciatioii  with  m.ateiial  forms,  .a.s  in  the  Vmliiir  of 
the  liist,  the  fantastic  tales  of  the  .second,  and  the 
Peter  Srhlcmihl  of  the  third,  .lean  Paul  Kichter, 
the  satinst  .and  humorist,  thmigli  souietiuies  iii- 
cluded  in  the  liomantic  school,  in  reality  occupies 
a  |iosition  .ajiart  from  .and  far  ahove  his  compi-ers  ; 
and  few  novelists  ever  exerted  so  l.a.stiiig  an  inllu- 
ence  on  the  literature  and  mode  of  feeling  of  their 
com])atriots  as  that  which  Hichter  exercised  over 
the  minds  of  the  middle  classes  of  Germany  during 
the  close  of  the  last  and  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century.  Poetry  li.a.s  also  found  nohle 
representatives  in  the  so-called  Vatcrldntlsflirlitrr 
( Poets  of  the  Fatherland ),  among  whom  we  may 


GERMANY 


189 


instance  Theoclor  Kiirner  and  Ai-ndt,  whose  spirited 
patriotic  songs  are  intimately  associated  with  the 
war  of  18i;i  against  Najioleon,  in  which  tlie  fornier 
fell  fighting  glorionsly.  Uuckert  and  Ihland 
helong  to  the  same  school  ;  hut  the  former  is  more 
especially  known  for  his  admirable  adaptations  and 
translations  from  oriental  languages,  and  the  latter 
for  his  exquisite  romances  and  ballads. 

The  public  taste  in  fiction  still  encouraged  the 
production  of  sentimental  tales,  in  a  sickly  style,  of 
which  Clauren  may  he  mentioned  as  an  example, 
chiefly  on  account  of  the  ridicule  directed  against 
him  by  the  novelist  Hauti,  the  cliam]iion  of  a 
healthier  taste.  Spindler,  Wilihald  Alexis  (W. 
Hiiring),  whose  Walldilnior  and  other  Ijooks  are 
imitations  of  Walter  Scott,  and  Caroline  I'ichler 
also  belonged  to  a  sounder  and  more  artistic 
school.  Kaui)ach  o<:cupied  the  stage  with  his 
historical  tragedies  ami  his  comedies,  rivalled  in 
south  Germany  by  Baron  von  Autf'enberg,  and  on 
the  Rhine  by  Inimermann,  known  also  as  the  author 
of  the  romance  Miiui-hliauscn.  Adolf  Milliner  and 
Grillparzer  are  also  important  names  in  the  later 
history  of  the  German  drama. 

The  decaile  IS.'SO  to  1841)  is  usually  spoken  of  in 
German  literary  histories  as  the  period  of  '  Young 
Germany,'  a  period  of  gifted  but  somewhat  imma- 
ture striving  for  inderiendence  and  free  self-de- 
velopment. Count  Platen  in  his  odes,  sonnets, 
comedies,  &c.  represents  the  transition  to  this  era, 
of  which  Karl  Gutzkow,  Borne,  and  LauVie  may  lie 
taken  as  characteristic  rejiresentatives.  But  the 
greatest  name  of  this  time  is  that  of  Heinrich  Heine, 
who  ranks  with  tioethe  and  Schiller  for  lyrical 
power,  and  at  the  same  time  is  master  of  an  almost 
matchless  prose  style.  Menzel  signalised  himself 
by  his  attacks  upon  Goethe,  Heine,  and  Gutzkow. 
Auerbach  may  be  regarded  as  the  creator  of  the 
Dorfgcsrhiclde  or  village  story,  in  which  he  has 
been  followed  by  Maximilian  Schmidt  and  Anzen- 
gruber.  The  sombre  and  sentimental  Ijcnau 
(NiemUsch  von  Strehlenau )  is  perhaps  the  chief 
name  of  the  later  Austrian  school,  which  includes 
Count  Auersperg  (.-Vnastasius  Griin),  Karl  Beck, 
Moritz  Hartmann  of  Bohemia,  and  A.  Meissner. 
Emanuel  Geibel,  even  yet  one  of  the  most  po]iu- 
lar  lyric  poets  in  Germany,  was  the  heail  of  the 
band  of  poets  who  assemlded  round  King  Maxi- 
milian of  Bavaria,  among  whom  also  were  Dingel- 
stedt,  Bodenstedt  (who.se  exquisite  poems  in  the 
oriental  style  were  jmljlished  under  the  nom  de 
guerre  of  Mirza  SchaH'y),  and  Paul  Heyse.  Gott- 
schall  wrote  epic  poems  as  well  as  dramas.  Helibel 
and  Grabbe  were  both  dramatists  of  vigorous  but 
ill-discii)lined  power.  Prutz,  Hortiiiann  von  Fal- 
lersleben,  Schulze,  Herwegb,  Hebel,  Freiligrath, 
(peculiarly  skilful  as  a  translator  of  English, 
Scottish,  and  French  poetry),  Schefer,  Scliack, 
Hamerling,  and  Leander  (Volkmann)  may  also 
be  mentioned  among  recent  >\riters ;  Freili- 
grath and  Hamerling  have  done  better  than  average 
work  as  poets.  Among  modern  epic  poets  arc 
Jordan  (Die  Nibeluiujeii),  Ivinkel,  Red witz  (-■!;«(((•• 
aiith).  Otto  Koquette  (  Waldmcister's  Braid fiihrt). 
Scherenberg,  Bijttger,  and  Victor  von  Schett'el 
(  Troinpctcr  ron  SdkJciiiijcn ).  Many  of  these  are 
also  ilramatists  ;  others  are  Halm  (Baron  Munch- 
Bellinghansen),  Moser  (a  'second  Kotzebue'), 
Freytag,  Ernst  von  Wildenbruch,  Fitger,  and 
Anzengruber.  Paul  Lindau  has  made  a  success 
iis  a  writer  of  neat  comedies  ;  and  in  even  slighter 
work  Ijenedix,  Tiiptler,  liluni,  Ac.  are  well-known 
names.  Fiction  in  Germany,  as  with  ourselves, 
has  been  developed  to  an  enormous  extent  in  the 
present  century,  and  no  more  than  a  few  of  the 
most  jiromincnt  names  can  be  here  mentioned.  Ida 
von  liahn-llahn,  Fanny  Lewald,  Johanna  Schopen- 
hauer,   Von    Hillern,    and   E.   Marlitt  are  among 


the  best  known  of  the  lady-novelists,  who  have 
recently  been  joined  by  '  Ossip  Schubin '  ( A. 
Kirschner).  Gustav  Freytag,  one  of  the  oldest,  is 
still  the  most  eminent  of  recent  novelists.  Spiel- 
hagen,  Hackliinder,  Gottschall,  Gerstiicker,  Paul 
Heyse,  Charles  Sealsheld,  Ebei's,  Dahn,  ScheH'el, 
Lindau,  (iottfried  Keller  (a  Swiss),  Oskar  Meding 
( Samarow ),  Franzos,  and  George  Tavlor  (  Hausrath ) 
liave  all  in  turn  enjoyed  «ide  popularity,  to  which 
some  of  them  are  still  adding.  Low  German  has 
been  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  literary  tongue  by 
Fritz  Renter,  one  of  the  greatest,  if  not  the  greatest, 
of  German  humorists,  and  by  Klaus  (hoth. 

But  numerous  as  have  been  writers  of  poetic 
and  dramatic  literature  during^  the  present  century 
in  Germany,  the  tendency  of  the  German  mind 
has  of  late  years  been  rather  to  science  than 
hction.  The  immense  impetus  given  lo  the  taste 
for  scientific  inquiry  by  A.  v.  Humboldt's 
Travels,  and  by  his  Cosmos  and  ]'ieics  of 
Nature,  has  been  followed  by  the  appearance  of 
a  multitude  of  records  of  travel,  among  the  more 
important  of  which  we  can  only  instance  those  of 
Martins  in  Brazil,  Ptippig  in  South  America, 
T.-ichudi  in  Peru,  Lejisius  and  15rugsch  in  Egypt, 
Schomburgk  in  ijritish  Guiana,  tUitzlatV  in  China, 
Siebold  in  Jajian,  the  brothers  Sehlagintweit  in  the 
Alps  and  in  central  Asia,  Barth,  \'ogel,  Rohlfs, 
and  Scliweinfnrth  in  Africa,  and  Leichhardt  in 
Australia. 

In  conclusion  we  can  only  group  together  the 
names  of  a  few  of  the  many  eminent  Germans 
who  by  their  labours  and  researches  in  physical 
and  natural  science  have  at  once  enriched  the 
knowledge  of  the  worM  and  enhanced  the  literary 
and  scientific  glory  of  their  own  country.  With- 
out again  referring  to  writers  who  have  been 
already  mentioned,  we  may  specially  instance,  in 
astronomy  and  mathematics,  Bessel,  Encke,  Struve, 
Gauss,  and  JNIiidler  ;  in  the  natural  sciences  and 
in  medicine,  Johannes  Miiller,  Ehrenberg,  Cams, 
okcn,  Schleiden,  Von  Buch,  Liebig,  Kop|i,  Sinum, 
Dove,  Virchow,  Moleschott,  Bischoll',  Rose,  Vogt, 
Werner,  Poggendorf,  Erdmann,  tJmelin,  (!nife, 
Vogel,  Rokitansky,  Wagner,  Schiinbein,  Helm- 
holtz,  Haeckel,  Mitscherlich,  W.  Weber,  Kirchhoff, 
Neumann,  Du  Bois  Reymond,  Hahnemann,  Hufe- 
lanil.  Von  Baer,  ami  Dieflenbach  ;  in  history, 
archa'ology,  and  biography,  Leo,  Duncker,  Curtius, 
t;iesehreclit,  Sybel,  Treitschke,  Becker,  Boeckh, 
Preller,  Creuzer,  Jacobs,  Wachler,  Kuno  Fischer, 
Preuss,  Biittiger,  Varnhagen  v.  Ense.  Pertz, 
Lappenberg,  Pauli,  &c.  ;  in  geography,  ethnology, 
statistics,  p<ditics,  ^c,  Berghaus,  Ritter,  Peter- 
mann.  Stein,  Hiibner,  Kliiden,  Kohl,  Bunsen, 
Bastian,  Ideler,  Zachariii,  (ieiitz,  Gneist,  Ruge, 
Ro.scher,  SchatHe,  Riehl,  Lassen,  Unger,  Zinnuer- 
mann,  and  Otto  Peschel  :  in  law  and  jurispru- 
dence, Savigny,  Thibant,  Eichhorn,  Piitter,  Waitz, 
Feuerbach,  CJrolmann,  and  Mittermaier;  in  the 
history  of  aesthetics  and  the  line  arts,  Fr.  Vischer, 
Carriere,  R.  Zimmermann,  Wcisse.  Scluo.'^sler,  Ed. 
Miiller,  Waagen,  Kirchmann,  and  Liibke. 

The  genius  of  her  musicians  has  placed  Germany 
at  the  head  of  the  musical  world.  Such  names  as 
Sell.  Bach,  Handel,  (Jhuk,  Mozart,  Haydn,  Beet- 
hoven, and  P.  E.  Bach  in  the  ISth  century,  and 
Schuljert,  Spohr,  Welier,  Mendelssohn,  Schumann, 
Brahms,  Liszt  (though  a  Hungarian  by  birth),  and 
Wagner  in  the  I'Jth,  are  known  to  all  who  take 
an  interest  in  the  art  of  sweet  sounds.  In  con- 
nection with  this  subject  the  writings  of  Ilelm- 
holtz,  Kostlin,  Ehrlich,  Schumann,  Wagner,  and 
Liszt  should  be  noticed. 

Detailed  accounts  of  the  lives  and  literary  careers 
of  the  princijial  writei-s,  such  as  Goethe.  Heine, 
Herder,  Itenter.  Richtcr,  Schiller,  &c.,  will  be  found 
under  their  several  names.    See  also  such  articles  as 


190 


GEUMEN 


GERSAU 


yESTIlETICS,  UlOORAI'llY,  DKAMA,  MLSIC,  I'HILO- 
SOI'IIV,  1'LATTI>KI  TSCII,  Ko.MANTICISM  ;  aiid  for 
tlie  Hciiimii  priiiteil  i-liaiiicter,  BLACK  LETTER. 

Latii/itdiie. — Tlic  stamlanl  aiitliority  on  (ieriiian  Ijoxico- 
grapliy  is  tlie  great  UtiilmlitK  WbiUibueh,  bei;uii  in  IfSrrJ 
by  tliu  ImithiTs  Ciriinin,  and  still  in  proj^reiM,  under  tlic 
care  uf  iMoriz  lleyne,  Kudulf  Hildebrand,  Mattiiia;}  l^exer, 
Karl  Wei^and,  and  1*1  Wiilekur.  Admirable  books  are 
the  Dictionaries  by  D.  ."Sanders  (18tiU-G5)  and  Kluge 
(1»<82),  and  tlie  smaller  books  by  .'Sanders  (3d  ed.  l.-W^I 
and  Weigand  (4tli  ed.  ItNSU),  tlie  latter  the  best  of  all 
the  smaller  dictionaries.  Other  successors  of  the  Orimni.s 
were  Ilotrmann  von  Kallerslebcn,  Uhland.Schmeller. Graft", 
Massnjunn,  W.  Wackernagel,  If.  Haupt,  K.  v.  Kuunier, 
¥v.  I'feirtVT,  Holtzmaini,  Aliillenbort',  Zarncke.  IJartscli, 
Wcrnholil.  Paul,  and  Sievers  ;  an  well  a-s,  in  the  wider 
sense,  Bopp  and  .Schleicher.  A  few  special  books  that 
may  merely  be  named  are  Lexer's  MitteUtwhtitiiLfches 
HandiviirUfbiicU  (18b'J-78);  Diertenbach  and  Wiilcker's 
Hvcli-  Hiid  yiolir-lMnUichrtt  H'ortirbiti'h  dtr  MUlftrtn 
uitd  Niutfdi  Ztit  (1874-H."n;  O.  ^-chade's  Altdfut.iclieg 
Wiirlcrljui-li  (2d  ed.  Halle,  1873-Sl ) ;  Urimm's  Deutsche 
GntmimiM;  edited  by  \V.  Scherer  (lierlin,  1809-78);  H. 
Riickt-Tt's  fteachirfite  dcr  NcnhvdidtiUnchen  Srhri/tsprarhe 
(187.'>l;  K  V.  Kaunier,  fiesrhichtc  der  ftennaitUr/tfn 
/*/(  rVo/o;/»>  ( 1S7()  i ;  Tromel, />/<?  Litteratur  dcr  Jieittschcn 
Alumturtea  (bibliographical,  Halle,  1884);  and  tjtrong 
and  Meyer's  Historii  f>i  the  German  Lanijumjc  (1880). 

Liierutan. — .See  \V.  Scherer's  Geschichle  dcr  JJeiUschcn 
Litttratur  ( lierlin,  188;i ),  of  which  tlie  Clarendon  Press  at 
Oxford  has  published  a  translation  (2  vtds.  1880);  Kober- 
stein's  tirundrtM  der  Oes,  der  Dcut.  Ntitioiuiltitlerulur 
(0th  ed.  5  vols.  I^eip.  1872-74);  Vilmar's  iicHch.  dcr  Iteut. 
Nationallitttriitur  (22d  ed.  2  vols.  1885);  Stern's  Lexi- 
con der  Vetiturfien  Litteratur  (1882);  and  works  by 
Wackernagel,  Kurz,  Gervinus  (German  poetry),  Goedeke 
( poetry  (,  Koipiftte,  K«ienig  ( illustrated ),  and  Gottschall ; 
for  literature  of  18th  century,  ilettner,  Hillebrand,  and 
Biederniann ;  for  literature  of  I'Jtli  century,  Julian 
Schmidt.  Taylor  of  Norwich,  Coleridge,  De  t^uincey, 
Carlyle,  and  Lewes  did  much  to  spread  the  taste  for 
German  literature  in  Knghind.  See  also  Metcalfe's 
JJist.  of  (ler.  /,(<.(  18."j8,  based  on  Vilmar):  W.  Jlenzul's 
Historii  of  Citnnan  Literature  ( trans.  4  vols.  1840 ) ;  IJayard 
Taylor's  .Studies  in  O'er.  Lit.  (187'J) ;  and  Hallam's  Lit. 
Hist,  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Afjcs.  Among  more 
recent  books  are  Gostwick  and  Harrison's  OutfiiitK  of 
German  Literature  C-'d  ed.  Lond.  1883);  A.  .\I.  .Selss's 
Critical  Outline  nf  Lit.  of  German!/  (trans.  Lond.  18<>4); 
and  W.  if.  MacCallum's  Studies  in  High  German  and 
Low  German  Literature  (1889). 

(■orilU'll,  a  (lisiiNcd  botanical  e^ynonym  for 
Ovarv  (i|.v.). 

CiCrillcr.slloilll,  a  town  of  tlie  Bavarian  I'alat- 
inato,  iic'i'n|ii('s  a  niarsliy  >il<;  on  tlio  Ifft  liaiik  of 
tlio  IJIiine.  8  mill's  SS\V.  of  Spires.  l''oiiiiileil  in 
1'276,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Freneli  in  1044, 
1674,  and  1GS8;  and  in  ITlt.'J  the  Austrians  here 
defeated  the  I'reiicli.     Pop.  G132. 

Gerillillill.  the  'Imddinj,''  month  (March-April) 
in  the  I'ri'inli  revolutionary  Calendar  (q.v.). 

Gcrilliliatioil  (Lat.  f/cnninatio,  'sprouting'), 
tlie  he;;iniiiiig  of  growth  in  a  seed,  or  of  the  devel- 
opmental pioec-is  liv  which  it  is  converted  into  a 
new  ]>lant.  See  Seku;  also,  for  cry  ptogaiiiic 
plants,  1''ekxs,  Fungi,  &c. 

(lierin  Theory.    See  (!ehm. 

Ci«''r6llH',  Lko.n.  Kieiich  historical  genre-painter, 
was  lioiii  at  \esonl,  lllli  .May  18'24,  and  in  1841 
entered  the  studio  of  Paul  Delaroclie  at  I'aris.  at 
the  same  time  atteinling  the  School  of  the  Pine 
Arts.  He  began  to  exhibit  in  1847  ;  in  ISoo,  18.')7, 
and  18(>4  he  travelled  in  the  Fast :  and  in  18C.'{  lie 
was  aiipoinled  luofessorof  Painting  in  the  Sclio<il  of 
the  Fine  .Vrts.  His  lirst  great  picture,  'The  Age 
of  Augustus  ,inil  the  Birth  of  Christ,'  was  exiiiliited 
in  1855  ;  and  four  years  later  his  '  Homan  Gladiators 
in  the  Aiiiphitheatre  '  raised  to  the  highest  pitch 
his  reputation  ,i.s  a  colourist  and  painter  or  the 
human  liguie,  a  reputation  which  wa.s  still  further 
enhanced  by  '  Phiyne  before  her  Judges'  (1801). 


In  the  .same  year  lie  exhibited,  among  other  pic- 
tures, 'Socrates  searching  for  Alcibiades  at  the 
House  of  As|«usia,'  '  The  Two  .\iiguis,'  and  a  iior- 
t rait  of  Uaclicl.  'Louis  .\IV.  and  Molicie,'  '  The 
I'li.sorier,'  '  Cleoiiatia  and  Casar,'  'The  l)i'ath  of 
Ca'sar,'  'The  Plague  at  Mai'seilles.'  'Death  of  St 
.Jerome,'  '  Lioness  meeting  a  Jaguar,'  '  Bex  'i'ihicen  ' 
(1874  1,  anil  '  1/Eiiiiiience  Urise  '  ( 1874)  arc  among 
the  best  known  of  his  suli.seouenl  works.  .See  -Mrs 
(.'.  H.  Slianahan,  HiMuri/  of  Frernh  J'aiiilinrj  ( 1889). 

Cioruiia  (anc.  Gcrunda),  capital  of  the  Spanish 
proviiii  r  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  G.")  miles  by 
rail  NK.  of  Baiceloiia.  It  contains  a  beautiful 
(iotliic  cathedral  of  the  14lli  and  l.')lh  ceiitiilie.s. 
The  inhabitants  carry  on  the  manufacture  of 
paper,  cork-cutting,  spinning,  and  weaving.  The 
fortiliciitions  are  now  of  little  value.  Pop.  15,01.'). 
The  town  wits  formerly  a  place  of  great  strength, 
and  luLs  undergone  several  notable  sieges,  particii. 
larly  in  1G.">;{,  1084,  lli!»4,  170G,  and  1800,  on  each 
occa.sion  by  the  French. — The  jiroriure  of  ( Verona 
measures 'J'271  sij.  m.  in  extent,  and  had  iu  188.')  a 
poj).  of  .•«il,.->.'{G. 

tiOrry.  Fi.iihi1)(;e,  American  statesman,  was 
born  in  .Marlilehead,  Ma.ssachiisetts,  17lli  July 
1744,  graduated  at  Harvanl  in  1765,  and  was 
elected  to  the  Ma.ssacliu.setts  Assembly  in  1773. 
He  was  a  inemlier  of  the  t'ontinental  Congress  of 
1776,  ami  served  on  several  important  commiltees ; 
and  in  178!t  the  Bepiiblican  party  elected  him  to 
the  liist  National  Congress,  lie  Wius  one  of  the 
envoys  sent  in  1797  to  establish  diplomatic  rehitions 
with  France.  His  colleagues,  Mai^hall  and  I'iiick- 
ney,  being  Federalists,  were  onleied  toijiiit  Fiance, 
but  (ierry  was  ]>ermitted  to  remain  ;  and  he  did 
remain,  to  the  indignation  of  .'Vmericans,  until  his 
recall  was  onlered.  Electeil  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  1810.  (ierry,  who  was  a  keen  iiartis.in, 
removed  the  hohleis  of  civil  ollices  and  replaced 
them  with  Bcpulilicans;  and  he  unfairly  rcariaiiged 
the  districts  of  the  state  so  as  to  .secure  the  ailvan- 
tage  to  his  own  party — a  mano'uvre  for  which  hi.s 
opponents  coined  the  wonl  t/rrri/maiu/cr.  He  was 
defeated  in  1812,  but  his  party  rewarded  his  zeal 
by  electing  hiiii  to  the  viee-presiilency  of  the  I'nitcd 
States,  in  whidi  oflice  he  died,  '23d  NovemlM'r 
1814,  at  Wiishiiigton.  There  is  :•,  Life  by  James  T. 
Austin  (2  vols.  Boston,  18'28-'29). 

(■ers,  a  department  in  the  south-west  of  France, 
separated  by  Landes  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  with 
an  area  of  '2415  stj.  m.,  a  climate  licalthy  and  teni- 
]ierate,  a  soil  only  nioder.-ilely  productive,  no  mineral 
riches,  scarcely  any  trade,  and  an  agricultural  pojiu- 
lation,  among  whom  education  lias  not  liseii  .ibove 
a  very  low  level.  In  ISOl  there  were  •298,9.'il  iiili.il)il- 
ants,  but  the  number  hits  since  steadily  decreased  ; 
in  1881  it  had  fallen  to  281.532  ;  in  1891  to  '201,084. 
There  are  jiaiallel  lines  of  hills  in  the  south,  separ- 
ated by  fan-shaped  valleys  which  exoaiid  its  they 
extend  towards  the  plains  in  the  nortli.  The  (lers 
and  other  |ii'iiK'i|>al  rivers  are  tributaries  of  the 
(_!aroiine  and  .Adour.  Une-half  of  the  surface  is 
devoted  to  agriculture,  and  nearly  a  sixth  to  vine- 
yards. ^^'ine  of  very  moderate  quality  is  produced 
in  considerable  quantity  ;  great  part  of  it  is  con- 
verted into  Armagiiac  biainly,  w  hich,  after  Cognac, 
is  esteemed  the  best.  The  de]iartmeiit  has  five 
arrondis.sements,  those  of  Audi,  (londom,  Lcctoure, 
Lombez,  and  ^lirande  ;  the  capital  is  Audi. 

fiCI'sail.  a  village  in  the  Swiss  canton  of 
.Scliwvz.  cm  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  and  near  the  foot 
of  the  Kigi.  Population.  1S50.  From  1390  till  it 
w;i.s  absorbeil  by  the  Frencli  iu  the  Helvetian 
Kepublic  ( 1798)  tlie  village  and  its  territory,  5  miles 
square,  was  an  independent  republic.  In  1S17  it 
became  part  of  Scliwyz.  See  C'oolidge  in  the  J^ni/l. 
Uislur.  Jiecicic,  July  1888. 


GERSON 


GERVINUS 


191 


Gcrsoil,  John,  one  of  tlie  most  eniinent  scliolais 
and  ilivines  of  his  time,  was  boni  at  the  villay;e  of 
Gei'son,  in  tlie  diocese  of  Itheinis,  December  14, 
1363,  liis  proper  name  bein^  Jean  C'harlier.  He  was 
echicated  in  Paris,  at  the  College  of  Navarre,  under 
the  celebrated  Peter  d'Ailly.  Here  he  rose  to  the 
highest  honours  of  the  university,  and  ultimately  to 
its  chancellorship,  liaving  accpiired  by  his  extra- 
ordiiuiry  learning  the  title  of  Doctor  ChristianLssi- 
nms.  He  was  a  clear  an<l  rational  theologian,  an 
enemy  to  scholastic  subtleties,  while  hLs  reason 
found  rest  from  all  its  dilliculties  in  a  devout 
Christian  mysticism.  During  the  unhappy  contests 
which  arose  out  of  the  rival  claims  of  the  two  lines 
of  pontili's  in  the  time  of  the  Western  Schism,  the 
university  of  Paris  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
negotiations  for  union  ;  and  Gerson  was  one  of  the 
most  active  supporters  of  the  proposal  of  that 
university  for  putting  an  end  to  the  schism  by  the 
resignation  of  both  the  contending  parties.  With 
this  view  he  \'isited  the  other  universities,  in  order 
to  obtain  tlieir  assent  to  the  plan  proposed  by  that 
of  Paris.  But,  although  lie  had  the  satisfaction  of 
.seeing  this  plan  carried  out  in  the  Council  of  Pisa,  it 
failed,  as  is  well  known,  to  secure  the  desired  union. 
In  a  treatise  inscribed  to  his  friend  D'Ailly  he 
renewed  the  proposal  that  the  rival  pontifl's  (now 
uot  two,  but  three  since  the  election  of  John  XXIII. 
at  Pisa)  should  be  required  to  resign;  and  in  the 
new  council  held  at  Constance  in  1-114  he  was 
again  the  most  zealous  advocate  of  the  same  ex- 
pedient of  resignation.  But  his  own  fortunes  were 
marred  by  the  animosity  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy 
and  his  adherents,  to  whom  Gerson  had  become 
obnoxious,  and  from  whom  be  bad  already  suttered 
much  persecution,  on  account  of  the  boldness  with 
which  be  had  denounced  the  murder  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans.  To  escape  their  vengeance  he  was  forced 
to  remain  in  e.xile  ;  and  he  retired  from  Constance, 
in  the  disguise  of  a  [lilgrim,  to  Kattenberg  in  the 
Tyrol,  where  he  composed  his  celelirated  work,  Dc 
Cunaoliitione  ThcoloijuK,  in  imitation  of  tliat  of 
Boethius,  Dc  Consutatiuiie  Pliilosophin:.  It  was 
only  after  the  lapse  of  several  years  that  he  was 
enabled  to  return  to  France,  and  take  up  his  resi- 
dence in  a  monastery  at  Lyons,  of  which  his  brother 
was  the  suiierior.  He  devoted  himself  in  this  retire- 
ment to  works  of  piety,  to  study,  and  to  the  educa- 
tion of  youth.  The  only  fee  he  took  from  his 
pupils  was  a  promise  to  rei)eat  the  prayer,  '  Lord, 
have  mercy  on  thy  poor  .servant  Gerson.'  He  died 
12th  July  I429,  in  his  sixty-sixth  year.  His  works 
lill  live  vcdnmes  in  folio  (Antwerp,  1706).  The 
famous  treatise  ou  the  Iiiiitaliun  uf  Clirist  (q.v. ) 
has  been  ascribed  to  him  by  some  writers,  but  it 
is  now  hardly  doubtful  that  tlie  true  author  was 
Thomas  ii  Kempis.  The  authority  of  Ger.son  Ls 
much  relied  on  by  the  advocates  of  Gallicau  prin- 
ciples :  but  the  LTItrainontanes  allege  that  the  prin- 
ciples laid  down  by  him  as  to  the  authority  of  the 
pope  are  only  apjilicable  to  the  exceptional  case  in 
wliich  he  wrote.  See  German  studies  bv  Schmidt 
( 1  H3'.t  I  and  Scliwali  ( 1S5S ). 

Gorsopita  Falls,  on  the  Sharawali  river  in 
the  west  of  India,  .SO  miles  SE.  of  Honawar,  are 
960  feet  high,  one  sheer  leap  being  890  feet. 

Ucrstiicker,  Friedi!I(ii,  a  German  novelist 
and  writer  of  travels,  was  born  at  Hamburg,  lOtli 
May  1S16.  AniiiL-Ued  with  an  irieprcssilile  impulse 
for  travel,  he  in  IS.iT  went  to  New  York,  and  began 
a  six  years'  tramp  through  the  United  States,  part 
of  the  time  working  at  \arious  trades,  part  of  the 
time  leading  an  adventurous  life  as  a  hunter  in  the 
forests.  In  1843  he  returned  to  Germany,  and 
published  Utrcif-  niid  Jagdziiqc  duich  die  Vercinig- 
ten  Slaitteii  (1844),  Die  Rrrjulatoren  in  Arhunms 
( 184.")),  Die  Flussspii-itlcii  des  Misaisxi/ipi  ( 1848),  \-c. 
r  „,...:...  ij^jiij^,  j^g.^jji  jij  ,j^^,,^  j^^  travelled  round  the 


Licavi 


world  by  way  of  America,  Polynesia,  and  Australia, 
reaching  Germany  in  18o2.  Most  of  the  years  1S60- 
61  were  spent  in  South  America ;  in  1S6"2  he 
accompanied  Duke  Ernest  of  Gotha  to  Egypt  and 
Abyssinia  ;  and  in  1867-68  he  undertook  another 
long  jmirney,  visiting  North  America,  Mexico, 
Ecuador,  Venezuela,  and  the  West  Indies.  Of  tlib 
last  he  gave  a  description  in  Neue  lieiseii  (1868). 
His  best  books  include  Taliiti,  Die  Ikidcii  Utrrijliiige, 
Unter  dciii  yEquattii\  Guld,  Insclwelt,  and  Um  die 
Welt  ( 1847-48).  His  Gesdinmelte  Sc/iri/len  appeared 
in  44  vols,  in  1872-79.  Gei-stacker  died  at  IJruns- 
wick,  3Ist  May  1872.  His  works,  of  which  several 
have  been  translated  into  Englisli  since  1847,  owe 
their  popularity  to  their  simple,  homely  style,  and 
to  the  vigour  and  truth  of  the  descriptions  and 
characters. 

tJervaS  {Stac/ii/tar/ikefa  Jamaieensis),  a  small 
verbenaceous  shrub  of  the  West  Indies  and  tro|iical 
America.  It  is  regarded  as  of  high  medicinal  value, 
and  was  used  liy  the  Indian  sorcerers  as  its  ally  the 
vervain  was  in  Eurojie.  It  has  also  been  introduced 
into  Europe  as  Brazilian  tea,  and  also  frequently 
employed  as  an  adulterant  of  tea  [uoper. 

Oorvase  of  Cvnterbiry,  a  monk  who  wrote 
a  painstaking  antl  fairly  trustworthy  chronicle  of 
the  reigns  of  Stephen,  Henry  II.,  and  Uicb.ird  I., 
and  also  a  history  of  the  ar<'libi:,hops  of  Canterbury 
down  to  Hubert  Waller.  These  works  are  valuable 
especially  as  elucidating  the  contemporary  relations 
between  church  and  state,  though  Gerv;ise  seems 
to  b,a\e  been  animated  throughout  by  a  jiersistent 
dislike  to  the  House  of  Anjou.  The  former  was 
edited  bv  Bishop  Stubbs  for  the  Kolls  series  (2 
vols.  1879-80). 

Gervase  of  Tilkikv,  a  historical  writer,  born 
probably  at  Tilbury  in  Es.-ex  about  the  middle  of  the 
12th  century,  and  often  saiil,  without  any  fimnda- 
tion,  to  have  been  a  nejdiew  of  King  Henry  II.  of 
England.  He  lectured  on  canon  law  at  Bologna, 
and  was,  uniler  the  Emperor  Utlio  IV.,  marshal  of 
the  kingdom  of  Aries,  and  lastly  provost  of  the 
nunnery  at  Ebsdorf.  He  died  about  12.35.  His 
chief  work  is  his  Otia  linperialia,  composed  about 
1212  for  the  entertainment  of  his  imperial  patron; 
the  liist  two  books  consisting  of  an  abstract  of 
geography  and  history,  the  third  containing  a 
collection  of  curious  beliefs  about  the  'Veronica,' 
British  sirens,  the  in.agnet,  and  tlie  like.  The  non- 
historical  jiortions  of  the  work  were  edited  by  Felix 
Liebrecht  (  Hanover,  18.56).  The  whole  was  printed 
admirably  by  Leibnitz  in  \-ol.  i.  of  Serijiiarea  lieriim 
Briiiisrieeiisiiiiti.  Many  other  works  have  been 
attributed  erroneously  to  tJervase  of  Tilbury.  A 
Liber  Facetiitnon,  or  book  of  anecdotes,  he  tells  us 
he  prepared  for  Henry  II.  of  England. 

Gervilllis,  Georg  GorrFUiiii),  tierman  hi.s- 
toriaii,  was  born  at  Darmstadt,  iOlli  May  1805. 
Though  at  lir-st  engaged  in  commerce,  he  contrived 
to  pui-sue  his  studies  privately,  then  at  the  univer- 
sities of  tiiessen  and  Heidelberg.  In  1836  he 
was  appointeil  |)rofe.ssor  of  History  at  Gottingen. 
Already  he  had  begun  to  luiblish  his  Geseliiehte 
der  jjoetise/icit  Xatiumdlitcnitiir  der  Dciitsclien  (5 
vols.  Lei]).  18.35-42),  which,  under  the  new  title  of 
OcsrJiielttc  der  Deutschen  Dic/itiiiiy,  reached  a  liftli 
edition  uuder  the  care  of  K.  Barlsch,  1871-74.  In 
1837  he  was  one  of  the  seven  Gottingen  luofcssors 
who  signed  the  famous  protest  against  the  abolition 
of  the  Hanoverian  ^^'oiistitution,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  lost  his  chair,  and  was  ordered  to  leave 
the  country  within  three  days.  He  went  tii-st  to 
Darmstadt,  then  to  Heidelberg,  thence  to  Rome, 
and  was  in  1844  appointed  honorary  professor  in 
Heidelberg.  From  this  ]ieriod  his  career  was  that 
of  an  active  jiolitical  writer  in  behalf  of  constitu- 
tional liberty.     In  July  1847  he  helped  to  establish 


19i 


GERYON 


GESSNER 


tlie  Deutsche  Zeitiing  in  Heiilclber;;,  and  next  year 
was  elccti'il  n  inciiilier  iif  lln"  National  Assenilily  liy 
a  ili.^tiict  of  Tnissian  Saxony.  After  the  failnii'  of 
the  national  (li'nioiratif  jiarty  in  (u'lniany,  (ot- 
vinus  loliiiiiicl  ili>lii'iiit<'Mril  to  his  literaiy  |iiiisiiils. 
one  of  the  fruit>  of  whii-h  was  his  ;,'reat  work  on 
Shakespeare  (4  vols.  1S4!I  ">2:4lli  ed.  KS72 :  Kn-;. 
trans,  new  ed.  187.")),  whirli  may  he  re^'anleil  a.s  on 
the  whole  the  most  im^iortant  (lennan  eontrihution 
to  Shaki'spearian  rriticism.  'I'he  analyses  of  the 
eharai-lcrs  show  insijjjit,  learninj:.  tmil  iiun-h  in- 
tieMuity  ;  Imt  the  critie  strains  the  intrriprelation 
in  onlcr  to  hrin;,'  Shakespeare  into  harmony  with 
his  theory  of  him  as  the  ahsohite  ami  jierlect 
dramatist.  The  hook  liiis  been  ealled  in  (lermanv 
the  'hiiKvark  of  Shakespearoniania.'  A  later  work 
was  the  (it'.vcA/cA/c  ihs  I'.Hen  ,fii/ii/tii)i</eitii  [H  vols. 
18.'>G-t)(j).  (iervinns  died  at  Heidelherfj,  18th  Mareh 
1871.  See  Urir/irir/iscl  ziri.sr/ini  ./.  iiiii/  H'.  (hinim, 
Jj(i/i/iii(iiui,  iiikI  (h'rn'iiiis  (ei\.  liy  Ippel,  l(S8o). 

tat'r.VOII.  a  fahuloMs  three-headed  lieiii;;,  ]io.sses.s- 
ill';  herds  of  splendid  o,\en,  .•iiid  said  to  he  the  son 
of  a  kin-j  of  Hesperia.  He  lijjures  in  the  story 
of  Ilereiiles. 

<i4'Sillli;lMlcll.     See  II YM\ol,()(iV. 

<»<'S4>llillS.  l'l;lKI)l!I(||  IIkINHICII  AViI.llKI.M, 
one  of  the  greatest  of  l!crnian  orientalists  and 
hihlical  scholars,  was  horn  at  Xordhaiisen,  .Sd 
Fehrnary  178(1,  studied  at  llelmslcill  and  ( ;dttinj.'eii, 

and  at  Halle  in  ISlo  1 ame  extraordinary,  in  ISII 

ordinary,  professor  of  Theology.  Here  he  lectnred 
for  more  thiin  thirty  years,  hroken  only  hy  the 
closing  of  the  university  ilnring  the  war  of  lihera- 
tion  (181,'i-14),  and  hy  lengthened  visits  to  France 
and  Kngland  in  1820,  to  Kngland  and  Hollaml  in 
18:?,").  .\mong  his  ]in]iils  were  Von  Hohlen,  Moll- 
mann,  Hn)ifeld,  lidiligcr,  Tncli,  N'atke,  ami  I'.enfev. 
He  died  ( tetoher  23,  1842.  His  lirst  great  work  wiis 
his  Ilihriii.ichcs  ii.  Cliitltldi.srlir.i  lliitnliriiiiurhiifli 
(1810-12;  loth  ed.  revised  hy  .Mllhlau  and  Voiek, 
188ti;  Kng.  trans,  hy  Tregelles",  l,S4(i-.52).  His  Ilchi: 
E/nni'iitiirhiic/t,  consisting  of  the  lUhrilnrhe  Grtini- 
7H «//■/.•  (1813:  24th  ed.  hv  Kautzsch,  188."))  ami  tiie 
llchriiisrht.t  I.esihiirh  ( 1814  :  1 1th  ed.  hy  Heiligstedt, 
187.S),  h.as  contrihuted  enormously  to  the  know- 
ledge of  the  Hehrew  language,  not  only  in  (lerm.'iny, 
hut  through  translations  also  in  England  and 
America.  Later  works  are  his  Kritisc/ic  (j'l-i-c/i. 
d.  Ilihr.  Sprachc  it.  Sc/iri/t  {\H\r>),  De  J't/ilaliiir/ii 
SiiiiKin'triiii  On't/iiic,  hidu/e,  ct  Aui-tvritatc  (181.5), 
Giammatisrh  ■ /.ritisf/ics  Lehiijihttiide  d.  Hchr. 
,S/inir/i('  ( 1817),  and  a  new  translation  of  and  com- 
mentary on  Isaiah  (1 820 -21 ).  II  is  greatest  work  is  the 
inominiental  'I'lu'stnirns  /t/tifo/o(fjro-f'rifirtis  L/m/iKi- 
Jlchiaiitc  ct  C'liiildtiicw  Vetcris  J'c.itnmciiti,  of  wliich 
the  lirst  part  wa.s  published  in  1829,  hut  which  wa.s 
completed  only  tn  18,58  hy  l'rofes.s(>r  Kddiger. 
Many  of  the  results  of  the  rationalising  method  of 
interiireting  the  (tid  Testament,  which  cliar.acterises 
all  the  works  of  (Jesenius,  have  Ikcu  unable  to 
stand  the  test  of  progre.s.sive  moilcrn  biblical  science. 
He  ha.s  certainly  been  surp.i-ssed  by  Ewald  in  in 
sight  into  the  genius  of  the  Hebrew  language,  and 
its  be.-uing  on  the  interpretation  of  Hebrew  life  ami 
thought,  as  well  as  in  all  that  qualilies  the  critic 
for  a  true  historical,  a'stlietical,  and  religious  ajijire- 
eialion  of  the  literature  ])reserved  tons  in  the  Olil 
Testament.  Vet  his  intense  devotion  to  his  favourite 
studies,  and  the  advance  which  he  made  beyond  all 
his  luedeces.sors  in  the  establishment  of  more  certain 
nrineiples  of  Hebrew  philology,  nndoubteilly  entitle 
Iiim  to  be  regardeil  as  having  constituted  a  new 
epoch  in  the  scientific  study  of  the  Old  Testament. 
A  line  sketch  of  his  life  was  published  at  lierlin  in 
184,3. 

CIcsiier,  KrtXR.vi)  von,  a  Swiss  naturalist,  some- 
times called  the  German  Plitiy,  was  born  at  Zurich, 


26tli  March  1516.  All  lii.s  life  long  he  wa.s  |>asHion- 
alcly  devoted  to  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  especi- 
ally knowledge  of  the  mitural  sciences.  His  early 
slmlii's,  in  medicine,  natural  history,  and  Creek 
and  l.atin  literature,  were  jirosccutcd  at  /nrich, 
Strasburg,  liourges,  and  I'aris.  lieturnlng  home 
in  l.").'i."i,  he  earned  his  living  hy  teaching,  until 
in  1,5.37  he  was  ajipointed  profes.sor  of  (Ireek  at 
Lausanne.  This  chair,  however,  he  exchanged 
fo\ir  years  later  for  that  of  Physics  and  Natural 
History  at  Zurich,  where  he  l.iught  and  |iraclised 
as  a  physician  until  his  ilealh.  on  i;ilh  l>cce]ul)er 
l.")(i.5.  He  w,i.s  also  an  indifatigablc  writer  of 
books,  ami  in  the  course  of  his  lite  ]iublished  no 
less  than  seventy-two  w;orks,  besides  leaving  al  his 
death  eighteen  others  in  (irogrcss.  His  liililidflnca 
lbiirer.iiilis  (1,545)  contained  the  titles  of  all  the 
hooks  then  known  in  Hebrew,  toeek,  and  l.atin, 
unpublished  as  well  ;is  |inhlished,  with  criticisms 
and  sunnnaries  of  each  ;  its  second  p,irt,  I'mi- 
dcrtitniiii  sire  I'arlitiittiiim  Unh'crsulhiin  I.ibri 
XXL,  came  out  in  1,548-49.  His  next  under- 
taking, by  far  the  greatest  of  his  literary  works, 
w.as  the  Histiirid  Aiiimaliinii  ( li")51-.58).  'I'lie  lii-st 
book  tieats  of  viviparous  (|uadrnpeds,  the  second 
of  oviparous  animals  (toitoises,  li/anls,  i.*i:c.),  the 
third  of  birds,  and  tiie  fourth  of  lishes  and  a>{milie 
aninuils.  Two  other  books,  m'\er  com]>let('d,  were 
to  have  contained  the  history  of  seipents  and 
insects.  In  this  work,  which  will  ever  reniain  a 
monument  of  his  untiring  industry,  he  aimed  at 
bringing  together  all  that  was  known  in  his  time 
concerning  every  animal.  I!ut  botany  was  prob- 
ably the  section  of  natural  history  with  wliich  he 
hail  the  greatest  praclicul  .'iciiuainlaiice.  He  had 
collected  more  than  live  hundri'il  ]dants  unde- 
seribcil  by  the  ancients,  and  was  arranging  the 
results  of  his  labours  in  this  de]iartinent  for  a  third 
iiKiijiiiiiii  iijiiis  at  the  time  of  his  death.  He 
appears  to  have  been  the  lirst  who  maile  the  great 
step  towards  a  scientilic  classilication  of  dis- 
tinguishing "enera  by  the  frnctilicfUion.  He  also 
wrote  on  other  branches  of  sciencr',  as  medicine, 
mineralogy,  .and  philology.  See  Hanhart's  Grsiicr 
( 1824). — I'oii.vxx  M.viTlil.vs  (!l-:sNiiR  ( 1091-1701 ), 
a  ilistingnished  cla.ssical  schol.ar,  editor,  and  educa- 
tionist, pulilished  texts  of  (^uinlilian,  I'liny,  the 
Scrijiti/ir.i  llii  Jiiisticic,  and  several  chrestomathie.s. 

<«t'SIU'l"H'OSI',  a  sub-order  of  Serophulariaceie, 
including  about  7<K)  s]iecies,  mostly  herbs,  chielly 
of  tropicjil  America,  'i'hcy  .are  fier|uently  noted 
for  the  beauty  of  their  llowers,  notably  Gloxinia, 
.\cliimenes,  and  other  common  inmates  of  our 
greenhouses.  Fieldia  a/iicaiKi,  however,  yields 
the  .so-called  African  Teak.  Of  the  closely  allied 
( 're.scentiace.a-,  the  Calabash  Tree  (<i.v. )  is  of  most 
importance. 

<»('ssh'r,  the  name  given  to  the  tyrannical 
governor  in  the  story  of  William  Tell  (q.v.). 

<»<'SSIIOI'.  S.M.d.MON,  a  German  pastoral  poet, 
who  also  painteil  and  engraveil  laml.scapes,  w;u( 
born  at  Zurich,  1st  .Vjiiil  17.30.  His  life  w;is  siient 
as  a  bookseller  in  his  native  town,  where  ho  died, 
2d  March  1788.  In  1754  he  jiublislied  Dnji/mis,  a 
conventional  bucolic,  sentimental,  sweetly  insipid, 
lifeless,  and  unreal.  This  was  followed  two  years 
later  by  a  volume  of  Jili/ls  ami  by  Iiil.cl  mid  Yariho. 
His  Tiid  Abels  (the  I>eath  of  ".\bel  ),  a  si.ecies  of 
idyllic  heroic  pro.se  poem,  which  w.is  |iublisheil  in 
1758,  although  the  feeblest  of  his  works,  hail  the 
greatest  success,  and  heljied  to  make  its  author's 
name  known  throughout  Europe.  Gessnei's  land- 
scaj)e-i)aintings  are  all  in  the  conventional  chussic 
style.  I'ut  his  engravings  are  of  real  merit  ;  some 
of  them  are  said  to  he  worthy  of  the  lirst  masters. 
In  1772  he  ]iul)lished  a  second  volume  of  Idyls,  and 
a  series  of  lettere  on  Iandscai)e-paiiitiug. 


GESTA    ROMANORUM 


GETiE 


193 


Oesta  Roinnuoriiin  ('the  deeds  of  the 
Romans'),  the  title  of  a  collection  of  short  stones 
and  legends,  in  the  Latin  tongue,  widely  spread 
dnring  the  middle  ages,  but  of  the  authorshii)  of 
which  little  is  known  save  that  it  took  its  present 
form  most  likely  in  England  ahout  the  end  of  the 
13th  or  tlio  beginning  of  the  14th  century.  The 
stories  are  invarialdy  moralised,  and  indeed  the 
e<liiyiiig  purpose  throughout  is  the  sole  unifying 
element  of  the  collection.  The  title  i.s  only  so  far 
descriptive  as  the  nucleus  of  the  collection  consists 
of  st<iries  from  Roman  history,  or  rather  pieces  from 
Roman  writers,  not  necessarily  of  any  greater  his- 
torical value  tlian  tliat  of  Androcles  and  the  lion 
from  Aulus  tJellius.  Moralised  mystical  and  re- 
ligious tales,  as  well  as  other  pieces,  many  of  ulti- 
nuito  oriental  origin,  were  afterwanls  added,  and 
uiion  them  edifying  conclusions  hung  but  awk- 
wardly, bringing  the  whole  up  to  about  ISO  cliapters. 
Oestcrley  su]iposes  its  origin  to  have  been  English  : 
the  claims  to  its  authorship  of  the  Benedictine 
prior  at  Paris,  Petrus  Berchorius  (died  13G'2),  orof 
a  certain  Helinandus,  may  safely  be  set  aside.  The 
style  anil  narrative  faculty  displayed  deserve  lint 
little  commendation,  but  the  book  has  a  unique 
interest  as  at  least  the  immediate  source  of  many 
.stories  that  have  filled  a  large  place  in  literature. 
It  is  enough  to  mention  the  .stories  '  Of  Feminine 
Subtle'jy  '  (  120),  retold  in  verse  by  Hoccleve  ;  '  Of 
the  Coming  of  the  Devil,  and  of  the  Secret  Judg- 
ments of  (iod  (80),  the  story  of  Parnell's  Ilcniiil : 
'  Of  Women  who  not  only  betray  secrets,  but  lie 
fearfully  '  ( 125),  the  story  of  the  sixty  black  crows, 
the  foundation  of  Dr  Byrom's  clever  poem,  The 
Thn-i-  liltick  Cruws ;  'Of  too  much  Pride,  and  how 
the  Proud  are  frequently  compelled  to  endure  some 
notable  humiliation '  (59),  a  story  of  the  Emjieror 
Jovinian,  tliesame  as  that  of  King  Robert  of  Sicily 
as  ^•ersilicd  by  Longfellow  ;  '  Of  the  Transgressions 
and  Wounds  of  the  Soul'  (102),  the  .same  as  '  The 
Leecli  of  Folkstone  '  in  the  IiKjnkhhij  Leqcnds  ;  '  Of 
Mental  Constancy  '  (172),  a  version  of  tlie  romance 
of  (!i(it  "f  Waricic/,' ;  and  'Of  Ingratitude'  (2.)), 
and  'Of  Constancy'  (66),  together  s\ipplying  the 
groundwork  of  Ro.ssetti's  poem,  T/ic  SfnJ/' i{ii(/  Srri/). 
Here  also  may  be  found  what  are  s\ilistantially  the 
same  stories  as  Chaucer's  Man  of  Lmccs  Tide,  and 
Shakespeare's  Kiiie/  Lear  and  Merr/iaiit  of  I'etiice. 
One  tale,  'Of  the  Game  of  Schaci '  (166),  is  a 
.somewhat  ob.scure  description  of  the  game  of 
chess.  The  longest  story,  '  Of  Temiioral  Tribula- 
tion' (ITiS),  is  that  of  tlie  adventures  of  Apol- 
lonius  of  Tyre,  his  wife  and  daughter,  as  in 
(iower's  Cuiifessio  Aiiiniitis,  and  in  I'erielrs. 
(iower,  however,  took  it  from  the  I'anfltron  (end  of 
the  l.Sth  century)  of  Godfrey  of  Viterbo.  Enough 
has  been  said  to  show  that  great  part  of  the  stories 
belong  alike  in  form  and  substance  to  the  ancient 
story  stoidc  of  Eunipe,  and  hence  the  book  must  be 
stuiiied  side  liy  side  with  the  romance  of  Ikirhtain 
and  Jorsititliitt,  the  Discqilhia  L'lericnUs  of  Petrus 
Alphonsus,  the  Otia  Inipcrialia  of  Gervase  of  Til- 
bury, Voragine's  Gulden  Lee/end,  the  Speridiiin 
HistDfiale  of  Vincent  of  Beauvais,  and  the  medieval 
fables  connected  with  the  name  of  .Eso]i,  no  less 
than  with  siich  works  of  literary  elalioration  as  the 
Araliian  Niijlds,  the  Talnnid,  the  Fabliaux,  the 
Deeaineroii,  ami  the  Canterhiiri/  Tales. 

The  stories  in  the  desta  Knnianonim  are  mostly 
bald  and  inartistic,  seldom  if  ever  relieved  by  a 
touch  of  pathos  or  a  gleam  of  humour,  and  never 
by  any  chance  reaching  the  region  of  the  really 
dramatic  ;  yet  they  have  a  rare  literary  charm  of 
their  own  in  their  utter  na'ivetc  and  artlessncss,  as 
well  as  in  tlic  lieautiful  simplicity  of  their  moralis- 
ations,  based  on  a  piety  that  questions  nothing  or 
finds  relief  in  an  unfathomed  mysticism.  Some  of 
the  best  stories  are  those  that  gird  at  the  weaknes.ses 
•221 


or  faults  of  women— a  direction  in  which  monkish 
wit  was  ever  prone  to  turn. 

The  modern  form  of  the  Gesta  Romanrirum  is, 
as  has  been  said,  a  collection  of  181  stories,  first 
printed  about  1473,  but  no  MS.  corresponding 
e.xactly  to  which  now  exists.  The  first  jirinted 
edition  was  issued  at  Utrecht  in  ITjO  chapters  ;  the 
second,  forming  the  standard  text,  within  is]  chap- 
ters, at  Cologne.  Although  both  of  these  are  un- 
dated, Oesterley  proves  that  their  publication  falls 
between  1472  and  1475.  An  edition  in  English  was 
printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde  (1.310-1.')),  from  MSS. 
differing  widely  from  those  reproduced  in  the  early 
printed  Latin  versions.  Oesterley  divides  the 
numerous  MSS.  into  three  groujis  or  families:  (1) 
the  English  group,  written  in  Latin,  the  best  repie- 
sentative  of  which  has  102  chapters,  of  which  7'2 
are  found  in  the  standard  text;  (2)  the  grou]i  of 
German  and  Latin  MSS.,  represented  by  an  eilition 
printed  in  German  at  Augsburg  in  1489;  and  (3) 
a  group  of  MSS.  represented  by  the  standard  te.xt, 
intluenced  by  distinct  collections  of  stories,  as 
Robert  Holkot's  Moralisatiune.':  Pnlehrir  in  I'miin 
Pnedicatonim  and  the  like.  The  striking  <liver- 
sity  between  the  MSS.  in  England  and  the 
printed  collections  led  Douce  to  believe  that 
there  were  two  distinct  collections  of  stories,  one  of 
German,  the  other  of  English  origin.  Oesterley 's 
conclusion  is  that  this  6'c«<rj  was  originally  compiled 
in  England,  that  it  passed  quickly  to  the  ( 'ontinent, 
was  there  altered  considerably  before  being  printed, 
and  that  both  the  two  first  printed  editions  were 
compiled  from  several  MSS.  The  seeoml  (the 
standard)  form  was  the  largest,  and,  reaching  Eng- 
land before  any  of  the  native  MSS.  had  been 
printed,  became  accepted  as  the  standard  form  for 
the  printed  te.xt,  spite  of  its  many  divergence.? 
from  the  MSS.  that  still  existed. 

An  English  version  hy  the  Rev.  C.  8wan  was  printed 
in  two  voliniies  in  1824  ;  in  a  revised  form,  liy  \\'yiuiard 
Hooper,  in  Bohn's  '  Antiquarian  LilM-ary,'  in  1877.  Sir 
F.  Madden  edited  The  Earbi  Ev(iHx}(  VceAittiis  of  the  Gtsta 
liomfinorutn  for  the  Roxburghe  Club  in  1838,  Mr  Sidney  J. 
H.  Herrtage  for  the  Early  English  Text  .Society  in  1879. 
Critical  editions  of  tlie  Latin  text  Iiave  been  edited  by 
A.  Keller  (Stuttgart,  1842),  and  H.  Oesterley  ( Ik-rliii, 
1872),  the  last  with  a  masterly  introduction.  See  also  the 
Dissertation  in  AVarton's  Hi.i/nei/  nj  Enijfish  Poctn/^  and 
in  vol.  ii.  of  Donee's  IHiixtralions  of  Shaketpeurc ;  l.ut 
these  mu.^t  not  now  be  followed  implicitly. 

Gestation,  the  retention  of  the  mammalian 
embryo  in  the  uterus.  The  period  of  gestation  — 
i.e.  between  the  fertilisation  of  the  ovum  ami  the 
extrusion  of  the  fcctii-s — varies  greatly,  from  aliout 
18  days  in  the  opossum  and  30  in  the  rabliit 
to  about  280  in  num  and  600  in  the  elephant. 
Robert  Chambers  in  liis  ]'e.sti</es  <i/  (.'reidiim  cm- 
l)hasised  the  importance  of  prolonged  gestation  as 
a  factor  of  evolution,  and  it  is  certain  that  the  more 
highly  evolved  mammals  have  longer  ])eriorls  of 
pregnancy  than  the  lower.  The  si/e  of  the  animal, 
the  number  of  oft'spring  at  a  birth,  and  the  degree 
of  their  maturity  at  birth  have  also  to  be  consiilered  : 
thus,  the  gestations  of  cow  .and  sheep  last  about  280 
and  l.'iO  days  respectively,  tho.se  of  mare  and  bitcli 
about  3.50  and  60  days,  tliose  of  girart'e  and  kan- 
garoo about  420  and  40  days  respectively.  In  the 
Marsupials,  where  the  (dacental  union  between 
mother  and  offspring  is  still  undeveloped,  the  birth 
is  almost  always  very  precocious,  but  in  most  cases 
the  young  are  stowcil  away  after  birth  in  the  exter- 
nal jiouch.  The  lowest  mammals— duckmole  and 
Echidna — are  oviparous.  See  FiETl's,  M.\MM.\L.s, 
Pl.\cknt.\,  Pregn.vncy,  Repkouictiu.n. 

<iiCta',  a  people  of  Thracian  extraction,  who  are 
first  mentioned  in  history  a.s  dwelling  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube,  but  who  in  the  middle  of  the 
4th  century  is.C".  crossed  that  river  and  settlcil  in 


194 


GETHSEMANE 


GEYSER 


Tiaii^vlvdiiia  uiul  Wallaoliia.  They  were  conquered 
Ipy  l».iiins  II\>.t.i.s|H's  in  515  Ii.c,  and  tlieii  accoiii- 
iiaiii.Ml  liiiii  in  liis  i'ain|iai^'ii  a^iiinst  tlio  Srvtliians. 
Jiolli  Ali'xaiidei-  tlio  Crcat,  in  Xi').  and  Lysinmclms, 
in  ill-J,  made  attemiits  Id  sulxluf  tlioni,  Iml  neither 
was  sucTOssinl.  1  tilling'  the  lirst  halt  iif  the  1st 
century  li.f.  they  heoame  |>olitloally  uniteil  with  the 
Dacians,  a  ei)j,'nate  race  wlio  had  setth'd  in  their 
territories.  The  (ieta-,  as  distinct  I'niin  the  Hacians, 
silled  with  Octavius  against  Antony,  and  during 
tlic  greater  part  of  the  1st  century  after  Clirist  con- 
tinued to  harass  the  Itonian  U'gions.  In  KKJ  li.f. 
tiie  Dacians  and  Ceta-  were  suhilucd  l>y  Trajan, 
their  country  heing  aihled  to  the  emiure.  Subse- 
quently the  <  Ieta'  became  fused  witli  the  (Joths 
(q.v.),'who  invaded  their  lands,  and  afterwards 
carried  many  of  tlieni  with  llieni  in  their  westwarcl 
migrdtioifti. 

<;vtlUi4'ninilo  (Heb.  ffnt!,.  'a  wine-press,'  and 
s/i(iiicii,  'oil'),  the  scene  of  our  Saviour's  agony  on 
the  night  before  his  IVssion,  was  a  sm.ill  farm  or 
estate  at  thefoot  of  Mount  Olivet,  somewhere  on 
the  east  slope  of  the  Kedron  valley,  ami  rather  more 
than  half  a  mile  from  the  city  of  .Jerusalem. 
Attached  to  it  w;is  a  garden  or  orchard,  a  fav  ourite 
resort  of  Christ  and  his  disciples.  The  place  is  not 
now  exactly  known,  but  an  enclosure  w  ith  a  few  old 
olive-trees  "is  pointed  out  to  travellers  a-s  the  site  of 
the  garden. 

Gottyslmrg.  capital  of  Adams  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, Imilt  on  several  hills,  50  nule.s  by  rail 
SSW.  of  llarri>liurg.  It  eont.-iins  a  Lutheran 
college  (18:«)  and  semin.ary  (IS'-'G).  Pop.  3-2.S0. 
(lettysburg  was  the  scene  of  one  of  the  great 
battles  of  the  civil  w.ar,  on  2d  ami  .'id  ,Iuly  l.S(j.3, 
when  tieneral  Meade  gaineil  a  lianl-fonght  victory 
over  the  Confederate  tieneral  Lee.  Near  the  town 
there  are  numerous  monuments  commemorating  in- 
cidents of  the  battle:  and  in  the  nation.al  cemetery 
is  a  national  monument  of  granite,  (iO  feet  high. 

(lirillillOX,  or  CEll.lNfiX,  AliNoi.i),  a  Dutch 
philosopher,  ime  of  the  discii)les  of  Descartes  (i|.v.), 
and  a  leading  exponent  of  the  speculative  doc- 
trine known  as  Occasionalism.  Very  little  that  is 
authentic  is  known  about  his  life.  He  wius  born  at 
Antwerp  in  lli'25;  for  twelve  years,  from  1646,  he 
lecture<l  successfully  at  Louvain,  w,is  then  deposed 
for  some  reason  not  ascertaineil,  and,  after  living 
at  Leyden  in  great  distress,  w.os  in  1665  appointed 
professor  of  Philosophy  there,  but  died  four  years 
later.  His  ideas  are  expounded  in  books  entitled 
Sutiinia/iti,  I.of/ica,  Etiiica,  published  in  his  lifetitne, 
and  in  Annnlaia  /ira:ciirrc>iti(i  iid  Cdrli.ii!  Piimipia 
( 16D0)  anil  Milaji/ii/sird  I'cia  ( 16'.)1 ),  which  appeared 
alter  his  death.  The  salient  point  of  his  teaching  is 
an  enileavour  to  explain  the  relations  which  obtain 
between  soul  and  body,  the  mutual  interaction  of 
which  un<ler  stimulus  "he  iv-sciibed  to  divine  inter- 
vention and  preordained  arrangement.  See  works 
bv  (Jrimm  (Jen.a,  1875),  Plleiderer  (Tub.  1882), 
aiid  Samtleben  (Halle,  1886). 

(•t'lllll.  a  genus  of  P^osace.-e,  sub-order  Poten- 
tille:e,  distin;,'uislied  from  Potentilla  by  the  li.ard- 
ened  hookeil  styles  which  iniwii  the  carpels,  so  th.at 
the  fruit  becomes  a  bur.  Two  species  are  common 
natives  of  liritain,  (/.  iirlMiiiiim.  the  Wood  Avens 
or  Herb  liennct,  and  O.  rira/c.  Water  Avens,  the 
former  with  erect  yellow  tlowers,  ,ind  the  latter 
with  nodiling  llowersof  a  brownish  hue.  The  former 
grows  in  hedges  and  thickets,  the  latter  in  wet 
me.adows  and  woods,  and  sometimes  even  in  ven- 
alpine  situations.  The  so-called  (i.  iiiln-mrdinm  is 
usually  regariled  .as  a  mere  hybrid  of  these  two 
species.  lioth  are  aromatic,  tonic,  and  astringent, 
and  of  old  repute  among  herbalists;  the  rootstock 
of  the  former  w.i-s  formerly  gathered  in  early  spring 
to  impart  its  clove-like  ilavour  to  ale,  and  is  still 


Water  Avens  (Geum  rirale). 


use<l  in  the  preparation  of  Ii(|neur8.  G.,canadenae, 
the  Chocidate  Koot 
or  Illooil  Hoot  of 
North  America, 
ha-s  some  reputa- 
tion as  a  nuld 
tonic. 

<; «•  y s c r,    or 

GKVSllt    (Icelandic 

gei/sa,     '  to      burst 

out   violently  ' ),   is 

the    name    ap|die<l 

to    erujitive    foun- 
tains of  steam  and 

hot  water  met  with 

in  various  quarters 

of  the  globe,  espe- 

ciall.v    in    Iceland, 

North        America, 

New        Zealand, 

Tibet,      an<l       the 

Azores.    The  water 

of  these  springs  is 

often      clear      and 

limpid,  but  fre- 
quently thick,  tur- 
bid, and  heavily  eli.arged  with  mud  :  examples  of 
the  latter  have  been  iliscovered  in  Iturnia.  The 
mineral  substances  held  in  scdulion  in  gey.sers  are 
numerous  and  vaiied  in  character,  including  sodium 
chloriile,  calcium  sulphate,  sodium  sulphate,  cal- 
cium carbonate,  magnesium  carbonate,  ammonium 
carbonate,  pota.-sium  chloride,  silica,  vaiions  sili- 
cates, sulidnir,  ferric  oxiile,  aluminium  oxide,  car- 
bonic acid,  \c.  Some  of  these  subslanecs,  beconung 
separated  from  the  water  by  evaporaticm,  form 
lia-sin-sha]ied  cones  of  s(did  matter,  from  the  midst 
of  which  the  geyser  rise.s,  and  in  course  of  time 
assume  proportions  of  considerable  magnitude  ;  the 
c<mes  are  principally  of  a  calcareous  or  siliceous 
ch.araeter,  the  latter,  known  as  siliceims  sinter  or 
geyserite,  being  ai)parently  most  common.  It  is 
either  a  compact,  dull,  .sometimes,  but  less  fre- 
quently, tr.anslucent  laminated  substance,  or  shape- 
less, porous  mass,  occ.isionally  imiucgnated  with 
ferric  oxide,  which  produces  a  red  or  jiink  tinge. 

Ceysers  occur  only  in  regions  where  volcanic 
activity  has  but  lately  become  dormant,  but  is 
not  yet  altogether  extinct,  anil  the  phinomena 
connected  with  them  are  connected  witli  seisndc 
action,  liunsen  and  Dcscloizeaux  have  formulated 
a  theorv-  explaining  the  jihcnomena,  which  has  met 
with  wide  acceptance  and  is  generally  ))referred  to 
the  views  held  by  such  authorities  .as  liischof, 
Mackenzie,  Herscliel,  Von  Nidda,  and  others. 
Shortly  stated,  the  explanation  put  forward  by  the 
two  former  is  .as  follows,  founding  upon  observa- 
tions made  at  the  Great  Geyser  of  Iceland.  In  the 
tube  of  this  geyser,  and  near  the  surface,  the  water 
temperature  is  212°  F.,  increasing  downwards  until 
a,  degi-ee  of  lie.at  is  leached  very  far  above  the 
boiling-point  of  water  under  onlinarv  atmospheric 
pressure,  llnidity  being  maintained  by  the  « eight 
of  the  column  of  water  above.  'I'he  water  in  the 
tube  or  funnel  of  the  geyser  communicates  with  an 
area  directly  acted  upon  by  the  source  of  the  snl)- 
terranean  heat,  such  communication  being  attained 
liy  means  of  a  lateral  chamber  or  passage.  I'ar 
down  in  the  funnel  steam  is  generated,  which, 
rising  immediately  into  the  corder  water  above,  is 
condensed,  heating  the  upper  water  until  the 
boiling-point  is  reached,  and  relieving  the  iire.ssure 
upon  the  lower  portions  of  the  gieatly  heated 
w.ater,  which  (lashes  into  steam.  This  alteration 
passing  down  the  funnel  results  in  closely  following 
explosions  of  steam,  shooting  the  whole  contents 
high  into  the  air,  and  producing  the  well-known 
ou'tward   manifestations   associated    with    geysers. 


GEYSER 


GHARA 


195 


Tliese  manifestations  are  most  frequently  met  with 
where  large  masses  anil  thicknesses  of  rock  have 
nndergone  extensive  crushing,  fracture,  ami  com- 
pression— wliich  may  account  not  only  for  the  sub- 
terranean lieat,  hut  also  for  tlie  presence  of  the 
underground  passages  apparently  necessary  for  the 
production  of  a  geyser. 

Tlie  geysers  of  the  Yellowstone  region  are  proh- 
ahly  the  most  picturesque  ami  wonderful  in  llie 
world  :  on  the  Kirehole  Ki\er  alone,  w ithin  an  area 
of  30  sf|.  in.,  tliere  are  probably  50  geysers,  throw- 
ing columns  of  water  to  a  height  of  froni  50  to  200 
feet,  while  smaller  jets  rise  occii-sionally  to  250  feet. 
The  'Old  Kaithful'  geyser,  in  this  region,  throws 
up  a  column  of  water  fi  feet  in  diameter  to  a  height 
of  100  to  150  feet,  at  intervals  of  about  an  hour. 
Xear  the  north  entrance  to  the  National  I'ark, 
also,  are  the  hot  si>rings  of  the  Gardiner  Kiver ; 
here  the  '  White  Mountain,'  built  up  of  terraces 
of  white  calcareous  de]iosits,  rises  to  a  considerable 
height,  with  a  diameter  of  1.30  yards  at  the  top. 
The  terraces  are  of  varying  width,  measuring  from 
a  few  inches  to  many  feet,  and  are  separated  one 


from  another  by  small  clitfs  of  from  6  inches  to  10 
or  12  feet  in  height.  From  the  top  of  the  mound 
water  is  continu.ally  trickling  down  over  these 
rocks  and  terraces,  the  i)recipitate  left  behind  ever 
slowly  a<lding  to  the  bulk  of  the  cone.  As  tlie 
streams  fall  from  teriace  to  terrace  they  are  received 
into  several  natural  basins,  and,  as  the  water  gradu- 
ally cools  as  it  nears  the  bottom,  bathers  are  enabled 
to  choose  almost  any  temper.ature  of  water,  and 
these  natural  baths  are  largely  taken  .advantage  of. 
See  Yki.i.owstoxk. 

The  geysers  of  Iceland  are  situated  within  sight 
of  Mount  Hekla,  16  miles  north  of  Skalholt,  and 
are  the  hottest  springs  in  Kurope,  .as  well  as  the 
best  known  in  the  world.  N(U\vegian  writers 
of  the  12th  century  noted  their  presence,  but  it 
was  nearly  GOO  veal's  later  before  native  authors 


described  or  noticed  them  in  any  way.  The  princi- 
pal geysers  of  this  region  are  known  a.s  the  '(ireat 
(ieyser  '  or  '  Roarer,'  and  the  '  Stroker '  or  '  Churn.' 
The  former  consists  of  the  usual  mound  of  siliceous 
incrustations,  almost  circular  and  about  40  feet  in 
height,  the  top  forming  a  b.osin  measuring  '>'2  feet 
by  60  feet,  lined  with  a  pure  white  siliceous  coating 
of  considerable  hardness.  A  tube,  74  feet  in 
length,  coninmnicates  with  the  interior  of  the 
geyser,  the  upper  opening  being  in  the  centre 
of  the  basin.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
geyser  has  it.self  built  up  the  tube  and  mound — 
a  work,  according  to  careful. calculations  and  ex- 
periments umlertaken  on  the  spot  in  1859  by  Com- 
mander Forbe.s,  which  must  have  occupied  over 
eleven  centuries.  Prolpalily  the  best  account  of 
this  gey.ser  is  that  of  Henderson,  who  visited  the 
district  in  1814.  The  'Churn'  lias  an  irregular 
opening,  not  more  than  eight  feet  wide,  the  tube 
decrea-sing  in  width  as  it  de.scends,  permitting  one 
to  look  down  upon  the  lioiling  water  '20  feet  below 
without  much  danger  to  tlie  observer.  If  the 
oiilice  be  temporarily  choked  by  throwing  in  turf 
the  water  will  soon  burst  through,  rising  00 
feet  into  the  air.  carrjing  the  obstruction  along 
with  it,  and  diffusing  dense  clouds  of  steam  in 
all  directions. 

The  geysers  of  Xew  Zealand  attained  celeb- 
rity principally  on  account  of  the  beautiful 
terraces  associated  with  them,  and  have  often 
been  described  and  figured.  Unfortunately, 
volcanic  activity  manifested  itself  throiiL'hout 
the  region  in  June  1886,  resulting  in  much 
loss  of  life  and  property,  and  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  terraces.  The  basins  connected 
with  these  geysers,  catching  the  oveillow  of 
water,  are,  lilce  those  of  the  Yellowstime 
region,  largely  used  by  bathers,  and  are  much 
resorted  to  by  invalids.  Froude  and  Martin 
may  be  consulted  for  descriptions  of  typical 
New  Zealand  geysers.  See  MiXKK.M.  AV.\tkiu3. 
Gfrorer,  Arcrsx  Fkiehkioii,  a  German 
historian,  was  born  at  Calw,  in  the  lilack 
Forest,  5th  March  1803.  He  studied  theology 
at  Tubingen,  next  lived  at  Lausanne,  Ceiieva, 
and  Rome,  becoming  on  his  return  in  18'JS  a 
liepetcnt  at  Tubingen,  and  in  1830  librarian 
at  Stuttgart.  He  now  gave  himself  with  miu-h 
zeal  to  historical  studies,  of  which  the  lirst 
fruit  was  his  Philo  iind  die  Jiiiliiieh-Alcjiiiiil- 
rouarlic  Thcosophic  (1831),  followed  by  d'li.s/fiv 
-if /(/(/( 1835),  a  work  which  aimeil  at  bringing 
into  prominence  the  political  rather  than  the 
religious  role  of  the  great  Swedish  king.  His 
(jesi-hiclitedes  fccArw/fHMj^/i.vC  1838)  was  called 
forth  by  the  greater  work  of  Strauss.  In  his 
Atl/icmci)ie  Khrheugeschichte  ( 1841-46),  coming 
doAvn  to  1305,  he  fii-st  spoke  out  his  admiration 
for  the  polity  of  the  Roman  Church.  Soon 
■after  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  History  at 
Freiburg,  and  in  1848  he  was  sent  to  the 
Frankfort  parliament,  where  he  was  one  of  the 
most  decided  adherents  of  the  party  calleil  the 
Grossileutmhot,  the  fanatical  opponents  of  Prussia. 
He  formally  went  over  to  Rome  in  1853,  and 
thereafter  was  distinguished  by  his  large  sliare 
of  the  intolerance  of  the  convert,  although  all 
the  while  he  was  never  a  dogmatically  satisfactory 
Catholic.  He  died  at  Carisbacl,  July  6,  1861. 
His  most  im|iortant  other  works  were  Grsrliiclile 
tin-  Kfirolingcr  (1848)  and  Papst  Gregoriiis  ill. 
(1859-61).  .\11  his  works  are  learned,  often  per- 
versely so :  his  conclusions  are  too  often  more 
ingenious  than  sound. 

Ciilindniiios.    See  Gad.vme.?. 

Gliarn   is   the   name  sometimes  given   to   the 
united  stream  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Sutlej 


196 


GHASEL 


GHAZNI 


ami  tlie  15ea.s,  from  Emirisa  to  llie  junction  with 
till'  Clieiiali,  when  it  licconies  known  as  the  I'anjnad. 
The  ilistaiK-e  hetween  the  two  jioints  of  conlluence 
i>  al)onl  .'{(H)  miles. 

f»lias«'I.  or  tJiiAZEI.,  a  favourite  form  of  lyrical 
poetry  aiiionj;  the  Turks  and  Persians,  which  may 
l)C  either  erotic  ami  bacclianaliau,  or  allegorical  and 
mystical. 

<ilisit.s,  or  (!ll.\fT.s(in  En;;lisli,  'gates,  passes,  or 
landing' stairs'),  E.\STKl!.N  and  Wkstkun,  two  con - 
verf,'inK  ranj;es  of  mountains,  which  run  parallel 
with  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  southern  Imlia, 
and  meet  at  an  angle  near  Cape  C'omorin.  ( 1 )  The 
Eastern  Gliiits  commence  in  the  vicinity  of  IJalasor, 
a  little  north  of  the  Mahanadi,  and  run  through 
Madras,  with  an  average  height  of  l.'iOii  I'l-ct.  for  the 
nu)st  part  at  a  distance  of  from  .jO  to  !."><)  miles  from 
the  coast.  They  are  nowhere  a  watei-shed  on  any 
considerable  scale,  being  penetrated  and  crossed 
bv  nearly  all  the  drainage  of  the  interior.  (2)  The 
^Vestern  tlhats  stretidi  from  the  valley  of  the 
Tajiti,  in  about  the  same  latitude  as  lialasor,  to 
their  j\inetion  with  the  kindrecl  ridge,  and  on  to 
(.'ape  Comorin  it.self.  Tliough  they  are  generally 
far  more  continuous  and  distinct  than  the  Eastern 
(ihiits,  yet  they  are  sharply  divided  by  the  gap  of 
I'alghat — the  northern  section  measuring  8tK)  miles 
in  length,  and  the  southern  '200.  Their  general 
elevation  varies  from  abinit  .'lOtM)  feet  to  upwards 
of  7(W0 :  the  peak  of  Dodalietla,  in  the  N'ilgiri 
hills,  is  8760  feet  above  sea  level.  The  opiiosite 
faces  of  these  mountains  ilill'er  very  remarKably 
from  each  other.  Ijandwanl,  there  is  a  gradual 
slope  to  the  tableland  of  the  Deccan  ;  seaward, 
almost  perpeiulicular  i)recipices,  speaking  gener- 
ally, sink  at  once  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  .sea, 
with  only  a  com]>arativcly  narrow  strip  between 
them  and  the  shore.  This  peculiarity,  along 
with  the  heavy  rainfall  brought  liy  the  south-west 
moirsoon,  causes,  more  particularly  towards  the 
south,  that  singular  feature  of  the  countiy  which 
is  known  as  the  'backwaters'  (see  CocHlN).  The 
Western  Ghats  are  a  watcrshe<l,  fm-  not  a  single 
stream  of  any  magnitude  finds  its  way  through 
tlicni.  Their  vast  i>rimcv,al  forests  disjday  some 
of  the  most  magnilii-ent  scenery  in  India,  and 
supply  almndance  of  the  linest  timber.  In  the 
south  there  is  a  railway  from  IJeyjiur  to  Madras, 
lindiiig  a  eomiiarativcly  eiusy  access  to  the  interior 
by  the  I'alghat  valley.  In  the  north,  near  Bombay, 
two  railways  scale  the  precipitous  face  of  the 
Western  Uliats.  Of  these  the  line  up  the  tremend- 
ous ravine  of  the  lihor  Chat,  40  miles  SE.  of  Bom- 
bay, is  regardeil  as  one  of  the  greatest  engineering 
feats  ever  accomplished  in  India.  The  railway 
rises  by  a  lift  of  \'>}i  miles  to  a  height  of  1831  feet, 
twisting  round  the  mountains  on  narrow  ledges 
that  are  often  half  embankment,  or  that  rest  on 
high  vaulted  arches,  and  iiassiiig  through  tunnels 
that  aggregate  '2.J35  yanls.  Besides  8  viaducts 
tlicre  are  18  bridges  and  58  culverts,  and  the  aver- 
age gradient  is  1  in  48. 

The  name  (Jll.\T.s  is  also  ajiplied  to  the  flights 
of  steps,  whether  intended  a-s  landing-places  or  as 
bathing-stairs,  which  line  the  river-banks  in  towns 
and  places  of  pilgrimage  in  northern  and  central 
Indi.i.  Most  great  rivei-s,  and  especially  the 
Gangi^s,  possess  many  ghats  ;  but  they  are  also 
built  on  the  margins  of  lakes,  as  at  I'lishkar  and 
Sagar,  or  even  of  tanks.  The  uniformity  of  the 
long  lines  of  stei)s  is  often  broken  by  shrines  or 
temples,  built  cither  close  to  the  water's  edge  or 
at  the  top  ;  and  on  these  steps  are  concentrated 
the  piustimes  of  the  idler,  the  duties  of  the  devout, 
and  much  of  the  necessary  intercourse  of  l)usiness. 
'riie  ghats  of  Benares  (i|.  v.).  Ilardwar,  Panharimr, 
and  of  Maheswar,  on  the  Nerbudda,  are  noteworthy 


either  for  their  number  or  beauty;  while  C'awnpore, 
Sodullapur,  the  mined  city  of  Gaur,  and  other 
places  possess  noted  'burning  ghats'  for  jmrposes 
of  cremation.  See  al.so  Eergusson's  lUiiidlnjiil;  of 
Air/iittrliin . 

Cilia/.illi.  -\li<'  Miiii.vMMKl)  .M,-.  known  ill  the 
West  as  Al.C.vZEL,  a  Moslem  theologian  who,  in 
the  lull  century,  struck  a  serious  blow  at  the 
scholastic  philosophy  of  the  Arabians.  Born  at 
Tus  in  Kliora.saii  in  10,">S,  he  studied  in  his 
naUil  city  and  at  Nishajiur,  being  especially  nur- 
tured on  the  principles  of  Sulism  ((j.v.).  When 
thirty-three  years  old  he  was  apiiointed  by  the 
grand-vizier  of  Bagdad  to  a  chair  of  philosophy 
in  the  university  of  that  city.  But  four  years  later 
he  set  olVfor  .Mecca  ;  then  s|ient  ten  years  lecturing 
at  Damascus;  and  linallv  went  on  to  .lernsali'iii 
and  Alexanilria,  where  .also  he  taught  with  signal 
success.  In  the  end,  however,  he  reluined  to  Tus, 
where  lie  foumled  a  Sniic  ndlege  and  dedicated  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  until  1111,  the  yi^ar  of  his 
death,  to  religious  and  jihilosophic  contemplation. 
The  most  notable  of  his  numerous  works  are 
0;>i>iio>is  of  till'  I'liilii.siijiliirn  and  'J'liii/iiiries  <if  llie 
I'/ii/nsop/iirs,  this  latter  virtually  an  introduction 
to  the  more  famous  Dentnir/imi  nf  tin'  I'liihisniilurn, 
in  which  he  challenges  the  methods  and  coiiclusions 
of  the  current  scholasticism  of  Arabian  philosophy. 
He  also  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  ninety-nine 
names  of  (loil,  several  ethical  treatises,  and  various 
other  works  on  religion  and  philosoiihy.  Several 
of  his  works  have  never  yet  been  published. 

4>llil7.i<lb<ul.  a  town  and  important  railway 
junction  ill  .Meenit  district.  North-west  I'roviiices 
of  India,  '28  miles  SW.  of  Meciiit.  with  barracdis, 
and  a  consiilcrable  trade  in  grain,  hides,  and 
leather.      I'o]..  10,r«9. 

4>llil7.i|>ur.  a  city  of  India,  capital  of  a  district 
of  the  same  name  in  the  North-west  Provinces, 
stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  (ianges,  44  miles 
NE.  of  Benares.  The  city,  which  stretcdies  along 
the  (ianges  for  about  2  miles,  contains  the  ruins  of 
the  Palace  of  Eorty  Pillars,  and  a  marble  statue 
by  Flaxinaii  to  Lord  Cornwallis,  who  died  herein 
1805.  Chazipiir  is  the  lieadi|uarlers  of  the  (Jovcrn- 
nient  (•|dum  Ilepartmcnt  for  the  North-west  Pro- 
vinces, all  the  oiiiiim  from  these  piovince><  being 
manufactured  here,  and  there  is  some  traile  in 
sugar,  tobacco,  rose-water,  and  coarse  long-cloth. 
Pop.  (  1801 )  44,970.— The  tlisfrirt,  of  which  Gliazi- 
pur  is  the  administrative  he:idquaiters,  has  an 
area  of  1402  sij.  m.,  ami  a  pop.  of  l,077,UO'J. 

(•Iiazili  (also  spelt  Ghiziii  and  (llniziicc),  a 
fortilied  town  of  .Afghanistan,  stands  below  a  spur 
of  a  range  of  hills,  at  an  elevation  of  77'2'J  feet, 
84  miles  SW.  of  Kabul,  on  the  road  to  Kandahar 
and  at  the  lie.ad  of  the  (ioiiial  route  to  India.  It 
is  a  idace  of  considerable  commercial  import- 
ance. The  climate  is  cold,  snow  often  lying  for 
three  iiioiiths  in  the  year.  Nevertheless,  wheat, 
barley,  and  madder  are  grown  in  tin?  vicinity.  Its 
population  is  estimated  at  about  10,000.  l-'roiii  the 
lOtli  to  the  12tli  centuiy  Gliazni  was  the  capital  of 
the  empire  of  the  Ghaznevids  (see  below) :  il  then 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  sultan  of  (diiir,  and 
enjoyed  a  second  period  of  splendour.  Having 
shortly  afterwards  been  captiiied  by  the  Mongols, 
it  rapiiUy  fell  into  decay.  It  remained,  however, 
subject  to  the  descendants  of  Baher,  the  Mongol 
nilcrs  of  Delhi  and  Agra,  down  to  17.'JS,  when  it 
was  taken  by  N.adir  Shah  of  Persia,  ami  at  his 
death  was  incorporated  in  the  kingdom  of  .Afghani- 
stan. During  the  19tli  century  it  figured  in  the 
British  wars  against  the  Afghans,  liaving  been 
stormed  by  Lord  Keane  in  18.'{'.),  and  again  in  1842 
by  the  Afghans,  but  retaken  the  same  year  by 
Gener.al   Nutt.      In   the  neighbourhood    of   (ihazni 


GHEE 


GHI 


197 


there  are  several  ruins  and  monuments  of  its 
former  gieatness,  such  as  the  tomb  of  Mahmud, 
Mahiinid's  dam  in  tlie  Ghazni  Kiver,  numerous 
niin-licaps  nortli-east  of  the  town,  and  many 
Mohammedan  slirines.  The  celebrated  gates  of 
Somnath  (q.v.)  were  kept  at  Ghazni  from  1024  to 
1842. 

Ghaznevid  Difnasty. — About  the  michlle  of  tlie 
loth  century  a  lieutenant  of  the  Samanid  ruler  of 
Bukhara  seized  upon  Ghazni,  and,  dying  in  977, 
left  it  to  his  son-in-law,  Sebuktagin,  who  dur- 
ing a  reign  of  twenty  years  extended  his  sway 
over  all  modern  Afghanistan  and  the  Punjab. 
But  it  was  under  his  son  .Mahmud  (n!l7-K«0)  that 
the  tlhaznevids  reached  their  highest  point  of 
splendour  and  renown.  This  prince  repeatedly 
invaded  India,  and  carried  his  conquering  arms  as 
far  as  Kurdistan  and  the  Caspian  on  the  west 
and  to  Samarkand  on  the  north.  He  was  the 
first  monarch  in  Asia  to  assume  tlie  title  of  sultan. 
His  descendants  had  a  keen  struggle  to  maintain 
themselves  against  the  Seljuks,  who  had  si^ized 
upcm  Kliorasan,  Balkh,  Kharezm,  and  Irak  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Mahmud's  son  Masaud  ( 1030- 
42),  and  against  their  jealous  rivals  the  princes  of 
Gln'ir  (q.v.).  Bahranr  Shah,  ruler  of  Ghazni  from 
HIS  to  11.52,  was  at  length  driven  from  his  capital 
by  tlie  latter,  and  retired  to  the  Punjab.  There 
Ids  grandson,  Khosrau  Malek,  the  last  of  the 
dynasty,  made  Lahore  his  capital.  This  town  ^^'as, 
however,  taken  by  the  prince  of  Glulr  in  11S6,  and 
with  this  the  Ghaznevid  dynasty  came  to  an  end. 

C«hee  (Old),  a  kind  of  clarified  butter  used  in 
many  jiarts  of  India,  and  generally  prepared  from 
the  milk  of  buH'aloes.  The  fresh  milk  is  boiled  for 
an  hour  or  more  ;  it  is  then  allowed  to  cool,  and 
a  little  curdled  milk,  called  dhye,  is  added  to  pro- 
mote coagulation.  The  curdled  mass  is  churned 
for  half  ail  liour;  .some  hot  water  is  then  added, 
and  the  churning  continued  for  another  half-liour, 
when  the  butter  forms.  When  the  butter  begins 
to  become  rancid,  which  is  usually  the  Cii.se  after 
a  few  days,  it  is  boiled  till  all  the  water  contained 
in  it  is  "expelled,  an<l  a  little  dhye  and  salt,  or 
betel-leaf,  is  added  ;  after  which  it  is  put  into 
closed  pots  to  be  kept  for  use.  It  is  used  to  an 
eniuiuous  extent  by  the  natives  of  many  parts  of 
Inilia,  but  is  seldom  relished  by  Europeans. 

GllOel.  a  colony  for  the  insane,  in  Belgium, 
■26  mill's  ICSE.  of  Antwerp  by  rail.  It  is  an  oa^is 
in  a  rh'sert,  a  village  and  commune  (20  miles  in 
circumference)  in  a  comparatively  fertile  spot, 
inliabilcd  and  cultivated  by  11, (XH)  peasants,  in  the 
midst  of  an  extensive  sandy  waste,  called  the 
t'aiupiiie  (see  Belgitm).  Here  in  SOd  a.ii.  St 
Dymphna,  an  Irish  princess,  is  said  to  have  been 
beheaded  by  her  father,  for  resistance  to  his  inces- 
tuous jiassion.  Pilgrims,  the  sick,  the  sorrowful, 
and  the  insane,  visited  the  shrine  of  the  Christian 
virgin ;  the  last  were  restored  to  sanity  and  serenity. 
About  l.SOO  insane  persons  are  lodged  with  the 
citizens  of  this  eommunity,  and  are  controlled  and 
employed  by  them,  and  this  without  recoui'se  to 
walls  or  other  asylum  aiqdiances,  and  with  little 
coercion  of  any  kind.  The  quieter  snli'erers  re.si<le 
generally  one  in  each  family  in  the  village,  the  more 
excited  in  separate  farmhouses  at  some  ilistance  on 
the  conlines  of  the  commune,  while  tlio.se  requiring 
nieilical  treiitment  are  temporarily  accommodated 
in  the  infinuary  in  Gheel.  The  supjiort  of  the 
patients  is  in  most  cases  guaranteed  by  the  state. 
See  works  in  French  on  Gheel  and  the  '  Gheel 
system  '  by  Duval  ( 1867)  and  Peeters  ( 1879). 

talieilt  (Klem.  and  Ger.  Gciit,  Fr.  Gaud),  a 
city  of  Belgium,  eajiital  of  the  province  of  East 
Fli\iiders,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  tlic  Lys 
and  tli(^  Scheldt,  34  miles  by  rail  XW.  of  Brussels. 


It  is  divided  by  canals  into  26  islands,  connected 
by  270  bridges,  and  is  encompassed  with  gardens 
and  meadows,  while  the  former  walls  have  been 
converted  into  pleasant  ])romenades.  It  is  in 
general  well  built  ;  but  in  the  older  jiart  it  still 
retains  several  quaint  and  picturesque  house.*. 
Among  the  chief  buildings  are  the  cathedral  of  St 
Bavon,  of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  counted 
amongst  the  finest  churches  of  the  countrv,  and 
containing  the  '  Adoration  of  the  Lamb,'  by  the 
brothers  Van  Eyck  ;  the  belfry-tower  ( 1183-1339), 
280  feet  high,  or  375  with  the  iron  spire  of  1855; 
the  new  citadel  ( 1822-30)  ;  the  hotel-de-ville  ( 1480- 
1628),  one  of  the  most  fiorid  specimens  of  llam- 
boyant  Gothic  in  Belgium  ;  the  Palais  de  Justice 
( 1835-43),  with  a  peristyle  of  the  Corinthian  order  ; 
the  univei-sity  (1816),  the  Beguinage  (q.v. ),  and  the 
Academy  of  Painting.  The  cotton,  woollen,  and 
linen  manufactures  are  the  chief  industries. 
Leather,  lace,  and  sugar  are  also  manufactured, 
and  there  are  foundries,  machine- works,  breweries, 
&c.  Speciallv  noteworthy  is  the  fioriculture  of 
Ghent.  By  the  Great  Canal,  which  fiows  into  the 
Scheldt,  Gihent  is  united  with  the  sea,  and  it  can 
receive  into  its  docks  \essels  drawing  17  feet  of 
water.  The  harbour  is  capable  of  holding  400 
ve.s.sels,  new  docks  having  lieen  opened  in  1881. 
Ghent  is  very  rich  in  charitable  and  public  institu- 
tions. With  the  university  are  united  a  school  for 
civil  engineers,  another  for  arts  and  sciences,  and 
the  foniier  town-librarv.  Pop.  (1846)  102,977: 
(1891)  1.50,223;  (1896)  159,218. 

Ghent,  whose  patron-.saint,  the  soldier-monk 
Bavon,  is  said  to  have  died  in  655,  was  certainly 
a  prosperous  city  in  the  time  of  the  Merovingian 
Franks.  In  1007  it  was  given  by  the  emperor  to 
Count  Baldwin  IV.  In  the  12th  century  it  was  made 
the  capital  of  Flanders.  And  under  the  counts 
it  continued  to  prosper  and  inerea.se,  until,  in  the 
14th  century,  it  was  able  to  send  80,0()0  men  into 
the  field,  and  to  withstand,  single-banded,  the 
jiower  of  the  count  backed  up  by  the  king  of 
France.  The  wealth  of  the  citizens  of  Ghent,  and 
the  unusual  measure  of  liberty  which  lliey  enjoyed, 
encouraged  them  to  resist  with  arms  any  attempt- 
to  infringe  upon  their  peculiar  rights  an<l  jirivilegcs. 
This  jealous  and  turbulent  spirit  is  exemplilied  in 
the  famous  insurrection  of  Jacob  \an  Arle\elde 
(q.v.),  and  other  instances.  John  of  (lauut,  i.e. 
Ghent,  was  born  here  in  1340.  For  many  years  the 
city  maintained  a  vigorous  resistance  against  the 
Dukes  of  Burgundy  ;  and  having  rebelled  against 
Charles  V.,  their  succe.ssor,  in  1540  it  was  deprived 
of  its  privileges.  From  this  time  the  town  began 
to  decay,  and  under  Philip  II.  the  Iiiijuisition 
.struck  a  yet  deadlier  blow  at  its  well-being.  In 
the  various  wars  of  which  the  Xetlierlaiids  has  been 
the  battle-ground,  Ghent  has  suflered  severely,  and 
lias  been  frequently  taken,  especially  in  the  18th 
century.  Falling  into  the  hands  of  the  French  at 
the  Kevolutiou,  it  was  made  the  capital  of  the 
department  of  the  Scheldt,  till  its  incorporation  in 
the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  in  1814,  in  which 
year  was  signed  the  peace  of  Ghent  between  Britain 
and  America.  In  1830  it  fell  to  Belgium.  See 
Fl.andeks  ;  also  Van  Duyse,  Gaiid,  monuiiicntid  ct 
jjittoirsijKc  (Brussels,  1886). 

Cherardesoa.    See  Uconxo. 

CillCttO  (Ital.),  the  Jews'  quarter  in  Italian 
cities,  to  which  they  used  to  be  strictly  ccuilincd. 
The  ghetto  of  Rome,  instituted  in  1556  by  Pojie 
Paul  IV.,  was  removed  in  1885  and  following  years, 
its  demolition  having  been  rendered  necessary  by 
the  new  Tiber  embankment.  The  term  is  also 
employed  to  indicate  the  Jews'  quartei-s  in  any 
city.     See  Jews. 

<ilhi.    See  Ghee. 


198 


GHIBELLINES 


GHOORKHAS 


<<iiibellines.    See  Guelphs. 

lillilM'l'ti,  LoiiKN'ZO,  an  Italian  <,'ulilsiiiitli, 
bi'i>ii/c  <:i~ti,'i-,  and  sculptor,  was  Ixjin  at  Florence 
alioiit  l.'iTS.  He  w:i.->  ajiprenliceil  tu  liis  steiifatlier, 
a  skilful  ^'()lilMiutli,  and  also  ai-ijiiireil  dexterity  in 
drawiii;;,  jiainlinj;,  and  iiiodelling.  In  140<)  lie 
executed  a  nolile  fresco  in  tlie  palazzo  of  Paiulolfo 
Malatesta  at  Kiniini.  Alonj;  witli  other  artists,  he 
was  next  chosen  (1401)  hy  the  riorentine  guild  of 
merchants  to  coni|iete  for  the  execution  of  a;,'ate 
in  lironze,  to  nialcli  that  executeil  liy  Amlrea  I'isano 
in  the  baptistery  in  l.Titi.  The  subject  of  the 
desij;n  wjvs  '  The  .Sacrifice  of  Isaac,'  to  bo  executed 
in  b:us-relief  as  a  model  for  one  of  the  panels.  The 
judjjes  selected  (Ihiberti's  design,  both  on  account 
of  the  art  and  beauty  of  its  conception  and  the 
delicacy  and  skill  of  its  execution.  When  (Ihiberti 
had  completed  this  jjreat  work  (14'2t)  his  fellow- 
citi/.ons  entrusted  him  with  the  execution  of  another 
gate,  to  emulate  the  two  already  adorning  the 
baptistery.  This  second  gate,  finished  in  14.5'2,  con- 
tains ten  reliefs  on  a  larger  .scale,  the  subjects  in 
this  case  also  being  wholly  biblical.  The  mingled 
grace  and  grandeur  of  these  compositions  is  beyond 
all  praise  ;  though  his  treatment  of  basrclicf  has 
been  condemned  a-s  wrong  in jiriuciple.  On  the  two 
gates  he  spent  fifty  years  of^  most  patient  labour. 
Xot  the  lea-st  of  (!hiberti"s  merits  w;ls  the  success 
that  attended  his  efforts  to  break  down  the  Con- 
ventionalism that  before  his  day  ham])ered  the  free 
development  of  sculptural  art.  Among  his  other 
works  may  be  mcntioneil  the  sepulclual  monu- 
ments of  Dati  in  Santa  .M.uia  Novella,  and  of  the 
Albi/.zi  in  .Santa  Croee  at  Klorence,  executed  about 
14'2T  ;  a  bronze  relief  in  the  Duomo,  rejiresenting 
St  Zenobius  bringing  a  dead  child  to  life  (1440); 
and  between  1414  and  14'2'2  bronze  statues  of  St 
John  the  IJaptist,  St  Matthew,  and  St  Ste|ihen 
for  the  chureli  of  Or  San  ^lichele.  tihiberti  died 
at  Klorence,  1st  December  1455.  See  Perkins, 
Ghibviti  ct  son  £cole  (Paris,  1885). 

Gllika.  Hki,kn,\,  Princess  Koltzoir-Massalsky, 
better  known  by  her  literary  iiseudoiiym  of  Dura 
(I'lshiii,  was  a  ilaughter  of  Prince  Michael  Oliika, 
wxs  a  niece  of  two  hospodars  of  Waliachia,  and  was 
born  at  liucharcst,  '22d  .lauuary  18'2!).  The  family 
from  which  she  was  descended  was  Albanian  in 
origin,  and  from  the  time  of  George  Ghika,  hospo- 
dar  of  Waliachia  in  1600,  gave  nnvny  jirinees  and 
eminent  men  to  the  principalities  (see  Kor.M.VNi.v). 
Profoundly  instructed  in  th<^  classics  under  the 
care  of  George  Pappado|>()ulos,  the  princess  added 
to  her  acquirements  by  travels  through  Germany. 
France,  and  Italy  an  extensive  knowledge  of 
nioilern  languages  and  literature.  At  fifteen  she 
commenced  a  translation  of  the  I/iad  into  German, 
and  not  long  after  wrote  several  pieces  for  the 
theatre.  On  her  unhappy  marriage  in  1849  with 
Prince  KollzoH'-Miissalsky  slie  accompanied  her 
husliand  to  the  court  of  St  Petersburg:  but  from 
IS.")5  she  resided  mainly  at  Florence,  where  she  died, 
22(1  November  1888.  '  Her  first  impoitant  work, 
La  Vie  Mdiiaxtir/tie  {fans  I'jifflisc  Orictitalc,  was 
published  in  18.5.5.  Other  works  were:  La  iiuifmc 
Allcmamlc  (1856);  Les  Fciinncs  en  OncwM  1800) ; 
Excursions  en  Roiimilie  (1863);  Aux  Bonis  ilcs 
Lars  Helrftiqties  (1864);  Dcs  Fcmmcs,  jiar  nnc 
Feniinc  (1864);  Gli  Albancsi  in  liumenia  ;  Storia 
del  I'rincipi  Ghika  (1873)  ;  La  Poisie  dcs  Ottomans 
(1873).  She  wrote  much  for  the  llei-iie  des  Deux 
Monties  and  other  journals  and  magazines  of 
Fr.ance,  It,aly,  lielgium,  an<l  Switzerland  ;  and  her 
writings  on  Albanian  literature  stirred  up  a  not- 
able literarj-  and  national  movement  ainimgst  the 
.\lli:inians.  She  was  in:iile  !i  member  of  several 
learned  societies,  and  an  honorary  citizen  of  the 
Greek    kingdom.      See    Cecchetti,    Dora    d'Istria 


(1871),  and  an  article  in  Scribncr's  Magazine  for 

December  1878. 

Ollilail',  a  ]>rovince  of  Persia,  the  western  por- 
tion of  the  narrow  striji  of  count  it  lying  between 
the  Elburz  range  anil  the  Caspian  Sea,  is  separatiil 
from  Russian  Cauciu-ia  on  liie  northwest  by  the 
river  .\st.ara.  .\re.a,  4251  si|.  in.  Owing  to  the 
lowiicss  of  the  land,  the  province  is  subject  to 
freijueiit  inundations,  and  during  great  part  of 
the  ye.'ir  is  little  better  than  a  sw;iiiip.  There  are 
dense  forests,  chielly  of  oaks,  niaides,  ashes,  limes, 
\c.,  and  a  tropical  luxuriance  of^  vegetation.  Ex- 
tensive plantations  of  fruit  and  mulberry  trees 
are  grown,  these  last  for  the  ])ioduction  of  silk. 
The  soil  is  extremely  fertile,  bearing  barley,  wheat, 
fruits,  and  great  i|iiantitics  of  rice.  Animal  life 
is  abundant.  The  fisheries  in  the  t'as|iian  are  very 
ludduetive.  The  po]iulation,  estimated  at  150,000  to 
2.'iO.OOO,  iire  priiiciindly  of  Iranian  descent,  mingled 
with  Kurdish  ami  Turkic  immigrants,  and  ne:iily 
all  are  Shiite  .Mohammed;ins.  The  climate  is 
moist,  <li:iiigeable,  and  unhealthy.  Storms  are 
very  violent. 

(■Ilil/.ais.  an  Afgh.an  tribe.     See  Afuii.vnistas. 

<>liii-]iiii<laj».  DoMicxico  Cfiiit.uii,  nick- 
niinieil  II  Oliirl:uid:ijo  ( 'the  garland-maker' ),  Italian 
]iainter  of  the  ciirly  Florentine  sclioid,  was  born  in 
14411  at  Florence.  .\s  a  youth  he  was  a|>jirenticed  to 
a  goldsmith,  jirobably  hisfiither.  the  maker  of  metal 
garlands  ;  and  it  was  not  until  his  thirty  lirst  year 
th.at  he  became  known  as  a  painter,  lie  painted 
liiincip;illy  frescoes,  and  in  his  native  city,  'i'lie 
church  of  Ogiiisaiiti  there  contains  from  his  hand  ,a 
St  Jerome  and  a  Last  Supper  (  14.S0) ;  the  Palazzo 
Vecchio,  the  .Ajiotheosis  ot  St  Zenobiiis  (  1481-85); 
the  cliuicli  of  S.  Trinitii,  si.x  subjects  from  the 
life  of  St  Francis  (1485)  and  an  altar-piece,  the 
'  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds  '  (now  in  the  Floren- 
tine Academy ) ;  the  choir  of  S.  Maria  Novelhi.  a 
series  illustrating  the  lives  of  the  A'irgin  ;ind  the 
B.-ijitist  (  1400).  I'.etween  14S2  and  14S4  he  jiaiiited 
for  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  in  the  Sistine  ('luipel  at 
Rome,  the  excellent  fresco  '  Christ  calling  Peter 
and  Andrew,'  and  about  the  same  time  two 
pictures  in  the  ch.aiiel  of  St  Fina  at  San  (iimignano. 
IJesidcs  the.se  he  ;uso  executed  some  i-asel  pictures 
of  great  merit,  as  '  .\d( nation  of  the  Magi'(14S8), 
in  the  church  of  the  Innoceiili  at  Florence;  the 
'Visitation  of  the  Virgin '( 1401 ),  in  the  Louvre; 
the  '  Adoration  of  the  Virgin  by  the  Saints,'  in  the 
Vtfizi  at  Florence;  and  'Christ  in  (!lory,'  at  Vol- 
terra.  All  these  are  painted  in  tempera,  and  are 
not  free  from  a  certain  hardness  of  outline  .and  of 
colour.  His  frescoes  are  generally  characterised 
by  excellent  composition,  good  knowledge  of  per- 
spective, strength  in  the  outlines,  except  in  the 
case  of  feet  and  hands,  and  proiuiety  of  expression, 
but  often  show  a  tendency  to  crudene.ss  in  colouring. 
Ghirlandajo  inangurated  at  Florence  the  practice 
of  intidiliicing  into  his  sacred  pictures  jiortraits  of 
his  contcmiioraries;  and  the  same  fondness  for  local 
colour  is  ireijuently  di.scernible  in  his  landscajie 
backgrounds.  lie  also  executed  mosaics,  that  of 
the  'Annunciation'  in  the  cathedral  of  Florence 
being  esiiecially  celebr.ated.  He  died  at  Florence, 
nth  January  1494.  Michel  Angelo  was  for  a  time 
one  of  his  ijujiils. 

His  son  RiliDl.ro  (148.1-1.561)  was  a  jiainter  of 
considerable  merit,  whose  best  pictures  are  those 
which  show  the  injliience  of  Fia  Ijiirtolonimeo  and 
Raphael,  such  as  two  scenes  from  the  '  Life  of  St 
Zenobius'  (in  thel'flizi),  '  Ascension  of  the  A'irgin  ' 
( at  Prato ),  and  '  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds '  ( 1510, 
at  Pesth ). 

C;iii/4-ll.     See  GiZKH. 

<;ili7.lii.     See  Gh.vzxi. 

tilioorklias.    See  Goorkh.vs. 


GHOST-MOTH 


GIANTS 


199 


CllOSt-inoth  (HepiaUis  humidi),  a  species  of 
moth  very  coiiimon  in  many  parts  of  Britain,  of 
which  the  caterpillar,  popuhirly  Icnown  as  tlie 
'  Otter,'  often  commits  great  ravages  in  liop  gardens, 
devouring  the  roots  of  t!ie  plants.  It  feeds  also 
on  the  routs  of  the  nettle,  liurdock,  and  some 
other  ]ilaiits.  The  moth  belongs  to  a  small  family 
(Hepialidie),   often   popularly   called   Swifts    from 


Ghobt-moth  (Hepialua  humuli) : 
caterpillar  (a)  aud  chrysalis  (&). 

their  rapid  flight.  The  antennre  are  sliort,  the 
^^■ings  long  and  narrow,  the  entire  size  about  two 
inches  across.  The  male  is  entirely  of  a  satiny 
white  colour  above,  and  the  female  yellowish  ami 
reddish  with  darker  markings ;  both  sexes  are 
brown  on  tlie  under  side.  They  are  to  be  seen 
Hying  about  in  the  twilight,  generally  over  lawns 
and  pastures,  not  unfreijuently  in  churchyards. 
From  this  circumstance,  and  from  the  white 
colour  of  the  males  and  their  sudden  disappearance 
in  the  imperfect  light  on  their  folding  their  wings 
or  rising  above  the  level  of  the  sjiectator's  eye  (so 
that  the  Ijrown  part  is  turned  towards  him  I,  they 
derive  their  name.  The  cater|)illar,  which  is  some- 
times two  inches  long,  is  yellowish-white,  with 
scattered  hairs.  It  spins  a  large  cylindrical  cocoon 
among  the  roots  on  which  it  has  been  feeding,  and 
then  becomes  a  chrysalis.  Two  other  common 
species  of  generally  similar  habit  arc  H.  liqiuliiiiis 
and  //.  licet  us. 

Clhosts.    See  Apparitions,  H.vinteu  Houses. 

Glioiil.    See  Vampire. 

(■hlir.  or  tillor.E,  a  mountainous  district  of 
western  Afghanistan,  lying  southeast  from  Herat 
and  north-west  from  Kandahar.  Roughly  speak- 
ing, it  coincides  with  the  ancient  Paroi)aniisus  and 
the  medieval  (Iharshistan.  It  is  a  region,  however, 
about  which  next  to  nothing  is  known,  except  that 
it  is  inhabited  by  Hazaras  and  Eimaks,  and  since 
1845  has  been  included  in  the  territory  of  Herat. 

Ghi^iki,  a  dyna.sty  of  |)rinces  who  had  the  seat 
of  their  empire  in  the  country  of  Gliiir,  and  ruled 
over  Persia,  Afghanistan,  northern  Hindustan,  and 
Transoxiana.  We  first  read  of  Ghflr  in  connectiim 
with  Mabmud  of  Ghazni  and  his  son  Masaud,  the 
latter  of  whom  sulijugated  the  region  in  1U2U.  About 
a  century  later  Malik  Izzuddin  made  himself  ruler 
of  all  the  (ihur  country.  His  son,  Alauddin 
Jahansoz  (the  ISurner),  fell  ui)on  (Jliazni,  and 
took  it  and  burned  it  to  the  ground.  This  ])rince's 
ne]iliews,  (Ihiyassuddin  and  Muizuddin,  estaldished 
their  power  in  Kliorasan  and  (Jhazni.  The  latter, 
cro>sing  tlie  Indus,  then  comiuered  successively  the 


provinces  of  Multan  (1176),  Lahore  (1186),  and 
Ajniere  (1I!M)).  and,  in  the  course  of  the  next  si.x 
years,  all  Hindustan  as  far  .south  as  Xagpur  and 
ea.stward  to  tlie  Irawadi.  It  is  from  this  epoch 
that  the  preponderance  of  Isl.im  in  Hindustan  is 
dated.  On  the  death  of  Muizuddin  the  Indian 
states  asserted  their  independence,  the  jiower  of 
the  Ghflri  being  confined  to  Gliflr,  Seistan,  and 
Herat.  This  last  feeble  remnant  was  taken  from 
them  liy  the  Shah  of  Kharezm  aViout  121.5.  Some 
thirty  years  later  the  GliCir  jninces  managed  to 
revive  something  of  their  former  power  at  Herat, 
which  they  letained  by  sutt'erance  from  the  Mongols 
down  to  138."!,  when  the  city  was  captured  by  Timur, 
and  the  Ghiir  sovereignty  came  to  an  end. 

Giailibelli,  Fedep.igo,  a  military  engineer, 
liOiTi  at  Mantua  about  1530.  During  the  siege  of 
Antwerp  by  the  Spaniards  in  1585  he  destroyed, 
by  means  of  an  explosive  sliiji,  a  bridge  built  bj' 
the  latter  across  the  Scheldt.  Proceeding  to  Eng- 
land on  the  capitulation  of  Antwerp,  he  rendered 
great  service  in  the  pre])arations  for  resisting  the 
Armada  of  1588,  by  fortifying  the  Thames  shore 
and  devising  the  plan  of  seniling  the  fire-ships  into 
the  enemy's  fleet.  He  is  said  to  have  died  in 
London,  but  when  Is  not  known. 

Giauiio'ue,  Pietp.O,  an  Italian  antiiiajial  his- 
torian, was  born  7th  May  1070,  at  iM-hilclla,  a 
village  of  Capitanata,  in  Naples.  A  banister  by- 
profession,  practising  at  Naples,  he  spent  twenty 
years  in  the  composition  of  a  magnum  opus, 
entitled  Storia  Civile  del  Segno  di  Xajioli  (4  vols. 
1723).  It  led  to  his  banishment;  he  took  refuge 
at  ^'ieIlna,  Venice,  and  Geneva  successively. 
^yhilst  at  Geneva  he  published  a  bitter  attack  upon 
the  papal  pretensions  in  a  work  entitled  //  Trircgno. 
Then,  lieing  decoyed  into  Savoy  in  1736,  he  N\as 
arrested  and  confined  at  Turin  until  his  death, 
7th  March  1748.  A  collection  of  Operc  Postume 
appeared  after  his  death  (Lausanne,  1760);  aud  in 
18.59  ^lancini  issued  his  Ujtcre  Inedite  (2  \ols. 
Turin ). 

Giants.  A  giant  (Gr.  gigas)  is  an  individual 
whose  stature  and  bulk  exceed  tliose  of  his  species 
or  race  generally.  Until  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century  it  was  universally  believed  that  giants,  of 
a  size  far  exceeding  those  who  are  exhibited  in  our 
times,  formerly  existed,  either  as  nations  or  as 
individual  specimens.  This  belief  was  based  on 
the  asserted  discovery  of  colossal  human  bones, 
on  supposed  scriptural  evitlence,  ami  on  the  evi- 
dence of  various  ancient  and  medieval  authors. 

A  reference  to  the  first  vcduiiie  of  I'uvier's 
Osscmcnis  Fossiles  will  show  that  the  Ixmes  of  ele- 
phants, rhinoceroses,  mastodons,  &c.  have  been 
exhibited  and  accepted  as  evidence  of  prehistoric 
giants.  Even  so  good  a  naturalist  as  liuHon  fell 
into  this  pojiular  delusion,  and  figured  the  bones 
of  an  elephant  as  the  remains  of  human  giants. 
Isidore  (ieotiioy  Saint-Hilaire,  in  his  Ilistuiic  des 
Ancniiilie.s  de  rOrganisiition,  notices  several  of  the 
most  famous  of  these  cases. 

The  Scripture  evidence,  when  carefully  examined, 
does  not  amount  to  much.  The  Hebrew  words 
■nephilim  and  gihhorini,  which  are  translated  giants 
in  the  Authorised  Version  ( '  nephilim  '  and  '  iiiij;hty 
men'  in  the  Revised  Version),  were  aiiparcntly  not 
giants  in  our  sense  of  the  word.  The  heiglit  of 
Og,  king  of  IJa.shan,  is  not  given  :  we  are  oniy  tidd 
the  length  of  his  Ijed.  The  lieight  of  Gidiath  is  |uit 
at  six  and  a  half  cubits,  but  by  Josephus  and  the 
Septnagint  at  four  cubits  and  a  span— say  8  feet  9 
inches.  The  Anakini  an<l  other  tall  races  referred 
to  in  Scri|iture  need  not  have  been  of  superliup>an 
size. 

The  classical  evidence  is  abundant,  but  obviously 
imtrustworthy.    Thus,  besides  Homers  allusions  to 


200 


GIANTS 


GIANTS     CAUSEWAY 


apnea 
I'lie  Aiistiian 
8  feet  9  inclies. 


Cyclopes,  giants,  I'olvpliemus,  and  like  legendan- 
races  or  jiersons,  I'hitarch  relates  that  Sertorins 
liail  the  jjrave  of  Aiitiens,  at  Tiiif;is  in  Mauretania, 
openeil,  ami  '  lindinx  theie  his  limly,  full  GO  riihits 
liiii^,  was  inliniti'lv  astipni>li<Ml,  ordered  the  tmiih  to 
he  closed,  j;ave  his  eoiiliriMation  to  tlie  story,  and 
added  new  honours  to  the  ineniorv  of  the  giant.' 
I'linv  reports  tliat  an  earthonake  in  Crete  discloseil 
the  lione.s  of  a  giant  4f>  euhits  in  length,  who  was 
held  liy  some  to  he  Orion,  and  hy  others  (ttus. 
Desceniling  to  more  certain  evidence,  there  is  no 
donht  tli.il  a  height  of  hetween  .S  and  9  feet,  and 
prohahly  of  more  than  9  feet,  has  heen  attained. 
There  is  a  skeleton  in  the  Museum  of  Trinity 
College,  Duhlin,  8  feet  ti  inches  in  lieight  :  that  of 
Charles  liyrne  (ITOl-SS),  in  the  museum  of  the 
College  of  Surgeons  of  Kngland,  is  8  feel  2  inches  ; 
anil  that  of  a  giant  in  the  museum  at  Bonn  is  8 
feet:  and  the  actual  body  with  tlie  soft  parts 
attached  was  proliahly  two  or  three  inches  longer 
than  the  sk(di'tou.  liyrne,  for  example,  mea-sured 
8  feet  4  inches  alter  his  death,  as  we  find  recorded 
in  the  Annual  lict/istir,  vol.  xxvi.  p.  '209.  He  has 
often  been  confounded  with  Patrick  Cotter  or 
t)'l!rien  (1701-180(1),  whose  height  is  variously 
given  at  7  feet  10  inches,  and  8  feet  7  inches.  The 
Scottish  giant  in  the  service  of  I-'rederick  William 
1.  of  Prussia  measured  8  feet  '.i  inches,  and  was 
notahle  in  his  regiment  of  giants.  The  Chinese 
giant  Chang  claimed  to  have  grown  from  7  feet  8 
inches  to  8  feet  hetween  his  lirst  apiiearance  in 
I,oudon  ( 18G.l)and  hissecond  ( 1880 
.losef  Winkelmaier  (  I.sim  87)  wa.s 
I'(>]mlar  helicf  seems  right  in  tre.'it- 
ing  tlie  I'atagonians  :us  the  talh'st 
race  of  men  ;  tlie  mean  height  lieing 
ascertained  to  he  about  5  feet  11 
inches. 

It  appears  ( I )  that  giant.s  are  of 
rarer  occurrence  than  dwarfs;  (2) 
that  giants  are  usually  of  a  lym- 
phatic temper.imeiit,  and  of  a  very 
delicate  complexion,  often  de- 
formed, anil  almost  always  h.adly 
prop(ntioncd  ;  thai  their  muscles 
are  llabby,  and  their  voice  weak  ; 
while  dwarfs  are  often  i>erfectl.\ 
well  ]iroportioneil,  and  are  stron;; 
for  their  si/e  ;  (3)  tli.at  giants  ari- 
never  long-liveil — Uyrne  died  al 
twenty  two,  Magrath  at  Iweiitv, 
Winkelmaier  at  twenty -two — wliili' 
dwarfs  seem  to  attain  the  full 
ordinary  period  of  huni.an  exist 
ence  ;  (4)  that  while  giants  usu 
ally  exhibit  a  want  of  activity 
and  energy,  and  are  feeble  both 
in  body  and  mind,  ilwarfs  are  in 
general  lively,  active,  and  ir.ascible.  We  know 
little  of  the  causes  which  occa.sion  the  excessive 
<leveloiiment  or  the  arre.sted  growth  on  which 
the  production  of  giants  and  dwarfs  depends.     See 

l)EFl(liMITlIi.S. 

Mijtholotjiidl  Giants  and  Dii-rirfn.  —iWoMif^  play  a 
part  in  the  mythology  of  almost  all  nations  of  .Aryan 
descent.  The  (!reeks,  who  represented  them  as 
beings  of  monstrous  size,  with  hideous  counten- 
ances, and  having  the  tails  of  dragons,  ])laced  their 
abode  in  volcanic  districts,  whither  they  were  fabled 
to  have  been  banished  after  their  unsuccessful 
attempt  upon  heaven,  when  the  goils,  with  the 
.assislanee  of  Hercules,  imprisoned  them  under 
.Ktna  and  other  vohanoes.  Their  re]inteil  origin, 
like  the  places  of  their  aboile,  jioints  to  The  idea  of 
the  mysterious  electrical  and  volcanic  convulsions 
of  nature,  w  liicli  they  obviously  tyjiify  ;  and,  in 
accord.ance  with  this  view,  they  are  .saiil  to  have 
been  of  mingled  heaxenly  and  earthly  descent,  and 


to  have  spning  from  the  blood  that  fell  from  the 
slain  ( hiranos  upon  the  earth,  f!e,  which  w.us  their 
mother.  In  the  cosmogimy  of  the  northern  nations, 
giants  occupy  a  far  more  important  phoe  than  the 
(oeeks  assigned  to  them,  for  here  the  liisl  created 
being  was  the  giant  Ymir,  called  also  '  Auigelmir' 
or  '  the  ancient  Chaos,'  the  progenitor  of  the  I'liist- 
giants  ( llrimtiinrsar ),  .among  whom  dwelt  the  .Ml- 
Father  before  the  creatiiui  of  heaven  and  eiirlh. 
How  Yniir  the  lirst  L'iant  arose,  and  what  came  of 
the  giants  and  their  liomc  .lotunheim,  is  an  integral 
iiarl  of  Scandiiia\  i.'ui  .Mythology  (i|.v.).  The  giants 
have  been  held  to  be  iiersonilications  of  the  powem 
of  nature,  of  barbarism  in  conllict  with  a  more 
civilised  regime,  and  of  heathen  powers  in  conllict 
with  Christianity.  Even  the  boys'  tale  of  .Iml.  l/ir 
(liant  hiltir  has  been  helil  to  have  originaleil  in  the 
struggle  of  the  Christian  Welsh  with  the  pagan 
.Vnglo  Saxons.  Swift's  lirolidingnagiaiis  are  the 
best  known  of  modern  imagin.uy  giants.  Sec 
Wood's  (iiant.i  and  Ihnirfs  ( 1808)  ;  Tylor's  I'rimi- 
tire  Cidtiirc  ( 1871 )  ;  Itollinger,  Znenj-  mid  JHescn- 
u'lic/m  ( 1884) ;  and  .Max.  Mayer,  iJie  O'ii/anlrn  tind 
2'itaucn  in  drr  Antihin  Sagr  tind  Kitnst  ( 1889). 

4ii:illts'  raiiscway  (deriving  its  name  from  a 
legend  tli.U  il  wiis  llic  comnienceinent  of  a  road  to 
be  eonstrueted  by  giants  acro.ss  the  channel  to 
Scotland)  is  a  sort  of  natural  ]iier  or  nicde,  of 
odumn.ar  b.usalt,  iirojectiiig  from  the  northern 
coast  of  .Antrim,  Ireland,  into  the  North  Channel, 
7  miles  NE.  of  rortrush  by  an  electric  tramw.ay 
(188.3).  It  is  part  of  an  overlving  mass  of  basalt, 
from   .■?00   to  r>(K)   feet    in   thickness,    which    covers 


i^iicycoi 


Ciu.-,ew.ty. 


almost  the  whole  county  of  Antrim,  ami  the 
eastern  jiart  of  Londonderry.  The  ba.salt  occurs 
in  several  beds,  interstratified  with  protrusions 
of  whin-dyke.  Several  of  these  beds  are  more 
or  less  columnar,  but  three  layers  are  remark- 
ably so.  The  lirst  appears  at  the  bold  jiromon- 
lory  of  K.air  Head  :  its  columns  exceed  200  feet 
in  height.  The  other  two  are  seen  together 
rising  above  the  sea-level  at  licngore  Head,  the 
lower  one  forming  the  (Hants'  Causew.ay.  It  is 
exjiosed  for  MOf)  yards,  and  exhibits  an  nne(|ual 
pavement,  formi'il  of  the  tops  of  40,IM)0  vertical 
(dosely  litting  (lolygonal  columns,  which  in  shaiie 
are  ehielly  hex.agonal,  though  e\am]iles  m.ay  i>e 
found  with  .'>,  7,  8,  or  9  sides.  There  is  a  single 
instance  of  a  triangular  jirisin.  The  diameter  of 
the  pillars  varies  from  l.j  to  20  inches.  Each  jiillar 
isdiviilcd  into  joints  of  uner|Ual  length,  the  concave 
licdlow  at  the  end  of  one  division  litting  exactly 
into  the  convex  projection  of  the  other.     The  rock 


GIANTS'    KETTLES 


GIBBON 


201 


is  compact  and  homogeneous,  ami  is  somewhat 
simorous  when  struck  with  a  hanmier.  The  (irand 
Causeway  is  itself  formed  of  three  causeways, 
the  Little,  Middle  or  Honeycomli,  and  the  Grand 
Causeway.  On  the  Little  Causeway  may  he  seen 
an  octagon,  pentagon,  hexagon,  and  heptagon  all 
together :  on  the  Middle  Causeway  is  the  famous 
Wishing  Ciiair,  with  two  arms  and  a  hack,  on  a 
platform  where  the  columns  rise  to  a  height  of 
aljout  10  feet.  On  the  Grand  Causeway  are  pcjinted 
out  tlie  Lady's  Fan,  an  exact  arrangement  of  live 
])crfect  pentagons  surrounding  a  heptagon  ;  the 
Keystone  of  the  Causeway — a  sunk  octagon  ;  and 
the  single  triangle.  At  the  starting-point  is  the 
(Jiants'  Loom,  an  imposing  row  of  columns  30  feet 
high,  each  intersected  hy  about  thirty  joints  ;  to 
the  left  is  the  Giants'  Well,  to  the  right  the  Giants' 
Chair. 

The  best  way  to  see  the  Causeway  is  to  walk 
along  it  uniler  the  cliffs,  and  next  over  them,  but 
he  who  would  see  the  full  grandeur  of  this  wonder- 
ful strip  of  coast  must  row  along  it  eastward  as 
far  as  the  Pleaskin.  The  '  Short  Course  '  includes 
a  visit  to  Portcoon  and  llunkerry  Caves  and  the 
Causeway  only  ;  the  'Long  Course' extends  west- 
ward to  the  eaves,  and  eastward  to  the  Horse- 
shoe Hay  beyond  Pleaskin  ami  under  IJenliane 
Hearl.  The  various  inlets  and  ])oints  along  the 
coast,  passed  in  order,  are  Portnabo,  separated  by 
the  Stookan  Rocks  from  Portganniay  ;  next,  after 
the  Giants'  Causeway  projjer  is  passed,  Portnott'er, 
closed  on  the  east  side  by  the  Giants'  Organ,  a  row 
of  imposing  pillars  the  appearance  of  which  at  (mce 
explains  their  name  ;  after  lloverin  Valley  Head  is 
turned,  Port  Reostan,  opening  up  into  the  Amphi- 
theatre, fringed  with  dirt's  XM  feet  high,  ami  reacli- 
ing  its  eastern  horn  in  the  Cbimney  Point,  the  lofty 
stacks  of  whose  rocks  are  said  to  have  been  fatally 
mistaken  for  the  chimneys  of  Diinhice  Castle  by 
a  Spanish  Armada  ship.  The  next  bay  is  Spanish 
Hay,  with  the  Spanish  Organ,  shut  in  by  Benan- 
ouran  Head,  400  feet  high,  between  which  and 
Pleiiskin  Head  are  the  reefs  called  the  Giants'  Eye- 
glass and  the  King  and  his  Nobles.  The  Pleaskin 
rises  to  a  height  of  400  feet,  and  is  the  noblest  of 
all  the  Causeway  clifts.  The  prospect  is  unrivalleil 
from  Hamilton's  Seat  near  its  top,  so  named  from 
the  Rev.  Dr  Hamilton  of  Deny,  one  of  the  lirst  to 
call  attention  to  the  Causeway  (ITSli).  Leyond  it  is 
the  Horseshoe  Harl)Our  and  the  group  of  rocks  called 
the  Nurse  and  Child.  After  rounding  Henbane 
Head  we  come  in  sight  of  Bengore  Head  (367  feet), 
below  which  the  coast  slopes  more  rapidly  south- 
ward past  the  i)illars  kno^^■n  as  tlie  Four  Sisters, 
the  Giants'  Peep-hole,  and  the  Giants'  Granny  to 
the  ruins  of  Diinseverick  Castle. 

laiailts'  liottlos,  the  name  given  in  Norway 
to  vertical  pot  slia[ied.  smooth-sided  hollows  ex- 
cavated in  rocks,  usually  lilled  up  with  rounded 
lioulders,  water-worn  stones,  gravel,  and  other 
detritus.  They  are  believed  to  have  originated 
under  the  great  glaciers  or  continuous  mrr  dc  r/Zarr 
which  formerly  covered  wide  regions  of  northern 
Eurojie  (see  'l5iii'Ll>ER-cr.AV,  Gl,.\rrAi,  Pkhidd, 
Pl.KlsrorUNK  Sv.sTEM).  They  have  proli.ahly  been 
formed  by  water  descending  from  the  surface  of  the 
ice  through  iii'inlins  or  glacial  chimneys — setting 
stones  and  boulders  in  rapid  rot.-ition.  They  are 
thus  comparable  to  the  pot-holes  which  are  so 
common  a  feature  in  the  beds  of  rapid  streams, 
particularly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  waterfalls, 
where  the  stones  have  a  gyratiU'V  uuition  imjiarted 
to  them  by  the  irregular  movements  of  the  water. 
As  they  rotate  they  gradually  wear  away  the  rock, 
and  produce  more  or  less  stee|>-sided  cavities, 
(iiants'  kettles  occur  in  connection  with  the  glacial 
dejiosits  of  many  other  countries  besides  Norway  : 
as,  for  example,  in  Prussia. 


Cliaoiir,  the  Italian  .spelling  (popularised  by 
Byron)  of  a  Turkish  wortl,  apidied  by  the  Turks 
to  all  who  reject  Mohammedanism,  es])ecially  to 
European  Christians.  By  some  it  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  the  Persian  f/uirr,  '  inlldid  ; '  by  others 
to  be  a  corrupt  form  of  tlie  Arabic  Kiifir,  '  inlidel ' 
(cf.  Kaffirs,  the  African  people,  and  the  Giicbres, 
q.v.). 

Giarre,  a  town  of  Sicily,   in  the  jirovmce  of 
Catania,  on  the  eastern  slo])e  of  Mount  Etna.     Its 
harbour  is  Riposto.     The  surrounding  district  [iro 
duces  excellent  wine.     Pop.  8300. 

CJiaveno,  a  town  of  Piedmont,  17  miles  W.  of 
Turin,  with  cotton  and  jute  spinning  and  paper 
works.     Pop.  6500. 

Gibbet,  a  sort  of  gallows  on  which  the  bodie.'t 
of  criminals  who  had  been  guilty  of  particularly 
atrocious  crimes  were  by  order  of  the  couits  of 
justice  suspended  after  execution,  encased  in  an 
iron  frame,  near  the  spot  where  the  crime  was  com- 
mitted. This  was  done  for  the  jiurpose  of  striking 
terror  into  the  evil-minded,  and  of  atl'ording  'a 
comfortable  sight  to  the  relations  and  friends  of 
the  deceased.'  The  practice,  first  recognised  by 
law  in  1752,  was  finally  abolished  in  1834. 

Gibbon  [Hylobatcs),  a  genus  of  tail-less  anthro- 
poid apes,  natives  of  the  East  Indies.  They  are 
nearly  allied  to  the  orangs  and  chimpanzees,  but 
are  of  more  slender  form,  and  their  arms  so  long  as 
almost  to  reach  the  ground  when  they  are  placed 
in  an  erect  posture  ;  there  are  also  naked  callosities 
on  the  buttocks.  In  this  respect  they  ditier  from 
the  other  Anthropoid  Apes  ((|.v.),  and  are  allied  to 
some  of  the  Catarrhini ;  in  other  resjiects  also  the 
Gibbons  are  the  lowest  among  the  anthro]"iid 
apes,  and  connect  them  with  the  Catarrhini.  The 
gibbons  are  inhabitants  of  fcuests,  their  long  arms 
enabling  them  to  swing  themselves  from  bough  to 
bough,  which  they  do  to  wonderful  distances,  ami 
with  extreme  agility.  They  cannot,  however, 
move  with  ease  or  rajiidity  on  the  ground.  The 
conformation   of    the  hinder  extremities   adds   to 


The  Active  Gibbon  [HylobaUs  agilii). 

their  dilliculty  in  this,  whilst  it  increases  their 
adaptation  to  a  life  annmg  the  branches  of  trees, 
the  soles  of  the  feet  being  much  turned  inwards. 
None  of  the  gibbons  are  of  large  size.  There  are 
some  eight  or  ten  s]iccies.  The  Common  (libbon, 
or  L.'ir  (libbou  (//.  lur],  is  found  in  some  parts  of 
India,  and  in  more  eastern  regicms.  The  Active 
Gibbon  (//.  a(iilis),  founil  in  Sumatra,  is  partic- 
ularly remarkable  for  the  power  which  it  ilisplays 
of  lliiiging  itself  from  one  tree  to  another,  clearing 


202 


GIBBON 


at  Diice,  it  is  s.iiil,  a  distance  of  fiu'ty  feet.  The 
Wdwwow  (//.  /ciirisrii.i)  is  a  gililiDii  foiiiul  iii 
Malacca  ami  tlie  Siiiula  Isles.  J/.  InicninHijs  is 
from  Siaiii.  The  lloolock  ( //.  JIm.lor/:)  w  a 
native  of  the  (larmw  Hills.  The  Siaiiiaiif,'  ( //.  i 
siimlru'tyhts),  a  Siiiiiatraii  species,  dilleis  from  the 
rest  of  the  •,'eiuis  in  haviiij,'  the  lii-st  ami  sec.ml 
liii;.'(Ms  of  the  hinder  rxlremilies  united  to;,'etlier 
up^to  the  scroiid  jnint ;  it  reseinhles  the  Uran^' 
((i.v.),  and  ditlers  from  the  true  ^'ildions  in  having 
a  larjje  air-sac  opcnin;;  into  the  wimlpiiie.  All  the 
;,'ihl)ons  are  of  gentle  ilisposition,  ami  easily  domes- 
ticated. At  present  the  gihbons  are  conlined  to 
south-e.astern  Asia  and  some  of  the  larger  islands 
hordering  upon  the  continent,  Imt  it  is  pos.-ihle 
that  IJnr)/)i'f/in-ii.s  found  fossil  in  Tertiary  strata  of 
the  south  of  Trance,  of  the  size  of  a  man,  is  refer- 
ahle  to  the  same  group.  See  ligure  of  the  skeleton 
at  .Vntiirdpoid  .Ai'Es. 

<iibl>l»ll.    Einv.utlJ,    the    greatest   of    Knglish, 
perhaps  of  all  historians,  was  horn  at  Putney,  near 
London,  '27lh  April  ( sth  May  in  new  style)  IT.'iT,  the 
eldest,  and  sole  survivor  licvond  th(^  years  of  infancy, 
of   the   sevcji  children    of    Edwar.l  Ciblion  and   of 
Judith   I'orten,      In  Cililion's  case  the  task  of   the 
biogra[)her  has  been   made  easy  by  his  own  auto- 
biography, which  comes  ilowu  to  within  live  yeai-s 
of  his  death,  and  which  with  all  its  e.\fiuisite  art 
is  perhai>s  the  most  veracious  ex.ample  of  its  cliuss 
ill    the    Knglish    tongue.       tlibboii's    parents   were 
both  of  good  family  :  his  f.atlier,  a  country  gentle- 
man of  a  nature  Uin.lly  but  weak,  and  himself  the 
son  of  an  able  linanciiM-  who  lost  a  fortune  in  the 
South   Sea  bubble,   ami   made   another  before   his 
death.       The   boy's   childhood   was   sickly   from    a 
strange  nervous' all'ecti(Mi,    which    contracted    his 
legs    alternately    and   caused     excruciating    i)aiu. 
The  very  preservaticm  of  his  life  he  as<'ribcil  to  the 
more  tliaii   maternal    care  of  his   aunt,    Catherine 
P.nten,  whose  devotion  he  repaid  with  a  constant 
allection.       His    studies    were    desultory    i.erforce, 
and   two   iniser.ible   yeai-s  at  Westminster  was  all 
the  regular  schooling  that  ho  got.     After  his  four- 
teenth year  his  weakness  began  to  disappear,  and 
his  father,   without   permitting  him   to  ^yalt  until 
he   was   adecpiately    iirepare.l,    carried    him  oil    to 
Ma"dalen  College,   and   iMitered   him  as   a  gentle- 
man  commoner,    April    3,    17.52.      At    no    period 
in   its   history  liad  Oxford  reache<l  such  a  depth 
of  degeneracy.      '  The   fellows  of  niy  time,'   says 
Gibbon,    'were    decent    easy    men    who    supinely 
enjoved  the  gifts  of  the  founder;  their  days  were 
lilleii    by   a  serie-s   of   uniform    employments:    the 
chapel    and    the    hall,    the    collee-houso    and    the 
common   room,    till   they   retired,   weary   and  well 
satislied,    to   a   long    slumber.     From    the   U)il    ot 
reading,  or  thinking,  or  writing,  they  had  absolved 
their  ccuiscience  ;  and  the  lii-st  shoots  of   learning 
and   ingenuity  withered   in   the  ground,    without 
yielding  anv  fruits  to  the  owners  or  the  public.   .   .   . 
Their  conversation  stagnated  in  a  round  of  college 
business,    Tory    politics,    person.il    anecdotes,    ami 
private   scandal  :    their   dull    and    deep    potations 
exciLsed   the  brisk   intemperance    of    youth  ;    and 
tiieir  constitutional  toiusts  were  not  exiuessive  of 
the  most  lively  loyally  for  the  house  of  Hanover. 
Such  Wii-s  the  "atniospiiere  into  which  (Jibboii  was 
Hung  at  the  age  of  lifteon,  '  with  a  stock  of  erudi- 
tion" which   might   have    puzzled   a  doctor,   and  a 
de'iee  of   ignorance  of   which   a  schoidboy   might 
have  been  ashamed,'   and   here   he  spent  fourteen 
months— '  the  most    idle    and    unprolitable   of   my 
wiiole   life;   the    reader   will    pronounce   between 
the  school  and  the  scholar.'     From  his  chiUlliood 
he  had  been  f(md  of  religious  disputation,  and  his 
incursions  into  the  bewil.lering  mazes  of  a  great 
controversy  m.ade  him  at  sixteen  a  convert  to  the 
Church    of    Koni-,   a!id   shut   the   gates  of   Oxford 


upon  him.     His  father  next  placed  hini  under  the 
care  of  the  poet  and  deist  Mallet,  but  by  his  p bilo- 
sojdiy  the  young  enthusiast  was  'rather  scamlalised 
tlian"  rechiimed.'      To  elVect  his  cure  fri>m   j.opcry 
he   was  next   sent   to    I.ausanm!    to   board    m    the 
house  of  a  Calvinist  minislt-r,  .M.  I'avillianl,  a  poor 
but  worthy  and   intelligent   man,   who  jiuliciously 
suggested    books    and    arguments    to    his    young 
charge,    and    hail    the   satisfaction   of    seeing   him 
reconverted   to    Protestantism.       (Jibboii    tells    us 
that    '  the   various   articles   of    the    P>omish    creed 
disaiipeared   like   a   dream;   and   after  a   lull   con- 
viction,   on    Christmas  .lay    17">4,    1    received    the 
sacrament    in    the   church    of    Lausanne.       It    wa.s 
here    that     1    suspended    my    religious    im|Uiries 
acquiescing  with  implicit  br-lief  in  the  tenets  and 
mysteries  which  are  adojited   by   the  general  con- 
sent of   Cathcdics  and   Protestants.'     He   lived  for 
nearly  live  years  in  M.  Pavilllard's  house,  respect- 
ing the    minister,   and    enduring    with   greater   or 
leiTs    ciiuanimitv    the    'uncleanly    avarice'   of    his 
wife  :  and  here  he  began  and  carried  out  with  rare 
steadfastness  of   purpose  those  inivate  studies  in 
Fn>ncli    literature,    but    especially    in    the    Latin 
classics,   which,   aided  by   his  prodigious   memory, 
made  him  a  master  of  erudition  without  a  sujierior, 
and  with  hanllv  an  eipial.      Here  also  be  fell  in  love 
with   Mademoiselle  Suzanne  Curcliod,   the  beauti- 
ful   and    accomplished    daughter    of    the   ob.sciire 
minister  of  Crassy,  who  liveil   to  become  the  wife 
of   the   great    French    minister   and    financier,    M. 
Necker,  and  the  mother  of  the  gifted   Madame  de 
Staid.     He   found   on   his  return   to   Knghind   that 
his  father  woubl  not  hear  of  the  'strange  alliance, 
and   in  the  calm   rellection  of  thirty  years  later  he 
adds,    'After  a  jiainful  struggle   1   yielded   to  my 
fate  ;   I  sighed  as  a  lover,  1  obeyed  as  a  son  ;  my 
wound    w,as   insensibly    healed    I'ly    time,    absence, 
and    the    habits    of    a    new    life.       My    cure    was 
accclerateil  by  a  faithful  reiiort  of  the  tranfiuillity 
and  cheerfulness  of  th(^  lady  herself,  and  my  love 
subsided  in  friemlshii.  and  esteem.'    They  remained 
constant  friends  in   later  life,  and  the  foinier  lover 
during  a  visit  to   Paris  ( 17G5)  vi>ile<l   her  daily  in 
her  salon,  'soft,  yielding,  humble,  and  decorous  to 
a  fault,'  as  Madame  Necker  describes   him   in  a 
familiar  letter  to  a  friend. 

Gibbon  returned  to  his  father's  house  in  17oS. 
He  was  well  received,  and  '  ever  after  continneil  on 
the  same  terms  of  eipial  and  easy  politeness.'  He 
became  much  .ittaibed  to  his  stepmother,  and  the 
two  '  easily  adopted  the  ten<ler  names  and  genuine 
characters'  of  mother  and  .son.'  He  biought  with 
him  the  lirst  jiagesof  a  little  book  which  at  length 
he  published  in  1701  in  French,  uiidi'r  the  title  of 
E.sxiii  xiir  r  f'.tmlf  ilc  Id  LiUt'riif  iin:  He  bad  joined 
the  Hampshire  mililia,  and  for  the  next  two  and 
a  half  years  led  a  wandering  life  of  niilitaiy  servi 
tude  a.s  a  captain— an  irksome  disciidine,  but  one 
which  he  ailmits  wa-s  not  unprolitable  to  him. 
'The  discipline  and  evolutions  of  a  nioilern  bat- 
talion gave  me  a  clearer  notion  of  the  phalanx  and 
the  legion  ;  and  the  captain  of  Hampshire  grena- 
diers (the  reader  may  smile)  has  not  been  u.-eless 
to  the  historian  of  the  Koman  empire.'  Meantime 
he  revcdved  within  his  miml  many  projects  for  a 
histoiical  work,  ami,  the  militia  being  disbamled, 
visited  Paris  and  Lausanne,  and  extended  his 
travels  into  Ualv.  'It  was  at  Koine,'  he  tells  us, 
'on  the  loth  of  October  17r>4,  as  I  sat  musing 
amidst  the  ruins  of  the .  Capit(d,  while  the  bare- 
footed friars  were  singing  vespers  in  the  temple-  of 
Juiiiter.  that  the  idea  of  writing  the  decline  and 
fall  of  the  city  first  started  into  my  mind.  But 
my  original  plan  was  circumscribi'd  to  the  decay  of 
the  city  rather  than  of  the  emidre  ;  and  though  my 
reailing  and  reflections  began  to  point  towards  that 
object,  some  years  elapsed,  and  several  avocations 


GIBBON 


203 


intervened,  before  I  was  seriously  engaged  in  the 
execution  of  that  laborious  work.' 

One  of  the  i)roiects  taken  up  and  ahandoned 
after  two  years'  iiroiiaratmy  stuilies  was  a  history  of 
SNvitzi.'rhiiiil  in  coniiinctimi  wilh  liis  friend  IJey- 
verdun,  with  whojii  also  lie  [jhinued  and  actually 
printed  two  volumes  of  a  periodical  work  entitled 
Mimoires  LiUiraircs  de  la  Grande  Brctaf/uc  (17()7- 
68).  Another  work  was  his  anonymous  Critical 
Ohsr.rratiuiis  on  the  .iixth  Book  of  the  .'Encid,  a 
hitter  attack  upon  the  paradox  aitvanced  in  War- 
burton's  Divine  Legation,  that  Virgil  in  the  sixth 
book  of  his  /Eneid,  iu  the  visit  of  .Eneas  and  the 
Siljyl  to  the  shades,  allegorised  his  hero's  initia- 
tions, as  a  lawgiver,  into  the  Eleusinian  mysteries. 
In  1770  his  father  died,  leaving  his  atl'airs  in  dis- 
order, from  which  (Jibbon  within  two  years  con- 
trived to  extricate  himself,  and  settle  in  Limdon. 
In  1774  he  entered  iiarliament  as  member  for  the 
borough  of  Liskeard  at  the  beginning  of  the 
struggle  with  America,  and  'supported  Avith  many 
a  sincere  and  silent  vote  the  rights,  though  not, 
perhaps,  the  interest  of  the  mother-country.'  He 
sat  afterwards  also  for  Lymington,  altogether  for 
eight  sessions,  without  ever  summoning  courage  to 
speak.  In  a  letter  (177o)  to  Holroyd  (the  future 
Lord  Shelhelil)  he  writes  :  'I  am  still  a  mute;  it 
is  more  tremeudous  than  I  imagined  ;  the  great 
speakers  till  me  with  despair ;  the  bad  ones  with 
terror.'  His  constant  support  of  government  was 
rewardeil  in  1779  by  a  post  as  one  of  the  Lords 
Commissioners  of  Trade  and  Plantations,  which 
hrought  a  welccnne  aildition  to  his  income  of  over 
£700  a  year,  hut  of  which  he  was  deprived  three 
years  later  on  the  supiiressiou  of  the  office  through 
the  exertions  of  Iturke. 

After  the  labours  of  seven  years  an<l  infinite 
fastidiousness  in  its  compositiim,  he  published  the 
first  volume  of  his  Deel!)ie  and  Fall  of  the  Jlonian, 
Empire  in  February  1776.  Its  success  was  im- 
mediate, and  it  was  not  for  some  time  that  the 
religious  world  awakened  to  the  insidiously 
dangerous  character  of  the  attack  upon  Christi- 
anity in  the  IStli  and  10th  chapters,  which  while 
not  formally  denying  the  'convincing  evidence 
of  the  doctrine  itself,  and  the  ruling  providence 
of  its  great  authoi-,'  proceed  to  account  for  the 
vapid  growth  of  the  early  Christian  church  by 
'  secondary  '  or  merely  human  causes — most  of  them 
rather  its  effects.  (Jf  these  he  otl'ered  live  :  ( 1 )  the 
inflexible  and  intolerant  zeal  of  the  Christians ; 
('2)  the  doctrine  of  a  future  life,  improved  by 
every  adilitional  circumstance  which  could  give 
weight  and  ellicaey  to  that  important  truth;  (,3) 
the  miraculous  powers  ascribed  to  the  primitive 
church  ;  ( -t )  the  virtues  of  the  primitive  Christians  ; 
(5 1  the  union  and  discipline  of  the  Christian 
repuljlic.  (liblion  was  by  temiier  incapable  of 
appreheniliug  spiritual  aspirations  by  sympathetic 
insight,  and  he  as.sailed  with  sneer  and  innuendo 
what  \n:  did  not  understand  yet  instinctively  dis- 
liked, but  feared  ooeuly  to  attack.  He  was  too 
worldly  and  altogetlier  too  much  a  true  son  of  his 
century  to  estinuite  aright  what  w.as  really  un- 
worldly; and,  moreover,  this  iualiility  was  intensi- 
fied by  his  own  cold  and  conqiosed  tem]ierament 
and  the  rellex  efVect  of  his  peculiar  experiences. 

Huuu',  who  was  then  slowly  dying  (March  1776), 
in  a  characteristic  and  highly  complimentary  letter 
said  about  these  chapters  :  '  I  think  you  have 
observed  a  very  pruilent  temperament ;  but  it  was 
impossible  to  treat  the  subject  so  as  not  to  give 
grounds  of  suspicion  against  you,  and  you  may 
expect  that  a  clamour  will  arise.'  The  prophecy 
proved  true,  and  (iibbon  was  ere  long  as.sailed  by  a 
limd  discharge  of  '  ecclesiastic;il  onlnance,'  which 
he  professes  to  have  fouml  but  empty  sound.  '  nns- 
chievous  only  in  the  intention. '     He  claims  to  have 


helped  his  assailants  to  being  rewarded  in  this 
world.  He  only  deigned  to  rejily  «hen  Henry  E. 
Davies  of  Oxford  impugned  'not  the  faith,  liut  the 
iiilelity  of  the  historian  ;'  still,  he  would  not  mint 
his  ]'indirafinii  in  quarto  lest  it  should  be  bound  and 
preserv<'d  with  the  histcny  itself,  lie  pcnsevereil 
assiiluoHsly  with  his  great  work,  and  had  two  more 
volumes  ready  in  1781.  And  now,  having  lost  oliice, 
ami  finding  it  dithciilt  to  live  easily  in  London 
ujion  his  income,  he  determined  to  accept  IJey- 
verdun's  invitation  to  settle  down  with  him  in  his 
house  at  Lausanne.  He  started  in  Septemlier  ilHS, 
and  spent  the  next  four  years  in  the  midst  of  his 
6000  volumes,  in  calm  and  uninterrupted  work, 
never  moving  the  while  a  dozen  miles  out  of  the 
town.  He  had  nearly  completed  the  fourth  volume 
before  leaving  London,  the  fifth  was  finished  iu 
twenty-one  months,  the  sixth  in  little  more  than 
a  year.  The  conclusion  must  be  t(dd  in  his  own 
memorable  an<l  touching  words:  'It  was  on  the 
day,  or  rather  the  night,  of  the  '27th  of  June  1787, 
between  the  hours  of  eleven  and  twelve,  that  I 
wrote  the  last  lines  of  the  last  jiage,  in  a  summer- 
house  in  my  garden.  After  laying  down  my  pen  I 
took  several  turns  in  a  bcrecaii,  or  co\ered  walk  of 
acacias,  which  commands  a  prosjiect  <if  the  country, 
the  lake,  and  the  mountains.  The  air  was  tem- 
perate, the  sky  was  serene,  the  silver  orb  <if  the 
moon  was  rellected  from  the  waters,  and  all  nature 
was  silent.  I  will  not  dis.semble  the  fiist  eiuotious 
of  joy  on  recovery  of  my  freedom,  and,  i)erhaps, 
the  establishment  of  my  fame.  But  my  pride  wiis 
soon  humbled,  and  a  sober  melancholy  was  spread 
over  my  mind,  by  the  idea  that  1  had  taken  an 
everlasting  leave  of  an  old  ami  agreeable  com- 
panion, and  that,  what-soever  might  be  the  luture 
fate  of  my  History,  the  life  of  the  historian  must 
be  short  and  precarious.'  A  month  later  he  started 
for  England  to  superintend  the  printing  of  the 
work.  The  fourth  volume  took  three  months;  the 
last  two  were  issued  in  the  May  of  178N.  He 
returned  immediately  to  Lausanne,  where  within 
a  twelvemonth  his  much-loved  companion  Dey- 
verdun  died — a  blow  which  afl'ected  him  deejdy, 
and  from  which  indeed  he  ne\er  fully  lecovered. 
The  state  of  France  tilled  him  with  trouble,  though 
it  was  some  solace  to  have  the  exiled  Neckere 
beside  him  at  Coppet.  near  Lausanne.  The  letters 
between  his  old  love  and  himself  are  creditable  in 
the  highest  degree  to  the  hearts  of  both.  'Come 
to  us,'  she  writes,  '  when  you  are  restored  to  health 
and  to  yourself ;  that  moment  should  always  belong 
to  your  first  and  your  last  friend,  and  1  do  not 
know  which  of  those  titles  is  the  sweetest  and 
dearest  to  mv  heart.'  But  his  last  years  were  not 
happy  ;  good  living  and  want  of  exercise  had 
brought  on  burdensome  coriuilency,  and  he  began 
to  be  racked  with  the  tmture  of  gout.  His  aunt 
hail  already  died  in  1786,  Deyvenlun  and  other 
favourite  friends  had  quickly  followed,  and  last 
came  the  unexpected  death  of  his  dear  friend, 
Lady  Sheffield.  At  once,  though  travelling  was 
now  terrible  to  him,  he  nutde  up  his  miml  to  go  to 
console  Lord  iShetlield,  and  within  a  month  he  was 
with  him.  After  three  months'  stay  at  Sheffield 
I'lace,  and  a  visit  to  his  aged  stei)-inother  at  Bath, 
he  came  to  London,  where  a  few  days  later  he  was 
seized  with  an  attack  of  dropsy,  the  result  of  a 
rupture  which  he  had  neglected  for  over  thirty 
years.  An  operation  gave  temporary  relief,  and  he 
went  again  a  little  into  society,  but  two  months 
later  he  dietl,  without  apprehensiim  or  sufi'eiing,  in 
St  James's  Street,  London,  16th  January  1704. 

The  monumental  work  of  tiiblxm  is  likely  to 
remain  our  masterpiece  in  history.  The  magnitude 
of  the  subject  is  nobly  sustained  by  the  dignity  of 
the  treatment,  and  the  whole  fabric  stands  out  a 
nuirvellous  bridge  tiung  by  genius  and  erudition 


204 


GIBBONS 


GIBBOUS 


across  the  welteiiiij;  oentmies  of  confusion  tliat 
sepiiiato  tlio  iilil  winlil  from  the  new.  The  ;.'hi\viiif; 
ima;,'iiialioii  nf  the  wiiter  ^'ive>i  life  and  vi;,'(>iir  to 
the  rouMih'il  peiioils  and  to  the  stately  ami  iioiMpoiis 
march  of  the  narrative,  ami  all  defects  of  taste  dis- 
a|ipear  in  the  ailmiration  extorted  from  the  most 
reluctant  rea<k'r.  l'erha|is  his  most  unii|ue  merit 
is  his  sniironij  and  almost  epic  ]io\ver  of  moulding' 
into  a  lucid  unity  a  hewilderini,'  multitude  of 
iletails,  and  ^'iviu};  life  and  sei|Uence  to  the  wh<dc. 
His  |irodl;;ious  inemiirv  moved  freely  under  a 
ponilerons  \veij;ht  of  learning,'  which  his  iiuicUenint; 
ima;;ination  fused  into  a  j,dowin<;  stream  of  con- 
tinuous narrative,  which  is  yet,  with  all  its  detail, 
a  marvel  of  condensation.  The  stcn-y  of  Constantin- 
ople is  his;;reatest  ellbrt — his  treatment  of  .lulian, 
of  .Justinian,  of  the  Arahs.  and  of  the  Crusades,  the 
most  splendid  sinjjle  episodes  in  our  historical 
literature.  He  li.as  painted  in  j;or^'>'ous  colours 
all  the  splendours  of  the  ancient  I'a^'anism,  and 
portr.ayeil  with  matchless  force  every  lifjure  that 
crossed  the  sta;,'e  of  history  for  a  thousand  years  ; 
for  the  moral  l)cautv  of  Cliristianity  alone  he  has 
no  enthusiasm — the  heroism  of  its  martyr-witnesses 
and  its  saints  touches  not  his  im.ij,'ination  norwarnis 
his  ili-.-iru.'itic  sense  to  life  This  elemental  defect 
set  aside,  few  faults  of  detail  have  heeu  discovered 
in  his  work,  the  enduriiif;  merit  of  which  it  may 
he  ]iermitted  to  summarise  in  the  wonls  of  a  f;reat 
modern  master  of  history,  whose  own  studies  have 
followed  closely  in  his  track.  '  That  (;il)lion  shotild 
ever  he  displaced,'  savs  .Mr  Kreeman,  'seems  ini- 
possilile.  '1  hat  wonderful  man  monoiKdised,  so  to 
speak,  the  historical  f^euius  anil  tiie  historical 
learning'  of  a  whole  j;eneration,  and  left  little 
indeed  of  either  for  his  contem]>oraries.  He  remains 
the  one  historian  of  the  eit;hteenth  century  whom 
modern  research  lia.s  neither  set  aside  nor  threatened 
to  set  aside.  We  may  correct  and  iinprov(^  from 
the  stores  which  have  heen  ojiencd  since  (lildion's 
time;  we  m.ay  write  a;,'aiu  l.ir^'c  parts  of  his  stmv 
from  other  and  often  truer  ami  more  wholesome 
points  of  view  ;  but  the  work  of  (iilihon  as  a  whole, 
a-s  the  encyclojia'dic  history  of  13(X)  years,  as  the 
granilest  of  historical  desi^'ns,  carried  out  alike 
with  wonderful  power  and  with  wonderful  accuracy, 
keeii  its  place.     Whatever  else  is  read, 


must  ever  keeji  its  place. 
Gihhon  must  lie  read  too.' 


Lord  Sla-flU-ld  collected  his  Afisrcllancuiis  JKorAs  (2 
vols.  I'lKi;  enlarged  ed.  .">  vols.  1S14).  Sir  W.  Sinitli's 
edition  of  The  Decline  and  Fall  («  vols.  IS.M-SS)  con- 
tains tlie  notes  of  Guizot  and  .Miliiian;  a,  new  edition, 
in  7  vols.,  eilited  liy  .1.  li.  Uury,  was  begun  in  IWIli. 
In  IS'JT  another  Lord  h^lieltield  pulilislied  tlie  si.\  versions 
of  tlie  Autobiography  limn  whicli  Jliss  Holroyd  pieced 
together  the  te.tt  till  then  accejited  ;  and  two  volumes  of 
the  letters  were  edited  by  Professor  Prothero.  Sec  the 
monograph  by  J.  C.  Morison  (1878),  and  Frederic  Harri- 
son's address  at  the  Gibbon  Commemoration  (18115). 

OibbOIlS,  tjRINLIN'ii,  .sculjitor  and  wood  carver, 
was  liorn  .it  Itotterdam.  4th  Ajiril  Ui4S.  In  1071 
Evelyn  found  him  at  Deptford  carvint;  on  wood 
Tintoretto's  '  Crucili.xion  ;'  .-md  on  Evelyn's  recom- 
mendation he  was  appointed  by  Charles  H.  to 
a  place  in  the  Boani  i>f  Works,  and  em|doyed 
in  the  ornamental  carving'  of  the  choir  of  the 
chapel  at  Windsor.  His  works  disiday  e^ieat 
ta.ste  and  <lelicacy  of  linisli,  ami  his  Mowers  ami 
f(dia^'e  have  almost  the  li},ditness  of  nature.  Eor 
the  choir  of  St  Paul's,  i^ondon,  he  executed  the 
foli.i^'e  and  festoons,  and  those  in  lime-tree  which 
decorate  the  side  aisles.  At  Chatsworlh,  at  liur- 
lei^^h,  at  Southwick,  Hampshire,  and  other  man- 
sions of  the  En^dish  nobility,  he  executed  an 
immense  quantity  of  carved  embellishment  ;  the 
ccilin;;  of  a  room  at  Pctworth  is  regardeil  as  his 
chcfil'iiin'ic.  He  also  ]irodnced  several  line  pieces 
in   marble   and    bronze.      Anions    these    are    the 


statue  of  Janie-s  11.,  Whitehall  ;  tlie  base  of  the 
statue  of  Charles  I.,  at  Charing;  Cross;  and  that  of 
Charles  II.,  .it  the  Koyal  E.\chan^'e.  He  died 
in  Londcui,  .\ugust  3,  IT'il. 

Ciiltboiis,  Orlando,  one  of  the  (greatest  of 
Knfilish  musicians,  was  born  at  Cambriil;;e,  1583, 
and  was  proliably  broufrht  up  in  tlii'  choir  of  one  of 
the  collc^'c  chapels.  His  elder  biDlhers,  I'',dward 
and  Ellis,  were  both  eminent  innanists  and  cinii- 
posers.  The  chief  events  of  (iilthons's  short  life 
are  soon  told.  On  March  24,  1(>(I4,  he  was  ap- 
pointeil  oifjanist  of  the  Ch.ipel  Koyal,  London. 
In  l()(l()  he  took  the  de^'ree  of  Mns.  Mac.  at  Cam- 
bridee,  arid  in  l(i'J'2,  at  the  instance  of  Camden, 
that  of  .Mus.Doc.  at  Oxford.  His  exercise  \va.s  the 
W(dl  known  8-])t.  anthem,  '  ()  Clap  your  Hands.'  In 
\(}iZ  he  became  orjianist  of  Westminster  .Miliey. 
In  May  1()2.")  he  went  with  the  kin;;  ami  court  to 
C.-interbury,  to  await  the  arrival  of  Henrietta 
Maria,  ami  while  there,  on  .Inne  5,  died  of  what 
appears  to  have  been  aiio]ilexy  (see  the  ollicial 
letter  and  report  of  the  pliysici;ins  in  the  Atlniiniiui, 
November  14,  ISS.'i,  p.  (i44 ).  His  monument,  with 
a  bust,  is  in  the  north  aisle  of  the  nave  at  Canter- 
bury, and  a  imrtrait  is  in  the  music-.school,  Oxford. 
His  wife's  name  was  Elizabeth  I'atten;  and  of  their 
seven  children  six  survived  him,  two  of  whom, 
Christopher  and  Orlando,  were  musicians. 

Oilibons's  icputation  ;us  an  or;,'anist  w.as  <;reat ; 
he  'had  the  best  liaml  in  Kn;;laiid.'  His  com- 
positions are  not  numerous,  but  most  of  them 
are  jiure  pjld.  The  best  known  are  his  Morn- 
ing' and  Eveniiif;  Service  in  F;  the  anthems,  'O 
Claji  your  Hands'  and  'Cod  is  fjoiie  n]>'  (S  pts.), 
'  Hosanna,'  '  Lift  u|i  your  Heads  '  (G  pts. ),  and  '  Al- 
mighty .'ind  everlastinj;  Cod'  (4  Jits.);  the  Tipt. 
madrigals.  'The  Silver  Swan,'  'O  that  the  learned 
Poets, 'and  '  Dainty,  line,  sweet  Uird.'  IJesiiles  llie.se 
he  left  Pieces  and  hymns,  a  score  of  anthems,  both 
full  and  verse;  seventeen  mailrig.als,  the  remainder 
of  the  volume  jinblished  in  I(jl'2;  nine  f.intasies 
for  strings  (Kill);  six  iiieces  for  the  virginals, 
included  in  '  Parthenia '  (llil'J),  and  a  few  other 
miscellaneous  pieces.  These  show  him  to  have 
been  not  only  learned,  .as  all  musicians  of  that 
time  were  learned,  but  anim.ated  by  grace,  dignity, 
and  .sentiment,  such  as  weie  jiossessed  by  none 
of  his  predeci'ssors  in  the  .school.  Nothing  mine 
nidde  and  s|urited  wa.s  ever  written  than  his 
'  Hosanna.' nothing  miuc  touchinglv  religious  and 
beautiful  than  his  '  .Mmighty  ami  Everlasting,' or 
'The  Silver  Swan.'  In  these  exquisite  comiiosi- 
tions  the  art  (lisa])pears,  and  the  sentiment  of^  the 
words  is  immediately  seized.  His  Service,  for  jiro- 
priety,  dignity,  and  beauty,  rem.ains  above  all  that 
preceded  or  followed  it.  It  and  the  anthems  named 
above  retain  their  constant  ]ilace  in  English  choirs. 

With  (lildions  the  gre.-it  church  school  of  Eng- 
land came  to  an  end.  P.yrd  li;iil  dieil  in  Hi'i.'i.  two 
years  before  him,  and  Ihill,  Weelkes,  Dowlaml, 
,Mid  others  of  the  old  giants  dejiarted  just  at  this 
very  date.  Felix  ojipurtiu.ilnlr  mortis,  nun  niim 
riilH — .  The  great  troubles  followed  very  shmtly, 
and  the  death  of  the  king  and  the  destructions 
of  the  Civil  War  ;  music  was  all  but  extinguished  ; 
.and  the  new  school  began  on  fresh  foundations  with 
the  licstor.alion,  in  the  persons  of  Pelham  lliim- 
frey,  I!low,  and  I'urcell.  IJiit  Orlando  Ciblions  is 
the  culmination  of  the  ancient  musical  art  of  our 
country,  and  !i.s  long  ;ts  voices  can  sing  .and  hearts 
can  delight  in  real  beauty  he  will  remain  at  the 
head  of  the  English  ehurcli  scliO(d  of  music.  l'"or 
the  full  list  of  his  works  and  other  details,  see 
Grove's  Dictiunciry  of  Miaic  and  Musicians,  i.  594, 
and  iv.  (147. 

OibhiMls.  a  term  signifying  '  nrotnberant,' 
'swelling  out,'  applied  to  bodies  which  are  ilouhle- 


GIBEAH 


GIBRALTAR 


205 


convex,  and  naitioularly  to  tlie  moon,  when  she  is 
within  a  week  of  the  full.— Gibbosity  ( Lat.  rjibbus, 
'huiii|il)afked')  is  a  state  of  <lisease  cliaracterised 
hy  ]Motubeiance  of  a  part  of  the  Imdy  ;  chiefly 
ajiplied  to  humpback  or  otiier  distortions  clepending 
on  disease  (Rickets,  (j.v.)  of  the  spinal  column. 

Ciiboall.  a  Hebrew  word  si<j;nifyin;,'  a  'hill,' 
and  Ki^ii'K  name  to  several  towns  and  jdaces  in 
ancient  I'alestine.  (iiheah  of  Bciijainiit,  4  nules  N. 
of  Jerusalem,  near  Ramali,"  was  the  scene  of  tlie 
story  of  the  Levite  (Judi,'es,  xix.),  and  was  the 
residence,  if  not  the  birthplace,  of  Kin;,'  Saul.  It 
lias  been  identified  with  the  modern  village  of 
Jeb'a. 

Ciibol.    See  C.VRP. 

dibeoil,  a  city  of  ancient  Palestine,  a  place  of 
f;reat  natural  strength,  on  a  hill  in  a  fertile  plain 
among  the  iimuntains  of  Benjannn,  5  miles 
N\V.  of  Jerusalem.  At  the  eomiuest  of  Canaan 
liy  the  Israelites  under  Joshua,  it  was  inliabited  by 
lii\ites.  I!y  a  clever  stratagem  the  CUbeonites 
ensured  the  alliance  and  ))rotection  of  the  invaders, 
liut,  theii-  <leceit  being  afterwards  found  out,  they 
were  reduced  to  a  condition  of  servitude,  Ijeing 
made  '  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water  unto 
all  the  congregation.'  When  the  five  kings  of  the 
Aniorites  besieged  Gibeon  for  having  entered  into 
a  traitorous  compact  with  the  common  enemy  of 
all  the  Canaanites,  Joshua  hastened  to  its  help, 
and  overthrew  the  besiegers  with  great  slaughter. 
It  w.as  there  that  Joshua,  in  the  words  quoted  from 
tlie  book  of  Jashar  ( Joshua,  x.  I'i ),  commanded  '  the 
sun  to  stand  still  upon  Gibeon,  and  the  moon  in  the 
valley  of  Ajalon.'  Gibeon  is  often  mentioned  in 
tlie  bid  Testament ;  and  on  its  site  there  still 
stands  a  village  with  an  old  church. 

(•ibi'illtai*  (Span.  Gibraltar'),  an  isolated  mass 
of  rock,  in  the  SW.  of  Spain,  rising  to  an  altitude 
of  1408  feet,  3  miles  in  length  and  j  mile  in  average 
breadth,  is  situated  at  tlie  extremity  of  a  low  sandy 
peninsula,  which  cimnects  it  on  the  north  with 
Andalusia;  its  most  soutliern  headland,  Point 
Europa,  is  in  36"  2'  30"  X.  lat.  and  o  \o  12"  \V. 
long.  Its  western  side  is  washed  by  the  Hay  of 
Giliraltar,  called  also  tlie  Bay  of  Algeciras  ;  and  at 
the  foot  of  the  rock,  on  this  same  side,  is  the  town 
of  Gibraltar,  which  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
South  Town,  above  the  dockyard,  and  the  North 
Town,  which  has  narrow,  mean  streets,  and  is  in- 
habited liy  a  motley  agglomeration  of  Knglish, 
(li'iioese,  Spaniards,  Jews,  and  Moors.  In  1892 
Algeciras  ( opposite )  was  connected  with  the  Spanish 
railway  system.  Pop.  (1895)  26,184,  including  f;ar- 
risoii  of  oIKU.  Amongst  public  buildings,  besides 
barracks,  itc,  are  the  governor's  lesidenci',  calhnl 
the  Convent — it  formerly  belonged  to  the  Francis- 
cans ;  the  naval  hospital;  tlie  .Vlameda  (iardeiis, 
stretching  lictween  the  Niutli  Town  and  the  South 
Town  ;  tlie  signal  station,  crowning  the  central 
eminence  of  the  rock,  12.5.5  feet  high  ;  the  remains 
of  the  ancient  Moorish  castle,  founded  in  the  lOtli 
century ;  and  the  lighthouse,  (ui  Point  Europa, 
erected  in  1841,  whose  light,  1.50  feet  above  the  sea, 
is  seen  for  20  miles.  At  the  iKU'thcrn  base  of  the 
rock  is  the  open  space  called  the  North  Front, 
exteuiling  as  far  as  the  British  lines  ;  here  are  the 
cemetery,  the  cricket-ground,  the  racecourse,  vtc. 
Between  the  British  and  the  Spanish  lines  is  the 
neutral  ground,  which  is  uninhabited.  Gn  the 
west  side  of  the  rock,  south  of  the  Alameda 
(Jardens,  are  the  naval  victualling-yard  and  the 
naval  dockyard.  This  latter  dates  from  tlie  IStli 
century,  and  is  protected  on  the  south  by  a  new 
mole,  a  (|U.'irter  of  a  mile  long.  The  merchant- 
ve.ssels  that  visit  the  town  11  nd  good  anchorage  in 
the  liay  of  Cibraltar,  8  miles  deep  by  5  wide. 
Cibialtar  has   been   a  free  port  since  its  capture 


by  the  Britisli.  Until  the  introduction  of  steam- 
vessels  it  was  one  of  the  cliief  emporiuiiis  of  the 
Mediterranean  ;  and  its  trade  is  still  ininortant — 
tlie  burden  of  the  vessels  entering  and  clearing  is 
about  5000  ships  of  8,.500,000  tons  ( the  va.st  majo- 
rity British)  in  a  year.  Gibraltar  ranks  among  the 
most  important  Coaling  Stations  (q.v. ),  and  har- 
bour iiuiiroveiiienls  were  sanctioned  by  the  naval 
bills  of  1895  and  1890.  The  Spaniards  coiii)dain 
of  smuggling  from  Gibraltar.  I'lie  governor  exer- 
cises all  the  functions  of  the  legislative  and  execu- 
tive ;  local  atl'airs  are  managed  by  elected  com- 
missioners. Since  1842  Gibraltar  has  been  the  see 
of  an  Anglican  bishop. 

'  Every  spot  from  wliich  a  gun  can  be  brought  to 
bear  is  occupied  by  cannon,  which  oftentimes 
quaintly  peep  out  of  the  most  secluded  nooks, 
among  geraniums  and  flowering  plants,  while  huge 
piles  of  shot  and  shell,  some  of  enoniKms  size,  are 
stowed  away  in  convenient  places,  screened  from 
an  enemy's  fire,  but  all  ready  foi-  use.'  The 
apiiroaches  from  the  north,  across  the  flat  isthmus 
connecting  the  I'ock  with  Spain,  and  from  the 
sea,  the  south  and  south-west  sides,  are  guarded 
by   a  great   number  of   very   powerful    batteries, 


GIBRALTAR 

One  Enjjlish  JIllc 


5iaSTffiIiP^^      7 


mounteil  with  guns  of  the  heaviest  calibre,  and  by 
fortifications  so  strong  in  themselves  and  in  their 
relative  bearing  on  each  other,  that  the  rock  may 
fairly  be  regarded  as  impregnable  so  long  as  a 
sufficient  garrison  remains  for  its  defence,  and 
sullicient  provision  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
troo|)s  and  any  civil  inhabitants  siitl'ered  to  reside 
there  during  hostilities.  Moreover,  a  sea-wall, 
defended  by  a  system  of  flanking  bastions,  and 
strengthened  by  a  breakwater,  constructed  in 
1846,  extends  along  the  western  ba.se  of  the  rock 
from  the  new  nude  to  the  (dd.  Towards  the  ninth 
and  north-wi'st  the  defences  are  aiiled  by  a  series 
of  fortified  galleries,  some  2  to  3  miles  in  length. 
These  consist  of  an  uii]ier  and  a  lower  tier  :  in  the 
former  are  two  large  halls  ;  one.  St  George's,  is 
50  feet  long  by  35  wide.  Port-holes  are  cut  in 
these  galleries  for  cannon  at  intervals  of  12  vards. 


206 


GIBRALTAR 


GIBSON 


The  eastern  side  is  so  precipitous  as  to  l>e  alto- 
gether secure  from  assault.  The  annual  cost  to 
the  imperial  ;;ovcrnMiont  of  maintaining  the  garri- 
son anil  fortilioations  averages  about  i;.SSU,(H)0. 
In  these  ilays,  however,  of  steamships  anil  heavy 
long  range  guns,  the  military  importance  of  (Jih- 
raltar  hius  ci-rtainly  iliiiilnisheil. 

The  rock  is  composeil  of  Jurassic  limestone 
resting  on  a  Silurian  hiiscment.  The  surface  pre- 
sents a  hare  ami  repellent  a-spect,  principally  ilue 
to  the  ahsenco  of  trees ;  nevertheless,  there  are 
gra-ssy,  wooileil  glens  in  the  nooks  of  the  mountain. 
The  rocky  mass  is  perforateil  liy  numerous  caverns, 
some  of  which  penetrate  for  several  humlreil  feet 
inlii  the  rock.  The  largest,  calleil  the  '  Hall  of  St 
Michael,'  is  2'JO  feet  long,  !tO  wiile,  .anil  70  high, 
anil  its  Hour  is  connecteil  with  the  roof  hy  stalactite 
pillai^s  ranging  u])  to  M  feet  in  height,  linkeil  hy 
arches  on  the  top.  Tlie  entrance  lies  ahout  11(10 
feet  ahovo  the  sea.  Large  stalactites  are  founil  in 
most  of  the  other  caverns,  ami  interesting  fos,>iis 
ainiunil  thri)\igliiiut  the  ]ieninsul.a.  Cihraltar  is  the 
only  place  in  Europe  where  monkeys  live  wilil 
(see  li.MinAUY  Apk);  hut,  after  an  epidemic  of 
sm.allpox  in  IS94,  only  fifty  remained. 

Gibraltar  has  been  known  in  histoi-y  since  the 
days  of  the  early  I'huiiician  navigators.  The 
Greeks  called  it  Cul/u',  and  it  and  .Vhyla  (imw 
Ceuta)  opposite  formed  the  Pillars  of  llcrculi's,  long 
held  to  be  the  western  boundary  of  the  world.  We 
have  no  certain  inforination  of  its  natural  strength 
Iieing  made  av.ailable  for  defensive  or  aggressive 

fmrposes  until  the  year  711  A. I).,  when  the  .Saracen 
eader  Tarik,  a  general  of  the  Calif  .\1-Walid, 
crossing  from  Africa  for  the  inv.osion  of  the  Visi- 
gothic  kingdom,  fortilied  it,  as  a  base  of  ojjerations, 
and  a  ready  point  of  .access  from  the  ISarbary  co.ast. 
From  this  chieftain  it  took  the  name  of  (lebel  el- 
Tarik,  or  Hill  of  Tarik,  of  which  tJihraltar  is  a 
corruption.  One  of  the  old  towere  of  his  early 
castle  still  remains.  In  1302  Ferdinaml  II.  of 
Castile  won  it  from  the  >[oors ;  but  in  1.T5.'?  it  fell 
to  the  army  of  the  king  of  Kez,  whom  .a  siege  by 
the  Castilian  mon.arch  failed  to  dislodge.  In  1410 
Yussuf,  king  of  (iranada.  possessed  himself  of  the 
fortress,  which,  however,  w.as  Ijnally  wrested  from 
the  Mooi-s  by  the  Spaniards  in  14G'2,  and  by  them 
refortilied  and  strengthened  in  every  way.  A  com- 
bined Dutch  .and  English  force,  however,  under  Sir 
(Jcorge  Itookeand  Admiral  liyng,  and  the  I'rinceof 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  after  a  \  igoroiis  bombardment, 
and  a  Landing  in  force,  compelled  the  governor 
to  capitulate  in  1704. 

Since  1704  (iibraltar  has  remained  continuously 
in  the  possession  of  the  liritish,  in  spite  of  many 
desperate  ellbrts  on  the  part  of  Sjiain  and  France 
to  dislodge  them.  Hefore  the  victors  h.ail  been 
able  to  .add  to  the  defences,  their  mettle  w.as 
severely  tried  by  two  attacks  in  1704-.').  The 
most  memorable  of  the  sieges  to  which  Gibraltar 
ha-s  been  ex])osed  commenced  21st  .lune  1779, 
when,  Britain  being  engaged  in  the  struggle  with 
its  revidted  colonies,  .and  at  the  .same  time  at  war 
with  France,  Spain  took  the  opportunity  of  joining 
the  co.alition,  and  m.ade  .a  most  determined  attempt 
to  suIhIuc  the  garrison  of  this  isolated  fortress.  It 
w.as,  however,  defended  with  heroic  valour  by 
tJeneral  Eliott  (see  HKATllFlEl.t))  and  .")000  men, 
including  1100  Hanoveri.ans.  Sever.al  times  the 
defenders  were  on  the  i)oint  of  starvation.  <  »n  26th 
November  17S1,  in  a  desperate  midnight  sally,  the 
liritish  succeeded  in  destroying  the  more  .advanced 
of  the  enemy's  lines  on  the  land  side,  in  setting 
lire  to  many  of  his  batteries,  and  in  blowing  u]>  his 
principal  depot  of  ammunition.  At  length  in  .Inly 
17S2  the  Spaniards  were  reinforced  hy  the  French, 
the  Due  lie  Grillon  took  command  of  theassailant.s, 
and  preparations  were  made  for  the  grand  assault. 


Additional  h.atteries  were  constructed  on  the  land 
side,  and  lloating-hatteries  built  to  lH>nibaril  the 
fortress  from  the  sea.  C"overe<l  boats  destined  to 
disembark  40,IKX)  troops  were  at  tlie  same  time 
prepared.  The  ellcctive  force  with  which  ( icneral 
Eliott  had  to  withstand  these  eirorts  comprised 
about  7'HX)  men.  The  attack  commenci'd  on  t  he  .Sth 
September  by  a.  furious  bumbiirdmiiit  simultane- 
ously on  all  sides,  and  it  Wius  kept  up  without  inter- 
nii.ssion  until  the  14lli ;  but  by  means  of  red-hot 
balls  and  incendiary  shells  the  otherwise  in- 
vulnerable lloating-h.atteries  were  all  set  on  lire 
and  destroyed,  and  the  attack  was  completely 
repulsed,  with  a  loss  to  the  heroic  ganison  of  only 
l(i  killed  and  tiS  wounded.  Since  then  the  forties* 
h.xs  cnjoved  immunity  from  .attack.  Sec  Drink- 
water's  ilistori/  of  the  Siege  of  (Jibraltar  ( 178.5)  ; 
tiilhard's  llisioni  of  (Hlmdiav  (1881);  II.  M. 
Field,  dihrnlliir  (New  ■\'ork,  1889). 

Gibraltar.  Stiiaits  ok  (anciently  the  Slraiis 
of  Iliiriiliti),  connect  the  Mediterranean  with  the 
Atlantic.  They  narrow  toward  the  east,  their  w  idtli 
between  Point  Europa  and  Cape  Ceuta  being  only 
1.")  miles,  at  the  western  extremity  24;  the  narrow- 
est part  measures  !)  miles.  The  length  ( from  east 
to  west)  is  ,36  miles.  A  constant  surf.ace-rurrent 
which  runs  in  from  the  Atlantic  is  counlerbalanceil 
by  an  undercurrent  from  the  Mediterranean. 

(■ib.SOII,  •John,  sculptor,  was  bom  a  market- 
gardener's  .son,  at  Gyltin,  near  Conw.ay,  North 
Wales,  in  1790,  but  from  his  tenth  year  was 
brought  up  at  Liverpoid,  where  .at  fourteen  he  w.as 
ap]>renticeil  to  cabinet-making.  This  he  exchanged 
for  carving,  first  in  wood,  then  in  stone,  his  love 
of  art  having  manifested  itself  strongly  even  while 
he  was  ,a  mere  boy  at  school.  He  found  a  patron 
in  Uoscoe ;  and,  proceeding  to  Home  in  1817, 
became  a  ]>upil  of  Canova,  and  after  his  death  of 
Thorwaldsen.  Gibson  theiv  li.xed  his  residence  in 
that  city,  and  very  seldom  revisited  his  native 
country.  .At  first  he  was  a  faithful  follower  of 
Canova,  whose  graceful  softness  he  made  his  own. 
Hut,  .advancing  to  the  study  of  the  anti()ue,  he 
finally  rose  to  ideal  purity  and  a  thorough  realisa- 
tion of  the  gr.ace  of  form.  .Vmongst  his  finest  works 
m.ay  be  mentioned  'The  Hunter  and  Dog,'  '  The- 
.seus  and  the  Robber,'  'Amazon  thiown  from  her 
Horse,'  the  two  has  reliefs  of  'The  Hours  leading 
the  Hoi-ses  of  the  Sun'  and  'Phaelhon  driving 
the  Chariot  of  the  Sun,' .and  'Hero  and  I.eander.' 
In  these  the  most  characteristic  trait  is  perh.aps 
that  of  pas.sionate  expression  ;  they  are,  moreover, 
thorou'dily  cl.assical,  and  are  marked  by  a  icfined 
and  noble  severity.  The  innovation  of  tintiii''  his 
figures  (e.g.  his  Venu.s),  which  he  defended  by 
.a  reference  to  Grecian  precedents,  has  not  com- 
mended itself  to  the  public  t.aste.  Among  his 
portrait-statues,  tho.se  of  Huski.sson,  Dudley 
North,  Peel,  George  Stephenson,  and  (^neen 
Victoria  are  the  best.  In  18.33  lie  w.as  elected  an 
a-s.sociate,  in  18.36  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
to  which  he  left  a  representative  collection  of  his 
works.  He  died  at  Rome.  '27111  Jiinuarv  1S6G.  See 
Life  by  Lady  Eastlake  ( 1869). 

Ciibsoil,  Tho.mas  Mii.XER,  English  politician, 
w.as  born  at  Trinidad,  1S06,  and  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
in  I8:t0.  He  entered  parliament  for  Ipswich  .as  a 
Conservative  in  1837  ;  but  shortly  afterwards  be- 
came a  convert  to  Lilieralism,  and  w.as  returned 
for  Manchester  (1841).  He  li.ad  previously  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  .advocacy  of  free  trade; 
during  the  succeeding  five  years  ho  occupied  a 
prominent  position  .imong  the  orators  of  the  .\nti- 
cornlaw  League.  When  the  Whigscame  intoolHce, 
in  .July  1.S46,  he  w.as  m.ade  a  privy-councillor  and 
vice-president  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  but  resigned 


GIDDINESS 


GIFFORD 


207 


oftice  in  April  1848.  On  the  outUreak  of  the  war 
with  Russia  he  espouseil  the  doctrines  of  tlie 
'Manchester  school,'  or  'Peace  paity.'  Whilst 
sitting  for  Ashton-undorLyne  (1857-68)  he  was 
appointed  (1S59)  president  of  the  Hoard  of  Traile. 
and  also  ad-iidcriin  president  of  the  Poor-law 
Commission.  The  former  office  lie  held  until 
l8(i(i.  It  w.xs  mainly  throu<;h  Gibson's  instru- 
mentality that  the  advertisement  duty  was  re- 
pealed in  1853,  the  newspaper  stamp  duty  in  1855, 
and  in  1861  the  paper  liuty.  From  his  clefeat  at 
Aslitou-under-Lyne  in  1868  till  his  death  at  .\ljriers, 
25th  Feluuary  18S-i,  he  took  no  prominent  part  in 
pulilic  life. 

<>id<Iiiiess.    See  Vertigo. 

tiiilding.    See  Ferrar,  Xichola-s. 

GiddillSS.  JosHl'-V  Heed,  an  American  states- 
man, Wits  l)orn  in  Athens,  Pennsylvania,  6tli 
October  1795,  remove<l  with  his  parents  to  Ohio 
in  1806,  wivs  called  to  the  liar  in  1820,  and  elected 
to  the  (Jliio  legislature  in  I8'26.  He  sat  in  congress 
from  1838  to  1859,  and  was  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished, outspoken,  and  aggressive  leaders  of 
the  anti-slavery  movement.  In  18-1'2  he  was  cen- 
sured by  a  c(mgressional  vote  (125  to  69)  for  his 
agitation,  Init  at  once  resigned  and  appealed  to 
his  constituents,  and  was  re-electeil  by  a  large 
majority.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  consul- 
general  in  Canada,  and  ilied  at  Montreal,  27th 
May  1864.  He  published  a  volume  of  speeches 
(18.53),  The  Exiles  of  Florida  (1858),  and  The 
Rebellion  :  It.i  Authors  ami  C<((fcsc« (postluim.  1864). 

(widcOII.  the  name  of  the  greatest  of  all  the 
judges  of  Israel.  He  was  the  youngest  .son  of 
Joasli,  of  the  house  of  Abiezer,  and  li\eil  with  his 
father  at  Ophrali,  in  .Manasseli.  During  his  youth 
Isr.ael  was  sunk  in  idolatry  and  sloth,  and  was 
op|)ressed  by  the  plundering  incursions  of  the 
Amalekites  and  Midianites.  The  young  Gideon 
nursed  his  patriotic  and  religious  wrath  in  (luietness 
until  he  saw  that  the  people  were  ripe  for  resist- 
an<:e  to  the  enemy.  The  IJook  of  Judges  gives  us 
a  dramatic  glimpse  of  him  '  thresliing  wheat  by  the 
wiuejuess  to  hide  it  from  the  Midianites.'  t'on- 
iident  in  the  assurance  of  supernatural  direction,  he 
mustered  the  peoiile,  next  reduced  the  unwieldy 
host  to  a  handful  of  resolute  men,  fell  suddenly 
upon  the  enemy  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mount 
Gilboa,  and  routed  them  with  great  slaughter. 
"The  ellect  of  the  victory  was  most  decisive,  and 
Israel  enjoye<l  'fpiietness  forty  years  in  the  days  of 
Giileon,'  who  was  magnanimous  enough  to  decline 
the  proU'ered  crown.  Gideon's  name  occurs  also  in 
Heb.  .\i.  32,  as  that  of  a  hero  by  faitli,  but  nowliere 
else.  In  1  Sam.  .\ii.  11  he  is  called  Jeruli1>aal,  and 
Kuenen,  refusing  to  accept  the  explanation  oU'ered 
(Judges,  vi.  31-32),  thinks  this  his  original  name; 
Gideon  ( '  the  hewer  '  or  '  warrior ' )  being  an  ei)itliet 
attached  afterwards.  There  are  good  grounds  for 
believing  the  hisloi-j-  of  Gideon "s  conquest,  given  in 
Judges,  to  be  but'  a  dramatised  and  epitomised 
account  of  the  course  and  issue  of  a  struggle  that 
exteniled  over  a  long  ]ieriod  ;  and  that  his  role  as 
a  religious  reformer,  iiisteail  of  being  completed  in 
early  youth,  was  a  continuous  occupation  through- 
out a  long  life. 

<ii«'ll«  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Loiret,  on  the  Loire,  .S8  miles  SE.  of  Orleans,  has 
manufactures  of  pottery.     Pop.  6833. 

Ciiesebrecllt,  Wii.helm  von,  historian,  was 
born  oil  5th  March  1814  in  lierlin,  and  liecaiue 
]irofessor  of  History  at  Kiiiiigsberg  in  1857,  and  in 
1862  at  Munich.  He  died  in  December  18S9.  His 
chief  works  are  Gcschirhie  der  Deiitselicn  Kaiserzeit 
(5  vols.  1855-82),  coming  down  to  1164;  Jahrhiicher 
ties    Deutsehcn    Reiehs    (1840);    a    translation    of 


Gregory  of  Tours  ( 1851 ) ;  Deutsche  Reden  ( 1871 ) ; 
Arnold  eon  Brescia  (1873). 
dioseler,  Johanx    Karl   Ludwio,  a  great 

German  writer  of  church  histoiy,  was  born  .3d 
March  1793,  at  Petersliagen,  near  Minden.  He 
made  his  studies  at  Halle,  and  in  1813  volunteered 
as  a  soldier  during  the  war  of  liberation.  After 
the  peace  he  returned  to  teaching,  became  eonreeior 
of  the  gymnasium  at  Minden,  next  director  of 
the  new  gymnasium  at  Cleves.  His  Entstehnng 
nnd  friihere  Sehieksale  d.  sehriftlichen  Eeangelien 
(1818)  denndished  the  prevalent  theoi-y  of  a  primi- 
tive written  gospel,  and  piocnred  him  the  chair  of 
Theology  at  the  new  university  of  Bonn.  Hence 
he  was  called  to  Gottingen  in  1S31,  where  he  be- 
came in  1837  a  consistorial  councillor,  and  dieil  8th 
July  1854.  His  great  work  is  the  Lehrlmeh  der 
Kirehenijesehiehte  (5  vols.  1824-57),  of  which  the 
last  two  volumes  were  edited  by  Kedepenning,  who 
added  also  a  sixth,  the  Dufjmcnrjesehirhte ,  and  pre- 
fixed a  Life  to  the  fifth  volume.  Gieseler's  pro- 
founil  learning,  judicial  temper,  and  admirable 
faculty  of  throwing  fresh  light  upon  the  original 
documents  combine  to  make  him  an  unusually 
satisfactory  historian,  and  indeed  he  falls  short  of 
Neander  only  in  his  rarest  gift — that  profound 
spiritual  sense  to  which  he  owed  his  insight.  The 
English  translation  comes  down  only  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Reformation  ;  the  American,  to  the 
peace  of  Westphalia. 

(•iesseil,  a  town  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  is 
pleasantly  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Wieseck  and  the  Lalin,  40  miles  N.  of  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main  by  rail.  It  is  chiefly  deserving  of 
notice  for  its  nnivei-sity  (founded  in  1607),  which 
posses.ses  well-appointed  laboratories,  collections, 
and  museums,  and  a  gooil  library,  with  upwards 
of  .50  professors,  iS:e.,and  .5(1(1  students.  Pop.  ( 1875) 
13,980:  (1885)19,001;  (1895)22,702.  See  three 
works  by  lluchner  (1879-86). 

GifTen,  Sir  Robert,  K.C.B.  (1895)  and  LL.D., 
statistician  and  writer  on  trade  and  (Inance,  was  bom 
at  Strathaven  in  Lanarkshire  in  1837,  studied  at 
(il.asgow  Fniversity,  and  was  trained  in  a  solicitor's 
office.  He  entered  journalistic  life  at  Stirling  in 
1860,  and  two  years  later  removed  to  London,  where, 
a  strong  free-trader,  he  was  connected  with  the 
Globe  (until  1866),  the  Fortniqhilii  Rerieir,  the 
Examiner  ( 1868-76),  and  the  Da'il;/  AVha(  187.3-76). 
In  1876  he  wa.s  ap|)ointed  chief  of  the  statistical 
department  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  in  1893  of 
the  labour  department  also,  but  resigned  in  1897. 
Ho  was  presi(Ient  of  the  Statistical  Society  from 
1882  to  1884,  and  lia.s  published  Sloe/.-  Exchange 
Sernrilies  (1878),  Essai/s  in  Finance  (first  series, 
1879;  4th  ed.  1886;  second  series,  1886),  and 
numerous  official  reports  and  papers. 

UifToi'd.  .^D.\M,  founder  of  the  Scottish  lecture- 
ships in  natural  theology,  was  Imrn  in  Edinburgh 
in  1.820,  studied  at  the  university  there,  and  wa.s 
called  to  the  Scotch  bar  in  1849.  He  became  sheriff 
of  Orkney  in  186.5,  was  raised  to  the  bench  as  Lord 
(Jill'ord  in  January  l.s70,  and  died  at  (iiantun.  near 
Edinburgh,  20th  January  1887.  l'>y  his  will  he  left 
£25,000  "to  the  univei-sity  of  Ediiiburgh.  £20,000 
each  to  Gla-sgow  and  .Aberdeen,  and  £15,000  to 
St  .-Vndrews,  to  endow  lectureships  in  natural 
theology,  subject  to  no  dogmatic  tests  whatsoever. 
The  lii'st  lecturers  appointed  were  Max  Midler,  E.  P.. 
Tylor,  .\nilrew  Lang,  and  J.  Hutchison  Stirling. 

<»in°«>l*d.  William,  man  of  letters,  was  born  at 
.\s1iIpuvIoii,  Vlev(uisbire,  in  .April  1750.  Left  an 
orphan  at  twelve,  he  was  lii-st  a  cabin-boy,  then 
for  four  yeai-s  a  shoemaker's  apprentice,  till  in  1776 
his  attempts  at  vei'sifying  attracted  the  notice  of  a 
local  surgeon.  \\  ith  his  ."ussistance  he  procee<le<l 
two  years  later  as  a  Bible  clerk  to  Exeter  College, 


208 


GIFT 


GILBERT 


Oxfoiil,  anil,  aftor  ^.'iii<l>i«t'">f,'  in  1"*-.  travplled  on 
tlie  Coiitiiient  with  KonI  (irosveiior's  son.  His  Ki'st 
prodiii-tion,  tlie  liavkut  { 1794),  was  a  satire  on  the 
Uelhi  Cnisoans  (ij.v.);  in  Scott's  phrase,  it  'squa- 
basheil  them  at  one  l)h)W.'  The  Mim'tnl  (ITOti) 
was  levelleil  against  the  oorniptei-s  of  the  ilrania, 
and  .III  Ejii.^t/i  to  I'ltii-  /'/;«/«;■  ajrainst  DrWiilint, 
who  rotiiiteil  with  .1  Cut  nl  n  Volihlei:  (iillonrs 
eilitoi->hip  of  the  AiiliJiii-nhin  ( I797-9S)  procurin;^' 
him  favour  with  the  Tory  nia;,'iiates,  lie  was  ap- 
pointeil  to  otticcs  that  jointly  l)rou;;ht  him  fWH) 
a  year.  In  1H()2  appcareil  his  translation  uf  Juve- 
nal, and  prefixed  tliereto  an  autoliii>;;ia|ihy.  He 
edited  the  works  of  .\I;i.ssin^'er,  Kord,  Shirley,  and 
Hen  .lonsiin,  and  in  his  notes  its^ailed  former 
editoi-s  with  luutal  ferocity.  In  1.S09  he  became 
the  lirst  editor  of  the  Qunitcrhj  Hiriru;  and  this 
post  he  tilled  to  within  two  years  of  his  death, 
on  ."ilst  December  lH'2(i.  (Hllord  posse.sse<l  much 
satirical  acerbity  and  (loison,  but  jus  a  poet  he  holds 
no  rank  whatever.  As  transl.itor  and  editor  of  the 
old  Enjjlish  dramatists  h  •  did  ;,'o()d  service  ;  but 
his  laboui's  in  this  held  were  marred  by  suspicion 
and  malignity.  As  a  critic  he  wa.s  bitterly  partial 
and  one  sided  ;  and  his  onslau'jhts  on  H.azlitt, 
Lei^th  Hunt,  Lamb,  Wordswinth,  Shelley,  and 
Keats  have  as  little  pretension  to  fairness  and 
candour  as  has  Ha/.litt's  own  onslaught  on  him  in 
the  .s>./r/7  a/t/ic  Af/c  (I825). 

Cairt,  in  Enjrlish  law,  means  a  gratuitous  transfer 
of  properly.  Any  person  is  at  liberty  to  do  what 
he  jileascs  with  his  own  ]iro]ierly.  ami  to  give  it 
away  with  or  without  consideration,  if  lie  is  so 
inclined.  When  he  givi's  away  goods  or  chattels, 
mere  delivery  of  possession,  accompanied  by  words 
of  gift,  is  sullicient  to  transfer  the  property  :  and 
then  the  transaction  is  irrevocable,  lint  if  lie  does 
not  give  po.sse.ssion  of  the  goods  at  the  same  time, 
then,  that  the  gift  may  be  binding  ui>on  him.hennist 
execute  a  deed  or  writing  under  seal.  The  rea-son 
of  this  is  that  a  mere  verl)al  promi.se,  without  .s<mie 
legal  consiileration,  is  nugatory  and  revocable  ; 
whereas,  when  a  person  executes  a  deed,  he  is 
estopped  from  ever  afterwards  denying  it.  Where 
the  pro]>crty  given  is  not  pci-sonal,  but  real,  then  a 
dee<l  is  in  general  ab.solulely  necessary  to  transfer 
the  property.  A  will  is  the  most  familiar  example 
of  a  gift  of  projierty  both  real  and  pei-sonal,  for  the 
testator  generally,  in  such  a  case,  gives  away  his 
property  gratuitously.  A  gift  of  i)ersonalty  by 
will  is  calle<l  a  legacy  or  bequest,  and  a  gift  of  land 
Ls  called  a  devise. 

As  .sometimes  the  power  of  giving  away  property 
gratuitously  is  alnised  in  order  to  defraud  and 
defeat  creditms,  it  is  jirovided  bv  statute  that  a 
voluntary  cimveyance,  whether  of  chattels  or  land, 
made  by  a  person  who  is  at  the  time  insolvent, 
shall  be  voiii  as  against  such  ereilitors  ;  and  they 
are  entitled,  accordingly,  to  recover  the  property 
from  the  <lonee(13  Eliz.  chap.  5).  The  gift,  how 
ever,  even  in  such  a  case,  stamls  good  against  t!i' 
donor  himself.  So,  if  any  pei'son  give  by  deeil  gratui 
tonsly  any  land,  and  then  sell  the  same  land,  the 
gift  will  lie  void  against  the  bom'tjide  purclia.ser 
(•27  Eliz.  chap.  4). 

There  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  gift,  or  rather  a  gift 
maile  in  peculiar  circumstances,  ciUeil  a  (/oiiatio 
viortia  riiiis(i~i.Q.  a  gift  of  personal  property  made 
in  immediate  expectation  of  de.itli,  which  is  not 
meant  to  take  eti'ect  unless  the  donor  actually  dies, 
and  the  donee  survives  him.  Such  gifts  may  be 
maile  by  word  of  mouth  ;  and  they  may  lie  prove<l 
by  the  evidence  of  the  donee  himself — a  rule  quite 
inconsistent  with  the  policy  of  the  law,  which 
requires  a  will  to  be  duly  executed  and  attested  by 
disinterested  witnesses. 

In  Scotlanil  a  gift  may  lie  made  of  goods  in 
the  .same  manner  as  in  England  ;  but  it  is  usually 


called  a  ilonation.  Gratuitous  alienations  by  iier- 
sons  in  insolvent  circumstance.s  are  also  held  to 
be  void  as  against  credit<irs  (stat.  Ki'il,  chap.  IS). 
Though  it  is  competent  in  Scotland  to  make  a  gift 
of  goods  or  nicmey  by  merely  delivering  the  pos.ses- 
sion  thereof,  accompanied  by  words  of  gift  t<i  the 
i  donee,  still  there  is  this  ]icculiarity,  that  if  the 
transaction  is  aflcrwanls  inipcacheil  it  can  only  be 
]irove<l  in  Scotliinil  by  thi'  donor's  writ  or  oath,  no 
matter  how  many  witnesses  may  have  been  luescnt  ; 
whereas,  in  England,  it  can  be  jiroved  by  ordinary 
witne.s.ses,  like  any  other  fact. 

Gift,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  also  often  iLsed 
to  denote  a  grant  or  appointment  by  the  crown  or  a 
court,  such  as  gifts  of  non-entry,  escheat,  tutorv, 
&c. 

Clisa.  or  GififK,  the  name  of  a  short  piece  of 
music,  much  in  vogue  in  olden  times;  of  a  joyful 
and  lively  character,  and  in  3  or  V"  time,  some- 
times in  3  ;  used  formerly  as  a  dancetnne,  and 
often  introduced  as  a  movement  of  a  larger  coni- 

Jiosition. — Jiij  is  a  form  of  the  .same  word  :  the 
rish  jig  is  a  dance  tnne  in  S  time. 

(jiijoil,  a  seaport  <if  Spain,  stands  on  a  peninsula 
and  b.ay  of  the  Atlantic,  20  miles  by  rail  NE.  of 
Oviedo.  It  manufactures  tobacco,  glass,  ami 
earthenware;  exports  butter,  cheese,  and  fruits, 
anil  to  Great  Ibitaiii  hazelnuts  and  copper  ore; 
and  imports  grain,  Hour,  sugar,  oil,  iron,  machinery, 
spirits,  chemicals,  and  woven  goods.  Exports, 
aiiout  t'lUO,W()  a  year;  imports  t':j(ilJ,IH)0.  Here 
Jovellanos,  a  native  of  t!ijon,  founded  the  collegi- 
ate Asturian  Institute.     I'op.  ;{.'),  170. 

miiU  a  river  of  North  .America,  rising  in  the 
state  of  New  Mexico,  and  llowing  nearly  CiO  miles 
westward,  across  .\rizona,  till  it  joins  the  I'oloi.ido, 
about  7.")  miles  above  the  fall  of  that  river  into  the 
tJulf  of  Califiirnia. 

Gila  MoilStor  is  a  name  conimonly  given  ti> 
the  poisonous  lizard  llcluiliritui  siis/ni-liiiii,  also 
called  Sonoran  Helodcrm.  It  is  one  of  the  largest 
lizards  of  North  America,  and  is  found  in  the  sandy 


Gila  Monster  {Seloderma  sutpectnm). 

deserts  of  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Texas.  Its 
scales  are  brilliant  orange  and  jet  black.  Its  |ioison- 
ous  qualities  it  shares  with  its  congener  the  J/clo- 
deniui  horridiim  of  Mexico,  which,  like  snakes,  has 
grooveil  teeth  and  highly  developed  salivary  glands 
at  their  ba,ses.  Its  bite  is  rajiidly  fatal  to  small 
m.ammals  and  birds,  and  very  injuiimis,  though 
seldom  fatal,  to  man.  The  lieloderms  are  the  only 
I  li/jirds  a.-eerlaiiied  to  be  venomous. 

Gilhorl,  .\NNE.    See  T.wlor. 

Gilbert.  Sir  Hf.Mi-HRKV,  English  navigator, 
wa.s  born  at  Dartmouth,  Devonshire,  in  I.j.S'J,  .ind 
from  Eton  proceeded  to  Oxford.    Then,  abandoning 


GILBERT 


GILBERT    ISLANDS 


209 


law  for  a  career  of  arms,  he  ilid  such  good  service 
ajtainst  the  Irish  rehels  as  earned  him  knight- 
liipod  and  the  government  of  Mun.-iter  (1570), 
after  which  he  saw  five  years'  campaigning  in  tlie 
Netherlands.  In  1576  appeared  his  Discourse  on 
a  Nfjrtliircst  Passiir/e  to  Itidia,  which  was  publislied 
by  George  Gascoigne,  witliout  liLs  linowledge ;  two 
yeai-s  later  he  obtained  a  royal  patent  '  to  discover 
and  occupy  remote  heathen  lands  not  actually 
possessed  of  any  Christian  |)nncp  or  people.'  With 
his  younger  half-brother.  Sir  Walter  Kaleigli,  he 
sailed  in  quest  of  the  '  Unknown  Goal  ; '  but  this 
expedition  (1578-79),  which  had  cost  all  his  own 
and  his  wife's  estates,  was  frustrated  by  internal 
dissensions,  tempests,  and  a  smart  brush  witli  the 
S])aniards.  Nothing  daunted,  he  once  more  set 
sail  from  Plymouth  in  .June  1583,  and  in  August 
lamled  in  Newfoundland,  of  which  he  took  formal 
possession  for  Queen  Elizabeth.  But,  sailing  south- 
wards, he  lost  off  Cape  Breton  the  largest  of  the 
three  vessels  left  out  of  five,  so  was  forced  to  steer 
homewards  with  the  Golden  Hind  and  the  Srjnirrel, 
the  latter  a  '  frigate '  of  (mly  ten  tons  burden.  '  On 
Monday  the  9th  September,'  writes  the  Golden 
Hind's  captain,  '  the  Srjnirrel  wjis  near  cast  away, 
yet  at  that  time  recovered  ;  and  giving  forth  signs 
of  joy,  the  general,  sitting  abaft  with  a  book  in  liLs 
hand,  cried  out  unto  us  in  the  Hind,  "  We  are  a.s 
near  to  liea\en  by  sea  as  by  land.'  The  same 
Monday  night  the  frigate's  lights  went  suildenly 
out,  and  it  was  devoured  and  swallowed  up  by  the 
sea.'  So  died  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert.  See  Hakluyt's 
Collection,  vol.  iii.,  and  Lives  of  Raleigh  by  Tytler, 
St  John,  and  Edwards. 

Ciilbert.  Sir  Johx,  English  painter,  was  born 
in  1817  at  Blackheath,  near  London.  School-days 
over,  he  was  placed  at  a  mercantile  house  in  the 
City,  but  after  two  weary  years  was  pronounced  to 
be  wholly  unfit  for  business,  and  allowed  to  follow 
his  true  vocation — art.  Save  for  some  lessons 
from  Lance,  the  fruit-painter,  he  taught  himself ; 
his  masters,  the  old  masters — Kubens,  Rembrandt, 
Velas(|uez.  In  1836  he  began  to  exhibit  both  in 
oil  and  water-colours  ;  and  in  1852  he  was  elected 
an  a.ssooiate,  in  1853  a  member,  in  1871  the  presi- 
dcTit  of  the  Society  of  Painters  in  Water-colours, 
receiving  soon  after  the  honour  of  knighthood.  He 
also  became  an  A.R.A.  in  1872,  an  R.A.  in  1876, 
and  a  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  '  The 
Scott  of  jiainting  '  liked  historical,  chivalric,  anti- 
quarian sulijects  :  anil  his  style  is  familiar  through 
countless  wood-engravings  in  the  III /istrtited  London 
A'cu-s,  an<l  in  editions  of  Shakespeare,  Scott's 
Poems,  Don  Quixote,  &e.  His  oil-paintings  iiudude 
'Don  Quixote."  '(;il  P.la.s,'  '  ^Murder  of  Becket.' 
'Joan  of  Arc,'  'Crusaders,'  '  Wolscy  at  Leicester,' 
and  '  Morning  of  Agincourt.'  He  died  5tli  October 
1897,  leaving  £250,1100.  He  had  in  1893  made  o^er 
to  the  nation  his  fine  collection  of  paintings,  to  be 
distributed  amongst  London  and  other  corporation.s. 

tiilbcrt,  WiLLl.VM,  author  of  a  celebrated 
treatise  on  magnetism,  was  born  in  1540  at  Col- 
chester. A  member,  and  subsequently  fellow  of 
St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  he  graduated  in 
1500,  anil  in  1573  settled  in  London  to  jpractise  as 
a  physician.  Eventually  Elizabeth  made  him  her 
court  physician,  and  the  same  office  wiis  confirmed 
to  him  by  James  I.  cm  his  accession  to  the  throne 
cf  England.  After  holding  various  ollices  in  the 
College  of  Physicians,  he  Wius  finally  elected  its 
president  in  1600.  He  died  a  bachelor,  30th 
November  1603,  either  at  Colchester  or  at  London  ; 
he  was  buried  at  Colchester  in  the  church  of  the 
Holy  Trinity.  His  leisure  time  was  largely  given 
to  the  study  of  magnetism  and  chemistry.  In  the 
former  subject  he  carried  on  some  notable  re- 
searches,   principally    contained    in    De    Magnete, 


Mae/nctieisque  Corporibus,  et  Mar/no  Mae/nete 
Tellure  (1600),  and  the  posthumously  published 
De  Mundo  nostra  Siihliinari  Fhilosophirt  Sora 
( 1651 ).  In  the  former  lie  establLshed  the  magnetic 
nature  of  the  earth,  which  he  regarded  as  one  great 
magnet  ;  and  he  conjectured  that  terrestrial  mag- 
netism and  electricity  were  two  allied  emanations 
of  a  single  force — a  view  which  was  only  demon- 
strated with  scientific  strictness  more  than  two 
centuries  afterwards  by  Oersted  and  Parailay. 
Gilbert  was  the  first  to  use  the  terms  'electricity,' 
'  electric  force,'  and  '  electric  attraction,'  and  to 
point  out  that  amber  is  not  the  only  .substance 
which  when  rubbed  attracts  light  fd)jects,  but  that 
the  same  faculty  belongs  to  the  re.sins,  sealing- 
wa.x,  sulphur,  glass,  iSrc.  ;  and  he  describes  how  to 
measure  the  excited  electricity  by  means  of  an  iron 
needle  moving  freely  on  a  point.  He  also  invented 
two  instruments  for  finding  latitude  with  the  help 
of  astronomical  observations.  See  memoir  prefixed 
to  P.  F.  .Mottelay's  translation  of  De  Mnt/netc  ( 1 893 ). 
Gilbert,  Willi.\M  Schwexck,  dramatist,  was 
born  in  London,  18th  November  1836,  the  son  of 
William  Gilbert  (1804-89),  who  published  thirty 
novels,  tales,  &c.  He  took  the  degree  of  B.  A.  at 
London  university,  was  a  clerk  in  the  Privy-council 
Office  from  1857  to  1862,  and  in  1864  was  called  to 
the  bar.  He  contributed  to  the  magazines,  and 
was  on  the  staff  of  Fun,  in  whose  columns  his  Bab 
Bctllads  first  a])peared.  His  burlesque,  Diileatnara 
(1866),  was  followed  by  other  burlesques,  dramas, 
comedies,  fairy  comedies,  and  operas.  The  fairy 
comedies  include  The  Pidace  of  Truth  ( 1870),  I'yy- 
malioH  and  Galatea  (1871),  The  Wicked  World 
(1873),  and  Broken  Hearts  (1876).  Among  the 
comedies  are  the  charming  '  conlxasi,'  Sweethearts 
(1874),  and  Engaged  (1877),  more  cynical  ami 
hopeless;  his  other  plays  include  Charity  (1874), 
Grctcheti  (1879),  Coined ;/  and  Tragedij  (1884),  and 
an  unsuccessful  drama,  Brantinghame  Hall  ( 1888). 
In  conjunction  with  Sullivan  (q.v. ),  besides  Thespis 
and  Trial  bi/  Jury,  he  has  produced  The  Sorcerer 
(1877),  H.M.S.  Pinafore  (1878),  The  Pirates  of 
Penzance  (1880),  Patience  (1881),  lolanthe  (1882), 
Princess  Ida  (1883),  The  il//Af(rfo  ( 1885),  Ruddigore 
(1887),  The  Yeomen  of  the  Guard  (1888),  The 
Gondoliers  (18S9),  Utopia  Limited  (1893),  ami  The 
Grand  Duke  ( 1896).  In  nearly  all  his  better  known 
works  Gilbert  displays  fantastic  humour  that  is 
often  subtle,  nearly  always  healthy  in  tone,  and 
none  the  worse  for  a  slight  Havour  of  cynicism. 
His  is  the  hand  of  a  master,  though  his  touch  is 
light ;  his  quaint  conceits,  and  the  absurd  earnest- 
ness with  wliirh  they  are  worked  out,  appear  to  be 
inimitable  by  his  contemporaries.  In  Tlie  Yeomen 
of  t!ie  Guard,  however,  lie  has  left  the  grotesque 
vein,  and  presents  some  characters  that  are  human 
and  jiathetic.  The  oper.os  have  been  exceedingly 
popular  in  America.  For  a  time  Gilbert  and 
Sullivan  worked  apart  ;  and  with  Dr  Carr  Gilbert 
produced  His  Exceltencif  llS9i).  See  P.  Fitzgeiald, 
The  Savoy  Opera  and  the  Savoyards  ( 1894). 

Gilbertines,  a  religious  order  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  one  of  the  few  of  English  founda- 
tion. Its  founder  in  1148  was  St  Gilbert,  a  native 
of  Sempringham,  in  Lincolnshire.  The  rule  of  the 
order  wa.s  mainly  derived  from  that  of  the  Canons 
Regular  of  St  Augustine.  St  Gilliert  also  founded 
an  order  of  nuns  after  the  Benedictine  institute. 
Both  ordei-s  were  approved,  and  had  numerous  con- 
vents in  England  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
when  they  shared  in  the  general  suppression. 

Gilbert  Islands,  an  archijielago  in  the 
Pacific,  lying  on  the  equator  between  172^  and  177' 
E.  long.  Area,  166  sq.  m.  ;  population  about 
36,800.  The  group  consists  of  sixteen  atolls, 
several  of  them  triangular  in  shape,  with  two  out- 


210 


GIL    BLAS 


GILDING 


lyinjj  hilly  islands.  Some  of  the  atolls  (e.g.  Peru 
or  braiiois)  arc  risinj;  in  elmalioii.  t'i«<ia-niits 
anil  cMi)ira  are  the  t-liief,  a! most  tlio  only,  pro- 
ilnctions  iif  the  ^troup.  The  inhabitants,  a  nii.\uil 
.\Ialayi)  I'olvnosian  race,  rlosely  resenihle  the 
Alarsliall  islanders,  though  they  speak  a  ditlcrent 
laugnage.  Many  of  the  people  take  service  in 
.Samoa,  I'iji,  \e'  as  hihourers.  The  archipela;,'o 
helonj,'s  to  the  jnrisdiction  of  the  British  Ui^'h 
C'oiiiniissiiMier  of  tlie  Western  I'acilie.  It  was  dis- 
coviMi-il  liy  Marshall  and  tlilbert  in  178S. 

<ai  Itias.    See  Le  S.\(:k. 

4iill>oa,  :i  hare  chain  of  hills  between  500  .ind 
600  feet  liij,'li,  overhan^'in;;  the  site  of  the  ancient 
city  of  .lezreel,  and  risin;,'  between  the  fertile  i)lain 
of  Ksilraclon  on  the  west  and  the  green  valley  of 
the  Jord.vn  on  the  east.  It  is  memorable  as  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  and  death  of  Kiwa  Sanl  and  his 
three  sons  at  the  hands  of  the  I'hilistines. 

Gilt'lirist,  ALli.KA.NDEli,  Blake's  hioj;rapher, 
was  hiiiii  at  N'ewin;.;ton  (!reen,  182S,  the  son 
of  a  Unitarian  minister  who,  conscientiously 
withdrawinii  from  the  olliee  of  the  ministry,  re- 
moved, when  Alexamler  was  a  year  old,  to  a  mill 
near  Keadin;,'.  At  the  ajje  of  twelve  (lilchrist 
entered  Univereity  C'ollejje,  London,  where  for  four 
years  he  was  a  diligent  scholar,  and  formed  a 
friendship  with  the  Kossettis.  Leavinjj  school  .at 
sixteen,  he  entered  the  .Middle  Temple  in  1S40,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  ISIO,  l>ut  never  [iractised. 
Maintaining  himself  chielly  by  art-crilicism,  he 
married  in  IS.jl.  After  collecting  in  Yorkshire 
materials  for  a  Life  of  Ktty,  he  settled  in  1SJ3  at 
Gnililford.  The  Li/c  "/  AV/iy,  warmly  cinnmended 
by  Carlyle,  appeared  in  l.S.lo.  The  following  ye.ar 
he  removed  to  Chelsea,  taking  a  house  ne.\t  door  to 
the  Carlyles.  Here  wius  composed  his  Li/c  of  BliiI.e, 
a  labour  of  love  engaging  all  his  faculties.  Before 
the  task  was  yet  completed,  the  author,  in  the  full 
vigour  of  life,  was  cut  oil'  by  scarlet  fever  on 
.30th  November  ISljl.— His  wife.Axxii  Gilciihist, 
ncc  Burrows,  was  born  in  London,  18'2S.  In  18ol 
she  marrieil  ;  in  1855  began  to  write  for  All  the 
Year  liuiinil,  in  ISIil  for  Mucmilldii's.  On  her 
husband's  death  she  undcrtixdc  the  completion  of 
his  Life  (if  ISldhc  (lSli:i),  to  the  second  eilitinn  of 
which  (1880)  is  appended  a  memoir  of  Alexander 
Gilchrist.  In  1809  she  published  in  the  American 
liudirul  llccicw  '  A  Woman's  Estimate  of  \\'alt 
Whitman  :'  and  it  w.os  largely  to  become  personally 
acquainted  with  the  poet  that  she  spent  three 
yeai-s  in  America  (1870-79),  when  she  wrote  for 
Blaclcwuod's  '  (Jlimpses  of  a  New  Kngland  \'illage.' 
In  1883  appeared  her  Life  of  Marii  Lamb,  an<l  in 
1885,  only  .a  few  months  before  her  death  that 
year,  her  last  e.ss.ay,  'A  Confession  of  I'aith.'  See 
'Anne  Gilchrist:  her  Life  and  Writings,  by  her  sou 
(1887). 

Gilil.    See  Guilds. 

Gildas,  surnamed  by  some  Sapiens,  by  others 
Badonicns,  the  earliest  native  British  historian, 
nourished  in  the  Olh  century,  and  wrote  in 
Armorica  (about  550-500)  his  tamous  treatise  De 
Exciiliii  ISritaiiiiiic  Lihcr  Qiicnihis.  This  was  lii-st 
printed  at  Loudon  in  1.5"25,  again  in  ViaXc's  Scriplores 
XV.  (1091),  where  it  was  first  divided  into  two 
works,  the  History  and  the  Epistle.  The  treatise 
falls  naturally  into  two  distinct  portions  :  from  the 
invasion  of  Britain  by  the  Komans  to  the  revolt  of 
Maxindn  at  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century,  and 
from  the  close  of  the  4th  century  to  the  writer's 
own  time.  It  is  Gikhvs  who  narrates  the  story  of 
the  faminis  letter  sent  to  Home  in  446  by  the 
despairing  Britons,  commencing:  'To  -Egidius 
(/Etius)  consul  for  the  third  time,  the  groans  of 
the  Britons.'  Gildas  is  .a  weak  and  wordy  writer, 
and  the  value  of  his  historical  work  has  been  assailed 


by  .Sir  T.  D.   Hardy  and  others,  hut  Ls  vigorously 
defendeil  by  l)r  Guest ;  and  it  must  be  remembereil 

I  that  its  latter  |iortion  was  .ailo|ited  without  hesita- 

I  tion  by  15ede.  tiibbon  has  described  him  in  a 
single  sentence  as  'a  nnmk,  who,  in  the  profound 

j  igimrance  of  liunnin  life,  has  presumed  to  exercise 
the  olliee  of  historian,  strangely  dislignres  the  state 
of  Britain  at  the  time  of  its  separation  from  the 

I  Itonian  empire.'  Aw  edition  of  (iild.is,  edited  by 
Joseph  Stevenson,  was  published  by  the  Historical 
Society  in  1838;  a  new  translation  by  J.  A.  Giles 
in  1841. 

Gihiillg.  There  are  nuiny  processes  of  gilding, 
varying  with  the  nature  of  the  substance  to  be 
gilded,  and  the  kind  of  etlect  renuireil  to  be  pro- 
duced, bvit  they  may  all  be  classilicd  under  three 
heails — viz.  (I)  mechanical  gilding,  (2)  chemical 
gilding,  (3)  encaustic  gilding. 

The  lirst  is  used  chielly  for  gilding  wood,  ]ilaster 
of  I'aris,  leather,  i)aper,  and  other  substances.  If 
the  object  to  be  gilt  is  a  picture  or  uiirror  fiame, 
consisting  of  a  ]daln  wooden  moulding,  then,  after 
getting  a  coat  of  oilpaint,  from  four  to  ten  coats  of 
line  whilin";  mixed  with  line  glue  are  put  on,  each 
in  its  turn  being  smoothed  with  pumice-stone  an<l 
line  sand-jiiiper.  This  done,  a  coat  of  gohl  size  is 
given  to  those  parts  which  .are  not  to  be  burnished  ; 
but  those  whicli  are  rccei\e  only  a  coating  of  clear 
animal  size.  Both  of  these  prepareil  surfaces  now 
receive  the  g(dd  le.if,  which  is  laid  on  by  means  of  a 
broad  thin  brush  called  a //)/,  anil  further  ]ircssed 
on  with  a  thick  .soft-haired  brush.  Those  parts 
which  have  been  gold-sized  are  in  this  way  oil-gilt, 
and  will  stand  washing  :  while  such  |iortions  jls 
have  been  gill  on  the  size  pieparalion  in  order  to 
be  burnished  will  not  bear  soap  and  water.  If  the 
])icture-frame  is  much  enriched  with  line  raised 
ornament,  the  surface  to  be  gilt  is  previously  pre- 
pared with  oil-paint  and  gold-size  alone,  as  the 
coaling  with  whiting  destroys  the  sharpness  of  the 
work.  The  result,  however,  is  more  tender  and 
less  durable. 

Ji(j>i(i(/icr's  Gildintj. — Where  gilt  ornaments  are 
to  be  put  on  a  japanned  ground,  they  are,  by  one 
method,  iiainted  with  gold  size,  and  gold-leaf  after- 
wards ap|)lied.  By  another  method,  lather  more 
than  the  space  the  ornament  is  to  occuiiy  is  wh(dly 
covered  with  gold-leaf,  adhering  witli  isinghi-ss. 
The  ornament  is  then  painted  on  with  asiibaltum, 
which  protects  the  gold  beneath  it  while  tiie  siiper- 
lluous  leaf  is  being  washed  away.  A  little  turiieii- 
line  will  then  remove  the  protecting  a.sphaltum  so 
as  to  display  the  gilt  ornament.  Japanners'  gold- 
size  is  a  mixture  of  lin.seed-oil,  gum-animi,  and 
verniiliou. 

I'alsc  (iildin/j,  although  an  old  invention,  has 
become  in  recent  years  an  inijiortant  tr.ade  in 
Germany.  The  moulding  intended  to  be 'gilt' in 
this  way  is  first  covered  with  bright  silver-leaf  or 
tinfoil  on  a  surface  prepared  as  above,  and  then 
coated  with  a  yellow  varnish.  Other  substitutes 
for  "enuine  gihling  that  are  largely  u.sed  consist  in 
applying  '  Dutch  gold,'  which  is  co]iper  beaten  out 
like  gold-leaf,  as  in  genuine  gilding,  or  in  using  so- 
called  '  gidd  ]iaiiit,'  which  is  finely  powdered  brass 
or  other  similar  alloy. 

Chemical  Gildint/.— Metals  are  now  usually  gilded 
by  the  i)rocess  of  electro-gilding  (see  Electho- 
>IKTAI.m;i!OV)  ;  but,  besides  this,  various  methods 
of  chemical  gilding  have  been  adopted,  and  some 
are  still  in  use. 

Water  or  Wash  Gildinrj,  as  it  is  somewhat  inap- 
propriately termed,  consists  in  applying  to  metal  a 
paste  fornied  of  an  amalgam  of  gold,  and  afterwards 
evapor.ating  the  vol.atile  mercury  by  heat,  which 
leaves  the  gold  firmly  adhering  to  ilie  surface  of 
the  metal. 
Gilding   by   Immersion.— For    this    purpose    a 


GILEAD 


GILL 


211 


solution  of  gold  in  nitro-niuiiatic  acid  is  used  which 
slowly  attacks  the  metal  to  be  gilded,  and  at  the 
same  time  deposits  on  its  surface  an  equivalent 
of  gold.  The  method  called  (Ircciaii  Gddiiuj  is 
aiiotliei-  similar  process,  in  which  gold  is  used  dis- 
solved in  a  solution  of  sal-ammouiac  and  corrosive 
suhlimate  in  nitric  acid. 

Most  articles  that  are  gilded  hy  either  of  the 
above  chemical  methods,  or  by  electro-gilding,  are 
submitted  to  an  after-process  of  colouring.  This 
consists  either  in  acting  upon  the  surface  with  a 
.saline  solution,  and  heating  the  article  afterwards, 
or  in  coating  it  with  a  kind  of  varnish  of  beeswax 
and  yellow  ochre,  and  then  burning  this  oil'.  The 
colouring  of  jeweliy,  &:c. ,  made  of  gold  alloyeil 
with  copper  or  brass,  is  performed  by  submitting 
the  article  to  the  action  of  a  mixture  of  nitre, 
alum,  and  common  salt,  either  dry  or  dissolveil 
in  water,  heat  being  applied  in  either  case.  The 
baser  alloy  is  thus  removed  from  the  surface, 
which  becouies  covered  with  a  richly  coloured  film 
of  nearly  pure  gold. 

Sword-blailes,  lancets,  and  other  steel  articles 
are  gilded  in  fancy  devices  by  drawing  the  design 
with  a  camel-liair  pencil  moistened  in  a  .solution 
of  gold,  prepared  by  agitating  ether  with  a  solution 
of  terchloride  of  gold,  and  decanting  the  light 
liquid  which  floats  on  the  top. 

Silks,  artilicial  llowers,  ivory,  bone,  &.c.  may  be 
gilded  by  immersing  them  in,  or  painting  them 
with,  a  neutral  solution  of  one  (lart  of  tercliloride 
of  gold  to  four  or  live  of  water,  and  then  exposing 
them  in  a  vessel  containing  hydrogen  gas,  which 
readily  combines  with  the  chlorine,  and  reduces 
the  gold  to  the  metallic  state. 

Encaustii;  Gildiiui  is  usually  applied  to  glass 
and  porcelain.  The  gold  is  first  obtained  in  a 
finely  divided  .state  by  precipitating  from  the 
chloride  with  protosulphate  of  iron,  or  by  simply 
heating  the  chloride.  This  powder  is  ground  up 
with  i\t\i  of  its  weight  of  oxide  of  bisnmth  and 
some  bora.x  and  gum  water,  and  then  painte<l  on 
the  ware.  It  is  then  heated  till  the  borax  is  \itri- 
fied  and  the  gold  thereby  fixed.  Sometimes  the 
gold  is  ground  with  turpentine,  or  an  amalgam  of 
gold  is  used.  This  ha.s  a  lirown  dingy  appearance 
when  it  leaves  the  kiln  ;  the  gold  lustre  is  brought 
up  by  burnishing. 

Gilfliii;!  Metal. — The  metal  of  which  gilded  goods 
are  made  is  required  to  have  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  colour  of  gold,  so  that  when  the  surface-gilding 
is  worn  oli'  at  the  more  exposed  parts  the  difference 
of  colour  will  not  be  readily  apparent.  This  is 
obtained  by  making  a  kind  of  brass  having  a  much 
larger  projiortion  of  copper  than  common  bra.ss. 
The  following  are  tin-ee  receipts  from  among  a 
variety  in  use  :  ( 1 )  6  parts  c<q)per,  1  common  bra.ss; 
(2)  4  parts  co|)per  to  1  Bristol  brass;  (.3)  1.3  ])arts 
■copper,  3  parts  br.ass,  12  jiarts  tin.  The  last  is 
nnudi  harder  than  No.  I  or  2. 

Ciilcad  { in  Kng. ,  '  region  of  rocks')  was  a  moun- 
tainous district  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan, 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Hieromax  (Varmuk), 
on  the  E.  by  the  desert  tablelands  of  Arabia,  on 
the  S.  by  i\[oab  and  Amnion,  and  on  the  W.  by 
the  Jonlan.  The  highest  ridges  of  Gilead  are  of 
dark-gray  limestone ;  lower  ilown  are  yellow  and 
purple  sandstones.  Though  all  is  desolate  above, 
<ui  the  slopes  the  vegetation  is  luxuriant,  and  fmcsts 
of  oak  and  tereliintli  occur.  The  name  is  not  borne 
out  in  tlie  character  of  the  country,  aiul  the  glens 
exhibit  great  beauty  and  luofusion  of  vegetation. 
The  district  was  given  to  the  (ribes  of  Alanassch, 
Gad,  and  Re\iben,  because  of  the  nuiUitude  of  their 
cattle,  and  as  a  frontier  land  was  much  cxjiosed  to 
invasion.  Tliere  is  mention  of  Gilead  in  Gen. 
xxxi.  R.amiith  (Es-Salt),  Jabesh,  and  Ja/er  are 
three  of  the  cilies  lacntioncd  in  Sciipture.    Laurence 


Oliphant  (q.v.),  who  speaks  of  Gilead  as  a  countiy 
of  wine  and  oil,  with  rich  alluvial  deposits,  sub- 
mitted a  scheme  to  the  government  at  Constant- 
inople for  its  colonLsation  by  Jews.  The  Dead 
Sea  region  he  regarded  as  a  mine  of  unexplored 
wealth,  from  which  chlorate  of  pota.-isium,  [letro- 
leum,  and  bitumen  might  be  exported.  The  local 
conditions  he  believed  favourable  to  the  introduc- 
tion (jf  immigraut.s.  See  Uliphaut's  Land  uj  Gilead 
(ISSU). 

Ciilcs,  St  (Lat.  .fEijidiiis),  was  an  Athenian 
of  royal  descent,  devoted  from  his  cradle  to  good 
works.  After  giving  away  bis  entire  jiatrimony, 
he  liveil  two  years  with  St  Casarius  at  Ailes  in 
Provence,  and  then  retired  alone  to  a  neijjhbourin« 
desert,  when?  he  sustained  nature  upon  herbs  and 
the  milk  of  a  hind  that  came  of  herself  to  his 
cave.  Once,  on  a  hunting  expedition,  the  king  of 
France,  following  up  the  track  of  the  hind,  dis- 
covered /Kgidius,  and  compelled  him  to  become 
the  first  abbot  of  a  nionasteiy  he  built  upon  the 
spot.  Here  he  died.  His  festival  falls  u|)on  1st 
September.  In  the  6th  century  there  wa.s  an  abbot 
in  Provence  named  .Egidius,  but  the  date  of  the 
saint  is  usually  given  as  about  the  clo.se  of  the  7th 
century.  He  early  became  regarded  a.s  especially 
the  patron  of  lepers,  beggars,  and  cripjjles,  and  his 
cult  spread  quickly  over  England,  Prance,  and 
Germany.  In  Loudon,  the  church  of  St  Giles, 
Cripplcgate,  and  the  lejier  hospital  at  St  Gilcs-in- 
the-l'iehls,  and  in  Edinburgh  the  High  Kirk  of 
St  Giles  still  commemorate  his  name.  See  Keni- 
bry,  St  (lilies,  sa  Vie,  ses  Mcliques,  son  Quite 
(Bruges,  1884). 

Gilfillail.  George,  critic  and  essayist,  was  born 
in  1813  at  Conirie,  Perthshire,  where  his  father 
was  Secession  minister.  He  studied  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Gla.sgow,  and  at  the  divinity  hall  of  the 
Secession  body,  afterwards  the  L'nited  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  in  1835  he  wa.s  licensed  to  preach  the 
gospel.  In  1836  he  was  ordained  to  the  School 
Wynd  Church,  Dundee,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death,  13th  August  1878.  He  attained  considerable 
reputation  as  a  lecturer  and  pulpit  orator,  and  was 
incessantly  industrious  with  his  pen.  His  friends 
and  fellow-citizens  presented  him  with  £1000  in 
1877.  His  works  are  numenuis.  They  display  a 
rich  but  reckless  fancy,  and  wide  literary  sym- 
pathies, although  deficient  perhaps  in  refinement 
of  taste.  Among  them  are  ,1  Gallcri/  of  Literary 
Portraits  (Z  yoh.  1845-54);  T/ie  Bards  of  t/ie  Bible 
( 1850  ;  7th  ed.  1887 ) ;  T/w  Ma/ti/rs  of  the  Scottish 
Corciiaiit  (1852);  Bistort/  of  a  Man,  largely  auto- 
biographical (1856);  Alpha  and  Umer/a  (1860); 
Nii/ht:  a  Poem  (1867);  Beinuter  Stnj-s  in  the 
Church  .S/.-y  (1867);  Lives  of  Scott  (18701,  Dr  W. 
Anderson  ('1873),  and  Burns  (1880);  and  S/.clches, 
Literary  and  Theological  {\^^\).  In  1853  he  com- 
menced an  edition  of  the  British  Poets  in  48  vols. 
His  Inciters  and  Journals,  with  Memoir  by  Watson, 
appeared  in  1892. 

Gilgllit.      See  C.VSHMEKE,  D.\RDISTAX. 

Gill,  a  measure  of  capacity,  is  the  fourth  part  of 
a  pint,  or  the  thirty-second  part  of  a  tiallon  iq.v. ). 

Ciiill,  Joiix,  an  eminent  Baptist  divine,  was 
born  at  Ketteiiug,  Northamptonshire,  November 
23,  1697.  He  was  mainly  self-educated,  yet  became 
proficient  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  and  after- 
wards devoted  himself  much  to  the  ^tudy  of  the 
rabbinical  writers.  He  became  in  1710  pastor  of  a 
Baptist  church  in  Southwark  :  from  which,  in  1757, 
he  removed  to  a  chapel  near  London  liridge,  where 
he  ministered  till  bis  death,  t)ctober  14,  1771.  His 
first  inipiutant  work  w;xs  an  E.rpositi<>n  of  the  Song 
of  Solomon  (fol.  1728),  in  which  he  vindicated  the 
authenticity  of  that  book  against  AVhiston.  His 
E.rjjosition  of  the  Xciv  Testa/nent  appeared  in  I74(>- 


212 


GILLENIA 


GILLS 


48 ;  nnd  siiKsecinently  his  Erpusition  of  the  Old 
Tc.stiiiiieiit  ( re|niblislied  as  one  work,  9  vols.,  witli  a 
niciiioir,  in  1810);  A  Jlw/i/  uf  Dwlrimil  JJiriiiili/ 
(ITCH);  aii'l  -1  Body  nf  P'ridtiinl  Dii-itiitij  (\"{i'). 
He  wrote  also,  as  a  controversialist,  in  ilefencc  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  of  Calvinism. 
Cill  received  the  dejjree  of  I). D.  from  Aherdeen 
in  1748.  He  wjus  a  robust  Calvinist,  devout, 
laborious,  and  learned. 

(■illciliil.  a  North  American  perennial  •tenns  of 
Rosacea-,  closely  allied  to  Spira-a,  and  similarly 
ciiitable  for  shrubberies.  The  roots  are  often  called 
Indian  I'hysic,  sometimes  ll'iVrf  Ipaac,  Indian 
/h/i/'",  l)i(//iirijrt,  and  Bowman's  Rout. 

(iiiIl4'S|>ir,  (Seoroe,  a  prominent  li^^ure  among 
the  Westminster  Divines,  wiis  born  at  Kirkcalily, 
where  his  lather  was  parish  minister,  "ilst  January 
1613.  He  pui-sued  his  studies  at  St  Amlrews,  and 
early  in  lU.'i8,  after  tlie  jxjwcr  of  the  liishoi)S  had 
been  pulled  down,  was  ordained  minister  of 
Weniyss  in  I'ife.  He  showed  characteristic  fear- 
lessness at  the  (;la.sj.'ow  Assembly  that  same  year, 
was  translated  to  Edinburgh  in  It)4'2,  and  the  year 
after  was  sent  up,  as  one  of  Scotland's  four  repre- 
sentatives, to  the  Westminster  Assembly,  where 
his  vigour,  ability,  and  earnestness  enabled  liim  to 
take  a  "reat  part  in  the  jirotracted  debates  on 
church  disciidine  and  dogma.  His  Aaron's  Rod 
Blussoniini/,  or  the  Dirinc  Ordinance  of  CInirch- 
government  Vindicated  (l(i4()),  is  admittedly  a 
masterly  statement  of  the  high  Presbyterian  claim 
for  full  s])iritual  imlependenee.  In  1648  Hillespie 
was  appointed  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly, 
but  his  already  enfeebled  frame  soon  sank  under 
its  labour.s.  He  died  at  Kirkcaldy,  17th  December 
lfr48. 

Gillies.  •buiN,  historian,  w.xs  born  at  Hrechiti,  in 
Korfai-shire,  January  18,  1747.  He  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  CJhisgow,  and  for  several  yeai-s 
acted  as  tutor  to  the  sons  of  the  Earl  of  Hopetoiin. 
In  1778  he  published  a  translation  of  the  Orations 
of  Isocralcs  and  Li/sias,  irif/i  sonic  Account  if  their 
Lives:  and  in  1786  his  princi|>al  work,  the  /listory 
of  Ancient  Greece,  2  vols.  It  wjis  extremely  popu- 
lar on  its  first  appearance,  but  has  droi>]>c<l  out  of 
notice  since   the  publication    of    the  histories  of 


V  of  i 
lied    i 


Fret/crick  II.  of  J'rn.sxi((  appeared  in  1789.  In 
1793  he  was  .appointed  historiogra]iher  to  the  king 
for  Scotland.  He  also  iiublished  a  translation  of 
Aristotle's  Ethics  and  Politics  ( 1707),  and  of  Aris- 
totle's lihetoric  ( 18-23),  and  a  Ilistorij  of  the  World 
from  Alexander  to  Anijiistiis  (2  vols.  1807-10). 
He  died  at  Clapham,  February  15,  1836. 

Clillillglinill.  a  market  town  of  Dorsetshire,  on 
the  Siuur,  22  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Salisbury.  Near 
it  are  the  '  Pen  Pits,'  thought  variously  t<i  be  ipiarry- 
lioles  or  prehistoric  dwellings.    Pop.  of  jiarish,  4131. 

Ciillis  Land.  Polar  land  NE.  of  Spitzbergen, 
first  sighted  in  1707  by  (Willis,  a  Dutchman,  in  81° 
30  N.  hit.  and  36'  E.  lon^'.,  but  not  visiteil  by 
hiin.  Some  geographers  identify  it  with  King 
Charles  or  Wiche  Laiiil,  one  of  the  Spitzbergen 
grouji.  situated  in  79°  N.  lat.,  and  between  26°  30' 
and  32'  30'  E.  long. 

Gillutt.  Joseph,  bom  at  ShefTield  on  lltli 
Octolicr  1799,  shares  with  Sir  Josiab  Miuson  the 
credit  of  having  brought  the  manufacture  of  steel- 
pens  to  its  present  state  of  high  perfection  (see 
PENS).     He  died  5th  January  1S73. 

Gillray.  Ja.mes.  an  English  caricaturist,  bom 
at  Chelsea,  of  humble  |)arentage,  in  1757.  He  fii>t 
became  known  as  a  successful  engraver  almut  1784, 
and  between  1779  and  1811  issued  as  many  as  1500 
caricatures,  numbers  of  which,  it  is  said,  '  were 
etched  at  once  upon  the  copper  without  the  assist- 


ance of  drawings.'  They  are  full  of  broad  humour 
and  keen  satire,  the  sul>jects  of  his  ridicule  being 
generally  the  I'leiicli,  Napoleon,  tieorge  111.,  anil 
the  principal  English  politicians;  he  also  employed 
his  talents  in  cjusligating  the  .social  follies  of  his 
ilay.  He  died  in  London,  1st  June  1815.  (Jillray 
lived  for  many  years  in  the  house  of  the  print.seller, 
Miss  Humphrey,  in  London.  During  the  last  four 
yeai-s  of  las  life  he  w;ts  insane.  His  caricatures, 
which  were  very  popular  and  not  without  inlluence 
u|)oii  public  opinion,  often  rise  to  a  lofty  level  of 
conception,  and  display  true  artistic  feeling.  A 
selection  of  them  was  jiublished  by  M'Lean  (accom- 
panied by  an  illustrative  <le.scription),  in  .304  sheets 
(Loud.  1830).  All  cilition  with  Life  and  Times  of 
(iillray,  by  1'.  Wright,  was  issued  by  Uolin  (1851; 
new  ed.  1873). 

Gill.s,  or  I!r.\nciii.E,  organs  of  aquatic  respira- 
tion, ccuisisting  of  expansions  through  the  thin 
skin  of  which  oxygen  dis.sidved  in  the  water  is 
taken  into  the  blooil,  while  carbonic  acid  |i.i.s.si-s 
out.  It  is  <Uliicult  to  say  what  animal  lirst  exhibits 
gills;  for  respiration  through  the  general  skin  is 
common  in  lower  Invertebrates,  and  the  distinction 
between  mere  skin  lobes  and  markeil  ex|>aiisions 
in  special  connection  with  the  vascular  system  is 
arbitrary.  In  starlishes  thin  out  piishings  of  the 
liniii''  of  the  body-cavity  luoject  tbiough  pores  in 
the  skin  ;  a  iiiodihcation  of  this  simple  plan  is  seen 
in  some  other  Echinoderm.ata ;  while  the  cliarae- 
terislic  tulie-feet  are  sometimes  respiratory,  and 
the  Hidothuriaiis  have  often  respiratory  tentacles. 
In  marine  worms  we  lind  every  transition  from 
vague  skin  respiration  to  the  iiiciea.se  of  this  by 
filaments  or  tentacles  associated  with  legs  or  bead, 


Fig.  1. — t>cLi,..ii  ,,1  ..li  Aiuielid  Wonn  : 
br,  gills;  a,  b,  blood-vessels  ;  t,  intestine.    (From  Gegenbaur.) 

and  linally  to  delinite  gills.  These  are  usually  thin 
expansions,  tilamentous,  tufted,  or  feathery,  which 
project  into  the  w.ater,  have  cilia  on  their  cniter 
surface,  and  blood-ve-^sels  riddling  them  internally. 
In  some  of  the  lower  Crustaceans  again  (Itiaiiehio- 
poda— i.e.  'gill  f<ioled ')  .i  number  of  the  legs  are 
thin  enough  to  admit  of  respiration  through  their 
surfaces,  while  the  higher  tonus  have  a.sso(i;ited 
with  some  of  their  linilis  .sjiecial  tufts  of  respiratory 
Hlaments,  or  definite  feathery  gills,  as  in  the 
lobster.      These  consist   of   a  main  stem,   within 


Fig.  2.— Gills  of  Crayfish  exposed  (after  Huxley). 

which  are  two  canals,  one  for  the  im])ure  blood 
from  the  body,  the  other  for  the  return  of  oxygen- 
ated blood  on  its  way  to  the  heart  :  but  with 
these  canals  are  connected  numerous  hollow,  thin- 


GILLS 


GILPIN 


213 


walled  filaments,  in  which  the  real  respiration 
is  effected.  In  the  lobster  and  its  allies  these  are 
overlapiJcd  by  the  sides  of  the  anterior  shield,  but 
water  rurrents  are  kept  up  by  the  balin;,'  action  of 
one  of  the  anterior  ajipeudages  on  each  side.  In 
the  King-crab  ( Limulus ),  rather  an  Arachnid  than 
a  Oustacean,  live  pairs  of  abdominal  appendages 
bear  fiat  'gill-books,'  each  of  which  consists  of  an 
a.xls  bearin"  some  150  hollow,  thin-walled,  bh)od- 
containing  leaves.  In  the  aqnatic  larvip  of  some 
insects  the  air-tubes  (tracheic)  are  closed,  but 
form  gill-like  outgrowths  ('tracheal  gills'),  by 
means  of  wliich  oxygen  is  absorbed.  In  bivalve 
molluscs  (Lamellibranchs)  the  gills  usually  form 
ciliated  plates  on  each  side  of  tlie  body.  Kach  gill, 
or  ctenidiuni,  as  it  is  often  called,  really  consists  of 
two  rows  of  hollow  processes  of  the  body-wall, 
extending  downwards  on  each  side  of  tlie  foot,  but 
each  filament  at  its  free  end  usually  bends  up 
again,  so  that  a  cross  section  has  the  form  of  a  W, 
the  median  apex  of  wliicli  represents  tlie  ooint  of 
origin  from  the  body-wall.  Neighbouring  lilanients 
become  linked  to  one  another,  and  ascending  and 
desceniling  parts  of  the  same  filament  are  likewise 
crossed  by  bridges,  so  that  finally  continuous  idates 
result,  channelleil  by  lilood- 
containing  canals.  Some- 
what simpler  on  the  whole 
are  the  external  gill  filaments 
of  chiton,  of  the  limpet,  of 
nudibranchs,  &c.,  or  tiie  in- 


the  Circulation  of  the 
Blond     tIirou;^h     the 
Gills : 
d,d,  art«ry  and  branches; 
e,p,  vein  and  branches. 


Fig.    4.  —  Dissection    of    the 
Pharynx  of  a  Fish  : 

Showing  by  .irrows,  h,  tite  course 
of  the  wat«r ;  o,  tlie  gill  arches  ; 
c,  the  gills ;  d,  the  external 
opening;  «,  the  gullet. 


and  washed  as  usual  by  the  water  which  entering 
by  the  mouth  passes  out  by  the  gill-slits.  The  gill 
of  a  fish  generally  consists  of  two  triangular  folds 
of  mucous  membrane,  supported  by  the  branchial 
arch  and  minor  cartilaginous  rods,  and  traversed, 


ternal  gills  (covered  by  a  folding  of  the  mantle)  in 
many  aipiatic  Gasteropods ;  or  lastly,  the  well- 
<lcvelopod  feather  like  gills  in  the  mantle  cavity  of 
cuttle-fishes. 

.\mong  vertebrates  gills  are  <leveloped  only  as 
far  as  the  amphibians,  all  of  which  have  them  in 
their  youth,  though  many,  such  as  the  frog,  have 
thorn  entirely  replaced  liy  lungs  in  adult  life. 
Iteyoiid  amphibians  gills  never  occur,  though 
branchial  or  visceral  clefts  on  the  sides  of  the 
pharynx  remain  as  traces  of  the  ancestral  condi- 
tion. In  tunicates  and  in  the  l.ancelet  water 
entering  by  the  mouth  washes  the  blood  spread 
out  in  vessels  between  slits  on  the  walls  of  the 
liharynx,  but  there  are  no  gills.  In  the  round 
mouths,  or  Cyclostonuita,  the  Liills  are  enclosed  in 
pocket-like  structures,  through  whicii  the  water 
passes.  In  fishes  we  have  to  ilistinguish  transitory 
external  gills  occasionally  present  from  true  in- 
ternal gill-filaments  borne  on  the  branchial  arches. 


Fig.  r>. 
Young  Dog-fish,  showing  transitory  external  gills. 

as  the  diagram  sugge.sts,  by  vessels  with  impure 
blood  from  the  heart,  and  with  oxygenated  blood 
to  the  body  (see  FiSHES).  For  .Vmpliibia,  see  the 
case  of  the  tadpole  described  in  the  article  Frog, 
and  the  various  adult  states  described  in  the  article 
Amphibi.v.  The  student  should  examine  especi- 
ally the  gills  of  bivalves — e.g.  mussel — of  fishes, 
and  of  tadpoles.  See  CIRCULATION,  MOLLISCA, 
Respiration. 

For  the  general  comparative  anatomy  of  gills,  see 
Professor  F.  Jeffrey  Bell's  Coiii}xiratii-r  Anatomii  and 
Phi/.'ioloriii  (Lond.  1885),  and  other  text-books.  For 
minute  structure  of  gills,  see  especially  Hobuan  Peck, 
Quart.  Journ.  Micr.  Sci.  xvii.  (1S77),  and  Professor 
Kay  Lankester's  article  '  iloUusca  '  in  the  Enci/.  Bril. 

Cillyflower,  a  popular  English  name  for  some 
of  the  cruciferous  plants  most  prized  for  the  beauty 
and  fragrance  of  their  fiowers,  as  wallllower  in  the 
west  of  England,  stocks  in  other  parts,  &c.  ;  also 
for  Hespcris  matronalis.  Dame's  Violet  (<i.v. ). 
The  clove-pink  also,  the  wild  original  of  the  car- 
nation, is  called  Clorc-Gilliiflmrci:  The  name 
gillyflower  has  been  regarded  as  a  corruption  of 
J uhifiuiiir  :  but  in  Chaucer  it  appears  in  the  form 
ijiliifrc  :  ami  the  French  (jiroJKc  indicates  the  true 
derivation  from  girriflr,  a  clove,  the  smell  of  the 
clove-gillyflower  being  somewhat  like  that  of  cloves. 

Gilolo,  one  of  the  Moluccas  (q.v.)  or  Spice 
Islands. 

Gilpin,  Bernard,  the  '  Apostle  of  the  North,' 
was  born  of  an  old  Westmorlan<l  fandly,  at 
Kentmere  Hall,  in  1517,  studied  at  IJueen's 
College,  Oxford,  and  early  showed  unusual  ajiti- 
tude  for  learning.  In  1.5.y2  he  became  vicar  of 
Norton,  in  the  diocese  of  Durham,  luit  soon  resigneil 
the  living  to  pursue  his  studies  at  Louvain.  Re- 
turning to  England  towards  the  close  of  Mary's 
reign,  he  was  appointed  bv  his  uncle  Risliop  Tun- 
stall  to  be  archdeacon  ot  Durham  and  rector  of 
Easington.  Here  bis  fearless  luuicsty  against 
pluralities  and  the  incbdence  and  viciousni>s  of 
the  clergy  soon  made  him  many  enemies,  whose 
charges  of  heresy  Tunstall  not  oidy  set  aside,  but, 
after  tJilpin  had  resigned  both  his  living  and  the 
archdeaconry,  appointed  him  to  be  rector  of  Hough 
ton  Ic-Spring.  (In  the  way  to  London,  whither  hi'  had 
been  summoned  by  Bonner,  he  .iccidentally  broke 
his  leg,  and  before  lie  w.as  able  to  resume  bis  journey 
Kli/abeth  bad  succeeded  Mary  and  he  was  safe. 
The  see  of  Carlisle  and  the  provostsbip  of  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  were  in  turn  ottered  him,  but  both 
he  reuised.  preferring  to  spend  the  remaimler  of  his 
life  at  Hougliton  in  unce.a.Mng  works  of  benevolence. 
His  parish  w,a.s  wide,  and  sunk  in  the  deepest  igno- 
rance, but  he  continually  preached  and  exhorted  in 
the  pulpit  and  from  house  to  house,  settled  the 
quarrels  of  bis  turbulent  parishioners,  set  up  a 
grammar-school,  and  practised  unbounded  hospi- 
tality  to  strangers,  to  travellei-s,  and  to  the  poor, 
spending   'every  fortnight  40  bushels  of  corn,  "20 


214 


GILPIN 


GIN 


buslipls  of  malt,  and  nn  ox,  liesiiles  a  ]iro|)ortional 

?uaiility  of  otlier  kinds  of  provisions.'  Tlinm;,'li 
"foil  lie  had  olitaincd  the  rare  distinction  of  a 
general  license  for  jireachin^,  and  armed  with  this 
he  regularly  made  |ireachiii;r  excni-sioris  into  the 
wildi'st  parts  of  Cnnilierland,  Wcstniorlaml,  anil 
Northnmlierland.  His  visits  to  the  tnrliulcnt  dis- 
tricts (if  Tynedaleanil  Kedcsilale  he  generally  made 
ahont  t'hrlstMias  time,  when  it  was  ea-sicsl  to  <;ather 
the  people  together.  The  fearle.ssness  of  his  temper 
is  seen  in  the  story  of  his  taking  down  and  )nittiiig 
into  his  hosom  a  glove  whicli  hail  lieen  hung  up  as 
a  clialleiigi'  in  a  church  in  which  he  hail  to  ]iri'ac]i. 
His  own  iiulurally  warm  t('ni|icr  he  held  uudi'i- 
coni|dete  control.  His  tall  ami  slender  ocisou,  his 
iniliiVcrenco  to  dress,  and  teni])cranee  in  diet,  added 
to  his  rare  spiritual  elevation  of  character,  helped 
to  make  this  singular  man's  inlluence  over  his 
people  supreme.  His  last  yeai-s  were  trouhled 
witli  inlirni  health,  from  which  he  was  relieved  hy 
deatli,  Itli  March  l.'iS:!.  Tin  ic  is  a  life  of  (;il|iiu 
written  liy  Ilishop  t'arletou,  one  of  his  ]m)iils,  in 
Bates's  Vitir  Si'trrloniiii  /i/iijiiot  Vironoii  {\iiii\),  a, 
translation  of  which  will  lie  found  in  vol.  iii.  of  C. 
Wonlsworth's  Ecclcsiasliral  Jiiogiiijj/ii/.  See  also 
Colliiigwood's  Memoirs  of  licnmrd  Gi/jiiii  (1884). 

C>il|>ill.  WiLLl.AM,  was  horn  at  Carlisle  in  1724. 
He  \va^  educated  at  0.\f<U(l,  and  kept  a  scho<d  at 
('heaiii  ill  Suni'V,  but  was  afterwards  ]uesented  to 
the  living  of  liohlre  in  Hampshire,  where  lie  died  in 
1804.  His  name  is  rcmemhereil  for  ii  series  of 
hooks  on  the  scenery  of  various  parts  of  liritaiu 
illustrated  hy  aijuatint  engravings  of  his  own 
execution.  (If  these  the  chief  are  Observations  on 
PiHiiresfjiie  Beriiiti/  in  sercra/  jnirtx  ofilreat  Jiritiiin, 
p((rtiriil<trlif  the  lliij/ilnnr/.t  of  ticotliind  (1778); 
The  River  W'l/e  and  Southern  Districts  of  Wales 
(178'2);  The  Lake  Coiintri/  [\7S'J) ;  Forest  Seenenj 
(17'J1):  ami  The  ]Vestern  Parts  of  England  and 
Isle  of  Wiijht  (1798). 

diltlioad  (Chrysophrys),  a  genus  of  'sea- 
breams  '  or  Sparida',  represented  hy  ahont  a  score 
of  species  from  the  warmer  seas,  hest  known  hy  the 
Meuiterranean  species  [Ch.  auratti),  someiimes 
found  on  the  southern  coasts  of  England.  Large 
species  occur  oil"  the  Cape  of  (lood  Hope,  and  Ch. 
hasta  is  common  on  East  Indian  and  Chinese 
coasts.  The  giltheail  has  an  ohlong  and  coin- 
pre.ssed  body,  a  single  dorsal  lin  with  sjiiiies  whicli 
can  he  received  into  a  groove,  scaly  cheeks  and 
gill  cover,  and  two  kinds  of  teeth,  sharp  like 
canines  in  front,  rounded  like  molars  Itehind.  The 
length  is  about  a  foot ;  the  hack  is  silvery  gray, 


\V^ii,ii 


Common  GUthead  (Chrysophrys  aurata). 

shaded  with  blue  ;  the  belly  like  polished  steel  ; 
the  sides  have  golden  bands;  and  there  is  a  half- 
nioon-shaped  spot  of  gold  between  the  eyes  to 
which  the  various  names  Ch r>/sojdi ri/s  ('golileu  eye- 
brow'), Aiiratti  ('gilded'),  Daurade,  and  (iilthc.ad 
obviously  refer.  Thev  feed  oliieHy  on  molluscs,  in 
search  of  which  they  are  saiil  to  stir  uji  the  sand 
with  their  tails.  The  lish  is  generally  found  near 
the  shore  iii  small  shoals,  and  its  presence  is  some- 
times betrayed  to  fishermen  by  the  noise  which  its 
teeth  make  in  crnsliing  shells.     It  was  often  ke))t 


in  the  vivaria  by  the  Itoinans,  being  much  valued 
and  eiusily  fattened. 

(>il  Vicente,  the  father  of  the  Portuguese 
drama,  was  born,  probably  at  Lisbon,  about  1470, 
and  (lied,  jirolialily  .at  Evora,  shortly  after  I'lIO.  He 
studiiMl  jurisprudence  at  the  university  of  I.islxin, 
hut  soon  abandoned  this  for  dramatic  iioctrv.  His 
lii-st  piece,  a  pastoral  drama  in  Siianish,  was  repre- 
sented in  1.5t»'2,  to  celebrate  the  liirtli  of  an  heir  to 
the  throne.  'I'lie  success  of  this  play  led  to  his 
being  employed  on  all  similar  occasions  throughout 
the  reigns  of  Emanuel  and  .lolin  III.  He  iirodiiced 
in  all  4'i  pieces,  of  which  10  were  in  Siiaiiish,  17  in 
Portuguese,  and  the  remainder  in  liolli  hiiigiiage-s. 
They  consist  of  religions  dramas,  comedies,  .and 
farces;  are  conijiosed  almost  wholly  in  the  medieval 
spirit ;  and  contain  several  touches  of  ]ioetie  feel- 
ing, and  in  places  are  rich  in  humour.  The  lii'st 
edition  of  his  works  was  published  in  1.102.  In 
18S4  a  complete  reprint  was  i.ssned  by  I'eio  and 
Monteiro  (3  vids.  Hamh. ). 

Caimbnls  (I.at.  e/rniellns,  'a  twin')  are  two 
eircniar  brass  hoops  used  f(U'  suspending  the  com- 
pass box  on  board  slii]i,  so  that  it  may  always  rest 
liorizont.ally,  uiiad'ected  by  the  .ship's  nioticm.  The 
(mter  hoop  is  attached  to  a  box  or  other  fixed 
object,  while  the  inner  is  constructed  so  as  to  allow 
of  its  moving  freely  within  the  outer,  to  which  it  is 
attached  bv  two  ]iivots  at  the  extiemilics  of  a 
diameter.  The  C(Uii]iass-box  is  attached  to  the 
inner  hoo|>  by  two  similar  jiivots  at  right  angles  to 
the  former.  Thus  the  compass  moves  freely  in 
two  directions  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and 
can  always  i-ctain  its  horizontal  position,  however 
the  vessel  ni.ay  roll  or  lutch.  Gimbals  are  also 
apidicd  to  other  instruments. 

<«illll>.  or  (;VMP,  a  kind  of  trimiuing  for  dics.s, 
curtains,  furniture,  &c. ,  made  cither  of  silk,  woid, 
or  cotton.  Its  ]ieciiliarity  is  that  fine  wire  is 
twisted  into  the  thin  c(u<l  of  which  it  is  made. 
Cold  and  silver  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
military  gimps. 

(■in.  or  (iKN'EVA,  an  alcoholic  drink,  distilh'd 
from  m.alt  or  from  unmalted  barley  or  other  grain, 
and  afterwards  rectified  and  flavoured.  The  gin 
which  forms  the  common  spirituous  drink  of  the 
lower  cl.a-sses  of  London  and  its  vicinity  is  tlavoiired 
very  slightly  with  oil  of  tiirjientine  and  c(uiinion 
salt.  Each  rectifier  has  his  own  jiarticular  recipe 
f(M-  regulating  the  ((uantitics  to  be  used,  hut 
u.sually  ali<mt  5  lluid  ounces  of  spirit  of  tuipeutiue 
and  si  lb.  of  salt  are  mixed  in  10  gallons  of  water  ; 
tlie.se  are  jd.aced  in  the  rectifying  still,  with  80 
g.allons  of  ]iroof  corn-spirit,  and  distilled  until  the 
feints  begin  to  come  over.  The  product  is  then 
used  either  unsweetened  or  sweetened  with  sugar. 
Pot.ato  spirit  is  used  in  the  manuf.actiire  of  inferior 
quiilities  of  gin. 

The  word  e/in  is  a  shortened  form  of  f/rnrea,  so 
called  by  confusion  with  the  Swiss  town  of  (Jeiieva, 
but  itself  re.illy  a  c(urupted  form  of  the  Old  Kr. 
f/enevre,  '  juniiier,'  from  the  \j!it.  jiinijienis.  It  is 
well  known  that  juniiierherries  are  still  used  ia 
flavouring  the  spirit  made  from  ne-meal  and  malt 
in  Holland,  where  it  is  an  article  of  great  manu- 
facture, chiellv  at  Schiedam ;  hence  it  is  often 
called  .Srhirdam  or  Hollands,  as  well  as  gene\a  and 
gin.  The  larger  part  by  far  of  the  spirit  ni.ade  in 
Holland  is  exiiorted  to  other  countries,  especially 
to  North  America  and  norlliern  Eurojie.  It  w.is 
formerly  always  cxiiortcd  in  bottles,  a  S(|naie  form 
of  which  is  still  familiar,  but  ca-sks  are  now  much 
used  as  well. 

Almost  every  gin-palace  keeper  in  London  has 
some  vile  recipe  for  increasing  the  pungency  and 
giving  a  fixctitious  strength  to  the  much-diluted 
sweetened   spirit  sold  under  this  name.     A  mere 


GINCKELL 


GINGKO 


215 


enumeration  of  the  articles  usually  eniployeil  -will 
ifWe  some  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  sojiliistication 
is  carrictl  on  with  this  spirit  :  roach  alum,  salt  of 
tartar  (carl)onate  of  i)otash),  oils  of  juiiii>cr,  cassia, 
nutmeg,  lemons,  sweet  fennel,  and  caraway,  cori- 
ander seeds,  cardamoms,  and  capsicums,  and,  it  is 
alleged,  even  sulphuric  acid.  Excess  of  turpentine 
is  the  most  common  and  jierhaps  the  worst  adul- 
terant. Still  mucli  sound  gin  is  made  in  London — 
the  ilinretic  r|ualities  of  its  'Old  Tom,' as  well  as 
of  Hollands,  are  well  known. 

Ciiilickell  (or  GiNKEL),  flODEET  DE,  Dutch 
general,  l)orn  at  Utreelit  in  1030,  aecomjianied 
William  III.  to  England  in  1688.  Along  with  his 
master  he  crossed  over  to  Ireland  in  IfiOO,  and 
commanded  a  body  of  horse  at  the  hattle  of  the 
lioyne.  On  the  king's  return,  Oinckell  was  left 
as  commander-in-chief  in  Ireland.  He  thereupon 
reduced  liallymore  ami  Athlone,  defeated  St  Itiith 
at  Aghrim,  and  finally  captured  Limerick.  J"or 
this  he  was  in  1692  created  Earl  of  Athlone.  He 
afterwards  commanded  the  Dutch  troops  under 
Marlboiough  in  the  Low  Countries.  He  died  at 
Utrecht,  11  th  February  1703. 

(•illSTSlIt  a  large,  clumsy  musket  tised  by  Asiatic 
armies  in  the  defence  of  fortresses,  and  sometimes 
mounted  on  carriages  as  a  light  lield-gun. 

<»illger  (Zinr/ibcr),  a  genus  of  Zingiberaceie,  of 

which  most  sjiecies  yield  root-stocks  useful  as  condi- 
ments and  stomachics,  especially  the  narrow-leaved 
or  common  ginger  {Z.  officinale),  which  has  been 
cultivated  in  the  East  Indies  from  time  immemorial, 
and  is  now  also  cultivated  in  other  tropical  countries, 
particularly  the  West  Indies  and  Sierra  Leone,  from 
hotli  of  which,  as  well  as  from  the  East  Indies,  its 
root-stocks — the  ginger  of  commerce — are  a  con- 
siderable article  of  export.  The  cultivati<in  is 
extremely  easy,  and  is  carried  on  up  to  4-5000  feet 


Commou  Ginser  (Zunjihcr  officinale): 

a,  plant  ^vitli  Uirreii  find  flowering  stems;  />,  a  flower; 

c,  portion  of  leafy  stem.    (From  Bentloy  and  Trinicn.) 

in  the  Himalayas  in  moist  situations.  The  root- 
stock  is  taken  up  when  the  stems  ha\o  withered, 
and  is  prepared  for  the  market  either  simply  by 
scalding  in  boiling  water— in  order  to  kill  it— anil 
subsequent  drying,  or  by  scraping  and  washing. 
The  hrst  method  yields  Black  diia/cr,  the  seconcl 
Wliilc  liiii'jcr:  but  there  are  con>iderable  varietal 
<lilterenco.s  in  the  shades  of  these.  The  blackest  of 
I'dack  tiinger,  moreover,  is  only  of  a  stone  colour, 
and    the  whitest  of  White  tiinger  very  far  from 


perfectly  white,  unless  bleaching  by  chloride  of 
lime  be  afterwards  em]iloyed  to  improve  its  appear- 
ance— a  process  not  otherwise  advantageous.  The 
uses  of  ginger,  both  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant  and 
carminative,  and  in  domestic  economy  as  a  condi- 
ment, are  too  well  known  to  rerjuire  i)articular 
notice.  It  contains  a  good  deal  ot  starch,  but  its 
main  nualities  depend  upon  its  jiale  yellow  volatile 
oil.  rrcscrrcil  Ginf/ci;  largely  imported  from  China 
and  the  East  and  West  Indies,  consists  of  the 
young  root-stocks  preserved  in  syrup  :  it  is  not 
only  a  delicious  sweetmeat,  but  a  useful  stomachic. 
The  young  root-stocks  are  often  also  candied. — 
(linger  was  known  to  the  Uomans,  and  is  said  by 
Pliny  to  have  been  brought  from  Arabia. — Zerumbet 
(Z.  zerumbet),  also  called  IJroad-leavcd  Ginger  (and 
sometimes  erroneously  Round  Zedoary  ),  is  cultivated 
in  Java;  its  root-stock  is  much  thicker,  but  le.-s 
pungent. — Cassumunar  (.Z.  cassumioiar),  sometimes 
called  Yellow  Zedoary,  has  a  camphor-like  smell, 
and  a  hitter  aromatic  taste.  It  was  of  high  reputa- 
tion as  a  medicine  about  the  close  of  the  17th 
century. — Mioga  {Z.  ^nior/a)  is  less  pungent  than 
ginger,  and  is  used  in  Japan. — Cattle  sent  to  graze 
in  the  jungles  of  northern  India,  during  the  lainy 
season,  are  supplied  with  tlie  root-stocks  of  Z. 
capilatum,  to  preserve  their  health. — The  root  of 
Aristolochia  (q.v.)  caiiailcnuc,  sometimes  called 
Indian  Ginger  or  Wild  Ginger  in  Xorth  America, 
is  ajiplied  to  similar  uses. 

Essence  of  Ginfjcr,  much  used  for  flavouring,  is 
merely  an  alcoholic  tincture. — Syrup  of  Ginf/er  is 
used  chielly  by  druggists  for  flavouring. — Ginger 
Tea  is  a  domestic  remedy  very  useful  in  cases  of 
flatulence,  and  is  an  infusion  of  ginger  in  boiling 
water. — Ginger-beer  is  an  ett'ervescing  drink  made  by 
fermenting  ginger,  sugar,  and  some  other  ingre- 
dients, and  bottling  before  the  fermentation  is  com- 
l)leted. — Ginger  Wine  or  Ginger  Cordial  is  a  li(|Heur 
ilav(mred  with  ginger. — Ginger  Ale  is  one  of  the 
Aerated  Waters  ( q.\. ). — Gingerbread  is  a  very  well- 
known  article  of  food,  which  in  the  14th  century 
was  made  of  rye  dough,  kneaded  with  ginger  and 
other  spice,  and  honey  or  sugar.  Kow  its  constitu- 
ents are  treacle,  moist  sugar,  wheaten-flour,  butter, 
and  eggs,  flavoured  with  ginger  and  other  spices  ; 
a  little  carbonate  of  magnesia  and  tartaric  acid, 
or  carbonate  of  ammonia,  are  sometimes  put  in  to 
give  lightness. 

Oillgliaill  (Fr.  guingan  :  according  to  Littrc, 
a  corruption  of  the  name  of  the  town  of  Guingamp ), 
a  cotton  fabric  manufactured  chielly  for  dresses. 
It  is  of  a  light  or  medium  weight,  and  is  woven 
from  coloured  yarns  into  stripes  or  checks;  but  the 
jiatterns,  while  preserving  tliis  general  character, 
are  endlessly  varied  both  as  to  ligure  and  colour. 
These  being  produced  by  weaving,  the  fabric  dill'ei's 
from  printed  calico,  some  of  the  jiatterns  on  which 
resemble  those  of  ginghams,  tienuine  Earlston 
ginghams  still  command  a  high  price  owing  to 
their  excellent  quality,  but  they  are  now  only 
made  to  a  very  limited  extent,  tila.'^gow  and  Man- 
chester being  tlie  centres  where  this  kiml  of  goods 
is  manufactured  on  a  large  scale.  Cotton  stuti's 
sold  under  other  names,  .such  as  zcjihyi-s  and 
chamhreys,  partake  of  the  nature  of  ginghams. 

dillgili  Oil,  a  name  often  given  to  the  bland 
fixed  oil  <ildaiiied  by  expre.ssion  from  the  seeds  of 
Sesamnni  Indirum.     See  SESAME. 

Oilisko  ( Gingko  hiloba,  or  Salisburia  adiatiti- 
fo/iii)  is  tlie  Japanese  name  of  a  coniferous  tree  of 
the  yew  alliance  (Taxacea-),  with  very  characteris- 
tic leaves,  in  form  and  variation  recalling  the  leaf- 
lets of  the  mai<len-hair  ferns.  The  yellow  drupe- 
like seeds  reach  the  size  of  a  walnut,  and  are  largely 
eaten  throughout  China  an<l  Japan;  the  chestnut- 
like kernels  are  roasted  like  chestnuts,  and  aVs;i 


216 


GINKKLL 


GIORGIONE 


jieUl  a  wliolesome  oil.  The  Jiipiinese  esleeiiied  the 
tree  as  sacred,  uiid  [ilantcd  it  round  thi-ir  ti'iii|ile8. 
Being  a  free-grower,  and  having  l>een  inlmduied 
in  thi'  iSlli  eonttiry,  hirge  trees  are  now  not  unconi- 
nion  in  Kurope,  nor  in  Anieriea,  where  tliey  were 
introiluoed  in  I7H4.  The  tree  is  diocions,  lint  the 
Chinese  sonietinies  [dant  several  male  and  female 
trees  ehise  together,  so  that  nnile  and  female  llowei-s 
ajipear  to  arise  on  the  same  tree. 

<>illk«'ll.     See  CiNCKKLL. 

4ailis«'ii<;,  a  root  highly  esteemed  in  Cliina  lui  a 
medicine,  hiing  universally  regarded  .us  possessing 
the  moat  extr,aordin.ary  virtues,  ami  a.s  a  remedy  for 
almost  all  ilise.oses,  hut  particularly  for  exhaustion 
of  Ixwly  or  mind.  It  is  the  root  of  a  species  of 
I'anax  (order  .\raliacea'),  appro]iriately  so  called 
since  so  typical  a  p.inacciu  I'.  (liii.srii<i  of  Chinese 
Tartary  is,  however,  scarcely  distinct  from  1'.  ijiiin- 
iniifii/iinii  of  North  America,  which  is  exported  to 
China  to  the  amount  of  ahout  .")0(),(HK)  ll>.  annually, 
but  fetches  a  lower  price.  The  ginseng  of  Corca  is 
most  valued,  and  is  carefully  cultivateil  in  that 
country.  It  is  naised  from  seed  ;  the  seedlings  are 
jdanted  out,  anil  frei|nently  transplanted,  and  it 
IS  not  till  the  fifth  year  that  the  ]ilant  reaches 
maturity.  Ordinary  ginseng  is  prepared  liy  simply 
drying  the  root  over  a  charcoal  lire  :  the  red  or 
clarilied  ginseng  is  ste.amed  in  earthenware  ve.ssels 
with  holes.  The  root  is  mucilaginous,  sweetish, 
also  slightly  hitter  and  aromatic.  It  ha.s  been 
regardeil  as  a  very  elixir  of  life  all  over  the  East, 
hut  especially  in  China  and  Japan.  Western 
medical  practiti<iners,  however,  have  .i-s  yet  failed 
to  conlirm  or  explain  its  extraonlinarv  reputation 
among  the  Chinese.  The  export  from  Corea, 
amounting  to  27,000  lb.  in  a  good  year,  is  a  strict 
monopoly.  The  wild  ginseng  of  Corea  ha.s  fre- 
i|uently  fetched  twenty  times  its  weight  in  silver 
in  China.  /'.  /nitirijmi.t  and  coc/i/aitiis  of  the 
Moluccas  are  fragrant  aroniatics  used  in  Indian 
native  medicine. 

Gioborti,  Vincf.nzo,  an  Italian  jihilosopherand 
political  writer,  w.as  born  .")tli  .Vjiril  ISOl,  at  Turin. 
Eilucateil  lor  the  church,  he  w:x.s  onlained  to  the 
priesthood  in  1.S2.').  and  on  the  accession  of  Charles 
Albert  to  the  throne  of  Sardinia  was  selected  as 
chaplain  to  the  court.  l!ut,  his  liberal  views  being 
obnoxious  to  the  clerical  party,  he  was  two  yeai's 
later  sudilenly  arrested,  and  after  fo\ir  months'  im- 
prisonment sent  cmt  of  the  country,  .\fter  a  short 
stay  at  I'.iris.  the  exile  went  on  ( ls:U)  to  Brussels, 
where  he  spent  eleven  yeai-s  as  private  tutor  in  an 
academy,  pursuing  in  his  leisure  hours  his  favourite 
stuilies.  These  were  at  lirst  of  a  philosoiihie  nature, 
the  fruits  of  his  labours  .appearing  in  iiitiiutiiziinn' 
alio  Stwli't  iMIn  Fi/ijs>,fi,t  (1S.S!)),  He/  licllu 
( 1S41 ),  and  Del  ISiiniio  ( IS42).  Towanls  the  end  of 
his  peri(Ml  of  exile  in  Brussels  he  beg.an  to  write  on 
the  state  of  It.dy.  \  devout  Catholic,  (iioberti 
looked  upon  the  |iapacy  as  the  divinely  aiip<iinted 
agency  for  the  elevation  of  Italy  among  the  nations. 
.■\  confederation  of  states  subject  to  pa]>al  arbitra- 
tion, and  having  in  the  king  of  Sardinia  a  military 
pnitectiu",  w.as  the  scheme  he  devised  for  the  unity 
and  regeneration  of  his  country.  Tlie.se  views  he 
elaborately  developed  in  Del  Pi-lmiito  Virile  e  Morale 
liei/li  Jidliiiiii.  Its  ]>nhlication  in  Paris  in  184.3  was 
hailed  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm  in  Italy,  and  his 
fame  was  still  further  eidi.anced  by  his  work  // 
(lemiita  Mut/cnio  (ls46— 47),  directed  against  the 
Jesuit  order,  tin  his  return  to  Italy  in  IS48  he 
w.as  received  with  universal  ov.ations  from  all  cla.ssps 
of  the  people,  w.-us  chosen  by  both  Turin  and 
Genoa  as  their  representative  in  parliament,  w.as 
appointe<l  .senator  by  the  king,  and  subsequently 
elected  president  of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and 
finally  prime-minister.     As  a  statesman,  however, 


he  was  not  successful,  and  after  a  few  weeks'  tenure 
of  oMice  he  resigned.  Being  sluntly  afterwards 
despatched  to  I'aris  on  apolitical  mission,  helinally 
settled  there  and  devoted  himself  exclusi\ely  til 
literary  pursiiit.s.  He  died  at  I'aris  of  apoplexy, 
26th  ( >ctobcr  1S.V2.  His  chief  writings  besides  those 
mentioned  are  Teurieit  del  Sn/iriniii'i/iiriile  (1H3S), 
a  work  against  what  he  regarded  as  the  philo- 
sophical errors  of  his  countryinan  Kosmini  ( 1S42), 
Del  Itiiiiiormiieiito  Civile  <rilalia  i  ls.")l  ),  /.«  l-'ilwio- 
fa  ticlla  Rirela;ione  (1856),  and  ])ella  Prnfologia 
(18.57).  In  philosophy  he  stood  somewhat  apart 
from  most  srhools,  though  cherishing  Platonic 
svmpathies  ;  his  works,  though  Christian  and  re- 
ligiously orthodox,  were  placed  (ui  the  Index.  In 
IS.'iG-GS  Massari  piiblisheil  in  11  vols,  the  O/irre 
/iieili/e  of  (ii(d>erti.  .See  .Miuvsaii,  I'ila  di  UiuUrti 
( 1,S48) ;  Spaventa,  La  filustjfia  di  Giuberti  { 18(i4  ); 
and  Berti,  Giuberti  {18HI). 

C>H>ja  del  C'olle,  a  town  of  Italy,  33  nules  by 
r.iil  .s.  of  M.iri,  has  a  trade  in  corn,  wine,  and  oil, 
anil  Il>.."i7:i  inhabitants. 

taiorilaiio.  I.ita,  an  Italian  painter,  was  horn 

at  Naidi's,  about  1032,  studied  under  Itiber.a  in  that 
town,  and  afterwards  under  ( 'orton.a  at  Home. 
Subsequentlv  he  visited  the  principal  centres  of 
painting  in  It.aly.  (liordano  aci|uir<il  the  jiowerof 
working  with  extreme  rapidity  («henc<'  his  nick- 
name I'"a-Presto,  'Make-haste  ),  and  of  iniilating 
the  style  of  most  of  the  great  masters.  Conse- 
quently much  of  his  work  is  hurried  and  snperlicial. 
In  16i)2  he  proceeded  to  Madrid,  at  the  reipiest  of 
Charles  II,  of  Spain,  who  desired  his  assistance  in 
the  embellishment  of  the  Kscorial.  (In  thedcith 
of  Charles  in  17<H)  tliordano  returned  to  Naph's, 
where  he  died,  12tli  Januarv  170.">.  His  linest  fres- 
coes are  to  be  found  in  the  'rrca-sury  of  the  Certosa, 
near  Pavia.  and  in  the  church  of  .San  Lorenzo,  in 
the  Eseorial  :  his  best  pictures  are  '  Christ  ex- 
pelling the  Traders  '  and  '  r  rancis  .\avier '  (  Na|iles ), 
a  Nativity  (.Madrid),  the  '  .I\iil;;ment  of  Paris' 
(Berlin),  and  several  in  the  gallery  at  Dresden. 

GiorsfioilC  (i.e.  '(Jreat  tieorge'),  the  name 
conferred,  by  reason  of  his  stature  and  his  artistic 
eminence,  on  Cliorgio  Barbarella,  who  was  boi-n 
about  1477,  near  Castelfranco,  in  the  Vene- 
tian province  of  Treviso,  the  illegitimate  son, 
as  it  is  believed,  of  a  member  of  the  Barbarella 
family  by  a  peasant  girl  of  Vedel.igo.  ,\t  an  early 
age  he  cauu'  to  \enice,  .niid  stndieil  painting  under 
(iiovanni  Bellini,  where  Titian  was  his  fellow-pupil. 
He  .soon  attained  fame  as  a  iiaintcr,  develojiing  a 
manner  freer  and  larger  in  haiidliiig  and  design 
than  that  of  his  master,  and  characterised  by 
intense  poetic  feeling,  by  gieat  beauty  and  rich- 
ness of  colouring,  and  by  a  constant  reference  to 
nature,  as  is  very  visible  in  the  landscape  back- 
grounds of  his  hgure-pieces,  in  which  he  intro- 
duced the  scenery  that  surrounded  his  birthplace. 
While  still  young  he  executed  portraits  of  Con/alvo 
of  Cordova,  of  the  Doges  .Agostino  Barbarigo  and 
Leonardo  Loredano,  and  of  Queen  Cornaro  of 
Cyprus,  who  then  resided  .at  .-\s(do,  not  far  from 
( 'jLstel franco  ;  but  the.se  works  have  disappeared. 
One  of  the  earliest  of  his  proilnctinns  that  have 
survived  is  an  '  Enthroned  Madorina  with  SS. 
Francis  and  Liberale,'  an  allarpiece  commissioned, 
probably  in  1504,  by  Tu/.io  Costan/.o  for  the  church 
of  Castelfranco — where  (liorgione  also  executed 
frescoes.  These  latter  jierished  when  the  edilice 
was  destroyed,  Imt  the  altai  piece  is  still  pre.servcd 
in  the  new  clinrch.  It  has  been  re|produced  by  the 
Arundel  Society,  and  the  oil  study  for  its  figure  of 
S.  Liber.ile  is  iii  the  National  (lallery,  London.  In 
Venice  also  (Jiorgione  was  extensively  employed  in 
fresco-painting,  decorating  in  this  manner  the 
exterior  of   his  own  house  in  the  Campo  di  San 


GIORGIONE 


GIOTTO    DI    BONDONE 


217 


Silvestro,  of  the  Soranzo  Palace,  of  tlie  palace  of 
Andrea  Loredano,  of  the  Casa  Flan;riiii,  and,  along 
with  Titian,  of  the  Fondaco  de'  Tedeschi  when  it 
was  ipliiiilt  in  1506.  Some  fragments  of  tlie  last- 
naini'd  frescoes  are  all  that  now  remains  of  his  work 
of  tills  nature.  The  critii's  are  much  divided  a.s  to 
the  easel-pictures  wlucli  may  be  correctly  attrib- 
uted to  (iiorgione,  and  the  best  anthorities  reject 
hy  far  the  gieater  number  that  bear  his  name  in 
the  various  public  galleries.  The  i)icture  known 
a.s'The  Family  of  (Uorgione,' in  the  collection  of 
the  late  Prince  Giovanelli  at  Venice  ;  that  titled 
'The  Three  Philosophers,'  in  the  Uelvedere, 
Vienna;  and  the  'Sleeping  Venus,'  in  the  Dresden 
Gallery,  are  admittedly  genuine  :  but  we  can  no 
longer  regard  as  undoubteiUy  from  his  brush  even 
such  noble  compositions  a.s  the  '  Concert  Cham- 
petre '  of  the  Louvre,  and  that  '  Concert '  of  the 
Pitti  which  seems  to  embody  the  very  spirit  of 
music,  an  art  to  which,  as  we  learn  from  Vasari,  the 
painter  was  devoted,  his  skill  as  a  singer  and  lute- 
player  having  procured  his  admission  into  the  most 
distinguished  circles  of  Italian  society.  The  former 
is  now  attributed  by  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  to  the 
school  of  Del  Piombo,  and  the  latter — which  these 
authoiities  esteem  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
master's  pictures — is  regarded  l)y  .Morelli  as  '  for 
certain  not  a  work  of  Giorgione,'  but  probably  an 
early  and  much  repainted  jjroduction  of  Titian. 
Giorgione  died  at  Venice  in  1.511,  in  his  thirty- 
fourth  year.  He  ranks  with  the  very  greatest  of 
Venetian  painters,  and  his  example  powerfully 
intlucnced  such  of  his  contemporaries  as  Sebastian 
<lel  I'ioiribo,  Pordenone,  and  even  Titian  himself. 

(liotto  di  Boildoiie,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
the  early  Italian  jiaintei-s,  and  also  celebrated  as 
an  architect,  was  Iwrn  probably  in  1266,  though 
Vasari  gives  the  year  as  1276,  at  the  village  of 
Vesiiignano,  14  miles  from  Florence.  At  the  age 
of  ten  he  was  discovered  by  Cimabue,  tending  his 
father's  Hocks,  and  drawing  one  of  the  lambs  upon 
a  Hat  stone,  and  was  by  him  taken  to  Florence  and 
instructeil  in  art.  The  master  was  then  at  the 
height  of  his  fame  :  he  had  infused  new  life  into 
the  old  Byzantine  forms  which  were  current  in  the 
art  of  the  time,  introducing  more  of  nature,  and 
greater  variety  and  tnith  of  form  and  e.\i)ression  ; 
and  the  changes  which  he  inaugurated  were,  with 
far  greater  power,  carried  towards  perfection  by  his 
gifted  i)upil,  who  introduced  a  close  imitation  of 
nature,  a  vivid  and  dramatic  realisation  of  suljject, 
more  satisfy  in"  and  varied  composition,  a  broader 
distrilmtion  of  mas.ses,  and  greater  lightness  of 
colouring.  The  first  of  Giotto's  independent  works, 
such  as  those  which  Vasari  states  that  he  executed 
in  the  Badia  of  Florence,  have  perished  ;  and  the 
earliest  that  have  lieen  preserved  are  a  series  of 
twenty-eight  frescoes,  scenes  from  the  life  of  St 
Francis,  in  the  aisle  of  the  Upper  Church  at  As.sisi. 
The  '  St  Francis  in  Glory,'  and  the  n(djle  allegorical 
subjects  of  '  Poverty,'  '  Cliastity.'  and  '  Obedience,' 
on  the  ceilings  of  tlie  Lower  Church,  mark  the  in- 
creasing strength  of  the  painter.  They  are  assigned 
by  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  to  the  year  1206,  though 
probalily  they  are  the  work  of  a  later  periml.  Two 
years  afterwards  he  was  emjiloyed  in  Kome  by 
the  Cardinal  Stefaneschi,  ilesigning  among  other 
works  the  mosaic  of  the  '  Xavicella,'  which,  utterly 
restored,  may  still  be  seen  in  the  vestibule  of  St 
Peter's.  In  l.'l(X)  2  we  trace  hiin  at  work  in  Florence, 
taking  part  in  the  execution  of  a  series  of  frescoes — a 
'  Par.idise,' an  'Inferno,'  and  scenes  from  the  life 
of  Saints  Magilalen  and  Mary  of  Egypt,  in  the 
Bargello  (now  the  Mnseo  Xazionale).  In  the 
'  Parailise '  he  introduced  portraits  of  ISninetti 
Latini,  Corso  Donati  the  celebrated  Neri  leader, 
Charles  of  Valois,  Cardinal  d'Acnuasparta,  and, 
above  all,  a  profile  likeness  of  his  friend  Dante, 


whose  acfjnaintance  he  had  made  in  Rome,  and 
who  refers  to  the  painter  in  canto  xi.  of  the  Purr/a- 
torio.  These  works  were  long  concealed  by  white- 
wash, which  was  removed  in  the  19tli  century.  The 
head  of  Dante  has  been  repainted  in  an  incorrect 
and  misleading  manner ;  but  an  accurate  tracing  ha<I 
previously  been  made  by  Mr  Seymour  Kirkup,  and 
this  has  been  reprodnced  by  the  Arundel  Society. 

The  next  great  series  of  works  by  Giotto  is  the 
frescoes  in  the  Annunziata  dell'  Arena  Chapel, 
founded  by  Enrico  Scrovegni  at  Pailua.  Here 
we  Hnd  the  artist  rising  to  his  highest  power, 
and  realising  the  .scenes  of  sacred  history  ami 
legend  with  a  directness  and  an  intensity  such  as 
had  not  hitherto  appeared  in  Italian  art.  The 
frescoes  comprise  thirtv-eight  subjects  from  the 
lives  of  the  Virgin  and  Christ,  as  related  in  the 
apocrjphal  and  canonical  gospels,  a  '  Christ  in 
Glor>%'  a  '  Last  Judgment,'  and  a  series  of  fourteen 
single  figures  personifying  the  cardinal  virtues  and 
their  opponent  vices.  In  1306,  during  the  progress 
of  these  works,  Dante,  then  in  exile,  visited  Giotto 
at  Padua,  and  it  has  been  believed  that  the  treat- 
ment of  the  symbolical  subjects,  which  are  exe- 
cuted with  extreme  care,  doubtless  entirely  by  the 
master's  own  hand,  embodies  suggestions  received 
from  the  great  poet.  Engravings  of  the  Arena 
Chapel  frescoes,  with  valuable  letterpress  liy  Mr 
Riiskin,  have  been  published  by  the  Arundel 
Society.  No  traces  survive  of  the  works  which, 
according  to  Vasari,  Giotto  afterwards  executed 
in  Verona  and  Ferrara ;  but  the  frescoes  with 
which,  after  1307,  he  decorated  the  Peruzzi  and 
Bardi  Chapels  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  Flor- 
ence, have  been  disclosed  by  the  removal  of  the 
whitewash  which  concealed  them  for  nearly  two 
centuries,  and  which  still  covers  his  works  in  the 
Giugni  and  the  Tosin^hi  and  Sj)inelli  Chapels  in 
the  same  church.  The  Peruzzi  frescoes,  scenes 
from  the  lives  of  St  John  the  Baptist  and  St 
John  the  Evangelist,  mark  the  culminating  point 
of  the  painter's  genius — they  are  masterpieces 
which  'clear  contemporary  admirers  from  the 
charge  of  exaggerated  admiration  and  unwar- 
ranted flatter)-,'  and  '  justify  all  that  has  been 
said  respecting  the  grandeur  of  his  style.'     The 

I  noble  '  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,'  in  tempera  upon 
]ianel,  in  the  Baroncelli  Cli.apel  of  Santa  Croce,  is 

'  another  work  of  about  the  same  jieriod.  From 
1330  to  1333  Giotto  was  employed  in  Xaplcs  by 
King  Robert.  Here  he  exercised  a  powerful  in- 
fluence upon  artistic  production,  but  only  one 
fragment  from  his  hand— a  fresco  in  the  old 
convent  of  Santa  Chiara — remains  ;  the  subjects  of 
'The  Seven  Sacraments'  in  the  Chapel  of  the 
Incoionata  being  now  attributed  to  an  unknown 
follower  of  the  iiainter.  In  1334  he  was  aiipointed 
master  of  works  of  the  cathedral  and  city  of 
Florence.  Aided  by  Andrea  Pisano  he  decorated 
the  facade  of  the  cathedral  with  statues,  and 
designed  the  exquisite  isolated  Campanile  (q.v.) 
and  the  vivid  bas-reliefs  which  adorn  its  ba.se. 
This  tower  was  completed  after  his  death,  at 
Florence,  8th  Januani-  1336. 

The  personal  anecdotes  of  Giotto  that  have 
been  preserved  by  Boccaccio,  Sacchetti,  and  other 
writers,  show  him  to  have  been  a  shrewd  homely 
personage,  with  an  excellent  sense  of  Immr.'.'r.  and 
a  ready  power  of  repartee.  Vasari  tells  the  often- 
quoted  story  of  '  the  O  of  Giotto' — how  when  the 
pope  sent  a  messenger  to  ask  the  painter  for  a  speci- 
men of  his  art  in  view  of  a  proposed  commission, 
'Giotto,  who  was  very  courteous,  took  a  sheet  of 
paper  and  a  pencil  dipped  in  red  colour,  then  rest- 
ing his  elbow  on  his  side,  to  form  a  sort  of  com- 
pass, with  one  turn  of  his  li.and  he  drew  a  circle  so 
perfect  and  exact  that  it  was  a  marvel  to  behold,' 
and   handed   this   to  the   courtier  as  a   sullicicnt 


?18 


GIOVINAZZO 


GIRALDUS    CAMBRENSIS 


jirnof  of  liis  tooliniral  skill.  In  spite  of  some  (lis- 
crepanoios  of  detail  tlipre  ajipoai-s  to  Ih>  a  basis  of 
tnilU  in  the  stoiv,  wliirli  liius  on;;inatcil  tlio  Italian 
jilirasc,  '  As  rounil  n.s  tJiolto's  U'.  iSce  H.  tjuiltor's 
(Unlli,  (I.oMil.   ISSO). 

(aiovilia7.7.o.  an  Italian  town  on  the  shore  of 
the  Adriatic,  14  miles  \VN\V.  of  iiari  by  rail.  It 
is  an  episcopal  scat.     Pop.  9797. 

Gipitslaiul.  one  of  the  four  itnjiortant  districts 
into  which  N'ictoiia,  Anslialia,  is  divided,  is  .so 
nanieil  after  an  early  ;;ovenior.  It  forms  the  .sontli- 
cjist  portion  of  Victoria,  and  lia-s  an  area  of  l."?..s!)S 
si|.  in.  Its  length  from  west  to  oast  is  S.IO  miles, 
anil  mean  liicailtli  aliimt  80.  It  was  ori;;inally 
called  Caledonia  .\n.stralis  bv  Mr  Macniillan,  its 
lirst  explorer  (1S39). 

<>i|».si4-s.    See  GrrsiES. 

CJirair**,  or  CvMKLDl'Alin  (Ciimelopardnli.i  (!ir- 
aff'ii  :  i/inij/'ii,  the  Spanish  name,  lieinj;  derived 
from  the  .\raliic  zariif,  and  thai,  ajiparently, 
from  the  Kgyiitian  S'lraphe,  '  lonj;  necU),  the 
tallest  of  i|nailnipcds,  ranked  by  .some  natural- 
ists anions  deer  (t'ervida^),  but  more  pro])crly 
regarded  as  constituting  a  distinct  family  of 
ruminants,  which  contains,  however,  only  one 
species.  It  is  a  native  of  Africa,  south  of  the 
Sahara.  It  occui-s  generally  in  small  herds  of  from 
live  to  forty.  It  feeds  on  the  leaves  and  small 
branches  of  trees.  Its  general  aspect  is  rcTnarkalde 
from  the  height  of  the  foreparts  and  great  elonga- 
tion of  the  neck,  the  head  being  sometimes  18  feet 
from  the  ground.  The  number  of  vertebr.e  in  the 
neck,  however  (seven),  is  not  greater  than  in  other 
iiuadrnpeils,  and  it  has  no  extraordin.arv  llexibility, 
although  its  form  and  movements  are  very  graceful. 
The  body  is  short,  and  the  back  slo|)e.s  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  tail  ;  yct  the  greater  height  of  the 
foreiiarls  is  not  entirely  owing  to  the  greater  length 
of  the  fore-legs,  but  to  the  neural  ]U()cesses  of  the 
vertebra',  which  fiuni  a  ba-sis  for  the  support  of  the 
neck  and   heail.     The  articulation  of  the  skull  to 


i..r..;ic  ,  L,i„ 


the  neck  is  such  that  the  liea<l  can  be  ea.sily  thrown 
back  until  it  is  in  the  same  line  with  the  neck,  thus 
giving  the  animal  additional  power  of  reaching  its 
appro])riate  food.  The  skull  h,as  empty  cavities, 
which  give  lightness  to  the  head,  along  with 
sullicient  extent  of  surface  for  the  insertion  of  the 
ligament  which  supports  it.  The  legs  are  long 
and  slender ;  the  feet  liave  cloven  hoofs,  but  are 
destitute  of  the  small  lateral  toes  or  s]iunous  hoofs 
which  occur  in  other  ruminants.     The  head  is  long; 


the  up)ier  lip  entire,  projecting  far  beyoml  the 
nostrils,  and  endowed  with  considerable  innscular 
|iower.  The  tongue  is  remarkably  capable  of  elon- 
gation, and  is  an  organ  of  touch  and  of  prehension, 
like  the  trunk  of  an  elephant  ;  it  can  be  thrust  far 
out  of  the  mouth,  and  employed  to  grasii  and  take 
up  even  very  small  objects ;  it  is  said  that  its  tip 
can  be  so  tapered  n-s  to  enter  the  ring  of  a  very 
small  key.  i'hc  usefulness  of  such  an  organ  for 
drawing  in  leaves  ami  branchlets  to  the  mouth  is 
(divious.  The  giratl'e  adroitly  picks  oil'  the  leaves 
of  acaeia.s  and  other  thoiiiy  plants,  wilhoul  taking 
the  thorns  into  its  mouth.  The  dc  iilition  of  the 
girafl'e  agrees  with  that  of  antcdopes,  sheep,  goals, 
and  oxen;  the  ujiper  jaw  <)f  the  male  is  destitule 
of  the  canine  teeth  which  are  present  in  the  male 
of  most  kinds  of  deer. 

The  head  is  furnished  with  two  remarkable 
protuberances  between  the  ears,  generally  de- 
scribed as  horns,  but  very  dill'erent  from  the 
hoins  of  other  animals,  and  each  consisting  of 
a  bone  united  to  the  skull  by  an  (divious  suture, 
perm.'inent,  covered  with  skin  and  hair,  ami 
terminated  by  long  hard  bristles.  These  long 
outgrowths  may  correspond  to  the  loiig  core 
of  the  antelo|ie's  honi  or  to  the  ])edicel  of 
the  antler  in  the  deer.  There  is  also  a  projec- 
tiim  on  the  forehead.  The  ears  are  moderately 
long;  the  tail  is  long,  and  terminates  in  a 
tuft  of  long  hair.  There  is  a  callosity  on  the 
bre.isl.  Tlie  neck  has  a  very  short  mane.  The 
hair  is  short  and  snujoth  ;  the  colour  is  a  reddish- 
white,  marked  by  numerous  dark  rustv  spots.  Its 
nostrils  have  a  muscle  by  which  tlu'y  can  be 
closed;  !i  provision,  as  Owen  supposes,  for  exclud- 
ing particles  of  .sand.  It  is  an  inoll'ensive  animal, 
and  generally  seeks  safety,  if  jio.ssible,  in  lliglit, 
although  it  is  cap.ahle  of  making  a  stont  resist- 
ance, .and  is  .said  to  beat  oil'  the  lion.  It  fights 
bv  kicking  with  its  hind-legs,  discharging  a  storm 
of  kicks  with  extraordinary  raiddity.  It  is  not 
easily  overtaken  even  by  a  lleet  horse,  and  ha.s 
greatly  the  advantage  of  a  horse  on  uneven  and 
broken  ground.  Its  ]iace  is  described  as  an  amble, 
the  legs  of  the  same  side  moving  at  the  same  time. 
The  giratle  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  was 
exliibil(?d  in  Itoman  spectacles.  IJepresentations 
of  it  ajipear  among  Egy])tian  antii|nitics.  It  lias 
been  su)i])Osed  to  be  the  znner  of  the  Jews,  trans- 
lated i-lKiiiiiiix  in  the  ICiiglish  liible  (Dent.  xiv.  .I). 
In  the  year  IN.'iG  girall'es  were  lirst  added  to  the 
collection  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society 
of  London,  and  since  that  year  numerous  specimens 
have  been  ac(|uired  which  nave  bred  in  the  "aidens. 
'I'lK!y  are  fed  chielly  on  hay  jdaced  in  higli  racks, 
greatly  enjoy  carrots  and  onions,  ,and  a  lum)>  of 
sugar  is  a  favourite  delicacy.  The  lle.sh  of  the 
giratl'e  is  said  to  be  )de.asaiit,  and  its  marrow  is 
a  favourite  African  delicacy. 

OiraldllS    <'ainl»rcnsis.   the    u.sual    literary 

name  of  the  historian  ami  ecclesiastic,   (iirald   de 

ISarri.  who  nourished  in  the  I'2lhand  1. '{I h  centuries, 

.1  lid  was  born  about  1147  in  I'embrokeshire,  son  of 

:i  Norman  n(d)le  who  h.id  married  into  a  jirincely 

Welsh  family.     He  w.is  brought  nji  by  his  uncle, 

the  liishopof  St  Davids,  was  sent  to  the  uiiiversily 

of  Paris  in  his  twentieth  year,  and  afler  his  retuni 

entered  into  holy  orders  in  1I7'J,  and  w;i-s  ajiiiointi^d 

archdeacon   of  St  Davids.      He  w,-us  from   the  first 

'  a  zealous  churchman,  strenuous  in  the  enforcement 

j  of  (liscipline,  and  especially  of  clerical  celibacy,  and 

wa-s  the  chief  agent  in  establishing  the  iiayment  of 

tithes  within  the  principality.     On  the  death  of 

I  his  uncle,  the  chaiiter  of  St   Davids   elected   him 

^  bishop,  but,  as  the  election  w.is  made  without  the 

j  royal  license,  Oirald  renounced  it.      King  Henry 

H.  directed  a  new  election  ;   and,  on  the  (  hapter's 

'  l)ersisting  in  their  choice  of  Girald,  the  king  refused 


GIRARD 


GIRASOL 


219 


to  confirm  the  selection,  and  another  bishop  was 
appointed.  Giiald  withdrew  for  a  time  to  the 
univei-sity  of  Paris,  and  on  liis  return  was  required 
liy  the  Archhishop  of  Canterlmrv  to  take  the 
administration  of  the  diocese  of  St  Davids,  wliich 
liad  utterly  failed  in  the  hands  of  the  bishop.  He 
held  it  for  four  years.  Being  appointed  a  royal 
chaplain,  and  afterwards  preceptor  to  Piince  John, 
he  accompanied  that  prince  in  IIS.5  in  his  expedi- 
tion to  Ireland,  where  he  remained  after  John's 
return,  in  order  to  complete  the  well-known  descrip- 
tive account  of  the  natural  history,  the  miracles, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  that  conntry — his  Topo- 
ijraphia  Hihenikt.  His  E.rpugnntio  Hihcrniie  is  an 
account  of  the  conquest  of  that  country  under 
Henry  II.  Both  are  works  of  verj'  gi-eat  merit — 
this  latter  Brewer  describes  a.s  'a  nohle  .specimen 
of  historical  narration,  of  which  the  author's  age 
furnished  veiT  rare  examides.'  In  1188  he  attended 
Balihvin,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  his  progress 
through  Wales  to  preacli  a  crusade,  and  worked  up 
his  observations  into  the  Itincrarium  Gimbrire. 
His  later  years  were  darkened  by  disappointment. 
On  the  see  of  St  Davids  again  becoming  vacant, 
he  was  again  unanimously  elected  by  the  chapter ; 
but  Archbishop  Hubert  of  Canterbuiy  interposed, 
and  Girald,  spite  of  three  different  journeys  to 
Rome,  failed  to  get  tlie  nomination  contirmed.  He 
devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  study,  and  died 
at  St  Davids  in  12'22.  The  writings  of  (iiraldus 
Cambrensis,  although  disfigured  by  credulity  and 
by  excessive  personal  vanity,  are  of  great  value  .as 
materials  for  the  history  and  for  the  social  condi- 
tion of  his  age.  A  translation  of  the  Itinerariiim 
Camhrlm  was  published  in  1806  (2  vols.);  tlie 
complete  works  have  been  edited  by  J.  S.  Brewer, 
J.  F.  Dimock,  and  G.  F.  Warner  ( 8  vols. ,  Rolls  series, 
1861  91 ).     See  Owen,  Gerard  the  Welshman  ( 1889). 

Girard,  Stephen,  miser  and  philanthropist, 
wxs  born  near  Bordeaux,  24th  !May  1750,  and  was 
successively  cabin-hoy,  mate,  captain,  and  part 
owner  of  an  American  coasting-vessel.  In  17G9  he 
settled  as  a  trader  in  Philadelphia,  where  ulti- 
mately he  established  a  bank  which  became  the 
mainstay  of  the  United  States  government  during 
the  war  of  1812-14,  and  a<lvaneed  several  millions 
to  the  treasury.  He  died  26tli  December  1831, 
leiiving  a  large  fortune  to  charities.  Girard  was 
a  man  of  few  friends,  crabbed  i.nd  unapproachable, 
in  religion  a  sceptic,  in  personal  habits  a  miser,  as 
a  m.aster  exacting  ami  hard,  as  a  debtor  not  unwill- 
itig  to  escape  payment  where  a  legal  technicality 
enabled  him  to  avoid  a  just  claim.  Yet  in  the 
yellow  fever  epidemic  in  1793  he  nui-sed  many  of 
the  sick  in  the  hospitals  :  and  in  public  matters  his 
generosity  was  remarkable.  Among  other  bequests 
he  left  .?2,000,000  for  the  erection  and  maintenance 
in  Pliiladelphia  of  a  college  for  male  white  oqdians ; 
no  minister  of  any  sect  whatever  was  to  be  on  its 
board,  or  even  to  enter  the  premises  as  a  visitor. 
The  principal  building  (1833-47),  a  magnificent 
Greek  temple,  and  the  nine  subsidiary  buildings, 
have  accommodation  for  1580  pupils. 

dirnrilill,  Kmile  de,  a  French  journalist  and 
l>olitician,  the  illegitimate  son  of  the  royalist  general 
Alexandre  de  (Jirardin  ami  Madame" I)u]uiv,  was 
born  in  Switzerlanrl  in  1800,  and  educated  in'  Paris. 
He  bore  the  name  of  Dclamothe  until  1827,  when 
he  assumed  that  of  his  father,  who  acknowleilired  i 
him  in  1S47;  and  his  lii-st  attempt  in  literature 
was  a  novel,  Emilf,  in  which  he  pleaded  the  cause 
of  adulterine  children.  After  the  July  revolution 
( 1830)  he  established  the  Journal  drs  CoiDiaissaiiccs 
Utiles,  which  attained  a  sale  of  120.000  copies :  other 
cheap  magazines  followed,  but  he  did  not  carry  out 
his  idea  of  a  halfpenny  newspaper  until  1S3G.  when 
he  founded   the  J'rcsse,  an  Orleanist  journal  with 


Conservative  leanings.  Its  rivals  accused  it  of 
being  subsidised  by  the  government,  and  one  of  the 
unfortunate  results  of  the  quarrels  thus  fastened  on 
Girardin  was  his  duel  with  Armand  Carrel,  editor 
of  the  National,  in  which  the  latter  fell.  Fiom 
this  time  onward  to  the  Revoluticm  of  1848  (iirardin 
was  ardently  occupied  with  politics,  both  as  a 
journalist  and  a  deputy,  and  gradually  became  a 
decided  republican.  He  promoted  Louis  Napoleons 
election  to  the  presidency,  but  disapproved  of  the 
cotip  d'etat,  and  was  rewarded  with  a  short  periixl 
of  exile.  He  next  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of 
the  Socialists.  In  1856  he  sold  his  share  of  the 
Presse,  but  became  its  editor  again  in  1862,  eventu- 
ally abandoning  it  for  the  direction  of  the  Lihetic, 
which  he  maintained  till  1870.  He  excelled  his 
fellows  in  luaggadocio  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Franco- Prussian  war ;  and  during  the  Commune 
he  propo.sed  a  scheme  for  splitting  nj)  the  rejiublic 
into  fifteen  federal  states.  In  1874,  however,  he 
foundeil  the  France,  and  both  in  its  jiagcs  and  in 
the  Petit  Journal  sujiported  the  repuhlio.  He 
wrote  a  few  pieces  for  the  stage  ;  his  political  ideas 
he  gave  to  the  world  in  a  host  of  brochures, 
(iirardin  died  27th  April  1881. — His  first  wife, 
whose  maiden  name  was  Delphine  Gay  (180.5-55), 
enjoyed  for  many  years  a  l)rilliant  reputation  a-s 
a  poetess  and  beauty,  and  also  wrote  several  novels 
and  plays.  Her  best-known  work  is  Lett  res  Parisi- 
ennes,  which  appeared  in  the  Presse,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  A'icomte  de  Launav,  in  1836-48. 
Her  complete  works  fill  6  vols.  (1860-61).  See 
Imbert  de  Saint-Amand,  Madame  de  Girardin 
(Paris,  1874). 

Girardin,  Francois  Saint-Marc,  a  French 
journalist  and  jirofessor,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1801, 
studied  at  the  College  Henri  IV.  with  brilliant 
success,  and  in  1827  obtained  a  ma.stersliip  in 
the  College  Louis-le-Grand.  After  two  visits  to 
Germany  he  published  a  report  on  the  state  of 
education  there,  and  Notices  politiques  et  liitiraira 
snr  I'Allemugne  ;  in  1834  he  was  called  to  the  chair 
of  Literature  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  became  leader- 
writer  for  the  Journal  des  Dcbats,  dislinguisbing 
himself  under  the  July  monarchy  as  a  ready  com- 
batant and  resolute  enemy  to  the  dynastic  and 
democratic  opposition.  He  was  elected  a  memlier 
of  the  Academy  in  1844.  His  parliamentarj-  career 
(1834-48)  was  not  noteworthy;  and  under  the 
Second  Empire  he  retained  his  chair  at  the  Sor- 
Ijonne,  where  his  lectures,  following  the  orthodox 
lines  of  criticism,  were  veiy  popular.  He  liccame  a 
member  of  the  National  Assembly  in  1871,  and  died 
near  Paris,  11th  April  1873.  Besides  his  numerous 
contributions  to  the  Debats,  some  collected  in  Essais 
de  Litterature  (2  vols.  1845),  he  published  several 
large  works,  among  them  his  Cours  de  Litterature 
clramatiipie  (1843;  11th  ed.  1875-77),  being  his 
sixty-three  lectures  for  a  i)eriod  of  twenty  years, 
aud  Souvenirs  et  Hfflexions  politiques  (fun  Jour- 
naliste  ( 1859).  See  Tamisier,  Saint-Marc  Girardin, 
£tude  littiraire  (1876). 

Girasol.  a  precious  stone,  exhibiting  in  strong 
lights  a  pectiliar  and  beautiful  rellection  of  bright 
red  or  yellow  light,  which  seems  to  come  from  the 
interior  of  the  stone.  From  this  it  derives  its  name 
(Ital.,  'sun-turning').  There  are  dill'orent  kinds  of 
gir.isol,  variously  referred  by  mineralogists  to  quartz 
.ind  opal,  species  which,  however,  are  very  nearly 
allied.  One  kind  is  also  known  as  Fire  Upal, 
which  is  found  only  at  Zinia|>an,  in  Mexico,  and  in 
the  Faroe  Islands.  The  Mexican  specimens  are  of 
a  rich  topaz  yellow  colour,  and  the  reflection  is  very 
bright.  Another  kind  is  the  Quart:  Hesinite  of 
Haiiy,  so  called  because  of  its  characteristic  resin- 
ous fracture.  It  is  found  of  various  colours,  some- 
times of    a    fine  yellow   or  emerald   gieen,   more 


220 


GIRDER 


GIRTIN 


"lenerally  Wuisliwliitc.  For  a  aneoinien  of  extra- 
oriliii.iry  tirilliaiicy,  not  an  incli  and  a  Iiulf  in 
dianietiT,  t'KKK)  has  l>een  refused.  Tlie  anoients 
held  this  stone  in  iii^'li  estiniatinn,  anil  called  it 
Aslrri't  ((!r.  n.ilcr,  '  a  star  ').  They  cditained  it  lioth 
from  t'araniania  and  from  India.  The  lirifjhtest  are 
at  i>resent  1iri>u;,dit  from  Hrazil,  luit  line  speeiniens 
are  also  i>l>taini'd  in  Silieiiji.  hnitation  j;ir(U*ols 
are  made  of  ;,'la.ss  in  whieli  a  little  oxide  of  tin  is 
mixed. — The  name  f;ira.sol  is  sometimes  j^ven  to  a 
kind  of  sappliire,  also  called  Astrria  stin/ihire, 
exhiliitin;;  a  sinular  rellection  of  li^jlit,  anci  some- 
times to  Siiii.st'iiii-,  an  avantnrine  felsjiar.  Accmil- 
inj;  to  <':Lstellani,  many  minerals  can  he  made  to 
relleet  li;,dit  from  the  interior  in  the  same  way  as 
girivsol,  when  they  are  carefully  cut  in  a  spherical 
or  .semisphcrical  form.  He  instances  ailnlaria, 
hydronhane  (a  variety  of  ojial).  milky  cornndnm, 
some  kinds  of  chalceilony,  Itraxilian  chrysolite,  \c. 
Ciirdor.  a  l>eam  of  wood,  iron,  or  steel  used  to 
sujiiMirt  ioistin^  walls,  arches,  ^.c,  in  Imilding 
various  kinds  of  hridge-s.     See  BitlDCE:  Sthkncth 

(ir  .MVTKUIALS. 

(lirKOll,  a  town  of  E^'viit,  is  situated  on  the 
left  hank  of  the  Nile,  in  ^(i'  -iO'  N.  lat.  and  .'Jl'  ."i8' 
E.  lonj;.,  Hlf.  miles  N.  of  the  ancient  .Vhydns.  The 
town  is  hein;^'  ^'radually  un<lermined  liy  the  river. 
It  was  here  that  the  discontented  Mamelukes 
rallied  .v^ain-^t  .\Iehemet  .\li.  t)utside  the  town 
is  a  Itonian  Catholic  monastery,  said  to  he  the 
oldest  in  Egypt.  Pop.  ir>,.'')00.  Girgeh  is  the 
capital  of  ;i  province,  which  lias  an  area  of  9200  sq. 
ni. ,  aii<l  a  pop.  of  530,000. 

VirtfCllti.  a  town  of  Sicily,  hiiilt  on  an  eniin- 
eiice  overlooking  the  sea,  near  the  site  of  the 
ancient  .Agrigentuni  (q.v.),  and  situated  on  the 
south  coast,  .S4  miles  hy  rail  SSE.  of  Palermo. 
The  town  is  the  seat  of  a  hishop  and  of  the 
prefect  and  other  ollii-ials  of  the  province,  and  lia.s 
a  traile  in  grain,  oil,  fruit,  sulphur,  suiiiac-li,  salt, 
and  lisli.  Its  port  is  Porto  Empeilocle.  Pop. 
2t),00f).  The  province,  with  an  area  of  1172  sn.  in., 
ha.s  a  pop.  ( 180."))  34.>,70O. 

(•iriiar.  a  s,icred  mountain  iu  India,  stands  in 
the  peninsula  of  Kalhiawar,  Bombay  province,  10 
miles  E.  of  .lunagarh.  It  is  a  hare  and  hl.ack  rock 
of  gr.anite  rising  to  the  height  of  XiW  feet  ahove 
the  sea;  and,  as  a  holy  i)l,ace  of  .lainism,  is  covered 
with  mined  temples.  One  group  contains  sixteen 
temples,  iwaily  .'!(KK)  feet  ahove  tlie  .sea. 

fiiroildc,  a  maritime  clepartment  in  the  south- 
west of  Krance,  is  formed  out  <if  part  of  the  old 
province  of  Guienne.  .Vre.a,  .S7IK)  sn.  ni.  ;  pop. 
(IS72)  70.-).149  ;  ( ISSfi)  77.'>,S4.") ;  ( I.S9I  )  79:?,.V.>S.  It 
is  watered  hy  the  ( laronne  and  tlie  Dordogne,  and  by 
the  tiironile,  the  estuary  forineil  by  the  union  of 
these  two  rivers.  The  eastern  two-thirds  of  the 
surface  consist  of  a  fertile  hill  and  dale  region  :  the 
remainder,  in  the  west  next  the  ocean,  belongs  to 
the  Laudes  (q.v.).  In  the  east  ami  north-east  the 
soil  is  chielly  calcareous.  Wine,  including  the 
finest  clarets,  is  the  staple  product  of  the  depart- 
ment, .several  million  gallons  being  proiluced 
annually,  (irain,  vegetables,  potatoes,  pulse,  ;iiid 
fruit  are  grown  largely.  t)n  the  downs  or  sand- 
hills of  the  west  eoiust  there  are  extensive  planta- 
tions of  pine,  from  whii-h  turpentine,  pitch,  ami 
charcoal  are  obtained.  The  shepherds  used  to  tra- 
verse the  Lamles  (q.v.)  on  high  stilt.s,  and  travel 
with  them  also  to  markets  ami  faii-s.  I'rincipal 
manufactures,  salt,  sugar,  wax  candles,  porcelain 
and  ghuss,  chemical  products,  pajier,  and  tobacco. 
The  department  inclmles  the  six  airondi.s.seiiient.s 
of  Raza.s,  Blaye,  Bordeaux,  Lesparre,  Libourne, 
anil  Keolc     Bonleaux  is  the  capital. 

(iiir<tll4li>sts  (Kr.  (riroiif/inx),  the  moderate 
republican   party    daring   the   French  Revolution. 


F"rom  the  lii'st  they  formed  the  Left  in  tlio  Legis- 
lative As.sembly,  which  met  in  Octidier  1791,  and 
though  inclined  towarils  republicanism  were  yet 
devoted  to  the  new  constitution  fis  it  stood.  The 
name  was  due  to  the  fact  that  its  earliest  leadere, 
Vergniaiid,  Guailet,  Gensiuinc,  (oaiigeneuve,  and 
the  young  merchant,  Ducos,  were  sent  up  as  repre- 
sentatives by  the  Gironde  depaitnient.  Early  in 
1792  the  reactionary  policy  of  the  court  and  the 
dark  clouds  lowering  on  the  horizon  of  France  made 
the  king's  ministei-s  so  unpopular  that  Louis  wius 
f.iin  to  torin  a  Girondist  ministry,  with  Holaiid  and 
Dumouriez  •i.'*  its  chiefs.  Ere  long,  however,  they 
were  ilismis.'-ed-  a  incisure  which  led  ti>  llic>  insur- 
rection of  the  2()lli  dune  1792.  The  advance  o|  the 
Austrian  and  Pru.ssian  iiiva<lers  threw  the  iiillucnce 
into  the  hands  of  the  .J.acobins,  who  .alone  possesse<l 
vigour  enough  to  'save  the  revoliilion.  Tliegieat 
(mriite  of  the  lOth  .\ugiist  (iiially  assured  their 
triumph,  which  vented  itself  ill  such  infamies  as 
the  September  m.ij-sacres.  Next  lollowiil  the 
National  Convention  and  the  trial  of  tin;  king. 
The  (iiroutlists  tried  to  save  the  king's  life  by 
appealing  to  the  sovereign  people.  The  fall  of 
Kidand  and  the  .a.scendency  of  I!obes|iierre  fol- 
lowed. Dunionrlez,  to  save  his  head,  mdeover  into 
the  .Austrian  camp,  and  the  f.amons  Committee  of 
I'nblic  S.ifety  was  created.  t)f  its  members  not 
one  Wivs  a  (;irondi>t.  The  last  ell'ort  of  the  party 
w.as  an  inetl'ectnal  attempt  to  impeach  Mai.it,  who, 
however,  on  the  2d  July  overthrew  the  party, 
arresting  as  many  as  thirty-one  deputies.  The 
majority  had  already  escaped  to  the  provinces. 
In  the  departments  of  Enre,  Calv.ulos.  all  through 
Brittany,  and  at  Bordeaux  and  elsewhere  in  the 
southwest  the  people  rose  in  their  di-fcnce,  but  the 
movement  was  soon  crushed  by  the  irresistible 
energy  of  the  Mountain,  now  triumphant  in  the 
Convention. 

On  the  1st  October  179.'!  the  prisoners  were 
accused  before  the  Convention  of  conspiring  against 
the  republic  with  Louis  XVI.,  the  royalists,  the 
Duke  of  Orleans,  Lafayette,  and  Pitt,  and  it  w;ls 
decreed  that  they  should  be  brought  before  the 
Kevolnlionary  Tribunal.  On  the  2-lth  their  trial 
commenced.  The  accnsere  were  such  men  as 
Cliabot,  Hebert,  and  Fabro  d'Eglanline.  The 
(Uiondists  defended  themselves  so  ably  that  the 
Convention  on  the  .'{Otli  was  obliged  to  decree  the 
closing  of  the  investigation.  'I'liat  very  night, 
Bris.sot,  Vergniaiid,  Oeiisonne,  Dncos,  Fonfrcde, 
Lacaze,  Lasource,  Valaze,  Sillerv,  I'anchet,  l)ii|)er- 
ret,  Carra,  Lehardy,  Diichalel,  (Jardien,  lioileau, 
Beauvais,  Vigce,  Duprat,  Mainviclle,  and  .Anliboul 
were  .sentenced  to  death,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  Valaze,  who  stabbed  himself  on  hearing  his 
sentence  pronounced,  all  |ierished  by  the  guillotine. 
On  their  w,ay  to  the  Place  ile  tlrcve,  in  the  true 
spirit  of  French  republicanism,  they  sang  the 
Mdrseiltalse.  Constard,  .Manuel,  Cii.-.sy,  Noel,  Ker- 
saint,  Uabaut  St  Etienne,  Bernard,  and  Mazuyer 
went  later  to  the  .same  fate.  ISiroteau,  (Irange- 
neuve.  Guadet.  Salles,  and  Barbaronx  a.scendcd  tlie 
scaU'dld  at  Bordeaux:  Lidon  and  Chamboii  at 
Brives;  N'alady  at  IVrigiieiix  :  Dechcze.iu  at  Koch- 
elle.  itebec(|ui  ilrowned  hini.scll  at  .Marseilles, 
Pctiou  and  Biizot  stabbed  themselves,  and  Con- 
dorcet  iioisoncd  himself.  Sixteen  months  later, 
after  tlie  fall  of  the  Terrorists,  the  outlawed 
members,  including  the  Girondists  Lanjuinais,  De- 
ferinon,  Pontecoiilant,  Louvet,  Isnard,  and  La 
liiviere,  again  appeared  in  the  Convention.  See 
I..amartine's  Hi.stuiie  ilcs  Oiroiu/ins  (8  vols.  Paris, 
1847) ;  anil  Guadet's  Lcs  Girondins  (new  ed.  1889). 

<]iirtill.  TiKiMAS,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
earlier  English  landscape-painters  in  water  coloni-s, 
wa-s  born  in  London,  Isth  February  1775,  and  died 
9th   November   1802.     He  was  a  close  friend  and 


GIRTON    COLLEGE 


GIVORS 


221 


fellow-stiulent  of  Turner  ;  ami  to  tlieni  many 
iiiiproveinents  in  watei-oolour  paiutin<'  are  due. 
Giitin  struck  out  a  bolder  style  than  liad  been 
attempted,  attained  great  ricliness  of  colour  and 
breailtli,  but  was  somewhat  careless  of  detail,  and 
sometimes  inaccurate  in  drawing.  His  best  works 
are  [lanoraiiiic  views  of  London  and  of  Paris. 

Girton  College,  the  most  notable  college  for 
women  in  England,  was  instituted  at  Hitcliin  in 
18G0,  but  removed  to  Girton.  near  Cambridge,  in 
1873.  Instruction  is  given  in  divinity,  modern 
languages,  clas.sics,  mathenuxtics,  moral  science, 
natural  science  ( including  physiology  and  chemis- 
try ),  history,  vocal  music.  There  are  about  thirty 
lecturei-s,  mostly  connected  with  Cambridge  Uni- 
vei-sity.  The  mistress  and  five  resident  lecturers 
are  ladies.  The  students,  who  number  above  KK), 
are  admitted  after  an  entrance  examination;  the 
ordinary  coui-se  extends  over  three  years,  half  of 
each  year  being  spent  in  college.  '  Degree  Certifi- 
cates '  are  granted  to  those  who  satisfy  their 
examiners  as  to  their  proficiency  according  to  the 
standard  of  the  examinations  for  the  B.A.  of  Cam- 
bridge University  ;  t'3.5  per  term  covere  all  college 
charges. 

Ciirvan.  an  Ayrsliire  seaport  and  burgh  of 
barony,  is  at  the  mouth  of  tlie  river  Girvan,  and 
21  miles  SSW.  of  Ayr  by  rail.  The  harbour  is 
small,  but  has  been  improved  since  1881.  The  valley 
of  the  Girvan  Ls  one  of  the  most  fertile  and  best- 
cultivated  districts  in  the  south  of  Ayrshire.  The 
town  is  opposite  Ailsa  Craig  (which  is  10  miles 
W. ),  was  once  a  thriving  seat  of  weaving,  and  is 
now  frequented  for  sea-bathing.  Pop.  ( 1851 )  7306  ; 
(  1801)  4081. 

Ciisborne,  a  post-town  of  New  Zealand,  in  the 
North  Island,  is  situated  on  the  river  Turangaiiui 
(line  briilge,  1885),  250 miles SE.  of  Auckland,  with 
which  city  it  has  steatuer  communication.  It  is 
the  port  of  entry  for  Poverty  Bay,  a  name  given  by 
Captain  Cook  in  1769,  and  sometimes  still  retained 
for  the  town  ;  only  small  vessels  can  come  u])  to  the 
wharves,  but  in  1889-96  a  harbour  costing  £200,000 
was  constructed.  The  country  round  is  a  rich 
dairy  region,  and  in  1886  petroleum  was  struck  in 
the  neighbourhood.     Pop.  2158. 

elisors,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Eure,  on  the  Epte,  4.3  miles  N\V.  of  Paris  by  rail. 
Its  double-aisled  church,  whose  choir  dates  from  the 
IStli  century,  has  a  splendid  flamboyant  portal  ; 
and  the  octagonal  donjon  of  the  ruined  castle  was 
built  by  Henry  I.  of  England.  Here  Kichard  I. 
defeated  the  French  in  1198  ;  his  watchword,  Diiii 
et  iivin  Dnjif,  has  ever  since  been  the  motto  of  the 
royal  arms  of  England.     Pop.  3960. 

Oitsellill  (Czech  Jicin),  a  town  of  Bohemia,  CO 
miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Prague,  with  8071  inhabitants, 
who  maimfacture  sugar  and  carry  on  agriculture. 
Gitschin  w;vs  once  the  capital  of  the  duiliy  of  Fried- 
laud,  and  here  Wallenstein  built  a  spleiulid  palace 
(16.30).  On  29th  June  1866  the  Austrians  were 
severely  defeated  here  by  the  Prussians. 

Giugliano,  a  town  of  Italy,  8  miles  NW.  of 
Naples,  with  a  trade  iu  corn  and  grapes.  Pop. 
11,748. 

Gilllio  Romano.  Giulio  Pippide' tliannuzzi, 
the  chief  pupil  of  Kaphael,  and  after  his  death  head 
of  the  Roman  school,  wa-s  born  at  Koine  about  1492 
— some  authorities  say  1498.  His  excellence  as  an 
architect  and  engineer  almost  equalled  his  genius 
as  a  painter.  Giulio  assisted  Kaphael  in  the  exe- 
cution of  .several  of  his  linest  works,  such  as  the 
series  of  the  so-called  Kapliael's  Bible  in  the  loggie 
of  the  Vatican  and  the  ' IJenefactors  of  the  ('hurch' 
in  ilie  Incendio  del  Borgo,  and  at  Ka|)liaers  death 
he  completed  the  '  Battle  of  Coustantme '  and  the 


'  Apparition  of  the  Cross  '  in  the  Hall  of  Coustau- 
tine  iu  the  Vatican.  He  likewise  inherited  a  great 
portion  of  Kaiiliael's  wealth  and  his  works  of  art. 
The  paintings  executed  by  Giulio  in  imitation  of 
Kaphael  reflect  not  only  the  style  and  character, 
but  the  sentiment  and  spirit  of  the  master  ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  his  more  original  creations  are 
deficient  in  the  ideal  grace  of  Kaphael,  and  dis- 
play rather  breadth  and  power  of  treatment  ami 
boldness  of  imagination  than  poetical  refinement 
or  elevation.  With  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
design  he  combined  a  facile  skill  in  compositiim 
and  a  thorough  appreciation  of  classical  ideal.s. 
Before  he  left  Koine  he  built  the  Villa  Madama, 
and  adorned  it  with  a  fresco  of  Polyiihemus.  About 
the  end  of  1524  Giulio  accepted  the  invitation  of 
Federigo  (ionzaga,  Duke  of  Mantua,  to  proceed 
thither  and  carry  out  a  series  of  architectural  and 
pictorial  works.  The  drainage  of  the  mai-shes  sur- 
rounding the  city,  and  the  protection  of  it  from  the 
frequent  inundations  of  the  rivers  Po  and  Mincio, 
attest  his  skill  as  an  engineer;  while  his  genius  as 
an  architect  found  scope  in  the  restoration  and 
adornment  of  the  Palazzo  del  Te,  the  cathedral,  the 
streets,  and  a  ducal  palace  at  llarmirolo,  a  few 
miles  from  Mantua.  Amongst  the  pictorial  works 
of  this  period  were  the  '  History  of  Troy,'  in  the 
ca-stle,  and  'Psyche,'  '  Icarus,'  and  the  'Titans,'  in 
the  Te  palace.  In  Bologna,  too,  he  designed  the 
facade  of  the  church  of  S.  Petronio.  Perhaps  the 
best  of  his  oil-pictures  are  the  '  Martyrdom  of  St 
Stephen  '  (at  Genoa),  '  A  Holy  Family  '  (  Dresilen ), 
'  Mary  and  Jesus '  ( Louvre ),  and  the  '  Madonna 
della  Gatta'  (Naples).  Giulio  died  at  Mantua, 
1st  November  1546.  See  D"Arco's  Vita  e  Ojierc  di 
Giulio  Romano  (1842). 

OiurgeVO  ( Roumanian  Giiirgiii ),  a  town  of 
Rouuiania,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  directly 
o|)posite  Rustehuk,  40  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of 
Bucharest,  of  which  town  it  is  the  port.  It 
imports  iron  and  textile  goods,  coal,  and  spirits, 
and  exports  com,  salt,  and  petroleum.  It  was 
originally  settled  by  the  Genoese  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury, who  called  it  St  George.  Since  1771  the 
town  has  ])layed  an  important  part  in  all  the  ware 
between  the  Turks  and  the  Russians.    Pop.  15,300. 

GillSti.  GirsEPPE,  political  poet  and  satirist, 
was  born  12th  May  1809,  at  Monsummano,  near 
Pistoia.  He  studied  law  at  Pisa,  and  for  a  time 
practised  at  Florence;  but  from  1S30  onwards 
founil  his  sphere  as  a  keen  and  incisive  satirist, 
writing  in  brilliant  and  popular  style  a  series  of 
poems,  in  which  the  enemies  of  Italy  and  the  vices 
of  the  age  were  mercilessly  denounced.  But  it  w;is 
not  till  1848  that  he  published  a  volume  of  vei-se 
under  his  own  name.  Save  in  satire  his  work  is 
second-rate.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Tuscan  chamber  of  deputies  in  1848,  and  died  31st 
March  1850.  Among  his  most  notable  i)oems(all 
short)  were  //  Dies  Ira-  ( 18.35),  Lo  Stivale  ( 1836), 
Oiicl/a  ( 1840 ),  Saiit'  A iiibio(/io  { 1844 ).  Editions  of 
his  works  were  puldished  in  1863  and  1877.  See 
Fioretto,  Giuseppe  Giiisli  ( 1877). 

Givet.  a  frontier  town  ami  fii-stclass  fortress 
in  the  French  department  of  Ardennes,  on  both 
banks  of  the  Meuse,  31  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Namur 
in  Belgium,  and  193  NE.  of  Paris.  The  citadel  of 
Charlemont,  on  a  rock  700  feel  above  the  stream, 
was  reconstructed  by  A"aulian.  There  are  nuiiiu- 
factures  of  lead-pencils,  and  sealing  wax,  copper- 
wares,  soap,  &c.     Pop.  6818. 

Givoi'S.  a  smoky  town  in  the  French  depart- 
ment of  Rhone,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhone, 
14  miles  S.  of  Lyons  by  rail.  Glass,  especially 
bottles,  and  silk  and  iron  goods  are  extensively 
manufactured,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  coal  is 
carried  on.     Pop.  10,100. 


22;! 


V.l'AKH 


GLACIAL    rKiaOD 


Olzell,  <>!•  CiiiZEll,  a  small  town  in  Egypt,  on 
the  <ii>|">sito  side  of  the  liver  fioni  Old  Cairo,  ami 
a|>i>riiiulie(l  frcini  <  'iiini  tiy  llie  ^reat  swiii^riri^  bridge 
constnu'ti'il  ovir  the  Nile  ill  1S7"2.  It  is  but  a  poor 
place,  willi  a  pop.  of  some  IO,.")UO.  Artilicial  e^'^;- 
tiatohiii';  has  heeii  |>raetise<l  here  since  the  days  of 
the  I'haraohs.  Since  ISSi)  the  iiuiseiiiii  of  Ejiyplian 
aiitii|uities,  foriuerlv  at  ISoulak,  has  been  hoiisoil 
here.  The  I'yrainii'ls  (i|.v. )  of  Ciizeli  (also  spelt 
tii/.a)  lie  live  miles  to  the  west. 

(;i7.7.:ir4l.     Sr|.  r.IlM). 

CiliU'ial  IVrioii.  or  Ici-;  .\v.e,  is  a  term  used 
in  xeolo^y  to  designate  that  jjcrioil  the  records  of 
which  are  included  in  the  rieistoceiie  System  (q.v. ). 
'(;iaeial  period'  and  'Pleistocene  period'  are  in 
fact  synonymous  a.s  refjards  all  iiorlhcrn  and  tem- 
perate re;,'i()iis — the  former  term  beiiij;  used  when 
the  promiiient  climatic  characteristics  of  the  oeriod 
are  thonj^lit  of,  while  the  latter  is  employeil  with 
reference  to  its  life.  The  chief  ;;eoKra]iliical  and 
climatic  chaiij;e»  of  this  period,  and  tlie  general 
features  of  ils  fauna  and  llora,  will  be  considered 
under  I'LKIStocknH  Svsium.  lint  here  a  short 
account  may  be  f;iven  of  the  relics  wliich  furnish 
evidence  of  former  f,'lacial  conditions  having,' obiaiiicd 
in  many  re^'ions  that  are  now  in  the  enjoyiiiciit  of 
temperate  climates.  It  is  chielly  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe  ami  North  America,  and  the  hilly 
and  mountainous  districts  of  more  soulhein  lati- 
tudes, that  the  glacial  deposits,  luoperly  so  called, 
are  developed.  These  deposits  consist  jiartly  of 
niorainic  materials,  erratics,  \o.,  and  partly  of 
marine,  fresh-w.ater,  and  terrestrial  accuiimlatious. 
The  most  important  member  of  the  series  is  Boii/i/cr- 
chii/  (q.v.),  or,  as  it  is  often  termed,  til/.  This  is 
an  unstratilied  clay,  full  of  ice-worn  stones  and 
boulders,  which  is  believed  to  have  been  formed 
and  accumulated  under  glacierice.  Several  dis- 
tinct and  separate  sheets  of  bouliler-clay  have  been 
recognised,  divided  from  each  other  by  intercalated 
'  interglacial  beds,'  which  last  are  often  fo.ssilifer- 
ousi  The  lowest  and  (ddest  boulder-cl.ay  covers 
vast  .areas  in  the  Urilisli  Islands  and  northern 
Europe — extending  s<nitli  as  far  as  the  liristol 
Channel  and  the  vallojy  of  the  Thames  in  Eiig- 
lan<l,  anil  to  the  foot  of  the  Ilaiz  .Mountains,  &c., 
in  middle  (iermany.  Houlder-clay  of  the  same 
age  spreads  over  the  low  gnuinds  of  Switzerland, 
and  e.\tends  from  the  great  Alpine  valleys  for  m.iny 
miles  into  the  circumjacent  low-lying  regions. 
Similar  ground-moraines  have  been  met  with  in 
all  the  mountainous  and  hilly  tracts  of  Europe, 
as  in  central  I'rance,  the  Pyrenees,  the  SjianLsh 
Sierr.is,  the  mountains  of  Corsica,  the  Apennines, 
the  A'osgcs,  the  ili.ick  l'"orest,  the  Erzgebirge  and 
other  ranges  of  Ccrmany,  the  Carpathians,  &c. 
The  rock-surfaces  on  wliich  the  boulder-clay  rests 
are  often  smoothed  and  striated,  or  much  crushed 
and  broken,  while  the  hills  and  mountain-slopes 
ill  regions  where  boulder-clay  occurs  give  evidence 
of  having  been  abraded  and  smoothed  by  glacial 
action  (see  I1(kIH;.S  MoLTOXNKKs).  At  the  lime 
the  boulder-clay  was  formed,  Scotland,  Ireland,  the 
ni.ajor  portion  of  England,  Scan<linavia,  Denmark, 
Holland,  the  larger  half  of  IJelgium,  ( Iermany  as  far 
south  as  Lei|)zig,  and  vast  regions  in  I'oland  and 
Russia  were  covered  with  a  great  mcr  dc  r//(«-c.  Con- 
temporaneously with  this  ice  sheet  all  the  moun- 
tain-regions of  the  central  and  .-outlurii  regions  of 
the  Continent  nourished  extensive  snowlields  and 
glaciers,  which  last  llowed  out  upon  the  low  ground 
often  for  ^■erv  great  distances,  'rlins,  Lyons  stands 
upmi  old  moraines  which  li.ave  been  carried  down 
from  the  mountains  of  I)au|iliine  and  Savoy.  The 
intergl.icia'  deposits  |»oint  to  gre.at  changes  of 
climate  when  the  snowlieMs  and  gl.aciers  melted 
away,  and  temperate  conditions  of  climate  super- 


vened, as  is  shown  by  the  geographical  distribution 
of  these  ileiiosits,  and  by  the  character  of  the  plant 
and  animal  remains  which  they  liaM'  Niildid.  The 
youngest  bouUlerclay,  overlwiig,  a-s  it  does,  such 
interglacial  beds,  proves  that  the  glacial  period 
closed  with  another  a<lvance  and  linal  retreat  of 
the  Scandinavian  ice-sheet  and  the  great  glaciers 
of  the  Alps,  \c.  The  terminal  moraines  of  the 
host  ice-sheet  do  not  come  .so  far  .south  lus  those  of 
the  lirsl  and  greatest  mcr  ilcjliitc.  The.se  moraines 
show  that  the  ice  eovcieil  the  Scandinavian  pciiiii 
sula,  tilled  up  the  liallic,  invaded  north  ticrmany, 
anil  oveiilowcd  I'inland  and  wiile  ngions  in  the 
north  of  Ku.ssia.  Similarly  in  the  Alps,  \e. ,  the  last 
great  extension  of  the  glaciers  was  not  equal  to  that 
of  the  lirst.     See  ELUuri;. 

The  boulderclays  are  not  tlie  only  evidence  of 
glacial  conditions,  liesiiles  those  accumulations  and 
the  scratched  and  crushed  rock-surfaces  already 
referred  to,  we  encounter  numerous  erratics  (s(o 
Hot  l.DEli.s,  EliHATlc),  eskers  or  kanies  (see  AsAn), 
Giants'  Kettles  (q.v.),  clays  with  Arctic  marine 
shells  and  erratics  (in  Scotland,  Prussia,  \c.) — the 
organic  remains  a.ssociateil  with  the  glacial  deposits 
often  allording  strong  evidence  of  cold  conditions. 
The  following  taldc  shows  the  general  succession  of 
the  glacial  deposits  in  several  parts  of  Europe : 

Scotland— 
U.  ValU-y-nioraiDcs    and    Quvio-glacial  giavelB  =  Biiiult    locil 
^lacicrii. 

5.  Kaiiit's,   iTralics,  fluvio.j.;l.'icinl  drposits,  laid  dov.n  dtiriii}; 

retreat  of  Inst  yclienil  icf-covcriiiK. 
4.  Cla.vs.  Ac,  «ith  Arctic  iiiariiic-  sliells,  occurring  iii>  to  a 

lu'lKlit  of  100  feet  =  tiei»08it.s  belonging  to  the  pi  rin<l  tif 

rttreat  of  mtr  de  glace,  aud  coulenii)oralieous  to  a  lar^u 

extent  witli  tho.seofS. 
3.  Upper  bouUier-clay=  moraine  profondc  of  latent  tner  da 

ylwx. 

2.  Interglacial     beda  =  disappeaniuee    of    cold    conditionH ; 

clothing  and  pe<ppfiiig  of  Ihe  land--snrface  with  teniperato 
fauna  and  tlora  ;  subsequent  subniergeuce  to  Dot  less  than 
600  or  «I0  feet  below  present  level. 

1.  Lower  boulder-clay  with   intercalated    interglacial  fosBil- 

ifcrou.s  beds  =  Ihe  prinluct  of  more  Uinn  one  ;ii<r  de  glace. 
The  lowest  clay  niarks  the  inriod  of  greatest  glaciation. 
Englanii  and  Ireland^ 

6.  Valley-moraines  an<i  fluvio-glacial  gravels. 

5  and  4.  Karnes  or  eskers,  erratics  ;  tluvio-glacial  deposits. 

3.  Upper  lioulder-eluy  of  last  mer  dc  ijhu-c. 

2.  Interglacial  beds,  marine  and'fresh-water.     Disappearance 

of  glacial  conditions;  land-surface  at  first ;  subsequent 
submergence  to  considerable  extent. 

1.  Lower  boulder-clays  with  intercalated  aqueous  deposits, 

indicating  protubly  same  conditions  as    1  in   ScottUh 
series. 
Northern  KrnopE— 

4.  .Sniid  and  gravel:  erratics;  shelly  marine  clays  (in  Baltic 

area  ). 

3.  UplH;r  boulder-clay  and  tcnniual  moraines  of  last  mer  de 

glace. 

2.  Interglacial  beds,  partly  fresh-water  and  terrestrial,  partly 

marine. 

1.  Lower  boulder-clay  =  greatest  extension  of  ice. 
.SwiTzrni.ANu — 

4.  Flnvio-glaeinl  gravels  in  terraces. 

3.  Moraiiu's  and  upjper  bouIder-cIay  of  last  great  glaciers. 

2.  luterglacial  beds,  with  luanmialiau  remains,  Ac. 

1.  Lower  boulder-clay. 
Cextuai-  FiiANci: — 

4.  Fluvio-glacial  gravels. 

3.  .Moraines. 

2.  Interglacial  beds,  richly  fossiliferous. 
1.  Gromid-moraines  ( Mont  Dore ). 

In  North  America  glacial  deposits  are  developed 
upon  a  great  scale,  and  there,  .i-s  in  Europe,  the 
buuKler-clays  are  separated  by  interglacial  de]iosits. 
The  northern  |)art  of  the  continent  was  drowned  in 
ice  during  the  greatest  extension  of  the  mcr  de 
(//cue,  the  ice  llowing  south  into  New  .lei-sey, 
whence  its  front  exlendeil  north-west  through 
I'ennsylvania,  after  which  it  trended  south  west 
through  Ohio  .and  Indiana  to  reach  the  .'iStli  parallel 
of  latitude  in  Illinoi.s.  It  then  appean*  to  have 
swept  away  to  the  north-west  in  the  direction  of 
the  Jlissonri  \ alley.  The  latest  American  mcr  dc 
If/are  did  not  come  so  far  south— its  terminal 
moraines  being  well  developed  in  Minnesota,  Wis- 


GLACIATION 


GLACIERS 


223 


consin,  Mieliij;an,  i!v:c.  Evulonce  of  former  exces- 
sive jj;liiciiil  conditions  luis  been  mot  with  in  many 
other  iiuils  of  tlie  world — old  moraines,  <S.c.  luivinj; 
been  detecteil  in  tlie  Caucasus,  llie  mountains  of 
Asia  Minor,  the  Lebanon,  the  Himalayas,  iS:e.  in 
Asia  ;  in  the  Atlas,  the  Ka^u  and  Krome  .Moun- 
tains, \e.  in  Africa ;  in  the  Andes,  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  iVc.  in  South  America ;  in  Mew  Zealand, 
iSrc.  The  pi<)bal>lc  cause  of  the  glacial  period  is 
discussed  under  Pleistocene  .System. 
tilncintiou.    See  Glacial  Pekiou,  Glaciers. 

<»liH"iers    are    rivers    of    snow  compacted   by 

pressure  into  ice,  wliicli  move  slowly  from  higher 
to  lower  levels.  In  tropical  and  temperate  climates 
glaciers  are  found  only  upon  the  higher  parts  of 
lofty  mountains,  but  at  tlie  jioles  whole  continents 
and  great  islands  are  entirely  or  partially  covered 
by  them. 

Distribution. — Theu'  distribution  is  very  e.\ten- 
sive :  they  occur  in  Greenland,  which  is  almost 
an  entire  sheet  of  ice ;  on  the  islands  between 
(ireenland  and  North  America ;  in  North  America 
towards  the  centre,  in  Alaska  and  dotted  along  the 
Pacilic  coast,  and  continued  down  to  the  extremity 
of  South  America;  in  Europe,  in  Norway,  among 
the  Pyrenees,  and  along  the  Alps  ;  in  Asia  they  per- 
vade the  Himalayan  system,  and  appear  in  Japan 
and  on  the  opposite  mainland.  The  unexplored 
Antarctic  continent  is,  to  all  appearance,  covered 
entirely  by  one  great  ice-sheet  of  over  10,000  feet 
in  thickness.  Traces  of  their  [ireseme  in  past  geo- 
logical ages  are  even  more 
general,  appearing  as  they 
do  over  the  larger  part  of 
North  America,  the  southern 
portion  of  South  America, 
all  northern  Europe,  as  well 
as  smaller  areas  in  Africa, 
Australia,  New  Zealand, 
«!i:c.  Gf  the  1  loo  glaciers  of 
the  Alps,  the  longest  is  the 
Aletsch,  lo  nulcs  in  length  ; 
the  depth  of  the  Aar  glacier 
has  l)een  estimated  at  1.510 
feet.  Next  to  the  Aletsch 
among  ICuropean  glaciers  is 
one  in  the  Caucasus. 

Fositiun. — At  and  near 
the  equator  a  height  of 
10,000  feet  is  necessary  for 
the  formation  of  glaciers, 
but,  as  cooler  regions  are 
approached,  the  required 
aititiule  becomes  less  and 
less,    until     tlie     poles    are 

reached,  where  the  ice-.sheets  are  presented  empty- 
ing themselves  into  the  ocean.  But  wlierever 
occurring,  they  are  always  greatest  ami  most  fre- 
quent on  eminences  of  tlie  reipiired  height,  which 
hrst  meet  the  vapour  laden  winds  coming  from  the 
sea,  and  presenting  a  side  or  sides  but  little 
exposed  to  solar  iutluences.  Thus,  the  lliuuilava 
Mountains,  being  directly  in  the  track  of  the 
south-west  moirsoon,  with  no  intervening  heights 
of  anj"  conse(|uence  between  them  and  the  ocean, 
first  receive  its  watery  burden,  with  the  conse- 
quent formation  of  the  great  glaciers  of  that 
region.  In  the  .same  way  the  Andes  of  South 
America,  meeting  the  breezes  from  the  Pacilic, 
bear  great  ice  sheets  upon  all  their  more  prominent 
pe.iks.  In  New  Zealand,  while  the  glaciers  of  the 
Slount  Cook  range  reach  ihiwn  to  TOO  feet  above 
the  sea  on  the  west  side,  they  reach  only  to  'JOOO 
feet  oil  the  east  side. 

Muriiiieiit. — On  the  higher  summits  of  glacier- 
licariiig  mounlaius  the  snow  lies  loose,  in  granular 
form  and  comparatively  lightly  ;  but,  ;vs  it  is  impelled 


down  the  sides  of  the  eminences  by  gravitation, 
the  pressure  of  the  masses  from  behind  and  from 
the  sides  gradually  hardens  and  compacts  it,  until 
at  last  the  air  is  driven  out,  and,  tlie  forces  from 
above  acting  with  greater  power  from  increase  of 
weight  and  impact,  the  glacier  a-ssumes  its  best- 
known  form — that  of  a  homogeneous  concretion  of 
blue,  crystalline  ice.  Thus  slowly  pushed  forward, 
the  glacier  continues  to  descend,  until,  in  the 
warmer  latitudes,  a  zone  is  reached  where  the  sun 
becomes  too  powerful  to  be  resisted,  and  the  ice 
melts,  thus  forming  the  headwaters  of  rivers,  many 
of  which  take  their  origin  in  this  way.  In  more 
rigorous  climates  the  ice-slieets  are  ynished  down  to 
the  lowest-lying  gnmnds,  until  their  edges  are  pro- 
truded into  the  sea,  and  until  a  sntlicient  de|itli  of 
water  is  reached  to  float  the  buoyant  ice,  which  is 
now  submeiged  to  two-thirds  of  its  thickness. 
Partly  by  the  action  of  the  swell,  partly  because 
of  its'own  weight,  the  edge  becomes  detached  from 
the  parent  mass,  and  floats  out  to  sea  in  the  form 
of  Icebergs  (q.v.).  This  process  of  dissolution  is 
known  among  whalers  as  'calving.'  Hut  even  in 
the  higher  latitudes,  such  as  Greenland,  where  the 
temperature  is  always  exceedingly  low,  the  ice 
dissolves  and  reaches  the  sea  by  rivers  as  well  ;ui 
by  icebergs.  The  melting  in  such  cases  is  almost 
entirely  due  to  pressure,  the  water  escaping  from 
below  the  ice-sheet.  The  solar  inlluences  being 
weak,  even  in  the  height  of  summer  the  supply  of 
moisture  derixed  from  the  exposed  surfaces  in  these 
regions  i-<  small  and  iii>i'jiiilicaiit. 


llii 


Although  the  onward  movement  of  a  glacier  is 
too  slow  to  be  perceptible  to  the  eye,  it  is  none 
the  less  present  and,  generally,  continuous.  J. 
1).  Forbes  found  (from  measurements  made  by 
himself  in  the  Mer  de  Cilace,  near  Clianiimni ; 
see  Alps)  and  first  proved  that  the  whole 
sheet  does  not  possess  the  same  rate  of  motion, 
the  centre  advancing  more  rajiidly  than  the 
sides.  He  discovered  that  in  summer  and  in  the 
fall  of  the  year  the  middle  of  that  glacier  drew 
forward  at  a  rate  of  from  1  foot  S  inches  to  '2  feet 
3  inches,  and  at  the  sides  at  from  1  foot  1  inch 
to  1  foot  7A  inches  per  diem.  Agassiz  at  aliout 
the  same  time  carried  on  a  series  of  independent 
exiieriments  on  the  glacier  of  the  Aar,  and  arrived 
at  similar  conclusions.  Helland  later  on  demon- 
strated that  in  Greenland  a  more  rainil  motion 
was  to  lie  found,  and  that  the  Jacobshafn  glacier 
advanced  at  a  rate  of  from  4S;2  feet  to  C48 
feet  in  the  twenty-four  houi-s.  This  result  has 
lately  been  generally  contirnied,  although  somewhat 
modilied,   by  Dr   liink,  «ho,  from  a  considerable 


224 


GLACIERS 


collection  of  data,  concludes  tlint  the  quickest  rnte 
of  |)i(>j;ress  of  tlie  centres  of  the  ^jlaeiei-s  of  tliat 
re^'ion  iivcia'.'cs  21  feet  in  twenty-tour  liouix.  In 
many  area-s  in  (Ireenland,  liowever,  the  limits  of  llie 
iieslieet-i  were  fminil  to  he  alniosl  stationary,  and 
prolon^'eil  and  eaieful  ohservations  liecanie  neies- 
sary  helnre  any  |>ro;;ress  could  be  noted.  In  these 
ea-ies  the  conlij,'uralion  of  the  ground  was  the  prin- 
cipal cause  of  tiie  more  <;entle  nu>tion.  The  varia- 
tion in  the  rate  of  movement  in  dillerent  parts  of 
the  mass  is  analogous  to  that  of  rivers,  and  there 
are  many  other  points  of  sinularily  ttetween 
glaciers  and  streams  of  water  which  will  call  for 
noiice  helow. 

The  above  remarks  broadly  point  out  the  general 
movements  of  glaciers,  but  various  modifying 
agencies  are  fre(juently  present,  which  change  for 
a  time  the  regularity  of  the  motion.  Thus,  when 
slipping  down  a  steep  incline  the  rate  of  progress  is 
much  more  rapid  than  when  level  Ir.icts  or  rising 
ground  are  being  traversed.  Tiie  surface  of  the 
ice-sheet,  too,  travels  with  somewhat  greater 
velocity  than  the  lower  strata,  and  the  nature  of 
the  glacier's  bed  here  ag.iin  produces  modilica- 
tion.s.  When  the  ])ath  is  smooth  and  slipping,  the 
rates  of  speed  at  which  the  upper  and  under  por- 
tions advance  are  much  more  eiiual  than  when 
obstacles  intervene,  preventing  tiic  lower  strata 
from  keeping  up  an  eipial  ratio  of  motion  witli  the 
|>ortions  nearer  to  and  at  the  surface.  When  the  ice- 
sheet  turns  a.side  from  following  a  straight  course 
and  forms  a  curve,  the  maximum  of  motion  is  no 
longer  in  the  centre,  but  at  points  along  the  sur- 
face nearer  to  the  convc.\  side  of  the  curve. 

in  temperate  and  tropical  latitudes  the  e.\|)osed 
top  of  the  glacier  is  being  continually  lowered  and 
reduced  by  eva!)oration,  and  it  wcmld  appear  that, 
as  a  general  rule,  the  ice  unusses  in  such  situatimis 
lose  more  bv  this  process  th.m  they  gain  from  the 
snowfalls  of  winter.  When  a  .series  of  hoi  summers 
and  mild  winters  succeed  each  other,  the  amount  of 
ice  dissolved  and  conveycil  away  in  the  form  of 
running  water  exceeds  consideralily  the  supply 
brought  down  from  higher  levels  by  gravitation, 
and  the  glacier  retreats  u]>  its  bed  or  valley.  On 
the  contrary,  when  a  succe.ssicm  of  cold  sunimei-s 
and  severe  winters  are  experieneeil,  it  ])uslies  itself 
farther  down,  and  appears,  through  these  ellects  of 
the  sea-^ons,  to  pos.se.ss  a  kind  of  elasticity. 

When  decided    ineiiualilies    in    the    ground    are 

Eassed  over,  the  hollows  become  filled  up  with  ice 
clonging  to  the  bottom  of  the  glacier,  the  sujier- 
incumbent  imusses  passing  over  them  ;  in  this 
manner  '  ice  eddies  '  are  formed.  On  coming  down 
a  sharp  declivity  the  glacier  beccunes  much  cracked 
anil  fissured,  pinnacles  and  towers  become  con- 
spicuous, and  the  whole  fall  presents  a  scene  of 
chaotic  confusion.  No  sooner,  however,  is  com- 
paratively le\el  ground  again  reached  than  the 
pressure  exerted  by  the  How  fnun  the  heights  once 
more  asserts  itself,  and  again  cakes  the  shattered 
fragments  into  a  smooth,  solid  whole.  Crcrtisscs 
are  cracks  in  the  ice-sheet,  at  first  narrow,  and  of 
no  great  depth  ;  but  as  the  glacier  progresses  they 
increase  in  size,  often  assuming  the  dimensions  of 
Inige  chasms,  fre(|uently  reaching  from  the  toji  to 
the  bottom  of  the  mass  and  travelling  downwards 
with  it,  until  some  temporary  sto|>])age  in  front 
presses  the  edges  one  against  the  other,  and  seals 
uji  the  oriHce. 

It  has  been  urged  that,  when  glaciei-s  flow  over  a 
level  or  rising  surf.ace,  something  more  than  the 
mere  force  of  gravitation  must  besought  to  account 
for  their  forward  movement,  and  the  theory  has 
iieen  advanced  that  water,  percol.ating  from  the 
surface  through  openings  into  the  body  of  the  ice, 
and  there  undergoing  expansion  during  the  jnocess 
of  freezing,  may  be  a  powerful  factor  in  impelling 


the  glacier  onwards,  where  gravilatiim  alone  could 
hanlly  be  sullicient  to  account  for  its  advance. 

H'o;-/..— Glaciers  have  many  features  in  comnum 
with  livers.  Thus,  they  have  regular  drainage 
areas  from  which  they  diaw  their  supplies;  they 
move  from  higher  to  lower  levels  with  more  or  less 

'  rai)idity  as  the  conliguration  of  the  ground  varies; 

j  the  whole  mass  does  not  move  at  the  .same  rate  ; 
they  carry  along  with  them  rocks,  bouhlers,  gravel, 
sand,  ami  earth  ;  they  reach  the  ocean  in  the  forms 
cither  of  ice  or  water;  and  they  cimvcy  to  the  sea 
their   burdens  of  terruginous  materials.     Their  in- 

I  Huence  upon  marine  deposits  wouM,  in  the  present 
state  of  our  knowledge,  apjiear  to  be  very  great  — 
greater,  indeed,  than  that  of  the  largest  rivei-s  dis- 
charging on  a  bold  and  little  indented  coast,  and 
nearly  .xs  great  as  that  of  laigi-  rivers  falling  into 
bays  and  iiartially  enclosed  seas.  Thus,  the  con- 
tinental marine  dejHPsits  oil'  the  shores  of  .•\iitarctica 
extend  almost  as  far  out  into  the  oci'an  as  those 
brought  down  into  the  IJay  of  IJengal  and  .\rabian 
Sea  liy  the  (ianges,  Indus,  an<l  the  other  great 
-streams  of  India,  and  to  an  infinitely  greater  extent 
than  those  conveyed  by  the  great  rivers  of  the 
smooth,  cast  coast  of  Africa,  which  enijity  them- 
selves directly  into  the  op(Mi  ocean. 

The  formation  of  muniiiirs  is  one  of  the  most 
eviileiil  jilienomcna  connected  with  the  work  of 
glaciers.  They  are  of  three  varieties,  known  as 
terminal,  lateral,  and  nicilian.  A  terminal  mo- 
raine consists  of  a  gathering  of  boulders,  rubbish, 
&c.,  pushed  down  by  the  advancing  ice-sheet 
and    heaped   u]i  before  it.      When  the  glacier   re- 

I  treats,  the  moraine  is  seen  to  be  of  a  crescent 
shajie,  the  extremities  iHiinting  backwards  and  the 
centre  pushed  more  or  less  forward — eviilence  of  the 
greater  ra])idity  of  motion  of  the  centre  than  of  the 
sides  of  the  glacier.  Lateral  moraines  are  formed 
by  the  denudation  of  the  siiles  of  the  bed  or  valley 
down  which  the  ice  sheet  Hows.  In  its  forward 
movement  it  scrai>es  oH'  immense  ijuantities  of 
rubliish  fiom  the  sides,  which,  falling  on  the  outer 
edges  of  the  sheet,  are  carried  forward  and  down- 
ward and  thrown  oil'  laterally.  When  two  glaciers 
meet,  they  coalesce  and  flow  onward  as  one ;  the 
lateral  moraines  at  the  sides  of  juncture  unite  al.so, 
and  form  a  medial  moraine  down  the  centre  of  the 
great  trunk  glacier.  Boulders,  so  long  as  they  are 
carried  upon  the  ice-shcels,  arc  in  nowise  changed 

'  by  transport,  preserving  all  their  angularities  and 
sharp  cornel's.  Many  of  them,  however,  fall  into 
the  creva.s.ses,  and,  reaching  the  bottom,  are  ground 
and  rasped  ahmg  the  rocky  bcil  of  the  ice-stream. 
These  botilders,  ,as  well  .-us  the  solid  rocks  they  .are 
nibbed  over,  become  polished  and  striated,  and  in 
this  way  evidence  of  the  presence  of  glaciers  is  pre- 
served long  after  they  themselves  have  disa|p|pcared. 
The  water  discharged  from  the  extremities  of  ice- 
fields is  alw.ays  muddy,  heavily  charged  with  a  line 
powder,  jprodiiced  by  the  scraping  of  rock  ami  ice 
against  rock  and  .soil.  In  the  warmer  regions, 
when  a  glacier  protrinlcs  below  the  snowline  the 

1  aiiKmnt  of  water  melted  from  the  surfaie  is  very 

!  considerable,  often  limling  its  way  into  a  crevasse 
and  uniting  with  the  water  already  collecteil  there, 
prodiu'cd  by  the  higher  tem|)crature  |prevailing  in 
the  lower  strata  of  all  glaciers,  and  resulting  from 
the  ctlects  of  i>ressure.  The  falling  water  in  the 
course  of  time  drives  a  shaft  or  tunnel  through 
the  ice  at  the  Ijottom  of  the  crevasse,  and  these 
shafts  are  known  as  muii/inx.  The  closing  of  the 
crevasse  does  not  necessarily  imply  the  destruction 
of  the  moulin,  which  often  remains  entire,  with  a 
deposit  of  rubbish,  left  by  the  water,  all  along  the 
bottom,  and  may  come  to  light  again  through  the 
opening  of  a  fresh  chasm  much  farther  down  the 
glacier. 

I      For  particulars  and  discussions  regarding  glaciers  and 


GLACIS 


GLADIOLUS 


225 


their  work,  see  De  Saussure's  Voijaijf.  dans  U»  Alpes: 
Agai^siz'  Etude  juries  Olacicrs;  Crole's  CHuuiieaiid  Time ; 
Gcikie's  IJreat  Ice  A'le ;  Forbes's  Tiaieln  in  the  Alps; 
Tyndall's  (JIaciers  of  the  Alpx  ;  Thomson,  Pioc.  Roy. 
Soc,  lH5(J-57  ;  Scottish  Geoy.  Mii'j.,  vol.  v. ;  Heiiii,  Hand- 
bach  dec  Glelsclieikunde  (1885);  also  Dr  Frederick 
Wright's  imijortant  work.  The  Ice  Aye  in  North  America 
(Xew  York  and  Lond.  1889).  For  the  influence  of 
glaciers  on  marine  deposits,  see  maps  by  Dr  John  Murray 
in  the  ,'icottish  Geo'i.  Mag.,  vol.  v. 

Cilacis  (allieil  to  ;;lacle  in  the  sense  of  a  lawn) 
is  the  slope  of  eartli,  generally  1  in  20,  which 
inoline.^  from  the  ('overeil-way  (q.v.)  of  a  fortress 
towards  the  country.  It  obliges  the  assailants  to 
ainjroach  over  an  open  space  swept  by  fire  from 
the  fortre.ss,  and  at  the  same  time  ni;i.sks  the 
general  works  of  the  place.     See  FORTIFIC.VTIOX. 

Gladbaell,  or  Bergisch-Gl.\db.\ch,  an  in- 
dustrial town  of  Rhenisli  Pru.ssia,  8  miles  XE.  of 
Cologne.  Its  industries  include  tlie  nianulacture 
of  drag-nets,  paper,  papier-mache,  and  gunpowder, 
and  it  ha.x  zinc  and  \arious  other  metal  works. 
Peat  is  cut  in  the  neiglibourhood.      Pop.  9928. 

Ciladbacll.  or  M6xchenGl.idb.\ch,  a  rapidly 
glowing  manufacturing  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
16  miles  \V.  of  Diisseldorf,  is  the  centre  of  the 
Rhenish  cotton-spinning  industry.  It  ha.s  also 
manufactures  of  silk,  wool,  linen,  and  paper,  cotton- 
printing  works,  dyeworks,  bleaclilields,  iron  foun- 
dries, machine-shops,  breweries,  and  brickworks. 
(Jlailbach,  which  has  been  a  town  since  136t>,  wa.s 
formerly  the  seat  of  an  important  linen  trade  :  the 
cotton  industry  wa-s  introduced  in  the  enil  of  the 
IHtli  century.  The  town  formerly  contained  a 
famous  Beneilictine  abbey,  founde<l  in  70'i,  and 
still  possesses  a  cliurch  ilating  from  the  l'2th  and 
13tli  centuries  (the  crvpt  from  the  8th).  I'oi). 
( 1858 )  VA,<i&i :  ( 1871  >  26,354 ;  ( 1890 )  49,268,  mostly 
Roman  Catholics. 

iiladintoi*  (from  Lat.  (ihidiii.s,  'a  sword'),  a 
l)rofessionjil  lighter  in  the  arena  of  a  Roman 
amphitheatre,  against  either  another  gladiator  or 
a  wild  beast.  The  custom  of  giving  gla<liatorial 
exhibitions  seems  to  have  been  borrowed  from 
Ktruria,  where  slaves  and  ]irisonei-s  were  sacritice<l 
on  the  tombs  of  illustrious  chieftains.  This  practice 
wa.s  iilso  common  in  Greece  and  the  East.  At 
Rome  the  gladiatorial  contests  took  place  at  lii-st  at 
funerals  only,  but  afterwards  in  the  am]ihitheatre  ; 
and  in  process  of  time  they  lost  all  trace  of  a 
religious  character,  and  came  to  be  a  common  form  > 
of  amusement.  The  tii-st  show  of  this  kind  that  we 
read  of  in  Roman  history  Wiis  one  between  three 
pairs  of  gladiators,  arranged  by  .M.ircus  and  Decius 
Brutus  on  the  death  of  their  father,  in  264  is.i'. 
The  fashion  rapidly  gained  ground,  especially  during 
the  last  veal's  of  the  rei)ublic,  and  as  it  ilid  so  it 
became  customary  for  magistrates,  public  otticei-s, 
and  candidates  for  the  popular  siitl'rages  to  give 
gratuitous  gladiatorial  exhibitions  to  the  people. 
But  the  emperors  exceeded  all  othei's  in  the  extent 
and  magnilicence  of  these  spe<'tacles.  .Julius  Cu'sar 
gave  a  show  at  which  .3'20  couples  fcuight ;  Titus 
gave  an  exhibition  of  gladiatoi-s,  wild  bea.sts,  ami 
sea-fights  which  Ixsted  100  days  ;  Trajan  (me  of 
123  days,  in  which  10.000  nu>ii  fought  with  each 
other  (U'  with  wihl  beasts  for  the  amusement  of 
the  Romans;  and  the  taste  for  these  cruel  spectacles 
spread  through  every  jiart  of  the  extensive  Roman 
eiiii>ire.  Even  under  the  republic  ertbrts  had  been 
made  to  limit  the  number  of  gladiators,  and  to 
diminish  the  fie(|uency  of  these  spectacles.  Cicero 
proposed  a  law  that  no  man  should  give  one  for 
two  yeais  befoii>  becoming  a  can<lidate  for  office. 
The  Emperor  .\ugustus  forbade  more  tli.an  two 
shows  ill  a  year,  or  that  one  should  be  given 
by  a  man  worth  less  than  half  a  million  sesterces. 
Constantine  in  32.')  prohibite<l  glaiiiutorial  conte.sts 
223 


altogether ;  but  their  final  abolition  wa.s  due  to  the 
splendid  daring  of  Telemachus,  an  Asiatic  monk, 
who  in  404  journeyed  to  Rome,  and  there,  rushing 
into  the  arena,  strove  to  part  two  gladiators.  The 
spectators  stoned  him  to  ileath,  but  the  Emperor 
Honorius  proclaimed  him  a  martyr,  and  Lssuecl  an 
edict  suppressing  such  exhibitions.  The  gladi- 
atoi-s  were  for  the  most  part,  and  always  at  first, 
piTsonere  taken  in  war  and  slaves,  with  the  worst 
classes  of  criminals.  Hut  in  the  times  of  the  em- 
perors freenien  and  men  of  broken  fortunes  began 
to  enter  the  inofession  ;  and  later  on  knights  and 
senators  fought  in  the  arena,  and  even  women. 
The  Emperor  Commodns  was  particularly  proud  of 
Ills  skill  and  prowess  jus  a  gladiator.  The  successful 
combatant  wa-s  at  fii'st  lewariled  with  a  palm 
branch,  but  in  later  years  it  became  the  custom  to 
add  to  this  several  rich  and  valuable  presents  and 
a  substantial  prize  of  money.  He  was  in  fact  the 
hero  of  the  hour,  like  the  espuda  of  the  Spanish 
bullring.  It  used  to  be  commonly  understood  that, 
after  a  gladiator  had  been  thrown  down  or  dis- 
armed, if  the  spectators  turned  up  their  thumbs, 
they  wish  the  vanquished  man's  life  to  be  spared, 
and,  if  they  turned  them  down,  that  he  was  to  be 
slain.  So  it  is  interpreted  in  Gerome's  famous 
picture.  But  this  is  certainly  erroneous.  The 
question  mainly  turns  on  the  interpretation  of 
rertere pollicem  and  j)remere  polliceiii.  Mayor  takes 
the  firet  phra,se  to  mean  '  to  turn  the  thumb  to- 
wards the  breast,  as  the  signal  for  stabbing ; '  the 
latter,  '  to  turn  downwards,  as  the  signal  for  dro])- 
])ing  the  sword.'  Wilkins  takes ywcmcce  a-s  closing 
the  thumb  on  the  hand  ;  and  iii/estiis  jjollcx,  the 
signal  for  death,  seems  to  have  been  an  upturned 
thumb.  Gladiators  were  trained  in  special  schools  ; 
and  it  was  regarded  as  a  legitimate  business 
to  keep  them  and  let  them  out  on  hire.  The 
revolt  of  Spartacus  (q.v.),  the  gladiator,  and  liis 
companions  fonus  an  exciting  episode  in  Roman 
history.  Gladiators  were 
known  by  ditlerent  names 
according  to  the  arms,  offen- 
sive and  defensive,  that  they 
wore.  Thus,  the  Hitmnites 
carried  a  shield,  helmet,  greave, 
some  kind  of  defensive  armour 
on  the  chest,  and  a  short  sword ; 
the  retiarii  carried  a  trident 
and  a  net  to  entangle  their 
opponents  ;  the  laqiieani  had  a 
noose  or  lasso. 

Gladiolus,  a  genus  of 
Iridacea-  (q.v.),  with  beautiful 
spikes  of  dowel's,  sword-shaped 
leaves  ( whence  the  name — iliiii. 
of  Lat.  ghnlius,  '  a  sword  ' ). 
and  conns  or  bulbous  rhizomes. 
Several  sjiecies  are  European 
{G.  pill ti.\tn.s.  ciHiuttifiiis.  \"<'. ), 
though  none  are  British  ;  the 
majority,  however,  are  from 
the  Cape.  They  are  propagated 
by  oUset  conns  or  from  seed  : 
in  this  way  innumerable  hybrids 
have  been  produced.  The  hanly 
European  forms  are  well 
adapted  to  the  mixed  border, 
wild  garden  or  shrubbery  in 
dry  and  sunny  situation.*. 
Among  the  leading  Cape  forni.s 
are  G.  canliuntis  (red),  psit- 
tacinus  (yellow  with  purple 
.spots ),  floribiiiidu.i  ( purple  and 
white),  itc,  and  these  have 
given  rise  to  numerous  hybrids — e.g.  the  first  two 
to  (/.  gaiidavensis,  which  again  stanils  at  the  head 
of  many  new  series  of  hvbrids  and  varieties.     The 


Gladiolus  Kamosos. 


226 


GLADIOLUS 


GLADSTONE 


scarlet  G.  hreinlilrijni.iis  is  fiiiiiiliiily  u  .itainlanl 
form.  Tlie  conn  of  (!.  lomntiiiiin  wan  formerly 
ollicinal  ;  mid  the  Hottentots  tlij;  up  some  of  the 
Cape  s]iwi('s  for  the  sake  of  their  starchy  corms. 
See  Nicholson's  Ilii/iomiri/  of  (lardening ;  Kobin- 
son's  Ftiiiri-i-giirdeii,  \r. 

CiladstOIIO,    Wii.MAM    KwART,    statesman, 
orator,   ami    author,    was   born   in   Itodncv  Street, 

l>iviM| I,  on    llic  •jyth   Dicciijljer    ISO'J.  '  He   wius 

the  foiinh  son  of  Sir  .John  (Ilailstone  (1704-I8.il  ).  a 
well  known  ami  it  mixht  almost  be  Rai<l  a  fainons 
Liverpool  merchant,  who  sat  for  some  yeai-s  in 
parliament,  ami  wius  a  ilevoted  friend  and  supporter 
of  (ieorge  Canninjr.  Mr  Chulstone  was  of  Scotch 
descent  on  both  sides,  and  declared  more  than  once 
in  a  public  speech  that  the  )>lo<id  that  ran  in  his 
veins  was  i-xelusively  Scuttish.  lie  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  at  Christ  rinirch,  Oxford.  He  became 
a  student  at  O.\ford  in  1S2!»,  and  ■'raduated  a.s  a 
double  lirstcla.ss  in  18.S1.  He  had  distinjjuished 
himself  {greatly  a.s  a  sneaker  in  the  Oxford  I'nion 
Debatinj;  Society,  ami  liad  before  that  time  written 
much  in  The  Kloii  Misri'lliniij,  whieh  imleeil  he 
helped  to  fouml.  He  appi'ars  to  have  be^tuu  his 
career  as  a  slrou';  opponent  of  all  advanceil 
meiisures  of  political  reform.  In  the  Uxforil  Inion 
he  i)roi)osed  a  vote  of  eensure  on  the  •;overnment 
of  Lord  (!rey  for  introducing'  the  jjreat  Heforni  IJill 
which  w.as  carried  in  IS.TJ,  and  on  the  Duke  of 
Wellin^'ton  because  of  his  having'  yielded  to  the 
claims  lor  ('atlndic  emaneipation.  He  also  opposed 
a  motion  in  favour  of  immediate  emancipation  of 
the  .slaves  in  our  West  Indian  islands.  He  soon 
became  known  a.s  a  young  man  of  promise,  wlio 
would  be  able  to  render  f^ood  service  to  the  Con- 
servative party  in  the  j;reat  stru-j^le  which  seemed 
likely  to  be  force<l  upon  them — a  struggle,  as  many 
thought,  for  their  very  existence.  It  wa.s  a  time 
of  intense  nolitical  emotion.  Passion  and  panic 
alike  prevailed.  The  lirst  great  •  leap  in  the  dark  ' 
had  been  taken  ;  the  Hefonn  Itill  was  carried  ;  tlie 
sceptre  of  power  had  i>a.ssed  away  from  tiie  aris- 
tocracy ami  the  privileged  ranks  to  the  midille  and 
lower  mid<lle  classes.  The  Conservative  jiarty 
were  looking  eagerly  out  for  young  men  of  promise 
to  stillen  their  ranks  in  the  new  parliament-the 
lirst  elected  under  the  I'eform  Hill,  the  (irst  which 
the  middle-class  had  their  <Iuc  share  in  creating  : 
the  (irst  in  which  such  cities  :ls  Manchester  and 
Liverpool  and  liirmingham  weie  allowed  to  have 
representation. 

Air  (ilailstone  was  invited  to  contest  the  burgh 
of  Newark  in  the  Conservative  interest,  and  he  hacl 
the  support  of  the  great  Newcastle  family.  He 
stflod  ten-  Newark,  and  he  was  elected.  He  de- 
livered his  maiden  speech  on  a  subject  ccmnected 
with  the  great  movement  for  the  emancipation  of 
the  West  Indian  slaves  ;  but  he  seems  to  have  con- 
fined himself  mainly  to  a  defence  of  the  manner  in 
which  his  father's  estates  were  managed,  the  cinirse 
of  the  debate  having  brought  out  .some  eliarge 
against  the  management  of  the  elder  (Jladstone  s 
jjosscssions  in  one  of  the  West  Indian  islands, 
riie  new  orator  appears  to  have  made  a  decided 
inipres.sion  on  the  House  of  Commons.  His 
manner,  his  voice,  his  diction,  his  Hiieney  were 
alike  the  subject  of  praise.  .MrtJladstone  i-v'idently 
continued  to  impie>s  the  House  of  ('oiiimoiis  with  a 
sen.se  of  his  great  parliamentary  capacity.  We  gel 
at  this  fact  rather  oblujuely  ;  for  we  do  not  hear  Of 
his  creating  any  great  sensation  in  debate  ;  and  to 
this  day  some  very  old  members  of  the  House  insist 
that  for  a  long  time  he  was  generally  regarde<l  a-s 
nierely  a  lluent  speakei-.  who  talked  like  one  read- 
ing from  a  book.  IJut  on  the  other  hand  we  find 
that  he  is  described  by  Macaulay  in  18.39  .i-s  '  the 
rising  lioi>e'of  the  'st'ei-n  and  unbending  Tories,' 
and   the  whole  tone  of  Macaulav's  essay— a  criti- 


cism of  (ihulstone's  first  serious  attempt  at  autlior- 
.shii),  his  lMH)k  on  the  relations  between  church 
anil  slate— shows  that  the  critic  treat.s  the  author 
a.s  a  young  man  of  undoubted  mark  and  position 
in  the  House  of  Ccunmons. 

In  December  IH;{4  Sir  Hobert  Peel  appointed 
Cladstone  to  the  ollice  of  a  .liinior  Lord  of  the 
■i'le.xsiiry.  In  the  next  year  I'eel,  who  was  <|uii-k 
to  appreciate  the  great"  abilities  ami  the  .soiiml 
commercial  knowledge  of  his  new  recruit,  gave  to 
him  the  more  important  post  of  riider-.secretarv 
for  the  Colonies.  (.Gladstone  lookeil  iiii  to  I'eel  witli 
intense  admiration.  There  wius  much  to  draw  the 
two  men  together.  Knowledge  of  finance,  thmimgh 
uiideistanding  and  firm  grasp  of  the  ]iiinciples  on 
whiili  a  nation's  business  must  be  conducted — 
lierhaps  it  may  be  added  a  common  inigin  in  the 
middle  chi-ss— these  jioinls  of  resemblance  might 
well  have  become  jioints  of  attraction,  liut  there 
were  other  ami  still  higher  .sympathies  to  bring 
them  close.  The  elder  and  the  youn>'er  man 
were  alike  earnest,  juofonndly  earnest  ;  filled  witli 
conscience  in  every  movement  of  their  iiolitical 
and  private  lives ;  a  good  deal  too  earm-st  and 
serious  perhaps  for  most  of  the  parliamentary 
colleagues  by  whom  they  were  surrounded.  Mr 
(;iadst<me  always  remained  devoted  to  I'eel,  and 
knew  him  perhajis  more  thoroughly  and  intimately 
than  any  other  man  wa.s  jirivileged  to  do.  I'eel 
went  out  of  ollice  very  soon  after  lie  had  made  ^Ir 
( Ilailstone  I'ndei -seeietaiy  fiu'  the  ('(donies.  Lord 
.lohn  liUssell  had  brought  forward  a  series  of 
motions  on  the  ominous  subject  of  the  Irish  ('hurcli, 
and  Peel  wa.s  defeated,  and  resigned.  It  is  almost 
needless  to  say  that  (Jladstone  went  with  him. 
Peel  came  back  again  to  office  in  1H41,  on  the  fall 
of  the  .Mtdbourm;  administration,  and  .Mr  (Jhul- 
stone  became  \'ice  ]iiesi(lent  of  the  Hoard  of  Traile 
and  Ma-ster  of  the  Mint,  and  was  at  the  same 
time  sworn  in  a  member  of  the  Privy-council. 
In  1843  he  became  President  of  the  Hoard  "of  Traile. 
Early  in  184.')  he  resigned  his  ollice  because  he 
could  not  apiuove  of  the  jiolicy  of  the  government 
with  regard  to  the  M;iynooth  grant. 

The  great  struggle  on  the  (piestiim  of  the  re|)eal 
of  the  Corn  Laws  was  now  cmuing  on.  It  would 
be  impossilile  that  a  man  with  Mi-  Oladstone's  turn 
of  mind  and  early  training  could  have  continued  a 
protectionist  when  once  he  had  applied  his  intellect 
and  his  experience  to  a  practical  examin.ition  of 
the  subject.  Once  again  he  went  with  his  leader. 
Peel  saw  that  there  wius  nothing  for  it  but  to 
accept  the  ininciples  of  the  Eree-trade  party,  who 
had  lieen  bearing  the  fiery  cross  of  their  peaceful 
and  noble  agitation  all  through  IIk-  country,  and 
were  gathering  adherents  wherever  they  weiit.  It 
is  utterly  unfair  to  say  that  I'eel  nierely  yielded  to 
the  demands  of  an  agitation  which  was  growing 
too  strong  f(u-  him.  The  more  generous  and  the 
more  truthful  inleriiretation  of  his  comluct  is  that 
the  agitation  lirst  coinjielled  him  to  give  his  atten- 
tion to  the  whole  .subject  ;  and  that  as  he  thought 
it  out  he  became  converted  ami  coininced.  When 
the  agitation  began,  and  for  long  after.  Lord  .John 
I{us.sell  and  the  Whigs  generally  were  no  whit 
more  inclined  to  free  trade  than  Sir  Hidiert  Peel 
and  Mr  Chulstone. 

It  is  a  .somewhat  curious  fact  that  Mr  (Jladstone 
wa-s  not  in  the  House  of  Comnions  diiriii''  the 
eventful  se.ssion  when  the  great  battle  of  free 
trade  wa-s  fought  and  won.  In  thorough  sympathy 
with  Peel,  he  li.ad  joined  the  governnient  again  as 
Colonial  .Secretary.  Kiiowin"  that  he  could  no 
longer  be  in  political  synipathy  with  the  Duke  of 
Newcastle,  whose  inlluence  had  obtained  for  him 
the  representation  of  Newark,  he  had  given  up  his 
seat,  and  did  not  come  into  parliament  again  until 
the  struggle  wa.s  over.     At  the  general  elections  in 


GLADSTONE 


227 


1847  Mr  (Jlatlstone,  still  accepted  as  a  Tory,  was 
chosen  one  of  the  representatives  for  the  imivci-sity 
of  Oxforil. 

l'])  to  the  time  of  the  abolition  of  the  Corn 
Laws,  oi-  ai  least  of  the  nio\ein('nt  which  led  to 
their  aholition,  Mr  (iladstone  had  hccn  a  Tory  of  a 
rather  old-fashioned  school.  The  corndaw  agita- 
tion probably  first  set  him  thinking'  over  the 
possible  defects  of  our  social  and  legislative  system, 
and  showed  him  the  necessity  for  reform  at  least 
in  one  direction.  The  interests  of  religion  itself 
at  one  time  seemed  to  him  to  be  bound  wp  with  the 
jirinciples  of  the  Tory  party  ;  and  no  doulit  there 
was  a  jjeriod  of  his  career  when  the  principle  of 
Protection  woulil  have  seemed  to  him  as  sacred  as 
any  other  part  of  the  creed.  With  a  nuiid  like 
his,  inquiry  once  started  must  go  on.  There  was 
always  something  impetuous  in  the  workings  of 
his  intellect,  as  well  as  the  rush  of  his  sympathy. 
He  startled  Europe,  and  indeed  the  wliole  civiliseil 
world,  by  the  terrible  and  only  too  truthful  descrip- 
tion which  he  gave  in  18.51  of  the  condition  of  the 
prisons  of  Naples,  under  the  king  who  was  known 
l)y  the  nickname  of  '  liomba,'  and  the  cruelties 
which  were  inflicted  on  political  jirisoners  in  jiar- 
tieular.  Again  and  again  in  Mr  tiladstone's  public 
life  we  shall  see  him  carried  away  by  the  same 
generous  and  passionate  emotion  on  behalf  of  the 
victims  of  despotic  cruelty  in  any  part  of  the 
world.  Burke  himself  could  not  be  more  sym- 
pathetic, more  earnest,  or  more  strong. 

liy  the  death  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1850  Mr  Glad- 
stone had  lost  a  trusted  leader  an<l  a  dear  friend. 
But  the  loss  of  his  leader  had  Imnight  Gladstone 
himself  more  directly  to  the  front.  It  was  not 
until  iifter  Peel's  death  that  he  compelled  the 
House  of  Commons  and  the  country  to  recog- 
nise in  him  a  supreme  master  of  parliamentary 
debate.  The  first  really  great  speech  made  by  Mr 
(iladstone  in  ])arliament — the  first  speech  which 
could  fairly  challenge  compariscm  with  any  of  the 
finest  speeches  of  a  pa.st  day — was  made  in  the 
debate  on  Mr  Disraeli's  budget  in  the  winter  of 
18.52,  the  first  session  of  the  new  parliament.  Mr 
Disraeli  knew  well  that  his  government  was 
doomed  to  fall.  He  knew  that  it  could  not  survive 
that  debate.  It  was  always  one  of  Mr  Disraeli's 
jieculiarities  that  he  could  light  most  luilliantly 
when  he  knew  that  his  cause  was  already  lost. 
That  which  would  have  disheartened  and  disarmed 
other  men  seemed  oidy  to  animate  him  with  all 
Macbeth's  wild  courage  of  despair.  Never  did  his 
gift  of  satire,  of  invective,  and  of  epithet  show  to 
more  splendid  etl'eet  than  in  the  speech  with  which 
he  closed  his  ]iart  of  the  debate  and  mercilessly 
assailed  Ins  opponents.  Mr  Disraeli  sat  down  at 
two  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  then  MrtUadstone 
ro.se  to  reply  to  him.  Most  men  in  the  house,  even 
on  the  Opposition  side,  were  filled  with  the  belief 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  make  any  real  ini- 
lu-ession  on  the  house  after  such  a  spee(di  as  that 
of  Mr  Disraeli.  Long  before  Mr  (iladstone  h.ad 
coMcludeil  every  one  admitted  that  the  efiect  of  .Mr 
Disraeli's  speech  had  been  outdone  and  outshone. 
From  that  hour  Mr  Gladstone  was  recogni.sed  as 
one  of  the  great  historic  orators  of  the  Knglish  jiar- 
liament — a  man  to  rank  with  Bolingbroke  and 
Chatham  and  Pitt  and  Fox.  With  that  speech 
began  the  long  parliamentary  duel  between  these 
two  great  masters  of  debate,  Mr  (iladstone  and  .Mr 
Disraeli,  which  was  carried  on  for  four-and-twenty 
years. 

On  i/lie  fall  of  the  short-lived  Tory  administration 
Lord  Aberdeen  came  into  office.  He  formed  the 
famous  Coalition  Ministry.  Lord  Palmerstcm  took 
what  most  people  would  have  thought  the  un- 
congenial oltice  of  Home  Secretary.  Lord  .John 
Itussell  became  Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs.     Mr 


Gladstone,  who  with  others  of  the  '  Peelites,'  as 
they  were  called,  had  joined  the  new  administra- 
tion, was  Chancellor  of  the  Kxchei|uer.  His  speech 
on  the  intrcjduction  of  his  liist  budget  was  waiter! 
for  with  great  expectation  ;  but  it  distanced  all 
expectation.  It  occupied  several  hours  in  clelivery, 
but  none  of  those  who  listened  to  it  would  have 
wished  it  to  be  shortened  by  a  sentence.  It  may 
be  questioned  whether  even  the  younger  Pitt,  with 
all  his  magic  of  voice  and  style  ami  phrase,  could 
lend  such  charm  to  each  successive  budget  as  Mr 
Gladstone  was  able  to  do.  A  budget  speech  from 
Mr  Gladstone  came  to  be  expecteil  with  the  same 
kind  of  keen  artistic  longing  as  waits  the  first 
performance  of  a  new  opera  by  some  great  com- 
poser. A  budget  sjieech  by  Mr  Gladstone  was  a 
triumph  in  the  realm  of  the  fine  arts. 

The  ('rimean  war  broke  uji  the  Coalition 
Ministry.  A  motion  by  Mr  Koebuck  for  inquiry 
into  the  condition  of  the  army  before  Sebastopol 
was  carried  by  a  large  majority  against  the  govern- 
ment. Lord  Aberdeen  at  once  resigned.  Lord 
Derby  was  sent  for  by  the  Queen,  but  lie  could  not 
see  his  way  to  form  a  cabinet  without  Lord 
Palmerston,  and  Lord  Palmerston  wcuild  not  go 
with  him.  Lord  .lohn  Itussell  was  summoned,  but 
did  not  believe  he  could  succeed.  In  fact,  Lord 
Palmerston  was  the  one  indispensalde  man,  aiul  he 
became  prime-minister.  Mr  Ghulstone  held  his 
former  office  for  a  short  time;  Imt  when  Lord  Palm- 
erston gave  way  to  the  demand  for  the  apjtoint- 
ment  of  the  committee  of  inquiry,  Mr  Gladstone 
believed  that  as  he  had  conscientiously  oppo.sed  the 
appointment  of  .such  a  committee,  he  ought  not  to 
remain  a  member  of  a  cabinet  which  was  willing  to 
accept  it.  His  conviction  was  shared  by  his  Peelite 
colleagues,  Sir  James  Graham  and  Mr  Sidney  Her- 
bert, and  they  too  retired  from  office.  Mr  (Glad- 
stone gave  the  government  of  Lonl  Palmeiston  a 
general  support,  until,  after  the  attempt  of  (Jrsini 
on  the  life  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  in  lSo8, 
Palmerston  introduced  his  ill-fated  Conspiracy  to 
Murder  Bill.  Mr  (Gladstone  strongly  sui)ported 
the  amendment  to  the  motion  for  the  secoml  read- 
ing, which  declared  that  before  introducing  any 
proposal  for  an  alteration  in  the  law  of  conspiracy 
the  government  o\ight  to  have  replied  to  the 
French  des])atch,  which  virtually  .accuse<l  England 
of  lending  her  protection  to  foreign  as.sa.ssins.  The 
government  was  defeated.  Lord  Palmei-ston  re- 
signed, and  Lord  Derby  was  called  on  to  form  a 
new  ministry. 

The  short  stay  of  the  Ciuiservative  party  in  otlice 
gave  to  Mr  (iladstone  an  opportunity  of  accepting 
a  mission  which  must  have  been  very  much  after 
his  own  heart.  This  was  the  famous  visit  to  the 
Ionian  Islands  (q.v.)  in  18oS. 

The  year  1859  saw  Lord  Palmerston  back  again 
in  ofiice  and  Mr  Gladstone  in  his  old  place  a.s 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  The  budget  of  18(J0 
was  remarkable,  as  it  contaiiu»d  the  i)rovisions  for 
the  recluctiiui  of  the  wine-duties  and  the  whole 
simplilieil  system  of  taxatiim  intended  to  ap)dy  to 
the  connuercial  treaty  which  Mr  C(d)den  had  suc- 
ceeded in  persuading  the  emperor  of  the  French  to 
accept.  Mr  (iladstoiu'  also  introiluced  a  provision 
for  the  aboliticm  of  the  duty  on  paper — a  duty 
which  was  simply  a  tax  upon  reading,  a  tax  u])on 
popular  education.  The  House  of  Lords  struck 
out  this  clause  :  a  somewhat  impassioned  popular 
agitation  followed :  and  in  the  next  session  the 
Lords  passed  the  measure  for  the  repeal  of  the 
duty  without  ottering  any  further  opposition.  The 
death  of  Lord  Palmerston  in  18(!5  called  Lord 
Russell  to  the  position  of  prime-minister  and  made 
Mr  Gladstone  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
Mr  (iladstone's  mind  had  long  been  turning  in  the 
direction  of  an  extension  or  rather  expansion  of  the 


OOQ 


GLADSTONE 


fiiffrace.  It  was  assumed  liy  evei->-  one  that,  Lord 
KusseTl  anil  Mr  (Iladstoiic  lioiii^'  now  at  tlic  lioad  of 
.illairs,  a  ri't'orni  Mil  would  lie  .-.urc'  In  <oni<'.  It  did 
loine  ;  a  very  niodcratc  ami  canlious  Iiill.  enlar;.'in^' 
I  lie  area  of  tlie  francliise  in  lioroufjlis  and  counties. 
The  Conservative  ])arty  o]i|iosed  it,  and  were  su|i- 
ported  in  their  i)p|)osition  Iiy  a  eonsiderahle  section 
of  the  Lilierals,  who  thoujrht  tlie  tnea>nre  wa.s 
^'oinj;  too  far  on  the  roail  to  universal  sutlra^^'e  and 
the  rule  of  the  dcinocrarv.  The  hill  was  di'lVatcd, 
ami  the  l,iheral  slatesinen  went  out  of  olliei-  ( ISOO). 
Mr  Gladstone  hail  rarried  his  point,  however,  for 
when  Mr  Disraeli  eaine  into  office  he  saw  that  a 
reform  lull  was  inevitahle,  and  he  prepared  his 
iiarty,  or  most  of  them,  for  the  course  which  would 
liave  to  he  taken.  In  the  very  next  session  Mr 
IMsraeli  introduced  a  Keform  Iiill  of  his  own, 
which  was  eidai>;eil  .and  expanded  until  it  heeanie 
practically  a  nu-asure  of  househohl  sutlVafie  for 
cities  and  horou^'hs. 

Somewhere  ahout  this  time  the  attention  of  Mr 
(Jladstone  hci,'au  to  he  attracted  to  the  condition  of 
Ireland.  The  distressed  and  distracted  state  of 
Ireland,  the  unceasing;  popular  a^dtation  and  dis- 
content, the  I'enian  insiinection,  Iiron;;hl  under 
Kn^llaml's  very  eyes  hy  the  scheme  for  an  attack 
on  Chester  Ca-*itle— all  these  evidences  of  malady 
in  Ireland's  system  led  Mr  (Iladstone  to  the  convic- 
tion that  the  time  had  come  when  statesmanship 
nuist  .seek  thri)U;,'h  ]iarlianuuit  for  some  |>rocess  of 
remedy.  .Mr  (Jl.ulstone  canu-  after  a  while  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  Protestant  state  church  in 
Ireland  must  he  disestablished  ,anil  disendowed,  that 
the  Irish  laud  tenure  system  nuist  he  reformed,  and 
that  lietter  jirovision  must  he  made  for  the  liii,dier 
education  of  the  Catholics  of  Ireland.  He  made 
short  work  with  the  Irish  state  church.  He  de- 
feated the  trovernment  on  a  series  of  residutions 
foreshadowing;  his  )>iilicy  :  the  j.'overniiient  a]ipealeil 
to  the  conntry  ;  the  Lilierals  returiunl  to  power, 
and  Mr  tiladstone  hecame  ]uime minister  (  1868). 
In  his  first  session  of  i;overnment  he  disestahlished 
and  disendowed  the  state  church  in  Ireland.  In 
the  next  session  he  passed  a  meastire  which  for 
the  first  time  reco;,niiseil  the  rif,dit  of  the  Irish 
tenant  to  the  value  of  the  impiovenients  he 
had  himself  made  at  his  own  cost  ami  lahour. 
Never  pioliably  was  there  such  a  period  of  ener- 
getic reform  in  almost  every  direction  as  that 
which  set  in  when  .Mr  'iladstone  became  prime- 
minister.  For  the  hist  time  in  English  history 
a  system  of  national  education  wa-s  established. 
The  Ballot  Act  was  passed  for  the  protection  of 
voters.  The  system  of  purcha-se  in  the  army  was 
abolished — by  something',  it  must  beowiu'd.  a  little 
in  the  nature  of  a  ntuji  liilitl.  Then  Mr  (Uadstone 
introduced  a  measure  to  improve  the  condition  of 
university  education  in  Ireland.  This  bill  was 
intended  almost  alto^'ether  for  the  benelit  of  Irish 
Catholics:  but  it  did  not  go  far  enough  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  the  Catholics,  and  in  some  of  its 
provisions  was  dedareil  incompatible  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  their  church.  The  Catholic  members  of 
the  House  of  Commons  voted  against  it,  and  with 
that  hel|i  the  <'i)iiserv.atives  were  able  to  throw  out 
the  bill  (  187;i ).  .Mr  (Iladstone  tendered  his  resigna- 
tion of  oHice.  But  Mr  Disraeli  deelined  just  then  to 
undertake  any  responsibility,  and  Mr  Gladstone 
had  to  remain  at  the  head  of  alVairs.  The  great 
wave  of  reforniing  energy  had.  however,  subsided  in 
the  country.  The  period  of  reaction  had  come. 
The  bv-elections  began  to  tell  against  the  Liberals. 
.Mr  Gladstime  .luddenly  dissidved  parliament  and 
appealed  to  the  country,  and  the  answer  to  his 
appeal  wa.s  the  election  of  a  Conservative 
majority.  Mr  Disraeli  came  back  to  power,  and 
Mr  (Jladstone  retired  from  the  leadei'ship  of  the 
House  of  Commons  (1874). 


For  a  while  Mr  (iladstone  occupied  himself  in 
literary  and  historical  studies,  ami  he  imblished 
essays  and  pamphlets.  Hut  even  in  his  literarv 
studies  .Mr  (Uadstone  would  :Lp)ii'ar  to  have  always 
kept  glancing  at  the  House  of  Commons,  as  ( 'liarles 
\.  in  his  moiijustery  kept  his  eyes  on  the  world 
of  jiiditics  outside.  The  atrocious  ciuiduct  of  the 
Turkish  otlicials  in  Bulgaria  aroused  his  generoiiK 
anger,  and  he  Hung  down  his  books  and  rushed  out 
from  his  study  In  preach  a  crusade  against  the 
()|  toman  power  in  Kuropc.  The  watei-s  rose  and 
lifted  him,  whether  he  would  or  no,  into  power. 
The  parliament  which  had  gone  on  from  the  spring 
of  1874  wa.s  dissolved  in  the  spring  of  bS.SIl,  ami  the 
Liberals  came  in  w  itii  an  overw  helming  majority. 
The  period  of  reaction  had  gone.  Mr  (llailslone, 
now  after  I  lie  famous  Midlolhi.an  camiiaigiis  M.B. 
for  the  county  of  Edinbuigh,  had  to  become  prime- 
minister  once  more.  His  name  was  the  only  name 
that  had  come  out  of  the  voting  urns. 

It  w.os  an  unpro]iilious  hour  at  which  to  return 
to  ollicc.  There  were  tioubles  in  Kgy|d  '•  there  was 
imi>ending  war  in  the  Soudan  and  in  South  .\frica. 
There  Wius  something  very  like  an  agrari.in  icvidii- 
tiiui  going  on  in  Irel.iud  ;  and  the  Home  Kule  party 
in  the  House  of  Comiiions  was  under  new,  icsidute, 
ami  uucompromisiug  leadership.  Mr  (Uadstone 
succeeded,  nevertheless,  in  carrying  w  hat  might  lie 
called  a  viLst  scheme  of  parliamentary  reform,  a 
.scheme  which  established  something  very  near  to 
universal  suHrage,  arranged  the  constituencies  into 
proportionate  divisions,  extinguished  .several  small 
boroughs,  leaving  their  electors  to  vote  in  their 
county  division,  and  in  general  completed  the  work 
begun  in  18S'2,  and  carried  further  in  1S67.  It  is  to 
the  credit  of  the  Conservative  iiarty  that  after  a 
while  they  co-operated  cordially  with  Mr  (Uadstone 
in  his  reforming  work  of  188.5.  Thisw.as  a  triumph 
f(U'  Mr  (Uadstone  of  an  entirely  s.itisfactory  char- 
acter; but  he  had  sore  trials  to  counterbalance  it. 
He  found  himself  drawn  into  .a  .series  of  wars  in 
North  and  South  .Africa;  and  he  whose  generous 
sym|iathy  had  of  l.ate  been  so  much  given  to  Ireland, 
and  who  had  introdnceil  ami  carried  another  land 
bill  for  Ireland,  found  that  in  eudeavouring  to  pa.s8 
the  mciisiires  of  coercion  which  the  authorities  in 
I  lublin  (^a.stle  deemed  .advisable,  he  had  toeiiconnter 
the  fiercest  o]iposition  from  the  Irish  members  of 
parliament  ami  the  vast  bulk  of  the  Irish  popula- 
tion. That  time  must  have  been  for  a  man  of  Mr 
(Uadstone's  n.ature  a  time  of  darkness  and  of  |)ain. 
Lord  Frederick  Cavendish  and  Mr  Burke  were 
a.s.s,a.ssinateil  in  Diibliln  ;  (leueral  (iordon  ]ieiislied  at 
Khartoum.  In  the  end  the  Irish  members  coalesced 
with  the  Conservatives  in  .a  vote  on  a  clause  in  the 
budget,  and  .Mr  (U.adstone's  government  w;us  de- 
feated. Lord  Salisbury  came  h.ack  into  ollice,  but 
not  just  then  into  ]M)wer.  His  was  a  most  precari- 
ous ]ii>sition,  depending  on  the  cimrse  which  might 
be  taken  by  the  Irish  members.  He  wius  mit  of 
olHce  in  a  few  niontlis,  and  then  the  general  elec- 
tions came  on.  These  elections  were  to  give  the 
lirst  opportunity  to  the  newly  made  votei's  under 
.Mr  (Uadstone's  latest  reform  act ;  and  these  voters 
sent  him  b.aek  into  office  and  apparently  into  jiower 
once  again. 

The  use  Mr  Gladstone  made  of  office  ami  of  power 
iustonished  his  enemies,  and  startled  and  shocked 
not  a  few  of  his  friends.  His  government  had  had 
in  the  yeai-s  between  IS81  and  1HS4  to  light  a  Merce 
battle  against  the  jwlicv  of  obstruction  organised 
by  Mr  I'arnell,  the  leader  of  the  Home  Bale  party. 
The  obstniction  was  organised  to  prevent  or  delay 
the  pa-ssing  of  coercion  measures,  and  to  force  the 
attention  of  the  British  luiblic  to  the  claims  of  Ire- 
laud.  The  struggles  that  were  carried  on  will  be 
ahviiys  memorable  in  the  history  of  ]iarliament. 
The  fiercest  passions  were  aroused  on  both  sides. 


GLADSTONE 


GLAMORGANSHIRE 


229 


and  at  one  time  Ireland  seemed  to  have  come  to 
regard  Mr  flladstone  as  her  worst  enemy.  Many  a 
statesman  in  his  place  might  have  alloweil  himself 
to  be  governed  by  a  feeling  of  disapiiointment 
and  resentment.  But  when  the  elections  under 
the  new  and  e.xtended  Reform  IJill  were  held, 
and  the  Irish  Nationalist  party  came  hack  ST 
members  out  of  the  whole  Irish  representation 
of  103,  Mr  Gladstone  made  up  his  mind  that 
the  voice  of  the  Irish  people  was  in  favour  of 
Home  Kule,  and  he  resolved  to  stake  |>ower  and 
jKipularity  on  an  acceptance  of  their  demand.  In 
March  1S86  he  brought  in  a  measure  to  give  a 
statutory  parliament  to  Ireland.  A  sudilen  and 
serious  split  took  place  in  his  party  ;  some  of  his 
most  inmiential  colleagues  declared  against  him  : 
the  bill  was  rejected  on  the  second  leading,  and  Mr 
(Uadstone  appealed  to  the  country,  only  to  be 
defeated  at  the  general  election.  The  ('onservative 
party,  with  the  help  of  the  Liberals  who  hail  de- 
clined to  follow  Mr  Gladfitone,  came  back  into 
power  with  a  strong  majority,  Mr  Gladstone  lead- 
ing the  Opposition.  At  the  general  election  of 
1892  his  party,  including  both  sections  of  Irish 
Nationalists,  secured  a  majority  of  above  foity 
over  the  combined  Conservatives  and  Liberal 
Unionists.  In  1893  his  Home  Rule  Bill  was 
carried  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  spite  of  the 
strenuous  opposition  of  the  combined  Unionist 
sections,  but  was  thrown  out  in  the  House  of 
Lor<ls.  Owing  to  the  increasing  intirmities  of  age, 
especially  impaired  eyesight,  the  veteran  states- 
man resigned  3d  March  1894,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Lc)id  Roseliery.  He  still  took  an  interest  in 
public  att'airs  and  Inisied  hiuisell  with  literary  work 
— in  January  1898  he  pulilished  his  remini.scences  of 
Arthur  Hallam  :  but  falling  seriously  ill,  after  some 
months  of  sufl'ering  borne  with  noble  fortitude,  he 
died  at  Hawarden  on  the  19th  May  1898.  He  was 
buried  in  Westminster  .\bbey. 

Mr  Gladstone's  contributions  to  literatnre,ranging 
from  political  pamphlets  to  Homeric  studies  (in 
eluding  the  article  Humer  in  ihi.s  volume)  and 
theological  treatises,  would  have  made  another 
man's  re|nitation  ;  but  to  the  world  they  are  interest- 
ing cliielly  Jis  illustrating  a  marvellous  and  unrest 
ing  mental  activity.  Probably  no  other  Knglish 
minister  has  left  behind  him  so  long  and  .so  success- 
ful a  recoril  of  practical  legislal  ion  ;  some  of  the  best 
legislation  accomplished  l)y  his  political  opponent- 
was  his  own  work  taken  out  of  his  hands.  As  a 
parliamentary  debater  he  never  hail  a  superior — it 
is  doubtful  whether  he  ever  had  an  ec|ual — in  the 
whole  of  the  political  history  of  these  countries. 
There  have  been  even  in  our  own  time  orators  who 
now  and  then  shot  their  arrows  higher ;  but  so 
ready,  so  skilful,  ami  so  unerring  an  archer  as  he, 
taken  all  round,  never  drew  bow  cm  modern  parlia- 
mentary battle-ground.  Nature  had  given  him  an 
e.vfjuisite  voice — sweet,  powerful,  easily-penetrat 
ing^  capable  of  filling  without  ett'ort  any  ])ublic 
building  however  large — vibrating  to  every  emotion. 
The  incessant  training  of  the  House  of  Commons 
turned  natures  gifts  to  their  fullest  account.  He 
was  almost  too  Huent  ;  his  eloquence  .sometimes 
carried  him  away  on  its  imp,a.ssioned  tide  ;  but  his 
listenei-s  were  seldom  inclined  to  linil  fault  with  this 
magnificent  exuberance.  We  shmiM  be  inclined  to 
rank  him  as  one  of  the  greatest  orators,  and  the 
very  greatest  debater,  of  the  House  of  Commons. 

Amiiiig  Mr  Gladstone's  works  are  The  Sl/itt  in  its  Rela- 
tiuH*  with  the  Church  ( 18,^) ;  A  Mtinual  of  Praiien  from 
the  Litinyii  ( 184.5) ;  Tiro  Litters  on  the  Stale  Persceiitimis 
of  the  NeapoliUin  d'orernment  (1.S."il ) ;  Studies  on  Homer 
and  the  Homeric  A)jc  {3  vols.  18.58);  A  (Chapter  of  A utti- 
biography  (18ti8);  Jurentus  Mundi  (18()9);  The  Vatican 
Decrees,  bcariny  on  Civil  Allci/iuncc  {lli7i);  Vaticanism 
(1875);  Homeric  Sjfnc/ironism  {1S76) ;  Gleaninys  of  Past 


Years  ( 7  vols.  1879 );  The  Irish  Question  ( 188<) ) ;  a  trans- 
lation of  Horace  (1894);  an  edition  of  the  I'salter  with  a 
Concordance  ( 189.5 ) ;  and  a  uiunuuiental  edition  of  Butler's 
works  (3  vols.  1896).  Tliere  are  Lives  by  .1.  lI"Gilclirist 
(180.S),  Bamett  Smith  (1879),  Thomas  Archer  ( 188:{),  G. 
W.  E.  Kussell  (1891),  Leech  (compiled  from  letters  and 
speeches,  1894),  Lucy  (1S95»,  Roblnns  I  189.5),  the  present 
writer  ( 18!)4  and  a-ain  in  IS'JS  |,  Sir  E.  Hanulton  1 1S9.S  ), 
.Sir  Wemyss  Keid  ( 1899  (.  In  190<J  Mr  John  Morley  was 
cugaj^ed  on  the  otiicial  life. 

Glajfolitic  Alpliabct.  the  ancient  Slavonic 
alphabet  (see  -Alph.ahkt),  older  than  the  Cyrillic 
alphabet  (see  CvRll. )  by  which  it  was  su])erseded. 
Both  were  derived  from  the  Greek  minuscules. 

Glairiue<  another  name  for  Baregine  (q.v.). 

Cililisher,  J-VMES,  meteorologist,  was  bom  in 
London  in  1809.  When  twenty  yeare  of  age  he 
began  to  make  meteorological  observations  as  an 
otticer  of  the  Ordnance  Survey  of  Ireland.  For 
three  years  from  18.33  he  was  employeil  in  the 
observatoiy  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1836  removed  to 
Greenwich,  where  four  years  later  he  became  super- 
intendent of  the  niagnetical  and  meteorological 
department  of  the  Royal  Observatory,  a  post  which 
he  held  for  thirty-four  years.  Since  1841  he  ha.s 
piepared  the  annual  and  quarterly  meteorological 
reports  issued  by  the  registrar-general.  Between 
186'2  and  1866  he  made  twenty-eight  balloon  ascents 
for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  higher  strata  of  the 
atmosphere,  on  one  occasion  reaching  a  height 
of  over  7  miles  (see  Brit.  A.ssoc.  ltcj>.,  1862-66,  and 
B.\LLOON").  Mr  Glaisher  was  the  founder  of  the 
Royal  Meteorological  Society,  and  became  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1849.  He  has  written 
numerous  works  and  papei's  on  subjects  relating 
to  astronomy  and  meteorology.  In  1879-83  he 
published  a  complement  to  Burckhardt  and  Dace's 
Fm-tor  J'dhlcs. 

GlillllOrgailshire  ( in  Welsh,  Cirlud  Morr/'UI ), 
the  most  southerly  of  the  ccmnties  of  Wales,  is 
bounded  S.  and  SW.  liy  the  Bristol  Channel.  NW. 
by  Caermarthen,  N.  by  Brecknock,  and  E.  by  Mmi- 
moutli.  Area,  855  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  ( 1801 )  70,879 ; 
(1841)  171,188:  (1871)  .397,859:  (1881)  511,4.33: 
(1891)687.147.  This  increase,  which  is  unexampled 
in  the  kingdom,  has  been  brought  about  by  the 
development  of  the  coal  and  iron  industries. 
In  the  western  portion  of  the  county  the  coa.st 
is  indented  by  Swansea  Bay,  from  which  it 
))rojects  westward  into  the  peninsnla  of  (Jower. 
The  northern  district  is  covered  with  rugged 
hills,  the  highest  of  which,  however,  Llangeinor, 
is  cmly  1859  feet  in  height.  This  district  com- 
prises one  of  the  richest  coalfields  in  the  king- 
dom. The  southern  portion  of  the  county  con.sists 
of  a  series  of  fertile  valleys,  richly  woode<l  and 
with  a  mild  climate,  the  iinest  being  the  Vale  of 
(Jlaniiugan.  the  'garden  of  Wales.'  The  .soil  is  a 
deep  rich  loam  resting  on  limestone,  and  is  excel- 
lently adapted  for  the  growth  of  cereals.  The 
n)ountainous  district  is  intersected  by  numerous 
pictures((ue  valleys,  att'ording  good  pasturage  for 
slieeji  and  cattle.  The  chief  rivers — the  Rhymney, 
Tatt',  Neath,  Tawe,  and  Llwchwr— How  southward 
into  the  Bristol  Channel.  Besides  coal,  anthra- 
cite or  stone-coal,  coking-coal,  ironstone,  and 
limestone  are  found.  At  Merthyr-Tyilvil  and 
Dowlais  are  large  ironworks :  at  Swansea,  Neath, 
Aberavon.  large  copper-smelting  works.  Tin  and 
lead  are  also  smelted  in  the  county.  Wheat,  bar- 
ley, oats,  and  potatoes  are  the  chief  crojis  raised  ; 
and  butter  and  cheese  are  largely  juoduced.  The 
farms  are  generally  small,  .and  agriculture  is  not 
in  a  highly  advanceil  state.  The  county  semis  five 
members  to  p.arliament  :  the  represented  boroughs 
are  Merthyr-Tydvil  (with  two),  Swansea  town 
( two ),  and  the  Carditl'  boroughs  ( one).  tJlamorj^an- 
shire  contains  some  interesting  Roman  remains. 


230 


GLANCE 


GLANDS 


and  many  ruined  memorials  of  the  middle  aget:. 
Of  these  liust  (Jysteriiiouth  Cn.sile,  Caerplully 
Castle,  hikI  CiLstle  Coch  me  the  liiiest  specimens. 
CarililV  C'antle  is  a  line  restored  edilice.  See  Tliomas 
Nicholas,  Hi.sluiy  of  Olaiiiunjaiishire  (1874). 

<«lail«"«*  ((ier.  <:liiii:),  a  term  often  a|>]ilied  in 
po]niliir  l.iii;;iia^'e,  ami  also  liy  iMnieralo^'Isls,  to  a 
numerous  onlui  or  family  of  iiiineriil.-i,  of  wliieli 
lialena  (o.v. )  or  J.c(iil-(//ii)iir  may  lie  rcf^'arded  as  a 
type.  All  of  tliem  are  metallic,  and  manv  of  them 
are  known  hy  names  indicalin;L,'  the  metal  which  is 
their  principal  cimstituenl,  as  Liii</i//uiiiv,  ,'ii/irr- 
f/liiinr,  liixiiiii//iij/iiiiii\  vV;c.  In  these  and  many 
other  species  the  metal  is  combined  willi  snlphur. 
.so  thiit  the  nnneral  is  a  sidphnrct  ;  lint  there  aic 
also  nnmenins  species  of  ;,danci'  in  which  snlphnr 
is  not  pre.senl,  hnt  .selenium,  arsenic,  or  telhirinm 
takes  its  place.  In  some  kinds,  also,  two  or  more 
n\etals  are  inesent  instead  of  one,  in  combination 
with  one  or  other  of  these  non-metallic  or  semi- 
metallic  substances.  Thus,  Ould(jt(tm-c,  or  Silvan- 
tti\  consists  of  j.'i)ld  and  silver  in  combination  with 
tellnrium  ;  it  occnr-  in  veins  in  ]iorphyry.  in  Pran 
sylvania,  .-md  is  wronj;ht  for  the  sake  of  both  the 
preeiims  metals  which  it  contains.  Several  kinds 
of  lilance  are  very  v.alnahle  ores,  as  Lc<u/r//ri>ice 
or  Gri/ciiii,  Cupper  ijluiiir  or  Ji)ilnilliiti\  and  Silvcr- 
qlaiuc  or  Arqeiititr.  Althon;,di  some  nnneralogists 
Inive  adopted  the  names  I'liiitrs,  (l/idirr.  and  lihiiili- 
as  names  of  orders  or  families,  tin'  limits  an<l  dis- 
tincth)ns  of  these  groniis  are  not  well  marked.  All 
kinds  of  ■glance  are  fused  witlunil  much  dillicnlty 
by  the  blowpipe.     They  are  also  soluble  in  acids. 

<>laiirr-4M>aL    See  Antiik.^citk,  and  Co.\l. 

(•laiHlci's,  or  K(il'lN.\,  a  nuilif;nant,  contagious, 
and  fatal  disease  of  the  horse  an<l  ass,  due  to  the 
introduction  into  the  liody,  or  perhaps  to  develop- 
ment within  it,  of  a  virulent  organism  called 
the  B(in7/ii.t  mallei.  ])is<-overed  by  l)r  Striick 
of  Uerlin,  and  almost  idenli<al  with  the  ndcrobe 
of  tuberculosis,  this  organism  is  uliout  j^Jo.-.th  of 
an  inch  broad,  but  varies  from  io\-,,-,th  to  ,,-,Jj^iith 
of  an  inch  in  length.  This  microbe,  whilst 
infecting  the  whole  system,  shows  sjiecilic  effects 
more  esiiecially  upon  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
nose,  U]iiui  the  lungs,  and  on  the  lymiihatie  system, 
(ilanders  and  its  modilication  I'arcy  are  capable  of 
transnnssiiui  to  man — on  whom  the  virus  increases 
in  malignancy — to   sheep,   goats,   dogs,    the    feline 


raiimts  :    pigs  and 
until  lately  cattle 


fowls  resist  the  contagion,  and  until  lately 

were    thought   to   do    so,    but    experiments    have 

thrown  doubt  u|ion  this. 

In  a  typical  case  of  glanders  ulcei-s  form  in  the 
nose,  characterised  by  ragged  and  inllamed  edges, 
ilischarging  a  viscid  or  sticky  juis;  a  bard  tumour 
forms  under  the  jaw;  tln^  animal  usually  loses 
condition  very  rapidly;  farcy  buds  and  ulcers 
appear  on  the  skin  in  various  regions  of  the 
body;  the  limbs  swell;  and  the  animal  dies  a 
loathsome  object.  .\ny  cause  which  inteifeies  with 
the  ]iurity  or  integrity  of  the  horse  s  blood  or  pro- 
duces a  cleteriorated  or  depravcil  state  lA  his  system 
jiredisposes  to  glanders.  It  has  been  frecpiently 
developed  in  healthy  atiiuuils  by  their  breathing 
for  a  short  time  a  close,  impure  atmosphere,  and 
cases  of  this  sort  were  thus  prmluceil  amongst  the 
horses  of  several  ca>alry  regiments  during  their 
transport  in  badly  -  constructed,  overcrowded 
ve.ssels  to  the  (,'rimea  in  lSo4.  Cimlined,  over- 
crowded, badly  -  ventilated  stables  are  almost 
equally  injurious,  feu-  they  prevent  the  jierfect 
aeration  of  the  blood,  and  the  ]iroiu|)t  removal  of 
its  organic  impurities.  Had  feeding,  hard  work, 
and  such  ledueing  disea.ses  as  dialietes  and  iii- 
Hnenza  also  rank  auuuigst  the  cjiuses  of  glanders. 
Government  by  the  Act  Vict.  16  and  17,  of  date 


14th  August  1853,  very  properly  compels  the 
immediate  destruction  of  every  glandered  hoi-sc. 
(;ianders,  like  farcy,  is  dealt  with  by  the  Con- 
tagious I)isea.ses  ,\cis,  ISVS  Sti.  Ilor.se.s  fic((nentlv 
have  the  disease  in  a  chronic  form,  and  if  well 
feil  and  managed  they  might  sometimes  live  and 
work  lor  yeai-s  in  this  condition  :  in  the  old  coach- 
ing  (lays  some  stages  were  known  to  be  worked 
by  glandered  teams.  Hut  no  animal  with  glander- 
ous nlcei-s  or  discharge  shinild  on  any  account 
be  preserved  ;  for,  besides  being  perfi'ctly  incur- 
able, the  fatal  disease  is  communicable  not  (miy 
to  healthy  horses,  but  al.so  to  human  beiii'is. 
The  synijitoms  of  ;:hind<'rs  in  m:in  are  very  similar 
to  those  in  horses,  the  ilisease  in  man  being  gener- 
ally regarded  as  fatal.  The  only  available  treat- 
ment consists  in  good  nutrition,  tonics,  disinfect- 
ants, and  detergent  applications.  In  ISS!)  one  of 
two  \'ienne.se  surgeons  who  bad  been  e.\pcriment- 
ing  with  bacilli  from  a  human  case  of  glainlers,  and 
artilicial  cultures  from  these  bacilli,  was  infected 
with  Ibis  disease  in  its  most  malignant  form,  and 
.lied. 

(ilaillls  are  secreting  structures,  the  component 
elements  of  which  in  various  ways  alter  the 
material  brought  to  them  by  the  blood,  extracting 
and  excreting  waste  products  as  in  the  kidneys,  or 
inaiiufactiiiing  valuable  by-]iroducts,  such  as  the 
glycogen  and  bile  of  the  liver.  In  a  typical  gland 
three  parts  have  to  be  distinguished:  {«)  the 
secreting  cells  usii.ally  enclo.sc<l  in  s(Mne  more  or 
less  distinct  membrane;  (4)  the  surrounding  net- 
w(uk  of  bloodvessels  ;  and  (c)  the  duct  by  which 
the  ]iroducts  of  secretion  jiass  from  the  gland. 

Most  true  glands  are  pockets  of  glandular  skin, 
mucous  nienibiaiie,  or  epithelium,  and  occur  on  the 
outer  surface  of  the  boily,  as  in  the  sweat-glands 
of  the  skin  ;  on  the  lining  ol  the  alimentary  canal 
— e.g.  salivary  glands,  liver,  pancreas,  intestinal 
glanils,  \c.  ;  or  on  other  internal  surfaces — e.g.  in 
c(mnection  with  the  genital  ilticts.  They  may  be 
classilicd  according  to  their  origin  from  (1)  the 
ectoderm  or  ejiiblast,  (2)  the  mesoilerm  or  nieso- 
blasl,  and  (.S)  the  endoilerm  or  hypoblast.  Thus, 
(1)  in  connection  with  the  outer  skin  there 
are,  besides  glandular  cells  (so-called  unicellular 
glands),  numerous  secretory  pockets,  such  as  the 
sweat,  scent,  an.il,  ]>oison,  a<lhesive,  byssus,  slime, 
siiinning,  ami  mammary  glaiuls.  At  each  end  of 
the  (endodermic )  gut  there  is  a  more  or  less  pro- 
hmged  invagination  of  ectoderm,  and  the  glands 
connected  theiewith  are  obviously  in  the  above 
embiyolo;;ieal  category.  (2)  The  kidneys  of  most 
animals  illir-liate  glands  of  mesodermii'  origin,  but 


I  llli^l.llli    ■■(    I  .i.M,-,  1 Ill    ifHI;^  I   : 

(',  !,iliiji1u  tubular  gland  ;  b,  branched  tubular  glands;  r,  liiuijile 
acinous  gland»;  d,  branched  acinous  gland  ;  e,  duct  or  gland  ; 
/,  sac  of  gland. 

it  is  inaccurate  to  speak  of  the  reiiroductive  organs 
(as  is  often  clone)  as  glanils.  They  liberate 
reproductive  cells,  dill'erentiated  elements,  not 
products  of  secretion.     (3)  The  numerous  glands 


GLANVILL 


GLARUS 


231 


connected  with  tlie  main  part  of  tlie  alimentary 
canal  are  of  endotlermic  origin. 

Tlie  structure  of  secretorv  pouclies  varies  greatly, 
anil,  as  the  accompanying  tliagraiii  suggests,  glantls 
may  be  classified  according  to  their  morpliological 
complexity,  as  tubular,  saccular,  lobed,  much 
branched  or  racemose,  \c.  The  more  complex 
glands— e.g.  liver  or  kidney — will  be  dL>-cus.sed 
under  their  proper  heading.s.  In  all  simple  glands 
the  poucii  is  at  lirst  a  mere  sac  ;  but  as  tlie  epithe- 
lium increases  greatly,  and  yet  is  more  or  less  cir- 
cumscribed in  its  expansion,  lobing  and  branching 
naturally  result. 

A  third  classilication  of  glands  is  possible — viz. 
accordin"  to  their  functions — excretory  or  secre- 
tory, lubricatory  or  digestive,  and  so  on.  The 
various  functions  of  the  different  glands  will  be 
discu.ssed  under  se|iarate  headings  ;  see  the  articles 

CfRCUL.\riON,       I)IGE.STI0X,        KiDNEV.S,       LiVEli, 

F.\N'CRE,\s,  Kepkoduction,  Saliva,  Secretion, 
Spleen,  &c. 

Many  structures  are  often  called  glands,  which 
are  so  far  removed  either  in  structure  or  in  function 
or  in  both  from  tliose  above  mentioned  that  tlie 
term  is  misleading.  Such  are  the  reproductive 
organs,  the  'pineal  gland,'  the  spleen,  the  thyroid 
and  thymus  'glands,'  the  'lymphatic  glands,"'  the 
supra-renal  capsules,  and  so  on. 

Dl.SEA.SE.s  OF  iiiE  Gland.s.— The  '  lyniiihatic 
glands'  are  subject  to  enlargement  from  "acute  in- 
Hanimation  an(l  abscess,  usually  in  consequence  of 
irritation  of  the  part  from  which  their  lympliatics 
spring,  as  in  the  case  of  scarlet  fever  (in "which  the 
glands  of  the  throat  are  affected),  in  gonorrhea 
(the  glands  of  the  groin),  &c.  The  treatment  of 
such  abscesses  belongs  to  the  ordinary  principles  of 
.surgery  (see  AlisCKs.s,  Adexitis).  A  much  more 
troublesome  affection  of  the  glands  is  the  slow, 
comparatively  painless,  at  tii-st  dense  solid  swelling 
which  they  undergo  in  Scrofula  (q.v. ),  which  tenils 
very  slowly,  if  at  all,  to  suppuration,  and  some- 
times remains  for  years.  In  Syphilis  (q.v.)  and 
Cancer  (q.v.)  there  are  also  eniargenients  of  the 
lymphatic  glands.  Scrofulous  or  tubercular  disea.se 
of  the  mesenteric  glands  in  children  constitutes 
Tabes  mesenterica  (see  Mesentery).  The  larger 
glands,  as  the  liver,  kidney,  pancreas,  spleen, 
thyroid,  thymus,  testicle,  have  all  their  special 
diseases,  which  will  lie  noticed,  so  far  as  necessary, 
in  treating  of  these  organs. 

tiilaiiyill.  .Jo.SEPii,  was  born  at  Plymouth  in 
16:56,  entered  E.\i;ter  College,  Oxford,  iii  1652,  and 
took  his  degree  in  due  course,  residing  afterwards 
at  Lincoln  College.  The  <lominant  Aristotclianism 
of  Oxford  weighed  on  him  almost  tis  heavily  as  the 
prevailing  Puritan  dogmatism  of  the  outer  world- 
lie  would  liave  Ineathed  more  freely  in  the  air  of 
Caiiiliridge,  and  so  have  reached  the  '  new  pliilo- 
sopliy'  of  De.scartcs  by  a  much  shorter  route. 
After  the  Restoration,  Wood  tells  us  that  he 
'turned  about  and  became  a  Latitudinarian.'  He 
took  orders,  and  w;is  appointed  in  ItiO'i  to  the 
vicarage  of  Frome  in  Somerset,  whicli  he  exchanged 
in  I67'2  for  the  rectory  of  Street  in  the  .same  couiitv. 
Already  in  1666  be  had  liecouie  rector  of  the  Alibey 
Church  in  Hath,  and  in  167S  be  was  installell 
prebendary  of  Wdni-ster.  He  died  of  fever  in 
]6S(I,  and  was  buried  in  the  north  aisle  of  the 
Alibey  Church  at  liath.  Clanvill  early  succeeded 
in  shaking  himself  free  from  religious  aiid  scientific 
dogmatism,  and  his  famous  work,  The  Vuiiili/  nf 
Do<)m((tiziii(j,  III-  CiiiifdciH-c  ill  Opinitm.i  ( 1661 ),  was 
a  noble  aiipeal  for  "freetliought  ami  experimental 
science.  In  its  second  issue  ( 1665)  it  took  the  new- 
title  of  AVvy/.v/.v  Srirnlifii-d.  (jr  C'i/ii/i:\t  fi/iifiniiirr  f/n- 
Will/  til  Si-iciiri',  prefaced  by  a  warm  panegvric  on 
the  newly-founded  Hoyal  Society,  of  which'he  had 
become  a  fellow  the  year  before  (new  ed.,  with 


introductoi-y  essay  by  John  Owen,  1885).  A 
strong  sense  of  the  infirmity  of  human  rea.son  was 
a  fundamental  axiom  in  (ilanvill's  thought ;  and 
a  striking  corollary  to  this  was  his  credulity  as 
to  witchcraft,  seen  in  his  I'liiluaophical  Considcra- 
tiiiii.s  fijiii-liiiiij  till'  Briiui  nf  Witfhes  and  Witrhrvaft 
(1666),  and  in  later  books  suggested  by  the  doings 
of  the  invisilile  drummer  at  Mr  Mom]iesson's  house 
at  Ted  worth,  Wiltshire,  in  1663.  His  notions  on 
this  subject  are  seen  further  in  the  posthumous 
Siiddttcimnus  Triumphfitus,  or  a  Full  mid  Plain 
Erideni'C coiicerninri  Witi-hcn and A/iparitionsi  1681  ). 
The  book  is  inductive  in  tlu;  form  of  its  argument, 
the  proof  being  based  on  a  collection  of  modern 
relations,  but  of  course  it  is  based  ujion  a  funda- 
mental misconception  of  the  nature  of  human 
testimony.  Olanvill  maintained  that  Atheism  was 
begun  in  Sadducism,  and  that  witches  disproved, 
all  s]iiritual  existence  vanished  with  them.  His 
sii]ierstition  was  at  least  a  relief  from  the  gross 
niatcrialisiii  that  was  the  inevitable  reaction  from 
I'uritan  dogmatism  :  and,  if  it  was  really  unphilo- 
so]iliical,  it  was  shared  by  Boyle,  Henry  More, 
liaxtcr,  and  Cudwortli. 

dilaiivill,  Ranilk  de,  chief-justiciary  of 
Kngland  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  and  author  of 
the  earliest  treatLse  on  the  laws  of  England,  the 
Tnirtatns  de  Lcgibnn  d  Coiisiictndinihiis  Ani/liir, 
which  was  composed  about  the  year  1181.  It 
treats  of  the  forms  of  ]irocedure  in  use  in  the  Aula 
Ji'ci/is  or  King's  Court,  over  which  he  presided,  and 
consists  of  fourteen  books.  It  was  lirst  printed  in 
the  year  1554;  and  the  best  edition,  with  a  trans- 
lation, of  it  is  that  liy  Sii'  Travels  Twiss  ( Record 
Publication,  lS9:i).  The  treatise  closely  resembles 
the  Scottish  Rcfjiam  Mnjestatcm,  which,  however, 
it  is  now  generally  agreed,  is  of  later  date  than 
the  Traitaius.  (Uanvill  was  born  at  Stratford  in 
Suffolk,  liut  in  what  year  is  not  known  ;  in  1175  he 
raised  a  body  of  knights  to  light  against  William 
the  Lion  of  Scotland,  and  in  1  bso  liecame  justiciary 
of  all  England.  Being  removed  from  this  office  by 
Richard  1.  on  his  accession,  Cilaiivill  took  the  cress, 
and  died  at  the  siege  of  Acre  ( 1190). 

<>laiiville,   Bartholomeis   de.      See  Encv- 

CI.DI'.KIIIA. 

(■InptllOriie,  Henry,  a  minor  dramatist  in  the 
period  of  decadence  that  followed  the  Elizabethan, 
of  whose  life  nothing  w  hatever  is  known  save  that 
he  flourished  between  the  years  1639  anil  1643,  was 
a  friend  of  Cotton  and  Lovelace,  wrote  a  few 
fair  iioems  and  hve  plays — Allicrtiis  Wallcnstein, 
a  tragedy;  Arrjalus  and  Paithcnia,  a  poetical 
ilramatisationof  part  of  the  Anadia ;  two  comedies, 
'/'//(■  llulliindir  and  M'lt  in  a  Ciiiistaiile  :  and  Lnrc'ii 
J'ririli'i/i\  a  tragico-comedy.  Mv  Hullen,  on  dubious 
internal  evidence,  attributes  to  him  also  T/ic.  Ladi/ 
Miitlier.  (ilapthornc's  dramatic  faculty  is  but 
feelile,  and  it  was  hardly  a  kindness  to  his  memory 
to  reprint  his  works  (2  vols.  1874),  which  long 
encumbered  the  book-stall.s.  Nor  was  it  wise 
of  his  anonymous  editor  to  try  to  eke  out  our 
slender  knowledge  of  his  life  by  irrelevant  and 
unedifying  details  almut  one  (ieorgc  (ilapthorne 
of  Whittle.sea,  who  need  not  even  have  been  a 
relative. 

(ilai'llS.  a  canton  of  Switzerland,  bounded  by 
fill'  canton^  of  St  (lall,  the  Orisons,  I'ri,  and  Schwvz, 
with  .-in  area  of  'J66^  sq.  ni.,  and  (1888)  33,825 
inlialiitants,  of  whom  four-fifths  lielong  to  the  Re- 
formed Church.  It  is  an  Alpine  region,  trenched 
by  the  valley  of  the  Lintli  or  Linimat  and  its  lateral 
vales,  and  rising  in  its  south-western  corner,  in  the 
Tiidi  peak,  to  an  altitude  i)f  11,887  feet.  The 
rliiiiate  is  very  severe,  ami  only  one-fifth  of  the 
laiiil  is  arable.  The  rearin"  of  cattle  and  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  and  woollen  goods  are  the  chief 


232 


GLAS 


GLASGOW 


occupations  of  tlie  people.  The  green  cheese 
called  Sclia1«zi};er  is  wholly  inailc  here,  aiirl  it  and 
other  njjiii'ultiiral  pKMlucts  are  exported.  The 
con«titution  is  drawn  on  hroad  deiiioeratii'  lines. 
Full  freedom  of  the  press,  of  reli;;ion,  of  industry. 
and  of  trade  prevails.  Tiie  capital  of  the  eauton  is 
the  town  of  (llarns  (.">;«()  inhal.itant.s  in  1«80),  V.t 
inile.s  SK.  of  Zurich  liy  rail.  It  wa.s  founded  liy  an 
Irish  monk,  Kridolin,  in  the  en<l  of  the  5th  cen- 
tury. Zwinf;li  was  pastor  here  from  \'M)  to  l.'ilG. 
Glarus,  liavin;;  been  |ieopleil  liy  (lernian  settlers, 
pa.ssed  after  various  clian;;es  into  the  possession  of 
the  dukes  of  Austria,  hut  ultimately  secured  its 
inilependence  liy  the  victories  of  Niifels  in  l',i'i'2  and 
1388.      In  MM  it  joined  the  8wi.s,s  Confederation. 

Cilas,  John.    See  Glassite.s. 

GlasjIOW,  the  inilustrial  metropolis  of  .Scotland 
ami  the  most  jiopulous  city  in  (Ireat  Hritain  ne.\t 
to  Lonilon.  is  situated  on  the  hanks  of  the  Civile,  in 
the  county  of  Lan^uk,  the  portions  hcictofore  in 
Kenfrew  and  I)uniliartoM  shiics  liavin;:  Ijccii  trans- 
ferred to  Lanark  under  the  act  of  1889;  at  Green- 
ock, 22  miles  lielow,  the  river  spreads  out  into  a 
great  estuary,  the  Kirth  of  Clyde.  (;la.si,'ow  is 
within  a  nine  hours  railway  journey  of  London, 
the  ili.stance  heing  40ji  miles,  and  is  ahont  an 
hour's  run  (4.")  miles)  fidiii  Kdinliuif;h.  The  city 
in  extent  is  aliout  .'j.t  miles  from  north  t<i  south, 
and  the  extreme  len^'th  is  5  miles  from  east 
to  west.  In  reckoning  area  and  |iopuIation, 
however,  the  ring  of  hurghs  which  have  since  the 
passing;  of  the  '  Lindsay '  IJurgh  Act  sprung  up 
around  and  almost  liemmeil  in  (Ilasgow  ought  to 
he  taken  into  consider.'Uion,  as  these  liurglis  have 
been  formed  by  the  overflow  of  the  poinilation  from 
the  city  projier.  In  1891  the  )io]iulation  within 
municipal  boundaries  was  56.5,714;  within  suburbs 
incorporated  (ui  1st  November  1891,  91,232;  within 
suburbs  not  yet  incor]iorated  (Covan,  I'artick,  &c.), 
113,525 — a  total  of  770,471  in  city  and  suburbs.  To 
this  may  be  added  4U,940  persons  in  business  in 
Glasgow  resiiling  beyoml  the  suburbs,  aiul  .'itKX)  at 
the  co;i.st  at  census  time,  giving  a  grand  total  of 
814,411.  In  1881  the  municijial  population  was 
511,415,  .anil,  with  the  nine  suburban  burghs  ami 
the  non-burghal  suburbs,  the  total  wa.s  692,322; 
in  1801  the  po|inlation  was  only  77, .385,  so  that 
the  increase  has  been  rapid  and  enormous. 

The  origin  of  the  name  (ll.asgow  is  a  subject 
which  h.os  been  much  disputeil,  and  is  still  at  best 
a  mere  matter  of  conjecture.  From  the  po.sition 
of  the  original  settlement  on  the  banks  of  the 
Molendinar,  which  stream  (lowed  to  the  Clyde 
through  a  dark  ravine,  it  ha.s  been  argued  tliat 
the  name  means  'dark  glen.'  A  more  favourite 
interpretation,  however,  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
a  village  actually  existed  on  the  present  site  of 
the  city  jirior  to  the  settlement  of  Kentigern, 
and  that  it  was  called  Clcschu,  which  name  by  a 
scries  of  natural  changes  in  time  came  to  be  written 
Gla-sghu  or  Gla.sgow.  This  conclusion  is  jirobably 
correct,  and  admits  easily  enough  of  the  meaning 
deduced  from  it — viz.  that  in  Celtic  (r/a.s  sigiiitics 
'  green,'  and  <•«  or  r//iii '  dear,'  thus  making  the  com- 
bination Glasgow  mean  the  hr/mrri  r/run  sjii/t. 

GIa.sgow  does  not  occupy  an  im]iortant  place  in 
the  early  history  of  Scotland.  As  an  archiepiscoiial 
seat,  and  subsequently  as  a  centre  of  Covenanting 
activity,  it  has  a  prominence  in  religious  affairs  ; 
but  as  an  indnstri.il  city  its  history  <yin  hardiv  be 
dated  further  back  thaii  the  Cnioii  of  1707.  'this 
event  oiieneil  up  t<i  the  town — the  most  favourably 
.situated  in  Scotland  for  the  enterprise — animmen.se 
trading  prospect  with  America,  and  roused  in  its 
inhabitants  the  extraordinary  mercantile  activity 
which  has  been  its  leading  feature  ever  since.  Anil 
yet  the  city  of  Glasgow  is  a  very  old  one.     It  was 


aljout  500  A.l).  that  the  half-niytliical  St  Kentigern 
(q.v.)  or  .Mungo  established  himself  on  the  banks 
of  the  Molendinar,  anil  appeared  as  the  ajiostle  of 
Christianity  to  the  rude  Ccdts  of  Slrathclyde. 
There  he  built  his  little  wooden  church  on  the  very 
siiot  where  now  rises  the  >enerublc  lathedral. 
I'rom  this  date  for  live  hundred  years  the  history 
of  the  settlement  by  the  Cly<le  is  u  blank.  The 
cimich  disappeared  from  history,  and  if  the  villa"c 
which  had  clustered  round  it  ami  grown  under  tlie 
fostering  care  of  the  clergy  still  remained,  it  wjis  a 
place  of  no  importance.  In  the  year  1115  the 
I'rince  of  Cumbria,  afterwards  David  I.  of  Scot- 
land, ordered  an  investigation  to  be  made  into 
the  lands  and  clmrches  in  the  bishopric  of  (!laj-gow, 
ami  from  the  cleed  still  existing  of  that  date  it 
is  evident  that  a  catheilral  had  been  previously  en- 
dowed. In  1 1 10  the  diocese  was  restored,  and  when 
David  a  few  years  after  became  king  of  Scotl.and 
he  giive  to  the  see  of  Glasgow  the  lanils  of  I'artick, 
besides  resl<iring  to  it  much  of  the  property  of  which 
it  had  been  despoiled.  In  1124  he  also  gifted 
money  for  the  purp<ise  of  building  a  church,  which 
wius  iledicjited  in  1130.  and  afterwards  enricheil  by 
many  royal  and  jirivatc  donations.  Uetween  1175 
anil  1178  .locelyn,  liishoji  of  (Jla-sgow,  received 
authority  from  William  the  Lion  to  'have  and 
hold'  a  liiirgli  in  the  ncighbourhuod  of  the  cathe- 
dral. Alexander  II.  sujiportcd  (Ua.sgowin  a  con- 
flict of  jurisdiction  with  liutherglen,  and  liestowed 
on  it  the  rights  of  trade  throughimt  the  kingdom. 
Kobert  the  Uruce  conlirmed  to  the  bisbo])  the  vari- 
ous charters  granted  to  him,  and  .James  II.  jiro- 
hibited  Henfiew  and  liutherglen  from  exacting  toll 
'by  water  or  by  land'  within  its  teiritoiies.  In 
14.50  the  city  wa-s  erected  into  a  regality  which 
gave  the  bishop  the  highest  jurisdiction  the  crown 
could  bestow  on  a  subject-superiiir,  and  within  the 
same  year  the  university  was  constituted  under 
a  bull  of  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  which  was  conlirmed 
three  years  later  by  a  letter  of  jiriviieges  from  the 
king  and  a  charter  from  the  bishop  and  chapter. 

In  14.54  reference  is  made  to  one  John  .Stewart 
as  the  lirst  luoviist  that  was  in  the  city  of  (!la.sgow. 
After  that  date  the  magistrates  are  described  as 
provost  and  bailies  ;  and,  though  it  is  not  recorded 
how  they  were  elected  at  that  time,  in  1470  James 
III.  authorised  the  ruling  bishop  in  Glasgow  to 
elect  so  many  bailies,  .sergeants,  and  other  ollicers 
as  were  neeiled  within  the  city,  and  to  apjioint 
a  provost,  all  to  hold  oflice  during  his  jileasuie. 
This  unsatisfactory  mode  of  procedure  continued 
in  force  till  1587,  when  tlie  whole  of  the  church 
lands  were  annexed  to  the  crown,  and  several 
months  later  granted  to  \Valter,  Comniendator  of 
lilantyre,  in  feu  for  payment  to  the  crown  of  t'.MK) 
Scots  annually.  Along  with  otliei  privileges, 
I'.liintyre  and  the  Duke  of  Lennox  both  claimed  the 
right  of  choosing  the  ]iriivost  and  bailies  of  the 
burgh,  which  privilege  had  been  taken  from  the 
church.  James  VI.  in  10(K)  conveyed  to  Lennox 
that  right ;  but  live  yeai-s  later  the  city  itself  was 
authorised  to  have  the  freedom  of  election  of  its 
own  magistrates,  and  in  1611  this  authority  was 
conlirnied  by  act  of  p:irliament — not,  however, 
without  the  stipulation  that  both  the  church  and 
Lennox  should  reserve  the  right  to  iidluence  the 
election.  fJla-sgow  therefore  did  not  fully  receive 
the  position  of  a  royal  burgh  till  10.36,  when  it  was 
incorporated  into  one  free  royal  burgh,  with  the 
freedom  of  the  Clyde  from  the  bridge  of  Clasgow  to 
the  Cloehstane  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde.  At  the  time 
of  the  Commonwealth  the  (ila.sgow  citizens  made  a 
strenuous  efiort  to  effect  the  union  of  England  and 
Scotland  ;  but  the  death  of  Cromwell  and  sub- 
sequent restoration  of  Charles  II.  delayed  it,  and 
materially  hindered  the  active  trade  between  the 
two  countries  which  the  policy  of  the  Protector  bad 


GLASGOW 


233 


inaui^uiiited.  The  city  in  1656  is  described  as  a 
'  very  neate  liurj^lie  touii — one  of  the  most  consider- 
ablest  burf,dis  in  Scotland,  as  well  for  the  structure 
as  trade  of  it ;'  and  the  same  writer  commends  the 
'mercantile  i;enius  of  the  peoiile. ' 

As  early  as  1516  trades  in  (jhis;;()W  were  form- 
in;^'  into  f;uilds,  but  it  was  not  till  167'2  that 
tlie  letter  of  ni'iblO'i  adjusted  in  16()o,  was  ccm- 
tirmeil  by  ]iarliament,  which  jiut  an  end  to 
tlie  ]ier|ietual  disputes  between  the  merchants' 
and  the  trades'  i^uilds.  These  two  classes  still 
exist,  the  former  bein<^  represented  by  the  Mer- 
chants' House,  and  tlie  latter  by  the  Trades' 
House,  the  heads  of  which,  the  dean  of  guild  and 
the  deacon-convener  respectively,  have  been  since 
1711  constituent  members  of  the  town-council. 
In  liS:i3  all  the  complicated  arrangements  in  con- 
nection with  municipal  elections  were  set  aside 
by  the  ISurgb  Iteform  y\ct,  and  the  number  of 
councillors  in  (Glasgow  was  tixed  at  thirty,  over 
and  above  the  dean  of  guild  and  the  deacon- 
convener.  Since  then  the  number  of  magistrates 
and  coum'illors  has  increased  with  the  increa.se  of 
the  city  lioundaries.  As  constituted  in  l.SDO,  the 
town-council  has  forty-eight  members  elected  by 
the  citizens— three  for  each  of  tlie  sixteen  wards 
of  the  city — with  the  addition  of  the  dean  of  guild 
and  the  deacon-convener  of  trades.  The  council 
elects  the  Lord  Provost,  ten  bailies,  a  bailie  of  the 
Kiver  and  Firth  of  Clyde,  and  other  otiicers.  The 
city  is  represented  in  parliament  by  seven  members 
for  as  many  different  electoral  divisions  ;  and  the 
suburlian  divisions,  Govan  and  Partick,  also  each 
return  a  member. 

The  corporation  of  (Jlasgow,  since  it  became  a 
popularly  elected  one,  has  carried  throu<^h  great 
operations  for  the  improvement  of  the  city.  By 
its  variims  dejiartments,  each  controlled  by  com- 
mittees from  the  general  council,  the  lighting, 
cleansing,  water-sui)ply,  &c.  are  administered.  In 
connection  with  the  water-supi)ly,  the  corjioration 
in  1854-59  constructed  immense  works  for  a  sui)ply 
of  water  uneiiualled  in  the  kingdom,  bringing  it  from 
Loch  Katrine,  a  distance  of  34  miles.  The  water 
is  conveyed  by  acpieduct  and  piping  to  a  reservoir, 
70  acres  in  area,  about  7  miles  from  (ilasgow, 
where  it  is  filtered  and  distributecl  by  pipes  over 
the  city.  The  average  daily  distribution  now 
exceeds  40  million  gallons.  The  cost  of  the  con- 
struction of  these  works,  including  the  price  paid 
to  the  jueviouslv  existing  water  companies,  has 
been  e2,:i.-)0,00n  ;' and  in  18S9-96  extensive  works 
were  comiileted  at  a  fiiithcr  expenditure  of 
£1,000,000,  for  raising  the  supply  of  the  city  to 
100  million  gallons  daily.  Tlur  valuation  of  the 
city  ill  1,S5.'),  the  lirst  year  of  the  Lands  Valuation 
Act,  was  £1,362,168;' in  1870  it  was  £2, 126,324 ; 
and  in  1894-9.")  it  reached  £4,208,000. 

The  lighting  of  the  city  also  forms  one  of  the 
iiiuni(upal  dep.irtiiients,  the  corporation  having 
aci|uired  powers  to  jmrchase  the  properties  of  the 
two  gas  companies  which  formerly  sup[ilied  Glas- 
gow and  its  suburlis.  At  the  [ireseiit  time  over 
2300  million  cubic  feet  of  gas  jier  annum  is 
supplied  to  the  public  :  the  capital  exjienditure  on 
the  various  works  aiiiouiite<l  in  1889  to  £610,000, 
and  the  annual  revenue  is  f:i90,000.  Uetween  1866 
and  1890  the  town-council  as  the  City  Improve- 
ment Trust  spent  two  millions  sterling  on  objects 
such  as  are  indicated  by  its  title,  and  ,at  jiresent 
that  body  holds  property  valued  at  over  half  a 
million  of  money.  Of  tboroughfares  in  Glasgow 
there  are  about  2(X)  miles,  ami  the  Clyde  is  within 
the  burgh  spanned  by  ten  bridges,  of  which  three 
are  railway  vi.iducts  and  two  sus|)ension  bridges 
for  foot-pa.s.sengers.  Parliamentary  sanction  was 
obtained  in  1889  for  constructing  a  tunnel  for  foot 
and  vehicular  tratlic  under  the  river  at  the  harbour. 


Throughout  the  city  there  are  upwards  of  100  miles 
of  main-sewers,  the  largest — in  brick — being  6  feet 
in  diameter,  and  the  smallest  2  feet. 

Of  buildings  possessing  historical  interest  Glas- 
gow is  conspicuously  ilestitute,  with  the  very  notable 
exception  of  the  cathedral,  which  is  a  line  example 
of  the  Early  Kiiglish  (lotliic  style  of  architecture. 
It  was  begun  liy  l!islio|i  .Jocelyn  about  1197,  to 
re]dace  the  church  built  in  ll.'lO  by  l!islio|i  John 
Achaius,  which  bad  been  destroyed  by  fire.  The 
structure  was  largely  added  to  by  liisbops  IJonding- 
ton  and  Lauder,  and  was  practically  brought  to  its 
pre-sent  form  by  liisliop  Cameron  in  1446.  It  wa.s 
saved  from  injury  in  the  fit  of  iconoclastic  zeal 
which  followed  the  Reformaticni  by  the  activity 
of  the  Glasgow  craftsmen,  and  afterwards,  from 
time  to  time,  was  carefully  rejiaired  by  the  Pro- 
testant ai'chbisho))s  who  governed  the  see  until 
the  Kevolution.  The  cathedral  is  in  length  from 
east  to  west  319  feet,  and  in  width  63  feet.  It 
was  designed  to  be  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  but  the 
transepts  were  never  erected.  From  the  centre 
rises  a  tower,  surmounted  by  a  graceful  spire,  225 
feet  in  height.  The  most  faminis  part  of  the 
building  is  the  so-called  crypt  under  the  choir, 
which  for  elaborate  designing,  and  richness  of 
ornamentation  on  pillars,  groining,  and  doors, 
stands  unrivalled  annmgst  similar  structures  in 
Britain.  Properly  s]ieaking,  howcner,  it  is  not  a 
ciypt,  but  a  tower  cliurch  formed  to  take  advan- 
tage of  the  ground  sloping  eastward  towards  the 
bed  of  the  Molendinar.  About  1854,  under  the 
direction  of  the  governiiient,  the  building  was 
repaired  and  renewed,  its  general  character  being 
.scrupulously  maintained.  At  the  same  time  the 
ancient  tower  and  consistory  house  on  the  west 
face  of  the  cathedral  were  removed.  Since  then 
a  series  of  stained-glass  windows  has  been  provided, 
mostly  by  Munich  artists. 

The  city  chambers  oiiened  in  1889,  built  at 
a  cost  of  £5.30,000,  form  an  architectural  feature 
of  great  importance,  and  occuj>y  a  proniinent  jiosi- 
tioii,  hlling  the  east  side  of  George  Sipiare.  The 
Koyal  Exchange,  a  band.some  bnihling  ornamented 
with  colonnades  of  Corinthian  jiillars,  contains  a 
newsroom  122  feet  in  length  by  60  feet  broad.  In 
the  building  of  cburcbes  (JIasgow  has  made 
great  strides  during  the  last  thirty  years,  so  that 
probably  no  other  town  in  the  United  Kingdom 
has  done  more  in  this  re.s|)ect,  and  the  ecclesi- 
astical buildings  of  all  denominations  vie  with 
each  other  in  the  elegance  of  their  adornment. 
The  architecture  of  many  of  the  banks  and  other 
public  buildings  is  varied  in  style  and  rich  in  detail, 
and  the  post-otlice  buildings,  of  which  the  founda- 
tion-stone was  laid  by  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1876, 
though  severely  plain  and  massive,  deserve  mention 
for  their  great  size  and  perfect  |daiining.  Not  with- 
out reason,  indeed,  (Glasgow  has  been  called  one  of 
the  best-built  cities  of  the  empire  :  its  streets  are 
well  laid  out  and  spa<'i.ous.  and  the  houses  which 
line  them  are  substantially  built  of  excellent  stone 
which  is  i|narried  in  abundance  around  the  city. 

(ilasgow  is  es|iecially  well  provided  with  imblic 
parks,  having  three  beautifully  planned  ]deasure- 
grounds  in  <lilferent  districts  of  the  city,  besides  the 
(ilasgow  (ireen — a  wide  expanse  along  the  north 
bank  of  the  river — all  of  which  are  maintained  liy 
the  town-council  as  a  I'arks  and  tialleries  Tru>t. 
The  statues  in  (ilasgow  are  not  numerous,  though 
some  of  them  are  very  line.  The  e(|Uestrian  statue 
of  Wellington  stands  oiiposite  the  Koyal  Exchange, 
and  that  of  William  111.  at  the  east  end  of  Argyle 
Street,  near  the  site  of  the  old  cros.s.  The  greatest 
number  of  monnmental  statues  are  in  George 
Sipiare,  where  in  aildition  to  the  ei|nestrian  statues 
of  the  tj'neen  and  the  late  Prince  Consort  are  to  be 
founil  figures  of  James  Watt,  Sir  Walter  Scott, 


234 


fSLASGOW 


Kobeit  Burns,  David  Livinp<tone,  Sir  John  Moore, 
Tliniiiius  Canipliell, Lord  Clyde  { tlie  last  tliree  natives 
of  tlio  city),  Hiid  others. 

The  (Ihus^'iiw  and  West  of  Seothmd  'i'eehnieiil 
CoMe^'u  was  formed  in  1SM6  hy  (he  uniiil;^iinia(ii>n 
of  several  institiitimis  ( inchiiliii;;  the  arts  depart 
nient  of  Anderson's  Colle^'e,  i|.v.)  nnder  a  sclienie 
forinnlated  by  the  Kdncational  Kndownients  Com- 
niis-siim.  It  hits  over  'itMK)  students  attendiiij;  its 
day  and  evening;  classes.  It  provides  siiit:il)li' 
education  for  tiiose  who  wisli  to  i|ualilv  themselves 
for  fidlowiii^  any  industrial  pursuit,  and  trains 
teachers  for  technical  schoids.  St  Mniif;o's  t'ollcKc, 
dating  from  lS.S!t,  has  faculties  in  medicine  and 
law;  and  the  medical  deiiartnient  <>f  Aiiderson's 
Colle;,'e  is  a  sejiaratc  school.  St  .Mar;;aret's  College 
is  for  women.  The  Kree  Church  ( 'oMe^'e  pos.ses.ses 
conspicuous  l)uildin^'s  ;  and  mention  should  also  he 
luaile  of  the  Normal  Sdiools,  and  of  the  School  of 
Arts  and  Ilaldane's  .Academy.  (If  the  secomlary 
seliools  in  (llasj^ow  the  |)rinci|ial  is  the  High 
School — a  survival  of  tlio  ancient  graniniar- 
scliool  of   the   city — which  is  under   the   manage- 


ment of  tlie  sehool-lxianl.  Utiier  schools  of  a  like 
standing  are  the  Glasgow  and  the  Kelvinside 
academies,  hotli  large  and  elliciciitly  numaged  ; 
while,  richly  endowed  from  the  llutcheson  Trust, 
two  schools  for  hoys  and  girls  provide  at  a  very 
low  rate  a  th(U(Uighly  good  secondary  education. 
Scattered  throughout  all  the  districts  of  the  town 
are  the  seventy  elementary  schools  of  the  Hoard. 
.\moMgsl  educative  agencies  may  he  leckoned 
the  (ihisgow  Art  (i.'iUcry  and  Museum  in  the  Kel- 
vinside I'arli,  lieing  huill  iu  IIMMI  hesiih'  the  more 
temporary  Iniildings  for  the  l^xhiliition  in  l!K)l. 

Unfortunately,  the  city  is  entiridy  destitute  of 
line  buildings  wholly  devoted  to  library  ]iurposes. 
There  is  no  free  lending  library  in  the  town,  but 
there  are  .sevcr.il  great  coHections  which  may  lie 
used  free  of  cliargc  as  consulting  liliraries.  Of 
these  the  Mitchell  Library,  which  is  under  corpom- 
tion  management,  contains  over  "■'>,(HM)  volunie.s ; 
and  the  Stirling's  and  (Jlasgow  Public  Library 
contains  about  4.3,000  volumes,  linillie's  Library 
is  under  the  same  roof.  The  university  lia.s  a 
library  of  IT.'i.'HH)  vcdunies,  among  which   number 


(da.s2<>w,  troiii  tin-  tJroouiielaw. 


are  man.y  notable  exanijiles  of  f'axton's  and 
Hynson's  and  other  l.")th-ccMturv  jirintiiig :  lint 
the  library  is  only  available  to  alumni  of  the 
university.  The  .•Vthenieum  includes  a  newsroom, 
magazine-room,  and  a  library  of  12,000  volumes. 
Of  subscription  lending  libraries  there  is  an  abund- 
ance in  the  city,  and  private  libraries  are  to  be 
found  in  such  large  numbers  as  to  form  a  distinc- 
tive feature.  The  pnlilishing  of  books  ami  news- 
papers has  of  late  been  more  largely  ileveloped. 
iJlasgow  lias  two  daily  morning  newspapers,  three 
evening,  ami  aljout  a  dozen  weekly  newspapers 
and  jieriodicals,  ami  one  or  two  monthlies.  An 
industrial  museum  has  been  instituted  in  the  city 
in  which  a  considerable  coMection,  especially  in 
(he  natural  history  di'partment,  is  now  dis|dayed. 
It  is  sup|>orteil  under  the  Parks  and  (Galleries 
Trust,  as  are  also  the  CoriKuation  (Jalleriea  of  Art, 
a  collection  of  pictures  and  statuary  acquired 
partly  by  purch.ase,  but  more  largely  by  donation 
and  bequest.  The  g.alleries  contain  n  veiy  valuable 
series  of  oM  Dutch  in.asters,  and  there  is  a  noble 
statue  of  Pitt  liy  l''laxiiian. 

AVitli   benevolent  and  charitable  institutions  the 


city  is  richly  eiuloweil.  In  addition  to  numerous 
hos]iitals  and  ilispensarics  for  special  diseases,  there 
are  three  general  inlirmaries,  which  among  them 
accommodate  upwards  of  one  thousand  patients. 
Tlie.se  are  the  Royal  Infirmary  in  the  north-east 
district,  the  Western  Intirmarv  adjoining  the 
I'niversity,  and  the  Victoria  Inlirmary  in  the 
t^neen's  Park,  South  Side.  They  are  all  main- 
tained by  voluntary  contributions  and  1>i'i|iicsts. 

Tliiee  magnilicent  terminal  railway  stations  bring 
tralHc  to  the  heart  of  the  town,  respectively  foriii- 
iiig  the  headi|Uarters  of  the  three  great  Scotch  lines 

I  — the  Caledonian,  the  (Hasgowand  South-Weslern, 
and  the  North  liritish.  St  Enoch's  .Station,  the 
terminus  of  the  Clasgow  ami  South- Western,  is 
modelled  on  the  [dan  of  St  Paiiiras  ;  the  Central 
St.ation  is  the  headi|Uartei's  of  the  Caledonian, 
The  I'ndergronnd  I'ailw.ay  (1886),  in  connection 
with    the    North    British    system,    an<l    the    City 

j  I'nioii  line  afford  every  facility  for  rapid  travel- 
ling into  nearly  every  quarter  of  tlie  town  ; 
an<l  in  l.SS9-9o  there  was  constructeil  an  under- 
ground   .sysleiii    connected    wilii    the    Caledonian 

1  llailway,   passing   through    the   bu.siest   and  most 


GLASGOW 


235 


populous  (li.stiicts.  Tliere  is  also  a  circular  cable- 
car  xulnvay  (ik  Miiles  lonj;,  with  liftmen  stations,  on 
Imtli  sides  of  the  river.  Uri;;iMaliii;,'  witli  tlie  cor- 
poration aulliorities,  llie  runnin;^  of  tram-cars — now 
the  proi)ertv  of  tlie  town  and  driven  largely  by 
electricity— ill  Glasgow  has  proved  a  great  success. 
Another  means  of  transit  is  found  in  the  magnifi- 
cent Heet  of  river-steamers,  which  are  noted  for 
speed,  comfort,  and  elegance  of  a]ipointnicnt,  and 
afford  a  r.apid  and  easy  means  of  access  to  all  the 
Western  Highlands  and  Islands,  thus  maliing  Glas- 
gow the  metropolis  of  the  West.  Two  of  the  fore- 
most of  tliese  '  lloating  palaces  '  are  the  Culiimba 
and  the  Lunl  of  tlie  Isles,  the  former  of  wliicli 
attains  a  speed  of  22  miles  an  hour,  and  can 
accommodate  2000  passengers  on  its  tlailv  journey 
of  1(J0  miles. 

The  river  Clyde  (q.v. )  has  been  a  chief  source  of 
tlie  i;reat  prosperity  of  Glasgow,  and  it  is  to  the 
credit  of  Glasgow  citizens  that  through  their  enter- 
prise its  utility  has  almost  been  created  by  the 
gigantic  works  of  narrowing  the  channel  and  dredg- 
ing, .so  that  wliat  within  the  memory  of  persons  still 
alive  was  a  stream  over  which  one  could  wade  has 
now  liccome  a  <diannel  capable  of  allowing  shijis 
M'liich  draw  24  feet  of  water  to  ride  at  anchoi-. 
The  ijuayage  of  the  harbour  and  dneks  from  the 
Broomielaw  extends  to  over  11,000  lineal  yards, 
and  the  water  space  covers  1.54;}  acres,  \vhile 
since  1875  two  graving-docks  have  been  provided 
capable  of  accommodating  the  largest  mercan- 
tile steamers  alloat.  On  the  river  ami  harbour 
the  Clyde  ^  Navigation  Trust  has  spent  about 
eleven  millions  sterling,  and  the  annual  revenue 
usually  exceeds  £300,000;  while  the  customs 
revenue  of  the  ]iort  amotints  to  more  than 
£1,500,000.  The  piincipal  featuie  of  the  Clyde 
beyond  the  harbour  is  the  great  shipbuilding  and 
maiine  engineering  yards  which  line  its  sides,  and 
■which  have  llourished  since  the  second  quarter  of 
this  century.  The  pioneers  of  these  industries — 
the  Napiers,  Charles  Kandolidi,  .b>hn  Elder,  iVc. — 
have  a  worldwide  fame.  Tbey  l.iunebed  from  their 
yards  the  most  perfect  examples  of  naval  architec- 
ture and  engineering  skill  of  their  day,  and  their 
successors  at  the  present  day  amply  iii)hold  that 
reputati(m  by  marvels  of  naval  arcliileeture.  such 
as  tlie  Cili/  iif  Ncic  York,  Citi/  of  I'mls,  Liivniiia, 
and  Crini/)i(Hiii  (see  Snil'lil'lLDlNd  )•  The  greatest 
tonnage  launched  in  anv  year  on  tlje  Clvde  Mas 
419,600  in  18S.S  :  the  nonii.a'l  output  is  frcnn'  200,000 
to  ;W0,000  tons;  in  ISS9-9.")  tlie  yearly  tonnage 
built  was  u'wards  of  300;000  tons.  'To  ttie  success 
of  the  litiie  Coiiivl,  the  earliest  trading  steamship 
in  the  Old  World,  which  began  to  ply  between 
(ilasgow  and  (ireenock  in  1SI2,  may  be  traced 
the  great  development  of  shipbuilding  and  shipping 
on  the  Clyde. 

But  another  factor  in  the  industrial  prosperity 
of  the  city  is  the  fact  that  it  is  built  over  a 
coallield  rich  in  seams  of  ironstone.  Glasgow  is 
exceptional  in  having  blast-furnaces  actually  within  1 
its  municiiial  bo\in(ls.  It  was  in  the  neiglibourhood 
of  the  city  that  the  lirst  exi]eriments  \\  ith  Xeilson's 
hot-blast  in  iron-furnaces,  patented  in  1S2,S,  were 
made,  and  the  economy  thereby  ell'eeted  developed 
the  iron  industry  so  rapidly  in  (Jlasgow  as  to 
distance  for  a  long  jieriod  all  conqietition.  Great 
forges,  with  ]io\\ertul  steam -h;immers  and  other 
aiiiilianees.  the  making  of  steam-tubes,  boiler-mak- 
ing, locomotive-engine  building,  sugar  machinery, 
and  general  engineering  are  among  the  most  ini- 
portant  industrial  features  of  the  city. 

Bleaching  and  calico-printing  were  established  in 
(ilasgow  in  ITIiS,  nearly  thirty  years  earlier  than 
in  Lancashire.  The  ilyeing  of  Turki'y-red  was 
inaugurated  in  ITSo  as  a  Uritish  industry  by 
two   lilasgow   citizens,    Davi<l    Dale   and    (Jeorge 


Macintosh — the  colour  being  known  for  a  long 
time  as  Dale's  reel ;  and  this  branch  of  trade  has 
developed  in  Glasgow  and  the  neighbourhood  to 
an  extent  unenualled  in  any  other  manufacturing 
centre.  In  Glasgow,  also,  bleaching-powder  (chlor- 
ide of  lime)  was  discovered  in  179.S  by  Mr  Charles 
Tennant,  who  thereby  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
gigantic  St  KoUox  chemical  works,  and  gave  the 
lirst  impetus  to  chemical  works  generally.  These, 
along  with  the  spinning  and  weaving  industries 
which  have  Tieen  centred  in  the  great  city  factories 
since  the  inventions  of  Arkwrigbt,  (/artwright,  ;uid 
others  superseded  hand-loom  weaving,  have  for  the 
past  century  afforded  employment  for  a  gi'eat  pro- 
portion of  the  populatifui  of  the  town. 

Thk  Univer.sity  of  Glasi;iiw  was  founded  on 
7tli  Januaiy  14.50-51  by  Bislio])  Tunibull,  who 
procured  a  bull  of  ratification  from  Pope  Nicholas  \'. 
In  1460  .lames,  first  Lonl  Hamilton,  endowed  a 
college  on  the  site — in  the  densest  part  of  the  High 
Street — of  the  late  buildings,  the  older  portions  of 
which  were  erected  between  1632  and  1656.  Queen 
JIary  bestowed  on  the  university  13  acies  of 
adja(«nt  ground.  In  1577  James  VI.  granted 
increaseil  funds  in  a  new  charter.  In  1864  the 
unive}sity  liuildings  and  adjacent  lands  were  scdd 
for  £100,000,  and  handsome  new  buildings,  designed 
by  Sir  G.  Gilbert  Scott,  were  erected  at  Gilmore- 
liill,  overlooking  the  West  End  Park,  and  opened 
in  1870.  The  total  cost  was  aliout  £470,000,  of 
which  £120,000  was  granted  l>y  parliament,  and 
above  £250,000  subscriTied  and  otherwi.se  obtained, 
chiefly  in  Glasgow.  For  the  erecti(m  of  a  common 
hall  the  Marquis  of  Bute  gave  £40,000  ;  and  a  be- 
quest of  £70,000  by  Charles  Itandolph  was  utilised 
in  completing  the  buildings.  .More  recent  bequests 
have  been  employed  largely  for  laboratories  and 
other  ailjuncts  of  scientific  teaching  and  research. 

Chiiirs,  Office-bearers,  Dcf/rees. — The  office-bearers 
of  the  university  consist  of  a  Chancellor,  Kector, 
Principal,  and  Dean  of  Faculties.  The  Chancellor 
holds  his  office  for  life,  and  was  fcninerly  elected 
by  the  senate,  but  since  1875  he  is  electe<l  by  the 
general  council  ;  the  Rector  is  elected  triennially  by 
the  matriculated  students,  who  are  divi<led,  accord- 
ing to  their  jil.ace  of  birth,  into  four  nations — 
aivtti/iiKi  ( Ijauarkshire),  TrriiisforlliKini  (Scotland 
north  of  the  Forth ),  Iluthsciiinii  ( liute.sliire,  Ken- 
frewshire,  and  Ayrshire),  Luiidiniiiiiiii  (all  other 
places  I.  In  the  university  there  are  now  (through 
the  recent  separation  of  the  faculty  of  science 
from  that  of  arts)  five  faculties  :  Arts,  Science, 
Divinity,  Law,  and  Medicine ;  thirty-one  jirofes- 
sorships  (eighteen  founded  during  the  nineteentb 
century  I,  and  u]iwards  of  thirty  lecturesbiiis 
(all  of  recent  foundalion).  The  degrees  granted 
are  Master  of  Arts  (M.A.),  Bachelor  of  Science 
(  B.Sc. ),  Doctor  of  Science  (  D.Sc. ),  Doctor  of  Medi- 
cine (M.D.),  Master  of  Suigerv  (CM.),  Bachelor 
of  Divinity  (B.D.),  Bachelor  of  L.aw  (B.I,.), 
Bachelor  of  Laws  (LL.  B. ),  Doctor  of  Divinitv 
(D.D.),  and  Doctm-  of  Laws  (LL.D.).  the  last  two 
being  honorary.  The  university  also  grants  certifi- 
cates as  Literates  in  Arts  (L. A.)  to  candiilates  who 
have  attended  two  sessions,  and  certificates  of 
various  grades  to  women  and  students  not  attending 
university  classes,  (m  the  results  of  local  examina- 
tions ;  besiilcs  which  it  has  instituted  a  diidonia  fcu' 
teachers.  The  number  of  matriculated  students 
in  1870-75  was  about  1300  :  of  late  years  the  aver- 
age number  is  a  little  nnilcr  or  a  little  over  2000, 
nearly  half  lieing  in  the  Faciilly  of  Arts.  The 
students  reside  outside  the  college  walls  ;  and  those 
in  certain  classes  of  the  Faculty  of  Arts  wear  scarlet 
gowns.  The  university,  conjointly  with  that  of 
Aberdeen,  returns  one  member  to  )iarli.imcnt. 

Biirsiiries  mid  E.rliihiliinis. — There  are  upwards 
of  300  bursaries  for  students  still  atteniling  lectures. 


236 


GLASNEVIN 


GLASS 


ran^^nL;  in  value  from  £(>  to  £80;  and  witli  exhibi- 
tions, i(.'llo\v.sliii).s,  unil  sclioliirsliips  (besides  9  coni- 
nioii  to  (il(isj.'()w  witli  llic  ullier  Scottisli  univei- 
sities),  tlie  anicitiiit  ilisIiilnitL'd  yearly  exceeds 
£8000.  Of  the  latlei  the  most  vahiah'le  are  the 
four  Chirh  sehohiixhips,  founded  in  1872.  and  each 
worth  1'2(H)  a  year.  The  ohlest  are  the  Siiell  exhi- 
bitions. I'oiiiided  by  John  Snell,  a  native  of  Ayrshire, 
who  in  11)77  presenteil  to  the  university  a  lainlcd 
estate,  lor  tin'  ]>ur|iose  of  supiiortin;;  at  lialliol 
C'olle;;e,  ( )xford,  ten  .stmlents  who  liail  previously 
»tndie<I  at  Ghvsj;ow.  Owin;;  to  the  rise  in  the  value 
of  laml,  the  foundation  wjis  nuide  to  maintain  14 
exhibitioneiti,  who  were  each  to  receive  £1 10  a  year 
for  live  years  ;  but  at  present  the  yearly  stipeml  is 
only  tSO,  with  an  arran;,'ement  that  the  total  sum, 
£400,  may  be  paid  within  three  years.  Several  men 
who  have  risen  to  ^reat  eminence  wi'ut  to  (Ixfonl 
on  Snell  exhibitions  :  anion;,'  whom  may  be  nameil 
Adam  Smith,  Sir  William  Hamilton,  .\relibishop 
Tait,  Principal  Shairp,  and  Lord  President  In^lis. 

Lihriiiir.i,  Mii.si'iiin.1,  di-.  — The  library  was  founded 
prioi-  to  the  Keformation,  and  now  contains  about 
l7."i,(HM)  vohnnes.  It  is  su]ip<>rted  by  an  annual 
■jrant  of  i;707  from  the  Treivsury,  ;;raduation  fees, 
the  lontributions  of  stmlents,  \c.  Subsidiary 
libraries  are  attached  to  several  of  the  cliusses,  the 
books  bein^  selected  with  a  view  to  the  subjects 
treated  of  in  each  cla.s,s.  In  July  1781  the  cele- 
brated Dr  William  Hunter  of  Lomlon  framed  a  will, 
leavinj;  to  the  prineijial  ami  professors  of  the  univer- 
sity his  splenillil  collection  of  books,  coins,  medals, 
and  anatomical  preparations;  and  for  the  accom- 
modation .and  conservation  of  these  a  building'  wjus 
erected  in  1804;  but  they  are  now  located  in  the 
new  universitv.  The  univei'sity  also  posses-ses  an 
ohserv.'itory. 

Aiming'  the  men  of  eminence  who  have  tuu^ht 
or  studied  in  the  university  are  IJishop  Eljihin 
stfuie,  John  Major.  John  Spolliswoodc,  -Vndiew 
Melville,  James  Melville,  Hoyd  of  Trochri^;,  John 
Cameron,  Zachary  lioyd,  Robert  Baillie,  Lord 
Stair.  Bishop  Ihirnet,  Kobert  Sinison,  Hutcheson, 
William  Hunter,  Tobias  Smollett,  I)r  John  Moore, 
Adam  Smiili,  Thomas  Heid,  William  Cullen,  Joseph 
Black,  .Matthew  Haillie,  Thomiis  (amjdiell,  Francis 
JellVey,  .1.  t).  Lockliart,  Sir  William  Hannlton.  Sir 
Daniel  Sandford,  .Archbishop  Tait,  1'rofes.sor  Jebb, 
the  two  Cairils.  .and  Lord  Kelvin. 

Self  .Ii>liii  Jfl're,  A  \'icir  nf  the  Cilii  of  (tlantioic 
(17.ll>):  'bjlm  tlibsoii,  'I'he  HUtorij  of  Ohwjuv  (1779); 
Andrew  lirown,  Hintorii  of  Olanriote  (1795-97);  t'leland. 
Annuls  of  Uhi.i'/ow  (1S2!));  Dr  Gordon,  Glasiihu  Ftirin, 
(1872);  Macgooryo.  Did  (llusijow  (l.'WO;  M  ud.  1888); 
George  MacGregor,  The  Historii  of  Ulan'iow  (1881);  A. 
Wallace,  Sketch  of  the  Hialorii  of  Glasrimv  :  Gla»iow  Pa.il 
and  Present,  by  'Senex'  and  others  (1882;  new  ed. 
1884);  and  Glas'ioir  :  its  Mtttiicijutl  (h-(/(iinsati<oi  owl 
Admiiiislriition,  by  Sir  J.  Bell  and  tlie  present  writer 
(181MJ).  —  Kor  the  lecent  anti-acadcinic  and  original  schofd 
of  painting  in  ]and.scape  and  portraiture  that  has  at- 
tracted notice  at  Pari.s,  Municli,  and  Venice,  see  7'hr 
Historii  of  the  fifns/foir  iichool  of  Poiiithiff,  by  IJavid 
Martin,  with  introduction  by  F.  H.  Ncwbery  ( 18!)7 ) ; 
Guthrie  and  Lavery  are  conspicuous  representatives. 

OlasiH-viii.    See  Dim, IN. 

4«|jlSS  ( .\n;;loSax(Ui  i//<t:i)  is  es-sentially  a  coTu- 
bination  of  silica  with  some  alkali  or  alkaline  earth, 
such  as  lime,  barytes,  iVc.  (Generally  speaking',  it 
is  undei-stood  to  be  a  silicate  of  soda,  or  a  combina- 
tion of  silica  or  Hint  with  one  or  more  of  the  salts 
of  sodium,  with  the  aildition  of  certain  metallic 
oxiiles,  \-c. ,  a.s  explained  on  pa^'e  2:!i). 

Jiixtori/. — The  invention  ot  ^dass  date.s  from  the 
earliest  antiipiity,  and  the  honour  of  its  discovery 
has  been  contested  by  several  nations.  As  the 
oldest  known  siiecimens  are  E<;yptian,  its  inven- 
tion may  with  preat  inobability  be  attributed  to 
tliat  people.     It  is  meutiuned  as  early  as  the  otii  or 


titli  dyimstv,  aljout  ;j3(X)  li.C,  and  called  bashna, 
the  ( 'optic  )iijni :  articles  made  of  it  are  represented 
in  the  tombs  of  the  jieriod  :  while  its  fabrication 
is  depicteil  in  sepulchres  of  the  12th  dymusty — i.e. 
about  2,')(K)  B.C.  The  j;lass  of  K^.vpt  wius  j;enerallv 
o|>ai|ue,  raiely  transparent,  and  always  coloure<l, 
the  articles  made  of  it  bein;,'  of  snnill  size,  ami 
principally  fiU'  adornment,  ilh  b<-ads,  vases,  small 
ii^ures,  and  (dtjects  for  iiilayin;;  into  wood  or  other 
material.  Specimens  e\ist  of  this  ^dass  bearing 
the  name  of  the  iiueen  llatasu  of  the  18tli  dyinisty, 
and  vases  of  blue  ula-ss,  with  wavy  lines  in  white, 
li^dit-blue,  yellow,  black,  red,  and  j^'reen,  of  that 
ami  a  later  aj;e,  have  been  discovered.  The 
'■-Jf.vptians  also  successfully  imitated  precicms  and 
otlier  sKmes  in  ji,dii.ss— lus  emeralils,  lapis  lazuli, 
turipioises,  jas]>ers,  onyx,  and  obsidian.  Trans- 
parent ;rla.ss,  indeed,  does  jiol  ajipear  earlier  in 
K^typl  than  the  2(ith  dynasty,  al«)Ut  600  li.c,  when 
bottles  and  a  few  other  objects  were  niaile  of  it. 

Under  the  native  I'haraolis,  E;,'yiitian  glass 
seems  to  have  been  extensively  exported  to  (oeecc 
and  Italy,  and  its  reputation  still  continiieil  umler 
the  I'tolemies,  when  the  furnaces  of  .Mexandria 
producetl  ;^liuss  vases  4>f  numberless  shapes  and 
consiilerable  size.  E^typt  letaiiiid  tlie  pre  eminence 
in  the  manufacture  of  jjliuss  under  the  Konians,  the 
sand  of  Alexandria  being  indis|)ensable  for  the 
linest  <iualities,  and  it  exporte<l  glass  to  iiomc. 
Hadrian,  on  his  visit,  w;is  struck  with  the  activ- 
ity of  the  manufacture,  and  sent  to  his  friend, 
the  Cimsnl  Servianus,  (Uie  of  the  vases,  called  allo- 
s(Uiles,  or  ■  oiiale.scent  ; '  and  tin'  lioman  writers 
mention  with  admiration  the  melting,  turning, 
ami  engraving  of  Egyi>tian  ghuss.  The  art  of 
jjliuss-imiking,  in  fact,  has  never  become  extinct 
111  Egypt,  the  Katimite  t'alifs  having  issued  glass 
coins  in  the  10th  and  II th  centuries,  anil  beautiful 
lamps  of  gl.iss  enamelled  on  the  surface  with  various 
coli>nis  having  been  made  in  the  Nth  century. 

.\fler  the  Egyptians,  the  jieople  of  anti(juit.y 
most  renowned  tor  glass  were  the  ]'h<eiiicians, 
who  were  its  legendary  inventors.  Certain  of  their 
merchants,  says  I'liny,  returning  in  a  ship  laileii 
with  natron  or  soda,  and  having  been  compelled 
by  stoiiny  weather  to  land  on  a  sandy  tract  under 
.Mount  Carmel,  placed  their  cooking-pots  on  luiiil>s 
of  natron  (ui  the  sand,  which,  fuseil  by  the  heat  of 
the  lire,  fmined  the  first  glass.  This  statement,  in- 
troduced by  I'liny  himself  with  fiimii  i-.st,  points 
only  to  the  great  antiiiuity  of  the  art  among  the 
I'hieiiicians,  for  the  occurrence  is  a  simple  impossi- 
bility. Sidon,  indeed,  was  early  celebrated  for  her 
glass-wares  made  of  the  sand  brought  down  from 
Mount  Carimd  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Helus. 
The  nature,  however,  of  the  earliest  I'ho'uician 
glass  is  unknown,  unless  the  opaipie  little  vases  of 
the  toilet  found  in  the  tombs  of  (ireece  and  Italy, 
and  the  beads  of  the  same  discovereil  in  the  bar- 
rows .-md  tumuli  of  the  old  Celtic  and  Teutonic 
tribes  Avere  imports  of  the  I'lioiiieians.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  at  a  very  early  jieriod  the  manufactures 
of  the  I'leeiiicians  were  widely  distributed  over  the 
Mediterranean  coast,  and  even  reached  the  shores 
of  IJritain,  where  they  were  exchangeil  for  the 
mineral  wealth  of  Cornw.all.  The  vases  of  Sidon 
were  highly  esteemed  at  Itoiiie  umler  the  .\ntonines, 
fragments  of  bowls  of  blue  and  amber  glass,  with 
the  mimes  of  the  Sidonian  glass-makers,  .\rtas  and 
Iren.ius,  stam]>ed  in  Latin  and  Creek,  having  been 
found  in  the  ruins. 

ErcMii  these  two  centres,  Egyiit  and  I'lneiiicia, 
it  is  pndiable  that  a  knowledge  of  the  art  radiated, 
ami  was  transplanted  into  neighbouring  countries 
with  the  growth  of  civilisation.  The  manufacture, 
it  might  be  inferred,  was  early  establisheil  in 
Assyria,  for  in  his  excavations  at  Ninirud  Mr 
Lavard  unearthed  with  other  gla-ss  remains  a  vase 


GLASS 


237 


Fig.  1. — Glass  Vase,  bearing 
the  name  of  Sargon,  from 
Nimnid. 


of  white  glass  having  stamped  or  inscribed  on  it  a 
lion  and  the  name  of  Sargon,  who  reigned  722  B.C. 
But  this  specimen  may  liave  been  brought  from 
Siilon ;  and  other 
fragments  of  gla.'^s 
brought  by  Layard 
from  the  same  place 
are  Koman  in  form, 
and  certainly  belong 
to  the  period  when 
the  Romans  there 
established  their 
colony  of  ClaudiopolLs. 
In  (Jreece  the  know- 
ledge and  use  of  gla-ss 
were  by  no  means 
ancient.  In  the  days 
of  Homer  it  was  un- 
known. Herodotus, 
indeed,  mentions  its 
employment  for  ear- 
rings, but  these  may 
have  been  of  Phienician 
fabric.  It  was  called 
/(>/alos,  crystal  or  ice, 
and  lithos  f/i>/ie,  or  fusible  stone.  Aiistophanes, 
4.TO  B.C.,  mentions  gla.ss  or  crystal  vessels,  and  vari- 
ous inscriptions  confirm  its  use  ;  but  its  value  was 
ne.vt  to  gold,  which  could  hardly  have  l>een  the  ease 
if  it  had  been  of  native  manufacture.  In  the  4tli 
century  B.C.  Pausia«,  a  celebrated  painter,  had 
depicted  3Ietlic,  or  '  Into.xication,'  drinking  from  a 
transparent  glass  bowl  which  revealed  her  face. 
Glasses  and  plates,  am|)hor:e  and  diot;e,  large  two- 
handled  jars,  were  made  of  it,  and  also  false  stones 
for  finger-rings,  called  ■■snliruriides  Iiyiilinai.  These 
last,  called  by  arclueologists  pastes,  were  imita- 
tions of  engraved  stones  in  coloured  glasses,  used 
for  the  rings  of  the  jioorer  classes,  and  were  no 
doubt  often  copies  or  impressions  of  engraved  stones 
of  celebrated  masters.  False  gems  and  cameos 
having  a  subject  in  oi)a(|ue  white,  sometimes  like 
the  sardonyx,  with  a  Ijrown  layer  superposed  on 
the  parts  representing  the  hair,  and  the  whole 
laid  on  a  dark-blue  ground,  appear  before  the 
Christian  era.  Lenses  also  were  made  of  glass, 
and  the  celestial  sphere  of  Archimedes  was  made 
of  the  same  material. 

Among  the  Romans  the  gla.ss-making  art  does 
not  date  earlier  than  the  commencement  of  the 
empire,  importations  from  Siilon  and  Alexandria 
having  previously  supplied  the  want  of  native 
manufacture  ;  but  there  is  ample  evidence  of  its 
extensive  manufacture  at  that  period.  As  early  as 
.")S  B.C.  the  theatre  of  Scaurus  hail  been  decorateil 
with  mirrore  or  glass  jilates  disposed  on  the  walls. 
Glass  was  also  useil  for  paving,  and  for  the  blue 
and  green  tes.ser;c  of  mosaics  (see  Mosaic). 
\Vindow-gla.ss  does  not  appear  to  have  been  much 
used  till  about  the  :M  centviry  x.Tt.,  the  houses 
at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,  destroyed  in  the 
reign  of  Titus,  being  glazed  principally  with  talc  ; 
but  remains  of  glass-filled  windows  have  been  dis- 
covered in  both  cities,  showing  that  its  employ- 
ment was  at  least  liegun  in  the  1st  century. 
Lactantius,  in  the  .Sd  century,  and  St  Jerome,  in 
422  X.V).,  mention  ghiss  windows.  Older  windows  of 
this  material  are  .said  to  have  been  found  at  Ficul- 
nea,  and  even  in  London.  I'nder  the  Romans, 
coloured  as  well  iis  white  gliuss  w.os  extensively 
used  ;  it  had  a  greenish  tint  in  the  first  days  of  the 
empire,  but  ha<l  sensibly  improved  in  colour  and 
quality  in  the  days  of  ("onstantine.  The  first  pro- 
duction of  a  while  gla-^s  like  crystal,  probably 
much  freer  from  air-cavities  and  other  imperfections 
than  had  j)revio\isly  been  accomplished,  was  in  the 
days  of  Nero.  Its  use  was  most  extensive,  and  it 
was    either    blown   or   stampeil    according   to   the 


object.s  required.  Glass  vases,  vasa  vitrea  escaria 
potoria,  are  mentioned.  So  are  costly  cuns  of 
many  colours,  purple  ones  of  Lesbos,  and  balsani- 
arii,  especially  the  kind  long  calle<l  lachrymatories, 
which  lield  perfumes,  medicine,  drugs,  and  other 
.substances  like  modern  vials,  amphone,  ampulla-, 
pillar-moulded  bowls,  bottles  for  wine  {/ageiire), 
uiTis  (  unur)  for  holding  the  ashes  of  the  dead,  and 
pillar-moulded  bowls  or  cups  (pocii/a),  hair-pins, 
beatls,  rings,  balls,  draughtsmen,  dice,  knuckle- 
Ixjnes    [astragali],     minors,     multiidying-gla-sses, 


FiK 


2.— Moulded  Glass  Roman  Cup,  with  the  Circus 
and  Gladiators,  found  in  London. 


prisms,  magnifying-glasses,  and  water-clocks  were 
made  of  this  material.  Most  of  the  precious 
stones  were  successfully  imitated  in  glass  pastes ; 
and  the  Empress  Salonina  was  egregiously  cheated 
by  a  fraudulent  jeweller.  But  the  most  remark- 
able works  in  glass  are  the  cameo  vases  {toreii- 
nmta  vitri) ;  of  which  the  most  celebrated  is 
the  Portland  Vase  (q.v.)  in  the  British  Mu.seum, 
which  seems  to  have  held  the  ashes  of  a  member  of 
the  imperial  family  of  Alexander  Severus,  who  died 
235  .\.D.  A  vase  of  smaller  size,  but  of  similar 
fabric,  with  arabesques,  found  at  Pompeii,  exists 
in  the  Naples  Museum  ;  and  numerous  fragments 
of  even  finer  vases,  some  with  five  coloui's,  exist  in 
ditt'erent  museums.  In  the  reign  of  Tiberius  an 
adventurer  pretended  that  he  had  invented  flexible 
ghiss,  and  threw  down  a  vase  which  only  bent,  and 
which  he  readjusted  with  a  hammer  :  he  seems  to 
have  connected  it  in  some  way  with  the  philo- 
sopher's stone,  and  the  empemr  is  said  to  have 
banished  him  or  put  him  to  (leath.  In  the  3d  cen- 
tuiT  .\.i).  appeared  the  dialrcta  or  'bored  va.«es,' 
consisting  of  cups  (pocida)  having  externally 
lettei-s  and  network  almost  detached  from  the 
gla.ss.  but  connected  by  supports  ;  all  which  must 
have  been  holloaed  out  by  a  tool,  involving  great 
labour.  One  va.se  of  this  cla.<s,  bearing  the  name 
of  Maximianus,  who  reigned  280-310  .v.D.,  found 
in  the  vicinity  of  Strasburg  in  182o,  and  pre- 
served in  that  city,  fixes  their  age.  At  a  later 
periotl  bowls  of  engraveil  glass,  having  subjects  of 
gladiatorial  fights,  came  into  use.  Still  later,  ai>par- 
ently  in  the  5th  century,  a  new  style  of  ghuvs  orna- 
mentation was  introduced,  consisting  of  the  figures 
of  Christ  and  legends  of  saints,  ami  the  portraits 
of  private  persons  laid  on  in  gold  upon  one  layer 
of  gla.«s,  over  which  was  placed  another  through 
which  they  appeared.  A\  hile  the  art  of  gla.-^s- 
making  declined  in  Home  with  the  decay  of  the 
empire,  its  practice  wa.s  transferred  to  C'onstant- 
inople,  and  there  it  continue<l  to  flourish  uiuler 
the  Eastern  Empire  throughout  the  dark  ages  :  the 
artificers  impressing  on  their  products  that  peculi- 
arity of  form  and  ornamentation  which  is  known 


238 


GLASS 


as  Byzantine.  Tlie  Hviuintine  nianiifnetiiruix 
beciiino  specially  fainniis  fur  tlie  |in)iliii'ti(>ii  i>l 
gloss  mosaics:  ami  tliriiii>;lii)iit  the  inidillc  a^tos 
tlieie  art'  many  iiolici's  of  mosaic  tU'CoraliDiis 
ileiiieil  from  ('onstaiitiiiopli'.  Kroiii  the  liy/.aii- 
tiiies  the  Arahs  olitaiiied  a  knowleiljje  of  ;,'huss- 
makiii^',  anil  '  glass  of  Damascus  '  attained  eeleli- 
rity  in  medieval  times  throii<;li  the  niimerons 
examples  hronght  to  western  Knrope  hy  ('rusadei"s. 
It  is  most  ]iro1ial)le  also  that  the  fjreat  centre  of 
the  j;huss  industry  of  medieval  and  more  recent 
times,  Venice,  received  its  early  impulse  and 
lessons  from  Constantinople.  The  art  lic^an  there 
with  the  lie;,'lnninj,'  of  the  city  in  the  7th  century 
A.I).  :  hut  it  experienced  a  marked  improvement 
after  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  in  1'2()4,  and 
in  12U1  the  estahlisliment.s  were  removed  to  the 
island  of  Murauo,  the  manufacturers  fiirmin;;  a 
<j;uild  with  a  Liliro  dOio,  or  rc^'ister  of  nobility, 
ami  guariling  their  secret  with  the  "greatest  jeal- 
ousy. In  143t)  their  colour  ;;la.ss  came  into  note, 
and  continued  so  till  the  clo.se  of  the  century  ; 
and  in  the  Kith  century  Uvcepatterns  and  mirrors 
were  introduced.  In  the  l.itli  and  Kith  cen- 
turies plain  ^d;uss  with  tasteful  ornaments  ^dlt  and 
enamelled  ;  in  the  Kith,  crai'Uled  lace  ami  reticu- 
lated xl'Lss,  i-itro  tli  tn'iio;  and  in  the  ITlh  century 
varietjated  or  marbled  glasses  were  produced.     The 


Fig.  :!. — German 
Drinking-glass. 


l-'ig.  4. — Venetian  (ilass  on 
t»|»en-work  stem. 


milltfidrl  gla.ss  extemis  throu;,'h  all  perioils,  and 
seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Roman,  being 
continued  to  the  present  day,  when  large  (pianti- 
ties  of  this  gla-ss  in  the  form  of  beads  are  annually 
imported  to  Kngland,  ami  transported  to  Africa 
and  Asia  in  the  way  of  trade.  The  Venetian  gla-ss 
enjoyed  for  a  long  time  the  monopoly  of  commerce, 
the  mirrors,  golilets,  an<l  cups  being  exported  all 
over  the  world,  ami  within  recent  ye.ars  there  has 
haen  a  marked  revival  of  the  skill  and  enterprise  of 
Venetian  craftsmen.  The  forms  of  the  Venetian 
glass  rellecteil  its  oriental  origin,  and  the  earlier 
gla.ss  of  other  countries  of  Europe  in  turn  shows  the 
derivation  of  their  art  from  Venice.  In  (lermany 
the  oldest  gla.ss  (which  was  flint)  dates  from  the 
16th  century,  and  consists  of  goblets  and  tankards 


of  white  colour,  enamelled  with  coloureil  coats  of 
arms  and  othei  devices,  milletiori,  and  schmeltz 
glass.  ICngraved  glass  was  lirst  inlroduced  by 
Caspar  l.ehmann  at  I'rague  in  Kid!)  under  imperial 
jirotcction,  ami  conlinui-d  by  his  pupil  (i.  Schwan- 
liaril  ;  ami  ruin' glass  by  Kunckel  in  KiT!'.  (!la.s8 
is  saiil  to  have  been  made  in  12114  at  l^nimpien- 
grone,  in  Xoriiumdy,  and  a  common  kind  was 
■  mule  later  in  Dauphine  and  I'rovi-nce.  In  106.'> 
twenty  Venetian  glass-workers  were  brought  by 
Colbert  to  I'aris.  where  they  set  u]i  the  blowing  of 
gla-ss  ami  the  silvering  of  mirrois,  the  famous 
mirror  hall  in  Versailles  having  been  lurnisheil  by 
them.  In  Iti.SS  an  exclusive  ])rivilege  of  making 
large  plates  of  glass  by  casting  was  conferreil  on 
Abraham  Tlievart.  It  has  been  discovered  that 
the  nanu!  Tlievart  was  a.ssume<l  by  a  syndicate  of 
ca|)italists  formed  to  develop  and  work  the  inven- 
tion of  Louis  LuciUs  de  Nehon,  who  was  the  real 
inventor  of  plate-glass  and  the  founder  of  the 
Ciobain  works — to  this  dav  <me  of  the  most  exten- 
sive |plate.glass  works  in  t^ie  world.  In  I.Sti.')  there 
was  placed  a  memorial  over  the  door  of  the  chapel 
of  tlobiiin  with  the  fidlowing  inscription  :  '  L(uiis 
Lucas  lie  Nehon  inventa  en  Ki'.ll  la  methoile  de 
couler  les  glaces,  et  installa  la  m.iniifacture,  en 
UiO"),  dans  le  chateau  de  Saint  tiobain,  ou  il  est 
mort,  en  1728.'  In  Krance,  oxide  of  le.id  Hint-glass 
was  made  at  St  Cloud  in  17S4;  another  manufac- 
tory was  subsei|nently  established  at  St  Louis  in 
1790;  and  the  St  Cloud  establishment  was  removed 
to  the  vicinity  of  Mont  Cenis,  where  it  llourished 
till  I.S27. 

It  is  uncertain  whether  glass  was  made  in  Kngland 
before  the  Kith  century,  .'is  that  mentioned  may 
have  been  imported  from  I'landers  or  Venice.  In 
674  lieneilict  Biscop  introduced  makers  of  glass 
windows  into  Northuinbria  ;  but  window-glass  was 
not  in  general  use  for  windows  till  the  loth  century. 
In  l.">.")7  Mint-glass  was  manufiutured  at  the  Savoy 
and  Crulched  Kriars;  in  l.'Ki.")  there  were  glass- works 
under  Cornelius  de  Launoy ;  and  in  l."i(i7  .lean 
Quarre  and  other  I'Memish  maniifaetuicrs  estab- 
lished works  at  Clutched  Trial's,  which  t^uarre's 
descendants  extended  to  Sussex.  In  Kil.")  Sir  K. 
Maunsell  obtained  a  ])atent  for  making  glass,  in 
consideration  of  using  pit-coal  instead  ot  wood, 
and  oxide  of  lead  was  then  inlroduced  in  \i.\'.\7> ; 
and  in  K17.'!  \  enctian  artists,  liroiij;lit  over  by  the 
Duke  of  lluckiiigham,  inamifactiiied  mirrors  of 
plate-ghuss  at  Lambeth,  and  driiiking-glas.ses  were 
nmde  ,at  this  period.  lint  Venetian  glass  was 
extensively  imported.  In  1771  the  company  of 
Hritlsh  Plate  gla.ss  Manufacturei-s  was  established 
at  Itavenhead,  near  I'rescot,  Lancashire.  Patent 
jiiali',  which  consists  of  line  sheet-gbuss  polished, 
was  lirst  made  by  .Messrs  Chance  of  IJirmiiigliam  in 
1.S40.  In  Scotland  the  maniifactnie  was  intro- 
duced in  the  reign  of  .lames  VI.,  and  tieoive  Hay 
obtained  a  jiatent  fm-  thirty-one  years.  The  lirst 
glass  was  manufactuied  at  Weinyss,  in  Fife, 
afterwards  .at  Prestonjians  and  Leilli.  In  1661 
only  the  primijial  ebambei-s  of  the  king's  palace 
had  glass.  In  .America  attempts  seem  to  have 
been  niiule  to  establish  gla.ss-works  at  .Jamestown, 
Virginia,  in  l(i08-22 ;  at  Salem,  Mas.sachusetts,  in 
K):W-40 :  in  New  York  city  before  Ki(;4  ;  and  in 
Peniisylv.ania  before  Ki.S,'t.  Subsei|uenlly  works 
were  established  in  I7H0  at  Tem|)le,  New  Hamp- 
shire; in  1792  .at  Itoslon  ;  and  in  17il7.U  Pittsburg. 
Plate-glass  was  lirst  made  there  in  \H'>'.\,  and  it  is 
also  made  at  Baltimore  and  New  York. 

At  an  early  period  the  application  of  glass  for 
m.agnifying  lenses  .ajjpears  to  have  been  known. 
Ptolemy  IL  had  ,a  telescope  mounted  at  the  Pharos, 
and  globes  filled  with  w.ater  were  in  use  for  the 
imrpose  of  magnifying  umler  the  Komans.  Lenses 
are  mentioned  in  the  12th  century  A. I),  by  Alliazan, 


GLASS 


239 


and  1)V  Ko^'ei-  ISacon  in  tlio  l.'itli  (•cntiiiy  ;  towards 
the  close  of  which  Siilviiio  il'Aniiato  invented 
eyeglasses,  wliieh  were  suh.scijiiontly  iinpioved  liy 
Alessandi'o  Spina.  Glass-rellectois  for  tch'sco[)cs, 
of  great  size  and  accuracy,  have  hcen  njadc  in 
France  (see  Telescope). 

As  regards  processes  of  making,  that  lallcd  the 
cylindrii'al  was  used  by  the  ancients,  and  is  men- 
tioned liy  Tiieophilus  at  tlie  end  of  tlie  l"2tli  cen- 
tury. Tlie  r(jtatory  process  was  lirst  introduced  in 
lioliemia,  sul)seqHently  into  France  in  17H0,  hut 
not  into  Kngland  till  183'2.  Pressed  glass  was 
invented  in  America.  In  England  there  were 
twenty-lour  window-glass  factories  in  1847,  and 
only  seven  in  IStiO.  In  1S89  there  were  in  the 
United  Kingdom  43  manufacturers  of  Hint-glass, 
4  of  sheet,  4  of  polislied  plate  glass,  7  of  rolle<l 
or  rough  plate-glass.  The  value  of  the  e.\port  of 
glass  from  Britain  increased  from  €20,(ifl4  in  1848 
to  about  £oOO,00()  in  18.5.5;  in  1887  it  was 
£1,021,02!),  and  in  1888,  £1,109,341.  The  value  of 
tlie  foreign  gla.ss  of  all  kinds  imported  in  1887  was 
£1,674,268,  and  in  1888  was  £1,906,770.  In  1880  the 
glass  manufacture  of  the  United  States  gave  work 
to  211  establishments,  employing  24,177  hands.  Of 
the  total  product,  with  a  value  of  .S21,l.")4,.')71,  over 
two-lifths  were  made  in  Pennsylvania,  and  nearly 
an  eighth  in  New  .Jersey.  The  export  of  glass  and 
glassware  had  in  1886  a  value  of  .■?773,S78,  in  1887 
of  .§883,504.  The  imports  iiad  a  value  of  .§7,301,340 
in  1887. 

Manufacture. — In  its  ordinary  state,  glass  is  a 
solid  body  with  a  cliaracteristic  lustre  called  vitre- 
ous, and  a  conchoidal  or  shell-like  fracture  when 
broken,  best  seen  in  pieces  of  some  tIdcUness; 
further,  it  is  more  or  less  brittle,  a  property  which 
arises  from  its  outer  and  inner  molecules  cooling 
from  a  state  of  fusion  at  a  very  utieqnal  rate.  It 
is  usually  said  to  be  amorplious,  but  perhaps  it 
ratlicr  represents  a  stage  between  the  perfectly 
amorphous  and  the  crystalline  states.  A  tendency 
in  his  glass  to  crystallise  in  cooling  is  one  of  the 
things  a  glass-maker  dreads.  Glass  is  commonly 
transparent,  although  this  property  is  not  an  ess('n- 
tial  one,  since  a  true  glass  may  be  almost  op.-upie, 
or  at  most  translucent,  even  when  very  thin. 
Glass  when  softened  by  heat  is  highly  tenacious, 
and  may  be  easily  moulded  into  all  concidvable 
shapes  ;  it  welds  when  red-hot ;  at  a  lower  heat  it 
is  plastic,  and  may  be  out  with  knives  ami  sci.ssors; 
when  cooled  it  is  usually  i|uite  brittle.  IJut  molten 
glass  can  be  rapiiUy  drawn  out  into  long  threads 
hundreds  of  feet  in  length,  and  such  threads  retain 
when  cooled  sutticient  flexibility  to  be  woven  into 
a  beautiful  silky  fabric. 

The  chenucal  composition  of  glass  differs  with 
the  ditlerent  kinds.  It  is  essentially  a  silicate  of 
soda  or  of  |)otasli  combined  with  a  silicate  of  some 
alkaline  (>artli  or  other  basic  body,  suidi  as  the 
oxide  of  lead.  Silica  with  potash  or  soda  alone,  or 
with  both,  forms  a  soluble  glass  unlit  for  windows 
or  vessels  of  any  kind.  The  following  table  gives 
the  cnmi)osition  of  the  chief  kinds  of  glass  : 

(1)  Window-glass,    mcluding   crown,    sheet,   and   i)late : 

silicate  of  soda  and  lime. 

(2)  Bohemian  Crystal -glass  :  silicate  of  potash  and  lime. 

(3)  Flint-glass,  often  called  crystal-glass  or  simply  crystal: 

silicate  of  potash  and  lead. 

(4)  Bottle-glass — that  is,  of  the  conuiion  kinds  :  silicate  of 

lime  and  alumina  ;  with  smaller  iiuantities  of  tlie 
silicates  of  potash  or  soda,  iron  and  manganese ; 
the  silicates  of  baryta  and  niagncbia  being  also 
frequently  i)rest-nt. 

There  are  some  other  kinds  made  on  a  more 
limited  scale,  such  as  optical  glass,  strass,  and 
enamel  glass.  Any  of  the  above  kimls  of  gla.ss 
may  be  eoloureil  by  tin'  use  of  certain  metallic 
oxides. 


Raw  Matrrials.  —  For  the  better  kinds  of  gla.ss 
these  are  the  following  :  Silica,  eni|)loyed  chielly  in 
the  form  of  sand,  of  which  an  abundant  supjily, 
sulliciently  free  from  iron  fcu'  ordinary  window- 
glass,  is  to  be  found  in  England.  For  the  best 
iiualities  of  plate  and  Hint  glass,  in  which  purity  of 
colour  is  essential,  manufacturers  have  recourse  to 
the  sands  of  France  and  lielgium.  Potrish,  a.s 
pearl-ash,  or  wood-ashes,  or  the  sulphate  of  potash. 
Hocla,  in  the  form  of  carbonate  or  sulphate  of  soda. 
Lime,  in  the  state  of  caustic  lime,  chalk,  or  (ndinary 
limestone,  if  suHieiently  pure.  I!i:iri//<(,  from  heavy 
spar  or  witherite  ;  but  barium  couipounds  arc  a.s 
yet  only  to  a  limited  extent  em])loye<l.  J.rrir/  is 
safest  used  in  the  form  of  red-lead  (peroxide),  a 
quality  free  from  copper,  >\hicli  would  im|iart 
colour,  being  specially  made  for  glass-makers. 
t'arhuii,  in  the  form  of  charcoal  or  powdered  anthra- 
cite coal,  for  the  deconip<isition  of  the  alkaline  sul- 
phates. Ciillet  or  broken  glass  of  the  kiinl  intended 
to  be  made.  All  the  above  materials  must  be  as 
free  as  po.ssible  from  iron  or  other  impurities 
when  colourless  glass  is  required  ;  .ami,  in  order  to 
prevent  any  iron  or  carbon  present  from  tinging  the 
glass,  .small  quantities  of  oxidising  agents,  as  nitre, 
arsenious  aciil,  and  peroxide  of  manganese,  are  also 
employed.  Bottle-glass  is  made  of  comparatively 
coai'se  materials,  as  will  be  ])resently  seen. 

Glass  Pots,  or  3Jeltiiiff-rcssr/s.  'Vhe^^e  require  to 
be  very  carefully  made  of  some  \ery  refractoiy 
clay,  since  the  cracking  of  one  in  the  furnace, 
which  sometimes  happens  w  hen  it  is  newly  put  in, 
is  a  considerable  loss  to  the  manufacturer.  In 
Great  Britain  the  famous  Stourbridge  lireelay  is 
nearly  always  used  for  them.  It  is  almost  wholly 
composed  of  silica  and  alumina  with  water,  and  is 
nearly  free  from  oxide  of  iron  or  other  easily  fusible 
ingredient.  Much  attention  is  gi\-en  to  the  pre- 
liminary jireparation  of  the  clay,  ealle<l  tempering. 
It  is  then  put  into  large  cisterns,  mixed  with  water, 
and  kneaded  with  the  naked  feet,  which  remlers 
the  clay  of  a  uniform  consistency  and  free  from  air 
cavities ;  but  it  requires  to  be  turneil  over  and 
kneaded  rejieateilly.  After  a  week  or  two,  it  is 
removed  to  large  tables,  where  it  is  mixed  with  the 
ground  fragments  of  old  pots,  and  carefully  worked 
into  a  plastic  mass.  This  ]>rei)ared  clay  is  next 
ma<le  up  into  small  rolled  jjieces.  with  which  the 
pot-maker  slowly  builds  up  the  })Ot,  adding  only  a 
few  inches  to  its  height  in  a  day.  Foreign  jiots  are 
made  in  immlds  of  thick  wood  strongly  hoo|ied  with 
iron,  but  in  England  entirely  by  hand.  'I'he  |iots 
are  usually  kept  several  months  in  >tock,  after 
which  they  are 
annealed  by  being 
kept  for  a  few 
days  at  a  red  heat, 
in  which  state 
they  are  trans- 
ferred to  theglass- 
fuiiiace  for  use. 
New  pots  require 
to  be  'glazed' 
by  throwing  in 
a     quantity    of 

broken  glass,  which  protects  them  from  the  further 
action  of  the  materials  used  in  glass-nuvking.  Fig. 
o  represents  a  pot  for  window  or  bottle  ghuss,  .and 
lig.  6  a  llint-gla-ss  pot,  which  has  always  a  covered 
top. 

Fiiniaees. — The  furnaces  which  have  been  long 
in  use  for  its  ditt'erent  kin<ls  will  be  noticed  in 
turn  as  we  describe  the  processes  of  making  gl.ass ; 
as,  however,  the  Siemens  furnace  has  come  into 
extensive  use  in  various  departments  of  the  gln.ss 
manufacture,  it  is  necess.ary  to  give  an  idea  of  its 
eonstructiiui.  A  general  deseriiition  of  this  furnace 
is  given  umler  I  Hox  ;  Imt  we  give  here  a  plan  ( lig.  7 ), 


240 


GLASS 


and  a  cross  section  ( lie.  8 ) — tlie  latter  sliowin"  tlie 
brick  rogcneratoi-s — of  that  form  of  it  oalloJ  tlip 
continuous  lank  funiaoe  in  wliicli  no  jiots  are  um'iI 
— a  form  wiiirli  i>  now  larj;ely  I'niiplo.vc 


bottle-;,'la.ss, 
nuMl   kinds 


roll 
of 


I  in  making' 
1  jilati',  and  ."lit'etjiliLss.  Kor 
ass    pots   are   still   used   in   the 


I' I 


Siemens  as  well  as  in  the  older  kimls  of  furnaces; 
where  pots  are  preferred,  the  chief  dillerenee  is 
that  a  itat  platform  is  prepared  for  their  reception, 
instead  of  the  hed  ot  the  furnace  bein^'  in  the 
shape  of  a  tank  or  cistern. 

The  lifjures  are  to  some  e.\tent  rather  diagrams 
than  exact  representations  of  the 
furnace,  since,  otherwise,  morewoml- 
cuts  than  we  can  lind  rooni  fur 
would  be  reipiired  to  explain  it.  In 
the  |)lan  (li^'.  7),  HM  is  the  com- 
partment into  which  the  raw 
materials  are  fed  by  the  doors,  I>. 
When  the  ^;lass  is  p.artially  melted, 
it  i>a.sses  under  the  lirst  lloatinj,' 
brid^je  of  lireclav,  B,  which  keeps 
back  lloatinf;  impuritie.s.  In  com- 
partment 1'  the  f;hiss  is  completely 
melted,  and  it  then  passes  in  a  pure 
state  under  the  second  tloatin;; 
briil;;e,  15',  into  the  compartment 
W,  where  it  is  ready  for  use;  A,  A, 
h  beinj;  the  workin;;  holes.  The 
.space  under  KM  in  fi^'.  S  is  an  air- 
flue  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the 
tank  cool.  In  the  section  ( lig.  8), 
A  and  ti  represent  the  air  and  ^'as 
regenerators  on  the  left,  and  .\'  and 
G'  the  corresjiondinfr  ones  on  the 
right.  The  gas-producers  are  not 
shown,  but,  as  explained  under  Ir.oN, 
the  air  iind  gas  are  fed  for  a  certain 
time  through  A  and  C  respectively  to  the  lierl  of 
the  furn;i<-e  ;  and,  while  this  is  the  case,  the  prf)- 
ducts  of  combust  iiMi  descenil  through  ,\  and  ( ;' on 
the  right,  by  which  the  piles  of  ojien  brickwork 


lieconic  ill  time  highly  heated.  By  a  proper 
arrangeiiicnt  of  Hues  and  valves.  Ibis  process  is 
then  levelsed,  so  that  thi'  gas  ami  air  now  enter 
the  furnace  on  the  light,  robbing  in  their  course 
the  hot  bricks  in  .A  and  i\  of  their  heat,  and  carry- 
ing it  back  to  the  bed  of  the  furnace.  This  time, 
of  course,  the  products  of  combust iiuiescaiie  through 
A  and  (1  on  the  left,  by  which  these  regenerators 
become  in  turn  heated,  thus  saving  heat  which  is 
lost  by  escaping  up  the  cliimiiey  in  oidinaiv  fur- 
naces. Ill  a  sulisei|ucnt  spi'cilication  -Messrs  Sie- 
mens replaccil  the  fixed  partitions  by  bars  m  "inlers 
of  lireclay  or  other  refractory  material,  w  hicli  lloat 
transversely  on  the  surface  of  the  molten  matter, 
the  upjier  stratum  of  which  thi'y  diviili>  into  I'oni- 
partmeiits.  Tlii>  |iarlially  nn-lled  nialeiial  is  thus 
kept  at  the  supply  end  of  the  tank,  and  only  the 
more  thoroughly  melted  and  purer  matter  is  per- 
mitted to  How  towards  the  working  end  under 
these  floating  bridges.  Mcue  recently  partitions, 
whether  tixed  or  floating,  have  been  for  the  most 
part  dispensed  with,  and  the  tank  forms  one  huge, 
hwig  basin.  Kloating  vessels  made  of  pi>tclay, 
divi<lc(l  into  three  conipartnients,  m  twci  compart- 
ments and  a  floating  ring,  do  the  work  of  separating 
the  refined  from  the  crinlcr  m.-itler. 

Jlii/l/i-;//ii.ss.—'V\n-  tank  fniiiace,  without  bridges, 
to  w  hich  reference  has  just  lieeii  made,  is  admirably 
adajited  for  the  manufacture  of  bottle  gla-ss,  and 
has  superseded  the  system  of  melting  in  pots.  In 
the  compositi(Ui  of  this  glass  a  great  variety  of 
materials  is  admissible  in  conjunction  with  sand, 
wliicli  tonus  the  b.'usis  of  this  jis  well  as  of  all  other 
kinils  of  glass.  The  residual  alkaline  and  calcic 
salts  from  gas,  sonp,  and  alkali  works,  siili>hate  of 
.soda,  clay,  common  salt,  chalk,  ba.salt,  and  other 
rocks  containing  felspar,  and  lastly  the  slag  from 
iron  blast-furnaces  are  the  materials  chiefly  in  use. 
When  the  glass  is  pro]ierly  inelteil  and  skimmed,  a 
workman  dips  a  long  iron  tube  called  Ji  blow  piiie 
into  .a  pot  <M-  tank  and  takes  up  (on  repeating  the 
operation)  a  'gathering,'  or  suHicient  metal  to 
make  a  bottle  («,  fig.  9).  Another  workman 
brings  this  into  a  pear  shape  (/<,  fig.  9)  by  slightly 
blowing  and  tiirniiig  it  on  a  stone  or  iron  table, 
called  a  i/mnrr.  I'lunierly  the  further  inaiiipula- 
tion  of  the  bottle  was  done  by  haml,  but  moulds 
are  now  used.      These  are  iisuallv  of  c.asliron  or 


"I 


■■■■■■kaaiai 

K.V-V.V.V:; 

■■■■■■[^■■■■1 
■  ■■■■bliaHBBi 

'■•■■■•■■'       '•■■■■■■■■■■■I 

IV  nv 


I':.- 


llL 


LCtlUh 


uu  VV,ti- 


brass,  or  sometimes  of  clay,  and  open  or  close  by 
the  iiressure  of  the  foot  on  a  siiring.  Into  such  a 
mould  the  partially  distemled  glass  is  iiiserleil,  and 
made    to    fill    it    bv   Idowing 


down    the   tube,    the 


GLASS 


241 


bottom  being  jnislieil  u])  with  a  jjoutil,  aiul  the  viiig 
rouiiil  the  mouth  afterwards  made  by  tlie  addition 
of  a  strip  of  metah 

Anncdlitig. — When  tlie  glass-blower  has  finished 
a  bottle,  it  is  immediately  taken  to  the  annealinf,' 
oven,  where  it  remains  for  some  thirty-six  hours, 
during  which  time  it  cools  very  gradually  from 
almost  a  softening  heat  to  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture of  the  air.  This  process  is  a  very  important 
one  in  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  glass, 
because  when  newly  made  into  vessels  or  sdieets 
it  is  so  fragile  that  it  will  scarcely  endure  touch- 
ing. The  molecules  are  then  under  a  strain  from 
the  outside  portion  of  the  glass  cooling  much 
quicker  tlian  the  iniuM' ;  but  this  is  in  a  great 
measure  rectified  by  annealing  it,  and  so  a  proper 
strength  is  acquired. 

Wiiidow-tjlasii. — Crown  and  sheet  glass  arc  the 
very  same  in  respect  to  composition,  and  plate- 
glass  only  differs  from  them  in  that  the  jiroportion 
of  lime  is  usually  less,  and  the  materials  more  care- 
fully selected  with  regard  to  purity.  In  England 
sheet-glass  is  made  from  mixtures  of  which  the 
following  is  an  example.  Sand,  100  ;  sulphate  of  I 
soda,  40  to  45  ;  chalk  or  limestone,  40  ;  powdered 
anthracite  coal,  2 ;  cullet,  100 ;  small  quantities 
of  those  bleaching  or  oxidising  agents  already  ' 
noted  being  addeil  as  required.  ] 

Cruwii-r/Uiss. — Before  the  lejical  of  the  duty  on 
glass  in  1845  this  glass,  then  almost  the  only  kind 
used  in  England  for  windows,  sold  at  £12  per  crate, 
from  whicli  price  it  had  fallen  in  1865  to  ,£2,  8s. 
Its  manufacture  is  now  practically  given  up  in 
favour  of  .sheet-glass,  at  first  called  German  or 
]iohemian  sheet,  the  price  of  which  has  fallen  in  a 
like  degree.  Crown-glass  Ijeing  in  larg(^  circular 
discs,  much  waste  is  caused  by  cutting  these  into 
rectangular  pieces,  and  by  the  thickened  lump  or 
bull's-eye  in  the  centre  of  the  disc.  In  jiast  days 
these  objectionable  bull's-eye  pieces  were  stuck 
into  cellar-windows,  and  it  is  not  a  little  curious 
that  these  are  now  being  made,  though  of  smaller 
size  and  in  coloured  glass,  in  large  numbers  for 
ornamental  windows. 

The  metal  being  brought  to  a  workable  con- 
dition and  skimmed,  a  sheet  of  crown-glass  is 
made  in  this  way  :   A  workman,  by  dipping  his 


Fig.  a 

long  iron  lilowiiipe  two  or  three  times  into  the 
pot,  takes  up  on  the  end  of  it  a  gathering  of  about 
10  lb.  of  metal,  which,  when  the  pijie  is  held 
upright,  lengthens  by  its  own  weight  into  a  bulb 
shape  (a,  lig.  9).  Kolling  this  on  the  marver,  the 
woruman  makes  the  outer  [lortion  conical,  and 
then,  by  blowing,  forms  it  into  a  pear  shape  (/(,  tig. 
!)).  Further  heating  and  blowing  brings  it  into 
the  shape  of  a  flattened  sphere,  and  to  a  much 
increased  size  (c,  li,g._!)),  with  a  point  c'  called  the 
bullion  point. 

jVt  this  stage  the  glass  is  transferred  from  the 
blowing-]iipe  to  an  iron  rod  (ponty),  on  the  end  of 
which  a  lumi)  of  hut  iron  metal  has  l>een  jdaced. 
This  lump  is  made  to  assume  the  form  of  a  little  cu]i 
by  pressing  it  on  an  iron  point,  and  is  then  pressed 
against  the  Ijullion  ]ioint  of  the  Hattened  sjihere,  to 
wdiich  it  becomes  lirndy  attached.  The  )iii)e  is 
detached  by  nieiins  of  a  piece  of  iron  dipped  in 
224 


cold  w.-iter  {d,  fig.  9).  The  globe  of  glass  is  now 
hehl  with  the  ponty.  The  operator  next  carries  it 
to  the  nose-hole,  and  presents  the  opening  formed 
by  the  detachment  of  the  blowjiipe  to  the  action 
or  the  furnace;  this  again  softens  the  glass,  which 
is  then  taken  to  the  flashing  furnace,  and  kept  con- 
tinu.ally  revolving,  by  turning  the  ponty  on  a  rest 
in  front  of  the  furnace  opening.  The  revolutions 
are  at  lirst  slow,  but  are  gradually  accelerated  as 
the  softening  of  the  glass  goes  on,  an<l  the  cen- 
trifugal force  so  produced  throws  the  edges  of  the 
oritice  outwards,  as  in  f,  iig.  9.  As  the  glass 
ilattens,  it  is  revolved  with  greater  ra])idity,  and 
advanix'il  .so  near  to  the  mouth  of  the  furnace  as 
to  draw  the  flames  outward,  by  contracting  the 
draught.  This  completes  the  .softening  of  the 
glass ;  it  then  opens  suddenly,  with  a  rushing 
noise  like  the  unfurling  of  a  Hag  in  the  wind, 
caused  by  the  rapid  Hying  outward  of  the  softened 
glass  and  the  rush  of  the  tlames  outw.ards.  It 
becomes  perfectly  Hat,  and  of  equal  thickness, 
except  at  the  bullion  or  centre  ( /",  iig.  9).  The 
flitsliiiirj  is  now  complete  ;  and  after  being  lU^tached 
from  the  ponty,  it  is  taken  to  the  annealing  oven, 
into  which  it  is  passed  through  a  long  horizontal 
slit  whicli  forms  the  opening,  and  when  fairly  in,  it 
is  dexterously  turned  on  its  edge.  Here  it  remains 
at  a  temperature  .somewhat  Ixdow  that  required  to 
soften  glass,  until  the  oven  is  tilled  witii  these  so- 
called  tKlArs  of  glass,  when  the  heat  is  sullered  to 
decline,  until  the  whole  is  cold,  when  they  are 
removed  to  the  packing-room,  to  be  packed  in 
crates  for  sale. 

Skect  or  cylinder  glass,  as  already  stated,  has  now 
almost  entirely  displaced  crown-glass  for  window.s. 
The  liiihcmian  process,  at  jire.sent  prai^tised,  wius 
introduced  from  France  in  1832,  although  a  very 
rude  kind  of  sheet-glass  ha<l  been  previously  made 
in  England.  Sheet  is  made  in  a  quite  difi'erent 
way  from  crown  glass,  inasmuch  as  a  long  and 
])erfect  cylinder  is  sought  to  be  produced  Ijy  the 
hloirer  instead  of  a  s]ihere  of  glass.  Very  much 
larger  sheets  can  be  obtained  by  this  than  by  the 
crown-glass  jirocess,  as  the  form  is  rectangular  and 
there  is  im  lump  in  the 
centre.  In  some  works  the 
largest  sizes  are  made  with 
the  aid  of  a  mechanical 
apparatus  for  swinging  the 
cylinders,  called  an  "iron 
man.'  Kig.  10  shows  a 
ground-plan  of  an  eight 
pot  furnace  heated  by  gas. 
The  gas  and  air  are  su]!- 
l>lied  through  the  five  ajjcr- 
tures,  called  'ports'  (three 
for  gas  ami  two  for  air,  or 
rici:  (•(•«((),  which  are  phu'cd 
at  either  end  of  the  furnace, 
below  or  on  a  level  with 
its  bed,  each  end  forming 
the  entrance  and  e.\it  alter- 
nately (vide  description  of 
the  reversing  system,  iig.  S ). 
This  is  the  furnace  origin- 
ally designed  by  Mcsms 
Siemens,  and  adopted  liy 
Messrs  Chance  in  1801. 
Since  that  period  the  paten- 
tees have  introduced  various  mollifications,  but 
it  is  questionable  whether  they  have  improved 
upon  tlieir  original  design.  In  \ery  long  furnaces 
it  is  hotter  to  ]ihici'  the  ports  between  tlie  |iots, 
and  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  furnace. 
In  this  system  the  pots  are  heated  partly  by  the 
direct  action  of  the  flame,  and  partly  by  radiation 
from  the  crown  of  the  furnace.  In  his  latest 
specilicati(ms   Mr   V.    Siemens   has    taken   a   new 


1 

i  ^  \ 

-^ 

a\     |j,     \a 

W  1" 

- 

''~^, 

(  ""; 

:l 

o 

I 

V 

v_,^ 

L. 

"'.  U  l" 

k:  1" 

1       1      1 

I'l 


10. 


a,  apertures  for  entrance 
of  gas ;  b,  apertures  for 
entrance  of  air ;  c,  work- 
ing holes  over  pots. 


242 


GLASS 


departure,  and  intruduces  tlic  gas  and  air  at 
a  considerable  licijjlit  alM)ve  the  pots,  the  heat 
bein;^  tbns  obtained  entirely  by  radiation.  This 
arrangement  is  applicable  to  tanks  a.s  well  a.s  to 
pot  f\irnaces.  t'l^.  II  shows  the  system  of  heat- 
infi;    by  radiation    as   adapted    to  a   Ion;;   fnrnai'e 


holdin;;,  s.av,  ."{O  pots;  for  a  sbuncr  fuinaie  the 
arrangement  is  modilied,  the  pots  and  the  ends 
of  the  furnace  beinjj  curved.  The  workman, 
having'  ni.'idc  his  ^'athcrin;.'  (/r,  h,  lii;.  12),  forms 
it  into  a  cylindrical  m;iss  of  the  diameter  rci|uirc<l 
by  blowinj,'  .uid  Uirninj;  it  in  tlii^  cavity  either  of  a 
solid  block  of  wood  wliicli  is  s|irinkled  with  w;itcr. 
or  of  a  hollow  metallic  block  which  is  kept  cool  by 
water  piussin^  throu^'h  it.  l!y  more  blowing  and 
swinj;in}j  over  the  head,  the  workman  brinjjs  it  by 
degrees  ni^arer  to  the  form  of  an  i'loni,'aled  cylinder 
{f,  f/,  tig.  12).  As  it  cools  lapidly  in  tins  ojieration, 
he  from  time  to  time  places  his  pipe  in  the  ri'st  before 
the  furnace-mouth,  and,  gently  turning  it  round,  he 
brings  it  again  nearly  to  the  meltingiioint ;  thi'n 
he  reneat.s  the  blowing  and  swingdng,  standing 
over  tlie  pit,  to  enable  him  to  swing  it  comjdetely 
round  as  it  huigtliens  out.  These  o|)eralions  are 
continued  until  the  cylin<ler  has  reiiched  its  maxi- 
mum size — i.e.  until  it  is  of  eipial  thi<-kness 
throughout,  and  sulliciently  long  ami  broad  to 
admit  of  sheets  of  the  recjuired  size  being  maile 
from  it  ((',  tig.  12).  .Sometimes  these  oylinders  .are 
made  (iO  inches  in  length,  allowing  sheets  of  gl,a.ss 
40  incln^s  in  length  to  be  made  from  them,  but  the 
Belgians  make  them  much  larger.  In  the  \'ienna 
Exhibition  they  exhibited  sheets  10  .  4  feet.  Tlte 
next  opiMation  is  to  place  the  |)ipe  in  the  rest,  ami 
apply  the  thumb  so  as  to  close  the  opening  at  the 
blowing  end  :  the  heat  of  the  furnace  soon  .softens 
the  glass  at  the  closed  extremity  of  the  cylinder, 
and,  ivs  the  enclosed  air  is  prevented  escaping,  as  it 
rarelies,  by  the  thumb  ]daced  on  the  opening  of  the 
blowpipe,  it  bursts  at  the  softened  part  ( /,  lig.  12). 
The  operator  then  ipiickly  turns  the  cylinder,  .still 


A 


/ 


n 


i-ig.  I-.'. 

with  its  end  to  the  lire,  and  the  softened  edges  of 
the  opening,  which  at  lirst  are  curved  inwards, 
aLVa  flashed  (mt  until  they  are  in  a  .straiglit  line 
witli  the  sides  of  the  cylinder  (</,  fig.  12).  It  is 
then   removed,   and   placed   on   .-i  wooden  rest   or 


chevalet.  Just  at  the  shoulder  near  the  blow- 
pipe the  workman  wrajjs  rcnmd  a  thread  of  red- 
liol  glass,  which  after  a  few  seconds  he  withilraw.s; 
then  he  aiii)lies  his  cold  shears  (piickly,  and  the 
shoulder  and  neck  drops  oil' (us  neatly  its  if  cut  with 
a  diamond.  The  removal  of  this  neck  of  glass  can 
also  be  etlected  by  drawing  a  red  hot  irim  rod  round 
the  shoulder,  ami  then  dropping  a  little  inld  water 
upon  it.  The  c<mtinnous  tank  furnace,  and  thtMiot 
furnaces  of  h'r.ance  and  Helginm,  ar<'  so  jirrangedas 
to  serve  for  both  melting  and  blowing.  In  Knglanil 
the  manufacturers  who  emjiloy  pot  furnaces  prefer 
to  have  a  separate  construction,  called  the  'blow- 
ing-holes,' for  the  reheating  and  manipulation  of 
the  cylinder.  The  advantage  of  this  method,  as 
reg.ards  pot  furnaces,  is  that  the  heat  of  the  blowing- 
holes,  being  imlcpendeiit  of  the  melting  process, 
can  be  adjusted  to  suit  the  iciiuiiements  of  the 
blower. 

The  linished  cylinder  (A,  lig.  12)  is  sjdit  open  by 
a  diamond  .attached  to  a  long  handle,  and  guided 
by  a  wooden  rule.  This  was  formerly  ell'ecte(l  by  a 
red-hot  iron  rod.  It  is  then  taken  to  the  llattening 
kiln,  where  it  is  laid  with  the  split  ujiwards  on  the 
llattening  stone,  which  is  generally  covered  by  a 
.sheet  of  glass  called  a  '  lagre,'  to  jirotect  the  cylin- 
der from  the  irregularities  of  its  surface.  Il<'re  the 
heat  is  suliicient  to  soften  without  melting  the  glass, 
and  thejhit/iiirr.  as  it  softens,  opens  the  two  edges 
of  the  crack  until  Ijy  its  own  weight  the  sheet  falls 
ll.at  on  the  stone  ;  he  then  takes  an  implement  in 
the  form  of  a  rake,  made  by  placing  a  piece  of 
charred  wood  lrans\*ersely  at  the  end  of  a  long 
handle,  and  this  is  gently  rubbed  over  the  ghiss, 
producing  a  very  smooth  surface.  The  annealing 
kiln  is  immeiliately  at  the  back  of  the  llattening 
arch,  and  the  llattening  stone  mi>unted  on  a  wagon 
and  carrying  the  sheet  of  now  Hat  glass  is  moved 
into  the  annealing  chambi'r.  Here,  when  cooled 
enough  to  bear  moving,  the  sheet  is  liist  jilaced 
horizontally,  and  afterwards  with  others  piled  nji- 
right.  The  w.agon  is  in  this  way  moved  from  one 
chamber  to  the  other  with  succes.sive  sheets  of  gla.ss 
until  the  annealing  oven  is  tilled.  The  oven  is  then 
closed  up  so  th.at  it  may  be  frei?  from  draughts,  and 
allowed  to  co(d  slowly  down  for  a  period  varying 
from  three  to  live  days.  The  annealing  may  be 
accelerated  by  substituting  for  the  oven  a  series  of 
iron  boxes  on  wheels,  which  are  Idled  in  succession 
with  the  .sheets  on  edge,  and  i),a.ss  on  when  full  into 
a  cooler  place.  There  is  another  and  more  modern 
form  of  le.ir  in  which  the  llattened  sheets  are  ]>assed 
through  the  annealing  chandier  one  at  a  time.  A 
single  sheet  will  cool  very  rapi<lly.  and  at  the  end 
of  about  half  an  hour  will  emerge  thoroughly 
■annealed. 

(;ia.ss-sh.ades  are  made  in  the  same  manner  as 
.above  ilescribed  ;  they  are  nothing  more,  indeed, 
than  the  nmnded  ends  of  the  cylinders  before  Ijeing 
burst.  ^Vhen  wanted  oval  or  sijuare,  the.se  forms 
are  i)roiluci'il  by  the  use  of  boxes  of  wood  charred 
in.sifie,  of  the  size  of  the  shades  recjuired,  through 
which  the  cylinder  is  ]iiLssed,  when  being  blown, 
until  the  soft  gla.ss  touches  and  receives  its  shape 
from  the  inside  of  the  lx>x  or  mould  ;  they  are  after- 
wards annealed,  and  cut  to  the  lengths  ref|uired. 

I'latef/lii.ss  is  ni.ade  in  a  totally  difl'erent  manner 
from  crown  or  sheet.  (Ireat  care  is  taken  in  the 
.selection  of  the  materials,  as  they  require  to  be  of 
a  purer  kind  than  those  used  for  ordinary  window- 
glass.  From  its  thickness,  any  impurity  of  colour 
is  readily  noticed,  and,  on  account  of  its  flat  surface 
when  polished,  air-cavities  are  conspicuous  defects. 
The  sand  used  must  lie  Jis  frei;  as  jxissible  from 
iron,  the  staining  power  of  which  is  most  usually 
correcteil  in  the  case  of  plate-glass  by  the  .addition 
of  a  little  arsenious  acid.  Almost  every  manufac- 
turer has  his  own  private  receipt  for  the  mixture 


GLASS 


243 


of  materials,  but  the  following  may  he  taken  as  an 
average:  Fine  sand,  100  lb. ;  refined  snlpbate  of  soila, 
42  lb.  ;  carbon  in  powder,  '24  lb.  ;  carbonate  of  lime, 
20  to  25  lb.  ;  arsenic,  8  oz.  ;  cullet,  or  broken  iilate- 
gla.ss,  ad  lib.  Ketined  sulphate  has  comiiletely 
taken  the  place  of  carhonate  of  soda.  AVlien  the 
materials  have  been  melted,  and  the  glass  is  ready 
for  use,  the  pot  is  lifted  out  of  tlie  furnace  (fig. 
13)  by  means  of  the  forceps,  and  wheeled  up  to  the 
casting- table  (tig.  13) ;  here  it  is  seized  by  a  crane 
and  tackle,  by  which  it  is  lifted,  and  so  nicely  poised 
over  the  table  that  it  can  be  easily  tih.ed  so  as  to 
pour  (nit  its  contents.  All  tliis  reijuires  so  nnich 
care  and  steadine.ss  that  tlie  men,  impressed  with 
the  great  danger  of  carelessness,   usually  preserve 

f)erfeet  silence  during  their  work.  The  table  is  of 
arge  size — usually  about  30  feet  in  length,  liy  10  to 
20  feet  in  width.  "When  the  reddiot  glass,  which 
is  not  in  a  very  liquid  state,  is  poured  on,  it  im- 
mediately begins  to  spread  ;  two  strijis  of  iron,  a 
little  thicker  than  the  plate  is  intended  to  be,  are 
placed  on  each  side  of  tlie  table,  and  a  steel  or  cast- 
iron  roller  is  laid  acio.ss,  resting  on  these  strips, 


□  MELTINC  I  I 

rilRHAC£s\  I 

LiCASTINC  lABLC 


MCiTINC 
FURNACtS 

D 

a 

^ 

X 

3: 

Q) 

a 

v'k-  n 


Fig.  14. 


which  regulate  the  thickness  of  the  plate,  and  also, 
by  their  distance  apart,  determine  its  width.  The 
roller,  passing  backwards  and  forwards  at  a  uniform 
speed  over  the  table,  spreads  the  gla.ss  into  a  )date 
of  the  size  required.  In  some  works  the  casting- 
table  with  its  a|iparatus  is  run  f)n  rails  from  kiln  to 
kiln,  anil  in  this  case  the  plate  is  pushed  direct 
from  the  talile  into  the  kiln.  In  other  works  (ami 
this  is  the  more  modern  i>lan)  the  casting-table  is 
fixed,  and  the  jilate  is  pushed  from  it  on  to  a 
movalde  talde,  and  thence  into  the  kiln.  The 
annealing  ovens  or  kilns  are  large  shallow  brick 
chambers,  in  which  the  jilates  lie  during  the  process 
of  annealing,  and  which  are  heated  to  a  suitable 
temperature  [jricn'  to  receiving  the  ghass. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  the  arrangements  of  the 
casting  liall  considerable  variety  is  possilile.  In 
the  older  works  the  furnaces  were  in  the  middle, 
and  the  annealing  kilns  on  either  side.  Fig.  13 
represents  a  hall  of  this  kind.  Fig.  14  i.s  a  more 
modern  arrangement,  and,  of  course,  other  com- 
binations can  he  adojited.  When  the  plates  are 
suliiciently  cool  to  be  removed  from  the  kilns  they 
are  carefully  exauuned,  and  such  as  are  sufficiently 
free  from  ilefects  are  taken  to  the  grindiiig-room. 
Formerly  the  grinding  proi'css  was  ai'comiiliNhed  by 
rul)liing  one  plate  u|ion  another,  with  >and  inter- 
posed, both  plates  lieing  bedded  in  plaster.  At  the 
present  time  for  the  upper  gliiss  is  substituted  ix 
rnbl)ing  plate  of  cast-iron,  both  the  lower  jilate  of 
glass  and  the  up|ier  one  of  iron  being  set  in  motion 
while  in  contact  by  machinery  adapted  for  the  pur- 
pose. In  the  preliminary  stage  of  grinding,  sand 
and  water  are  useil  ;  but,  when  the  greater  portitm 
of  the  rough  surface  of  the  glass  has  been  removed, 
the  process  is  completed  by  using  powdered  emery 
of  the  coarser  sorts.     When  one  surface  of  the  glass 


has  been  thus  treated,  the  operation  is  repeated  on 
the  other.  The  next  process  is  that  of  smoothing, 
for  which  a  separate  machine  is  required.  Instead 
of  cast-iron  jilates,  one  sheet  of  glass  is  used  to  rub 
upon  another,  the  upper  .sheets  which  are  movable 
being  weighted.  Emery  of  the  finer  descrii)tion  is 
used  in  this  process,  the  final  touches  l)eing  given 
by  hand,  with  the  aid  of  the  very  finest  emery 
powder.  After  both  sides  have  received  this 
smoothing,  the  i)lates  are  removed  to  another  room, 
where  they  are  again  embedded  on  tables  which  are 
movable  by  machinery,  so  that  the  wliole  suifaceof 
the  plate  may  be  brought  under  tlie  action  of  the 
polisners.  TJiese  are  jiadded  iron  liuff'ers  attached 
to  short  iron  rods  passing  through  holes  in  a  beam 
acted  on  by  springs  or  ^^■eigllts.  The  buH'ers  are 
covered  with  felt,  and  rub  the  glass  as  it  ])a.sses 
from  side  to  side  :  the  surface  of  the  glass  being 
supplied  with  oxide  of  iron,  in  a  very  lijie  state  of 
division  and  mixed  with  water.  When  any  in- 
equalities are  encountered,  the  springs  yield  and 
allow  the  bnfl'eis  to  )ia.ss  freely  over  them.  An 
older  plan  of  pidishing  is  to  use  wooden  rubber- 
blocks  covered  with  felt. 
Rolled  I'Udc. — Mr  Hartley,  of  Sunderland,  intro- 
I  duced  about  18,%  a  method  of  making  rough  plate- 
j  glass  suitable  for  roofs  and  other  purposes  where 
I  light  <mly  is  required  without  transparency.  The 
casting-table  has  generally  a  series  of  fine  grooves 
upon  it,  but  it  can  be  marked  with  any  ref|uired 
liattern.  Very  large  pots  or  continuous  tanks  can 
lie  used  for  this  process,  as  only  a  ladleful  of  glass 
is  required  for  each  sheet.  Quite  recently  rough 
pl.ate  has  been  made  by  passing  the  contents  of  the 
ladle  between  two  rollers  revolving  in  ojiposite 
directions,  but  the  glass  thus  made  lias  not  as  yet 
sujierseded  that  made  by  Mr  Hartley's  iiroce.s.s. 

Patent  Plate. — Sheet-glass  made  by  the  cylinder 
process,  when  free  from  Haws  and  of  good  colour, 
is  to  a  limited  extent  ground  and  polished  much  in 
the  same  way  as  ordinary  plate-glass,  but  it  is 
rather  higher  in  price.  However,  its  lightness  is 
an  advantage  for  some  purposes,  such  as  the  gl.azing 
of  picture  frames  and  for  ]iliotograpliie  neg.atives. 
It  is  called  patent  jilate  to  distinguish  it  from  east 
plate-glivss. 

Qualities  of  I'/{de-i/lii.\x.  —  It  is  of  importance  to 
know  that  there  is  a  great  dilfeieiice  in  the  iinality 
of  pl.ate-glass  ^upjilied  by  different  maiiufaclurer.s. 
We  do  not  refer  to  air-cavities  or  other  iniperfec- 
tions  which  can  he  readily  seen,  and  from  which 
the  highest-priced  glass,  such  as  that  u.sed  for 
mirrors,  is  almost  entirely  free  :  but  to  .a  defect  by 
which  the  transparency  of  the  whole  surface  of  the 
gl.'iss  is  impaired.  It  will  often  be  found,  for  ex- 
ample, that,  of  two  plates  ajiparently  equally  pure 
and  free  from  flaws,  one  will  take  on  a  peculbar 
dimness  a  few  chiys  after  ln'iug  cleaned,  while  the 
other  will  remain  iiuite  clear  and  transparent  for 
as  many  weeks.  Plate-glass  which  does  not  keep 
long  clean — to  use  a  homely  phrase — may  often 
pass  unuotii'ed  for  a  long  time  until  experience  of 
a  better  quality  calls  attention  to  it.  Some  inferior 
qualities  of  '  pressed  gla^s,'  noticed  below,  also  take 
on  a  kind  of  scum  even  when  newly  cleaned,  a  fault 
most  readily  noticed  in  plain  articles. 

Flhiff/la.ss.  —  M.  l!oiiteiiips  in  his  diii'de  dii  ]'errier 
gives  the  following  mixture  for  ordinary  tlint-gl.a.ss: 
Sand,  100:  red  lead.  OtiGO:  carbonate  of  pottu^ji. 
33',S3 — i.e.  one  part  of  carbonate  of  |iotash,  two  of 
red  lead,  >and  three  of  sand.  Sometimes  a  little 
peroxide  of  manganese  is  added,  and  a  portion  of 
the  carbonate  of  potash  may  be  rejilaced  by  refineil 
nitrate,  ("nllet  is  usually  .added  to  the  extent  of 
alxnit  one-f<uirtli  part  of  the  whole  mixture.  The 
pots  for  flint  glivss  (tig.  (i)  are  covereil  or  hooiled,  so 
Its  to  ludtect  tlie  melted  gla.ss  from  any  impurities  in 
the  Haines  of  the  furnace.     The  materials  used  are 


244 


GLASS 


very  carefully  selecteil,  aa  the  glaHH  must  l>e  of 
{;reat  l>urity  ;  tlie  };iei.'iii!<li  tint  in  sheet  <ir  jihite, 
due  to  the  .soila,  would  lie  very  ohjectioiiaole  in 
Hint  k'i-'**-  ''■■*  hiillianl  thishiu^  a^)|>eaniUL-c,  when 
cut  into  suitalile  patterns,  is  owin;;  to  its  liiKh 
power  of  refractin;.'  anil  ilisper-in^r  li;;lit,  a  pioiieiiy 
arisinj;  from  its  romparativi'ly  hi;."li  ilensitv.  'I'lie 
working;  of  llinl-j,'lass  resuinliles  in  a  ^'eneral  way 
that  of  the  other  kinils  :  anil,  as  we  have  not  room 
for  details,  we  note  here  a  list  of  the  sta^tes  in 
nnikin^  a  winejihiss,  to  ;,'ive  an  idea  of  the  iiroeess 
up  to  the  point  where  the  manipulation  of  the 
metal  in  a  weldin;;  state  linishes  :  (  1  )  (Jatherin;;  of 
metal:  ('2)  same  marveled,  and  howl  formed;  (.'{) 
f;lass  with  metal  for  sti-m  droiipeil  on;  (4)  same 
with  stem  formed;  (olsame  with  foot  stuck  on; 
(B)  sanu-  with  foot  heated  and  half  opened;  (7) 
same  with  foot  opened,  howl  cracked  oil',  heated, 
and  sheared;  {H)  same  liiiished.  It  is  then  an- 
nealed. Crystal  is  a  name  loosely  used  for  superior 
kinds  of  1,'lass. 

Ujitiiiil  frVx.v.v.  — This  is  niiule  lioth  of  Hint  ami 
crown  j;la.ss.  In  the  case  of  lenses  for  a  telescope, 
for  example,  a  comhinalion  of  the  two  kinds  is 
uece».sary  to  nnike  it  nchronnitic  —their  uneijual 
densities  conferrin;;  upon  them  dill'erent  refnuaive 
powers,  (iood  Hint  ;;la.ss  for  optic:il  ]iurposes  is 
extremely  dilHcult  to  make,  e.specially  wnen  the 
reipiired  slalis  or  discs  are  of  lar;,'e  size.  It  must  he 
perfectly  hoiini^'eneous  and  free  from  siri;i\  ;inil  it 
will  he  delicieiit  in  refrai'tive  power  if  it  dues  not 
contain  a  very  large  proportion  of  lead,  which,  from 
its  weight,  has  a  strong  tendency  to  .settle  at  the 
hottom  of  the  crucible,  and  so  destroy  the  homo- 
geneity of  the  gla.ss.  '  The  fused  gliiss  is  therefore 
continually  stirred  until  it  h.xs  cooled  to  ;i  consist- 
ency sntticiently  thick  to  prevent  the  lead  settling, 
and  is  then  left  still  in  the  cnuilile  to  complete  the 
cooling.  When  cold,  the  crucihie  is  hroken  away, 
and  the  result  is  a  cake  of  immensely  heavy  gliuss, 
of  which  it  is  not  yet  known  whether  the  value  is 
to  be  calculated  in  pounds  or  pence.'  It  is  after- 
wards reheated,  brought  to  the  reijniied  disc  like 
shape,  and  then  tested  for  llaws.  If  these  are 
numerous,  as  many  smaller  discs  or  slabs  are  taken 
from  it  as  possiiile.  Messi's  IMiance  of  liirmingham 
supplied  in  1871  a  pair  of  discs  'Hil  inches  in  dia 
meter  for  the  telescope  of  the  Wiishington  Naval 
Observatory.  The  LicK  ( )bservatory  ;inil  other  large 
discs  will  he  mentioned  under  Tei.KscoI'K.  The 
hard  crown  made  by  the  iilmve  hrm  has  ;i  density 
of  -J^So;  soft  crown,  •i.").) ;  light  Hint.  :V21  ;  anil 
double  extra  dense  Hint.  4  4.").  .A  great  many 
experiment-s  in  connection  with  optical  glxss  have 
been  tried  of  late  years  with  chenncal  substances 
other  than  those  we  have  named,  the  results  of 
which  will  be  found  in  the  llcports  of  the  Hritish 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 

Sliirj-fitii.s.t. — The  slag  from  iron  blast  furnaces  is 
itself  a  coarse  glass,  but,  until  lately,  it  lijis  been  a 
Wiiste  product  in  the  fullest  sense.  IJricks,  however, 
have  been  successfully  nnide  from  it  of  late  years  ; 
and  still  more  lately,  under  a  patent  obtained  by 
Mr  ISashley  Hritten,  glass  bottles  are  being  made 
from  it  by  a  company  in  Northamiitonshire.  The 
slag  is  used  in  the  molten  state  as  it  runs  from  the 
iron-fnrnaces,  which,  of  coui-se,  so  far  sjives  fuel  ;  but 
it  reijuires  to  be  mi.xed  to  the  extent  of  nearly  one- 
half  Its  bulk  with  other  materials.  The  jiroce-ss  is 
said  to  be  successful ;  yet  we  fancy  there  must  he 
great  ilirticulty  in  procuring,  for  any  length  of  time, 
slag  of  nearly  the  .same  compositiiHi.  i>/(ii/iruo/  is 
a  name  for  the  same  ii<in-sl;ig  when  blown  into 
glass  threads  of  a  hair  like  lineness,  in  which  state 
it  somewhat  resembles  wool,  and  is  now  much  used 
for  covering  steam  boilei-s,  it  being,  like  all  glass,  a 
powerful  non-conductor  of  heat. 

Tuughencd  (Jlwss. — Much   curiosity  was  excited 


v'lien,  in  IS7.'i,  M.  de  la  ISnstie,  a  French  engineer, 
announced  that  he  had  succeeded,  after  mau^ 
experiments,  in  Uiaking  glass  so  'tough'  that  it 
could  scarcely  be  broken.  So  great  was  the  value 
which  the  inventor  attached  to  his  process,  that  he 
demanded  no  less  than  one  millinn  sterling  for  the 
Knglish  patent  right,  and  abrnad  it  wiis  pjnposed 
that  the  purchaser  of  the  iiatcnt  should  pay  so  much 
per  head  of  the  population.  His  original  process 
consists  in  heating  anv  piece  or  jiieces  of  ghuss  till 
they  are  about  to  soften,  and  then  ]ilunging  them 
into  a  hath  of  oil  at  a  greatly  lower  temperature. 
I'sually,  however,  a  mixture  chielly  of  oily  sub- 
stances, such  as  oils,  tallow,  «;ix,  rosin,  iVc,  is  put 
iu  the  hath:  and  smiie  maiiufactureis,  who  worked 
the  jirocess  for  a  time,  dropped  the  newly  made 
gla.ss  ve.ssels  while  still  hot  into  the  oleaginous 
mixture,  by  which  plan  neither  reheating  nor 
annealing  by  the  ordinary  ]iroce.ss  is  reijuired. 
After  the  articles  acipiire  the  temperature  of  the 
bath,  they  are  removed.  Kilher  from  the  want  of 
c;ire  or  from  some  other  cause,  the  results  of  the 
treatment  of  gla.ss  by  De  la  liiustie's  process  are  not 
uniform,  because  many  .samjiles  of  his  toughened, 
or,  as  it  should  rather  be  called,  hardened  gliLss,  are 
almost  as  ejisily  broken  as  ordinary  glass.  Objects 
such  iLs  tumblers,  w  hen  allowed  to  fall,  nearly  always 
break  if  they  strike  the  Hour  on  the  lip  or  mouth. 
Still,  there  is  no  diiiibt  that  niost  gl.iss  treated  hy 
this  |iiiicess  will  stand  a  great  deal  of  rough  usage, 
;ind  that  some  examples  are  practically  unbreakable. 
In  the  case  of  window-gla.ss,  there  is  the  disiui- 
vantage  that  a  diaiinind  will  not  cut  it,  and  no 
variety  of  gla.ss  so  hardened  can  be  safely  engraved 
or  'cut,"  because  when  the  tool  |ienetrates  much 
below  the  skin  the  glass  falls  to  ]iieces  almost 
to  ilusl.  This  is  a  dillii'iilly  w  liicli  lias  ballled  not 
only  M.  de  la  liastie.  but  all  nllier  producers  of  the 
hardened  article.  These  ilefecls.  as  well  as  the 
high  price  of  toughened  glass,  have  as  yet  prevented 
its  coming  into  extensive  use. 

In  !««;■>  Mr  Frederick  Siemens  produced  three 
kinds  of  'tempered  gla-ss,'  of  very  homogeneous 
character  and  of  great  strength  and  hardness,  hy 
means  of  his  regenerative  gius-nuliating  furnace. 
•  1're.ss-liardened  glass '  is  that  which,  after  being 
cut  into  the  |iropo.sed  shape,  is  softened  in  the 
radiation  furnace,  and  then  placed  between  cold 
metal  jilates.  It  may  thus  be-  so  rapidly  cooled 
that  the  diamond  will  not  touch  it. 

Ciiloiii-iiHi  iif  (r/iisx.-  Any  kind  of  gla-ss  call  be 
coloured  by  metallic  oxides,  and  the  chief  eoloure 
given  by  these  are  noted  in  the  following  li.st. 
CiiiiiAvii  of  various  shades,  from  gidd,  'I'uriile  of 
t'assius'  (a  compound  of  gold  and  tin)  being  the 
compound  generally  use<l.  So  small  a  i|Uantily  as 
ir.o'f.oTith  iiart  of  gold  imparts  a  rose  colour  to  glii8.s. 
A  red  colour  is  also  got  from  protoxide  of  copper. 
I'urjilc  or  riohtial  is  obtained  fioiii  peroxide  of 
manganese.  liliii  from  o.xide  of  cobalt  or  oxide  of 
copper,  hut  chielly  from  the  former.  (Irecn  from 
the  same  oxides,  together  with  sesi|uioxide  of  iron  ; 
a  fine  gieeu  is  likewise  gut  from  .sesipiioxide  of 
ehromiuin.  Yilluir  from  o.xide  of  antimony  or 
sesipiioxide  of  iron  ;  sometimes  from  carbon.  Ses- 
i|uioxide  of  iiianinm  gives  a  beautiful  oiialescent- 
yellow  with  a  greenish  cist.  Chloride  of  silver  is 
used  to  stain  glass  yellow .  Ai-seiiions  acid  jiroduces 
an  opaque  v/ii/i: :  so  also  does  the  mineral  Cryolite 
(q.v.),  as  well  as  aluminate  of  soda.  Aventiirine 
gla-ss  is  a  lieautiful  material  of  a  brownish-red 
colour,  with  gold-like  sjiangles.  in  imitation  of 
.\veiitnrine  (q.v.)  quartz.  It  is  largely  iLsed  in  the 
oriiaiiiiiital  gUuss  made  at  Venice. 

Coloured  ghiss  is  maile  in  several  ways.  When 
the  colour  is  all  through  the  body,  the  glass  consists 
oi  pot-vu'tal :  but  for  some  piirjioses,  and  especially 
when    the   colouring   material   is   expensive,    it  is 


GLASS 


245 


-i.e.  a  thin  veneer  of  colour  coats  a 
greater  thickness  of  clear  glass.  In  this  case  the 
two  layers  are  '  gathered '  from  diflferent  |iots  on  the 
hlowingiron,  and  blown  out  together  as  one  sheet. 
Sometimes  a  very  thin  coloured  coating  is  put  on 
clear  glass  by  spreading,  say,  a  red  glassy  powder 
on  the  surface  of  the  latter,  and  then  carefully 
fusing  it.  When  the  chloride  or  other  salt  of  silver 
is  used  to  give  a  yellow,  orange,  or  red,  the  glass 
is  merely  stnincd  on  the  surface.  In  painted  glass 
the  decoration  is  usually  jiroduced  liy  the  use  of 
enamel  colours  painted  on  with  a  bntsh,  and  after- 
wards lired  at  a  moilerate  heat.  Single  sheets  of 
glass,  each  with  several  shades  of  the  same  colour, 
are  now  made  for  gliissstainers,  by  which  much 
shading  by  hainl  is  dispensed  with.  .\  pane  or 
vessel  of  flasheil  glass  may  be  ornanienteil  by 
partially  removing  the  coloured  layer,  either  by 
cutting  or  etching  ;  and  in  the  case  of  many  designs 
additional  enamel  colours  .are  added.  Hydrofluoric 
acid,  which  corrodes  glass,  is  commonly  used  to 
produce  etched  patterns  upon  it,  by  protecting 
certain  portions  with  ,a  varnish,  and  allowing  the 
acid  to  act  upon  the  unprotected  parts.  For  painted 
windows,  see  (Jlass  (  I'.vinted)  ;  and  for  artilicial 
gems  of  glass,  .see  Stones  (  PRf:cii)i's). 

The  beautiful  iridrsroirK  of  much  very  ancient 
glass  is  known  to  be  due  to  the  partial  decomposi- 
tion of  its  surface  and  the  formation  of  innunierable 
thin  scales.  Many  attemjits  have  been  made  to 
produce  a  like  result  artiticially,  and  several 
methods  have  been  successful,  tjne  is  to  submit 
the  object  to  the  iulluence  of  acid  solutions,  with 
the  liclp  of  heat  ami  (iressure. 

Venice,  which  prior  to  18.59  prod\iccd  alnicist 
notliiug  in  glass  hut  beads,  now,  thanks  to  Salviati 
(q.v. ),  is  once  more  making  on  a  large  scale  glass 
objects,  whose  quaint  forms  and  rich  colours  are  but 
little,  if  at  all,  inferior  to  the  best  products  of  her 
ancient  glass-lmuscs.  The  well-known  IJoheniian 
glass,  much  of  which  is  coloured  and  gilt,  but 
which  in  past  days  was  often  more  showy  than 
tasteful,  li.as  recently  shown  quite  remarkaljle 
advances  in  the  character  of  its  decoration.  Some 
very  tastefully  ornamented  coloured  glass  is  also 
made  in  France. 

(Ilii.ss-i-iitfiiiij  (Did  Etiffrainnq. — It  is  usually  flint- 
glass  that  is  so  treaterl ;  an<\  vessels  intended  to 
nave  cut  patterns  are  blown  with  thick  walls.  The 
first  operation  in  glass-cutting  is  usually  dime  on 
an  iron  grinding-whcel  10  or  12  inches  in  <liameter, 
an<l  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  which  is 
maile  to  revolve  vertically  by  means  of  a  belt  and 
pulley.  Immediately  .above  a  hopper-shaiied  cistern 
is  placed,  which  suiijilics  the  wheel  with  the  neces- 
sary mixture  of  sand  .and  water.  If  a  faceted 
pattern  is  to  be  given  to  a  clecanter  or  other  object, 
it  is  first  rougheil  out  on  this  wheel  by  the  giinder 
holding  the  vessel  against  it.  The  facets  now 
formed  on  the  glass  are  next  made  snu)other  by  a 
fine  s.andstone  wheel,  fed  with  water  only,  and  simi- 
larly driven.  For  many  purposes  this  wheel  is  of 
an  .angular  section  on  the  iMlg(>.  The  ground  parts 
are  finally  polished  upon  a  wooden  wheel,  supplicil 
with  miiist  putty  powder  (oxide  of  tin)  or  other 
fine  iiolishing  material.  The  obscuring  of  glass  by 
the  ordinary  process  is  done  with  sand  and  water 
alone;  but  nnich  of  this  kind  of  work  is  now  done 
by  'I'ilglini.an's  sand-blast  (n'occss,  to  be  presently 
noticed.  Kngravcd  patterns  are  produced  by  means 
of  small  copper  discs,  revolving  in  a  lathe,  emery 
powder,  mixed  with  oil,  being  ap|>licd  to  the  edges 
of  their  circumference.  We  have  already  referred 
to  the  use  of  liycholl''.oric  acid  for  etching  gljtss. 

'rHqliniiiti's  Sdiiil  hlii.st. — This  is  a  very  striking 
inventiim.  The  well-known  fact  that  windows 
exposed  to  the  action  of  windblown  sand  by  the 
seashore   eventually   become   completely   cdiscured 


appears  to  have  suggested  the  proce.ss  to  Mr  Tilgli- 
nian.  The  Matthewson's  patent  sand-blast  appar- 
atus, irianufactured  by  the  Tilghman's  Patent  Sand- 
blast Company,  is  altogether  independent  of  any 
blower  or  engine,  and  occupies  a  very  .small  space, 
being  aliout  2  feet  square  and  .31  feet  high.  The 
piece  of  glass  to  lie  operated  on  is  held  on  the  top 
of  the  machine.  The  sand  is  set  in  motion  by  a 
steam  ejector  (part  of  the  machine),  being  drawn 
by  the  vacuum  caused  by  the  How  of  steam  into  an 
annular  space  where  it  mingles  with  the  steam, 
and  is  ejected  through  a  small  pipe  against  the 
glass.  The  machine  does  exceedingly  fine  and 
quick  work  a.s  regards  obscuring  both  jilain  ami 
flashed  glass.  It  cuts  away  the  flashed  surface 
almost  as  soon  as  the  glass  is  held  in  position.  The 
parts  which  are  to  remain  bright  are  protected 
either  by  a  composition  or  by  blotting-paper, 
which,  having  been  soaked  in  glycerine  and  glue, 
has  been  stuck  on  to  the  glass,  and  from  which  the 
pattern  is  cut  out.  The  blast  will  drill  holes  in  a 
glass  plate  Jinch  thick  of  a  diameter  from  J-inch 
to  I  inch  in  less  than  two  minutes.  This  machine 
is  not  adapted  for  obscuring  large  sheets  of  glass. 
which  is  accomplished  by  a  machine  in  which  the 
.sand  is  set  in  motion  by  a  IJaker's  blower  driven  by 
a  non-condensing  engine.  The  latter  a])|)aratus  is 
not  capable  of  perforating  glass  or  of  removing  the 
flashed  surface. 

I'l-rssrrl  0/ri.i.i. — By  this  name  is  known  .a  certain 
cheap  class  of  objects,  such  as  tumblers,  small 
dishes,  \c.,  with  patterns  in  imitation  of  cut  gla.ss. 
It  is  an  American  inventiim,  and  the  process 
consists  in  pressing  or  shaping  glass  into  form 
by  means  of  a  metal  mould  and  reverse,  called 
a  plunger,  or,  for  larger  work,  by  a  weighted  lever, 
or  a  .screw  and  fly-wheel.  The  chief  seat  of  this 
branch  of  the  trade  in  (Jreat  Britain  is  at  Xew- 
castle-on-Tyne,  where  a  glass  in  which  baryta  is 
largely  or  wholly  substituted  for  lead  is  used.  By 
a  somewhat  sinular  but  much  older  luocess. 
'  lunched  glass'  objects  such  as  buttons  are  largely 
made  at  Birmingham. 

So/idi/e  Glass. — When  silica  (flint  or  sand)  is 
fused  with  an  excess  of  akali,  a  glass  is  formed 
which  is  slowly  soluble  in  cold,  but  readily  soluble 
in  hot  water  if  powdcied.  The  soluble  silicate  of 
soda  or  of  potash  formed  by  this  or  by  other 
methods  is  known  as  soluble  glass  or  water-glass. 
When  pure  and  solid  it  has  the  appearance  of  com- 
mon gla.-is,  and  it  is  the  more  soluble  the  larger  the 
quantity  of  alkali  that  it  contains.  This  suhstancc 
has  a  number  of  apjilications  in  the  arts.  When  a 
solution  of  it  is  mixed  with  sand,  ground  chalk, 
dolomite,  or  other  minerals,  it  gradually  binds  them 
into  a  stony  mass.  See  SroXE  (.\ltTlKlfl.\L).  It 
is  also  employed  as  a  Cement  (q.v.).  Soluble  gla.ss 
is  useful  a-s  a  material  for  rendering  calico  .and  even 
wood  non-inflammable,  for  imjiroving  the  cleansing 
jiowcr  of  cheap  soaps,  and  as  .a  ihmg  sub.stitute  in 
dyeing.  \  small  quantity  of  silicate  of  soda  mixed 
with  hard  water  improves  it  for  washing  purposes. 

.As  far  back  as  1S2.")  Fuchs  of  Munich  suggested 
the  application  of  soluble  ghu-^s  to  the  surface  of 
fresco-painting,  in  order  to  fix  the  colours,  the 
climate  of  northern  Europe  not  being  suitable  for 
the  preservation  of  this  Kind  of  decoration,  when 
simply  executed  in  the  old  way,  with  colours  applied 
with  water  on  a  idaster  ground.  It  has  frequently 
been  staled  that  Fuchs's  plan  of  apjilying  solutions 
of  silicate  of  soda  or  silicate  of  pota.sh  to  fresco- 
painting  has  efl'ect\ially  preserved  it.  Hut  in  nmst 
cases  it  has  not  done  so.  The  action  of  the  car- 
bonic acid  of  the  atmosphere  upon  either  of  these 
comjionnds  has  usually,  in  the  course  of  time, 
brought  out  .an  efflorescence  like  mildew  on  the 
surface  of  the  picture.  Professor  BarfV,  who  lia.s 
paid  a  gooil  deal  of  attention  to  the  behaviour  of 


>4G 


GLASS 


these  soluble  8ilicat«H,  assertH,  in  an  etway  written 
in  1876,  that  if,  instciul  of  .silicate  of  s<Kla  or  silicate 
of  potash,  a  solution  of  ahiiiiiiiate  anil  silicate  of 
|iotash  lie  useil  with  the  fresco  colours  on  a  Jiroperly 
|irei)areil  ^'rounil  there  is  no  fear  of  the  surface  ile- 
caym;;,  ami  aihls  that  iiaintinijs  executed  in  this 
way  lia\e  stood  for  many  years.  The  idiuster- 
^round  should  consist  of  sand  and  lime,  out  no 
piaster  of  Paris  should  he  mixed  with  it. 

The  name  I'ti/rmiir  ^/7«.«.v  is  not  infrequently 
•iiven  to  Uhsidhtn  (i|.v. ),  as  also  to  vitreous  lava, 
and  even  to  a  kind  of  |iitclistone. 

See  Nori,  Am  Vitrarin  f  Ani.sterdain,  10(J8);  Pellat, 
Curiositieti  of  (>fftitH-mak-in</  (1849);  Sauzay,  Mtirreis  of 
<wlaa)t-makiitt;  (IHIJD);  IVligot,  Jjf  Vrrre,  .voh  Hi^toire,  jia 
Fabrication  (1S77):  Ncshit.  illann :  Sniilh  Ki'iisiiit/tou 
Miiteum  Art  HamllM'tk  ( 1S7X) ;  Fmcliiier,  Iai  Virrcrie 
AiUi<iue  (1870);  (ieniur.  Die  Glaa  Fahrikitdon  (1880); 
Chance,  Treatise  on  Crown  nn>l  Sheet  tr'laM  (1883;  ;  M. 
A.  Wallace-Dunlop,  (i/a^x  in  the  Old  World  (1883); 
Gerspach,  VArt  de  la  Ven'erie  (18K.^). 

dlaSS,  P.MNTKl)  or  Sr.MNKli.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  painted  ;;hvss  known  in  moiiern  times, 
Kiianiel  ami  Mosaic  f^lass.  In  enamel  jflass  proper 
certain  fnsilile  iii^'iiienls  are  painli'd  on  a  sheet  of 
white  f;lass,  which  is  then  liicd,  .-uid  the  result  is  a 
picture  the  tints  of  which  even  in  the  hi;;h  lijjhts 
are  not  wholly  tran.sparent.  A  nioililicatioii  of 
this  luethiid  produces  its  picture  partly  liy  enamel- 
ling on  white  glass,  ]iartly  hy  the  use  of  pot-metal 
glas.s  (i.e.  gla,ss  coloured  while  in  a.  state  of  fusion, 
and  therefore  of  the  same  tint  all  through),  the 
colour  of  which  is  heigliteiu-d  or  imidilied  liy  the 
use  of  enamels.  In  this  style,  if  any  junction 
hetween  two  pieces  of  glass  liecomes  necessary,  the 
lead  calms  used  for  the  purpose  are  studiously  con- 
cealed liy  heing  made  to  run  along  leading  lines  of 
drapery  or  other  forms  in  the  ]iicturc.  The  ohjeet 
of  this  enamel  and  semi-enamel  gl.iss  painting  is 
the  closest  possihie  iiiiitatioii  of  an  oil  or  water- 
lolour  picture  ;  ami  the  results  of  it  are  never  satis- 
factory. For  at  the  liest  it  can  only  do  with  dilli- 
culty  and  imiierfeclly  what  the  oil  |)ainting  docs 
with  case  and  perfection  ;  while  at  the  .same  time 
it  refuses  to  avail  itself  of  the  special  characteristics 
of  glivss,  which  can  produce  elVecIs  that  no  opaijue 
painting  can  approach.  This  imitation  of  easel  or 
wall  ]iictiires  also  leads  the  designer  into  making 
designs  unlitti.'d  for  the  ornament  of  windows,  ami 
wandering  from  their  true  imrpuse  of  decoration. 
Indeed,  not  iiifrei|uently  the  work  of  a  great 
master  in  picture  painting  is  taken  a.s  a  model  for 
a staiued-gla-ss  window, ami  lahoriously  and  servilely 
imitated,  with  the  result  that  a  mere  caricature  of 
the  great  work  is  produced,  which  is  a-s  far  as 
;mssilile  from  heing  an  ■ornament'  to  the  building 
in  which  it  is  placed. 

The  only  method  capahlc  of  producing  stained 
glass  which  shall  lie  lii-autiliil  and  interesting,  and 
which  at  the  same  time  can  pleail  some  reason  for 
its  existence,  is  that  wliiidi  has  lieen  called  mosaic 
^'.ass,  the  proce.ss  of  which  very  briefly  stated  is  as 
follows  : 

A  design  is  made  wherein  the  drawing  is  given 
and  the  colours  indicated,  which  is  the  working- 
drawing  of  the  glass-painter.  Kroni  this  working- 
drawing  a  kind  of  map  is  made  which  gives  all  the 
v.arious  jiieces  of  the  mosaic.  The  glazier  cuts  these 
liieces  out  from  sheets  of  glaxs  of  various  colours, 
and  hands  thein  bai^k  to  the  painter,  who  iiroeeeds 
lirst  to  paint  the  leading  lines  with  a  sidiil  opaque 
enamel,  the  colouring  matter  of  which  is  ,an  oxide 
of  iron.  This  being  done  (and  the  glass  sometimes 
having  been  fired  at  once,  but  sometimes  not),  the 
pieces  of  glass  are  stuck  together  temjiorarily  ( by 
means  of  wax)  on  a  glass  easel,  and  the  painter 
slightly  .shades  his  hold  tiaced  lines  with  the  same 
opaque  colour ;  using  sometimes  washes  ( in  which 


cose,  of  course,  the  colour  is  much  diluted,  and  is 
only  Kemi-o]ia<|ue),  and  sometiiiies  hatching  of 
lightly  laid'on  lines,  as  in  a  hhu'k  and  white  draw- 
ing on  paper.  Sometimes  Inith  washes  and  hatch- 
ing are  used,  and  sometimes  the  washed  shadows 
are  '  stippled  '-  -i.e.  part  of  the  colour  is  removed  by 
dabbing  it  with  the  emi  of  a  broad  brush.  In  any 
case  the  object  of  the  methods  of  shading  is  to  keejj 
the  shadows  ils  clear,  ami  to  dull  the  gla.ss  as  little 
as  the  i.r/iliin)ilivn  or  e.rjiri.uiiiii  of  the  subject  will 
ailiiiit  of.  Two  or  three  or  more  lirings  are  necessarj' 
during  the  process  of  |hi>  |iiiintiiig.  but  as  far  as  the 
|>aiiiting  as  distinguished  from  the  mosaic  is  con- 
cerned this  is  all  that  has  to  be  done,  though  it 
must  be  .said  that  to  do  it  well  requires  C(msiderable 
experience  and  artistic  skill  ami  feeling. 

This  painting  being  done,  the  glass  goes  back  to 
the  glazier's  bench  again,  anil  he  'leads  it  up'  (i.e. 
joins  it  together  «ilh  lead  calms  soldered  at  the 
juiiclion),  and  the  window,  .ifter  having  been  solid- 
ilicil  by  a  still'  cement  or  juitty  rubbed  into  the 
leaf  of  the  leads,  h.as  then  only  to  be  jiiit  in  its 
place  and  stiengtliencd  by  the  due  iron  slay-bars. 
It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  in  this  mosaic  gla.«s- 
paintiug.  so  far  from  there  being  any  necessity  for 
conce.'iling  the  'leads.'  it  is  highly  desirable  to 
break  up  the  surface  of  the  work  by  means  of  them, 
always  taking  care  that  their  direction  is  carefully 
considered  from  the  jioint  of  view  of  their  appear- 
ance. The  obvious  strength  which  the  network  of 
lea<ls  gives  to  the  window  on  the  one  haml,  and 
the  (divious  necessity  for  iiicking  out  simill  ]iieces 
of  exquisite  colour  on  the  other,  take  iiw.iy  all 
sense  of  discomfort  in  the  arbitrary  disposition  of 
these  constructive  lines. 

A  mosaic  stained-glass  window,  therefore,  seems 
a  very  simple  atliiir,  and  so  it  is  a-s  a  process 
(baling  .some  dilliculties  in  the  making  of  the 
m.'iterial).  Its  real  dilliculties  are  all  on  the  artistic 
side,  and  have  to  do  with  the  (pialities  of  design 
and  the  choice  of  material. 

-As  to  the  design,  it  must  hi'  repeated  that  smiges- 
liiiii,  not  iiiiiliitioii.  of  form  is  the  thing  to  be  aimed 
at.  Again,  the  shading  is,  a.s  above  said,  for  the 
sake  of  explanation,  not  to  make  the  work  look 
round,  and  also  for  di\crsifying  the  surface  of 
the  glass,  to  make  it  look  lich  in  colour  and 
full  of  detail.  The  qualities  needed  in  the  de- 
sign, therefore,  are  beauty  and  character  of  outline; 
exquisite,  dear,  juecise  drawing  of  incident,  such 
especially  as  the  folds  of  drajiery.  The  whole 
design  should  be  full  of  clear,  crisp,  ca.sily-read 
incident.  Vagueness  and  blur  are  more  out  of 
place  here  than  in  any  other  form  of  art ;  and 
academical  emptiness  is  ,is  great  a  fault  as  these. 
Whatever  key  of  colour  may  be  chosen,  the  colour 
sboulil  alw.ays  be  clear,  bright,  and  emphatic.  Any 
artist  who  has  no  liking  for  hrit//tt  colour  had  better 
hold  liis  band  from  stained-glass  designing. 

Consideration  of  the  colour  of  the  work  naturally 
leails  to  consideration  of  the  material.  The  oidinarj' 
machine  made  window-glass,  thin,  and  without  any 
variety  of  surface,  is  wholly  unlit  fur  stained  gla.s.s, 
but  it  should  be  stated  in  ]ia.ssing  that  a  modem 
mechanical  imitation  of  the  unevenness  of  surface 
fouml  in  old  gla-ss,  w  liich  is  commonly  called  '  cathe- 
dral glass,'  is  the  worst  of  all  materials  for  windows, 
ami  should  never  be  u.sed  in  any  kind  of  glazing, 
ornamental  or  plain.  The  due  varieties  of  surface 
are  those  that  occur  itdtiinilli/  in  the  jirocess  of 
making  thick  cylinder  or  crown  glass.  All  glass 
used  for  glass-painting  should  lie  very  thick,  or, 
whatever  the  pigments  used  for  colouring  may  be, 
the  effect  will  be  jioor,  starved,  and,  if  bright 
colours  1)6  used,  glaring.  The  glass  which  has  to 
show  as  white  sliouhl,  when  laid  on  a  sheet  of 
white  paper,  be  of  a  yellowish-green  colour:  for 
the  colours  in  stained  gla-ss  are  so  powerful  that 


GLASS 


247 


nnless  the  whites  are  toned  in  the  material  itself 
they  will  always  be  inharmonious  and  cold. 

It  is  necessary  in  addition  to  state  briefly  what 
the  varieties  of  coloured  glass  proper  for  tlie  purpose 
are.  First  comes  ]iotiiietal,  in  which  the  colour  is 
an  integral  part  of  the  gl<a.ss  ;  then  Hashed-glass, 
where  the  colour  forms  a  coloured  skin  to  a  wliite 
body;*  and  lastly  a  transparent  yellow  stain  (de- 
duced from  silver),  which  attacks  the  silica,  and 
thu.s  forms  a  part  of  the  glass,  is  much  used  to 
colour  portions  of  the  ])ot-inetal,  for  ornaments  on 
dresses,  hair,  Mowers,  and  the  like. 

This  art  of  mosaic  window-glass  is  especially 
an  art  of  the  middle  ages ;  there  is  no  es.sential 
ditrcrence  between  its  processes  as  now  carried  on 
and  those  of  the  l'2tli  century  ;  any  de|)arture  frou) 
the  medieval  method  of  production  in  this  art  will 
only  lead  us  astray.  It  may  Ije  added  that  its  true 
home  was  northern  Kurope  during  the  mi<ldle  ages, 
as  the  importance  of  the  wall-pictures  in  Italy 
made  its  fullest  development  less  necessary  to  the 
buildings  in  that  {'ountry,  and  accordingly  the 
Italians  did  not  understand  its  principles  so  well 
as  the  artists  of  France  and  England,  and  had  not 
the  full  measure  of  unerring  instinct  winch  the 
latter  had.  And  besides,  as  Gothic  architecture 
lasted  longer  with  us  and  the  French,  there  was 
more  opportuiuty  for  the  development  of  the  later 
styles  here,  since  the  neoclassic  architecture  had 
scarcely  a  place  for  stained  glass. 

The  l'2th  century  begins  the  real  history  of  the 
art.  The  windows  of  that  date  that  are  left  us  are 
very  dee))  and  rich  in  colour,  red  and  blue  being  the 
prevailing  tints.  They  are  mostly  ligure  designs, 
disposed  in  ornamental  frames,  and  are  admirably 
designed  for  their  purpose ;  the  painting  is  veiy 
simple,  nothing  but  a  little  washed  shading  sup- 
porting the  traced  lines  ;  the  figures  are  usually 
small,  except  in  the  case  of  windows  far  removed 
from  the  eye,  as  in  some  of  the  windows  .at  St  Denis 
near  Paris.  The  beautiful  windows  in  the  choir 
aisles  at  Canterbury  ( 'atlicdral  are  usually  referred 
to  the  12th  century,  l>ut  if  they  belong  to  it  they 
must  be  of  its  later  years. 

There  was  a  slow  development  of  the  glass  all 
through  the  earlier  years  of  the  13th  century,  and 
a  great  deal  more  work  is  left  us  of  that  period  :  a 
great  deal  of  the  gla/ing  of  the  early  pointed  archi- 
tecture was  of  mere  geometrical  work.  The  igno- 
rant arcliitcct.  Wyatt,  who  gutted  Salisl>ury  Cathe- 
dral in  1790,  found  most  of  the  windows  .so  glazed, 
and  destroyed  the  glazing  except  for  a  few  frag- 
ments. The  window  of  the  north  transept  at  York 
Minster,  now  called  the  '  Five  Sisters,  is  a  well- 
known  example  of  this  beautiful  work. 

The  11th  or  end  of  the  l.Sth  century  invented  a 
very  beautiful  kind  of  glazing  especially  suitable 
to  tlie  large  tracericil  windows  then  coming  into 
vogue  ;  in  this  style  bands  of  very  richly  coloured 
tigure-glass,  usually  framed  in  canopies,  run  across 
the  lights,  and  are  supported  by  ingenious  fret- 
glazing  in  white,  on  which  elegant  running  patterns 
are  freely  drawn,  and  this  grisaille  (as  it  is  called) 
is  connected  with  the  richer-coloured  bands  by 
means  of  borders,  and  with  medallions,  little  gem- 
like pieces  all  carefully  patterned  ;  tlie  whole  pro- 
ducing an  eli'ect  of  singular  elegance  and  richness, 
and  admitting  plenty  of  light.  The  nave  aisles  of 
York  Minster  and  Merton  College  Chapel  at 
Oxford  may  be  cited  as  giving  us  very  perfect 
specimens  of  this  gl.azing,  which  may  be  said  to 
be  the  highest  point  reached  by  the  art. 

With  the  change  to  the  Perpenilicular  .style  in 
the  15tli  century  came  a  corresponding  change  in 

*  Flashed -glass  is  mostly  used  for  the  beautiful  'ruby'  Klass 
deduced  from  copi)er,  the  making  of  which  w.is  reviveil  l)y 
Messrs  Powell  of  Whitefriars,  in  London,  with  the  help  of  Mr 
Winston  about  the  year  1S53. 


stained  glass,  though,  of  course,  that  change  was 
very  gradual.  The  glass  now  had  a  tendency  to 
become  paler  in  colour ;  a  great  part  of  the  great 
tracerieil  windows  of  the  style  was  oftenest  made 
up  of  elaborate  canopies,  in  which  white  touched 
with  yellow  stain  played  a  great  part.  Some  very 
beautiful  windows  of  this  date  are  almost  entirely 
carried  out  in  silvery  whites  and  yellow  stains. 
The  shading  of  the  (igures  and  drapery,  &c.  was 
much  m(ne  elaborate  ;  the  stippling  and  hatching 
above  mentiimed  was  common,  especially  in  the 
later  part  of  the  style  :  but  the  luminous  quality 
of  the  shadows  was  generally  well  maintained.  In 
.spite  of  the  ravages  of  the  Puritans  both  of  the 
Keformation  and  of  the  Croinwellian  episodes,  ex- 
amples of  stained  glass,  usually  very  fiagmentary, 
are  common  throughout  England.  The  antechapel 
at  New  College,  Oxford,  the  great  east  window  of 
Oloucester  cathedral,  many  windows  in  the  choir 
of  York  Minster,  and  many  of  the  i>arish  churches 
in  that  city,  notably  All  Saints,  North  Street,  are 
sjdendid  examples  of  the  work  of  this  period. 

In  the  16th  century  the  art  was  on  the  wane  ;  it 
became  heavier  in  shading,  less  beautiful  in  ccdour, 
and  aimed  too  much  at  [lictorial  elVect.  As  a 
reasonable  art  stained  glass  can  hardly  be  said 
to  have  existed  after  about  1.140  ;  a  few  jiicces  of 
rather  pretty  and  fanciful  glazing  and  a  little 
heraldic  woik  are  in  the  Elizabethan  period  all 
that  re]iresent  the  .splendid  art  which  adorned 
such  buildings  as  York  Minster  and  Canterbury 
Cathedral.  The  windows  of  Fairfonl  Church,  in 
(iloucestershire,  form  a  very  interesting  collection 
of  the  work  of  the  earlier  part  of  the  century. 
King's  College  Chapel  at  Cambridge  is  almost 
entirely  glazed  with  |iicture-work  of  this  period.  It 
has  stifiered  much  from  reglazing,  antl  is  now  ver^" 
hard  to  read :  nor  could  the  art  in  it  have  ever  been 
of  a  very  high  order. 

With  the  ruin  of  Colliie  architecture  stained 
glass  was  swept  away  entirely  :  and  indeed  it 
jierished  sooner  and  more  completely  than  any  of 
the  other  subsidiary  arts,  doubtless  becan.se  its 
successful  jiractice  de]iends  more  on  the  instinc- 
tive under.standing  of  the  true  principles  of  decora- 
tive art  than  any  other  of  the  arts  connecteil  with 
architecture. 

The  art  of  glass-painting  has  been  n^vived  with 
the  eclectic  revival  of  Gothic  architecture,  which 
is  such  a  curious  feature  of  our  epoch,  and  has 
shared  to  the  full  in  the  diHiculties  which  an 
eclectic  .style  must  of  necessity  meet  with.  Still 
it  must  be  understood  that  glass-painting  is  no 
'  lost  art '  in  the  sense  of  its  processes  being  for- 
gotten :  whatever  the  deliciencies  of  the  modern 
art  may  be,  they  are  the  result  of  the  lack  of  feel- 
ing for  ilccoration,  rather  than  of  diHiculties  as  to 
material,  workshop  receipts,  and  the  like.  The 
very  (iraiseworthv  studies  of  Mr  Winston  and  his 
collaboration  wit^i  Messrs  Powell  of  Whitefriars  in 
the  manufacture  of  window-glass  fit  for  the  pur- 
jiose  made  it  possible  for  us  many  years  ago  to 
liroduce  good  staincd-ghiss  windows  if  our  artistic 
]>owers  did  not  fail  us,  or  rather  if  they  could  be 
turned  into  the  right  direction  :  if  the  designers 
could  understand  that  they  should  not  attcmjit  to 
ilesign  ]>ictures  but  rather  pieces  of  ornamental 
glazing  which,  while  decorating  the  buildings  of 
which  they  formed  a  part,  slumld  also  tell  stories  in 
a  simple  straightforward  nuinner. 

This  they  have  in  a  great  measure  learned  to 
understand,  and  the  public  also  are  beginning  to 
see  that  the  pii'ture-window  of  the  semi-enamel 
style  (as  represented  chiefly  bv  the  elaborate 
futilities  produced  by  the  Munich  manufactories) 
cannot  form,  .as  a  window  should  do,  a  jiart  of  the 
architecture  of  the  building.  On  the  other  h.and, 
there  has  been  (unavoidably  doubtless)  too  much 


248 


GLASS-CRABS 


GLASS-SNAKE 


mere  copying  of  meilieval  designs ;  it  liiis  been 
forgotten  tliat  the  naivetes  of  drawing  of  an  early 
stage  of  art  which  are  interesting  when  gennine 
and  otivionsly  Ixdoiiging  to  their  own  i)eriod,  1)('- 
conie  ridicnhins  wlicii  imitated  in  an  epoch  which 
demands  at  least  phinsihilily  of  drawing  from  its 
artists.  IJnt  that  vimv  diiMaiid  lor  phiusihility  and 
the  eiuse  of  its  attainment  form  another  snare  for 
the  stained-gl;».ss  ilesigncr,  whose  designs,  tliough 
made  with  a  knowledge  of  the  re(|uirements  of  the 
art,  and  though  not  actnally  imitative  of  medieval 
work,  are  too  often  vacant  and  feelinglcss,  mere 
characterless  diagrams,  rather  than  the  expression 
of  thought  and  emotion,  as  the  work  of  the  ndddle 
.ages  always  was  in  spite  of  any  rudeness  of  drawing 
or  shortcoming  in  knowledge. 

One  drawlijick  to  the  ell'ectivene.s.s  of  jiainted 
wintlows  comes  from  the  too  common  ahsence  of 
any  general  plan  for  the  gl.azing  of  the  Imilding. 
The  ilonoi-s  of  windows  are  alloweil  to  insert  what- 
ever may  please  their  imlividual  ta.-^tes  without 
regard  to  the  rest  of  the  glazing  or  tlic  architectural 
requirements  of  the  Imilding;  so  that  even  where 
the  window  is  good  in  itself,  it  fails  in  cllect  of 
decoration,  and  injures,  <ir  is  injured,  l«y  its  neigh- 
bours. The  custodians  of  buildings  before  they 
allow  any  window  to  be  put  up  should  have  .some 
good  i)Ian  of  glazing  schemed  out  embracing  .a 
system  of  subjects,  an  architectural  arrangement, 
.and  a  scheme  of  proportion  of  colour,  ami  tliis  |ihin 
should  be  carefully  adiiereil  to.  Thus,  one  window 
would  help  the  otiier.  and  even  inferiority  of  design 
in  one  or  two  of  the  windows  would  be  le.s.s  noticed 
when  the  whole  elfect  wius  plea.sing.  The  gain  of 
such  a  careful  arr.angement  is  sulilciently  obviou- 
in  cases  where  the  ancient  glazing  of  a  church  i~ 
left  intact  ;  a.s,  for  instance,  in  I  lie  beautiful  (hurch 
of  St  Urbain  at  Troves,  a  work  of  the  end  of  the 
I.Sth  century,  and  whose  glazing  is  perhaps  the 
most  satisf.actory  example  of  gla-ss-painting. 

The  worth  of  stained  gljLss  must  mainly  depend 
on  the  genuineness  and  spontaneity  of  the  archi- 
tecture it  <lecorates  :  if  that  architecture  is  le>s 
than  gooil,  the  stained-gla-ss  windows  in  it  become 
a  mere  congeries  of  designs  without  unity  of  jiur 
pose,  even  though  e.acli  one  m.ay  be  good  in  itself. 

See  works  by  Wiii.ston  (1847  and  1805),  Warriiij^toii 
(1848),  F.  Miller  (LSSfj),  and  esi>ecially  Wistlake,  .1 
Hutnrii  of  DnUin  i>i  Painted  Ola.i.i  (4  vols.  1S79  '.t.5). 

iiliiss-vvnhs  {Pli'/ll'ixoiiiii),  the  larval  forms  of 
rock  lobsters,  vVjc.  ( Palinnriihc),  formerly  regarded 
as  adults,  .and  made  into  a  genus  or  fandly.  Tlie 
body  consists  of  two  transparont  leaf  like  discs; 
there  .are  beautiful  eyes  on  long  .--talks. 

GlasSC.  Han'N.\ii,  wa.s  the  author  of  the  famous 
Art  It/  Cookcrji  (1747):  a-s  also  of  Tlic  Complcnl 
Confcrlioncr  (1770),  and  of  The  Servant's  Directori/ 
(1770).  The  jiroverb  '  First  catch  your  hare  '  does 
not  expressly  occur  in  her  Voohrry. 

Glass-houses.    See  Pl.vnt-house-s. 

Gliissitrs  (properly  (Uti.sites),  a  religious  body 
popularly  so  named  from  .John  (lias  (  lti".)o-177;5). 
some  time  parish  minister  .at  Tealing,  near  Dundee. 
In  17.'W,  after  three  years  of  inquiry,  tllas  was 
deposed  by  the  lieneral  .Assembly  of  the  Kirk  of 
Scotland  for  opinions  set  forth  in  The  Te.il i mo n;/  of 
the  Kiiid  iif  Mnrljir.i  cotfeniiiif/  His  Kinr/f/oiii 
(.John,  xviii.  '.id,  .37),  that  National  Church  est.ab- 
lishments   .are   unscriptural    and    anti  christian    in 


doct 
gre; 


;trine  and  persecuting  in  spirit,  and  that  a  con- 
gatioii  of  oelievei-s  in  church  order  (i.e.  with 
bishops  or  ehlers,  .and  deacons)  is  subject  to  no 
jurisdiction  under  heaven.  (Jlxs  and  those  who 
adhered  to  him  formed  a  congregation,  .and  other 
churches  were  formed  in  Scotland,  Kngland,  and 
America.  Out  of  .Scotland  the  brethren  were  called 
Sandcmanians,  from  Robert  Sandenian  (171S-7I), 


son-in-law  to  Glas,  who  helpeil  in  I  lie  work,  and 
died  at  D.anbury  in  Connecticut.  The  doctrines 
professed  are  taken  literally  from  Scripture.  .Sal- 
vation through  grace  and  by  the  work  linislied  by 
our  liord  upon  tlie  Cross,  the  helplessness  of  sinful 
iiion  to  ,aid  in  tlieirown  salvation,  ami  the  necessity 
for  works  as  evidences  of  living  faith  sum  up  their 
doctrine.  They  consider  tin?  celcbralioii  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  as  the  cjiief  purpose  of  the  .Sabbath 
assembly,  .all  else  being  subordinate  to  this.  The 
Lord's  I'rayer  is  used  to  begin  and  end  the  service, 
prayei's  in  which  the  brethren  take  part  in  turn, 
pr.aise  in  which  the  l*s,alms  aloiu?  arc  used  and  the 
stated  reading  of  the  whoh'  Scripliiie,  form  parls  of 
the  service,  exhortation  by  the  ehlers  following. 
Before  the  ordin.ance  the  'fellowship'  is  observeil, 
this  being  a  collection  for  the  necessities  of  poor 
members.  Hishops  or  elders  .are  chosen  by  the 
marks  given  in  I  Tim.  iii.  1-7,  iVc ,  and  a  olurality 
of  elders  is  renuired  for  the  ordinance  and  for  acts 
of  discipline.  l)eacons  and  deaconesses  have  care 
of  the  ])oor  .and  of  all  secular  all'airs  of  I  Iks  eliurch. 
.Ml  services  to  the  church  are  given  fret!  .as  from 
love  to  the  truth.  Love  feasts  are  helil  at  mid-d.a.y 
on  Sabbath,  .at  which  all  members  not  tirccxsnrily 
absent  attend.  The  baptism  of  members  .and  their 
chililren  is  practised.  The  law  of  discipline  ( Matt, 
xviii.  ir>-17)  is  strictly  observed  as  a  means  of  pre- 
serving peace  and  unity  in  the  church,  while  eating 
of  blood,  llie  use  of  oaths  .as  between  lirctlireii,  I  he 
Use  of  the  lot  for  frivolous  purposes,  and  the  covetous 
.accumulation  of  riches  are  forbidden.  The  kiss  of 
ch.arity  and  services  of  kindness  are  enjcuned.  The 
brethren  take  no  part  in  wmship  with  .any  ni>( 
accepting  those  scriptural 
doctrines. 

Glass    Paper    or 

Cloth.  for  pcdishing 
woodwork,  is  made  by 
sprinkling  ])owdered  gl.ass 
over  paper  or  calico  still 
wet  with  a  coat  of  thin 
glue. 

Glas.s-ro|»e  Spoil;;*- 

f  II iiiilijiicmu),  .a  .lapanesc 
llinly  sponge  (one  of  the 
llexactinellida),  the  boilv 
of  which  is  anchored  in 
the  mud  or  ooze  by  :; 
spir.ally  twisted  wisp  or 
rope  of  siliceous  threads. 
The  latter,  stri|)ped  of  the 
sponge  anil  m.anipnlate.l 
by  the  .Japanese  divers,  is 
a  common  curiosity.     Sec 

SPONIiKS. 

Glass-snake    ( <>i>hi 

saitn.i  n  ntni/Js\,  a  limb 

less     serpent-like     lizard 

(belonging  to  the  shorl 

tongned  section)  common 

in    North    America   from 

\'irgiiiia  to  l'"lorida.       li 

is  aliout  .3  feet  long,  ami 

varies   greatly   in   colour. 

The    joints    of     the     tail 

break  oil'  readily  on  irrita 

tion,  but  are  soon  repm- 

diiced.      The  gla-ss-snake 

feeds  on  worms,  insects. 

mice,     i\:c. ,    chooses    dry 

regions,  and  spends  much 

of  its  time  in  boles  under 

gnmnd.     Only  the  above 

species   is   known,  but  a 

closely-allied  genus  (I'seudopus)  occurs  in  southern 

Europe  ami  As-sani. 


Hyuloneiua. 


GLASSWORT 


GLAUBER 


.'49 


tilusswort   (Saiicortiia),   a    genus  of    Clieno- 

f)odiace.T3  of  which  one  species  (S.  herhrtrra),  a  leaf- 
ess  plant  with  jointed  stems,  is  eoninum  in  salt- 
marslies  in  lliitain.  It  makes  a  good  pickle  or 
antiscorhutio  salad.  Several  species  grow  ahnn- 
dantly  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and, 
as  they  contain  a  larf,'e  fjnantity  of  soda,  were 
formerly  of  importance  in  making  brtrilla,  along 
with  the  species  of  Saltwort  ( <|.  v. ). 

(•lastOllbliry,  an  ancient  municipal  horoughof 
Somersetshire,  lies,  engirt  liy  the  river  Brne,  amid 
orchards  an<l  level  pastures — once  fen-land — at  the 
foot  of  tlie  conical  tower-crowned  Tor  (oOO  feet),  (i 
miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Wells,  and  .30  8.  of  Bristol. 
The  Celtic  Ytijisvitrin,  the  Amlon  of  Arthurian 
legend,  and  the  Oliratiiifiahurh  or  (iliestings' 
borough  of  the  West  Saxcms,  it  was  hither,  says 
William  of  Malmeslmry,  that  .loseph  of  Arimathea 
came  hearing  the  Holy  Crail,  liere  that  he  founded 
the  first  Christian  church  in  Britain.  On  Weary- 
all  Hill  he  ]ilante<l  his  pilgrim's  staff;  it  took  root, 
and  grew  i7ito  the  Holy  Thorn,  which  hlossomeil 
miraculously  every  Old  Christmas-eve  until  it  was 
cut  down  hy  a  Puritan.  [Grafts  froTu  it  llourish 
still ;  one  at  Sutton  I'oyntz,  near  Weymouth,  duly 
blossomed  on  the  night  of  the  Mi  .January  1SS4  in 
presence  of  '250  persons.  It  is  the  C'rutcyiis pmi'i/.r 
of  botanists.]  Certain  at  least  it  is  that,  iinlike 
Canterbury  or  York  or  London,  '  Glastonbury  was 
the  one  church  of  the  lirst  rank  in  England  which 
stood  as  a  memorial  of  British  days,  the  only  one 
which  had  lived  unscathed  through  the  storm  of 
English  conquest.'  For  the  wattled  basilica,  which 
contained  the  grave  of  a  St  Patrick  and  of  Gildas, 
was  in  630  encased  by  Paulinus  of  York  in  boards 
and  lead ;  and  to  the  east  of  it  in  719  King  Ine 
reared  the  great  church  of  SS.   Peter  and   Paul. 


Abbot's  Kitchen,  (dastoubury. 


This,  spoileil  by  the  Danes,  was  the  abbey  re- 
founded  by  St  Dunstan  (q.v. )  about  i)4(i,  and 
became  the  sepulchre  of  Kings  Edmund,  Edgar, 
and  Ednmnd  Ironside,  if  not  indecil  of  Dunstan 
himself,  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  or  of  .\rthur  and 
(iuinevere.  It  Iiad  just  been  rebuilt  when  in  11H4 
the  wliole  pile  was  consumed  by  lire;  and  the 
splendid  minster,  oiH  feet  long,  then  undertaken 
by  Henry  II.,  wa.s  not  dedicated  till  130.3.     In  lo3<J 


Kichard  Whiting,  the  last  of  its  mitred  ablxits,  was 
hanged  on  the  Tor  by  Henry  VIII.  ;  and  the  ruins 
of  this  great  Benedictine  house,  which  had  covered 
GO  acres,  are  now  comparatively  scanty,  having 
long  been  the  quarry  of  the  district.  Yet  still  on 
the  site  of  the  '  Vetnsta  Ecclesia '  stands  the  roof- 
less chapel  of  Our  Lady  or  St  .Joseph,  a  fine 
example  of  Transition  Norman,  with  its  15th- 
century  crypt;  still  there  is  the  massive  stone 
Abbot's  Kitchen  (14th  century),  33i  feet  square, 
and  72  high,  with  its  four  huge  fireplaces  and 
)>yramidal  roof.  Apart  from  its  abbey  and  its 
two  parish  churches,  one  of  which  has  a  noble 
tower  140  feet  high,  Glastonbuiy  is  a  quaint,  old- 
world  place,  a  very  store  of  domestic  antiquities, 
with  the  15th-century  Pilgrims'  Inn  (now  the 
'(Jeorge'),  the  Tribunal,  and  the  Abliot's  Bam. 
Sharpham,  2  miles  south-west,  was  Fielding's 
liirtliplace.  Sheejiskins,  mats,  rugs,  gloves,  and 
])ottery  are  manufactured.  Pop.  (1851)  3.325; 
{1891)  4119.  A  lake-dwelling  was  uncovered  here 
in  1895.  See  Gr.vil,  Artiiuu  ;  the  l!ev.  It.  Willis's 
A  rrliltcctnral  Histurt/  nf  Glastonbunj  Abbey  ( 1866 ) ; 
Freeman's  Enqlish  Tuwits  and  Distrirts  (1883); 
tiasquet,  Tlin  Last  Abbot  of  Glastonbury  (1895). 

lilatigliy,  Al.FREn,  a  15th-century  French 
strolling-player,  who  died  young,  having  written 
poems  somewliat  like  those  of  Villon. 

(xiatz  (Czech  Kltidsko),  a  manufacturing  town 
of  Prussian  Silesia,  situated  between  two  fortilied 
hills,  on  the  Neis.se,  58  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of 
Breslau.  Pop.  ( 1S75)  12,5.53;  (1895)14,151.  During 
the  Thirty  Years'  and  tlie  Seven  Years'  Wars  Glatz 
was  frequently  taken. 

iilauber,  .Joit.sxx  Kidolph,  a  German  al- 
chemist and  physii  ian,  w.is  born  at  Karlstadt,  in 
Franconia,  in  1603  (  r  1604,  and  died  at  Amsterdam 
in  1668.  No  details  regarding  his  life  are  known, 
except  that  he  resided  at  \'ienn,a,  Salzburg,  Frank- 
fort on-the-Main,  and  Cologne,  from  whence  in 
Ui4S  he  removeil  jiridiably  to  Amsterdam.  Al- 
though a  believer  in  the  philosopher's  stone  and 
in  the  elixir  vita',  he  contributed  very  mate- 
rially to  the  progress  of  chemistry.  In  1648  he 
discovered  hydr(ichlori<;  acid  whilst  experiment- 
ing with  nil  of  vitriol  and  connuon  salt  ;  he  was 
probably  the  lirst  to  ])rocure  nitric  acid  ;  and  his 
name  has  been  transmitted  in  (ilauber's  Salt, 
which  he  likewise  discovered.  His  treatises  were 
published  at  Amsterilani  in  7  vols.,  1661  ;  and  an 
Kuglish  translation  w;is  printed  by  Packeat  London 
in  1689. 

Glavbku'.S  S.ALT  is  the  popular  name  of  the 
neutral  suljihate  of  soda  whose  chemical  composition 
is  reiirescnted  by  the  foriLinla  Na..SOj  +  10H„O. 
It  occurs  in  long  four-sided  translucent  prisms, 
terminated  by  dihedral  summits,  and  containing 
ten  atoms  of  water.  On  exposure  to  the  air,  the 
crystals  lose  all  their  water,  and  become  resolved 
into  a  white  ])Owder.  When  heated  they  readily 
melt  in  their  w.ater  of  crystallisation;  and,  if  the 
hi^at  is  sulliciently  continued,  the  whole  of  the 
water  is  expelleil.  and  the  anhydnms  salt  remains, 
(ilauber's  salt  has  a  cooling,  bitter,  ami  .saltish 
taste  ;  it  is  readily  soluble  in  water  ;  its  solubility 
(in  the  ordinary  crystalline  form)  increjising  up 
to  92',  when  it  appears  to  undergo  a  molecular 
change,  and  to  be  ciuiverted  into  the  anhydrous 
.salt,  which  at  this  temperature  is  less  siduble  than 
the  liydrateil  compound,  and  separates  in  minute 
crystal.s.  (Uaubers  salt  is  a  constituent  of  many 
mineral  waters  (as  at  Carlsbad  and  Cheltenham), 
and  is  found  also  as  an  elllore.scence  about  saline 
es  in  some  parts  of 
urs  in  small  quanti 
mimal  lluids 

The  anhydrous  salt    is    prepared    in   enormous 


lakes  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States ;  and  it 
occurs  in  small  quantity  in  the  blood  and  other 


250 


GLAUCHAU 


GLEBE 


qnantity  from  coiiiiiuin  suit  and  oil  of  vitriol,  with 
tlie  view  of  bein-;  afterwards  convertod  into  car- 
Imnatc  of  smla  ( see  Sora  ).  For  medical  use  a 
purer  form  is  riMinircil.  The  salt  which  remains 
after  the  distiUatiiMi  nl  liydrorhlnric  aciil— this  salt 
Itcin;;  snliihiite  of  sixla  cDntaminated  with  free 
Riiliihurio  ariil— is  ilissolveil  in  water,  to  wliicli  is 
adileil  |>(>wdered  white  marhle  (carlxmate  of  lime), 
to  neutralise  the  free  luid,  ami  to  ipreeipitate  it  a.s 
an  insoliihle  sulphate  ;  the  solution  is  l)oile<l  down 
till  a  pellicle  appeal's,  is  strained,  and  set  aside  to 
crystallise. 

It  is  used  a.s  a  common  pur^'ative,  and  is 
especially  apjdicahle  in  fevei-s  and  inllammatory 
atlections,  wiien  it  is  necessary  to  evacuate  the 
Ih>wcIs  without  increasing'  or  excitinj;  fehrile  dis- 
turbance. The  usual  dose  is  from  half  an  ounce 
to  an  ounce  ;  but  if  it  is  previously  dried,  .so  as 
to  expel  the  water  of  crystallisation,  it  becomes 
doublv  ellicient  as  a  jpur^ative.  It  is  now  nnicli 
le.ss  frequently  useil  in  domestii'  medicine  than 
formerly.  Iiavinj;  };iven  place  to  mililer  aperients. 

CilaiK'liail.  the  second  in  rank  of  the  manu- 
faeturin;;  towns  of  the  kin;;<lom  of  Saxony,  is 
i)icturesi|uely  situated  on  the  rii;ht  bank  of  the 
\Iulde.  "JO  miles  \V.  of  Chemnitz  by  rail.  The 
town  is  the  centre  of  the  woollenweavinj;  in- 
dustry, woollen  {{oods  to  the  value  of  .fi.OOO.tKH) 
bein^;  exported  annually.  There  are  also  dye- 
works,  print-works,  iron-foundiies,  and  carpet, 
paper,  ami  machine  factories.  Top.  (IS.'U)  li2U2  ; 
(1900)  24, .'51)0.  See  Eckardt,  Chronik  run  Glaii- 
c/«(i(  ((ilau.  1880-81). 

CilSIIiro'llia  ( t  Ir.  f/lriii/:iix,  'sea-<;reen,'  on  account 
of  a  ^.'ii'enish  ciilour  sometimes  seen  in  the  pupil), 
a  di-e.-ise  of  the  Kye  (ij-v. ). 

(•laiU'llS,  the  name  of  .several  (i;,'iires  in  Greek 
mythido;,'y.  ( I )  Son  of  IIip|ioloclius  .and  j^randson 
of  liilleroplumtes,  commander  of  the  Lycians  in 
the  Tnijan  war,  slain  by  .Ajax.  He  was  connected 
with  Diomedcs  by  ties  of  bospilality,  and  when 
they  met  in  battle  they  forbore  to  ll^'lit  with  one 
another,  exchan^nu};  arms  instead. — (2)  Son  of 
Minos  of  Crete  and  I'asiphae,  smothered  when  a  boy 
by  falling  into  a  cask  of  honey.  The  .soothsayer, 
I'olyidus  of  Arjros,  unable  to  brin;;  him  back  to 
life,  was  buried  willi  him.  but  saved  by  a  serpent 
which  revealed  a  herb  etl'ective  for  the  iPur))ose. 
— (.i)  A  lisherman  i>f  Anthedon  in  Hieotia,  who 
became  a  sea-god  by  eiiting  part  of  a  herb  which 
Cronos  had  sown.  Every  year  he  visited  all  the 
coasts  of  (ireece,  attended  by  a  train  of  marine 
monsters,  and  {.'iving  forth  oracles  to  which  it 
behoved  lishermen  and  mariners  e.specially  to 
attend. 

€ilailCIIS«  a  genus  of  iiudibranch  tJasteropods, 
inhabiting  the  wanner  parts  of  the  Atlantic  and 
I'acilic  oceans.  The 
boily  is  long,  slender, 
gelatinous,  furaished 
with  three  jiairs  of 
lateral  (jutgrowths  with 
numerous  line  processes. 
The  moiitli  has  the 
usual  horny  jaws, 
ada]>ted  for  ]>rcying 
on  other  small  marine 
animals ;  the  antenme 
or  '  horns  '  are  incon- 
spicuous. The.se  small 
molluscs—about  an 
inch  and  three-quarters 
long,  of  a  blue  colo\ir,  and  extremely  delicate  and 
beautiful,  Hoat  inertly  with  irregiilar  movements  of 
their  slender  appendages  on  the  surface  of  the 
water.  For  the  nature  of  the  outgrowths,  I'ic.,  see 
NUDIBRANX-HS. 


tilaucus  atlanticus. 


Sea  Milkwort 


(•laiix.  a  genus  of  Priinulaceo?,  without  corolla. 
a.  niiinlima,  sometimes  called 
Sea  Milkwort  and  Hliu-k  Salt- 
wort, is  common  on  mmldy  soils 
along  .sea-eojLsts  of  nortliern 
Europe.  It  was  formerly  used 
in  soda  making.  It  is  reailily 
eaten  by  cattle,  and  is  said  to 
eidianee  the  yielil  of  milk  from 
its  succulent  leaves.  It  is  al.'^o 
pickled. 

<;iaz«-.     See  I'lrn  KHV. 

<.l«-aililltf.  In  confornuty 
with  til)'  p(isiti\'<*  command  con- 
tained in  the  Mosaic  law  to  leave 
the  gleanings  of  the  harvest  to 
the  poor  and  to  the  stranger 
( l,ev.  xix.  9  and  xxiii.  22), 
there  has  been  almost  every- 
where a  ]iopular  feeling  to  the 
ell'ect  that  the  farmer  was  not 
I'ntitled  to  (ircveiit  the  ]ioor 
from  gathering  what  the  ri'iiper 
had  left  behinil.  In  England  the 
custom  of  gleaning  had  very 
nearly  pas.sed  into  .a  legal  right, 
for  in  an  extra-judicial  dictum 
i>f  Lord  Hale  it  is  said  that  those  (dlaux  iiiaritima). 
who  enter  a  held  for  this  pur- 
jiose  are  not  guilty  of  trespass,  ami  Itlackstone 
seems  dis])(>sed  to  adopt  Ins  opinion  :  but  the 
Court  of  Common  I'leas  lias  since  decided  that  the 
public  cannot  d.-iini  the  privilege  a.s  a  right.  The 
custom  still  exists  in  England,  though  it  is 
often  restricted  to  the  wives  and  eliildien  of  tlie 
harvesters.  In  Scotland  the  law  has  decidcil  that 
the  poor  possess  no  right  to  glean,  ami  that  tlie 
farmer  may  exiludi'  them  from  his  fields. 

<>l('bil'  Atlsrripli  (Kat.,  'attached  to  the 
soil)  from  the  4lh  century  onwanls  were  in  the 
Itomaii  empire  the  cultivators  of  the  soil,  who, 
though  ])eisonally  free,  were  ins<'paiably  attached 
to  the  land  they  cultivated.  They  paid  a  fixed 
rent  in  kind  to  the  owner  of  the  domain,  anri,  when 
he  retained  any  land  in  bis  own  hands,  they  were 
generally  under  tlie  obligation  to  render  him  free 
a  determinate  amount  of  labour  to  till  it.  If  the 
land  was  sold,  they  still  remained  attached  to  it. 
The  Helots  ( i|.  v. )  of  Sparta  were  also  i//ili(r  iiilsrn'jiti. 

fah'bc  (  l.at.  f/h-bii,  'a  clod  or  lumi>  of  earth'), 
the  land  belonging  to  an  ecclesiastical  benelice,  or 
from  which  the  revenues  of  the  benelice  arise.  The 
assignment  of  glebe-lands  was  formerly  held  to  be  of 
such  abscdute  necessity  that  without  them  no  church 
could  be  regularly  consecrated.  The  feesim])le  of 
the  glebe  is  held  by  the  law  of  Englan<l  to  be  in 
iihri/iiiiir — that  is  to  say,  without  an  owner,  in  con- 
templation of  law;  but  after  induction  the  free- 
liohl  of  the  glel)e  is  iii.the  jiai'son,  anil  he  possesses 
most  of  the  powei-s  of  a  ]iroprietor,  with  the 
exce])tion  of  the  jxiwer  of  alienati<m.  The  (|uantity 
of  land  to  be  assigned  is  not  fixed  by  any  general 
rule  of  law  ;  and  the  glebe-lamls  of  thi>  parochial 
clergj'  vary  considerably  in  extent.  Previous  to 
the  Heformation  the  clergy  ]iossessed  certain  powera 
of  alienation  at  common  law  ;  and  if  a  bishop  with 
the  assent  of  his  chajiter,  or  an  abbot  with  the 
as.sent  of  his  convent,  or  the  like,  alienated  glebe- 
lands,  the  deed  w(mld  not  liave  been  void,  because 
the  fee-simple  w.as  in  the  holder  of  the  benelice  for 
the  time  being  ;  but  by  1  Eliz.  clia]i.  lit,  and  other 
statutes  of  the  s.anie  reign,  all  grants,  feollnients, 
conveyances  or  other  estates  shall  be  utterly  void 
and  of  none  effect,  notwithstanding  any  consent  or 
conlirmation  whatsoever.  Subsequent  statutes  pre- 
1  scribe  and  regulate  the  modes  in  which  glebe-lands 
I  may   be   dealt   with.      Power   has   been   given    to 


GLEE 


GLENCOE 


251 


exchange  glebe  hoases  and  lands  ;  and  by  tlie  Tithe 
Commutation  Act  (1836)  the  Titlie  Commissioners 
(since  18S'2  Land  Commissioners)  were  empowered 
to  ascertain  and  deline  the  boundaries  of  the  glebe- 
lands  of  any  benefice,  and  also,  with  consent  of  the 
ordinary  and  patron,  to  exchange  the  glelielands  for 
other  lands  within  the  same  or  any  adjoining  i)arish, 
or  otherwise  conveniently  situated.  The  sul)SL'cjuent 
Act  17  and  IS  Vict,  cliap.  84  moreover  jinividcs  that 
the  incunilient  of  any  benefice  entitled  to  glebe 
shall,  witli  such  consents  as  are  specified  in  the  act, 
be  entitled  to  annex  such  glebe  or  other  lands  by 
deed  to  any  clinrch  or  chapel  witliin  the  parish, 
district,  or  place  wherein  such  glelie  or  land  is 
situate.  Glebe-lands  are  exempt  from  tithe  :  they 
are  also  excepted  out  of  tlie  acts  wliich  forbid  the 
beneficed  clergy  to  engage  in  agriculture  and  trade. 
If  an  incumbent  dies  after  sowing  Ids  glebe-land 
his  personal  representative  is  entitled  to  the  crop. 
The  Glebe  Lands  Act  (18SS)  provides  facilities  for 
the  sale  of  glebe  with  the  approval  of  the  Land 
Commissioners.  See  Philliiiicuc  s  Ealesinatiral 
Liru>. 

Glebe  in  Scotland. — In  Scotland,  a-s  in  England, 
a  glebe  forms,  a-s  a  general  rule,  a  portion  of  every 
ecclesia-stical  benefice  of  the  Established  Church, 
and  is  thus  an  addition  to  the  stipend,  and  .some- 
times a  very  important  one.  Ministers  in  roy.al 
burghs,  however,  cannot  claim  glebes,  unless  in 
ca-ses  where  there  is  a  landward  district  attached 
to  the  parish.  Even  then,  if  there  are  two  ministers, 
only  the  first  can  claim  a  glebe.  Where  parishes  are 
disjoined,  or  separated  into  two  portions,  more- 
over, it  iloes  not  nece.ssarily  follow  that  the  portion 
erected  into  a  new  parish  shall  contain  a  glelie. 
l$y  5  Geo.  IV.  chap.  72,  provision  is  made  for  pay- 
ment of  compensation  out  of  the  public  revenue, 
in  lieu  of  manse  and  glebe,  to  ministers  whose 
stipends  do  not  exceed  .£"200.  If  there  are  arable 
lands,  the  glebe  must  not  be  less  than  four  acres. 
If  there  is  no  arable  land,  the  minister  is  entitled 
to  sixteen  .wiims  of  grass  adjacent  to  the  church. 
A  soum  is  as  much  as  will  pasture  ten  sheep  or  one 
cow,  so  that  the  actual  extent  varies  with  the  rich- 
nes-s  of  the  soil  and  consequent  quality  of  the 
liastULc.  The  presbytery  possesses  the  power  of 
designing  glebes,  the  heritor  from  whose  property 
the  glel)e  is  designed  having  recimrse  against  the 
other  heritors  of  the  parish.  By  l.)72,  chap.  48,  it 
is  enacted  that  the  glebe  shall  not  be  alienated  by 
the  incumbent.  As  the  act  limits  its  jirohibition 
to  .such  alienation  as  may  be  detrimental  to  the 
successor  of  the  incumbent,  it  has  been  doubti'd 
whether  the  latter  might  not  feu.  The  court, 
however,  has  been  very  unwilling  to  sanction  this 
proceeding.  When  the  cliurch  is  changed,  or  trans- 
ported, as  it  is  called,  to  a  new  site,  the  court  will 
authorise  the  sale  or  excambion  of  the  glebe,  but 
such  excambions  must  be  sanctioned  by  the 
presbytery.  Where  minerals  are  found  on  the 
glebe,  they  are  worked  under  the  su]ierintendence 
of  the  heritoi-s  and  jiresbytery  for  the  behoof  of  the 
incumbent.  Trees  growing  on  the  glebe  are 
thought  to  belong  to  him.  Glebe-lands  are  usually 
teinilfree.     See  Teintis. 

(•I*'r.  a  species  of  vocal  composition  peculiar  to 
England,  for  three  or  more  voices,  and  in  one  or 
more  nu)vements,  generally  unaccom|)anied  and 
sung  by  male  voices,  though  these  conditions  are 
not  obligatory.  It  is  distinguished  from  the 
madrigal  l>y  its  modern  tonality,  larger  number  of 
nuisical  motives,  and  a  less  extensive  development 
of  them  ;  and  in  being  written  for  single  voices  to 
each  part.  This  last  point,  however,  is  now  fre- 
quently disregarded.  Its  iudejiendent  part-writing 
also  distinguishes  it  from  the  modern  part-song, 
which  is  usually  in  simple  harmony,  but  the  name 
is  often  given  to  such — e.g.  Sir  H.  liishop's  ■  Glees.' 


The  glee  flourished  during  the  later  Iialf  of  the 
18th  century  and  the  earlier  part  of  the  19th. 
Samuel  Webbe  ( 1740-1816)  is  probably  its  greatest 
master.  Among  his  best-known  glees  are  '  ^\'hen 
Winds  breathe  Soft '  and  '  Glorious  Apollo,'  the 
latter  of  which  was  always  the  first  to  be  sung  at 
the  meetings  of  the  now  defunct  Glee  Club  (178.3- 
1857).  Other  writers  of  the  first  rank  are  K.  J.  S. 
Stevens  (1757~18.'!7),  the  coniposer  of  'Ye  Spotted 
Snakes,'  '  The  cloiul-capt  Towers,'  and  '  From 
Oberon  in  Fairyland  ;'  ,)ohn  Wall  Callcott  (1766- 
1821 ),  a  most  prolific  composer,  and  author  also  of 
a  well-known  Grammar  of  Music,  of  whose  glees 
'The  Red-cross  Knight,'  'To  all  you  Ladies,' and 
'It  w.as  a  Friar  of  Orders  Grey,'  may  suflice  as 
specimens :  with  whom  may  be  mentioned  the 
n.ames  of  Horsley.  S]ioflbrtb,  Cooke.  I'axt<in,  Att- 
wood,  and  Lord  ^lornington.  See  W.  A.  Bairett's 
Eiujlish  Glees  and  Partsotujs  (1886). 

Gleet.     See  GONORRHKA. 

Gleig;.  George  Robert,  writer,  born  at  Stir- 
ling, -20111  Aiuil  1796,  was  the  son  of  George  Gleig, 
bishopof  Brechin  ( 1753-1840).  Heentered  thearmy, 
and  served  in  Spain  (1813)  .and  in  America  (1814). 
He  subsequently  (1820)  took  orders,  and  became 
inspector-general  of  military  schocds  (1846-57), 
and  chapl.ain-general  of  the  .army  (1846-75). 
He  deserves  mention  as  the  author  of  the  story 
The  Subaltirn  ( IS'25),  founded  on  incidents  of  the 
Peninsular  war.  He  wrote  several  other  novels, 
none  equal  to  the  first,  and  several  volumes  of 
military  historj-  and  biogra])liy,  as  Cttrnjinirins  at 
Waslihigton  and  Nctr  Orlcrins  (1847),  Lives  of 
Warren  Ha-stings  (1841),  Clive  (1848),  and  Wel- 
lington (1862),  i\:c.  He  died  9tli  July  1888,  near 
Winoldield,  in  Hampshire. 

tileilll.  .loHAXN  WlLHET.M  LlDWio,  German 
poet,  born  at  Ermsleben  near  Halberstadt. '2d  April 
1719,  and  died  at  Halberstadt  on  18th  February 
1803.  Besides  writing  a  good  deal  of  moderate 
poetiy,  he  won  for  himself  the  afl'ectionate  aiijiella- 
tive  of  '  Father  Gleim,'  on  account  of  the  encourage- 
ment and  a.ssistance  he  lent  to  the  fledgling  jioete 
and  poetasters  of  the  day.  But  his  eHbrts  to 
encourage  German  literature,  though  sincere  and 
well  intentioned,  were  often  the  rever>ie  of  judici- 
ous and  discriminating.  His  (latriotic  Liedcr  cincs 
J'rcKssisc/ien  Grenadiers,  by  their  genuineness  of 
feeling  and  force  of  expression,  do  rise  above  the 
general  level  of  his  other  jiroductions— odes  in 
imitation  of  Horace  and  Anacreon.  rhymed  fables 
and  romances,  and  scmgs.  His  collected  works 
appeared  at  Halberstadt  in  7  vols,  in  1811-1.3,  with 
a  supplementary  volume  in  1841  (Lei)).).  See 
Kiirte,  aiciinx  Lehen  ( 1811 ). 

GleiwitZ,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  pleasantly 
situated  on  a  small  atlluejit  of  the  Oder,  40  miles 
SE.  of  Ojipeln,  contains  iron  and  other  metal 
fcmudries,  machine,  glass,  and  ii<m  works,  &c. 
Pop.  (  1S95)  24.9SI). 

tileiialinuild.  a  romanlic  valley  of  Perthshire, 
in  Scotland,  much  visited  for  its  scenery,  and  for 
O.ssians  grave — the  suliject  of  Wordsworth's  vei-ses 
<ui  the  'Narrow  Glen.'  It  is  the  seat,  12  miles 
WXW.  of  Perth,  of  Trinity  College,  (Uenalmond 
(1847;  new  bnihlings,  1891-94),  a  public  school, 
whose  Iraililings  have  been  to  some  extent  repro- 
duced in  those  of  Trinity  College,  H.artford,  U.S. 

(ileiK'oe.  a  valley  of  northern  -Vrgyllsliii-e, 
descending  7o  miles  west-bynorthwanl  from  a  'col,' 
1011  feet  high,  to  saltwater  Loch  Leven,  2  miles 
ENE.  of  Hallaclmlish.  It  is  travei-sed  by  the  Coe 
(or  Cuna  of  Ossian);  and  it  is  Hanked  by  conical 
mountains,  the  Pa]i  of  Glencoe  ('2430  feet )  the  most 
prominent,  Benveedan  (.3766)  the  loftiest.  Of 
manv  descriptions  of  Glencoe  the  best  are  by 
Dorothy  Wordsworth  (IStU) ;  by  Macuulay  (1849), 


'>52 


GLKNCOKSE 


GLENLIVKT 


who  saw  it  both  in  rain  an  J  in  sunshine,  and  calls 

it  'the  veiT  vallev  <>(  the  shadow  of  death;  and 
this  by  Charles  Dickons  ( 1H4I  )  :  'Clcn.oe  itself  is 
perfectly  ti-nihlr.  The  ^.i-ss  is  an  awful  jdace.  It 
Is  shut'in  on  each  side  l>y  enormous  rocks,  from 
which  j;real  torrents  come  rushing'  ilown  in  all 
directions.  In  amon^.'st  these  rocks,  on  one  side 
of  the  i.iiss  (the  left  a-s  we  came  from  Kinfrshouse ), 
there  are  scores  of  jrlens  hi-.'h  u]),  winch  form  smli 
haunts  as  you  mijjiit  imagine  wandering  in  in  the 
very  heljiht  and  madness  of  a  lever.  They  wdl 
live  in  mv  ilreams  fur  years.' 

In  Kiiil  the  Kdinliurjjh  authorities  issueil  a 
proclamalion  exhortinf;  the  clans  to  subndt  to 
William  and  .\Iarv,  and  olVering  [lardon  to  all 
who  before  ,Slst  December  would  swear  to  live 
peaceablv  under  the  fiovernment.  All  the  chiefs 
submitted  except  M'lan,  the  bead  of  the  Mac- 
donalds  of  lilencoe,  whose  submission  was  ilelayed 
by  unforeseen  causes  till  bth  January  lOM.  The 
nia-jistrate  before  whom  he  took  the  oath  ()f  allej,'i- 
ance  transmitted  a  cortilicate  to  the  Council  at  Kilin- 
bur^h,  explaining;  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 
However,  on  16th  January,  Kin;;  William  si-ned 
an  order,  ending:  'If  .M'Kan  of  (ilencoe  ami  that 
trybe  can  be  well  separated  from  the  rest,  it  wdl 
!«  a  proper  vindication  of  the  public  justice  to 
extirpate  that  sect  of  thieves.'  So  on  1st  Kebruary 
120  soldiers— Campbells  mostly,  and  commanded 
by  Captain  Cannibell  of  Clenlyon— marched  to 
Glencoe,  and,  telling  the  natives  that  they  came 
as  friends,  and  merely  wanteil  cpiartei-s,  for  twelve 
days  lived  in  the  glen.  Clenlyon,  while  visiting 
daily  at  the  chief's  house,  employed  himself  in 
observing  every  pass  by  which  escajJC  was  possible, 
and  repiuted "  the  result  of  bis  (diservations  to 
Lieutenant  Colonel  Han  Hon,  who  wa-s  appro.icli- 
ing  from  Fort-William  with  4()0  more  troons.  The 
1.3th  was  lixed  for  the  massacre,  and  on  the  night 
of  the  l'2tli  Clenlyon  was  supping  and  [ilayiTig  at 
cards  with  those  whom  he  [)nri)osed  to  butcher. 
At  live  in  the  nioniing  llie  murderous  work  began, 
and  (lav  broke  on  thirty  eight  corpses,  including 
tho.se  of  at  lca.st  one  woman,  an  old  man  of 
seventy,  and  a  boy  of  four.  But,  Hamilton  not 
having  come  up  in  time,  the  passes  were  oi)en, 
and  some  loO  men,  ami  probably  jvs  niaiiy  women, 
escaped— in  many  c.-ises  only  to  perish  from  cold 
and  hunger  among  the  snow  in  the  high  mountain- 
gorges.  The  huts  were  lired,  and  then  the  troops 
marched  away,  taking  with  them  a  thousand  head 
of  cattle  ami  sheep  ami  horses. 

The  prime  movers  of  this  ilecd  of  infamy  were  a 
Lowland  statesman  and  a  Highland  chief.  Sir  John 
Dalrymple,  .Master  (and  afterwards  Viscount  and 
lirst'Karl)  of  Stair,  and  John  Campbell,  Karl  of 
Breadalbane.  The  one  was  actuated  by  chag'rin 
at  the  failure  of  his  scheme  for  pacifying  the  High- 
lands, the  other  by  iiei-sonal  animosity.  .\s  for 
King  William,  .\Iacanl.\v  ple.-uls  that  .M'lan 's  sub- 
mission had  been  kept  from  him,  that  he  knew  the 
.Macdonalds  only  as  thieves  ami  rebels,  and  that 
by  'extirpation'  he  certainly  never  meant  them  to 
be  murderecl  in  their  sleep.  "  .\nyhow,  a  royal  coni- 
mi.ssicm  (Ui'.).">)  found  that  his  instructions  '  oH'ered 
no  warrant  for  the  measure  ; '  ami  there  the  allair 
ended.  In  188-t  a  monument  was  erected  to  mark 
the  scene  of  the  nias.sacre.  See  the  liLstories  of 
Macaulav  and  Hill  Burton,  ami  Paget's  I'uniilo.ces 
and  Puzzles  (\^-,i). 
GhMK'orsc.  See  rKNicriK. 
Gh-IltTOO,  an  .\rgyllshire  glen  descending  4J 
miles  south  Civstward  to  Loch  Long,  2^  miles  SW. 
of  Arrochar.  \t  its  lieail  is  a  stone  seat  inscribed 
'  Rest  and  be  thankful.' 

Glcndaloilgll,  a  valley  in  Wicklow  county,  15 
miles  SW.  of  Bray,  with  tine  scenery  and  remark- 


able ruins.  It  became  n  seat  of  religion  with  St 
Kevin  in  the  6th  century  ;  and  some  of  the  ruined 
•seven  churches,' as  well  as  the  round  tower  (110 
feet  high  ),  may  dat(!  from  the  7th  century. 

<i!l«'lldower,   or   Ci.kndwr,  Owkn,   a  Welsh 
chief  who    he.aded   the  struggle   of   the  Welsh   En- 
tile recovery  of  their  independence  in  the  reign  of 
Henry   IV."  of   England,   was  desceniled  from   Lle- 
welyn,   the   last    I'riiicc   of   Wales,   and    was   born 
ill    .Montgomeryshire  about    i:t.")4.       lie   was   made 
i's(Hiiie  of  the  bcwly  to   Uiidiard   II..  and  iemaine<l 
with   him   until    his   deposition    by    Henry    IV.    in 
i:ii)<),    after    which    he    retired    into    private    life. 
Slnutly  after  the  accession  of  the  new  king  part 
of  (Jlendower's  lands  were  seized  by  his  neighbour, 
Lord  C ley  of  Itiithin.     Thereupon"  the  Welshman, 
lieing  unable  to  obtain   redress   from   the   Knglish 
king?  took  up  arms  in  his  own  cause,  and  in  14tX) 
-eizcd  Ihc  estates  of  Lord  Ciey.     The  king  ordered 
his   subjugation,    and    gn^nted    his   estates    to    his 
brother,  the  Earl  of  Somerset.     Then  for  two  years 
Clenilower  carried  on  a  guerilla  warfare  against  the 
Knglish  iiiaicliers,  backed  un  at  times  by  the  forces 
of  Flenry  him.self.     In  1402  lie  drew  Lord  tirey  into 
an  ambiisli,  iind   took  him  prisoner.     In  this  same 
year  Sir  Eiliniiiid   Mortimer  wa.s  also  captured  by 
Clendower  in  a  batlli!  in  which  1100  of  Mortimer's 
followers  were  left  dea<l  uiioii  the  tield.     Both  (iiey 
and    Mortimer   married    ilaugliters   of   the   Welsh 
chieftain     (now    formally    proclaimed     Prince    of 
Wales),  and  with  him  formed   the  coalition  with 
Harry  Percy  (Hotspur)  .against  Henry  of  England. 
That"  coalition  ended   in  llie  buttle  of  Shrewsbury, 
in  July   140:J,  in  which  the   English   king   gained 
a    decisive    victory.    Hotspur    being    amongst    the 
slain.     Next  year  t;lenilower   made  a  treaty   with 
Charles  VI.  of  France,  who  in  140.">  sent  a  force  to 
Wales   to   act    against   the    English.      .Meantime, 
Clenilower  had    been    twice   severely   defeated    by 
Prime  Henry  (V.)  of  Englainl.     The  Welsh  i.rince 
nevertheless'  kept   up  a   desultory   warfare  iliiring 
the  remaining  years  of  liis  life.    He  never  submitted 
to  Eii'dish  rule,  ami  is  believed  to  have  died  peace- 
fully Tn  Monmouthshire  after  1416.     The  popular 
ide.'i   of   hiin   is   presented    in    Shakespeare's    Kivr/ 
l/iiDi/  11'.     See  the  works  cited  at  Hkxrv  IV. 

(illciU'l!;  is  a  shallow  river  of  .Australia,  rising 
ill  the  Victorian  Crampiaiis,  and  entering  the 
Southern  Ocean  at  the  boundary  between  South 
.Australia  and  Victoria,  after  a  coui.sc  of  281  miles. 
Glt'iiels.  See  Crant  (Ciiaim.ks). 
Olcilfillliail.  a  Highland  glen  in  Inverness 
shire,  IS  miles  W.  of  Kort- William.  Here,  on  lOtli 
August  174."),  the  clans  gathered  under  Prince 
Charles  Edward's  banner,  and  here  in  1815  was 
erected  to  his  memory  a  tower  bearing  an  in 
scriplion  ill  (laelic,  Latin,  and  English. 

(■h'lmarifT,  a  village  of  County  Cork,  at  tin- 
hea<l  of  llie  island-dotted  (ilengaritf  Harbour,  an 
inlet  of  liantry  Bay,  ami  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain 
gleii.  much  fiequeiited  by  tourists. 

(;i«'liaarilo<-k.  an  Ayrshire  village,  with  iron 
works,  :u  miles  .NNE.  of  Dairy.     Pop.  1628. 

<il«-liuarry,  a  Highland  glen  in  west  Inverness- 
shire,  through  which  the  (larry  winds  19  miles 
ea.stwaid,  from  Loch  tjuoich  to  Loch  Oicli,  S  miles 
SW.  of  Fort  .Augustus.  It  was  the  home  of  the 
Macdonnells  from  the  beginning  of  the  IGth  century. 
The  last  chief,  who  died  in  1828,  is  considered  to 
have  been  the  prototyi>e  of  Fergus  Maclvor  in 
I  To  ro/c  I/. —There  is  another  (ilengairy,  in  the 
north-west  of  Perthshire,  traveise<l  by  the  Highland 
Bailway.  lU  Carry  Hiver  falls  into  the  Tunimel. 
—  For  the  Glengarry  Cap,  see  Bo.NNKT. 

<;i<-lllivet.  the  valley  in  Bantlshire  of  Livet 
AVater,  which  runs  14  miles  north-westward  till,  at 


GLENMORE 


GLOBE-FISH 


253 


a  point  5  miles  S.  of  Balliudalloch  station,  it  falls 
after  a  total  descent  of  1600  feet  into  the  Aven, 
itself  an  affluent  of  the  Spey.  Its  iioimliilioii  still 
is  laij;ely  Catholic.  Since  1S24  its  200  wliisUy 
bothies  have  given  place  to  one  celebrated  distillery. 
In  the  battle  of  (Uenlivet  or  AUtacoileachaii  (4tli 
October  1591)  10,000  Protestants  under  the  Earl  of 
Arjjyll  were  routeil  by  the  Catholic  insurgents 
under  the  Earl  of  Huntly. 

Cileillliore.  See  CyLEUuxiAN  C.\n.\i.;  CiUE.^T 
I!i:ir.\iN',  \i.  373. 

Ok'Iiroy.  the  valley  of  a  stream  in  Lochaber, 
Inverness,  {lowing  15  miles  to  the  Sjieiin  at  Inver- 
roy,  o|)]iosite  the  easti'in  spur  of  lieu  Nevis.  The 
steep  narrow  valley  through  whicli  the  Koy  runs 
is  remarkable  for  having  its  slopes  indented  with 
three  shelves,  whicli  are  everywhere  perfectly  hori- 
zontal and  i)arallel  to  each  other,  in  each  case  the 
line  on  the  one  side  of  the  glen  corresjionding 
exactly  in  elevatiiui  to  that  on  the  other.  The 
granitic  and  nietauiorphic  rocks,  of  which  the 
mountains  are  composed,  are  covered  with  a 
greater  or  less  thickness  of  angular  fragments  and 
earth,  and  an  examination  of  the  shelvi's  shows 
that  they  are  worn  out  of  this  soft  alluvial  coating. 
They  almost  invariably  form  a  gentle  slope  from 
the  hillside,  and  are  from  3  to  30  feet  wide.  The 
protrusion  of  the  rocky  body  of  the  mountain,  and 
the  furrows  of  mountain-torrents,  break  their  con- 
tinuity, but  with  these  exceptions  one  or  more  of 
them  may  be  traced  along  the  whole  valley.  The 
liigliest,  which  is  1139i  feet  above  the  sea-level,  is 
easily  followed  from  the  watershed  between  the 
Koy  and  the  Sjiey  (  which  is  at  tlie  same  elevation ) 
along  both  sides  of  the  valley,  as  far  down  as  the 
point  at  which  the  valley  narrows  above  (Uen 
(ilaster.  The  second  shelf  is  80  feet  lower,  runs 
parallel  with  the  lirst  all  round  the  head  of  the 
valley,  and  is  continued  farther  down  until  it 
includes  Glen  Glaster.  The  third  line  is  oi2  feet 
lower  than  the  second;  it  may  be  traced  along 
both  sides  of  Glenroy,  and  round  the  mouth  of  the 
glen  into  the  valley  of  the  Spean,  wliose  siiles,  at 
the  same  elevation  of  847  feet,  are  marked  from 
within  3  miles  of  the  river  Lochy  up  in-arly  as 
far  as  Loch  Laggan.  Many  attemjits  have  been 
made  to  explain  the  origin  of  these  remarkable 
shelves.  Their  fonning  somewhat  level  roads 
around  the  valley  originated  the  popular  notion 
that  th(!y  were  made  for  the  couveuience  of  the 
heroes  whose  exploits  are  sung  by  Dssian.  I'lay- 
fair,  in  IS  1(1,  supiiosed  they  were  acpieducts  for 
artilicial  iirigation.  Macculloch  believed  them  to 
be  tlie  shorelines  of  fresh-water  lakes,  which 
gradually  washed  away  their  barriers,  renniining 
for  a  longer  space  at  the  height  of  the  various 
slielves.  This  view  may  now  be  regarded  as 
accepted,  with  the  adilitioual  suggestion  of  Agassi/, 
that  the  barrier  or  dam  keeping  back  the  water  was 
formed  of  glacier  ice,  the  lake  having  lowered  in 
level  as  the  barrier  gradually  nudted  away.  See 
Robert  Chambers's  Ancient  i'ta  Mttrcjins  (1849); 
Tvndall,  in  the  Puimlar  Scicm-e  lirvlcw  ( 18711); 
Jiacfadzean's  Fa  mild  Romls  of  (Urn  mi/  (1S83); 
and  A.  Geikies  .'^iccncri/  uf  Srallantl  ('2d  ed.  1887). 

Oloil's  Falls,  a  iH)st-village  of  New  Vork,  <m 
the  Hudson,  (iO  miles  by  rail  N.  of  .\lbany,  with 
sawmills  and  machine-shops,  and  a  (puirry  of  Idaek 
marble.  The  river,  whicli  is  crossed  by  a  bridge, 
here  falls  abimt  50  feet,  and  is  very  picturesque. 
I'op.,  with  South  Glen's  Falls  ( 1890)"ll,115. 

€IIoilslli«-|,  a  Highland  valley  of  Hoss-sliire, 
•"iS  miles  S\V.  of  Inverness.  Here,  on  11th  June 
1719,  l.'iOO  .lacobites  ami  "274  Spaniards  encountered 
1000  Hanoverians.  The  light  was  indecisive,  hut 
next  day  the  Highlanders  dispersed,  and  the 
Spaniards   had    to   surrender.      Never   since    then. 


except  for  the  bloodless  Kruuch  lauding  in  Peui- 
brokeshire  (1797),  has  a  foreign  force  set  foot  upon 
British  soil. 

Cileiltilt.  in  north  Perthshire,  the  deeji  narrow 
glen  of  the  troutful,  impetuous  Tilt,  which  issues 
from  Loch  Tilt  (3  by  2  furlongs;  lO.JOfeet),  and  juns 
16  miles  south-westward,  receiving  the  larger  Tarf 
Water  and  Fender  Burn,  until  at  Blair-Athole  it 
falls  into  the  Garry.  It  is  traver.sed  by  the  footjiath 
from  Blair-Athole  to  Braemar.  Huge  Benglo  (3671 
feet)  Hanks  its  left  siile.  (Hentilt  is  classic  ground 
to  tlie  geologist,  as  having  furnished  evidence  for 
the  Iluttonian  or  denudation  theory.  A  famous 
hunting-ground,  too,  it  has  menunies  of  James  V., 
Mary,  and  Victoria ;  nor  is  its  right-of-way  case 
(1845)  yet  forgotten. 

(ilidduil,  GEOliGE  Koisix.s,  Egy]>tologist,  Wii-s 
born  in  Devonshire  in  1809,  and  resided  for  many 
years  in  Egypt,  where  his  father  was  Uniteil  States 
cimsul  at  Alexandria,  and  he  himself  became  vice- 
consul.  He  afterwards  lectured  in  America  on 
Egyptian  anticjuities,  and  died  at  Panama  in  1857. 
His  works  include,  besides  his  Anciint  Ermpt  ( 1850), 
which  was  very  popular  in  America,  Typis  of  Man- 
kind (Phila.  1854),  written  in  conjunction  with 
Dr  J.  C.  Nott,  and  containing  papers  by  Agassiz 
and  others,  and  Inilifimoiis  lltircs  if  t/ic  Earth 
(1857),  with  I)r  Nott  and  others. 

Cllobc-fisll,  a  name  given  to  a  number  of 
]ieculiar  Teleostean  lishes  forming  a  subfamily 
(Tetrodontina)  of  the  order  Plectognathi.  The 
best-known  genera  are  Tetrodon  and  Ijiodon, 
which  may  be  readily  distinguishetl  from  one 
another  by  the  structure  of  the  jaws,  which  are 
cleft  in  the  former,  undivided  in  the  latter,  thus 
]jroduciiig  the  a)ipearance  (which  the  names 
em]ihasise)  of  four  and  two  teeth  res|ieelively. 
Both  are  represented  by  numerous  species  in 
tropical  seas.  One  species  of  Tetrodon  (T.  kigo- 
cejt/ialiin)  has  been  fcmnd  on  British  coasts.  The 
globe-lishes  are  so  named  from  their  curious  power 
of  tilling  their  bodies  with  air,  and  thus  distending 


,'^:i>-U,V|.'. 


A,  (ilolje-lisli  ( Dioilou  miiculatiis) ;  B,  the  same  inflated. 

them  till  they  are  marly  globular.  The  distension 
takes  jilaee  chielly  in  the  o'sophagus,  and  the  lisli, 
therefore,  when  iullated,  turns  over  and  lloats  on 
its  back  at  the  surface  of  the  water.  In  this  posi- 
tion it  can  not  only  move  forward,  but  can  turn  to 
either  side  by  the  iiid  of  its  pectoral  lins.  The 
globe-lishes  have  short,  thick  hoilies,  sharp,  hard 
beaks,  anil  well-develo]ied  lins.  The  smallest  are 
only  a  few  inches  in  length,  while  the  Sea  hedgeliog 
{hliiiliin  /ii/.v^c/.i-)  measures  two  feel.  The  skin  is 
scaleless.  but  in  it  are  embedded  spines  which  vary 


254 


GLOBE-FLOWER 


(JLOMMEN 


J  in  size  aud  number  in  the  ilitferent  species. 

In  senile  tliey  are  movable,  ami  are  erccteu  with 
the  ilistensioii  of  the  boily.  Darwin,  in  an  aoeouiit 
of  one  species  (I),  iiiiliiinutiix),  says  that  it  can 
secrete  from  the  skin  of  its  belly,  when  hamlh-d,  a 
most  Ijeautifnl  ••arMiine-re<l  substance,  which  stains 
ivory  or  paper  permanently.  He  also  stales  that  a 
Uioilon  has  fre(|nently  been  fimnd  tloatinj,',  alive 
and  distended,  inside  the  stomach  iif  a  shark,  and 
that  one  ha-s  even  been  known  to  eat  its  way 
throtijih  the  sides  of  the  monster,  thus  eausinjf  its 
death.  .Many  of  the  ;,'lolie  lislies  are  hi^'hly  jioison- 
(His,  the  iioison  varying  in  intensity  in  ditlcrenl 
individuals,  in  dillerent  localities,  and  at  elillerent 
times  of  the  year.  The  food  of  these  lishes  con- 
sists of  corals,  molluscs,  and  crustaceans,  for  break- 
ing whicli  their  hard  ln>aks  are  well  ailapted. 
Nearly  related  to  the  Tetrodontina  are  the  Trio- 
donts  (to  which  the  name  globe  li>li  might  also  be 
e.xtendeil )  and  the  pelagi(r  Sun  lislics  (i|.v. ).  .-Ml 
are  inchnled  in  the  family  (iymnodontes.  See 
Giinther,  Sliu/i/  nf  I'islif.s  (Kdin."  18S()). 

tilolM'-flowor  {,Ti"l/ii"<)'  a  small  pahearctic 
genus  III  liaiiunculacea-,  withaglobeof  large  showy 
sepals  enclosing  the  small  inconsiiicuons  linear 
petals.  The  common  yellow  glolK-liower  (  7'.  niro- 
fiwii.i :  Si-ullirc  Luckcngowan)  is  one  of  the  linest 
ornaments  of  moist  grounds  in  elevateil  districts  of 
northern  Kurope  and  in  the  .\lps.  It  is  cultivated 
in  llower-gardcns.  The  orange  globe-tlower  ( T. 
aisiuliiii.1)  is  also  common  in  gardens. 

GlobOS.  .\  globe  is  a  rouml  or  spherical  body 
(see  Si'llKiiK),  and  in  the  singular  number  the  word 
is  often  used  to  signify  the  earth,  a-s  in  the  plira.se, 
'  the  terraipieous  globe;'  but  by  '  globes,"  or  'the 
globes,'  we  usually  mean  a  ]i.air  of  artilicial  globes 
osed  as  a  part  of  .schoolroom  apparatus.  Tlie.sc 
globes  are  usually  hollow  spheres  of  card-board, 
coateil  with  a  composition  of  whiting,  glue,  and 
oil,  upon  which  jiapcr  bearing  certain  delineations 
is  laid.  On  one  of  the  pair — the  irlrxlinl  globe — 
are  represented  the  stars,  .so  pl.iceil  that,  to  an  eve 
supposed  to  observe  them  from  the  centre  of  tlie 
glolw,  their  relative  iiositi<m  and  distance  corn?- 
spond  to  tho.se  actually  observed  ;  while  on  the 
tcrnsliiiil  globe  the  distribution  of  land  and 
water,  the  (livisions  and  subdivisiiuis  of  the  former, 
together  with  a  few  of  the  most  im]iortant  places, 
are  laid  dow  n  in  the  positions  corresponding  to  those 
which  they  actually  occupy  on  the  surface  of  tlie 
earth. 

Globes  of  india-mbber  and  gut  tapercha  have  also 
been  made,  and  othei-s  of  thin  jiapcr,  to  be  inllated 
and  suspended  in  asehool-room.  lietts's  pa|ier  globes 
folil  up  when  not  in  use.  Kmbossed  globes  show,  in 
exaggerated  relief,  the  elevations  and  depressions 
of  the  earth  s  surface.  Compound  globes,  including 
the  celestial  and  terrestrial,  are  made  with  an  outer 
gla.ss  sphere  for  the  celestial,  and  orrery  mechanism 
to  show  the  varying  relative  positions  of  the  sun  and 
mo<m,  \c.  As  schoolroom  apparatus,  globes  are 
useil  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  form  .ind 
motion  of  the  earth,  the  position  and  aiiparent 
motion  of  the  lixed  stars,  and  for  the  mechanical 
solution  of  a  numl>er  of  problems  in  geograi>liy  ami 
practical  astronomy.  Kor  this  jiurpi>se  each  globe 
IS  snspendeil  in  a  brass  ring  of  soniewh.at  greater 
diameter,  by  means  of  two  pins  exactly  opjiosite  to 
each  other — these  pins  forming  the  extremities  of 
the  axis  round  which  it  revolves,  or  the  north  and 
south  poles.  This  bra.ss  circle  is  then  let  into  a 
hori/ontal  ring  of  wood,  sup|>orted  on  .a  stand,  .as 
repre-sented  in  the  article  AuMll,l..\nv  Sphkre  :  in 
which  the  lines  drawn  on  the  surf.-ice  of  glol)e.s  are 
also  explained.  The  globes  in  common  use  in 
schools  are  I'i  inches  in  ilianict<'r  ;  those  found  in 
private  libraries  are  more  frciiuently  I.S  inches. 


The  earliest  globe  made  in  England  was  that  by 
Molvneux  in  1.592,  of  which  an  example  is  still  in 
the  library  of  the  .Middle  Temple. 

.\tthe  Wris  Exhibition  of  IHH'J  oneof  the  exhibits 
was  a  globe  ingeniously  designed  Ut  show  on  a 
realisable  .scale  the  proportions  of  the  earth.  The 
globe  is  (HI  the  scaleof  one  millionth  of  the  earth  in 
all  re.si>ect.s.  The  circumference  is  40  metres,  that 
of  the  earth  being  40,(X)iJ  kilometres;  the  iliameter 
l'J7.32  metres,  corresponding  to  the  12, ".'12  kilo- 
metres of  the  earths  iliameler;  and  accordingly 
a  metre  on  the  globe  represents  l(KH)  kilometres  on 
the  earth's  surface.  '1  he  llattening  at  the  pides, 
which  would  have  amounted  to  but  21  millimetres, 
has  been  clisregarded  in  this  ghdie  as  being  inap- 
preciable. Kor  the  s.ame  reason  the  irri'giilarities 
of  the  earth's  surface  are  only  indicated  (jn  the  globe 
by  colour,  liki;  the  other  features.  The  globe,  the 
framework  of  which  is  solidly  built  of  iron  and 
wood,  is  capable  of  being  put  in  motion.  The 
ghdie  in  Leicester  Scjuare,  London  ( 1851-6.1 ),  was  60 
feet  4  inches  in  diameter. 

(■lobiifcri'lliu  an  imjiortant  genus  of  Foramin- 
ifera  ((|.v. ).  the  shells  of  which  form  a  great  part 
of  the  calcareous  ooze  or  mud  found  in  the  bed  of 
the  ocean,  just  a.s  they  have  formed  in  the  past  a 
large  percentage  (sometimes  90  per  cent.)  of  chalk- 
dei)osits.     .See  OoZK. 

Ciloblllins  are  a  group  of  Proteid  {([.v.)  sub- 
stjinces  closely  allied  to  .Mbumen  (<|.v.  ;  iind  see 
.\xi.M.\L  CllE.Ml.sTHV).  but  dillering  from  it  in  that 
they  are  not  soluble  in  water  unless  it  contain  a 
small  proportion  of  a  neutral  salt,  such  ius  commcm 
salt,  and  that  they  are  precipitated  by  carbonic  acid, 
ami  (except  vitellin)  by  a  saturated  .solution  of 
common  salt.  The  most  iiii]iortant  globulins  which 
occur  in  animal  ti.ssues  are;  globulin  (proper)  or 
crystallin,  in  thecrvstalline  lensof  tlieeye  ;  iibrino- 
pla-stin  or  paraglohulin  and  librinogen,  in  blood, 
serous  fluids,  &c.  ;  myosin,  in  mu.scle  ;  vitelliii,  in 
the  yolk  of  egg.  Precisely  similar  bodies  occur 
aLso  in  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Ciloblllite.  the  name  given  by  Vogelsang  to 
minute  Crystallites  (ipv.)  having  a  sjdierical,  drop- 
like form. '  See  Ii;NE(>l".s  KofK.s. 

<;i4>biis  Mysterioii.s,  or  Ball  in  the 
Tlliui.vT,  the  name  applieil  to  a  peculiar  sensa- 
tion described  under  Hv.STKItI.\. 

(•locklier.  or  (Jituss-Ci.ocKNKIt,  the  highest 
peak  of  the  N'oric  .Alps,  is  situated  on  the  boun<larv 
hetween  Tyrol,  <  'arinthia,  anil  Salzburg,  and  is 
12,45«  feet  in  height. 

(•loKSIII*  or  (;itoss-(JLO(i.\t',  a  town  and  fortress 
in  I'russian  Silesia,  <m  the  left  bank  of  the  Uder,  (iO 
miles  NNW.  of  Breslau  by  rail.  It  is  an  important 
centre  of  trade,  and  has  wool  markets  of  .some  note. 
Manufactures  of  agricultural  implements,  pottery, 
tobacco,  sugar,  iVc.  are  carried  on.  There  is  also 
a  cartograjdncal  institute.  I'op.  (1875)  18,tMi2; 
(1895)  21,8.'{6,  including  a  garrison  of  above 
SOOO  men.  Ulogau  was  a  prosperous  fortified  town 
in  the  lltli  century.  I'mm  I2.')2  till  1476  it  was 
the  caiiital  of  a  duchy,  transferred  then  to 
Bohemi.a.  The  town  snll'ered  .severely  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.  and  yva.s  besieged  in  I74I,  1806, 
and  181:}  14.  See  its  History  by  Berndt  (2  vols. 
Clog.  1879-82). 

Ciloininen,  or  Stor-Klv  (i.e.  'great  river'),  the 
largest  river  in  Nonvay,  issues  from  Lake  .Aursund, 
at  ■2.'i39  feet  alxive  sea-level,  and  winds  3.50  miles 
.southward  to  the  Skager  Kaek  at  Krederikstad.  Its 
course  is  interruiited  by  frequent  waterfalls,  the 
last,  with  a  descent  of  74  feet,  being  the  Sarpsfos, 
7  miles  from  the  mouth.  Its  drainage  basin 
measures  15.9'26  s(].  ni.  It  is  only  navigable  a 
few  nnles   above    and    below    Sarjisfo.s.       Its    most 


GLORIA 


GLOUCESTER 


255 


important  affluent  is  the  ^'o^Illen  from  Lake  Mjosen 
oil  the  light. 
dloria.    See  DoxoLOGY. 

Gloriosaa  a  genus  of  Liliacea',  of  which  tlie 
best-known  species,  G.  siijirilxi,  a  native  of  India, 
Ls  a  herbaceous  perennial  with  a  weak  stem,  alter- 
nate simple  leaves,  terminating  in  tendrils,  and  very 
beautiful  Howers,  finely  coloured  with  rod  and 
yellow.  The  root-stock  is  poisonous,  but  is  washed 
for  its  starch,  like  manioc. 

Oloss  (Or.  ijlossK,  'language'),  an  explanation 
of  .such  ditticulties  in  a  te.\t  as  are  merely  verbal, 
and  not  relating  to  the  matter  itself.  The  word 
was  originally  applied  to  any  obsolete,  foreign, 
provincial,  dialect,  or  technical  word,  or  use  of 
a  word,  collections  of  such  being  called  ijlofisai. 
In  the  Alexandrian  perioil  these  became  common, 
tlieir  sulijects  the  works  of  Homer  and  other  early 
poets.  Of  such  glo.ssarians  may  be  named  I'hiletus 
of  Cos,  Zenodotus,  Aristophanes  of  IJyzantium, 
Aristarchus,  Crates  of  Mallos,  Apion,  .-Elius  Herod - 
ianus,  Hesychius,  Photius,  Zonara.s,  and  Suidas. 
Most  of  the  Rabbinical  writers  have  done  the 
same  work  for  the  Hel)rew  te.xt ;  so  that  it 
would  be  ditiicult  to  name  any  in  particular  as 
Hebrew  glossatores.  The  chief  glossatores  of  the 
Latin  Vulgate  are  the  celebrated  AValafridus 
Strabus,  in  the  9th  century,  and  Anselm  of  Laon. 
who  continued  Walafried's  work  (cirra  1100).  In 
Roman  and  canon  law  the  practice  of  introducing 
glosses  wa-s  of  early  origin,  and  probably  was  an 
imitation  of  the  biblical  glosses.  Among  jurists 
the  gloss  wa.s  not  purely  verbal,  but  regarded  the 
true  interpretation  of  the  law,  and  in  some  cases  it 
was  held  to  be  of  equal  authority  with  the  text 
itself.  From  the  position  which  it  occupied  in 
the  MS.,  being  generally  written  between  the 
lines  of  the  text  and  on  the  margin,  it  was  called 
nlossa  intcrlincaris.  The  gloss  of  the  Roman  law- 
is  written  in  very  pure  Latinity,  that  of  the  canon 
law  in  the  Latinity  of  the  medieval  school. 

Glossitis,  inllammation  of  the  Tongue  (q.v. ). 

Glossop,  a  market-town  of  Derbyshire,  amid 
bleak  but  ])icturesi|ue  hills,  l.*?  miles  ESE.  of  Man- 
chester, and  -24  WNW.  of  Sheffiehl.  It  is  the 
chief  seat  <if  the  cotton  manufacture  in  Derbyshire, 
and  has  also  woollen  and  pai>er  mills,  dyeing, 
bleaching,  and  print  works,  and  iron-foundries. 
Near  it  is  Glossop  Hall,  the  seat  of  Lord  Howard 
of  Cilo.ssop.  The  town  wa.s  incorporated  in  1>%6. 
Pop.  (1871)  17,046;  (1881)  19,574;  ( 1891 )  22,414. 

CJIossoiU'trjr,  once  niuch-debateil  fo.ssils,  now 
known  to  be  sharks'  teeth.     See  Sh.^RK. 

Glottis.     See  L.VRYNX. 

Glottolo^y.  a  word  proposed  by  Professor 
Savce  in  1874  as  an  alternative  for  Comparative 
Pliilology. 

GlOIM'OStor.  the  cai>ital  of  ( iloucestershire,  a 
parliamentary  and  county  borough,  is  pleasantly 
situated  on  tlie  left  bank  of  the  Severn,  which  here 
becomes  tidal.  It  is  114  miles  by  rail  (bv  road 
106)WNW.  of  London,  38  NNE.of  Bristol,  and 
.55  SSW.  of  Birmingham.  The  Cnerijluiii  of  the 
Britons,  and  (Uei'uni  of  the  Romans,  whose  cruci- 
form ground-plan  survives  in  the  four  main  streets, 
Gleauiiiiciitxtre  or  (iloucester  was  the  seat  succes- 
sively of  a  nunnery  (USl ),  a  monastery  (821 ),  and  a 
great  Benedictine  abbey  ( 1022 ).  The  la-st  was 
suppressed  in  1539  :  and  its  church  two  years  later 
became  the  cathedral  of  the  new  see  of  Chmcester 
— a  see  conjoined  with  Bristol  in  1836,  but  disunited 
in  1897,  Bristol  becoming  again  a  separate  see. 
.Among  its  thirty -one  holders  have  been  the  martyr 
Hoo|ier,  the  Romanising  (loodman  ( l(i2r)-.')6),  War- 
burton,  ami  Ellicott.  Built  between  1088  and  1498, 
and  restored  .since   1853  bv  Mr  Walter  and  Sir  (1. 


G.  Scott,  the  cathedral  meiisures  420  feet  by 
144  across  the  transept,  and  though  .substanti- 
ally Norman — crypt,  chapter-house,  and  the  in- 
terior of  the  nave  arc  Norman — in  general  char- 
acter is  Perpendicular.  Its  jiinnacled  central 
tower  ( 1457 )  ri.ses  225  feet,  and  contains  the  '  Great 
Peter'  bell,  weighing  3  tons  2  cwt.  (Jther  note- 
worthy features  are  the  lofty  round  iiiers  of  the 
nave,  the  east  w  indow  ( the  largest  in  England — 72 
by  38  feet)  with  its  splendid  stained  gla-ss  of  1350, 
the  bog-oak  etligj-  of  Robert  of  Normandy,  the 
exipiisite  canopied  shrine  of  Edward  11.,  the  statue 
of  Jenner,  and  a  group  by  Flaxniaii.  the  lierne 
vaulting  of  choir  and  Lady  chapel,  the  ■  whispering 
gallery'  in  the  triforiuni,  and  the  matchless  fan- 
vaulted  cloisters  (1351-1412;  see  F.\N -TRACERY). 
.\t  Gloucester  alternately  with  N\'orcester  and 
Hereford  are  held  the  festivals  of  the  '  Three 
Choii-s.'  A  new  epLscojial  palace  was  built  in  1862  ; 
the  picturesque  deanery  is  the  <dd  prior's  lodge; 
and  other  buildings  are  the  12th-century  West 
(iate,  the  New  Inn  (built  about  1450  for  iiilgrinis), 
the  Tolsey  or  guild-hall,  the  shire-hall  (1816),  the 
infirmary  (1755),  the  county  lunatic  asylum  (1823), 
the  King's  or  College  school,  the  Cryiit  grammar- 
school,  the  Blue-coat  hos])ital.  and  a  theological 
college.  There  is  a  cross  (1863)  to  Hooper,  and  a 
statue  (ISSO)  of  Raikes,  the  founder  of  Sunday 
.schools  ;  in  the  public  park  is  a  chalybeate  spring, 
which  was  discovered  in  1814.  Cloth-working,  pin- 
making,  and  bell-founding  all  belong  to  the  past ; 
and  the  commerce  of  Gloucester  is  now  more  im- 
l)ortant  than  its  manufactures — chemioals,  soap, 
matches,  railway  plant,  shipbuilding,  I'iic.  The 
(Jloucester  an<l  Berkeley  Canal,  completed  in  1827 
at  a  cost  of  £500,000,  Is 'described  in  \u\.  11.  p.  699. 
The  number  of  vessels  entering  the  i)ort  has  almost 
trebled  during  the  last  thirty  years  ;  the  imports 
include  corn  and  timber,  the  exports  agricultural 
pnjduce  and  the  minerals  of  the  Forest  of  Dean. 
Since  1885  Gloucester  has  returned  only  one  mem- 
ber. Pop.  (1841)  14,152:  (1871,  a,s  extended) 
31,844;  (1891)  39,444.  Often  visited  by  royalty, 
from  the  Conqueror's  time  to  Victorias,  Gloucester 
wa.s  also  the  meeting-place  of  eight  parliaments. 
In  the  Great  Rebellion  (1643)  it  held  out  success- 
fully against  Charles  I.  till  Essex  relieved  it. 
Anumg  its  natives  have  been  (doubtfully)  Robert 
of  Gloucester,  wbo.se  metrical  chronicle  ( 1271 )  was 
edited  in  1888  by  Mr  Aldis  Wright;  Taylor,  the 
water-i)oet ;  Whitfield,  Raikes,  and  Wheatstone. 
See  works  by  Rudder  (1781),  Britton  (1829),  F. 
Bond  (1848),  and  Waller  (1856);  also  Murray's 
Western  Cnt/uilmls  (new  ed.  1874). 

Gloucester,  a  port  of  entry  of  Ma.ssachusett^. 
on  the  s(nith  side  of  Cape  Ann  peninsula,  28  miles 
NNE.  of  Boston,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail, 
and  with  an  excellent  harlxmr.  Its  industries 
are  chielly  connected  with  the  cod  and  mackerel 
fisheries,  which  employ  several  thousand  men  ;  but 
it  has  al.'^o  a  large  tiade  in  the  granite  quarried 
here,  and  manufactures  of  anchors  and  railroad 
iron,  besides  the  building  of  schooners  and  fishing- 
boats,  and  the  import  of  salt,  coal,  and  lumber  from 
Europe  and  Canada.  CHoucester  was  incorporated 
as  a  town  in  1642,  and  made  a  city  in  1874.  Pop. 
(  1880 )  19,329  :  ( 1890 )  24,651. 

Gloueester  City,  a  town  of  New  Jei>ey,  on 
the  Delaware,  opposite  Philadelphia,  with  which 
it  has  half-hourly  communication  by  steamboat. 
It  contains  ironworks  an<l  several  cotton-factories. 
Pop.  (1890)  6564. 

Gloiieestor.  Dikes  anp  Earls  of.  ( 1 ) 
Robert.  Earl  of  Gloucester  (died  1147),  a  natural 
son  of  Henry  I.,  the  principal  supporter  of  his 
sister  Matilda  and  her  son  Henry  in  their  con- 
test against  Stephen  for  the  English  throne.  —  (2 


256 


GLOUCESTERSHIRE 


CiLOVES 


Gilbert  DE  Clare,  Earl  of  Gloucester  (1243-95), 
one  of  the  iiio.st  intlucntial  iioliles  diinTi;;  the  rei;;ns 
of  lliMiry  111.  ami  Ivlwanl  1.  At  liivl  lie  siilnl 
with  Siiiioii  lie  Moiittorl,  ami  Ijulpiil  him  to  ^'aiii 
the  battle  of  Lewes  (I'ilU);  Imt,  afterwards  (piar- 
relliei;;  with  Simon,  he  made  common  cause  with 
Prince  Kdwaril  ami  won  for  him  the  battle  of  Kves- 
hani  ( l'J(i.'> ).—(:})  Thdmas  ok  Wuodstock,  DnUe 
of  Gloucester  (  ]:).')r>-97).  the  youn;.'est  son  of  Kdwanl 
111.,  Wius  from  I.S8(J  to  l.'iSiMhe  \irtiial  nilei- of  the 
country,  lie  w;is  put  to  death  by  Itichard  II.  at 
Calais  in  l:t!»7,  on  the  ])lea  that  he  wius  ])lottiiij; 
against  the  kin;;.— (4)  Hi Ml'llKKY,  Duke  of  (;lou- 
cestcr  ( i:{!l  1-1447),  fourth  son  of  Henry  1\'.,  acted 
an  protector  of  the  realm  during;  the  minority  of 
Henry  VI.  He  wa>  ai rested  for  ]ii;;lit reason  on 
18tli  l''ebruarv  1447,  and  live  ilavs  I.Uer  found  ilead 
in  bed.  He  was  a  patron  of  learnin;;,  lail  recUless 
and  foolish  in  his  public  contluct.  -(.">)  Uu'llAltl), 
Duke  of  (iloucester,  became  Kin;.;  Kicliard  111. 
(q.v.).— ((i)  Hknrv,  Duke  of  Gloucester  (l(i:«t  GO), 
third  son  of  Charles  I.— (7)  VVlLLIAM,  Duke  of 
Gloucester  (l(iH9-t7(«l).  eldest  .son  of  t^ieen  Anni'. 
—(8)  Wll.l.I.VM  Hkm;v  (174:{-1.S().5),  (Jeor^'c  III.'s 
brother,  created  Duke  of  i;loucester  and  Kilinbur^h 
in  1764. — (9)  His  son,  William  FuiiUKiticK  ( 1770- 
1834). 

<>luiI4'4'st<'l'.sllir4'.  a  west  midlaiid  county  of 
En;;land.  lyin^'  around  the  lower  course  and  the 
estuary  of  the  Severn,  ami  bounded  by  the  counties 
of  Monmouth,  Hereford,  Worcester,  Warwick, 
G.xford,  Itcrks,  Wilts,  and  Somei-set.  With  a 
ma.\inium  len>;th  and  breadth  of  (i4  by  43  miles, 
and  an  area  of  1'2.")S  .si|.  ni.,  it  still  oilers  a  very 
irre^'ular  outline,  thou^di  in  1844  some  outlying 
portions  were  annexed  to  Wilts,  Warwick,  and 
Worcester,  ami,  in  like  manner,  detaehed  piece.s  of 
ueij,dibourin^'  counties,  but  enidosed  by  Gloucester- 
shire, were  incor]iiu;ited  in  that  county.  There  are 
three  well-marked  divisions,  eaidi  with  its  natural 
characteristics — the  Hill,  the  Vale,  and  the  Korest. 
The  lirsl  is  tMrmeil  by  the  Cole-wold  Hills  ( i|.v.), 
wlio.se  lii;;hesl  point  is  Cleeve  Hill  (  I  l.')4  feet)  ;  the 
second,  comprising  the  Vales  of  tlloucester  and 
IJerkeley,  by  the  low  rich  me.adow-lands  lying 
along  the  Severn  :  and  the  tliinl,  to  the  west  of  the 
Sm-eiii,  by  the  Torest  of  Dean  (r|.v.).  The  jirin- 
eipal  rivers  are  the  Severn,  the  Wye,  the  C]iper 
and  Lower  Avon,  ami  the  Thames,  which  receives 
all  the  waters  ea.sl  of  tla^  Coteswolds.  The  main 
rocks,  ]iroceeili!ig  westward,  are  Oolitic  (Cotes- 
wolds), Liiussic.  New  Red  Sandstone,  and  Carbon- 
iferous; the  soil  is  thin  on  the  hills,  bnt  ]iroduces 
good  pasturage  for  sheep,  while  the  lower  grounds 
abound  in  excellent,  grass  ami  aralde  land.  I'er- 
manent  p.-usture  and  eorn-erops  oeeupy  more  than 
two  thirds  of  the  entire  area.  ( iloucestershir<!  is 
famous  !us  a  dairy  country,  and  raises  large  numbers 
of  cattle.  The  well-known  doubU;  and  single 
Glo'ster  cheese  is  produced  in  the  \'ale  of  lierkeley 
(see  CllKKSK).  The  orchanls  yielil  great  (|iiantities 
of  cider  ;  ami  woods  and  plantations  cover  8'2s(|.  m. 
Building  sloiK!  is  plenliful  :  and  there  are  two 
rich  coal-lields — that  of  liristol  in  th<'  SW.,  and 
the  Korest  of  Dean  in  l\\*'.  W.  :  but  the  ironworks 
are  of  less  imiioitance  than  formerly.  The  woollen 
manufacture  is  of  ancient  standing.  (ilouces- 
tershire  since  1885  contains  the  )iarliamentary 
boroughs  of  (iloucester  ami  Cheltenham,  with  jiart 
of  IJristol,  and  live  |iarliamentaiy  divisions  -Miil  or 
Stroud,  North  or  Tewki'sbiiry,  Kast  or  Cirencester, 
Forest  of  Dean,  and  South  or  Thoriibury.  Its 
county  council  consists  of  SO  members.  Pi>p. 
(1801)  •2.')0,723;  (1881)  .-)72,433  :  fl,S91)  .100,974. 
Gloucestershire  has  a  wealth  of  antiiiuilies — iire- 
hi.storie,  Honian,  Anglo-Saxon,  and  medieval.  I'lie 
most  noticeable  of  these,  as  well  as  the  chief  events 
in  its  liistorv.  its  industries,  ami  the  names  of  its 


wortliie-s,  are  noticed  under  the  towns,  Tewkesbury, 
IJerkeley,  (Iloucester,  Cirencester,  liristol,  Kairford, 
iVc.  See  Worth's  Gloiiccst cm/tire  (1888),  and  larger 
works  there  cite<l. 

(■I<»V«'r.  UlcilAlU),  an  Knglish  jioet,  was  born 
ill  London  in  1712,  and  was  educated  a:  Chcam,  in 
Surrey.  He  was  a  )irosperons  iiieichaiit  in  his 
native  city,  and  sat  in  |>arlianieiit  lor  some  years 
lis  member  for  Weymouth.  In  1737  he  published 
l.iitiiUliis,  an  elaborate  poem  in  blank  verse,  which 
was  increased  from  nine  to  twelve  books  in  1770, 
and  fidlowi'd  by  a  |ioslhumoiis  .-c(|nel,  the  Alhiiiiiifl 
(1788).  These  poems  arc  not  delieient  in  dignity 
and  elevatimi  of  tone,  but  are  turgid  and  heavy, 
and  are  now  almost  as  well  forgotten  as  their 
author's  tragedies,  Jldni/iiid  (1753)  and  Mn/ca 
(17UI).  His  ballfid,  .tt/iiii'nil  Jlum'cr'ii  H/ivst,  long 
enjoyed  ii  factitious  reputation.  Glover  was  an 
upright,  fearless,  and  patriotic  eiti/en.  He  died  in 
17!S5  ;  and  in  lsl3  his  diary  «as  published. 

<»IAv«'rsvill«',  a  iiost-village  of  New  York,  .IS 
miles  NW.  of  .Albany  by  rail,  with  large  manufac- 
luie  of  buckskin  and  other  gloves.     I'op.  13, .'184, 

<;i«Vor  Towor.     See  Sii.i'iUKir  Acid. 

(■luvcs.  The  glove  ( Anglo-Sa.xon  .'//"/)  which 
forms  the  orilinarv  hand  covering  is,  both  from  its 
history  and  symbolic  iiii|iort,  one  of  the  most 
interesting  of  all  articles  of  dress.  Its  use  reaches 
back  to  a  remote  anti(|uity,  for  we  are  told  in  the 
Odyssey  that  Laertes,  the  farmer-king,  wore  gloves 
to  protect  his  hands  from  the  thorns.  Xenophon 
also  sneers  ,al  the  I'eisians  for  wearing  ghives  for 
keeping  their  hands  warm.  In  their  more  robust 
days  the  Greeks  and  Komalis  scorned  the  use  of 
gloves;  but  in  later  limes  their  use  was  not 
unknown  in  Home.  I'rom  time  imniemorial  the 
glove  possessed  a  legal  signilicance  in  oriental 
countries  in  coimection  with  the  transfer  of  jiro- 
jierty,  llii^  handing  over  of  the  seller's  glove  to  the 
puiiliaser  being  the  recognised  token  of  im  eslilure. 
In  this  connection  it  is  held  by  some  that  the  word 
translated  'shoe'  in  lliitli,  iv.  7,  should  more  pro- 
perly read  'glove,'  making  the  |iassage  read  :  '  Now 
this  was  the  manner  in  former  time  in  Israel  con- 
cerning reileeming  and  coneerniiig  idianging,  for  to 
conlirni  all  things  ;  a  man  ]iliicked  oil'  his  glove  and 
gave  it  to  his  neighbour.'  In  feuilal  times  the 
challenge  to  siiigh'  combat  was  gi\'en  by  the  ca-st- 
ing  down  of  the  glove  ;  and  an  ancient  and  more 
])leasing  ceremonial  still  observed  consists  in  the 
Iiresentation  of  white  gloves  to  a  judge  |ircsiding 
over  an  assize  at  which  no  ciuses  come  U]i  for  trial. 

The  glove  appears  to  have  become  a  well-known 
article  of  dress  in  Kngland  about  the  14lh  century, 
and  corpoiations  of  glovers  were  in  existence  in  the 
l.'ith  century.  In  the  days  of  Queen  Klizabeth 
gloves  were  mailc  with  gauntlets  ujion  which  much 
rich  and  elaborate  enibididery  was  worked. 

Modern  gloves  are  of  two  distinct  classes:  (1) 
woven  and  knitted  gloves,  and  (2)  tho.se  made 
of  leather;  and  the  making  of  these  constitute 
entirely  se]>arate  branches  of  nianiilactnre.  The 
iiianufactur<!  of  knitted  in-  woven  gloves  is  an  in- 
dustry allied  to  the  hosiery  trade,  and  the  materials 
i(im|>rise  all  the  ordinary  iibies,  the  most  important 
being  silk  and  wciol.  In  some  ca-ses  these  gloves 
are  entirely  made  and  rmished  by  knitting;  but  in 
others,  and  in  the  best  of  such  gloves,  the  ]iieces 
are  se]iaiately  fasliioneil  and  .sewed  together  as  in 
making  leather  gloves.  The  manufacture  is  wide- 
spread, but  the  liead(|iiiineis  of  the  tlirea<l  and 
cloth  glovi?  trade  are  now  licrlin  ami  Saxony.  The 
materials  u.sed  for  making  leather  gloves  is  jirin- 
cipally  the  skins  of  deer,  sheep  and  lambs,  goats 
and  kills,  the  latter  being  the  most  iniportant, 
altliongli  far  more  '  kid  '  gloves  are  made  of  sliiH-p 
than  of   kid   leather.     The  skins  for  military   and 


GLOW-WORM 


GLUCHOV 


257 


otlier  heavy  gloves — doe  or  buck  leatlier — are  i)re- 
pareil  liy  tlie  ordinary  process  of  tanning,  or  are  a 
fine  kind  of  clianiois  leatlier.  Those  for  what  are 
called  dressed  kid  gloves  are  subjected  to  a  special 
method  of  tanning,  by  which,  under  the  intluence 
of  heat,  and  treatment  with  a  mixture  of  flour, 
yellow  of  egg,  and  alum,  the  material  is  rendered 

{)eculiarly  soft  and  flexible.  After  tlie  leather  has 
)een  properly  prepared  it  is  cut  into  pieces  of  the 
required  size,  then  folded  over  somewhat  unequally, 
as  the  back  should  be  larger  than  the  front.  Three 
cuts  are  then  made  through  the  doubled  piece  to 
produce  the  four  fingers  ;  an  oblong  hole  is  cut  at 
the  liending  of  the  fold  for  tlie  insertion  of  the 
tliumb-piece  ;  tlie  cutting  of  this  of  the  exact  shape 
and  size  requires  considerable  skill.  The  first  and 
fourth  fingers  are  completed  by  gussets  or  striiis 
sewed  only  on  their  inner  sides,  while  the  second 
and  third  fingers  require  gussets  on  each  side  to 
complete  them.  Besides  the.se,  .small  pieces  of  a 
diamond  shape  are  sewed  in  at  the  base  of  the 
fingers  towards  the  palm  of  the  baud.  The  stitch- 
ing together  of  these  pieces  requires  much  care,  as 
the  junction  must  be  made  as  closely  as  |)ossil)le  to 
the  edge  of  each  piece,  and  yet  with  sutiicient  hold 
to  keep  the  stitches  from  cutting  through  the 
material.  A  kind  of  vice  or  elanip,  with  minute 
teeth  to  regulate  the  stitches,  is  used  for  this  pur- 
])Ose  in  the  making  of  hand-sewn  gloves,  by  which 
method  all  the  finest  gloves  are  stitched.  Sewing- 
niachiiies  are  appliecl  for  the  ornamental  or  em- 
broidery stitching  on  the  backs  of  fine  gloves,  and 
for  almost  the  entire  sewing  of  the  cheaper  and 
heavier  gloves.  The  putting  in  of  the  thumb-piece 
requires  special  skill  and  management.  Badly 
made  gloves  commonly  give  way  at  this  part. 
The  su])eriority  of  the  Frencli  and  the  best  English 
gloves  depends  chielly  upon  the  adaptation  of  their 
shape  to  the  structure  of  the  hand  by  gi\'iiig 
additional  size  where  the  flexure  of  the  hand 
requires  it. 

Kid  gloves  are  of  two  principal  kinds.  Glace  and 
Suede,  according  to  the  manner  of  dressing  and 
finishing  the  leather  u.sed.  (llace  gloves  are  those 
whicli  are  dressed,  dyed,  and  polished  on  the  hair 
or  outer  side  of  the  skin,  while  Suede  gloves  are 
carefully  pared,  smoothed,  and  dyed  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  skin  for  their  jiurpose,  and  thus  have 
the  a]ipearance  of  fine  chamois. 

I'aris  and  Grenoble  are  the  chief  seats  of  the 
Fiench  kid-glove  trade.  Military  gloves  are  made 
at  Niort  and  Vendome.  Brussels  and  Coiienbageu 
are  also  important  glove-making  centres.  In 
England,  Worcester  is  the  principal  seat  of  the 
glove  industry  ;  and  in  a  speciality,  the  so-called 
English  dogskin  gloves  made  from  tan  skins  of 
Cape  sheep,  English  manufacturers  are  without 
rivals.  See  Beck's  Gloves;  their  Annals  and 
Associations  ( 1883). 

(iilow-worill,  a  name  applied  to  numerous 
'  pliosphorescent '   lieetles   in   the   suli  family    Lam- 


pyrides  (fain.  Telepliorid;u)  already  distinguished 
from  the  Fireflies  (q. v.).  They  are  nocturnal  in 
habit,  and  represented  by  about  500  species,  wi<lely 


distriliuted,  especially  in  warm  countries.  The 
phosiihorescent  structures  are  .situated  on  the 
abdoiiu'ii,  and  are  present  in  the  larva  as  well  as  in 
the  adult  forms.  The  larv.e  are  elongated,  but 
flattened,  of  a  velvety  black  colour,  and  feed 
especially  (m  living  snails.  The  adult  females  tend 
to  retain  a  larval  appearance,  and  are  often  desti- 
tute of  wings. 

The  commonest  European  glow-worms  are  I.ani- 
pijt'ia  noctilitrft  and  L.  sjiletnlidifht  —\.\\v  Jolaoutis- 
iciinnrlun  of  the  (Jernians — in  both  of  which  the 
females  are  slightly  larger  and  wingless.  The 
male  of  the  former  is  also  comparatively  sluggish 
and  keeps  among  the  grass,  while  that  of  the  latter 


flies  actively  about  in  the  evenings.  The  general 
life-history  of  such  Lamjiyrides  is  as  follows :  The 
yellowish  phosphorescent  eggs  are  laid  in  early 
spring  ;  the  voracious  larvie  are  vigorously  crawling 
about  liy  April ;  in  .summer,  however,  they  fall  into 
a  pupa  slumber,  and  may  so  remain  till  the  next 
spring,  when  adult  life  is  attained.  In  Lampyris 
nodiluca  ( which  is  the  British  species )  the  females 


Glow-worm  (Lampyris  nodiluca) : 
ti,  male  ;  b,  female. 

give  the  more  brilliant  light,  but  in  other  ca.ses  the 
reverse  is  often  true,  while  in  one  of  the  American 
species  (Photinus  ciimissus)  only  the  male  is 
luminous. 

Gosse  has  described  a  number  of  West  Indian 
forms,  such  as  Photuris  rcrsirolor  and  the  yet  more 
govi^eovifiPyffolampisxant/iojihntis,  which  « itli  green 
and  orange  lights  respectively  sometimes  light  up 
the  foliage  with  bewitching  brilliancy.  America  is 
very  rich  in  'lightning-bugs,'  such  as  Pliutiiris 
pciinsi/h'anicHS,  and  sqiecies  of  Pyractomena  and 
Photinus.  Pyrocadia,  Luciola,  and  Lamprocera  are 
other  important  genera  widely  distrilmted. 

The  luminous  organs  consist,  like  those  of  the 
Fireflies  (q.v.),  of  fatty-looking  cells  round  which 
there  is  a  plentiful  supply  of  traelie;e,  allordin^  the 
necessary  oxygen  for  the  rapid  vital  combustion  of 
phosphorescence.  In  regard  to  their  utility  it  ha.s 
at  least  been  settled  by  the  experiments  of  Emery 
ami  others  that  they  serve  as  love-signals  between 
the  sexes,  while  it  is  probable  th.'it  the  flashes  also 
illumine  the  beetles'  paths  and  frighten  designing 
foes.  For  what  is  known  of  the  real  physiology 
of  luminosity,  see  Phosphokescexce.  Professor 
Emery  gives  a  most  entertaining  account  of  his 
observations  on  the  love-lights  of  l.itciolii  italica., 
which  he  studied  in  the  meadows  round  Bologna. 
By  catching  females  and  imiuisoning  them  in 
glass  tubes  in  the  meadows  he  satisfied  himself 
that  sight,  not  smell,  was  all  imiiortant.  When 
the  females  caught  sight  of  the  flashes  of  an 
approaching  male,  in  s])ite  of  their  tantalising 
situation,  they  allowed  their  splendour  to  shine 
forth.  In  the  two  sexes  the  colour  of  the  light 
is  identical  ;  the  intensity  also  apjiears  much  the 
same,  though  that  of  the  female  is  more  restricted. 
The  most  noteworthy  dill'erence  is  that  the 
luminous  rhythm  of  the  male  is  more  rapid  and 
the  Hashes  briefer,  while  that  of  the  female  is 
more  prolonged,  at  longer  intervals,  and  more 
tremulous.  Tbe  attracted  males  dance  round  about 
the  female,  who  after  having  captivated  one  suitor, 
proceeds  to  signal  other  rivals,  till  she  is  finally 
surrounded  by  a  circle  of  ilevotees.  See  articles  by 
Professor  C.  Enierv.  Bidl.  Soc.  Entomol.  Ifal., 
1885-87  ;  and  C.  F." Holder's  Living  Li(//iis  (\SS1). 

Ciiloxillia,    a    genus    of    plants    of    the    order 

t!esneiace;i\  with  a  nearly  bellsh.aped  delicately- 
tinted  corolla  and  richly-coloured  leaves.  Natives 
of  trojiical  America,  they  have  since  ISiJO  become 
ornaments  of  European  greenhouses.  The  s]>ecies 
is  named  after  a  botanist,  Gloxin  of  Colmar,  who 
wrote  in  ITSo. 

CiillU'IlOV.  a  town  in  the  Russian  government  of 
Tcbeniigort',  112  miles  E.  of  the  town  of  that  name, 
has   manufactures   of   soap,   candles,    and    leather. 


258 


GLUCINUM 


GLUCK 


and  a  consiileialMe  trade  in  grain.  In  tlie  vicinity 
is  the  diiof  source  for  porcelain  cluy  in  the  cmiiire. 
I'op.  17,:iUy. 

«;llU-ilHlin,orl!Ki:VLl,n  .M(xym.  Gl.  o.|.  9-4),  is 
a  ni.-tiil  "itli  a  spi'iilio  ^Tiivity  ot  •21.  It  is  while 
malleable,  atul  hisilde  Lelow  tlie  iiieltinj; -point  of 
silver.  It  does  not  liurii  in  air,  oxygen,  or  sulphur, 
but  in  the  lirst  tsvo  suhstances  it  hecoiiies  covered 
with  a  thin  coat  of  oxide.  It  eoiuhiries  readily 
with  chlorine,  iodine,  and  silicon.  Kven  when 
heated  to  reiliiess,  it  does  not  decompose  water. 
It  dis:5olves  readilv  in  liyilrochlorie  and  sulphuric 
acids,  and  in  a  solution  of  potash,  hut  is  iiisoluhle 
in  amniouia,  ami  only  sli'.ditly  acte<l  on  hy  nitric 
acid.  Glucinum  was'lii-st  obtained  from  glucina  by 
■Wrdih-r  in  lS-.>7,  who  procured  it  hv  decomi>osing 
the  chloride  of  Klucimun,  obtained  by  evaporatinj,' 
a  stdution  of  clucina  in  hydrochloric  acid.  Debray 
afterwards  (1854)  oblaiued  it  much  more  abun- 
dantly bv  a  method  similar  to  that  employed  by 
yainteCiaire  Ueville  for  the  reduction  of  alu- 
minium. The  name  t;lucinnni  or  ^dycinum  (from 
the  (ir.  '//»/,»v  or  ijl'ihifs,  'sweet')  was  given  to  the 
metal  on  acc<iiiiit  of  the  taste  of  its  .salts. 

Glucimt.  <;l( ».  the  one  o.\iile  formed  by  glucinum, 
is  an  earth  olitaiiied  by  Vauciuelin  in  17'.>7  liom  the 
emerald,  ami  which  was  afterwarils  found  in  the 
beryl  and  a  few  minerals,  (iluciiia  is  a  white, 
loosely  coherent  powder,  without  taste  or  smell. 
■Wheii  heated  to  the  strongest  temperature  of  a 
wind  furnace  it  assumes  the  form  of  microscopical 
luisms  resembling  corundum,  tilucina  i--  perfectly 
insoluble  in  water,  and  only  dissolves  in  dilute  acids 
when  it  has  not  been  ignited  strongly.  It  is  easilv 
soluble  in  boiling  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  am 
if  fused  with  au  alkali,  and  the  cold  mass  treated 
with  water,  the  glucina  goes  into  s<dution.  tiluci- 
nmn  hvdroxide,  CM  Oil),,  is  thrown  down  its  a 
gelatinous  precipitate  when  a  glucinuin  salt  is  pie- 
ciiiitated  with  ammonia.  tUucinum  forms  salts 
with  the  v.arious  aci<ls ;  they  are  colourless,  and  , 
much  resemble  tlio.se  of  aluminium.  The  mineral 
phciiakitc  is  a  pure  silicate  of  glucina.  The  hcri//, 
of  which  the  cmcnild  is  a  variety,  is  a  double 
silicate  of  glucina  and  alumina.  The  mineral 
curldsr  is  also  a  double  silicate  of  the  same  earths  ; 
while  the  rhri/aohcryl  is  an  aluminate  of  glucina, 
coloured  with  ferric  o.xide. 

OllH-k,    CllHISTOlMl    Wll.LIli.VLl),    KlTTKU   VOX, 

the  reformer  of  opera,  and  the  first  great  name 
among  modern  oi)era  writers,  was  born  '2d  July 
1714,  at  Weidenwang,  a  small  village  c)f  liavari.a, 
24  miles  N.  of  Iiigolstadt.  His  mother,  like 
those  of  llavdn,  licethoven,  and  Schubert,  seems 
to  have  been  a  cook  :  his  father  had  been  ime 
of  those  (leriuan  freelances  who  sold  their  mili- 
tary service  to  the  highest  bidder  during  the 
troiiblous  times  of  the  Marlborough  campaigns, 
and  now,  tired  of  lightiu'',  had  taken  service  under 
various  luincclets  in  the  caiiacity  of  forester. 
Cluck  had  given  no  inilicatii)n  that  music  w;us  to 
be  anything  more  to  him  than  a  favourite  recrea- 
ticm,  until  at  I'rague  University  he  found  him- 
self forced  to  suiiplement  a  very  scanty  allowance 
by  teaching  music  ;  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-two 
the  call  of  art  had  become  so  imperative  that  he 
decided  to  trv  his  fortune  among  the  musicians  of 
Vienna.  There  the  good  ollices  of  his  patron 
Prince  Lobkowitz,  and  the  friendship  he  contracted 
with  Count  Mclzi,  another  noble  amateur,  were  of 
great  service  to  him.  He  Wiis  introduced  to  the 
best  society  and  placed  for  four  years  under  the 
famous  Sanimartini  (or  San-Martini),  the  prede- 
cessor of  Havdn,  and  a  composer  of  great  energy 
and  originality.  In  1741  he  recei\e<l  a  commission 
for  his  tirst  opera,  Arlaacrce  (in  one  act),  and  six 
others  followed  in  the  succeeding  four  years.     The 


growing  fame  of  the  young  composer  travelled  as 
far  as  England,  ami  in  174.)  Lord  Middlesex,  the 
enthusiastic  operatic  iiitnjirciuur,  invited  him  to 
Lonilon,  when  a  new  opera.  La  Vtuliitit  </<■'  Gii/aiiti, 
was  performed.  Handel,  an  autocrat  at  that  time 
ill  London,  pronounced  the  stranger's  music  'de- 
testable,' and   declared   '  he  knows  lore  about 

counterpoint  than  my  cook.'  tiluck's  London  visit 
must  be  called  the  turning-point  in  his  career. 
His  study  of  Handel's  work  revealed  to  him  some 
unsuspected  capabilities  of  music  in  illustrating  the 
text ;  and  the  complete  failure  of  I'iruniu  al 
Tisbc,  a  miserable  /xi-slkrw,  or  collection  of  shreds 
and  jiatehes  from  various  sources,  ami  dignilied  hy 
the  name  of  opera,  turned  his  thoughts  to  the  con- 
sideration of  truths  which,  however  unsuited  or 
antagonistic  to  the  demands  of  poimlar  taste  and 
usual  jiiactiee,  lie  deep  down  at  the  foumlalion  of 
all  dramatic  art.  A  visit  to  I'aris  gave  him  an 
opportunitv  of  hearing  the  excellent  'recitative 
writing  of  Hameau,  and  thus  inspire<l  him  anew  for 
his  great  missiiui  ;  and  when  in  174()  he  left  l.omlon 
for  A'icnna  by  Hamburg  and  llresdeii,  notiiig 
doubtless  in  tliese  great  opera  .schools  more  to  avoid 
and  more  to  strive  after,  we  may  say  that  Ins  lii-st 
period  of  work  was  eomi)leted. 

The  next  opera  he  cimtrihuted  to  the  \  lenna 
stage  sliows  signs  of  the  direction  in  which  his 
ideal  was  temling.  and  some  of  the  music  in 
2'c/f;HOCo  ( produceil  in  Home.  17J0)  and  Lo  VIcia- 
ciiza  de  Tito  (Naples,  1751)  he  afterwards  con- 
sidereil  good  enough  lo  be  incorporated  in  Arniule 
and  Ipliiijciiic  ;  but  the  transition  periinl— during 
which  in  1755  or  17.'>tJ  the  jiope  made  him  ji 
'kni'dit  of  the  Golden  Spur'— has  not  much 
of  interest  to  offer.  Tlie  light  and  frivolous 
Metastasio  hehl  lus  it  were  a  monopoly  in  \  ienna 
as  librettist,  and  his  plots  were  more  suit<d  to 
the  kindred  genius  of  lljusse  than  to  thai  of  the 
serious  reformer.  Gluek  turneil  to  Calzabigi, 
imperial  councillor  ami  well-known  lileiaiy  aiiia- 
tcur,  anil  in  17ll'2,  after  much  nithless  tligging 
among  the  rubbish  of  Italian  opera  to  provide  a 
lirm  foundation,  he  succeeded  triumplianUv  in  lay- 
ing' the  corner-stone  of  the  moilerii  music  ilrama  in 
Orfru,  with  the  notable  title.  '  I  Mamma  per  .Musica.' 
Constant  collaboration  with  the  librettist  wiis  of 
o-reat  assistance  to  both  in  the  productiim  of  a  co- 
herent organic  whole.  This  w.irk  was  followed  in 
1700  by  A/ccste,  with  a  simple  pathetic  plot,  and 
even  iiiore  severelv  classical  than  its  predecessor  in 
libretto  and  treatment.  The  letter  of  dedication  to 
the  Duke  of  Tuscany,  which  was  printed  as  a  pre- 
face,  at  once  explains  his  theories  and  proclaims 
I  the  careful  and  logical  thought  which  led  him  to 
adopt  them.  . 

Tlie  stanilard   of  ideal  oi)era  was  still    lurther 

advanced  in  I'di-ide  cd  Elcniiti  ( 1709),  the  last  wcjrk 

written  for  Vienna  before  he  entered  on  his  brilliant 

'  career  in  I'aris.     The  jiopularity  of  the  dauphincss, 

1  who   ;is    Marie    Antoinette    had    been  his  pupil  in 

Vienna,   was  of  great  iussistance   to   (iluck   in   his 

attempt  to  establish  himself  cm  the  then  iiiemier 

;  opera  stage  of  Euroiie.     His  lirst  work  there,  I/i/it- 

,  !/ciiic  en  AulUk,  on  Itacine's  play,  proved  an  enor- 

I  inons  success,   and  Orphce,   an   ailaptation   of   his 

earlier  (irfco.  stirretl  the  utmost  enthusia-sm  among 

the  rapidlv  increasing  number  of   his  suppcuteis. 

The   French    version   of    Alccnti,    though    received 

coldly  at  lirst,  became  quite  as  popular.    Gluck  was 

at  the  summit  of  his  success  when  the  storm  broke— 

the  famous  Gluck  and  Ticcini  war  began.     An  eye 

to  busine-ss  more  probably  than  the  usual  charge  ot 

jealousy  seems  to  have  been  the  motive  fiir  inviting 

the  well-known   Italian  composer  I'iccini   to  Pans 

.ind   pitting  him  ilirectly  against  Gluck.     Mu.sical 

Paris  was   immediately  and    sharply  divided    into 

Gluckists  and  Piccinists.     The  comparative  failure 


GLUCKSTADT 


GLUE 


259 


oi  {'AncWs  £cho  et  Xarcisse  (September  1779),  and 
the  suiieiior  ability  of  the  literary  ineu  in  tlie  ranks 
of  the  I'iccinLsts,  long  made  it  impossilile  to  say 
towards  which  side  victor}'  inclined,  tintil  tlie  con- 
tinued success  of  the  earlier  IphiijCnie.  en  Tanride 
(produced  in  May  1779)  finally  decided  it  in 
Gluck's  fasour.  Piccini's  opera  of  the  same  name, 
a  much  inferior  work,  proved  a  very  effective 
weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  Gluckists.  The 
couijueror  retired  from  Paris  full  of  liouour  and 
comparatively  wealthy.  Two  strokes  of  paralysis 
warned  liini  aj;ainst  undertakinj;  any  more  active 
work  ;  and  a  third  severer  sliock  in  17S0  was  the 
forerunner  of  death,  which  in  the  fcjllowing  year 
{ November  15,  1787)  ended  an  exceptionally  long, 
vigorous,  and  successful  career. 

As  (Uuck's  energies  were,  with  one  or  two  unim- 
portant exceptions  (Odea  ««(/ .b'o«(/i  Ipy  Klopstook, 
a  '  De  proiundis,'  and  a  '  Dominus  noster'), 
directed  exclusively  to  the  composition  of  operas, 
e.xcerpts  from  which,  even  when  complete  enough 
in  themselves  for  effective  quotation,  must  neces- 
sarily labour  under  the  disadvantage  of  being 
separateil  from  the  context,  the  e.xcelleace  of  his 
work  Ls  little  known  in  England  and  .\merica, 
and  its  importance  is  almost  invariably  over- 
looked or  underestimated.  His  gift  of  melody  was 
not  so  full,  rich,  and  spontaneous  as  that  of  other 
composers  of  the  first  rank,  but  the  care  he  exer- 
cised to  leave  no  means  unemployed  by  which  he 
could  illustrate  every  turn  of  expression  in  the 
words  makes  no  small  anxends. 

Ample  testimony  is  borne  to  his  genius  for 
orchestration  by  numerous  passages  in  Ilerlioz's 
standard  Treatise  on  I nstrumentatiun,  where,  among 
sixty-four  examples  of  remarkable  effects,  no  less 
than  seventeen  are  from  the  works  of  Gluck.  These 
and  other  e.xcellences  made  his  work  capable  of 
performing  a  mission  the  importance  of  which  can- 
not be  too  highly  stated  or  too  often  insisted  on. 
He  found  the  opera  an  emasculated  creation,  pay- 
ing attention  only  to  roundness  and  sensuous 
beauty  of  form,  neglecting  ethic,  dramatic,  and 
poetic  principles  as  much  as  natural  manliness.  He 
left  it  with  a  lofty  ideal  of  a  time  when  the  libretto 
should  be  as  serious  ami  noble  in  purpose  as  the 
music  ;  when  the  musician's  lirst  and  only  effort 
should  be  to  clothe  and  illustrate  the  words  :  when 
even  the  necessity  of  action  might  be  subordinated 
to  the  development  of  character,  and  feelings  be 
painted  rather  than  deeds.  He  also  inspired  the 
sviccession  of  great  men  who  followeil  him  on  the 
stage  of  Paris,  and  who  worked  along  his  line  until 
\\'agner,  a  deep  student  of  Mozart,  Beethoven,  and 
Weber,  applied  his  genius  to  the  improvement  of 
Gluck's  ideal,  and  called  it  the  Music  Drama. 
See  his  Life  in  French  by  Desuniresterres  ( 1872)  : 
in  German,  by  Schmid  (18.54),  Marx  (1863),  and 
Ueissmann  (1882);  E.  Newman,  Gluck  and  the 
Opera  (1896)  :  and  the  article  Opek.v. 

GIlM'kstudt.  a  town  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Sleswick-llolstein,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Elbe,  32  miles  by  rail  X\V.  of  Hamburg.  Founded 
in  1616  by  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  it  is  a  pretty 
town,  regularly  built,  and  intersected  by  canals, 
its  chief  building  the  Rathhaus  ( 1642 ;  restored 
1874).  Its  harbour  remains  open  in  winter,  when 
the  Elbe  higher  u|i  is  frozen,  and  has  been  much 
iuiproveil  since  1880.  Durin>;  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  Gliickstadt  successfully  withstooil  three 
sieges :  its  fortifications  were  demolished  in  1815. 
Po]).  5983. 

Cilucose,  or  Gr.^pe  Sug.\r.    See  Sug.\r. 

Glucosurisu  a  modem  name  for  Diabetes 
Mellitus  (see  Di.\betes),  and  indicative  of  its 
characteristic  symptom,  the  presence  of  sugar  in 
the  urine. 


Vlue  is  merely  an  impure  Gelatine  (q.v.). 
Almost  every  animal  substance  will  yield  it,  hence 
all  kinds  of  animal  refuse  linJ  their  way  to  the 
glue-makers'  boilers.  The  refuse  of  tanneries,  con- 
sisting of  the  clippin-'s  of  hides,  lioofs,  ear  and  tail 
pieces  of  ox,  calf,  and  sheep  are  preferred,  because 
they  can  be  dressed  w  ith  lime,  which  removes  the 
hair,  and  acts  as  an  antLseptic.  For  this  purpose 
they  are  placed  in  tanks  w  ith  quicklime  and  water 
for  two  or  three  weeks.  Tliey  are  afterwards 
washed  and  dried,  and  are  ready  for  use  by 
the  glue-maker,  who  u.sually  gives  them  another 
heavier  lime-dressing,  and  subsequently  washes 
them ;  they  are  afterwards  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  air  for  a  time,  to  neutralise  the  caustic  lime. 
When  well  drained,  the  pieces  are  placed  in  Hat- 
bottomed  copper-boilers,  which  have  a  peiforated 
false  bottom  placed  a  little  distance  above  the  true 
one,  to  prevent  the  burning  of  the  materials,  and 
which  have  been  sujiplied  with  rain  or  other  soft 
water  up  to  two-thirds  the  depth  of  the  boiler,  the 
pieces  being  piled  up  to  some  height  above  the  top 
of  the  open  boiler.  The  whole  is  kept  at  a  gentle 
boiling  heat  until  all  the  gelatinous  jiart  has  dis- 
solved out,  and  the  ma.ss  of  material  has  sunk 
down  into  the  fluid.  The  boiling  is  sustained  until, 
by  repeated  trials  of  small  quantities,  the  operator 
knows  the  fluid  is  of  the  right  consistency,  when 
it  is  drawn  off  carefully  into  the  congealing 
boxes. 

The  congealing  Ijoxes  are  of  w  ood,  and  are  nearly 
square,  being  slightly  narrower  at  the  bottom  than 
the  top ;  they  are  lilled  to  the  biim,  and  when 
their  contents  are  sufficiently  solidilied  the  glue, 
with  a  little  management,  turns  out  in  the  form  of 
a  cube,  which  is  cut  into  thin  slices  by  a  wire  in 
the  same  manner  as  soaji ;  and  these  laiger  slices 
are  subdivided  into  smaller  cakes  by  a  wet  knife. 
Frames,  with  nets  stretched  upon  them,  are  pro- 
vided for  drying  the  cakes  upon  ;  and  these  frames, 
when  covered  with  the  cakes  of  glue,  are  ailjusted 
one  over  another  at  a  little  distance  aj)art,  sup- 
ported between  four  uprights,  and,  if  in  the  open 
ail",  covered  over  w  ith  little  wooden  roofs,  the  w  hole 
being  arranged  so  that  the  air  can  ha\  e  free  access 
to  facilitate  drying.  This  [irocess  is  an  anxious 
one  for  the  manufacturer,  as  the  changes  of  the 
weather  have  great  and  often  completely  de- 
structive effects  upon  glue  in  this  state.  In 
Britain  spring  and  autumn  are  the  best  drying 
seasons.  Generally,  after  the  open-air  ilrying,  the 
glue  is  taken  to  drying-rooms,  heated  slightly, 
where  it  hardens  effectually;  but  it  is  not  _\et 
linished  ;  the  cakes  at  this  stage  have  a  dull,  un- 
si'ditly  look,  to  remedy  which  they  are  ilippeil  into 
cold  water,  or  are  wetted  with  a  brush  dij>iied  in 
hot  water,  and  redried,  this  wetting  giving  the 
cakes  a  bright  varnished  appearance. 

While  England  does  not  excel  in  this  manufac- 
ture, it  is  a  recognised  fact  that  Scottish  glue — 
such  ;is  that  nuule  by  Me.ssrs  Cox  at  Edinburgh — 
ranks  in  the  front  of  the  glues  of  all  countries.  A 
I  light-coloured  slue  is  not  necessarily  good,  nor 
I  dark-coloured  glue  necessarily  bad.  A  bright  clear 
I  claret  colour  is  the  natural  colour  of  hide-glue, 
which  is  the  best  and  most  economical.  Light- 
coloureil  glues  (ai^  distinguished  from  gelatine)  are 
made  either  from  bones  or  sheepskins.  The  glue 
yieUled  by  these  materials  cannot  compare  with 
the  strength  of  that  yielded  by  hides.  A  great 
quantity  is  now  made  in  France  and  Germany  from 
bones.  It  is  got  as  a  by-product  in  the  mainilacture 
of  animal  charcoal.  Although  beautiful  to  look  .nt, 
it  is  found  when  use<l  to  be  far  inferior  to  Scottish 
hide-glue.  The  latter  is  largely  used  by  match- 
makers, piano  makers,  and  cabinet-makers,  who 
export  their  goods  to  all  i)arls  of  the  worlil.  ami  to 
whom,  ow  iug  to  the  damp  climates  of  many  parto 


260 


GLUKHOV 


GLYCERINE 


to  wliii-h  tliev  exi>ort,  a  lir8^cl(U!SJ,'l^e  is  absolutely 
necessary.  "Besulis  its  use  in  joinery,  calmiet 
iimkin«,"li(Mikl>iiiiliii-.  iiKitcli milking,  and  siniiliir 
openiti.m-,  ;_'lue  is  iiso.l  \>y  iKiiieriiiakers  ami  in 
ilre^siii';  silks ;  ami  for  these  last  two  purposes 
line  li^^ileoloureil  kinds  in  thin  cakes  are  muile. 
Lar^e'^quantities  are  employed  l>y  i>a))erlian^'ei> 
an.r  othei^  for  sizing'  walls.  It  is  also  used  for 
stillenin"  straw,  cotton,  horsehair,  ami  other  ]daits 
for  making'  bonnets  and  hats.  See  Dawidowsky, 
Chii-.  I!<l(il!iie,  <(■(■.  (Kn^.  trans.  1SS4). 

.M.iiiii'  Chic  is  not  a  ;;lui',  but  a  cementm;; 
composition  used  in  shiidiuildiii'.'.  for  paying' seams 
in  ships'  decks  after  lieiu','  caulked.  In  hot  climates 
it  is  iireferred  to  t.-ir  for  this  ami  other  j^nirposcs 


it  is  preferred  to  t.-ir  for  this  ami  otiier  purposes 
where  the  materials  are  exposed  to  tlie  iMllucncc  o 
wet.  It  consists  of  imlia  rubber  cut  very  small.  ;ind 
dj.'estcd  at  a  jjentle  beat  in  a  closed  vessel  with  coal- 
tar  naplitha  until  it  is  dissolve.l,  when  powdered 
shcdl  lac  is  a.lded,  and  the  ili^jestion  continued  until 
it  also  is  dissolved. 

tailkllOV.     See  tlLlXlloV. 
<;llllll«'.   a   term    aiiplied   to   certain    bracUs   in 
f;ra>-c>  and  sedges  (which  are  sometimes  conjoined 
as  t;iuinifera-).     See  Glt.\.ssES,  Cvi'EKACE.k. 

Gluten  is  one  of  the  most  important  con- 
stitiicMls  lit  the  varieties  of  corn  used  as  food.  It 
is  obtained  by  mixing;  Hour  with  water,  and  thus 
foriiiinj;  a  paste  or  dou^h.  This  miste  is  placed  in 
a  ba^'  of  line  linen,  and  kneaded  in  water,  which 
nnist'be  repeatedly  changed  till  it  ceases  to  ;y-sume 
ji  milky  ai>]iearaiice.  A  gray,  tenacious,  vim-ijus, 
ta-.tclcss  substance,  having  the  appearance  of  bird- 
lime, is  left  in  the  bag.  This  substance  consists 
mainly  of  gluten,  mixeil  with  traces  of  bran  starch 
and  oi"  oily  matter.  The  gluten  thus  obtained  from 
wheat  and  from  rye  is  far  more  tenai'ious  than 
that  which  is  obtained  from  the  other  cereals, 
and  it  is  the  great  tenacity  of  this  constituent 
that  esiiecially  lits  these  Hours  for  convci-sion  into 
bread.  It  is  "found  by  analysis  that  the  propor- 
tion of  gluten  (Hi  per  cent.)  contained  in  wheat 
grown  in  Algeria  and  other  hot  countries  is  con- 
sitlciably  higher  than  in  wheat  grown  in  Kngland 
(  10-7  per  cent.),  or  still  colder  countries;  the  juo 
portion  in  the  wheat  of  the  I'nited  States  seems 
to  vary  from  O'S.')  to  as  much  as  l.j"2.')  jier  cent.  : 
and  the  lianl.  thin  skirineil  wheats  contain  more 
of  this  ingredient  than  the  softer  varieties  of  the 
grain. 

»;iulen  in  a  moist  state  rapidly  putrelies,  the 
nia-ss  acijuiring  the  smell  of  di'ciying  chee.se  :  but 
when  <lry  it  forms  a  hard,  brownish,  liorny-looking 
mass,  that  does  not  very  reailily  decompose.  On 
treating  gluten  with  hot  alcohol,  we  lind  that  it 
resolves  itself  into  at  le;ust  two  distinct  substances, 
(.Hi-  of  which  is  .soluble,  and  the  other  in.soluble  in 
that  fluid.  The  insoluble  portion— vegetable  librin 
—is  a  giay,  tough,  elastic  substance,  insoluble  in 
water  or  'in  ether,  but  readily  soluble  in  dilute 
alkalies,  from  which  it  is  precipitated  by  neutr.il 
isation  with  acetic  acid.  'I  he  soluble  jiortion  is  in 
part  precipitated  from  the  alcohol  on  cooling,  in 
the  form  of  Hakes,  w  hicli  have  the  composition  and 
properties  of  casein —a  vegetable  casein;  while  a 
third  substance,  (/li(t(/in.  remains  in  solution,  giving 
to  the  alcohol  a  syrupy  consistence,  but  separating 
on  the  addition  "of  water,  as  a  white  substance 
resembling  albumen.  -Ml  these  constituents  of 
gluten  contain  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  oxygen, 
and  r-iilpliur,  in  much  tiie  same  proportion  .-us  the 
animal  albuminates  or  protein  l«Hlies,  and  tliey  all 
doubtless  belong  to  the  Hesli-forming  gioup  of 
foods. 

The  action  of  gluten  in  the  manufacture  of  bread 
is  probably  a  double  one;  it  induces,  by  constant 
action,  an'alteration  of  the  starch,  and  subseciuent 


fermentation,  while  by  its  tenacity  it  prevents  the 
escape  of  carbonic  aeiil  gas.     See  IJltEAI). 

(;llllloll  (Giilo),  a  caniivorcms  quadruped  be- 
longing to  the  wea-sel  family  (  Miistelidie).     There 

are  three  false lars  in  the  upper,  and  four  in  the 

lower  jaw,  anterior  to  the  larnassial  tooth,  which 
is  large  ami  sharp.  The  body  is  long— about  2 
feet  li  inches— the  legs  are  short,  the  feet  have 
each  live  deeply -diyidc<l  toes,  terminated  by  long 
curved  claws.  The  tail  is  rather  short— about  7 
or  S  inches;  a  f(dd  beiicith  the  tail  supplies  the 
place  of  the  glamluhu  iiouch  of  the  biidgcrs  ;  but 
wlieii  hard  pressed  by  enemies  the  gluttons  i>mit  a 
iicculiar  lluid  of  a  "strong  musky  odour.  Their 
habits  are  nocturnal.  Itotli  body  and  tail  are 
covered  with  bmg  hair,  under  which  the  body  is 
covered  w  ith  a  rich  thii  k  fur.  The  general  colour  of 
the  long  hair  is  brown,  sometimes  a|i]iidacliiiig  to 
black,  lighter  bands  jiassiiig  liom  the  iiccU  along 
the  Hanks,  and  meeting  at  th<-  tail.  The  short  lur 
is  chestnut  brown.  The  muzzle  is  black.  A  light- 
brown  lianil  runs  across  the  forehead  from  ear  to 
ear.  The  fur  of  the  glutton  is  sometimes  of  con- 
siileiable  value,  ami  is  used  for  miiHs.  cloaks.  &c., 


Till;  Glutton  {(liilo  luscut). 

but  varies  not  a  little  in  glos.sine.ss  and  othrr 
(lualitieslsec  Kflts,  11  Wr.r/HC).  There  is  on  l.v  one 
species,  commonly  called  i;liittoii,  ami  also  \\  ol_ 
veriiie  I  (.'.  /iiscii.s),  a  native  of  the  northern  jiarts  of 
Kurope,  Asia,  ami  .America.  It  is  more  common  in 
the  iirctic  regions  than  towards  the  southern  limits 
of  its  distriliutioii,  which  are  about  the  forests  of 
Courland,  in  Euroiie,  and  northern  California,  in 
.America.  The  most  extraordinary  stories  were  at 
one  time  crediteil  concerning  the  Icrocity.  viiiacity, 
and  cunning  of  this  animal,  lliougl]  in  captivity  it 
h;is  been  known  to  overcome  and  kill  a  large  jmlar 
bear  ( 1897  ) ;  it  is  very  capable  of  ilomestication,  ami 
even  in  a  wild  state  exhibits  no  remarkable  ferocity  ; 
nor  is  there  any  reason  to  believe  that  it  leaps  from 
trees  cm  deer,  oi- pursues  any  of  those  artful  methods 
of  procuring  fooil  w  Inch  were  once  jvscribed  to  it.  it 
often  ])ievs  on  animals  which  it  has  not  itselt 
killed.  lie-  smaller  .luadnipcds  are  its  principal 
food,  and  it  devours  young  foxes  in  great  numbers 
Its  speed  is  not  great,  but  it  excels  in  strength  and 
iiersevcriince.  The  traps  set  for  the  smaller  kinds 
of  animals— e.g.  martens— in  the  fur  cimntries  of 
North  .\meiica  are  very  often  robbed  by  the 
wolvrrine  and  it  has  been  known  to  remove  a 
-reat  pile  of  wood  in  order  to  got  at  provisions 
whicli  had  been  hidden  under  it. -Closely  allied 
to  the  glutton  are  the  grison,  the  badger,  the  otter, 
and  the  ratel.  IVme-caves  and  some  of  the 
newest  deposits  exhibit  remains  of  more  than  one 
species  of  glutton. 

<;iyr«'riiie,  Ci.YcEitoL,  or  I'i;openyl  Audihh., 
('  II  ("till  |.,,  was  (liscovered  by  Scheele  in  177!',  who 
obtained  it  in  the  i.iepaialion  of  lead  plaster,  and 
named  it  '  the  sweet  ininciple  of  fat.s.  It  is  a 
colourless,  viscid,  neutral,  inodorous  lluid,  ot  ari 
intensely  sweet  taste,  is  soluble  in  water  and 
alcohol  in  all  proportions,  but  is  insoluble  in  ether 


GLYCERINE 


GLYPTODON 


261 


and  in  cliloroform.  Its  specific  firavity  is  127. 
If  f|ui(kly  cooled  down,  <,'lyceiine  does  not  crystal- 
lise, !>ut  solidilies  at  40°  C  into  a  ^'uin-like  mass. 
In  the  winter  of  1S67  it  was  discovered  that  some 
;;lycerine  which  was  being  shipped  to  Kngland  had 
frozen  into  a  solid  crystalline  ina>s ;  till  then 
fllyceriiie  was  believed  to  be  uncrystallisable. 
At  100'  it  is  slightly  volatile,  but  if  distilleil  alone 
the  greater  part  of  it  becomes  decomposed  ;  it  may, 
however,  be  distilled  witliont  alteration  in  a  cur- 
rent of  superheated  steam.  liv  this  means  Wilson 
succeeded  in  1854  in  separating  heated  fats  into 
glycerine  and  the  acid  with  which  it  was  \>ie- 
viously  in  combination  ;  the  glycerine  is  thus 
obtained  in  a  high  state  of  concentration  as  a 
colourless,  syrupy  liquid,  which  can  be  thus  pre- 
pared in  unlimited  quantity. 

Glycerine  occurs  ready  formed  in  a  few  fats  ( as, 
e.g.,  old  palm-oil),  and,  according  to  Pasteur,  is 
containeil  in  all  fermented  li<niors,  and  especially 
in  wine.  It  is  a  product  of  the  saponification  of 
the  various  fats.     See  So.vi'. 

Glycerine  is  a  triatomic  alcohol — i.e.  it  is  derived 
from  three  molecules  of  water  by  replacing  three 
atoms  of  hydrogen  by  the  triatouiic  radic.il  C1H5  ; 
or  it  may  be  considered  a  compound  of  GjHj  with 
three  molecules  of  hydro,\yl,  OH — and  may  be 
represented  by  the  formula  03115(011)3;  and  in 
the  animal  and  many  vegetable  fats,  the  three 
molecules  of  hydroxy!  are  replaced  by  three  mole- 
cules of  the  aniiydrous  fatty  acid.  In  the  saponifi- 
cation of  these  fats — that  is  to  say,  when  they  are 
treated  with  potash,  soda,  or  o.xide  of  lead,  or 
under  the  intiuenceof  sui)erheated  steam — the  fatty 
acid  separates  from  C3H5,  which  assimilates  three 
molecules  of  hydroxyl  and  becomes  glycerine. 
Glycerine  forms  soluble  compounds  with  baryta, 
strontia,  and  lime  ;  and  it  dissolves  oxide  of  lead 
and  numerous  salts.  It  is  found  that  glycerine  is 
convertilile  into  a  true  fermentable  .sugar  when 
treated  witli  a  mixture  of  potassium  bichromate 
and  sulphuric  acid,  or  with  potassium  permanganate 
in  presence  of  sunlight. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  best  mode 
(Wilson's  process)  of  obtaining  glycerine  on  a 
large  scale  ;  the  usual  method  of  obtaining  it  on  a 
small  scale  is  from  olive-oil,  which  is  saponified  by 
treating  it  with  an  equal  weight  of  litharge  (lead 
oxide).  This  is  mixed  with  water,  and  added  to 
the  oil,  with  which  it  is  boiled  till  the  .saponifica- 
tion is  complete.  The  glycerine  is  dissolved  by 
the  water,  and  is  easily  sepaiatetl  from  the  in- 
.soluble  lead-plaster  (a  mixture  of  olcate  and  pal- 
niitate  of  lead).  Any  traces  of  lead  are  removed 
liy  sulphuretted  hydro^'en,  and  the  water  is 
expelleil  in  raciio,  as  tlie  glycerine  would  turn 
brown  in  the  open  air. 

The  uses  of  glycerine  are  numerous.  In  medi- 
cine it  is  employed  as  a  local  application  in 
diseases  of  the  skin  and  of  the  ear :  it  is  used  a-s  a 
solvent  for  many  drugs  ;  and  is  taken  internally 
for  the  same  purposes  as  cod-liver  oil.  It  is  a 
valuable  preservative  tiuid  for  small  and  delicate 
anatomical  preparations,  and  it  has  been  ap]>liod 
to  the  preservation  of  meat.  It  is  used  in  per- 
fumery, in  calico-printing,  aud  in  the  preparaticm 
of  leather.  It  is  used  by  the  wine-dealer  to 
'imjnove'  the  quality  of  wine,  and  by  the  brewer, 
as  it  is  said,  to  in)part  keeping  power  to  beer. 
Very  laige  (|uantities  of  glycerine  are  required  for 
the  [iroduction  of  Nitroglycerine  (<i.v. )  and  other 
explosives.  It  has  been  addeil  to  the  water  in  gas- 
meters  with  the  view  of  ]ueventing  it  from  freezing. 
It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  copying-ink,  and 
is  of  general  application  where  a  lubricating  agent 
is  required. 

Like  the  alcohols  in  general,  to  which  class 
glycerine  belongs,  it  forms  several  classes  or  series 


of  derivatives,  the  most  impoitant  of  which  are 
its  combinations  with  acids,  which  are  analogou.s 
in  their  composition  to  the  various  fats  and  oils. 
See  Koscoe  aiul  Schorlemmer's  Treatise  on  Chem- 
istry, and  Schorlenimers  Manual  of  the  Chemistry 
itf  the  Carbon  Compounds. 

Cllycocoll,  or  Amido-acetic  Acid,  CH.4NH.) 

COaH,  was  first  prepared  by  liraconnot  in  1826, 
being  obtained  among  the  products  of  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid  on  glue,  anil  receive<l  from  him  the 
name  siicre  dc  i/rlrrlinr,  on  account  of  its  sweet 
taste.  It  is  a  jiroduct  of  various  processes  of 
decomposition  of  aidmal  matters.  Glycocoll  Is 
very  soluble  in  water,  the  solution  having  no  effect 
on  vegetable  colours,  but  it  is  insoluble  in  alcohol. 
Glycocoll  combines  both  with  acids  and  bases,  and 
the  compounds  in  both  cases  are  soluble  and 
crystallisal>le. 

Glycogen,  C,.,H.j„Oi„,H,0,  sometimes  called 
animal  starch,  was  discovered  by  Claude  Bernard 
in  the  human  liver  as  well  as  that  of  graminivorous 
animals.  It  has  been  shown  to  exist  very  widely 
diffused  throughout  the  animal  kingdom,  and 
appears  to  be  an  essential  accompaniment  of  cel- 
lular growth,  occurring  in  large  quantities  in  the 
f<etus.  It  occurs  also  in  bl(M)d  and  muscular  tissue. 
It  is  found  in  mollusca,  dried  oysters  being  said  to 
contain  as  much  as  95  per  cent.  Glycogen  has 
al.so  been  detected  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  in 
moulds  and  other  fungi.  Its  uses  in  the  animal 
economy  are  noticed  in  the  article  Liver. 

Cwlyc ol  is  the  type  of  a  class  of  artificial  com- 
pounils,  wlio.se  existence  was  inferred,  and  after- 
wards discovered,  by  Wurtz.  In  their  chemical 
relation  and  properties  they  form  an  intermediate 
series  between  the  monatomic  alcohols,  of  which 
common  alcohol  is  the  type,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
triatomic  alcohols,  a  class  of  bodies  of  which  ordi- 
nary glycerine  is  the  type,  on  the  other.  The  name 
of  "lycol,  formed  from  the  first  syllable  of  glycerine 
and  the  last  of  alcohol,  has  been  given  to  cxpres.s 
this  relation.  The  glycols  are  accordingly  termetl 
diatomic  alcohols.  Ordinary  glycol  is  formed  from 
ethylen,  tVHj,  and  hence  may  be  called  ethyl- 
glycol,  to  distinguLsh  it  from  propyl-glycol,  « hich 
is  formed  from  propylen,  C'jH,,,  from  butylglxcol, 
which  is  formed  from  butylen,  G^Hg,  or  from  amyl 
glycol,  which  is  formed  from  amylen,  C'sH,,,.  Glycol 
is  a  colourless,  slightly  viscid  fluid,  witii  a  sweet 
taste,  and  its  composition  is  expressed  by  the 
formula  C^Hj(OH)o.  See  Schorlenimers  Jltintiat 
o/the  Chemistry  0/ the  Carbon  Compounds. 

dycose.     See  SuG.VK. 

Cilycosiuis,  a  genus  of  Aurantiacea',  trees  of 
the  East  Indies.  The  fruit  of  G.  citrifolia  is 
delicious. 

tilyptodou  (Gr.,  engraved  tooth"),  a  gigantic 
fo.ssil  animal  belonging,  like  the  Megatherium 
(q.v.)  and  the  Mylodon  (q.v.),  to  the  Edentata, 
but  of  the  family  of  the  Dasypodida-  or  Armailillos. 


» iiyptodon  cl.ivipos. 

It  Ls  found  in  the  post-terliarj'  deposits  of  the 
pampas  of  South  .\merica,  and  four  species  have 
been  described.  The  back  and  sides  of  the  creature 
were  covered  with  a  carapace  of  thick.  niMvly  hexa- 


2fi2 


OMELIX 


GNAT 


j^nal,  liony  scutes,  wliicli  in  sonic  cnses  was  nearly 
G  foet  lim;,'-  Tlio  lioad  was  similarly  ]irotoctfiil  liy 
a  lioliiiet  <pf  l)i>iiy  plates,  wliile  its  tail  \v,ls  com- 
itloti'ly  slicatliod  in  a  rasing'  of  tlio  same  kin<l. 
riic  <;ly])toil<>ii  must,  from  tlio  shape  of  the  cara- 
pace, have  looked  likcr  a.  hiijre  tortoise  than  an 
arm.adillo,  Tnlike  the  latter,  it  had  no  movahle 
bands  in  its  armour,  and  therefore  oould  not  roll 
itself  lip  when  attackeil  liy  its  enemies.  Its  teeth, 
ei;,'hl  in  carli  jaw,  had  each  two  lateral  sculptured 
firooves,  whence  the  name. 

(illlirlill,  LEopoi.n,  a  (Jerman  chemist,  was  horn 
at  (!dHin;,'en,  2d  Aii-fust  17.SS,  ,and  died  at  Heidel- 
lierj;,  l.Stli  April  ISo.S.  Having'  studied  medicine 
and  chemistry  at  fJottinsen,  Tiiliinf;cn,  and  \'ienna, 
he  liej^an  to  teach  chemistry  at  Ileiilelliei),'  in  1813. 
Four  yeais  later  he  w.os  niaile  )irofcssor  of  iMeilicine 
and  (heiinstiy,  and  held  that  chair  until  1S.">0.  His 
{;reat  work  is  an  excellent  dictionary  of  cheinistrv, 
entitled  Ifniii/liiir/i  (Ar  r//<;/i/V  (IH17  I!)),  liesides 
this  he  wrote,  alonj;  with  'I'iedemann,  a  book  on 
ili-^estion  ( l,S2(i-27),  and  another  on  the  method 
by  wliich  the  fond-products  p.ass  into  the  blood 
( iS'20).  The  Hdiiflhiuli  was  translated  into  Kn-rlish 
and  enlarjjed  by  Watts  ( I, S48-.")9 ).  — His Kiand  uncle, 
.loiiANN  (JkoiV.  Cmkmx,  born  at  Tiibinj.'en,  lOlli 
Aiijiusl  170!),  ]irofcssor  of  CheTnislry  ami  Natural 
History  at  St  retersbiirK  fioiii  17;il.  and  liolnny 
and  ('licmistrv  at  Tiibin^en  from  174'J,  ilied  there 
Snth  .May  i7.V).  He  sp.^nt  ten  years  ( 17:{:i-43)  of 
his  life  travellin;^  in  Siberia,  makinj;  observations 
on  the  botany,  and  wrote  Flora  Sihirica  (1748^!)) 
and  lirinni  rliirch  Sihiricn  (4  vols.  1751-52).— His 
nephew,  SwfKl,  (iOTTLIEB  (1744-74),  became 
jirofcssor  of  liot.any  at  St  I'etcrsbnrji  (17G7), 
studied  the  botany  of  the  southern  jiortions  of 
Kussia,  and  wrote  llistaria  FiicDnim  (1708). — 
Anotlier  nepliew,  Joiiann  Krikdricii  (1748- 
1804),  father  of  Leopolil,  wrote  a  botanical  die- 
tionaiv,  ()iiumi(to/or/ia  liutanka  CumplctK  (9  vols. 
1771   77  1. 

<>lll<>lilia,  a  fienns  of  verlienaceous  trees.  The 
fiiiilicr  of  <i.  arhorca  (Koombar  or  (Joomb.ar  of 
India )  resembles  teak,  Init  is  closer  in  grain,  and 
lighter. 

(allliilld.  a  town  of  AViirtember-,',  stands  in  the 
charminj:  and  fertile  v.alley  of  the  Kenis,  30  miles 
E.  of  Stuttgart  by  rail.  It  h.as  some  line  old 
churches,  and  carries  on  important  nianuf.icturcs 
of  jewels  .and  hardware:  hops  .and  fruit  are  much 
giown  in  the  neighbourhood,  timiindiii  the  mid<l!e 
ages  w.is  an  imperial  free  citv  of  Swabia,  Avith 
is, 0011  inhaliit.mts.  It  was  adileil  to  Wiirtemberg 
in  1803.  I'op.  (1875)  12,,S.38;  (1885)  1.-.,.321.  Sec 
works  by  (^Jiinim  ( 18()9)  and  Kais.ser  (1882). 

Ciillllllldrn.  a  town  of  Ujiper  Austria,  159 
miles  W.  of  \ienna  by  rail.  It  lies  14.39  feel  .above 
sea  h'vel,  amid  the  grandest  scenery  of  the  S.alz- 
k.animcrj;ut,  .at  the  lower  end  of  the  Traunsee  or 
L.ake  (imnnden  (8  by  2  miles),  .above  which  towers 
the  Traunstein  (.")."),3I5  feet).  With  numerous  hotels 
anil  villas,  it  is  .a  favourite  summer  bathing-]d.aco. 
Salt-mines  employ  many  of  the  inhabitants.  Pop. 
(i(i31.  See  Feui-stein,  Dcr Kurort  Gmundcii  (6tli  eu. 
Aiciina.  1885). 

<iiiii|»lialiiiiii.    See  Cudweed,  Edelwei.ss. 

GllUt  (  Ciil'.r),  .a  genus  of  dipterous  insects  rei)ro- 
senteil  by  nniiierous  Avidely  distribuled  species,  .ami 
8])eeially  abundant  in  marshy  districts.  There  are 
nine  liritish  species,  of  which  the  ('ommon  Gnat 
(Cii/cr  j)ij)ie»s)  may  Imj  taken  as  typical.  The 
cidour  of  the  midille  portion  of  the  boily  on  the 
upper  surface  is  yellowish-brown,  marked  with 
darker  longitudinal  lines;  the  posterior  p.art  is 
light  gray.  The  abilomen  is  long,  slender,  and 
slightly   llattened  ;   the  legs,   verv-   long  and   thin  : 


and  the  delicate  gliv.sy  wings  bear  niiiiierons  hairs 
on  the  veins  and  along  tbeir  posterior  margins. 
When  the  insect  is  at  rest  the  wings  are  laid  Hat 
back  upon  the  body.  The  .antenn.c  consist  of  four- 
teen joints,  and  bear  circlets  of  hair,  which,  in  the 
male,  may  be  so  long  and  thick  .as  to  give  a  featherj- 
appearance.  The  female  is  furnished  with  mandibles 
which  are  absent  in  the  male.  The  male  gnat  sijw 
nectar  from  the  (lowers  .ami  passes  his  days  in  joyous 
dancing  in  the  sunlight  ;  the  female  spenils,  not  lier 
d.ays  only,  but  her  nights,  in  ]>iii-siiit  of  men  .and 
cattle  into  whom  she  may  drive  her  sli.arp  lancets, 
t4>  slick  from  their  lilood  lier  more  nutritions,  if  lt?ss 
delicate  diet.  The  proboscis,  whose  double  function 
of  piercing  and  sucking  was  noticed  even  by  I'liny, 
is  an  extremely  complex  structure  com  posed  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the  three  usual  mouth  .appendages. 
The  humming  sound  produced  by  the  female  in  Hy- 
ing, the  deeper  notes  of  which  arc  due  to  the  rapid 
vihr.atiim  ot  the  wings  (computed  at  3000  per 
minute),  the  higher  to  membranes  on  the  thoracic 
openings  of  the  air  tubes,  serves  in  p.art,  donbtles.s, 
to  attract  the  males.  Darwin  (juotes  Mayer  to  the 
following  etl'ect  :  'The  hairs  on  the  antcnme  of  the 
male  gn.at  vibr.ate  in  unison  with  the  notes  of  a 
tuning  fork,  williin  tiie  range  of  the  soiimls  emitti^l 
by  the  female.  The  longer  h.airs  vibrate  sym- 
iiatlietically  with  the  graver  notes,  .and  the  sliorter 
liairs  with  the  higher  ones.'  Lamlois  also  says 
that  he  h.as  rejieatedly  brought  down  .a  whole  swarm 
of  gnats  by  littering  a  ]>articiilar  note.  After  fertil- 
isation, the  female  lays  her  eggs — 300  at  a  time,  it 
may  be— in  a  pool 
or  ditch  of  stag- 
nant water,  moor- 
ing them  by  a 
glutinous  sub- 
stance to  a  float- 
ing leaf  or  twig. 
The  larva',  which 
in  favourable  cir- 
cumstances are 
hatched  in  a  few 
ilavs,  are  about 
half  an  inch  long, 
of  a  bl.ack  colour, 
intensely  .active, 
with  ■bristle- 
fringed  mamlibles 
wliicli  vibrate  con- 
tinually, making 
a  little  eddy  which 
conveys  food-pii 
tides  to  tin 
mouths.  M'hen  -.it 
rest,  they  susjiend 
themselves  liead 
downwards  from 
the  surface  of  the 
w.ater,  and  take  in 
air  through  a  curi- 
ous tube  jiroject- 
ing  from  the  ei;.diili  segment  of  the  abdomen.  They 
remain  in  the  larval  state  about  three  weeks,  during 
which  jieriod  they  moult  three  times.  The  jnipa  is 
smaller  and  lighter  in  colour;  it  .also  is  active, 
though,  of  course,  it  takes  no  nourishment.  Its 
external  .air-tnbes  are  situ.ated  on  the  sides  of  the 
thorax,  and  project  beyond  its  head.  When 
mature,  the  pu|ia  conies  to  the  .surface,  the  skin 
splits  longitudinally,  and  the  jierfcct  gnat  slowly 
emerges.  Many,  however,  never  taste  the  delight 
of  flying,  for  their  weak  wings  being  drenched  can- 
not be  spread,  and  the  in.sects  are  drowned  without 
fully  escaping  from  their  pujia-skin.  Several 
generations  of  gn.ats  follow  erne  .another  in  a  season. 
In  the  I"eu  district  they  .are  sometimes  so  abuinl- 
ant  that  the  inhabitants  are  forced  to  use  cm  Inins 


l.ifc  liistury  ef  tlie  Unat 
(  Cm/'  X  jii/iiciig )  : 
r,  Inrvn ;    h,  it\i\m ;    c,  ivrfoct  insect 
emerging ;   d,  male,   and    e,  female 
gnat. 


GNEISENAU 


GNOSTICISM 


203 


anrl  such  means  of  protection  against  tlieni  as  are 
nsed  in  liotter  countries  against  tlieir  allies  the 
Mosquitoes  (q.v. ).  Gnats  occasionally  swarm  to- 
gether in  such  numbers  that  they  present  the 
ai)|)earance  of  dense  clouds  of  smoke;  and  it  is 
recorded  that,  in  the  year  173(i,  an  alarm  of  tire 
was  raised  in  Salisbury  because  of  the  vast  columns 
of  gnats  swarming  round  the  cathedral  spire. 

Gueiseiiaii,  August  Wilhelm  Antox,  Gkaf 
Nkithardt  vox,  one  of  the  Prussian  generals  of 
the  war  of  liberation,  was  born  at  Schildau,  in 
Prussian  Saxony,  'llth  October  1700.  In  17S'2  he 
accompanied  tlie  German  auxiliaries  of  England  to 
America.  On  his  return  lie  joined  (1780)  the 
Pru^^sian  arm}-,  and  twenty  years  later  fought 
at  Saalfeld  and  in  the  battle  "of  Jena.  He  gave 
convincing  proof  of  his  militaiy  genius  in  the 
defence  of  Colberg  from  April  to  July  1S07;  and 
this  led  to  his  appointment  on  the  commission  for 
the  reorganisation  of  the  Prussian  army,  in  which 
capacity  he  lent  cordial  support  tn  the  plans  of 
Stein  and  Scharnhorst.  In  the  war  of  liberation 
lie  ren<lered  distinguished  sen-ice  at  the  battle  of 
Leipzig  (181.3).  But  his  most  meritorious  work 
wa.s  his  share  in  the  Waterloo  campaign,  in  which 
he  w,a.-<  chief  of  Bliicher's  staff',  and  princip.ally 
directed  the  strategy  of  the  Prussian  army.  He  ha<l 
been  fifteen  years  on  the  retireil  list  when,  in  IS.'Jl, 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Polish  rebellion,  he  was  made 
lield-marshal  and  given  command  of  the  Pnissian 
army  on  the  Polish  frontier,  but  he  died  at  Posen  on 
24tli  August  that  same  year.  See  his  Life  l>v  Pertz 
(5  vols.  1864-80)  and  Delbriick  (2  vols.  1882"). 

Cwlieiss.  a  term  introduced  from  the  German  for 
a  foliated  crystalline-granular  compound  of  (|Uartz, 
felspar,  and  mica.  The  quartz  is  white  or  gray, 
and  occurs  in  lentie\ilar  layers  that  vary  from  a 
mere  line  up  to  bands  one  foot  or  more  in  thickness. 
The  felsjiar  likewise  forms  folia,  and  is  usually 
orthoclase,  but  plagioclase  is  often  associated  with 
it.  Freiiuently  the  quartz  and  felspar  are  inti- 
mately commingled.  The  mica  ( usually  Muscovite ) 
occurs  in  lamina-  between  the  other  minerals.  In 
some  varieties  of  gneiss  the  felspar  occurs  in  lentil- 
shaped  swellings,  forming fne/'V^-v/c/wC eye-gneiss') 
ov  /jor/i/ii/rilif-  ffiiciss.  Varieties  in  oomiiosition  are 
hdnibkndii:  e/iiciss,  in  which  hornblende  replaces 
mica;  prntoginc  gneiss,  with  talc  instead  of  mica; 
graphite  gneiss,  with  graphite  in  place  of  mica. 
Gneiss  belongs  to  the  great  class  of  schistose 
rocks,  and  in  many  cases  can  be  shown  to  be  th^ 
product  of  the  metamorphism  of  clastic  rocks,  such 
as  greywacke.  In  other  cases  it  has  been  jiroxed 
that  gneiss  has  resulted  from  the  metamorphism 
of  granite — the  one  rock  passing  gradually  into  the 
other.  The  coarser-grained  gneisses  belong  chielly 
to  the  Arcluean  System  (q.v. ),  and  concerning  the 
origin  of  these  geologists  are  still  divided  in  opinion. 
Th(?  liner-grained  varieties  are  nu't  with  in  many 
regions  which  have  been  ati'ecteil  by  local  and 
regional  metamorphLsm.     See  Mi-;t.\moi!PHO.sis. 

Oiieist,  Hkinrich  Rudolf  Heu.m,\xn  Fiiie- 
DHK'll  V(iN,  jurist,  was  born  in  Berlin,  13tli  August 
1816.  He  entered  official  life  as  assessor  in  the 
Superiin  Court  (Kamincrgeric/it)  in  18-11,  and  wivs 
successively  assistant-judge  of  the  same  court  and  of 
the  Supreme  Tribunal,  until  in  1850  he  resigned  this 
position  in  order  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to 
teaching;  for  since  1844  he  liad  held  the  chair  of 
Juris]irudence  in  Berlin  I'niversity.  I'rom  18.">S 
he  sat  in  the  Prussian  lower  h(mse  a.s  a  National 
Liberal,  and  w.as  also  elected  a  member  of  the 
imjierial  parliament.  His  writings  deal  chietly  with 
toiistitutiouiil  law  in  England  and  tJermany,  and 
with  politico-historical  subjects,  as  Die  JSildiing 
(lev  Gesr/iirtirncnijerir/ite  in  Deiitsrlilrniil  (1849); 
Ailrt    iind   JHIIei-sc/iiift    in    Kiigldnd   (ISriS);     Ihis 


lieutige  englisehe  Verfasmings-  iind  VencaUunqsrerht 
(1857-63  ;  3d  ed.  1876-84),  his  ma.sterpiece ;  iimlget 
Iind  Gesetz  nrie/t  deni  constitutionellen  Stantsrerht 
Enrjifinds  (1867);  Die  Studieeivaltiing  dcr  City 
von  London  (1867);  Vcnraltting,  Justiz,  lier/itsueg 
.  .  .  nach  englisrhen  und  deutsehen  Verlmltnissen 
(1869);  Englisehe  Verfassiingsgeschiehte  (1882; 
Eng.  trans,  by  Ash  worth,  1886);  Das  englisrhe 
Par/ament  {\iiii(i;  Eng.  trans,  by  Shee,  1880'),  and 
numerous  works  dealing  with  current  questions  of 
practical  politics  in  Germany.  He  was  ennobled  in 
1888,  and  died  21st  July  1895. 

Gneseil  (Polish  Gniezno),  a  Pnissian  town, 
situated  in  a  region  of  hills  and  lakes,  31  mile.s 
ENE.  of  Posen  by  rail.  It  has  a  Catholic  cathedral, 
dating  from  905,  and  till  1320  was  the  coronation- 
place  of  the  Polish  kings.  It  came  finally  to 
Prussia  in  1814.     Pop.  18,088. 

(iiietaoeap.    See  Se.v  Gr.4pe. 

Gllidos.     See  C'siDos. 

Gnome  (Gr.  gnome),  a  pithy  and  sententious 
saying,  commonly  in  verse,  embodying  .some  moral 
sentiment  or  precept.  The  gnome  belongs  to  the 
same  generic  class  with  the  pro\erb  ;  but  it  differs 
from  a  proverb  in  wanting  that  common  and  popu- 
lar acceptance  which  stamps  tlie  ]uovcrb,  as  it 
were,  with  public  authority.  The  use  of  gnomes 
prevailed  among  all  the  early  nations,  especially 
the  Orientals  ;  and  the  literatures,  both  .sacred  and 
profane,  of  most  countries  abound  with  Ihem.  In 
the  Bible  tlie  book  of  Proverbs,  part  of  Eccle- 
siastes,  still  more  the  apocryphal  book  of  Eccle- 
siasticus,  and  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
contain  many  examples;  and  in  the  New  Testament 
the  familiar  lessons  of  our  Lord  arc  frequently  ]ire- 
sented  in  this  striking  form.  The  Indian,  the 
Arabian,  and  the  Persian  literatures  also  are  rich 
in  gnomes,  as  are  those  of  the  northern  nations. 
But  the  most  interesting  form  which  they  have 
taken  is  that  in  which  we  tin<l  them  in  CJieek 
literature,  in  which  the  writers  who  have  culti- 
vated this  form  of  composition  are  known  as  a 
distinct  cla.ss — the  Gnomic  Poets  (r/nonii/.oi).  The 
(Ireek  gnome  is  comnionly  couched  in  the  elegiac 
distich  ;  and  the  most  celebrated  gnomic  poet  was 
Tlieognis  of  Megara,  in  the  Otli  century  r..c.  The 
remains  of  gnomic  writers  have  been  repeatedly 
edited  under  the  title  of  Gnotniri Poetw  Grnci,  from 
the  days  of  Melanchthon  downwards.  Standard 
editions  are  those  of  Biunck  ( 1784  ;  new  ed.  1817) 
and  Gaisford  (1820  ;  new  ed.  1S23).    See  Provekb-S. 

Giioiiie.    See  Demonologv. 

GlIOIIlOII.  When  a  rectangle  is  divideil  into 
four  parts  liy  cross  lines  parallel  to  its  sides,  the 
sum  of  any  three  of  the  parts  is  called  the  gnomon. 
For  Gnoinonic  Projection,  see  Pro.iectiox. — 
Gnomon  has  also  a  meaning  in  dialling  (see 
Dial);  and  a  gncumm.  or  style  erected  at  right 
angles  to  the  horizon,  sometimes  of  great  height, 
wa.s  much  used  by  ancient  astronomers  for  finding 
the  altitudes  and  declinations  of  sun  and  stai-s. 

GnostiC'isui.  In  the  Xew  Testainent  tlie 
charisma  of  gnosis,  or  the  'knowledge'  of  the 
mysteries  of  Ood,  is  distinguished  from  snphia,  or 
practical  religious  'wisdom  '  (cf.  1  Cor.  xii.  8).  This 
Christian  gnosis  wa.s  at  first  the  natural  product 
of  theologic;il  reflection  on  the  positive  doctrines 
contained  in  the  Gosiiel.  A  Jewish  the(dogy, 
based  on  the  religious  ideas  of  the  Old  Testament, 
was  already  in  existence,  and  had  received  a 
powerful  impulse  from  the  combination  of  (Jieek 
|)liilo.so]ihy  with  Hellenistic  Judaism  by  Pliilo. 
The  chief  function  of  the  earlier  gnosis  had  been  to 
discover  the  ideal  value  of  the  various  religious 
histories,  myths,  mysteries,  and  4irilinances,  and  to 
get  behind  the  letter  of  the  written  word.     In  course 


204 


GNOSTICISM 


of  time  not  only  tlie  Old  TeKtanient,  Imt  even  tlie 
j^'osiiel  liistmy,  w'fis  tlirowii  into  tlie  iiiL'ltiiiij;]>ot, 
111111  allovcd  witli  tlic  iiliilosopliic  (l(H-trines  of 
.li'wisli  itt'llfiiisin,  to  produce  a  leliffious  theory  of 
the  iiiiivi'isi'.  There  wus  n  j,'eneial  tendency  to 
truce  till-  siiiiie  reli;;ious  idea  tlir<>n;.'h  (lillereiit 
iiiythii]ii;,'ii's  (which  wcn^  held  to  he  the  popnliir 
exprcssidii  of  reli^^ions  iileas  i)ii;,'inally  revealed  i, 
and  the  new  leli^don  which  aiiiieil  at  the  reileniption 
of  the  whole  world  was  eajjerly  seized  on  as  the 
enihodinient  of  their  unify iiij;  |iriiici|>le.  Christianity 
was  helieveil  to  he  the  full  revelation  of  the  ileeper 
truth  embedded  ill  all  the  natiireieli^'iiuis.  l{y 
adaiitinj;  their  pieseiilation  of  (  hrislianily  to  the 
form  of  the  ancient  mysteries  the  (Jnostic  teachers 
the  more  easily  fastened  themselves  upon  the 
Christian  oon^'ie;;ations,  and  succeeded  in  takin;; 
up  a  position  within  them  as  specially  initiated 
pei-sons,  for  which  they  found  a  natural  sujiport. 
Ill  the  ]>revalent  ascetic  views  and  the  powerful 
iiilluencc  of  free  juophecy.  In  Syria  and  the 
Kast  they  imparted  a  distinctly  (Jnostic  tinfje 
to  Christian  teachin;;  ^'ciierally  ;  in  the  Creek 
anil  Uoman  world  they  formed  esoteric  schools, 
which  eiidaii;,'ered  the  or;;anisation  of  the  Christian 
C(mj,'rej.'alioiis  ('they  nnderiiiine  ours,  in  order  to 
huild  up  their  own  ' — TertuUian,  Dc  Pra-scr.  Hare/. 
42).  Hut  these  were  in  time  fmeed  to  separate 
themsidves.  and  form  sects,  whose  ;,'reat  diversity 
hccominj,'  the  more  a]>parent  }.'reatly  counteracteil 
the  iiilluence  of  the  Ciioslic  leaven  in  the  Christian 
coinniunities.  To  maiiitjiin  their  theories  in  the 
face  of  the  traditional  doctrine  of  the  churches 
they  had  recourse  to  the  snurce.i  of  that  doctrine. 
They  claimed  to  have  sjiecial  traditions  from  certain 
of  Christ's  disciples,  and  ajiplied  their  exef;etic.il 
skill  to  the  allejjorical  interpretation  of  the  written 
monuments  of  the  apostolic  aj,'e.  The  (inostics, 
indeed,  were  the  lirst  Sew  Testament  exe^'etes,  anil 
the  tirst  who  set  the  apostolic  writinjjs  side  hy  side 
with  the  gos])el  histories  as  authoritative  Scrip- 
tures. Both  in  their  interpretation  and  in  their 
presentation  of  the  texts  they  allowed  themselves 
a  free  hand,  oiiiiltinj;.  addinj;.  and  sometimes  forj;- 
iiivr.  to  suit  their  theories.  .Mareion  (ahout  loO), 
helievinr;  himself  to  he  a  consistent  follower  of 
Paul,  rejected  the  authority  of  the  earliest  apostles, 
as  well  as  the  gospels  emanating  from  the  circles 
of  their  inlliience,  and  professed  to  liold  '  the 
gospel'  known  to  Paul  imly.  His  cidleclion  of  ten 
epistles  of  Paul  was  the  "lirst  attempt  to  fix  the 
canon  of  the  apostolic  Scriptures.  Such  arhitraiy 
treatment  of  the  Scriptures  led  the  church  to  resort 
to  a  more  thorouj^h  study  of  the  historical  tradition. 
In  the  struj,';,'le  with  (Iiiosticism  it  ohtained  a  firm 
hold  of  the  principle  that  that  alone  is  to  lie  held 
true  Christianity  which  can  he  shown  to  lie 
historically  derived  from  Christ  and  his  apostle-s 
and  it  found  the  only  means  to  check  the  license 
of  (inostic  speculation  in  the  development  of  a 
Christian  tlieolci;.'y  in  accordance  with  the  positive 
character  of  historical  Christianity. 

The  general  jiiiiiciiiles  of  Cnostic  thought  may 
he  here  summarised,  as  fuller  accounts  of  the 
principal  schoids  are  given  under  their  own  names 
or  umler  those  of  their  founders.  For  the  jiractical 
doctrine  of  the  redemption  of  men's  .souls  from  sin 
hy  .lesus  Christ  the  tJnostics  suhstituted  a  specu- 
lative doctrine  of  the  reilemption  of  the  human 
spirit  from  matter  hy  religimis  knowledge.  The 
realistic  eschatologj-  of  the  iiriinitive  churcli  they 
enlirely  set  a-siile.  The  evangelic  element  in  their 
teaching  was  ohscurcil  hy  a  cloud  of  heathen 
mythologies  and  philosophic  suhtleties.  The 
I)iviiie  Demiurgos  and  Lawgiver  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment was  distinguished  from  the  Supreme  Being, 
anil  the  Hehrew  idea  of  creation  was  superseded 
hy  that  of  a  cuntinuous  process  of  emanations  from 


the  divine  first  cause.  Tlie  present  world  was 
helieved  to  he  the  result  of  a  catastrophe  in  which 
the  spirit  fell  under  the  power  of  matter,  or  of  an 
original  destiny  that  powers  hostile  to  (oid  should 
hring  into  existi'uce  a  world  in  which  the  sjiirit 
horn  of  Cod  should  he  held  in  unwilling  estrange- 
riieiit  from  him.  .Ml  the  (Inostic  systems  are  nnire 
or  less  diialistic.  In  these  dualistic  theories  a 
pliiloso|>liical  foundation  was  secured  for  the 
practical  a.sceticisni  of  primitive  Christianity,  which 
wivs  liy  the  Cnostics  developed  to  an  extreme.  The 
highest  duty  of  man  wius  to  hecoine  united  to  the 
Kiist  Souici-  of  Spirit  through  (/him/.v  and  the  ahso- 
liite  alienation  of  the  human  spirit  from  the  hody. 
Others,  like  Cariiociates  and  liis  son  Kpiphanes, 
expressed  their  contempt  for  the  llesh  and  the 
ordinances  of  the  Demiurgos  in  nnhridled  license. 
The  contrasts  of  the  thsli  and  the  spirit  and  of  the 
world  and  the  kingdom  of  Cod  are  interpreted  as 
the  physical  conllict  of  vast  cosmic  forces,  and  are 
therehy  stripped  of  their  moral  and  religious 
signilicance.  The  intervention  of  Christ  is  the 
crisis,  not  only  of  the  religious  history  of  mankind, 
hut  of  the  whole  ilevelopiiient  of  the  universe.  As 
the  final  and  jierfect  .I'.on  he  is  distinguished  from 
his  visihle  manifestation.  This  is  held  to  he 
either  (1)  a  real  human  life  with  which  he  was 
connecteil  fm'  a  time,  or  ( 2 )  a  heavenly  or  '  psychical ' 
creation,  or  (3)  a  mere  iiliaiit.-isin.  Men  are  divided 
into  two  cla.s.ses  :  the  I'/iriimntir  or  'spiritual,' 
who  are  constitutionally  recejitive  of  Christ's 
revelation  and  life  everlasting,  and  the  Hi/lir  or 
'  material,'  who  are  doomed  to  perish.  Valentinians 
and  others  add  a  third,  or  intermediate  da-ss,  the 
I'si/r/iiral,  or  men  of  '  soul,'  who  are  not  capahle  of 
apprehending  a  divine  revelation,  hut  only  of  the 
popiil.u-  faith  i/ii.itia),  yet  therehy  may  attain  to  a 
degree  of  knowledge  and  salvation. 

N'arious  chussifications  of  the  Cnostic  schools 
have  heeii  attempted.  Matter  arranged  them 
according  to  their  historical  and  national  origin. 
Itaur  da.ssified  the  dillerent  systems  according  to 
the  degree  ill  which  they  realised  the  idea  of 
Christianity  as  opposed  lo  .liidai-m  and  Paganism, 
and  thus  distinguished  three  principal  .schools  :  (  1  ) 
th.at  of  liasilides,  Valentinus,  and  others,  who  held 
the  old  faiths  to  he  relatively  valid  developments 
of  the  religious  consciousness  :  ("2)  that  represented 
in  the  Clementines,  where  Judaism  alone  is  recog- 
nised ;  and  (.'))  that  of  the  Ophites  and  the  nohler 
teaching  of  Mareion,  who  found  the  jierfect 
expression  of  truth  in  Jesus  Christ.  Neander's 
principle  of  division  is  the  position  which  the 
dillerent  systems  take  up  towards  the  God  of  the 
Old  Testament:  whether  he  is  regarded  as  a  suh- 
ordinate  deity,  suhservient  to  the  suiireme,  or  as 
cternallv  opposed  to  him,  and  therefore  ahsolutely 
evil.  Harnack  distinguishes  hetween  Jewish- 
Christian  anil  (ientile Christian  (Inostics,  group- 
ing the  latter  according  to  the  greater  or  les.s 
divergence  from  the  common  Christianity  which 
expresses  itself  in  their  various  views  of  the  ( )ld 
Testament  and  the  Demiurgos.  The  church 
fathers  attrihiited  the  origin  of  (Jnosticism  to  the 
demons,  or  (later)  to  amhition  and  insuhurdiii.Uion 
to  the  episcopate.  Hegesippus  traced  it  lo  the 
.Jewish  sects:  Irena'Us  and  others  to  the  inlluence 
of  the  (ireck  ])liilosopliei's.  They  all  helieved  that 
the  first  founder  of  the  heresy  was  Simon  Magus, 
who,  with  his  confederate  Helena,  was  held  hy  the 
Samaritans  to  he  an  incarnation  of  the  divine 
principle  (Helena  heing  his  female  counterpart, 
like  the  moon-goddess  corresponding  to  the 
sun  god  in  SyroPlnenician  mythology).  It  is 
clear  that  ahout  the  heginning  of  the  "211  century 
there  weie  numerous  teachers  in  Syria  who 
endeavoured,  not  hy  the  accepted  allegorical  inter- 
pretation, but  by  means  of  a  negative  criticism,  to 


GNU 

adapt  the  OKI  Testament  to  their  idea  of  a  univei'sal 
religion.  Cerinthus  lield  that  Christianity  was 
icU;ntical  witli  pure  Mosaisni,  hiyiiit;  fjreat  stress 
on  part  of  the  ceremonial  law,  anil  holding  the 
creator  of  the  world  to  he  suliordinate  to  the 
Supreme  Heing ;  others  traccil  the  ceremonial  laws 
of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  ilevil,  and  held  the 
(lod  of  the  Jews  to  he  the  hii;hest  (Jod.  Othei-s, 
again,  entirely  discarded  Judaism,  and  connected 
their  Christianity  with  allegorical  interpretations 
of  Syrian  and  Rahylonian  mythology.  The  chief 
lepresentatives  of  Syrian  Cnosticism  were  Satur- 
ninus  (or  Satornil )  of  Antioch,  and  the  various 
sects  of  the  Ophites  (including  the  Naa.sones, 
Peratai,  and  others).  It  is  uncertain  in  what 
relation  these  isolated  Syrian  sects  may  have  stood 
to  the  great  Gnostic  schools  of  Egypt  and  the 
West,  the  ISasilidians  and  Valentinians.  After  the 
confederatiim  of  the  Christian  communities  into 
the  Catholic  Church  even  these  great  schools  were 
not  long  aide  to  maintain  a  separate  existence,  and 
by  the  end  of  the  first  decade  of  the  .3d  century 
their  ecclesia-stical  influence  had  well-nigh  dis- 
appeared. But,  though  the  organic  energj'  of 
Gnosticism  was  thus  quickly  exhausted.  Gnostic 
ideas  helil  their  ground  to  a  much  later  date,  and 
may  he  traced  in  the  writings  of  some  of  the  most 
highly  reputed  Christian  fathers.  The  Pistis 
Siijihid,  edited  by  Schwartze  ami  Petermann 
(Berlin,  18.53),  is  the  only  Gnostic  work  that  has 
come  <Iown  to  us  in  a  complete  form,  except  those 
apocryphal  Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  apostles  which 
show  a  (inostic  tendency.  Tatian's  Diiifi-.isaroii  was 
used  in  the  Syrian  Church  down  to  the  .")th  century. 
The  Gnostic  Bardesanes  of  Edessa,  one  of  the  last 
of  the  Syrian  Gnostics,  was  the  founder  of  Syrian 
hynmology. 

See  Ncander,  Genetische  Entwicieluni  der  vomehmtten 
Gnostischen  Smteme  (1818) ;  Matter,  HUtoire  criliqnr  du 
Gnosticism"  (2  vols.  18-28;  2d  ed.  1843);  J.  A.  Miihler, 
Versuche  iiher  den  Gnost.  (1831;  also  forming  vol.  i.  of 
his  Gt.mmm.  Sdirift.,  ed.  by  Dolhnger);  Baur,  Die 
chriatlichc  Giiosii  (1835);  Jloller,  Gescliiclde  der  Kosmo- 
loflie  in  der  Griechuichen  Kirche  bis  anf  Oriiienes  (18601; 
Lipsius.  Der  Gnostizismus  (18S0);  King,  The  Gnostics 
and  their  Ri-nviins  (1873);  Mansel,  The  Gnostic  Heresies 
(ed.  by  Lightfoot,  1875 ) ;  Joel,  Btieke  in  die  Reliijions- 
geschichte  :i'  Anfang  des  2  Ckristlichen  Jahrkunderts 
(2  parts,  1880-83);  Koffmanne,  Die  Gnosis  nach  ihrer 
Tendenz  und  Or<ianisation  (1882);  Hilgenfeld,  Die 
Ketzerijeschichte  des  Urchristenthums  (1884),  with  the 
Gnostic  fragments,  and  lists  of  books  relating  to  the 
various  Gnostic  teachers ;  Kenan,  Oriijines  du.  Christian- 
ismc  (vols.  V.  to  vii.)  :  Harnack,  Zur  Quellenkritik  der 
Gesch.  des  Gn'ist.  (1873)  and  Do'jmeii'iesrhichle  (vol.  i., 
2d  ed.  18.S8 ) ;  and  for  a  concise  account  of  the  different 
systems,  Moller,  Kirchemjeadiichte  (vol.  i.  1889). 

Gnn  (Catoblepas),  a  genus  of  antelopes  (termed 
Wilikhrcst  by  the  Boers),  of  wlii(di  the  best- 
known  species  has  been  often  de.scrilied  as  appar- 
ently made  up  of  parts  of  different  animals,  not 
only  of  the  antelope  and  the  ox  or  buffalo,  but 
even  of  the  hoi-se.  This  species  (  C.  11  mi )  is  a  native 
of  South  Africa :  it  has  disappeared  from  the  more 
settled  parts  of  Cape  Colony,  but  is  to  be  seen  in 
herds  on  the  arid  plains  lieyoml  these  boundaries 
in  com])any  with  small  troops  of  zebras,  and  with 
Hocks  of  ostriches.  The  form  and  action  of  gnus 
so  much  resemlde  those  of  zeliras  and  (j^uaggas 
that  at  .a  distance  they  may  be  readily  mistaken 
for  them.  The  size  of  the  gnu  is  that  of  a  large 
as-s  ;  the  general  colour  is  vellowish-tawny.  Both 
sexes  have  horns.  The  limbs  are  slender,  like  those 
of  deer  and  antelopes.  The  gnu  gallops  with  great 
speed.  It  has  been  usually  represented  as  a  very 
fierce  animal,  and  certainly  shows  much  ability  to 
defend  itself  with  its  horns,  when  unable  to  escape 
from  danger  by  (light  :  but  when  taken  young  it  is 
easily    tamed,    and    readily    associates    with    oxen. 


GO  A 


2G5 


accompanying  them  to  and  from  the  field.     There 
are  two  or  three  species,  all  South  African,  nearly 


Gnu  ( Catoblepas  Gnu). 

resembling  the  common  gnn,  and  one  considerablv 
larger.  Millais  in  A  Breath  from  the  Veldt  ( 1895), 
reported  that  only  550  were  left  alive  in  South 
Africa,  of  which  one  herd  were  quite  wild,  and 
some  were  preserved  by  a  wealthy  Boer. 

CiOa<  a  Portuguese  possession  on  the  west  coast 
of  India,  between  the  Western  Ghats  and  the  sea, 
with  an  area  of  1-150  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  (1891)  of 
495,000.  A  hilly  country,  it  is  intersected  l>y 
many  small  streams.  Half  of  the  land  under  cul- 
tivation, a  tliir<l  of  the  entire  area,  is  devoted  to 
rice;  stately  forests  cover  nearly  a  fourth  of  the 
remainder.  The  territory  is  divided  for  adminis- 
trative purposes  into  two  sections  known  as  the 
Vellias  and  Novas  Conquistas  (Old  and  New 
Conquests),  which  are  subdivided  into  nine  '  jiro- 
vinces.'  Tlie  chief  civil  and  military  authority 
is  vested  in  a  governor-general  of  Portuguese 
India,  appointed  by  the  king;  he  is  aided  by 
a  general  council,  and  by  three  subonlinate  juntas 
or  councils.  An  archbishop,  with  the  title  of 
primate  of  the  East,  is  at  the  head  of  the  Konian 
Catholic  Church :  the  native  Christians  constitute 
more  than  half  of  the  total  populatiim,  and  the 
church's  festivals  are  celebrated  in  Goa  with  great 
pomp.  In  1871,  in  consequence  of  a  rebellion,  the 
native  army  was  disbanded,  ami  the  colony  is 
now  held  by  a  European  force  of  little  over 
.300  men  ;  the  police  force  is  nearly  lOtX)  strong. 
The  revenue  slightly  exceeds  the  exjiemliture  :  the 
imports  have  long  exceeded  the  exports.  Cap- 
tnreil  by  Albuquen|ue  in  1510,  •(ioldeu  Goa* 
reached  by  the  end  of  the  century  a  pitch  of 
militarv  and  ecclesiastical  splendour  and  com- 
mercial prosperity  such  as  tinds  a  parallel  in  Imlia 
only  in  the  most  brilliant  days  of  the  Mogul 
ca])itals.  The  decline  of  the  Portuguese  power 
quickly  followed  the  appearance  of  the  Dutch 
(see  E.V.ST  Indi.\  Comp.vxy),  ami  in  1759  the 
city  of  Old  Goa,  once  the  chief  emporium  of 
trade  between  the  east  and  west,  was  deserted  by 
all  but  its  ecclesiastical  inhabitants,  and  left  to  the 
decay  in  which  it  has  since  lain.  Its  one-time 
population  of  200,000  has  sunk  to  le.ss  than  1900; 
its  arsenal,  its  palaces,  its  quays,  even  many  of  its 
churches  are  in  ruins,  their  sites  covered  with 
cocoa-nut  plantaticms,  and  the  streets  overrun  with 
gi'a.ss.  Among  the  e<liliccs  that  survive  are  the 
majestic  cathedral,  where  services  are  held  regu- 
larly every  day,  and  the  splendid  church  of  Bom 
Jesus,  containing  the  magnificent  tomb  which 
enshrined  the  remains  of  St  Francis  Xavier.  The 
new  capital  is  Nova  (!oa  or  Panjim,  on  the  Man- 
davi,  ,3  miles  from  its  mimth.  It  iiresenls  a  pictur- 
esque appearance  ;  its  streets  are  wide  ami  clean  ; 


266 


GOALANDA 


GOAT 


and  new  harbour  anil  railway  works  were  iimn;;n- 
ratoil  in  IS8'2.  Tlie  pulilic  fiiiililinf;s  iiicliule  tlie 
viceregal  jialaro  ami  s|iarii)us  liarraoks,  one  wing  of 
which  accoinmoilates  the  national  lyceuni  or 
college,  the  iiMblic  library,  ami  the  Institnto  Pro- 
fessional. There  was  a  revolt  in  1805,  soon 
suppressed.  Pop.  8440.  See  Fon^ioca's  J/istoriml 
ana  A lehirnlo/jirnl  Sketch  ( 1 878 ),  and  l.iady  Burton 's 
Arahiii,  Eijiipl,  India  (1879). 

Goalailda*  a  market-town  of  Bengal,  situated 
on  a  tongue  of  lanil  at  the  continence  of  the  main 
streams  of  llie  ( langes  and  Itrahma]>nt]n,  has  !ie- 
coiiie  within  a  few  years  an  important  entrepot  for 
the  river  trade,  the  terminus  of  the  Eastern  liengal 
Itailway,  and  the  starting-point  of  the  Assjim 
steamers.  Only  temporary  buihlings  are  erected, 
as  the  Hoods  of  .July  have  more  than  once  swept 
aw.ay  the  more  expensive  masonry  structures. 
Husy  markets  are  held  daily,  and  the  river  is 
crowded  with  native  craft  and  li.shingboats.  The 
])i)pnhui()n  hiLs  grown  from  about  1000  in  1881 
to  over  1(1,(1110. 

Goalpara,  the  most  westerly  district  of  Assam, 
on  lioth  sides  of  the  ISrahmaputra,  ami  bounded  on 
the  north  by  lihulan,  with  an  area  of  3897  sq.  m., 
and  (1891)  4.52,:j()4  inhabitants.  Earthipiakes  are 
common,  and  occiusionally  severe:  the  climate  is 
regarded  by  bolli  natives  and  I'^uropeans  as  very 
nnliealthy,  especially  during  the  rains. — Goalpara 
Town,  on  the  Drahniapulra,  is  tlie  only  ]ilace  ill 
the  district  with  over  5U(.K)  inhabitants.  It  has  a 
considerable  river  trade.     Pop.  5700. 

ClOat  (Ciipra),  a  genus  of  rumin.ant  ungulates, 
nearly  allied  to  sheep.  The  horns,  which  consist 
of  .a  solid  core  of  bone  ami  a  horny  sheath  around 
this,  dill'er  from  those  of  sheep  in  their  position  on 
the  top  of  the  head,  in  their  backward  curvature, 
and  in  being  laterally  compressed.  They  are 
roughened  by  transverse  ridges,  and  are  either 
keeled  in  front  .xs  in  the  common  goat,  or  broa<l 
anteriorly  and  triangular  in  section  as  in  the  ibex. 
Tliougli  present  in  both  sexes,  they  are  larger  (up 
to  3  feet)  in  the  males,  who  use  them  as  weapons 
in  contests  with  rivals  or  foes,  tloats  are  further 
distinguishable  from  sheep  by  the  arched  forehead, 
the  straight  nose,  the  beard  on  the  chin,  the  short 
erect  tail  with  little  hair,  the  general  absence  of 
t«ar-pits  and  interdigital  glands,  the  n.ature  of  the 
litair,  wliich  can  hardly  be  called  wool,  and  the  dis- 
agreeable odour,  wliich  is  especially  strong  during 
the  breeding  season.  The  curicms,  conlident.  capri- 
cious temperament  of  the  goat  is  also  dillerent 
from  that  characteristic  of  slieep  ;  but  in  regard  to 
this  and  most  of  the  other  characters  it  must  be 
allowed  that  they  are  not  constant,  and  that  the 
two  types  are  very  nearly  allied. 

(loat-s  are  conlined  to  the  mountainous  parts  of 
the  OhI  World,  where  they  are  found  throughont  the 
south  European  aljiine  region,  from  Spain  to  the 
Caucasus,  and  thence  onwards  through  Armenia 
and  Persia  to  the  Himalayas  and  China.  With 
the  exception  of  a  Neilgbeny  goat  and  an  Abys- 
sinian ibex,  they  are  contineil  to  the  pahearctic 
geographical  region.  Their  remains  are  found  in 
the  Indian  I'lioeene,  if  not  also  Miocene  deposits, 
and  include  a  hornless  form,  Bucapru  ihicicsii. 

Goats  are  characteristically  mountain-loving 
animals,  clinibing  and  leajiing  with  marvellous 
dexterity.  There  iloes  not  seem  suilicient  warrant 
for  believing  the  statement  that  the  males  of  some 
species  (e.g.  C.  fCfjiif/rn.i  or  C.  ihac)  are  able  to  save 
tlieni-selves  in  faliing  from  a  height  by  bending  the 
head  inwards  ami  .alighting  on  the  mas.Mve  liorn.s. 
They  feed  on  herbage  of  many  kimis,  and  are 
unfortunately  fond  of  young  shoots  of  trees.  The 
herds  are  usually  small  :  the  oM  males  are  cross 
and  combative  ;  the  old  females  are  said  to  act  in 


I  turn  as  sentries ;  the  kills  are  very  agile  and  grace- 
ful. The  males  ditl'er  from  the  females  in  having 
stronger  horns,  thi<'ker  manes,  and  in  slight  colour 
distinctions.  The  breeding  .season  is  in  autumn  ; 
the  gestation  lasts  live  months  ;  the  birth  is  single 
or  double  ;  and  the  kids  follow  the  mother  a  few- 
days  .alter  birth. 

Coats  have  highly -ileveloped  senses  of  sight  and 
smell,  and  are  in  many  ways  highly  successful 
animals,  swift  in  llight.  bold  in  necessary  attack, 
and  well-adapted  to  their  natural  surroundings  ami 
mode  of  life.  Eor  genen.l  cleverness  of  climbing 
goats  are  de.serveilly  famous,  and  in  cajilivity  they 
oft*n  exhibit  daring  and  cunning.  Itomanes  cites 
a  case  of  one  ringing  a  iloor  bell  when  hungry  for 
dinner,  and  two  instances  of  the  reasonalile  be- 
haviour of  two  goats  which  met  face  to  face  on  a 
narrow,  rocky  riilge,  where  the  only  action  consist- 
ent with  the  life  of  Intth  was  that  one  shmild  walk 
over  the  other,  as  accordingly  hajipened.  Their 
roguishne.ss  often  suggests  a  faint  sense  of  humour. 
The  common  domestic  goat  is  a  variety  of  the 
Wild  Goat  ( C.  Iiircii.i)  which  inhabits  the  Taurus 
■and  other  mountains  of  south-west  .-^sia.  Compared 
with  its  ancestor,  the  domesticated  form  is  some- 
what degenerate,  being  much  reduced  both  in 
general  si/e  and  as  regards  its  horns.  The  domes- 
tication must  have  taken  ]dace  at  a  very  remote 
iieriiHl,  .and  spre.oil  from  the  East,  (irobably  through 
Cgypt,  westwards.  A  great  number  of  breeds  now 
exist,  the  pedigree  of  which  has  lieen  of  coni-se 
complicated  by  varietal  hybridisation,  and  it  is 
at  least  (Missilde  that  other  species,  such  as  the 
Grecian  ibex,  may  in  someca-ses  have  co-operated  in 
the  ]>roce.ss.  A  most  imjiortant  variety,  formed 
into  ,1  bree<l  by  artilicial  selection,  is  the  Angoi-a 
(Joat  (C  liiiciis,  var.  aiiiforoisis),  where  almost  the 
whole  body  is  enveloped  in  that  long,  silky,  white 
hair  which  is  .so  familiarly  valuable  and  conifort- 
al)le.  The  Angora  goat  has  been  introiliue<l  into 
Cape  Colony.  .Australia,  and  the  I'nited  States. 
The  Cashmere  (Joat  ( C.  /(ircii.s;  var.  lonii/er),  froiu 
Til)et  and  Hokhara.  is  almost  efjually  valuable, 
furnishing  the  white  to  brown  hair  used  in  mak- 
ing Cit^bniere  wares.  It  h.os  been  successfully 
acclimatiseil  in  France.  A  third  variety,  utilised 
in  the  same  way,  is  the  Manibcr  (!oat  (('.  hirciis, 
var.  iiuimbricn),  from  Asia  Minoi-  ami  TartaiT, 
distinguished  by  its  long  pendent  eai-s.  The  Syrian 
goat,  which  also  has  long  eai^s,  is  trained  in  the 
East  to  all  manner  of  tricks — csjiecially  to  balance 
itself  on  a  slender  idle  of  small  wooden  blocks, 
built  up  to  a  height  of  several  feet. 
The  liezoar  Goat,  Grecian   Il>ex,  or  Paseng{C 


The  Bezoar  Uoiit  [Cnj'r'i  ai/agrut). 

(Fgfiqru.i),  which  ranges  from  the  Greek  Arclii- 
I  pelago  to  Pei>ia,  was  once  in  great  repute  on 
1  account  of  the  supposed  medicinal  virtue  of  round 


GOAT 


GOATS    BEARD 


207 


concretions  (or  Uezoar  balls,  see  Bezoar)  formed, 
as  in  many  other  riiniinants,  in  the  stomach.  This 
i-»  the  wild  goat  tliat  Homer  refers  to  in  con- 
nection with  the  Cyclops  and  Crete.  The  horns  of 
th"  mah's  liear  strong  tuliercles  in  front ;  the  heard 
i~  much  developed  ;  the  general  colour  is  reddish- 
lirown,  with  dark  stripes  here  and  there. 

The  Markhor  (C.  falroneri  or  mfgaceros),  from 
Tibet,  Ca.shmere,  and  Afghanistan,  is  a  strong, 
powerful  goat,  with  corkscrew  horns,  much  larger 
in  the  males,  which  are  also  ilistinguished  by  a 
thick  mane  on  the  neck  and  breast.  Huntei"s 
credit  it  with  killing  and  even  eating  serpents. 
Attempts  at  taming  it  in  Europe  have  not  been 
rewarded  with  much  success. 

The  .\lpine  Ibex,  or  Steinbock  ( C.  ibex),  is  typical 
of  numerous  goats  which  some  separate  off  as  a  dis- 
tinct genus.  The  chief  difference  is  that  the  horns 
are  broad  in  front,  triangular  in  section,  without  a 
keel,  but  with  a  series  of  anterior  transverse  ridges. 
I  >iffercnt  kinds  frequent  the  lofty  mountains  of 
Kiirope  and  AVest  Asia — C.  hisjxtiiica  or  Izard 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  C.  pyrenaka  in  the  Pyre- 
nees, C.  caucasicri  in  the  Caucasus  ;  but  the  distinc 
tions  are  trivial,  if  not  merely  varietal.  The 
Alpine  ibe.x  is  a  magnificent  Mat.  without  beard, 
but  with  very  strong,  slightly  divergent,  much- 
ridged  lioms.  It  used  to  be  abundant,  but  through 
over-hunting,  both  for  sport's  sake  and  on  account 
of  supposed  medicinal  virtues,  has  become  nearly 
extinct.  Victor  Emmanuel  saved  it  in  fact  just  in 
time  by  strict  preserving,  and  small  herds,  aniount- 
i.'ig  in  all  to  about  300,  still  live  on  the  heights 
between  Piedmont  and  Savoy,  especially  in  the 
Val-de-Cogne.  Attempts  at  reintroduction  have 
not  been  successful :  in  captivity  the  animals  tend 
to  become  vicious,  and  the  same  is  markedly  tnie 
of  hybrids  between  it  and  the  common  goat.  In 
its  native  haunts  it  is  said  'to  surpass  even  the 
chamois  in  the  certainty  with  which  it  estimates 
dist.anccs  for  extraonlinarv  leaps.' 

(ioats  can  be  kept  with  advantage  in  situations 
too  rocky,  or  where  the  herbage  is  too  scanty,  for 
oxen  or  sheep.  They  were  formerly  kept  in  gieater 
numbers  in  Britain  than  they  now  are.  The  goat 
is  capal)le  of  the  most  perfect  domestication,  and 
becomes  extremely  attached  and  familiar.  It  is  ajit, 
indeed,  to  pro\'e  a  troublesome  pet,  and  makes  use 
of  its  horns,  although  not  angrily,  much  more 
freely  than  is  at  all  agreeable.  Goat  and  sheep 
may  be  successfully  crossed,  and  the  hybrids  are  to 
a  certain  extent  fertile  among  themselves. 

The  uses  of  the  goat  are  numerous.  The  flesh 
is  good  :  that  of  the  kid,  or  young  goat,  is  in  most 
countries  esteemed  a  delicacy.  Reijuiring  but 
little  attention,  and  able  to  subsist  on  nmgh  diet, 
the  goat  is  in  many  countries  '  the  cow  of  the  |)oor.' 
The  milk  is  very  rich  and  nutritious,  more  eiusy  of 
digestion  than  that  of  the  cow,  and  often  useful  to 
consumptive  patients.  Some  goats  yield  as  much 
;us  four  (juarts  of  milk  daily,  although  the  average 
<Hiaiitity  is  more  nearly  two.  Both  cheese  and 
butter  are  made  of  goats'  milk  ;  they  have  a 
peculiar  but  not  disagreeable  llavour.  Goats'  milk 
is  still  very  much  used  in  Syria  and  other  parts  of 
the  East,  a-s  it  was  in  the  days  of  the  patriarchs. 
The  skin  of  the  goat  was  early  used  foi-  clothing,  and 
is  now  dressed  as  leather  for  many  uses,  particularly 
for  making  gloves  and  the  finer  kinds  of  shoes  (see 
til.DVKs).  The  hair,  which  may  be  advantageously 
clipped  annually,  is  used  for  m.iking  ropes  which 
are  indestructible  in  water,  and  for  making  wigs 
lor  judges,  banisters,  and  other  functioiuiiics. 
For  the  latter  purpose  the  hair  of  white  goats  is 
used.  Especially  valuable  of  coui-se  are  the 
Angora  and  Cashmere  varieties.  The  horns  are 
used  for  making  knife-handles.  i!i.c.,  and  the  fat  is 
s^iid  to  be  superior  to  that  of  the  ox  for  candles. 


Goats  are  sometimes  employed  in  drawing  chil- 
dren's coaches,  to  which  as  many  as  four  are  some- 
times hamessed  together,  and  they  are  sufficiently 
tractable  and  obedient  to  the  rein. 

But  the  economic  importance  of  the  goat  is  not 
altogether  on  the  side  of  utility.  It  ruins  young 
plantations  and  makes  reforesting  in  some  cases 
impossible.  According  to  Carl  Vogt,  the  legend 
that  the  devil  created  the  goat  is  justified  by 
the  animal's  pernicious  influence:  'It  is  the  most 
destructive  creature  in  the  world  in  forests,  and 
the  old  seats  of  civilisation — viz.  the  countries 
round  the  Mediterranean — owe  the  destruction  of 
their  forests,  the  nakedness  of  their  mountains, 
and  the  inevitable  consequence  of  that  condition, 
the  drj-ness  of  their  climate,  to  the  deva-stations  of 
these  animals.'  In  the  same  connection  it  may 
be  noted  that  the  goat,  as  destructive  of  the  vine, 
was  sacrificed  in  ancient  times  to  Bacchus.  Spain 
has  about  4,000,000  domestic  goats:  Germany, 
Greece,  and  Italy  each  some  2,(XX),000.  See 
Angora  Go.\t,  Astelope,  Artiodactyla,  Cash- 
mere Go.\T,  Sheep.  The  Rocky  Mountain  Goat 
(q.v. )  is  an  antelojje  rather  than  a  goat.  The  izard 
is  the  ibex  of  the  Pyrenees.  See  Pegler's  Book  of 
the  Goat  (new  ed.  1886). 

Goat-niOth  (Cossus  lit/niperda),  a  large  moth 
common  throughout  Europe  and  Asia.  It  measures 
three  inches  or  more  across  the  wings,  and  has  a 
thick  heavy  body.  The  general  colour  is  yellowi-li- 
gray  ;  the  upper  wings  are  mottled  with  white,  and 
marked  with  many  irregular  black  lines  ;  the  lower 
are  of  an  almost  uniform  ash-colour.  The  cater- 
pillar is  about  three  inches  long  when  full-grown, 
and  has  a  yellowish  colour,  the  upper  parts  llesh- 
like,  the  lieail  black.     It  inhabits  and  feeds  on  tlic 


Caterpillar,  Chrysalis,  and  Imagu  of  the  Goat-moth 
(Cossus  Urjniperda). 

wood  of  ^\illows,  poplars,  and  elms,  making  holes 
large  enough  to  admit  a  linger,  and  often  causing 
the  destruction  of  the  tree.  Its  size,  abundance, 
and  \oracity  make  it  a  formidable  devastator  of 
trees.  When  alarmed  or  handled  it  emits  a  dis;i- 
greeable  goat-like  odour,  w hich  cannot  be  remo>ed 
from  the  hands  even  by  frequent  wa.shings.  It  takes 
two  or  three  years  to  attain  maturity.  The  reddish- 
brown  ])upa  is  enclosed  in  a  cocoon  of  chips  cut  by 
the  jaws  of  the  creature.  The  caterpillar  has  been 
regarded  by  some  as  the  cossus  of  H(unan  ejiicures, 
Tmt  this  was  more  likely  the  larva  of  some  laige 
beetle. 

Goat's  Beard  ( Tragopogoa )  is  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Compositie.  The 
common  (loat's  Heard  {T.  piatciisc).  also  known  by 


•2G8 


GOAT'S    RUE 


GOBELINS 


the  name  Oo-to-halat-nooii,  from  tlie  circumstance 
of  its  (■liisin<;  its  (lowers  aliiiut  iiiid-day,  is  an 
almndant  native  of  Hrilain.  Tlio  jilant  is  erect, 
the  tlower  stems  al>out  IH  inelies  lii^,'h,  tlie  root 
leaves  .")  to  S  inches  lon^r,  stem  leaves  shorter,  with 
a  dilated  hase.  >;lahrons  and  sli};htl.v  };laueons. 
The  i«ednncles  are  Ion;;,  thickened  at  the  snmmit, 
ami  the  llowerheads  yellow.  It  is  biennial,  and 
the  roots,  if  taken  liefore  the  llower-stems  shoot  up, 
and  hoiled,  resemhle  asjianiKMs  in  llavoiir,  and  are 
said  to  he  nutritious.  In  some  parts  of  France  the 
fresh  juice  of  the  yoim;;  stems  and  leaves  is 
helieved  hy  the  common  people  to  he  an  excellent 
solvent  of  hile.  Salsify  {'J-  ponijulhim),  also  a 
native  of  Britain,  is  cuitivated  in  jrardens  for  the 
sake  of  its  esculent  roots,  which  are  esteemed  hy 
sotne. 

Goat's  KlIC  idii/et/ri),  a  tjenus  of  Leguniinosa-, 
of  wliich  one  herhaceons  [lerennial  species  {H.  oj/ici- 
ii'ilis)  is  sometinu's  cultivated  like  lucerne  (espe- 
cially in  S'vit/.erland)  as  a  fora;;e  plant,  on  a<-count 
of  the  ;,'reat  hulk  of  produce  which  it  yields.  Its 
peculiar  smell  is  not  relislieil  hy  cattle  unaccus- 
tomed  to  it.  It  wa.s  formerly  also  employed  in 
nieilicine,  hut  is  now  seldom  heard  of  hcyond  the 
herhaceons  llowerlionler. 

<;oalsil<-kor.  or  Niciii-JAK,  a  name  applicable 
to  any  mcMilper  of  the  family  ('aprimulj;ida',  allied 
to  the  swifts,  indudcil  amonj;  the  I'asserine  hirils. 
They  are  almost  cosmop<ditan,  nocturnal,  super- 
licially  owl  like  hinls,  with  soft,  mottled,  predomi- 
nantly hrown  and  ^rray  plnma^'c,  feeling'  usually 
on  insects  which  they'catch  on  their  swift,  silent 
lli^'ht,  and  notable  for  their  eerie,  often  almost 
liunum  like  cries,  which  have  awakened  sunersti- 
tious  ilre.ad  in  the  natives  of  all  countries.  The  hill 
is  shint,  with  the  uiiper  jiart  curved  at  the  (loiiit, 
liut  the  ;;ape  is  extremely  wide,  and  enclosed  by  a 
frin^'e  of  stroni;  bristles  lioruc  alon;;  the  mart;ins  of 
the  beak.  The  eyes  are  viTy  lar;,'e  and  full  ;  the 
Idnd  toe  can  be  directed  forwards  ;  in  the  great 
majority  (Caprimulgina-)  the  miildle  claw  is  a 
curious  Comb  ;  the  second  pectoral  muscle  is  hmj;: 
the  oil uland  is  small ;  there  are  after-shafts  to  the 
feathers. 

The  oidy  constant  British  species  is  the  nij;lit-jar, 
ni;;hl-h,aw'k,  fern  owl,  churn  owl,  or  nij;ht-cliurr 
{Cii/iriiiiii/i/ii.s  ciirii/inii^),  which  slays  from  .May 
to  Seiitemher,  freiiuenlin^  uncultivated,  fern- 
covereu  ground   or   bushy   pl.aces   throughout    the 


The  Night-jar  ( Caprimuliiiu  europdus). 

country.  With  twisting  (light  and  'whirring' 
wings  it  hawks  for  insects  in  twilight  nr  ilarkness, 
but  will  also  bask  in  the  sun.  On  a  branch  it  sits 
lengthways,  with  the  head  low  down,  and  when 
stationarv  the  male  utters  his  well  known  'churr.' 


With  the  comb-like  middle  claw  a  night-jar  in 
captivity  has  been  .seen  to  scratch  the  grouiwl,  but 
what  il  usually  iloes  with  this  iiistnimcnl  In  un- 
certain. The  ]ilunuige  is  gray,  brown,  and  liutf; 
the  length  about  10  inches.  The  eggs  (two )  are  laid 
on  the  groun<l  without  a  nest,  anil  are  'creamy 
white,  marbled  ami  veined  in  endless  variety  witji 
brownish  black  and  puriilish-gray-'  The  bird  is 
widely  di^trib\^ted  in  Enrojie,  North  .\fiica.  and  a« 
far  east  as  North  west  India.  'One  of  il~  lines  of 
migration  from  Africa  crosses  Malta,  where  large 
numbers  are  .shot  lor  the  table  in  spring.'  Two 
other  species  of  nightjar  ( t'.  ;»/(<W/<.s  ami  ('. 
<r(/i/jiliiix)  are  noted  by  Howard  Saunders  ,as  having 
occurred  in  Britain.  "  See  his  Man  mil  of  Jiiilisli 
liiith. 

Among  the  interesting  iiieiiiherK  of  the  family, 
which  includes  about  seventeen  genera  and  ninety 
species,  may  be  noted  the  I'ennant-winged  Night  jar 
(Coxiiictoniis  rcuil/diiiis)  and  the  Lyre-taileil  toiat- 
swckcr  (Miifroi>s(i/h  I !/nt),  with  elongated  leathers 
on  wings  and  t.ail  respectively  (.see  also  Wllll'- 
I'liolt-wii.i,).  The  South  American  genus  Nycti- 
liius  did'eis  from  the  ordinary  goatsuckers  in 
sever.-il  particulars— e.g.  in  having  a  smooth 
middle  claw.  It  seems  to  connect  them  with  the 
family  of  I'odaigida',  the  members  of  which— e.g. 
the  'frog-mouths  '  ( IJatiacbostomus )— have  a  gajie 
even  wider  than  that  of  goatsuckers.  Allied  also 
is  the  peculiar  Simth  American  Oil-bird  or  Stcat- 
oinis  (see  til'ACll.Mto).  The  family  of  Boilers 
((|.v.,  Cmaciada')  is  also  nearly  related. 

The  weird  and  often  almost  articulate  cries  of 
the  goatsuckers— '  who  are  you,'  'work  away,' 
'  willy-come-go,'  '  w  hip-poor-will,'  \c. — have  earned 
for  the  birds  the  leiuitatioii  of  auguring  evil,  while 
a  more  curicms,  and  yet  nuile  explicable  popular 
notion  is  expre.s,sed  in  the  modern  title  'goat- 
sucker,' or  in  I'liiiys  name  l'<i/jn'iiiiiliiiis,  or  in 
Aristotle's  Aii/ul/ii/,i\.  'I'lie  notion  suggested  by 
these  worils  is  that  the  birds  suck  the  milk  of 
goats,  a-s  riiny  deliiiilely  states.  The  truth  and 
the  origin  of  the  mistake  may  he  best  expressed 
in  Waterton's  words  :  'These  innocent  little  birds 
never  suck  the  lierds ;  f(U-  w  hen  they  approach 
them,  aii<l  jumji  up  at  their  luhlcrs,  it  is  to  catch 
the  Mies  and  insects  there.'  The  animals  are  sens- 
ible of  the  birds'  good  olliccs,  for  they  stand 
(jiiielly  and  'do  not  try  to  drive  them  oil' as  un- 
civil inlruders.'  See  Waterton's  WatHUiiiiijn  in 
Soiifli  A  ntirii'ct. 

laoblxs  or  VOANDZOIT  (  Voandzcia  subtcrranca), 
a  leguminous  annual  of  tropical  Africa  (sub-order 
('icsal|iinea),  of  which  the  young  iiod  is  thrust  into 
the  ground  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  .iimhis 
hyjwfjmi  (the  (Jround-init,  q.v. ),  thus  at  once 
protecting  and  planting  the  seeds.  The  rich  oily 
seeds  ( '  .\ngola  iieas ' )  are  wholesome  and  agreeable 
when  hoiled.  'I'lie  young  pods  also  are  use<l  like 
l-'ri-iich  beans. 

<>obbo.  ( loiiiiio,  or  Co.MiiO.    See  Hiniscfs. 

4iob4'Iills.  the  name  of  a  family  of  dyei-s,  who 
in  the  l.">th  century  established  themselves  in  the 
Kaubourg  St  Marcel,  I'aris.  In  the  fcdiowiiig 
century  they  added  to  their  dyeworks  a  tapestry 
manufactory.  In  l(i6'2  the  establishments  were 
purchaseil  by  Colbert,  J.ouis  XlN'.'s  minister,  and 
reorganised  as  royal  uiiholstcry  wurks,  celebrated 
painters,  .such  as  Le  Ihiin  .and  N'ouet,  being  em- 
ployed to  furnish  ilesigns.  From  the  year  ItillT  the 
tapestry  manufacture  alone  was  carried  on,  the 
product  of  the  looms  being  known  by  the  name 
of  (iobelins.  The  works  were  closed  during  the 
Itevolution  and  down  to  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons,  but  since  that  time  they  have  again 
been  in  .active  operation.  A  seciuid  establishment 
for  the  manufacture  of  (iobelins,  likewise  supi>orted 


GOBI 


GODFATHER 


269 


by  the  state,  exists  at  BeauvaLs.     For  other  tex- 
tiles of  a  similar  description,  see  Tapestkv. 

'  Gobi,  Desert  OF.    See  Asia  (Vol.  I.   \>.  4S6), 
Dksekt. 

<>olllill  (Fr.  f/obeliii,  Low  Lat.  cobaliis,  Ger. 
liihiihl,  (Jr.  kobctlo.i),  a  mischievous  sprite,  also 
calli'il  IIijluiiMin.     See  De.monologv,  Brownies. 

Ciiobony.  or  Gouonateu.     See  Bordure. 

tJobj'  {(robins),  a  genus  of  carnivorous  shore 
fishes,  al^undant  on  all  temperate,  and  yet  more  on 
tropical  coasts.  The  genus  is  type  of  a  family, 
Gohiid;c,  included  among  the  acanthopterous  bony 
fishes.  The  gobies  are  generally  small  ;  the  bodies 
are  scaly  ;  of  the  two  dorsal  lins,  the  anterior  has 
usually  six  flexible  spinous  rays  ;  the  ventrals  are 
united  to  form  an  adhesive  disc,  by  means  of  which 
the  lishes  cling  to  the  rocks,  withstanding  the  rush 
of  the  «avcs  ;  there  is  no  swim-bladder.  Their 
favourite  habitat  is  on  rocky  coasts ;  '  many,' 
Giinther  says,  'seem  to  delight  in  darting  from 
|)lace  to  place  in  the  rush  of  the  water  which  breaks 
upon  tlie  shore;'  others  live  in  brackish  water,  and 
not  a  few  have  become  acclimatised  in  lakes.  In 
various  degrees  the  gobies  change  their  colour  to 


.<*A-.^  _ 


;-;,.,,j^/;  ///' 


The  Black  Goby  [Gobius  niijcr)- 

suit  the  ground  on  which  they  rest.  The  males  of 
some  sjiecies  build  nests  of  seaweeds  and  sea-wrack, 
and  watch  these  jealously  till,  and  even  after,  the 
liati-hiug  of  the  eggs  which  their  mates  have  laid. 

The  genus  includes  about  300  species,  of  which 
several  are  common  on  liritish  coasts.  Of  the  latter 
the  Black  Goby  (0.  iiiijrr)  is  the  largest,  but  only 
measures  .5  or  6  inches  ;  G.  nit/wiinpan-i,  G.  »iinntus, 
G.  paiiioiillns,  are  otiier  well-known  species.  They 
make  interesting  inmates  of  aquaria.  The  Wliite 
Goby  (Latrunculiis  a/bus)  is  a  very  small  trans- 
parent lish,  found  on  some  British  and  European 
coasts,  remarkable  as  'the  first  instance  of  an  arniual 
vertebrate,'  for  it  .seems  only  to  live  one  year.  There 
are  numerous  genera  very  nearly  relate<l  to  Gobius, 
while  not  far  olf  is  the  geniis  Perio]ithabnus,  the 
members  of  which  have  greatly  protruded  eyes  and 
are  accustomed  to  hunt  along  the  ebb-tide  shore, 
hopping  and  leaping  with  some  agility.  Tlie 
Dragoncts  (q.v. )  are  also  allied.  See  Giinther's 
titii,/,/  „f  Fishes  (Edin.  ISSO). 

<ii«d.    See  Rei-kuon,  Theism. 

(•od'allllillS.  a  municipal  borough  of  Surrey, 
34  mih's  S\V.  of  Lomlon.  Hither  in  18?2  the  cele- 
brated school  of  Charterhouse  (q.v. )  was  removed 
from  Lonilon.      Po]i.  "2.50.5. 

(aOdil'vai'i,  one  of  the  principal  rivers  of  India, 
and  the  largest  of  the  Deccan,  rises  within  50 
miles  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  Hows  .south-east 
across  the  peninsula  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  which 
it  enters  by  seven  mouths,  after  a  course  of  898 
miles,  its  total  ilrainage  area  being  estimated  at 
11'2,000  sq.  m.  For  some  miles  before  the  river 
bursts  thro\igh  the  barrier  of  the  Eastern  Ghats, 
its  pictures(|ue  scenery  has  earned  for  it  the  name 
of  the  Indian  Rhine ;  its  stream,  which,  after 
receiving  the  Maujera,  the  noble  Pr.anhita,  the 
Indravati,  Tal,  and  Sabari,  has  attained  a  breadth 
of  from  one  to  two  nules,  is  here  contracted  by 
precipitous  banks,  until  the  whole  volume  of  water 


poms  tlirough  a  rocky  gorge  200  yards  wide.  The 
magnificent  rinicxt  or  dam  at  the  head  of  the  delta, 
throwing  olf  three  main  canals  with  a  distributing 
length  of  r)'28  miles,  deserves  notice;  thus  irrigated, 
the  entire  delta  has  lieen  tuined  into  a  gieat  garden 
of  perennial  cro]js.  The  navigation  of  the  upper 
waters  is  injpeded  by  three  impa.ssable  rocky 
barriers  or  rapids  within  a  space  of  150  miles  ;  the 
works  undertaken  in  IStil  to  remove  these  obstruc- 
tions, or  to  pass  them  by  means  of  canals,  wcie 
abandoned  ten  years  later.  The  Godavari  is  one  of 
the  twelve  sacred  rivers  of  India,  and  the  great 
bathing  festival,  called  Puahkamm,  is  held  on  its 
banks  once  in  twelve  years.  The  district  of  Goda- 
vari embraces  the  delta  ;  chief  town,  Cocauada. 

CiOddai'd,  Arabella,  pianist,  was  born  near 

St  .Mali),  in  Brittany,  in  1836,  and  received  lessons 
from  Kalkbrenner,  Thalberg,  and  Macfarren.  .She 
made  her  dtdmt  at  the  (Jrand  N.ational  Concerts  in 
London  in  1850,  ami  in  1854~5U  performed  with 
great  success  in  the  principal  cities  of  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Italy.  In  1860  she  married  Mr  Davison 
(1813-85),  Times  musical  critic.  After  her  farewell 
to  the  British  public  in  1873,  she  made  a  tour  in 
the  I'liiled  States,  returning  to  England  in  1876. 

Goderich,  a  port  of  Ontario,  on  Lake  Huron, 
160  nules  \VN\V.  of  Buti'alo  by  rail,  with  eight 
salt-wells.     Pop.  (1891)  3839. 

Godei'irh,  Viscount,  a  British  statesman, 
afterwards  K.ul  of  Kipon  (q.v.),  who  was  heail  of 
the  short-lived  Goderich  administration  ( 18'27-'28). 

Godesberg,  a  village  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on 
the  Ithine,  4  miles  S.  of  Bonn,  with  a  mineral 
spring,  and  a  ruineil  castle  (1213).     Pop.  3901. 

Godet,  Frederic,  theologian,  was  born  at 
Neuchatel  in  Switzerland,  C)ctober  25,  1812,  sludieil 
there  and  at  Berlin  and  Bonn,  and  after  having 
been  tutor  to  the  Crown-prince  of  Prussia  and 
held  minor  cures,  he  became  in  1850  professor  of 
Theology  at  Neuclu'itel.  In  1873  he  left  the  state 
church  ;ind  was  appointed  jirofessor  by  the  Free 
Church  of  Neuchatel.  He  resigned  in  1877.  He  is 
best  known  for  his  great  commentarv  on  St  John's 
Gospel  (1863-65;  3d  ed.  1881-85;  Eng.  trans.  1877), 
followed  by  commentaries  on  Luke  (trans.  1875), 
Itomans  (trans.  1881),  and  Corinthians;  Cuiifer- 
CHCcs  Apoloijetiqttes,  Etudes  Bibtiqucs  (trans,  as  Old 
Tcstainent  Studies  and  ?iew  Testament  Studies, 
1875-76),  and  a  work  on  the  theologv  of  the  New 
Testament  ( 1893).      He  died  29lh  October  1900. 

Godt'atlu'I*  and  Godlliotbei'  (also  called 
Sponsors),  the  per.sims  who,  by  presenting  a 
child  for  the  sacrament  of  baptism,  whicli  is 
regarded  as  a  new  spiritual  birth,  are  reputed  to 
contract  towards  the  newly  liaptised  the  relation 
of  spiritual  parentage.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  this  spiritual  relationship  is  regarded  as  a 
species  of  kindred  (whence  the  name  i/ussij),  or 
God-sib,  'spiritually  akin'),  and  constitutes  an 
impediment  of  marriage  between  the  sponsoi-s  upon 
the  one  hand  and  the  ba])tised  and  the  parents  of 
the  bajilised  on  the  other.  Anciently,  this  impedi- 
ment arose  also  between  the  sponsors  themselves; 
and  it  still  extends  much  further  in  the  Ea-stern 
than  in  the  Western  Church,  although  in  the  former 
it  can  arise  only  from  baptism,  whereas  in  the 
Roman  Church  the  candid.ate  for  conlirmation  also 
is  presented  by  a  sponsoi-,  though  usually  one  of  the 
same  se.v. 

In  the  Anglican  Church,  by  whose  rule  two  god- 
fathers and  a  godmother  are  reipiired  at  the  baptism 
of  a  male,  and  two  godmothers  and  a  godfather  at 
that  of  a  fenu\le,  no  imiiediment  of  marriage  arises 
from  the  rcl.-ilion  of  the  siiousors  to  the  baptised. 
The  parents  of  the  baptise<l  are  not  ]ierinitted  to 
act  as  sponsors  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  one 


270 


GODFUKY 


GODOLPHIN 


of  tliu  objects  of  the  iiistilutioii  beiii};  to  uroviiie 
instructors  in  ciisc  of  tlic  ilciilli  of  pments  ;  but  llie 
present  rule  of  tlie  I'liurcli  of  lCn^;UiiHl,  foUowinj; 
tli(;  rul)ric  of  the  Aniuricau  I'raycrbool;,  does  so 
allow. 
<iodfrey.    Sir    Edmundblry.      See    Uates 

(TiTts). 

<«o«Hr<'y  of  Itoililloil.  a  typical  represent- 
ative of  I'liristian  cliivalrv,  «'a.s  liorn  aliont  lOtil, 
III  ISaisy,  a  villa;,'e  of  Itel^'ian  Itjabaiit,  tlie  elilesl 
son  of  Count  Eustace  II.  c)f  Houlo;^ne.  and  Ida, 
sister  to  Godfrey,  Duke  of  Lower  Lorraine  and 
r.ouillon.  He  .served  with  <iri.-nt  ;;allantry  under 
the  Kniperor  Henry  IV.,  hoth  a^'ainst  Henry's  rival, 
Itudolph  of  Swabia,  and  in  I0.S4  in  the  expedition 
against  Home.  Five  years  later  the  emperor 
inveHled  him  with  the  duchy  of  Lower  Lorraine. 
Godfrey  joined  the  lirst  crusade,  and  was  elected 
one  of  the  principal  conimanders.  For  an  account 
of  his  career  in  the  East  up  till  the  taUin;^  of 
Jerusalem,  see  ('ltL'.s.\l)ES.  Lijjlit  davs  after  the 
capture  of  the  Holy  City  Godfrey  wa^*  proclaimed 
kin^'  liy  the  crusailinj,'  army  ;  but  his  jdetv  and 
humility  f(nl>;ule  him  to  'wear  a  crown  ot  gold 
where  his  Savicmr  had  worn  one  of  thorns.'  He 
accordinxl.v  contented  himself  with  the  title  of 
Defender  and  (iuardian  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
On  I'Jtli  .\uj;ust  Ki'.l!),  on  the  plain' of  Ascalon, 
(iodfri'V  defeated  the  siillan  of  l-^^jypt ;  this  victory 
put  him  in  po.s.session  of  the  whole  of  Palestine,  a 
lew  fortilied  towns  only  e.xcepted.  After  a  year 
spent  in  organisinj;  his  new  state,  Godfrey  died, 
ISlh  duly  lUm.  See  De  Hody,  Godcfroid  tic 
liouillun  (id  ed.  Tournai,  ISoil);  and  Eroboese, 
Gutt/ricd  von  Jiijuillun  ( IJerlin,  1879). 

Godfrey  of  Strasbiirs.    See  Gottiuied. 

(aodiva.  I.AiiV,  the  f.imous  patroness  of  Coven- 
try, who  built  lurrsclf  an  i^verlastinj;  name  by  an 
unexampled  deed  of  ma^'naniiiiity  and  devotion. 
Aliout  the  year  1040  Leoliic,  Earl  of  iMercia  and 
Lord  of  Coventry,  imposed  certain  e.xactions  upon 
the  inhabitants,  hard  and  ;;riev(nis  to  be  borne. 
His  wife,  the  Lady  llodiva,  besou';lit  her  husband 
to  j;ive  them  relief,  and  pleaded  so  earnestly  that, 
to  escape  from  her  importunities,  the  earl  s.aid 
he  would  grant  her  the  favour,  but  only  on  the 
impossible  couilition  that  she  would  ride  naked 
through  the  town.  Godiva  ordered  procIamati<m 
to  be  made  that  on  a  certain  ilay  no  one  should  be 
in  the  streets,  or  even  li>ok  from  their  Iniuses,  when, 
'chithed  on  with  ehiistily,'  she  rode  through  the 
town ;  Jind  her  husband,  in  adnuration  of  her 
intrcpiil  devotion,  performeil  his  promise.  This 
circumstance  w;us  comiuejuoraled  by  a  slained- 
gliuss  window,  mentioned  in  lU'JO,  in  St  .Michael's 
Church,  Coventry  ;  anil  the  legend  that  an  un- 
fortunate tailor,  the  only  man  who  looked  out  of 
a  window,  was  struck  bliiul,  hits  also  found  com- 
mi.'moration  in  an  ancient  elligy  of  '  Peeping  Tom 
of  ( 'o\entry,' still  to  be  seen  in  a  niche  of  one  of 
its  buililings.  The  story  occurs  in  most  chroniclers 
who  deal  with  the  time  of  Edward  the  C(mfe.ssor, 
although  it  is  true  that  there  is  no  narrative  of  it 
earlier  than  three  centuries  after.  The  earliest 
version  is  that  in  the  English  chronicle  usnall.v 
ascribed  to  Ilrompton  (close  of  12th  century  ),  ij noted 
in  I  >ugdale's  7/wy<jr// o/'  li'iirwuk^/iirc.  and  followed 
with  some  variations  by  Matthew  of  Westminster, 
and  Higden.  Co.x  makes  bold  to  connect  Peeping 
Tom  with  the  univei-sally  spread  story  of  the 
.Miister-tliief,  and  notes  that  the  story  of  (iodiv.i, 
slightly  altered,  is  told  again  in  the  tale  of  Allah- 
ud-deen  {T/ioiisaiul  and  One  Ni(jhts),  who  .sees 
through  ii  crevice  the  king's  daughter  on  her 
way  to  the  bath,  when  it  is  death  for  any  one 
to  be  seen  abroad  or  to  be  found  looking  at 
her.  ,4,  Part  of  the  civic  procession  at  the  opening 


of  the  great  fair  of  Coventry  useil  formerly  to 
be  a  representation  of  the  ride  of  Laily  Godiva. 
It  continued  at  intervals  of  from  three  to  seven 
years,  until  Is-Jii,  and  wjis  revived  with  great 
splenilour  in  l.S-48.  Hut  the  ceremony  has  now 
fallen  into  <lisre|>ute,  and  such  attempts  lus  have 
been  made  to  revive  it  have  not  commended  them- 
selves to  the  best  citizens  of  Coventry.  There  is  a 
|ioor  ballail  on  the  subject  entitled  'Leollricus'  ni 
the  Percy  Polio  .MS.,  and  in  the  Colliitioii  i.f  Old 
Bidladis  (17-t>|.  The  story  luus  been  gracefully 
re-told  by  Leigh  Hunt,  and  in  noble  veise  by 
Tennyson.  !See  Eelix  Liebrechl's  Xiir  \'ull:.\l:iiiide 
(1879),  and  a  study  by  E.  Sidney  Uartland  in  the 
Folhluic  JunrniU  for  1890. 

(aOdollo,  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  l.'>  mile« 
NE.  of  Pesth,  with  a  royal  casile  and  park  pre- 
sented by  the  Hungarians  in  1SU7  to  their  king, 
the  emperor  of  .Austria- Hungary.  Here,  on  7tli 
.•\|iril  1849,  the  Austrian  forces  were  defeated  by 
the  Hungarians.     Pop.  4940. 

Godolpllill,  SiDNICV  GODOI.llllN,  E.M!I,  OK, 
who  UMiIer  four  sovereigns  occupied  a  seat  at  the 
Treiusiuy  Board,  and  under  Anne  lilled  the  ollice  of 
Lord  High  Treasurer  suliis,  was  descendecl  of  good 
English  family,  ami  was  born  at  Godolphin  Hall, 
near  Hel>ton,  in  the  extreme  south  of  Cornwall,  in 
the  suninuM-  of  l(i45 — he  was  ba])tised  on  l.'itli  .Inly. 
Introduced  at  court  as  a  roy.al  ]iage  in  Hi(i4,  he 
four  years  later  accompanied  his  kinsm.in  Sir  \V. 
Godolphin  on  a  mission  to  Spain.  l!ut  his  first 
important  public  work  was  performed  as  envoy- 
extiaordinary  to  the  Xetherlan<ls  in  IIJ78,  where 
he  became  aci|U,iinted  with  the  Piince  of  Orange 
and  with  Sir  William  Temple.  .After  his  return 
to  England  he  secureil  a  seat  in  the  House  nf 
Commons,  and  in  11579,  on  the  reconnnendation 
of  Temple,  w.'is  appointed  a  comndssioner  of  the 
Treasury.  Althougli  he  voted  fi>r  tjie  Exclusion 
Hill,  lie  was  nevertheless  in  1084  made  First  Com- 
nii.ssioner  of  the  Trejisury,  and  also  elevated  to  the 
jieerai'e.  On  the  accession  of  James  II.  Godolphin 
Wits  indeed  removed  from  the  Treiusury,  but  re- 
ceived conijiensation  therefor  in  the  apjioiiitment 
of  chamberlain  to  the  (|ueen.  His  services  as  an 
admiiiistralor  of  the  linaiices  of  the  kingdom  were, 
however,  valued  so  highly  that  in  lG8ti  he  was 
recalled  to  the  Treasury.  On  William  of  Orange's 
landing  in  1088  Godolphin  stood  lirmly  by  James, 
and  was  left,  along  with  four  others,  in  charge  of 
the  government  when  the  king  lied  from  Loinlon. 
He  Wius  also  chosen,  along  with  Halifax  and  Not- 
tingham, to  treat  with  William  :  and,  when  James's 
lliglit  from  the  country  w;is  known,  Godolphin  was 
one  of  those  who  voted  for  a  regency.  Yet  no 
.so(uier  was  William  proclaimed  king  than,  on  14th 
February  1U89,  he  reinstated  tiodol|diin  in  his  old 
quarters  as  Fiist  Commi.ssioner  ot  the  Tieasui"y. 
Godolphin  was  a  Tory  ;  and,  when  William  began 
to  replace  his  Tmy  ministers  by  Whigs,  the  turn 
came  to  Godolphin — but  came  last,  in  1090 — logo 
likewise.  In  1700,  however,  he  once  more  returned 
to  his  ohl  pKace  ;  yet  he  only  helil  ollice  on  this 
occii-sion  for  about  six  months.  When  .Anne  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  she  made  Godolphin  (on  0th 
.May  1702)  her  sole  Lonl  High  Tiea.suier.  This 
position  he  lilled  down  to  1710.  The  |jeison.il  frienil 
of  Marlborough,  he  steadily  supported  the  great 
general  all  through  the  war,  enabling  him  by  his 
thrifty  ami  able  management  of  the  linaiices  to 
conduct  one  brilliant  camijaign  after  another  witli- 
<iut  suffering  embarra-ssment  from  hick  of  su|i|)lies. 
And  this  feat  Godolphin  Wiis  able  to  achieve  with- 
out inirciising  the  public  debt  by  more  than  about 
one  million  sterling  annually — a  most  eli"|Uent 
witness  to  his  ability,  sagacity,  and  sound  ailminis 
trative  talents.     He  warmly  advocated  the  union 


GODOY 


GODWIN 


271 


between  En^'lanJ  ami  Scotlanil,  whicli  was  iiuleed 
ett'ected  before  he  laid  down  the  ^stall'  of  ottice. 
As  Harley's  fiieinl  and  relative,  Mrs  Mashani, 
crept  further  and  further  into  the  good  graces 
of  Anne,  Harley  himself  began  to  prove  more 
and  more  a  thorn  in  the  tlesh  to  Godolphiu. 
At  length  the  lattei',  to  prevent  his  own  over- 
throw, constrained  Anne  to  dismiss  Harley.  Godol- 
phin's  behaviour  at  this  juncture,  and  his  atti- 
tude towarils  the  sovereign,  mark  the  transition 
from  the  old  order  of  things,  when  the  king  (or 
<iueen)  appointed  his  own  ministers,  and  dismissed 
them,  according  as  he  thought  lit,  and  the  new 
order  of  things,  under  whieh  tlie  ministers  are 
appointed  l>y  the  chief  adviser  of  the  crown.  And 
the}'  likewise  foreshadow  tlie  methods  of  party 
government  wluch  took  firmer  shape  later  on  in 
the  century.  Uut  the  dismissal  of  Harley  was 
the  inelmle  to  his  own  ;  for,  the  iiiHuence  of  Mrs 
Masham  continuing  to  increase,  and  the  power 
of  Harley  to  grow  in  a  corresponding  degree, 
Godoli)hiu's  necessarily  diminished,  and  on  8th 
Xovember  1710  he  was  curtly  dismissed  by  Anne. 
He  only  survived  about  two  years,  dying  on  loth 
iSeptember  1712  at  Holywell  House,  Marlborough's 
seat,  near  St  Albans.  He  was  married  for  three 
years  ( 1075-78)  to  Margaret  Blague,  the  excellent 
lady  whom  Evelyn  knew,  and  whose  life  he  wrote. 
Godolphin  was  neither  a  brilliant  man,  nor  an 
eloipient  .speaker,  nor  a  great  statesman  :  but  rather 
a  sagacious,  cautious,  very  able  administrator.  He 
was  not  a  man  of  strong  political  bias,  and  in  his 
day  it  must  be  rememliered  political  parties  were 
not  what  they  are  at  the  present  time.  As  an 
excellent  official  of  the  Treasury  he  doubtless  saw- 
no  reason  why  he  could  not  serve  equally  well 
whoever  happened  to  be  master  of  the  land  for  the 
time  being.  At  all  events,  he  was  an  incorruptible 
official,  though  some  have  dcmbted  whether  he  was 
not  a  double-dealing  politician,  and  some  have 
indeed  accused  him  of  being  such.  In  pri\ate  life, 
at  least  in  his  later  years,  he  was  fond  of  horse- 
racing  and  gay  life.  See  the  Hon.  Hugh  Elliot, 
Lifr  hf  Sidnoj' Earl  Godolphin  (1888). 

Godoy.    See  Alcudi.v. 

CJod   save    the    King.     See    X.vtiox.\l 

HV.M.N.S. 

CJo»r.S  Truce.  In  the  9th  and  10th  centuiies, 
when  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  had  begun  to 
break  up  into  small  fragments — countships,  duke- 
doms, baronies,  &c. — the  right  of  private  war  and 
l)rivate  vengeance,  which  had  been  traditionally 
yiractised  by  the  early  Teutonic  races,  threatened  to 
become  a  source  of  anarchy  and  dissolution,  instead 
of  what  it  was  intended  to  be,  a  rough  and  ready 
method  of  enforcing  cc|uity  between  man  and  man. 
Accordingly  the  church,  as  the  guarilian  of  justice 
and  the  preserver  of  moral  order,  stepped  in,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  10th  century  fornmlated  stern 
•ecclesiastical  penalties  against  all  who,  whilst 
waging  feudal  war,  should  \iolate  the  peace  of 
churches,  priests,  and  the  tillei-s  of  the  soil.  The 
God's  Truce,  technically  speaking,  was  a  mutual 
agreement,  conlirmed  and  sanctioned  by  the  church, 
on  the  part  of  the  barons  and  nobles  of  a  particular 
district,  to  abstain  altogether  from  private  war  on 
and  between  certain  lixeil  days  and  times,  and  to 
respect  permanently  the  rights  and  liberties  of 
those  who  followed  purely  pacilic  callings.  This 
movement  had  its  migin  in  the  south  of  France, 
having  been  lirst  set  on  foot  at  a  svnod  held  at 
Tulugcs,  in  Koussillon.in  lir27.  Fourteen  years  later 
it  embraced  the  whole  of  France  :  and  from  there 
it  sjiread  rajiidly  into  (J.-rmany.  Italy,  Spain,  and 
England.  About  1041  the  main  provision.-,  of  the 
Peiice  of  (;od  {treiiffa  1/ci)  were  these:  Peace  wai 
to  last  from  Wednesday  evening  to  Monday  morn- 


ing in  each  week,  also  during  Ailvent  and  Lent, 
and  on  certain  of  the  principal  .saints'  days  and 
holy  days  of  the  church  ;  the  punishments  for  con- 
tumacy and  disobeilience  were  money  fines,  banish- 
ment for  a  long  term  of  years,  and  excommunica- 
tion ;  protection  was  specially  e.xtended  to  all 
women,  ]>ilgrinis,  priests,  travellers,  merchants, 
and  agriculturists,  and  also  to  the  farm  implements 
and  live-stock  of  the  peasantry.  The  I'eace 
of  God  was  confirmed  by  several  councils  of  the 
church,  more  especially  by  that  of  Clermont  ( 1095), 
when  Urban  11.  proclaimed  its  \iniversal  extension 
throughout  Christemloni.  With  the  gradual  con- 
solidation of  the  kingly  power  in  the  larger  mon- 
archies during  the  course  of  the  13th  century  this 
institution  fell  into  desuetude.  See  Semichon,  La 
Pah:  et  la  Treve  de  Dku  (2d  ed.  1869). 

CaOdlllloff.     See  Pas.si.\,  p.  a. 

Ciodwill,  Earl  of  the  West  Saxons,  the  gieatest 
Englishman  in  the  tii-st  half  of  the  11th  century, 
was  most  probably  son  of  the  Soutli-Saxon  Wuif- 
notli,  who  was  outlawed  in  1009,  and  regained 
his  father's  lands  by  his  conduct  in  the  c<mtest 
with  Canute  ;  but  according  to  others  his  father 
was  merely  a  churl,  and  Godwin  found  means 
to  ingratiate  himself  with  Earl  Ulf,  the  brother- 
in-law  of  King  Canute.  At  anyrate,  by  1018  he 
was  an  earl,  and  the  year  after  he  married  the 
daughter  of  Ulf,  and  soon  became  Earl  of  the 
West  Saxons.  In  1042  he  took  the  foremost 
part  in  raisin"  Edward  to  the  English  throne,  and 
was  rewanled  by  the  marriage  of  his  beautiful 
daughter  Edith  to  the  English  king — a  union  which, 
however,  tui-ned  out  unhappily.  Godwin  had  to 
lead  the  struggle  against  the  worthless  king's  fond- 
ness for  foreign  favourites,  and  thus  drew  U]ion 
himself  the  violent  enmity  of  the  court  yiarty. 
With  more  than  feminine  bitterness  and  si)leen, 
the  unmanly  king  revenged  himself  by  heap- 
ing insults  upon  l^neen  E<lith.  seized  her  dower, 
her  jewels,  and  her  money,  and,  allowing  her  only 
the  attendance  of  one  maiden,  closely  confined  her 
in  the  monastery  of  Wherwell.  Godwin  an<l  his 
sons  were  banished,  but  they  contrived  to  keep 
alive  the  antipathy  of  the  English  to  the  Xorman 
favourites  of  Edward,  and  in  the  summer  of  1052 
landed  on  the  southern  coast  of  England.  The 
royal  troops,  the  navy,  and  vast  numbers  of  the 
Ijurghers  and  peiisants  went  over  to  (Jodwin  ;  and 
finally  the  king  was  forced  to  grant  his  demands, 
and  replace  his  family  in  all  their  offices.  Godwin 
died  7th  Ajiril  1054.  "  His  great-hearted  son  Harold 
was  for  a  few  months  Edward's  successor  on  the 
throne.  See  the  appemlices  to  vols.  i.  and  ii.  of 
Freeman's  History  of  the  Nonnan  Coii'jiicst. 

Godtvill.  Francis,  was  born  at  Hannington  in 
Xortliamptonshire  in  1562,  son  of  the  Bi>hop  of 
Bath  and  Wells.  Elected  a  junior  student  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  in  1578,  he  graduated  in  1580, 
next  took  orders,  and  was  in  succession  rector  of 
Sanipforii  and  vicar  of  Weston-Zoylaud,  both  in 
Somersetshire,  ^\■ith  Camden  he  journeyed  through 
Wales  in  1590.  Alieady  sub-<lean  "  of  Exeter 
in  1587,  he  was  made  in  1601  Bishop  of  Llan- 
dart'  for  his  Cutaloijuc  of  the  Bishops  of  Emjlunil, 
and  w;is  translated  to  Hereford  in  1617.  He 
<lied  in  163.'5.  His  luvme  is  now  remembered,  not 
for  his  Utrum  Anijliairtiin  Aiinalcs  (1616),  but  for 
his  fanciful  story,  TJic  Man  in  the  Mooti,  or  a 
Discourse  uf  a  Voijnfie  thither,  l»i  DomiDr/oGonsules. 
It  was  translated  into  Frencli  and  imitated  by 
Cyrano  de  Bergerac,  who  in  his  turn  undoubtedly 
influenced  the  voyage  to  Laputa  episode  in  Swift's 
(iiillivcr's  Travels.  Godwins  Xuncius  Iita»i)iiatus 
in  Utopia  (1629,  but  soon  suppressed)  must  have 
suggested  Wilkins'  well-known  Mercury,  or  Swift 
and  Secret  Messenycr. 


272 


GOI>\Vl\ 


(■Odwill,    MaKV  VVoLLSTONKCRAhT,   tllC   proto- 

iiiiulvr  of  the  l!i;,'lits  of  Wonn'ii,  Wiis  hiirii  .it 
Hoxton,  27lli  April  17.")!).  Of  Irisli  extraction, 
slie  wius  the  .seeoiiil  of  .six  eliililien  ;  her  fiither, 
Kdwiinl  .John  WollstoMceiiift,  a  druiikeii  iie'erilo- 
weel.  who  .siniamlered  ilO.tXX*,  mid  wa.s  iihvays 
•shiftiii;,'  alumt  -to  Kdiiioiitoii,  Itarkin^r,  lleveilev, 
Hoxtoiloiiee  inoie,  next  l..an;;haine  in  ( 'ainiaitheii 
shire,  and  Walworth.  .\l  nineteen  .\Iarv  went  out 
to  earn  her  own  livelihood,  and  lor  ten  years  was  a 
companion  at  IJath,  a  sehoolnii.slres.s  at  Newin;,'ton 
CIreen,  and  ^'overness  in  Lord  KinK«horonj,'ir«  family 
at  Mitehelstown,  Duhlin,  and  Bristol.  Of  those 
ten  years  tlie  chief  events  were  her  mother's  death 
(17><0):  the  tli};ht  of  a  sister,  with  Mary's  help, 
from  a  linital  liusliand  ( 17H4  )  ;  and  a  visit  to  I.ishon 
to  iinrse  a  clear  ilyinj;  friend  (  I7.S.J).  Then  in  I7HS. 
ahont  wliieh  time  she  ;;ave  up  eluireh  ^;oin;!,  she 
tinned  translator  and  literary  adviser  to  .lohnson. 
the  London  puhlisher,  who  the  year  before  h.id 
paid  her  ten  j^uineius  for  her  Tliuiiijlits  on  thr  Eilii- 
ailion  of  l)tiiir)htcrs.  In  this  capacity  she  hecame 
acquainted,  not  only  with  the  literati  of  the  ilav, 
but  with  reformers  —  I'aine,  I'riestley,  and  the 
painter  I-'useli.  That  .icipi.-iintance  liore  twofold 
fruit.  On  the  one  hand,  in  1701,  she  proiliicecl  her 
Atisircr  to  Ilnr/:f\s  UiJhvlioH.s  oit  thi:  Frnirlt  Jicro/ii- 
lion,  and  in  I7'J'2  her  Viiii/icatioii  of  the  lliijlits  of 
Woiiiiiii,  a  boidi,  dedicated  to  Talleyrand,  whicli 
m.ade  her  lioth  famous  and  infamous.  On  the  other 
liand  her  friendship  for  Fuseli  ri|iened  into  love, 
anil  'to  snap  the  chain  of  this  lussociation '  (for 
Knseli  wxs  a  married  Jiian)  she  started  alone  for 
Paris  in  the  winter  of  17!I'J.  There,  a-s  a  witness 
of  the  'Terror,'  she  collected  materials  for  her 
valualile  hut  never  linished  llixton'ral  and  Mornl 
View  of  the  Frrnrh  Jurotiitioii  (vid.  i.  1794):  an<l 
there,  in  April  179:i,  she  met  Captain  (lilliert 
Imhvv,  an  American  timber-merchant,  the  autlioi 
of  -1  Tojioi/iiiji/iirdl  Dcsen'/itiiin  of  the  ]\'e.sliin 
Territorii  tij  Soitli  Anierint  (\~'.H).  In  April  1794 
at  Havre  she  bore  hini  a  dau^tliter,  Fanny  ;  in 
November  1795,  after  a  four  months'  visit  to 
.Scanilinavia  as  his  'wife'  anil  accredited  a^'cnt, 
she  tried  to  drown  herself  from  I'utney  Mrid^'e. 
Inday,  whom  she  adored,  had  cruelly  deserted  her. 
Hut  soon  she  resumed  her  old  tasks  :  .soon,  in  nine 
months'  time,  she  w;i-s  livin;;,  or  rather  not  living', 
with  (loilwin,  for  both  kept  their  se])arate  loil;,'inj;s 
in  Somerstowii.  They  had  lirst  met  in  1791.  On 
."loth  Auf^ust  1797,  live  months  after  their  marriage, 
she  gave  birth  to  a  ilau;;liter,  Marv  :  on  10th 
Septendier  she  died.  In  IS.jl  a  railro.ail  threatened 
her  willow  sliailed  ^'rave  in  Old  Si  I'ancr.as' church- 
yard, .so  her  remains  and  Godwin  »  were  removed 
to  liournemouth. 

The  \'in(liiation,  whose  text  is  tlie  equality  of 
the  sexes,  is  a  curious  medley  of  genius  and  tur- 
gidity,  religion  and  over-outspokenne.ss ;  it  was 
years  in  ad\ance  of  its  age,  if  only  in  it.s  advocacy 
of  government  day-schools.  We  nuay  like  or  dis- 
like the  writer  ;  we  cannot  but  love  the  woman, 
for  the  love  that  all  children  bore  her,  for  her  own 
steadfast  love  towards  her  two  ingrate  sisters,  and 
for  the  loveliness,  i)ure  and  pensive,  of  her  face — 
we  know  it  by  Opie's  canva.s. 

Among  her  other  writiiij^s  were  Oriijinai  Stories  for 
Chxtdren  ( 1791 ;  illustrated  by  Blake ),  Litt^rrg  irrittcit 
dttrinij  a  Sliort  Jtexidaice  in  Sitrden,  A^oririi//,  and  Den- 
mark ( 171K>),  and  Ponttiumous  Works  (4  vols.  179S),  these 
last  coinpriiiing  TIte  Wrotuia  of  Yyoman  :  or  .^faria,  a 
Fragment,  and  the  passionate  letters  to  Tmlai/  {new  cii., 
with  memoir,  by  C.  Kcg.in  Paul,  1879).  See,  too,  the 
Memoirs  by  (iodwiii  (1798)  and  Mrs  PenncU  (' Eminent 
Women '  series,  1885). 

dodwill.  Wii.i.i.vM,  political  writer  and  novel- 
ist, Wius  born  .'id  .March  17."il>  at  Wisbeach,  but 
passed  his  boyhood  at  (Juestwick  in  Norfolk.     He 


wa.s  the  seventli  of  thirteen  children.     HiH  father 

(l~'2',i  ~2)  wa-s  a  dissenting  minister,  by  (lodwin's 
showing  a  featureless  precisian  ;  the  mother,  we 
know  from  her  letti-i-s,  was  a  homely,  good,  lov- 
able woman.  After  three  years  at  llindolveston 
day-.school,  three  more  with  a  tutor  at  Norwich, 
and  one  as  usher  in  his  former  school,  (lodwin  in 
177S  entered  Hoxton  I'resbyterian  t'ollege;  in  1778 
ipiitted  it  ;us  puri'  a  Sandemanian  and  Tory  as  he 
had  gone  in.  lint  during  a  live\ears'  jiiinistry  at 
Ware,  Stowmarket,  and  lieacinislield,  he  turned 
Socinian  and  republican,  and  by  1787  wiis  a  'com- 
jdete  unbeliever.'  Meanwhile  he  had  taken  to 
literature,  in  178.'}-84  writing  three  novels  for  £42, 
a  Life  of  Chatham,  and  S/.etr/iix  of  llintonj,  in  Six 
Sermons,  with  a  good  deal  of  snbseijUent  hack- 
work. The  French  levolution  gave  him  an  opening, 
.tnil  his  Ktnjnini  eonrerninif  J'otittrni  Jnsttrr  ('2 
vols.  4to,  179.<),  ^ironght  him  fame  and  a  thousand 
guineas.  It  was  calndy  subversivi^  of  everything 
(law  and  '  nmrriage,  the  worst  of  all  laws  '),  but  it 
preached  down  violence,  and  Wiis  deemed  caviare 
for  the  multitude,  so  its  author  escaped  prosicu- 
tiim.  T/ie  Ai/renlnres  of  Vnlrli  Jt'iltinnis  (1794) 
w.is  designed  to  give  'a  general  review  of  the  modes 
of  domestic  and  unrecorded  despotism,  by  which 
man  liecomes  the  destroyer  of  man;'  unlike  most 
novels  with  a  purpose,  it  is  really  a  strong  book, 
one  that  will  not  be  forgotten.  Holcroft,  llorne 
Tooke,  and  ten  othei's  were  charged  at  this  time 
w  ith  liigh-trea-son  :  (_io(hvin's  powerful  defence  of 
tbeni  in  the  Mornine/  l7ironir/c  did  much  to  break 
down  the  charge,  llolcroft  was  one  of  his  oldest 
and  most  intimate  friends,  w  hose  circle  at  dillerent 
times  included  (or  excluded  )  the  publisher  .bdm.son, 
Dr  I'arr,  Thomas  Wedgwood,  Coleridge,  Words- 
worth (rpv.).  Mackintosh,  Lamb,  Ila/tlitI,  Mrs 
Inchbald,  Mrs  Opie,  Mrs  Sidilons,  .Shelley,  and 
Bulwer  I.ytton.  Through  .lohnson  it  w;is  that 
Ooilwin  met  .Mary  Wollstonccralt,  and  it  wa.s  for 
fear  .lohnson  might  cut  oil  her  su|iplies  that  their 
marriage  wa.s  at  lirst  ke)it  a  secret.  For  (lodwin 
was  hard  up,  and  hard  up  he  continued  almost  to 
the  last.  Why,  is  .somewhat  a  mystery,  for  his 
yearly  expenditure  in  179:i-9r)  averaged  oidy  il\'2{), 
and  the  niafi  who  could  wi'ite  that  memoir  of  his 
dead  wife,  anil  publish  the  I.elti  r.\  to  Inilinj,  should 
surely  at  least  ha>  e  died  lich.  Still,  boirowing 
.t'oO  from  Wedgwood,  and  going  on  a  driving  tour; 
sending  l''20  to  a  young  proti'ge,  and  tinning  two 
months  in  Irelanil,  but  failing  to  rei)ay  IJitson 
£.30;  borrowing  other  tHKlof  Wedgwood",  but  dis- 
appointing Holcroft  of  £'20  muddlement  such  as 
this  speaks  much  lor  itself,  if  little  fur  philosophy  ; 
and  Ijeside.s  there  wa-s  llodwin's  fandly.  It  was  a 
mi.xed  one,  if  not  veiy  large.  In  1801,  after  two 
unsucces.sful  courtships,  he  nnvrried  the  bustling 
widow,  Mrs  Clements  or  Clairmont,  his  next-door 
neighbour,  who  one  day  had  .accosted  him  from  her 
balcony  :  '  Is  it  possible  that  I  behold  the  immortal 
(Jodwiu';'  She  had  two  children  already,  and  a 
third  was  Ijorn  of  the  niarri.ige.  So  there  were 
poor  Fanny  Inday  ( 1794-181(>),  who  died  by  her 
own  hand  ;  .Mary  Wollstonecraft  Oodwin  (  1797- 
1851 ),  who  in  1811)  married  Shelley  ;  Charles  Clair- 
mont ;  'Claire'  Clairmont  (  1797  1879),  the  mother 
by  IJyron  of  Allegra  ;  and  William  (lodwin  (180.')- 
.3'2),  to  whose  i>i)sthunii>us  novel,  Transfitsion,  a 
memoir  was  preli.xed  by  his  father. 

The  last  half  of  (iodwin's  long  life  may  be  brielly 
dismis.seil.  A  bookselling  business,  undertaken  by 
him  as  '  Edward  IJaldw in  '  in  l.S()5,  involved  him  for 
years  in  dilliculties,  and  in  18:j.'J  he  was  glad  to 
accept  the  sinecure  post  of  yeoman  usher  of  the 
Exchequer.  His  tragedy,  Antonio  ( 1800),  was  hope- 
lessly damned  ;  nor  were  any  of  his  later  prose 
works  equal  in  either  merit  or  success  to  Political 
Justice  and  f'ulel)  Williums.     The  best  are  St  Leon 


GODWIN-AUSTEN 


GOETHE 


273 


(1799),  a  'story  of  the  miraculous,' aiul  an  Essay 
on  Sepulchres  (1809).  A  Life  of  Chaucer  ( 1803),  an 
Answer  to  Malthus  (1820),  Liirs  of  (he  Ncero- 
mnnrers  (1834),  and  the  novels  Fleet iruod  (1805), 
Mamkville  (1817),  and  Cloudcsley  (1830)  may  he 
named.  Godwin  died  in  Palace  Yard,  7lh  April 
1836.  'Pecksniff,  with  a  dash  of  Micawher,'  will 
seem  a  harsh  verdict  on  one  for  whoni  Mr  Kcgan 
Paul  has  little  save  praise  in  his  valuable  and 
exhaustive  biography,  U'illiam  Oodurin:  his  Friends 
and  Contemporaries  (2  vols.  1876).  See,  too,  Haz- 
litt's  Spirit  of  the  Ar/e  (1825);  Leslie  Stephen's 
En'jtish  Thouqlit  in  t)ic  IStJi  Century  (1876);  and 
otliLM-  works  cited  at  SHELLEY. 

Godwin-Alisteil,  the  secoml  higliest  peak  in 
the  worlil,  is  situated  in  the  Himalayan  system,  in 
the  western  range  that  is  crossed  in  the  ea.st  by  the 
Karakoram  Pas.s.  Its  height  is  28,250  feet.  Dis- 
tinguished  in  the  records  of  the  gi'eat  trigonometri- 
cal survey  only  by  the  sign  K2,  it  was  named  iu 
1888  after  Lieut. -colonel  Godwin-Austen  of  the 
Trigonometrical  Survey  of  India. 

Godwit  (  Limosa ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  snipe 
family  ( ScolopaciiUe ),  with  very  long  bill,  slightly 
curved  upwards,  and  long  slender  legs,  with  a  great 
part  of  the  tiliia  bare.  All  the  siiecies  frei|uent 
marshes  and  shallow  waters,  chielfy  those  of  the 
sea-coast,  wliere  they  seek  their  food  like  snipes 
by  wading  and  by  plunging  the  long  bill  into  the 
water  or  mud.  They  sometimes  also  run  after 
small  crustaceans  or  other  animals,  and  catch  them 
on  the  sands  from  which  the  tide  has  retired.  Two 
species,  the  Black-tailed  Godwit  (L.  belijiea)  and 
tlie  Bar- tailed  Godwit  (L.  lapponiea),  are  as  Ijirds 


Bar-tailed  Godwit  ( Limosa  lappon  tea ). 

of  passage  not  unfrequent  visitors  of  the  marshy 
]iarts  of  the  east  coast  of  England,  where  the  first 
used  to  lireed.  Nowadays  the  bar-taihMl  species  is 
nnu'b  the  commoner,  being  especially  abundant  on 
the  coast  of  Northumberland.  Both  normally  breed 
in  more  northern  countries,  and  are  seen  in  Britain 
chielly  in  their  migrations  northward  ami  S(mth- 
ward.  Both  liave  a  wide  range  in  Eurooe,  Asia, 
and  Africa.  The  females  are  larger  than  the  males, 
anil  the  whole  length  of  the  female  black-taile<l 
godwit,  which  is  rather  the  larger  species,  is  about 
17  inches,  the  liill  alone  being  4  inches  long.  They 
are  much  esteemed  for  the  table,  and  are  sent  from 
Holland  to  the  London  market. 

<i!o«'s,  or  Tek  Goes,  a  town  of  Hollaml.  on  the 
island  of  South  Beveland,  16  miles  NE.  of  Flushing 
by  rail.  It  contains  a  tine  Gothic  church  of  the 
15th  century  and  a  ruined  castle.     I'op.  639:i. 

(liootlie,    Joil.vXN    WiiLFOANc;,    was    born    in 

FranUfort-on-the-Main,     August    '2S,     1749.       His 

father  was  a  Doctor  of  Laws  and  obtained  the  title 

of  imperial  councillor.     He  was  a  nuiii  of  honour- 

'226 


able  life,  vigorous  character,  steadfast,  industrious, 
and  methodical  ;  he  possessed  considerable!  culture, 
and  was  a  special  lover  of  Italian  literature  and 
art.  Goethe  s  mother  (1731-1808),  daughter  of  .1. 
\V.  Textor,  chief-magistrate  of  Frankfort,  was  only 
eighteen  when  her  son  w  as  bom  ;  she  was  remark- 
able for  her  bright  teniijer  and  good  sense.  One 
child  besides  Goethe  lived  to  adult  years — his  sister 
Cornelia,  the  companion  of  bis  yimth  (married  1773 
to  J.  G.  Schlos.ser,  died  1777).  The  fandly  occtipied 
a  house  in  the  Hirschgraben,  the  rebuilding  of  which 
was  a  notable  event  in  Goethe's  lioylioo(l.  There 
was  much  in  the  life  of  the  old  free  inii)erial  city  to 
stimulate  his  curiosity  ami  awaken  his  imagination. 
He  was  quick  to  learn,  and  had  the  advantage  of 
careful  instruction  from  his  father  and  from  tutors. 
In  1759  French  troops,  siding  with  Austria  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  entered  F'rankfort,  .and  Ccmnt 
Thorane,  a  French  officer,  a  cultivated  man  and  a 
lover  of  art,  was  quartered  in  Goethe's  house.  The 
French  theatre  0]iened  in  the  city  attracted  the 
boy,  and  thus  he  became  familiar  w  ilh  Kaeine  and 
more  recent  dramatists.  He  even  attem|>ted  to 
compose  in  the  manner  of  some  of  these,  w  hile  also 
he  was  receiving  literary  inlluences  from  the  lyrical 
poets  of  Germany.  Latin,  Greek,  Italian,  English, 
even  Hebrew,  were  studied,  an<l  lie  planned  a  kiml 
of  prose  fiction  maintained  by  several  correspondents 
in  vaiious  languages.  He  had  his  moods  of  religious 
feeling,  w  hich  at  an  earlv  age  were  .somewhat  dis- 
turbed by  doubts  of  (ioil's  gooilness  suggested  by 
the  Lislion  earthquake.  The  prinntive,  pastoral 
scenes  of  the  Old  Testament  bad  a  peculiar  charm 
for  his  imagination.  But  while  an  ardent  student 
in  so  many  directions,  he  enjoyed  the  amusements 
of  a  boy  among  boys,  and  sometimes  indeed  amimg 
ill-chosen  companions.  When  about  fifteen  years 
old  (1763-64)  he  underwent  a  boy's  joys  and 
sorrows  of  love  ;  Gretchen  was  of  humbler  rank 
than  his  own,  and  was  some  years  his  senior.  She 
treated  him  as  a  child,  and,  circumstances  having 
brought  to  light  Goethe's  wanderings  in  doubtful 
company,  the  pair  were  parted.  For  a  time  Goethe 
gave  hini-self  up  to  bitter  feelings. 

In  the  autumn  of  1765  he  was  admitted  a  student 
of  the  university  of  Leipzig.  He  cared  not  at  all 
for  his  law  lectures,  and  not  much  for  Gellert's 
lectures  on  literature  or  Eriiesti's  on  Cicero's  De 
Oratore :  the  awakening  of  his  critical  jiowers 
for  a  time  danqied  his  ardour  for  composition,  and 
he  fell  into  a  melancholy  mood.  Comiianionship 
roused  him  to  activity.  The  serious  Schlosser, 
afterwards  his  brother-in-law,  widened  his  range 
of  literary  sympathies  ;  Behrisch  served  him  as  a 
severe  yet  kindly  critic;  but  it  w,as  from  Oeser, 
director  of  the  academy  of  arts,  and  the  friend  of 
AVinckelmaim,  that  he  received  the  most  inqiorlant 
intellectual  gains  of  this  |)eriod.  '  Oeser,'  he  wrote, 
'  taught  me  that  the  ideal  of  beauty  is  simplicity 
and  repose.'  Goethe  took  lessons  in  drawing,  tried 
to  etch,  studied  the  paintings  at  Leipzig,  and  visited 
the  Dresden  gallery.  He  read  with  enthtisiasm 
Lessing's  Laoeoon  and  his  Minna  vm  Jiarnhelni, 
heard  concerts,  and  was  frequent  in  his  attendance 
at  the  theatre.  Nor  in  Goethe's  life  could  much 
time  ever  pass  without  the  jiresenceor  the  incursion 
of  love.  His  Frankfort  fancy  for  Charitas  Meixner 
faded  before  the  stronger  attr.action  of  Kiithchen 
Schiinkopf  (the  Aennclien  of  his  autobiography), 
daughter  of  a  wine  seller  at  w  hose  house  he  dined, 
a  bright,  frank  girl,  three  years  his  senior.  He 
began  for  her  (1767)  the  little  p.astoral  drama  in 
Alexandrine  verse,  J)ic  Laune  des  Vcrlieblcn  (  known 
to  us  in  a  revised  form ),  to  atone  for  his  jealous 
humours.  At  Leipzig  in  1768  he  began  a  second 
play,  painful  in  subject.  Die  MItsehuldigen,  after- 
wanls  finished  in  Frankfort.  A  group  of  songs  set 
to  music  by  Breitkopf  belong  also  to  the  Leii)zig 


274 


GOETHE 


luMioil.  Kiitlichen  was  wooed  and  two  years  later 
was  won  liy  tlie  ailvocalv  Kanne.  The  friendship 
which  (loethe  had  for  ( (eser's  ili-litrlitful  danj;hter 
triederike  shonhl  not  he  classeil  ainon;?  his  h>ves. 

On  Septemher  3,  17()8,  CJoethe  was  a^'ain  in 
Frankfort,  serionsly  ill  ;  it  wa-s  feared  that  hin 
liint;s  were  allected.  For  the  j;reat<'r  part  of  the 
follottinj;  year  he  remained  an  invalid,  and  during; 
this  illness  he  sou<;ht  relifjions  eonsolation  under 
the  direction  of  his  mother's  friend,  Friiulein  von 
Klettenherj;,  one  of  the  Moravian  lirethren.  I  nder 
her  <,'"'''""<'e  and  that  of  his  doctor  he  made  a 
study  of  alchemy,  a  suliject  not  foru'iitten  when  he 
afterwards  wrote  I'liiist.  Gradually  hi'altli  returned, 
and  it  was  decideil  thai  he  should  complete  his 
studies  at  the  university  of  Stra-shurK-  In  April 
1770  he  arrived  at  the  old  city  and  saw  for  the  lirst 
time  its  cathedral,  which  hyaiul-hy  made  him  a 
deeply-int<'rest«d  student  of  (Jothic  architecture. 
At  the  lahle  where  he  dined  he  found  lovers  of 
literature  in  Lei-se  and  the  actuary  Salzmann.  anil 
a  man  of  jv  singular  reli^'ious  spirit  in  .lun;;  Stilling'. 
(ioethe's  pietistic  fervour  ileelineil  as  he  earnestly 
devoted  himself  to  chemistry,  anatomy,  literature, 
antii|nities,  and,  as  far  as  was  necessary,  to  his 
proper  study,  law.  He  hail  the  •,'<«»!  fmtnne  to 
come  under  the  intluence  of  Herder,  already  known 
a-s  an  author,  and  lliiou^;h  Henler  he  came  to  feel 
the  attraction  of  r>ld  hallail  i)oetry,  of  O.ssian,  anil 
in  a  new  and  hit,'her  decree  the  power  of  Homer 
and  of  Shakespeare.  Herder  was  well  acquainted 
with  Kn;;lish  writers  of  his  own  century,  anil  (lold- 
snuth's  I'irrtr  especially  ileli;;lited  (Joethe.  When 
((•ctoher  1770)  he  made  the  ,ici|uaintanie  of  Pastor 
Krion's  family  at  the  village  of  Sessenheim,  it 
seemed  to  him  that  the  I'rimrose  household  stood 
hefore  him.  The  jiastor's  beautiful  ilau{;hter, 
Friederike,  eighteen  or  nineteen  years  old,  and  as 
pood  <as  she  was  heautiful,  lilled  his  heart  with  a 
new  love,  which  she  nu)destly  yet  ardently  returned. 
She  was  the  inspiration  of  some  of  (ioethe's  loveliest 
lyrics.  l$ul  he  would  luil  or  could  not  fetter  his 
freedom,  and  he  parted  from  her  not  without  some 
sense  of  self-reproach.  Havin;.'  olil.-unr'd  his  doctor's 
de<;ree,  he  returned  ( .\n^;usi  1771  )  to  his  native  city. 

Admitted  an  advocate,  (-ioethe  had  no  heart 
in  his  profession.  His  creative  genius  was  fully 
roused,  and  when  lie  read  Shakespeare  he  felt  him- 
self moved  to  something'  like  rivalry.  In  (ioetz  von 
Kerlichiufien,  the  (lerman  champion  of  freedom  in 
the  Kith  century,  he  found  a  dramatic  hero.  He 
coniideted  his  [day  of  (/<«■/-,  in  its  earliest  form, 
before  the  close  of  1771,  and  named  it  a  dramatised 
history  rather  than  a  drama.  In  the  following 
year  he  was  engaged  in  critical  work  for  the  I'rrinl;- 
/iirti'r  (jelc/iitc  A»:cirieii,  eilited  by  a  friend  recently 
made,  .J.  H.  Merck  of  Darmstadt,  a  man  of 
fine  taste,  somewhat  cynical,  and  yet  callable  of 
generous  admiration  for  one  whose  genius  he  was 
prompt  to  recognise.  To  this  period  belong  the 
strikingly-contrasted  poems  Der  Wandncr  and 
IVaiu/crers  Sti(rm/ier/,  the  former  telling  of  the 
beauty  of  ruined  classic  art  amid  the  ever-living 
freshness  of  nature,  the  latter  an  improvisation  of 
t«mpest  and  the  genius  of  man  which  can  defy  the 
fury  of  the  elements. 

'I'd  gain  further  knowledge  of  law  procedure 
Goethe  settled  for  the  summer  (May-September) 
of  1772  in  the  little  town  of  Wetzlar,  the  seat  of 
the  imperial  courts  of  justice.  His  thoughts  were, 
however,  more  with  Homer  and  I'indar  than  with 
matters  of  the  law.  The  months  are  memorable 
chielly  for  (Ioethe's  love  for  Lotte  IJutl",  d.aughter 
of  a  steward  of  lands  belonging  to  the  Teutonic 
Order  of  Knights.  Her  brightness,  her  ingenuous 
goodness,  her  kind  and  graceful  rendering  of  hou.se- 
hold  duties  charmed  Cloethe  ;  hut  she  wjis  the  be- 
trothed of  Kestner,  the  Gotha  Secretary  of  Lega- 


tion, and  Goethe,  as  it  has  been  described,  'saveil 
liimself  by  Might.' 

Itefore  returning  to  Frankfort  he  visiteil  the 
authoress,  Fran  von  I.aroche,  near  Cidilent/,  and 
was  interested  in  her  dark  eyed  d.aughter  Maximi- 
liane,  soon  to  be  the  « ife  of  the  Italian  Itrintano. 
When  once  more  at  home  he  occupied  himsidf  \\ith 
an  essay  on  arcliitectuie,  biblical  studies,  and  the 
design  for  a  dramatic  poem  on  .Mohammed.  Karly 
in  177.3  he  .set  himself  to  recast  the  Uoctz,  and  this 
groat  work  was  ready  for  the  printer  in  March  of 
that  year.  Its  fame  was  secured  by  the  fact  that 
it  eN|iressed  with  the  energy  of  genius  muih  of  the 
pa.ssionate  striving  after  freedom  of  thought  and 
action  characteristic  of  Ids  own  time  ;  its  romantic 
revival  of  the  piust  fell  in  with  another  tendency  of 
the  age.  A  fervour  of  creation  now  posses.sed 
(ioethe.  To  1773  belong  works  of  the  most  varied 
description,  his  majestic  I'romct/iciis,  .an  import.ant 
group  of  satirical  farces,  the  comedy  of  luiriit 
inn/  F.liiiiif  (linished  .June  177-4,  founded  on  (iold- 
smith's  Ki/iriii  ami  Aiii/i/itui),  .and  already  he 
w.as  eng.aged  on  Faiixt  .and  on  W'crtlifr.  He  had 
heard  some  time  previously  of  the  suicide  of  young 
Jerusalem,  a  Wetzlar  acijuaintance,  and  wea\ing 
the  story  of  .Jeru.salein  with  that  of  his  own  love 
for  Lotte  Hull',  .and  ailding  .something  ilerived 
from  the  cli.aiacli'r  of  the  jealous  Brentano,  he  pro- 
duced his  wonderful  book  Die  Lcidcii  lA.v  jiitn/iii 
irc/7/(C/s  (  finished  March  1774),  which  gives  as  in 
.an  essence  all  the  spirit  of  the  18tli-century  senti- 
mental nmvement — that  movement  of  which  the 
most  eminent  French  exponent  w.as  I!onsse.au. 
The  marriage  of  Goethe  s  sister  and  bis  first 
acipiaintance  with  Lavater  are  facts  which  also 
belong  to  the  year  1773.  Through  Lavater  he 
became  much  interested  in  the  study  of  physiog- 
nomy. 

In  the  spring  of  1774  Goethe  w.as  at  work  on 
Wcii/ici;  and  he  luvstily  wrote  his  play  of  C/arif/o, 
a  triigedy  of  faithless  love,  which  was  successful 
both  on  the  stage  and  in  book  form.  It  is  in  part 
founded  on  the  Mfmoirc.i  of  Be.aumarchais.  A  few 
scenes  of  Fiiiisl  were  written,  and  (ioctbi-  dreamed 
of  a  somewh.at  kindred  theme  in  the  Wandering 
Jew  ;  at  the  same  time  his  farcical  vein  wiis 
not  exh.austed.  Eminent  men  were  added  to  his 
aciiuaintance  ;  among  these  were  Klopstock  and 
the  educational  reformer  B.asedow.  In  company 
with  B.a.sedow  and  L.avater  he  voy.aged  down  the 
Kliine  ;  and  at  I'em|ielfort  he  visiteil  Fritz  .lacobi, 
who  grew  to  be  .a  friend  of  his  heart.  Among  in- 
lluences  ileri\eil  from  books,  the  most  powerful  was 
that  of  Spinoza's  writings.  The  Ethics  sustained 
.and  calmed  (ioethe's  spirit  amid  its  various  agita- 
tions and  bellied  to  give  a  unity  to  his  life.  The 
dramatic  writings  of  177."),  excepting  that  Ki/i»ij>it 
w.as  begun,  are  of  secondary  importance— a  little 
pl.ay  with  songs  n.amed  Ctaiiilinc  von  Villa  JJrl/a, 
and  the  more  celelirated  Stella  (suggested  by 
Swift's  love  perplexities  with  his  Stella  and 
Vanessa).  Fernando  in  Goethe's  play  by  a  happy 
arrangement  contrives  to  keep  on  terms  with  his 
pair  of  wives;  in  the  author's  reca-st  of  the  play  of 
many  years  later  the  hero  shoots  hiiiLself  and  Stella 
t.akes  poison.  Some  of  Goethe's  most  ex(|uisite 
lyrics  belong  to  177o,  .and  are  connected  with  his 
love  for  Lili  Schoiiemann,  orjihan  daughter  of  a 
wealthy  Frankfort  banker,  which  led  to  an  engage- 
ment and  almost  to  marri.age.  Lili  w.as  graceful, 
.accomplished,  somewhat  coquettish,  and  (bietlie 
was  not  always  .a  contented  lover.  After  a  time  it 
w.as  felt  on  both  sides  that  .a  marri.age  would  not 
le.ad  to  happine-ss.  In  the  summer  (ioethe  visited 
Switzerland  in  comnany  with  the  two  Counts 
Stolherg.  He  wonld  have  p.assed  into  Italy  but 
that  his  love  for  Lili  drew  him  back.  .\  new  life, 
however,  wa.s  in  store  for  him  ;  in  the  autuniu  (ho 


GOETHE 


young  Duke  of  Weimar,  Karl  August,  invited  liim 
to  visit  Weimar;  he  accepted  tlie  invitation,  ami 
on  November  7,  1775,  entered  Weimar,  not  then 
aware  that  he  liad  here  found  an  abiding  place  for 
life. 

A  new  period  of  activity  begins  with  (Joethe's 
entrance  to  Weimar.  When  the  lirst  days  of 
Imisterous  entertainment  liad  pa.«sed,  and  in  the 
s^pring  of  1776  (ioetlie  wa-s  made  a  mend)er  of  the 
privy-council  (deheimer  Lcfiatiotisrnth),  he  set 
himself  strenuously  to  serve  the  state.  By  degrees 
much  pulilic  work  fell  into  his  hands,  ami  he 
acquitted  himself  of  every  duty  with  masterly 
inti'iligence  and  <a  rare  thoroughne.ss.  In  17H'2  he 
received  a  patent  of  nobility.  He  superintended 
mines,  s.aw  to  public  roads  and  buildings,  regulated 
finance,  conducted  military  and  university  affairs, 
elevated  the  theatrical  iiei'formances,  in  every 
direction  making  the  inlluence  of  his  mind  felt. 
Above  all,  he  helped  to  form  the  immature  char- 
acter of  the  iluke.  Nor  cliil  he  fail  to  gain  true 
friends.  The  dowager-duchess  from  the  first  had 
confi<lence  in  him,  and  by  <Iegrees  he  won  the 
esteem  and  affection  of  the  young  wife  of  Karl 
August.  Wieland,  now  of  mature  years,  declared 
that  he  was  'as  full  of  Goethe  as  a  dewdro])  of  the 
morning  sun.'  Through  tioethe's  influence  Herder 
obtained  a  public  position  and  a  home  at  Weimar. 
But  his  dearest  friend  was  Charlotte  von  Stein, 
wife  of  Oberstallmeister  von  Stein,  the  mother 
of  seven  children,  and  several  years  older  than 
(ioethe.  During  ten  years  she  was  Ids  confidant, 
his  directress,  the  object  of  his  ardent  and  tender 
homage.  And  she  knew  how  to  hold  his  feelings 
in  check,  and  to  chasten  them  when  he  was  over- 
violent  in  his  passion.  She  kept  alive  the  ideal 
in  his  imagination  while  he  was  occupied  with  the 
details  of  real  affairs.  Yet  there  was  something 
of  unhealthy  strain  in  this  love  which  could  not 
hope  for  its  highest  accomplishment  in  marriage. 
During  these  years  Goethe's  udnd  turned  away  from 
vague  aspirings  and  sentimental  moods  to  the 
definite  and  the  real.  He  became  deeply  interested 
in  the  natural  sciences — in  geology  and  nnneralogy, 
botany,  comparative  anatomy.  His  discovery  of 
the  intermaxillary  bone  in  man  (17S4),  and  his 
theory  of  later  date  that  all  the  parts  of  a  plant  are 
variations  of  a  type  which  is  most  clearly  seen  in  the 
leaf,  show  how  his  observing  powers  were  aided  by 
his  iniaginati<m,  and  place  him  among  the  scien- 
tific foriMunuers  of  those  great  thinkers  who  have 
set  forth  the  doctrine  of  evolution.  Many  literary 
works  were  begun  in  this  period,  but  not  many 
were  brought  to  completion.  Some  lyrics  of  larger 
design  ami  more  elaborate  form  than  his  earlier 
songs  show  the  growth  of  his  powers.  I5ut  the 
poem  fiir.  drhrinniixac,  which  was  meant  to  endiody 
[lis  thimghts  iin  the  religious  (if  the  world,  is  a 
fragment.  Two  acts  of  his  dram.a  of  Tiixsit  were 
written  ( 1780-<S1 ),  but  in  prose.  His  n<d)le  dramatic 
poem,  Iiiliixienui,  classical  in  subject,  ]>artly  moilern 
in  feeling,  was  written  in  full  (1779),  ^nit,  like 
Tiissi),  as  yet  only  in  prose.  The  short  play.  Die 
(Irsr/iiristrr,  iis  well  as  the  I/i/iiffoiin,  was  partly 
ins|iire(l  liy  his  feeling  for  Krau  von  Stein.  In  1777 
he  began  his  novel  of  Wilhcliii  Md.slrr,  designeil 
to  show  how  the  vague  strivings  of  youth  may 
he  enmibled  by  their  transition  into  definite  and 
useful  activity,  and  from  time  to  time  he  made 
progress  with  it.  The  constant  pressure  of  public 
business  at  length  fatigueil  his  minil,  for,  except  a 
visit  to  Switzerlanil  in  177i>,  he  had  few  sea.sons 
of  refreshment.  He  had  long  desired  to  visit  Italy. 
When  ten  years  of  toil  were  ended  he  resolved  to 
gratify  that  deep  desire,  and  on  Septetnbcr  ,■?, 
17H(),  lie  started  on  his  journey  for  the  south. 

(ioethe's  residence  in  Italy  lasted  from  the 
autumn  of   17S(i   to  June   1788.      It  was  a   most 


fniitfnl  period.  Now  the  steadfast  habits  of  mind 
acquired  in  the  course  of  public  business  in  Weimar 
were  applieil  to  the  study  of  art.  He  lived  in  a 
blissful  calm,  which  was  in  fact  the  highest  energy, 
examining  the  monuments  of  ancient  art  and 
renaissance  painting,  enjoying  the  beauty  of  nature, 
and  studying  the  life  of  the  people.  His  fiiemls 
were  chiefly  artists — Tischbein,  who  painted  his 
portrait  at  Konie,  the  Swiss  Meyer,  Angelica 
Kauffmann.  He  strove  hard  to  draw,  but  with 
only  moderate  success.  In  the  spring  of  1787  he 
visited  Naples  and  Sicily  ;  at  Palermo  he  made  a 
.sudden  advance  in  his  theory  of  botanical  meta- 
morphosis. Once  again  in  Koine,  he  renewed  his 
study  of  plastic  art,  and  was  inexpressibly  happy 
amid  a  world  of  beauty.  The  literarj'  work  of  the 
period  was  chiefly  that  of  revising  or  recasting 
earlier  writings.  Erfmont  was  carried  to  com- 
pletion (1787);  the  pro.se  Iphigcnia  was  recast  in 
verse  (1786);  the  scene  of  the  Witthes'  Kitchen 
was  added  to  Faust :  he  sketched  the  plan  and 
wrote  a  fragment  of  a  tragedy,  Naiisikaa.  tju  June 
18,  1788,  Goethe  re-entered  Weimar  gi-eatly  en- 
richeil  by  his  travel. 

He  was  now  relieved  from  the  most  irksome  of 
his  public  duties,  but  continued  to  take  an  interest 
in  the  Ilmenau  ndnes  and  in  university  reform  at 
Jena.  His  private  life  also  underwent  a  great 
change  which  relieved  his  heart  from  a  strain, 
though  in  an  ill  way.  His  ardent  idealising  fiiend- 
ship  for  Charlotte  von  Stein  was  broken,  and  he 
took  to  his  home  a  beautiful  girl  of  hinuble  rank, 
Cliristiane  Vulpius,  whom  from  the  first  he  regarded 
as  his  wife,  though  the  marriage  ceremony  was  not 
celebrated  until  October  1800.  Cliristiane  had  good 
qualities,  and  was  dear  to  Goethe,  but  his  choice 
was  in  many  respects  unsuitable.  In  December 
1789  his  son  August  was  Ixirn.  Memories  of  Italy 
nungle  with  his  love  of  Cliristiane  in  the  Rmmin 
Elegies,  poems  sensuously  classical  in  their  feeling 
and  classical  in  their  form.  In  the  summer  of  178!) 
he  put  the  last  touches  to  the  play  of  Ta.s.io,  which 
contrasts  the  passionate  heart  of  the  poet  with  the 
worldly  wisdom  of  the  statesman  and  man  of  affairs 
— two  sides  of  Goethe's  own  nature.  Next  year 
in  the  seventh  volume  of  his  Wmks  appeared  a 
great  portion  of  the  fii'st  part  of  FituM  as  'a  Frag- 
ment.' This,  the  story  of  Faust's  measureless  striv- 
ings for  truth  and  for  joy,  and  the  love-tragedy  i  f 
Gretchen,  lielong'S  essentially  to  tJcethe's  earlier 
years  of  the  St iinn- iind- Dnair/.  The  tirst  jiart  of 
Ffuist,  completed  in  1806,  did  not  appear  until  1808. 
Science  continued  to  interest  Goethe  profoundly. 
His  remarkable  essay  on  the  jThtcimor/i/ioxix  nf 
Plants  was  given  to  the  printer  in  1790.  and  when 
at  Venice  in  ilay  he  suddenly  struck  out  his  imicli- 
discusseil  theory  of  the  vertebral  structure  nl  the 
skull.  His  studies  in  optics,  by  which  he  hoped 
to  disprove  Newton's  theory  of  colours,  were  a 
great  affair  of  his  life  from  this  time  onwards, 
but  here  his  conclusions,  though  ingeniou-ly  argued, 
were  unsound.  In  1791  Goethe  was  entrusted  with 
the  control  of  the  court  theatre  at  Weimar,  and 
it  was  his  aim  and  earnest  effort  to  make  the  stage 
a  means  of  true  artistic  culture.  He  wxs  himself 
roused  to  dramatic  composition,  and  several  jiieces 
of  these  years  were  concerned  with  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  in  France.  In  his  Venetian 
Ejiigranus  he  complains  that  the  political  commo- 
tiim  threw  back  the  advance  of  quiet  culture.  The 
drosskophta  (1791)  dramatises  the  afl'air  of  the 
Diamond  Necklace,  studies  Cafjiiostro's  arts  of 
imposture,  and  rejuesents  the  demoralisation  of 
aristocratic  society  in  France.  Die  Aii/;jeie(/ten — 
a  ilramatic  fragment — in  some  degree  lu)lds  the 
balance  between  conflicting  political  parties.  The 
Biirgergcneral  (acted  179.'>)  is  a  bro.ad  jest  at  the 
German  apostles  of  the  Kevolution.     lu  tioethe's 


276 


GOETHE 


lipxdinetcr  vci-sion  of  the  olil  Low  German  beast- 
ei)ie,  linjiuinl  tlir  Fo.r  (|iniiti'il  1794),  lie  satirisps 
tiic  lusts  mill  yieeils  of  nicii  uihIct  the  <lis!,'iii>iO 
of  hea-st.s,  anil  ^,'lances  at  the  speoial  vices  of  llie 
Kevojution  days.  In  17!)2  (louthe  acconipanied 
the  duke  on  the  ilisiustrons  eAni|iai;;n  aijainst  the 
I'lenph  ;  he  lieaid  the  cannonade  of  Vahiiy,  and 
went  under  lire  in  order  to  study  his  own  sensa- 
tions. Next  vear  he  was  present  at  the  sie^e  of 
Main/,  and  watched  the  French  jjarrison  march  out. 
He  hius  rt^conled  his  e\|ieriences  and  observations 
in  an  a<lmiralile  narrative. 

It  is  possible  that  at  this  time  Goethe  nii^ht 
have  j,'rown  ilisconrajjeil  and  bitter  were  it  not  for 
the  frienilship  formeil  with  Schiller  in  1794.  This 
friendship  and  its  fruits  lill  the  meniorable  yi'ars 
from  that  date  to  ISO.'i,  the  year  of  Scliiller's  dcatli. 
To;.'etlier  tliey  worked  in  the  Hun  ii,  a  review  de 
si^ueil  to  elevate  the  literary  standanl  in  (lerniany. 
Together  in  the  Xciiini  (  1796)  they  discharged 
tlieir  epi^'rams  ajjainst  their  foes,  the  literary  I'liil- 
istines.  Schiller's  sympathy  encouraj;ed  (ioetlie 
to  set  to  work  once  more  on  Willirlin  Mn'striw 
J.r/iiJii/iiT,  liut  the  later  books  ( 179(i)  of  the  novel 
are  written  on  a  diniiiiishcil  scale  .is  conijiared  with 
the  earlier.  It  may  be  saiil  more  than  any  other 
work  of  (loetlic  to  exhibit  his  criticism  on  life. 
The  charming;  epic-idvl,  lliTiiiiiiin  mid  Durolhea, 
in  which  tioethcs  feeling;  for  what  is  best  in  tier- 
ni.in  life  and  character  is  ha]i]iily  \inited  with  his 
artistic  Hellenism,  belongs  to  179(1  97.  Then,  as 
it  were  in  noble  rivalry  with  Scliillcr,  he  wrote 
several  oi  his  linest  balla<ls.  Wi-  had  .-ilso  fouml 
time  to  translate  from  the  Italian  the  autobio- 
graphy of  ISenvenuto  Cellini.  His  third  and  last 
visit  to  Switzerland  (.August  November  1797) 
interruiiteil  the  How  of  his  creative  activity,  and 
the  works  undertaken  after  his  return  were  of  less 
liappy  conception.  The  literary  and  artistic  jieriodi- 
C'll,  Die  I'l-djiiiliini  (I79,S),  was  ill  supported,  and 
did  imt  live  lon^'.  Next  year  he  ]>lanned  bis  epic, 
Ai-liillcis,  but  it  did  not  ailvance  beyond  one  canto. 
His  productive  power  slackenin};,  he  occupied 
himself  in  part  with  translating'  iinil  .adaptiuf; 
Voltaire's  Maliomct  ( 1799 )  and  T<iiiri;\lc  ( ISfX)),  ami 
at  a  somewhat  later  <late  he  translated  Diderot's 
dialo;:ue,  l.c  Xrrcu  ilr,  Itiimeini.  from  a  manuscrii)t. 
His  drama.  Die  tiiidirliihe  Tw/itir,  founded  on 
a  Krcnch  memoir,  was  desi;,'ned  as  one  part  of  a 
trilogy  which  should  embody  his  mature  views  and 
feelini,'s,  but  in  a  whcdly  impersonal  form,  on  the 
events  in  France.  It  contains  much  admirable 
writinj;.  but  ha-s  a  eert.-iin  abstract  air  and  a 
superlicial  coldness  which  prevented  it  from  be- 
coming.'jiopnlar.  In  ISOl  (ioethewas  seriously  ill, 
and  painful  attacks  recurred  from  time  to  time. 
The  death  of  Schiller  in  IS().">  occnrreil  while  he 
himself  was  ailinj;,  and  it  atlected  him  with  pro- 
found sorrow. 

National  di.saster  followed  hard  upon  this  j,'rii'vons 
loss.  In  October  180(1  the  battle  of  .Icna  was  fought, 
and  next  day  Napoleon  entered  Weimar.  Two 
years  later,  at  the  Congress  of  Krfurt.  Coethe  and 
Napoleon  met.  '  Voilii  un  liomme!'  exclaimed 
Najioleon  ;  and  in  his  turn  Goethe  recognised  in 
the  emperor  a  'demonic'  power  created  to  rule 
the  world.  He  has  been  blamed  for  lack  of  patriot- 
Lsm  ;  but  in  a  thoughtful  kind  of  |)atriotism  he  was 
not  delicient ;  his  age  and  habits  of  mind  forbade 
patriotism  of  a  pa-ssionate,  demonstrative  nature. 

In  18(J8-9  was  written  the  novel,  Jh'r  ]\'(i/i/irr- 
iniiKllsc/iafleii  (Elective  Aflinities).  It  contrasts 
characters  of  self-control  with  charactei-s  of  im|>nlse, 
is  disinterestedly  just  to  both,  insists  on  the  duty 
of  renunciation,  and  shows  the  tragic  consequences 
of  infidelity  of  heart  in  married  life.  Some  trails 
of  the  cli:u.-ii-t<'r  of  the  heroine  Ottilie  are  taken 
froi.;  Minii.i   llcrzlieb,  the  adopted  daughter  of  the 


Jena  book.seller  Kroinmann,  a  licautiful  girl,  who 
might  have  grown  too  dear  to  Goethe  if  he  had  nob 
checked  the  feeling.  A  little  later  Goethe  pub- 
lished his  two  volumes  on  light  and  colour,  Xiir 
I'arbenkhrc  ;  and  these  were  speedily  follim't-d  by 
the  first  part  of  his  autobiography  — /'/r/i/Hyii/  utid 
Wiihihiit  (1811),  tlie  continuation  of  which  occu- 
pie<l  liiiii  from  time  to  time  during  several  subse- 
i|uent  years.  It  is  a  work  of  the  deepest  interest 
to  students  of  Goclhi's  life  and  ch.-iracter,  but  its 
details  of  fact  are  not  always  exact,  and  its  record 
of  pn-st  feelings  must  be  contrcdled  by  Goctlic's 
letters  written  at  the  dates  of  which  he  treats. 

The  translation  by  \dii  Hammer  of  the  Divan  of 
the  Persian  |ioet  Haliz  interested  (Joetlie,  and  wius 
an  imaginative  refuge  from  the  |>oIitical  troubles 
of  18i;i  14.  He  w.os  iMove<l  to  cieatinn  of  poems  in 
a  kindred  spirit,  and  wrote  (chielly  in  l.SM  1,"))  the 
lyrical  pieces  published  in  1819  iiinlir  the  title  Wi.sl- 
hsilirhir  Diniii.  I'arl  of  their  inspiration  came 
from  a  Saint-Martin's  summer  of  friendship — that 
fell  for  .Marianne  von  \Villenier,  the  young  wife  of 
a  Frankfort  banker,  and  the  Suleika  of  the  Diriiii. 
The  poems  .'iii'  full  of  the  sunny  wisdom  of  a  bright 
(dd  iige,  which  can  ]day  wilhoiit  self  deception  at 
some  of  the  ]iassions  of  youth.  A  grief,  real  and 
deej).  came  to  Goethe  in  liis  sixty  seventh  year  in 
the  death  of  his  wife.  The  (ioethe  house  would 
have  been  desolate,  but  that  in  the  summer  of 
1817  Ids  son  August  brought  a  bright  and  sweet- 
tempered  wife  to  dwell  there,  Ottilie  von  I'ogwi.scli, 
and  in  ilue  time  Goethe  had  three  grandchildren 
ill  whose  liappy  childhood  the  (d<l  man  found  much 
gladness. 

In  his  elder  years  Goethe  still  continued  active. 
In  18'21  was  published  U'i//ii/ii.  Mci.i/irs  Wtmilir- 
ja/irc,  a  continuation  of  the  J.i/irjn/in',  but  includ- 
ing many  short  tales  that  hang  loosely  together. 
Here  (ioethe  sets  forth  ail  ideal  of  eilucatii>ii,  and 
inculcates  the  duty  of  reverence,  hel|ifiil  human 
toil,  and  brotherhood.  The  book  w,as  recast,  and 
in  this  secoml  form  was  finished  l-'ebruaiy  I809. 
From  lime  to  time  during  more  th.iu  half  his  life 
he  had  worked  at  the  second  part  of  Fiiii.it  ,- 
it  occupied  him  much  during  the  closing  yeais. 
Hy  August  IH.SI  il  was  at  length  comjilete.  The 
hero  Faust,  leaving  behind  his  lii-st  unhappy  ]ijus- 
sion,  adviinces  through  all  forms  of  culture — state- 
craft, science,  art,  war— to  the  final  and  simple 
wisdom  of  disinterested  service  rcndereil  to  his 
fellow-men.  Such  ,a  spirit  cannot  fall  into  the 
power  of  .Mephistopheles,  the  demon  of  negation. 
His  soul  is  received  into  Paradise  and  is  puiilied  by 
love. 

<!oetlie's  interest  in  science  .and  art  was  un- 
diminished by  age.  He  had  grown  into  sym]ialhy 
with  medieval  art  ]iartly  through  the  inlluence  of 
his  young  friend  Sul|ii/.  Hois.ser(f'e ;  a  univci'sal 
eclecticism  is,  however,  the  characteristic  of  his 
min<l  in  its  latest  ilevelopment.  He  is  best  seen 
during  these  years  in  his  Cuiiirrsiifions  icit/i  Echer- 
iiiatni.  Sorrows  came  fast  towards  the  end  ;  his 
older  fricnils,  all  but  Knebel,  disappeared  one  by 
one.  In  1828  died  the  graiid-<lnke  ;  next  year,  the 
Duchess  Luise.  (loethe's  giief  wa-s  deep;  but  he 
was  even  more  violently  shaken  by  the  loss  of  his 
son  August,  who  died  at  Home,  October  1830. 
Tended  by  his  loving  daughter-in-law,  honoured 
and  reverenced  by  tlio.se  aroiiml  him,  Goethe  lived 
until  the  spring  "of  ]s:i'2.  On  March  '2i  of  that 
year,  alter  a  short  illness,  he  <lied  ]ieacefully  in  his 
arm-chair.  His  body  lies  near  that  of  Schiller  in 
the  ducal  vault  at  Weimar. 

Goethe  was  a  man  of  noble  liodily  presence  both 
in  youth  and  age.  His  inlluence  has  afTected  every 
civilised  jieople,  and  seems  still  on  the  increase. 
His  teaching  has  been  styled  the  creed  of  culture ; 
it  is  rather  the  creed   of  self-development   with   a 


GOETZ 


GOGOL 


277 


view   to    usefulness — usefulness  to  be  etrecteil   b\' 
activity  within  wise  limits. 

Bibliography. — 1.  Works  {collected  edcl) :  Henipers 
ed.  (indispensable);  the  Weimar  ed.  (  Biihlau),  commenced 
in  188.5;  Kurschner's  ed.   (published  by  8pemann). — 2. 
Special  works  :  Loepor's  ed.  of  Gedichte ;  Loeper's  larger 
Faust  (1879);  Schrijer's  Fmist.—'i.  Letters  :  Weimar  ed.  of 
Wui'ks  :  Verjunije  tioithc  (Hirzel) ;  letters  to  tlie  follow- 
ing correspondents  :  Herder,  .Jacobi,  Karl  August,  Frau 
von  Stein,  Knebel,  Schiller,  Boisseree,  Zelter,  Marianne 
von   Willemer  ;   see   Strehlke's   Verzeichiiiss   (1881). —  4. 
Conversations:   Eokermann  (q.v.);    Biedermaim's  collec- 
tion.— 5.  Life  :  Diintzer's  Life  (Macmillan,  1883),  Lewes's, 
Vieholfs,    Schaefer's,    Sime's. — 6.    Criticism :    Hettner's 
(the  best);  Rosenkranz  ( 1856 ) ;  Diintzer  ;  W.  Scherer  ;  E. 
Schmidt;  Loeper;  Grimm;  Bielscbowsky   (lisUd);  Seeley 
(  Ootthe  Reviaoed  after  Sixty  Years,  1893 ) ;    t  oupland  on 
Faust:  Bayard  Taylor's /'a  i(s<;    Kuno  Fischer  on  i^oi(s(. 
— 7.    Bibliograpliy :    Hirzel's    Verzeicltniss   ciuer  Goethe- 
Bibliutluk.     British    Museum    Catalogue,    art.    Uuclhe. — 
S.     Misci-llaneous :     Goethe    Gesellschaft's    publications. 
Kollett's  Go(Me-5(W«mc. 

Cioetz  voii  Berlicliingen.    See  tlorz. 

Ciolie,  WlLLl.\M,  iej;ioide,  was  born  about  1605, 
Klin  of  the  rector  of  Stannier,  in  Sus.se.\,  '  a  very 
severe  Puritan.'  He  became  a  major-general  in 
the  iiarliainentary  army,  sat  in  the  House  of 
Commons  and  in  Cromwell's  'other  house,'  and 
was  one  of  tlie  judges  who  signed  Charles's  death- 
warrant.  In  1060,  with  hi.s  father-in-law.  General 
Edward  Whalley,  lie  lied  to  America;  and  they 
lay  in  hiding  rouml  about  New  Haven  from  1061 
to  1064,  wlien  they  went  to  Hadley,  Massachusetts. 
Tliere  they  lived  for  many  years  in  seclusion  ;  and 
it  is  there  that,  accoriling  to  the  well-known 
tradition,  when  the  townsmen  were  called  from  the 
meeting-house  to  repel  an  Indian  attack,  and  were 
standing  irresolute,  (bjfl'e  put  himself  at  their 
head  and  drove  ofl'  the  red-skins,  and  then  dis- 
appeared as  sudileuly  as  lie  liad  come.  The 
genuineness  of  the  story,  however,  has  been 
((Uestioned.  tJofl'e  ajipears  to  have  died  .at  Hart- 
ford in  1679.  His  pajiers  have  been  (irintcd  by  the 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society. 

CioS  and  llagog.  names  several  times  u.sed  in 
the  Bible,  and  given  to  the  famcnis  hgures  of  giants 
in  the  Cuihlliall,  London.  Magog  is  spoken  of  by 
the  writer  of  (Jenesis  as  a  son  of  .Japhet  ;  Ezekiel 
speaks  of  Cog,  prince  of  Magog,  as  ii  terrible  ruler 
in  the  far  north,  united  witli  the  Persians,  Ar- 
menians, and  ( 'iiumerians  against  Israel;  Cog  and 
Magog  in  tlie  Apocalypse  appear  as  co-ordinate 
terms  comprehending  all  future  enemies  of  the  king- 
dom of  (ici<l.  The  name  Magog  was  often  applied 
generally  to  all  tlie  unknown  races  north  of  the 
Caucasus.  The  (Juildhall  giants  are  images  cif  tlie 
last  two  survivors  of  a  race  of  giants  wlio  inhabited 
Albion,  descendants  of  wicked  demons  and  tlie 
thirty-three  infamous  daughters  of  the  Emperor 
Diocletian,  wlio,  after  murdering  all  their  hus- 
bands, sailed  to  Albion.  These  giants  Uriite  and  his 
Trojans  finally  overcame,  leading  the  last  two  snr- 
vi\ors  prisoners  to  London,  where  they. were  kejit 
as  porters  at  the  palace-gate.  This  is  Caxton's  ac- 
count; another  represents  one  of  the  giants  as  (!og- 
niagog,  and  the  other  as  a  British  giant  who  killed 
him,  named  Corineu.s.  These  giants  have  stood  in 
London  since  the  days  of  Henry  V.,  ami  have 
witnesseil  all  its  history  since.  The  old  giants 
were  burned  in  the  great  fire,  and  the  new  ones, 
wliicii  are  1-1  feet  high,  were  constructed  in  170.8. 
The  ancient  effigies,  which  were  made  of  wicker- 
work  and  pasteboard,  were  carried  through  the 
streets  in  the  Lord  XIayor's  Shows,  and  copies  of 
the  iiresent  giants  were  in  the  show  of  1S37.  For- 
merly other  towns  in  England  and  abroad  had 
their  giants,  as  the  Antigonus  of  Antwer]!,  40  feet 
in  height,  and  Gayant,  the  giant  of  Uouay,  22  feet 
in  height. 


CiOifO,  a  seaport  of  British  India,  situated  in  the 
peninsula  of  Kathiawar,  and  on  the  Gulf  of  Cam- 
bay,  iy.'{  miles  X\V.  of  Bombay.  It  has  a  safe 
anchorage  during  the  south-west  monsoon,  with 
smooth  water  and  a  muddy  bottom,  and  the  towns- 
men are  reckoned  the  best  sailors  in  India.  For- 
merly a  great  cotton  mart,  its  staple  trade  has 
deserted  it  for  Bhaunagar,  S  miles  distant,  and  the 
place  has  sunk  greatly  in  recent  years.  I'op.  now 
only  about  7000. 

Gogol,  NicoL.\i  Va.silievitch,  a  Russian 
writer  of  decided  power  as  a  satirical  humorist  and 
delineator  of  conventional  Russian  life,  and  next 
to  Pushkin  and  Turgenief  the  most  popular  of 
Russian  writers,  was  born  at  the  village  of  Soro- 
chintsi,  in  the  government  of  Poltava,  31st  March 
1809  or  1810.  Soon  after  (|uitting  the  gymnasium 
of  Niezhin,  he  went  (in  1829 )  to  St  Peter.s'lmrg,  hop- 
ing to  gain  a  living  by  literature.  At  first  one 
disappointment  followed  another;  however,  in  1831 
he  became  all  at  once  famous  by  the  puldication  of 
Eveniiif/s  in  a  Farm  iiriir  Dil.ttnhri,  a  collection  of 
stories  and  sketches  illustrating  the  life,  customs, 
beliefs,  and  superstitions  of  the  people  of  Little 
Russia.  Uriginality,  the  fresh  breath  of  nature, 
weirdness,  dreamy  sadness,  ]ioetie  feeling,  sly 
hunionr,  keen  observation,  realistic  description — 
these  are  the  most  striking  traits  in  the  book.  A 
second  series  followed  in  1834  ;  amongst  these  were 
Turrts  Balha  (  Eng.  trans.  1887),  a  prose  epic  having 
for  its  subject  the  heroic  chief  of  the  Zaiiorogiaii 
Co.ssacks,  a  work  aglow  with  martial  ardour  and 
vivid  richness  of  imagination.  Two  other  tales  in 
the  same  collection,  Ohl-W'orlil  Proprietors  and 
How  the  Two  Ivans  Quarrelled  ( Eng.  trans,  in  St 
John's  Eve,  1887),  are  wrought  of  entirely  (litt'erent 
materials.  They  are  realistic  studies  of  Russian 
provincial  life,  in  w  liicli  accurate  portraiture  of  the 
monotonous  days,  the  narrowly  circums^cribed  self- 
centred  interests,  the  trivial  details,  the  Immdrnm 
duties,  the  contemptible  vanities,  jirejudices.  and 
ideas  <if  the  landed  gentry  are  set  forth  in  the  light 
of  a  satirical  and  bantering  humour,  not  unniingled 
with  genuine  pathos,  and  in  which  the  drawing  of 
the  characters  is  marked  by  inexorable  fidelity  to 
life  and  strict  logical  conscipience.  Precisely  the 
same  vein  was  worked,  ,uiil  in  the  saim^  way,  in 
various  short  stories  illustrative  of  typical  figures 
of  St  Petersburg  life,  amcnigst  which  the  liest  are 
Nevskii  Prospert  (or  'Ihe  Painter)  ami  Ahetkia 
Akakievitclis  New  CVoai(Eug.  trans,  in  !il  John's 
Eve ). 

In  1836  there  came  from  Cogol's  pen  one  of  the 
best  of  Russian  comedies,  The  Ilevisimj  Inspector 
(Eng.  trans,  by  Hart-Davies,  1891,  and  by  Sykes, 
1893),  which  exposes  with  severity,  yet  with  good- 
humour,  the  corruiition,  dishonesty,  hypocrisy,  self- 
satisfied  ignorance,  and  vanity  of  tlie  jirovincial 
administrative  otticials.  In  the  following  year 
(18:?7)  he  wrote  his  masterpiece.  Dead  Souls,  or 
better  Dead  Serfs  (Eng.  trans.  1887),  a  story 
reflecting  in  sombre  hues  the  more  sordid,  de- 
graded, and  conimon|ilace  aspects  of  provincial  life. 
Throughout  tliis  work  a  heavy  s.adne.-^s  iirevails,  a 
sort  of  hopeless  abandonment  of  hope,  wiiich,  how- 
ever, does  not  prevent  the  reader  from  enjoying 
the  Imnionr.  the  stern  characterisation,  the  subtle 
armour-piercing  satire,  the  melancholy  pathos 
which  are  there  in  abundant  fullness.  The  ideas 
for  both  this  book  ami  the  comedy  were  suggested 
to  Gogol  by  the  great  Russian  writer  Pushkin,  who 
was  a  personal  friend.  After  unsatisfactory  trials 
of  olHcial  life,  and,  twice,  of  public  teaching,  includ- 
ing univei"sity  lectures  on  history  at  St  Petersburg 
in  18.'U,  Gogol  left  his  native  land  in  1836  to  live 
abroad,  mostly  in  Rome,  until  1846.  when  he  again 
settled  in  Ru.ssia.  He  died  at  Moscow.  .3d  March 
I8.'>2.     Sluirtlv  before  his  death  he  burned  the  second 


278 


GOGRA 


GOLD 


an<l  ooiicIiKliii';  ])art  of  Ihad  Serfs.  From  his  boy- 
IicmhI  lie  wjus  a  |iiey  to  reli^'ious  |>essiiiib«iii — doubt- 
less |iaitly  the  ODnseinieilre  of  liis  own  lialiits.  His 
work",  arc  frecjiiently  printed  in  Russia.  A  com- 
plete edition,  with  his  corres|iondence,  appeared 
at  Mosrow  in  (i  vols.  ( ISiili-oT).  See  C.  E.  Turner's 
Stiu/iix  ill  liKssitin  Literatiiic  ( liSS3). 

€iOi;ra<  or  tlll.Viili.V,  one  of  the  larj,'est  atHiients 
of  the  t  ;an;.'es.  joins  that  river  from  the  north,  at 
the  town  of  Chapra,  after  a  jjrenerally  sou tli  ejus t 
course  of  600  miles.  It  rises  in  the  hijiher  Hima- 
layius,  pa.s.ses  through  Nepal,  and  after  rcaehiiij,' 
the  level  land  becomes  the  great  waterway  of  the 
North-west  Provinces  ami  Oudli.  Its  ]irinci|>al 
tributary  is  the  Kajjti,  also  of  commercial  import- 
ance. 

Uoilclwar'.  or  HoilELW.VD,  a  tract  of  country 
in  IJonibay  presidency,  comprising  several  tributary 
states,  and  lying  along  the  (iulf  of  Canibay,  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Kathiawar. 
Golielwar  is  one  of  the  ten  old  territorial  divisiims 
of  Kathiawar,  and  h;is  an  area  of  over  4000  sij.  in., 
with  a  pop.  of  10(.»,000,  mostly  Hindus. 

4iOil.  Lorn,  a  small  but  highly  picturesque  loch 
in  .Vrgyllshire,  Scotland,  is  a  branch  <if  I.och  Long 
(q.v.),  and  is  6  miles  in  length  and  less  than  1 
mile  in  breadth.  Its  shores  are  for  the  most  part 
wild  and  rugged  :  but  the  geneial  character  of  the 
scenery  is  modilied  by  extensive  natural  woods  of 
hazel.  The  mountains  in  the  neighbourhood  rise 
to  the  heiglit  of  more  than  20(Xt  feet.  Lochgoil- 
head  is  a  favourite  summer  watering  jdace.  It 
may  be  visited  by  steamers  from  (ireenock  (20 
miles),  and  has  connection  by  coach  with  Inver- 
aray. 

CJoitrt"  (  Fr. ),  or  Bronchockle,  the  name  applied 
to  any  enlargement  of  the  Thyroid  Gland  (<i.v.) 
which  is  not  either  inllammatory  or  cancerous.  The 
commonest  and  most  interesting  form  <if  the  dLseiise 
is  that  which  is  endemic  in  certain  districts,  par- 
ti<iilarly  in  mountainous  regions— e.g.  among  the 
Al|)s,  the  Himalayas  (as  at  IJarjeeling),  and  the 
Andes.  In  Britain  it  is  most  often  met  with  in 
Derbyshire,  and  hence  po|mlarly  called  '  Derby- 
shire neck  ;'  but  even  there  it  is  not  common.  In 
some  villages  among  the  .Mj)s  all  the  inhabitants 
without  e.\ce]ition  are  atlecteil.  Endemic  goitre  is 
often  associated  in  the  same  clistricts  and  tlie  same 
families  with  Cretinism  (<|.v. ).  Numerous  theories 
have  been  advanced  to  account  for  it  ;  it  has  l>een 
attributed  to  damp  climate,  snow-water,  water  with 
e.xcess  of  lime  or  of  magnesia,  bad  feeding,  bad 
ventilation,  and  many  other  inliuences.  But  no  one 
of  these  allejied  causes  is  present  in  marked  degree 
in  all  atleiled  localities  :  it  .seems  probable  that 
various  dilterent  combinations  of  causes  arc  capable 
of  jHoducing  a  similar  ellect  on  the  thyroid. 

,S/iiiriii/ii:  cases  of  goitre,  indistingniisliable  as 
regards  the  swelling  from  the  endemic  form,  except 
that  they  do  not  attain  such  a  large  size,  occur  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  In  either  ca.se,  the  enlarge- 
ment may  atl'ect  all  the  tissues  of  the  gland 
equally,  or  may  have  its  chief  seat  in  the  blood- 
ve.s.sels  or  the  librous  tissue,  or  may  be  much 
exaggerated  by  the  formation  of  Cysts  (q.v.)  in  the 
gland.  In  that  form  called  Exop/it/ialiiiir  goitre, 
or  tjraves's  disea.se,  after  its  iirst  <lescriber,  the 
thyroid  enlargement  is  vascular  and  jmlsating,  and 
is  a.ssociated  with  protrusion  of  the  eye.s,  rapid 
action  of  the  heart,  &c.,  and  is  clearly  only  one 
symptom  of  a  wide  dLsturbance  of  the  nervous 
system. 

In  other  forms  of  goitre  the  tumour  produces  as  a 
rule  no  obvious  ill  ellect-s,  excejit  the  inconvenience 
arisin"  from  its  size,  for  it  may  be  s<i  large  as  to 
hang  down  upon  the  breast,  or  even  to  admit  of  being 
thrown   over   the   shoulder.      In   some   few   ca^es, 


however,  where  it  does  not  project  so  much  for- 
ward, it  is  apt  to  jire.ss  upon  tlie  windpipe,  endiar- 
ra-ssing  the  respiration,  and  may  even  cause  death 
in  this  way. 

Endendc  goitre  may  usually  be  cured  or  i  heckej 
by  removal  at  an  early  stage  of  the  malady  to  an 
nnaliecteil  district  and  more  healthy  surroundings. 
Where  this  is  not  practicable,  and  in  sporadic 
cases,  iodine  is  the  favourite  remedy,  both  applied 
locally  ami  :ulniinistere<l  inlernallv  ;  but  no  method 
is  uniformly  or  certainly  successful  in  the  reduction 
of  the  enlargement.  In  bail  cases  the  gland  has 
frequently  l)een  removed  ;  but  the  evil  results 
which  are  now  known  often  to  follow  (see  M^XiK- 
DEMA)  have  made  surgeons,  iluring  late  years, 
most  unwilling  to  un<lcrtake  the  oi>eralion,  itself 
a  serious  one.  I'artial  removal  is  not  o]>en  to 
the  same  objection  ;  nor  is  division  of  the  tumour 
in  the  middle  line  without  removal.  Both  these 
iirocecdings  .sometimes  give  great  relief,  and  may 
he  followed  by  shrinking  of  the  remaining  gland 
sulistance.  See  W.  Kobinsou,  Endemic  Goitre  or 
Thijreureh  (  1SS8). 

<iiol4*hika,  a  small  )>ort  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Yeni.sci  ((j.v. ). 

4>ol4'OIulsi,  an  exten.sive  fortress  of  the  Nizam, 
.situated  on  a  granite  ridge,  7  miles  W.  of  Hyder- 
abad. In  its  immediate  neighlH>urhiH>d  are  the 
ruins  of  an  ancient  city,  once  the  metropolis  of  the 
iiowerful  kingdom  of  (Jolconda,  which  icacheil  its 
Iieiglit  at  the  clo.se  of  the  Kith  century,  and  endured 
till  KiST.  The  jdace  itself  is  still  slrlmg  ;  but  it  is 
comiiianilcd  within  breaching  range  by  the  yet 
solid  mausoleums  of  its  former  .-ovcrcigais,  about  GOO 
yajils  distant.  The  fort  is  held  by  a  small  L'arrison 
from  Ilyderabiul,  and  serves  a.s  the  Nizam's 
treasury,  and  also  a-s  a  state  i>rison.  Golconda 
is  jiroverbially  famous  for  its  diamonds;  but,  in 
truth,  they  were  merely  cut  and  polished  here. 
See  Diamond. 

(lOld  (syndxd  An,  atonac  weight  19G)  is  perhaps 
the  most  wiilely  and  universally  sought  jiroducl  of 
the  eajtlis  crust.  In  the  very  earliest  writings 
which  have  come  down  to  us  gold  is  mentioned  as 
an  object  of  men's  search,  ami  as  a  connnodilv  of 
extreme  value  for  purposes  of  adornment  and  jus 
a  medium  of  exchange.  The  iuiportancc  which 
it  po.ssessed  in  ancient  times  has  certainly  not 
lessened  in  our  dav.  Without  the  enormous 
su|>plies  of  gold  ]>roduced  at  about  the  time  when 
the  steam-engine  was  being  brought  into  jiractical 
use  it  is  dillicult  to  inuigine  how  our  commerce 
could  have  attained  its  |ire.sent  jiroportions  ;  and 
but  for  the  nish  of  imnugrants  to  the  gold-lields  in 
the  beginning  of  the  second  hall  of  this  century 
Australia  might  have  remained  a  mere  convict 
settlement,  and  California  have  become  but  a 
granary  and  vineyard. 

On  the  score  of  geograidncal  distribution,  gold 
nmst  be  deemed  a  coinnum  metal,  as  common  as 
co])|ier,  lead,  or  silver,  and  far  more  conniion  than 
nickel,  cobalt,  platinum,  and  many  othci-s. 
Theorists  have  propounded  curious  rules  for  the 
occurrence  of  gold  on  certJiin  lines  and  belts,  which 
have  no  existence  but  in  tlieii  own  fancy.  Scaicely 
a  country  but  liius  rewarded  a  systematic  search  for 
gold,  though  .some  are  more  richly  endowed  than 
others,  and  discoveries  are  not  ■•ilways  made  with 
the  same  facility.  The  (dd  prejudices,  which  made 
men  a.ssociate  gold  only  with  certain  localities, 
hindered  the  development  of  a  most  promising 
industry  even  within  the  British  shores.  Despite 
the  abundant  traces  of  ancient  lioman  and  other 
workings,  the  gold-mines  of  Wales  were  long 
regardeil  as  mytlucal ;  but  recent  extended  exploit- 
ation has  proved  them  to  be  anumg  the  richest 
known.     Tuis  is  notably  the  case  in  the  Dolgelly 


GOLD 


279 


district,  wliere  considerable  gold  occurs,  botli  in 
alluvial  j;ravols  and  in  wellfoniied  quartz  veins 
tra\ersinf;  tlie  Lower  Silurian  Lingula  beds  and 
tlie  intruded  diabiisic  rocks  called  '  jjreenstone '  in 
tlie  (ieological  Survey.  A  peculiarity  of  the  veins 
is  tlie  common  association  of  niagnesian  minerals. 
The  gold  Ls  about  20  or  21  carat  fine,  and  often 
shows  traces  of  iron  sescjuioxide.  .So  long  ago  as 
1801  some  £10,000  worth  of  gold  per  annum  was 
taken  out  of  the  C'logan  mine  by  imperfect 
methods.  Some  samples  have  aHbrded  40  to  60 
ounces  per  ton — a  most  remarkable  yield.  There 
are  probably  many  veins  still  awaiting  discovery. 

To  ([uote  another  European  example,  Hungary 
afforded  the  Koman  conqueror  fabulous  riches, 
and  will  yet  produce  untold  wealth,  when 
the  capitalist  shall  condescend  to  look  so  near 
home.  Statistics  concerning  the  annual  gold 
output  of  the  world  are  for  many  reasons  only 
approximately  correct.  In  countries  where  a 
royalty  is  ])ayable  on  the  gold  mined  '  returns ' 
are  sure  to  be  much  below  the  actual  yield  ;  while 
in  uncivilised  lands  no  record  is  kept.  Therefore  it 
is  not  easy  to  arrive  at  a  computation  of  the  yearly 
producti<m.  But  it  is  certain  that  the  tendency 
in  ISSl-yO  was  toward  a  decline  rather  than  the 
contrary.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  enormous 
placer  deposits  of  many  regions  had  to  a  great 
degree  been  worked  out;  and.  though  veinniiuing 
was  extended  as  the  placers  failed,  the  extraction 
of  gold  from  the  vein-stuff  was  a  slower  aud  more 
costly  operation,  requiring  a  larger  expenditure 
of  capital  and  employing  more  labour.  Thus, 
the  great  yields  obtained  between  1850  and  1870, 
reaching  30  to  40  million  pounds  sterling  annually, 
were  the  result  of  extensive  placer  operations  that 
gradually  ceased.  In  1881-90  the  average  pro- 
duction was  £21,738,000.  But  the  development  of 
gold-mining  was  such  that  in  1896  the  production 
was  more  than  double,  aiqiroxiniatelv  £45,000,000, 
distrilnitedthus:  United  States,  £10,800,000;  Aus- 
tralasia, £8,988,000  ;  Transvaal,  £8,604,000  ;  India, 
£5,911,000:  Kussia  and  other  countries  (including 
British  Guiana,  British  Columbia,  &c.),  £10,697,000. 
This  did  not  include  any  gold  from  the  enormously 
rich  field  of  Klondyke,  &c.,  in  the  upper  Yukon 
valley,  which  began  to  attract  notice  only  in  that 
year.  Other  recent  develojiments  were  those  in 
the  Transvaal  (q.v.)  and  Western  Australia  (q.v.). 
From  1850  till  1896  the  total  gold  [iroduction  was 
estimated  at  300.000,000  ounces,  with  a  value  of 
£l,16;i, 000,000.  For  the  appreciation  of  gold  and 
the  economic  questions  thence  arising,  see  Bl- 
MEIAI.LISM.      See  also  GlLDIXU,  Gold-beatixg. 

Geologically,  as  well  as  geographically,  gold  is 
widely  dispersed.  The  early  geologists  pro]ionnded 
theories  concerning  the  age  of  gold  deposits  w  liich 
did  iis  much  to  retard  the  development  of  gold- 
mining  as  to  promote  it :  for  « Idle  they  indicated 
certain  formations  as  being  proliably  auriferous, 
and  drew  attention  to  them,  they,  on  very  slight 
grounds,  pronounced  other  fonnations  to  be  posi- 
tively non-auriferous,  and  thus  dissuaded  prospec- 
tors from  studying  beds  which  almost  accidentally 
have  been  found  to  be  rich  in  gold  over  eimriuous 
areas  and  to  great  depths.  In  the  light  of  nu)dern 
explorations  it  would  be  unsafe  to  say  that  any 
formation  nuist  «  priori  he  l)arren  of  gold.  On  the 
contrary,  its  presence  may  be  always  anticipated,  if 
not  in  workably  paying  quantity,  until  its  absence 
has  been  proved. 

The  origin  of  gold-bearing  mineral  veins  is 
inse])arably  connected  with  that  vexed  question, 
the  origin  of  mineral  veins  generally  (see  Oke- 
DEPOSITS).  Suffice  it  to  say  here  in  brief  that, 
while  one  class  of  geologists  ascribe  it  exclu- 
sively to  igneous  agencies,  another  class  as  stoutly 
defend   a   theory   of   aqueous   solution.      It    is   not 


unreasonable  to  suppose  that  the  truth  lies  Ijetween 
the  two  parties — that  some  deposits  are  due  to 
plutonic  and  others  to  aqueous  origin.  Gold  has 
been  found  and  worked  in  rocks  of  undoubted 
igneous  origin  and  of  primary  age.  It  has  also 
been  found  in  the  interstices  of  a  lava  ejected 
within  historic  times.  On  the  other  hand,  its 
presence  has  been  jiroved  in  the  water  of  the  seas 
surrounding  the  British  Islands,  and  in  the  deposit 
formed  by  hot  siuings  now  in  activity.  Speaking 
broadly,  a  gold  deposit  may  be  of  any  geological 
age,  from  that  of  the  oldest  rocks  to  that  of  rocks 
still  in  coui'se  of  formation.  But  hitherto  its 
presence  in  notable  quantity  has  been  chiefly 
proved  in  connection  with  certain  formations. 
Taking  the  sedimentary  rocks  in  chronological 
order,  the  chief  auriferous  regions  may  be  cla>sihed 
as  follows  :  Metamorphic  rocks  atibrd  the  chief 
gold-supplies  of  Nevada,  South  Dakota,  Siberia, 
Hayti,  India,  Japan,  and  New  Caledonia.  Lauren- 
tian  rocks  are  auriferous  in  West  Africa,  Brazil, 
and  Canada  :  Cambrian  in  Nova  Scotiii  and  Brazil. 
Silurian  is  the  great  gold  formation  of  Australia, 
and  figures  in  New  Zealand,  French  Guiana,  and 
the  Andes.  Devonian  age  is  ascribed  to  some  of 
the  gold  of  Cornwall,  Siberia,  and  Australia.  The 
coal-measures  of  Queensland,  partly  of  Carbon- 
iferous and  partly  of  Permian  age,  enclose  the 
Gymiiie  goldlield  ;  and  some  of  the  gold  beds  of 
New  Zealand,  New  Biunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  New 
Mexico,  Ladakli,  India,  New  South  Wales,  and 
Somersetshire  are  of  Carboniferous  age.  The 
Jurassic  formation  has  not  jiroved  of  much  im- 
portance, but  atlbrds  some  gold  in  Europe  and 
llexico.  Triassic  rocks  are  abundantly  gold- 
j'ieldiug  in  California  and  Mexico.  Chalk  is  prob- 
ably as  little  associated  with  gold  in  men's 
minds  as  is  coal,  yet  the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  Cali- 
fornia, South  Dakota,  New  Zealand,  (Queensland, 
Afghanistan,  and  Hungary  afford  large  su]iidies  of 
the  precious  metal.  The  Tertiary  graiels  of  the 
western  states  of  America  and  of  Australasia  have 
been  the  source  of  the  enormcms  yields  of  ])lacer 
gold  from  those  countries,  and  embrace  thousands 
of  square  miles  of  Miocene,  Pliocene,  and  Post- 
jdiocene  beds  resulting  from  the  erosion  and 
disintegration  of  the  gold-carrying  veins  of  the 
older  rocks. 

Of  the  igneous  rocks  with  which  gohl  is  a.ssociated, 
diorites  hold  a  foremost  place  in  Hungary,  Nevada, 
New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  Queensland,  South 
America,  Italy,  the  Urals,  India,  Turkestan,  New- 
Guinea,  and  New  Zealand.  Granite,  syenite,  and 
gneiss  are  auriferous  in  Colorado,  Virginia,  Carolina, 
South  America,  Canada,  Australia,  Turkestan, 
Asia  Minor,  Hungary,  and  Silieria.  Porphyritic 
rocks  carry  some  of  the  gold  of  Queensland, 
Victoria,  New  Zealand,  Borneo,  and  South 
America.  The  seriientines  of  Queenslaml  aud 
Newfoundland  have  yielded  gold ;  while  the 
trachyte.-^  of  New  Zealand,  South  Dakota,  Mexico, 
Queensland,  and  Hungary  are  important  gold- 
carriers. 

By  far  the  most  common  matri.x  of  vein-gold  is 
quartz  or  silica,  but  it  is  not  the  only  one.  To  pass 
by  the  metals  and  metallic  ores  witJi  which  gold  is 
found  (because  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  deal 
with  them  when  speaking  of  the  treatment 
necessary  to  release  the  gold),  there  are  several 
other  minerals  w  Inch  serve  as  an  envelope  for  the 
precious  metal.  Chief  among  them  is  lime.  Some 
of  the  best  mines  of  New  South  Wales  are  in 
calcareous  veins.  Sundry  gold  reefs  in  (Queensland, 
New  South  Wales,  A'ictoria,  aud  Bohemia  are  full  I 
of  calcite.  Dolomite  occurs  in  Californian  and  j 
Manitoban  mines;  and  apatite,  aragonite,  gyiisum, 
selenite,  and  crystalline  limestone  have  all  proved 
auriferous,  w  hile  in  some  cases  neighbouring  ipiartz 


280 


GOLD 


lias  been  t)arrcii.     Fels|)ar  in  Coloiwlo  and  felsitc 
iiia^jnesian  sliito  in  Newfoumlhuul  cany  ^olil. 

Tlio  iili_v>ical  conditions  under  wliicli  -iuld  (>ccui-» 
me  oxtienidy  variatde.  I'diuilaily  spcakin;,',  the 
most  laniiliaV  form  is  the  '  nn^jjjet,'  or  sliapidcss 
mass  of  appieciatde  size.  Tliese,  liowcvcr,  con- 
stitute in  the  aj;^Tej,'ate  but  a  small  i>r<i|ioition  of 
the  ^old  yielded  by  any  Held,  and  were  muili  more 
common  in  the  early  ilays  of  iilacerininin^'  in 
California  ami  Australia  than  they  are  now.  The 
largest  ever  found,  the  W  cUome  Nufr^'et,  discovered 
in  1H.58  at  Bakcrv  Hill,  IS.illarat,  wi'i^died  •.'•.'17  o/. 
16  dwt.,  and  sold  for  tlO, .')(«),  whilst  not  a  few 
have  exceede<l  KKKl  ounces.  The  ori^'in  <if  tliese 
lar;,'e  nu^;;ets  has  been  a  subject  f(U-  discussion. 
Like  all  placer  or  alluvial  f,'olil,  they  have  been 
in  part  at  leiusl  derived  from  the  auriferous  veins 
traversin;;  the  rocks  whose  ilisinte^'ration  fur- 
nished the  material  forming  the  ^navel  beils  in 
w  hicb  the  nu^'^ets  are  fouml.  Hut  no  mass  of  ■;old 
has  ever  been  discovered  in  a  vein  ei|ual  in  size  to 
many  of  the  nu;;^'ets  unearthed  from  the  ^navels. 
Hence  lias  arisen  a  theory  that  in  the  coui-se  of 
ages  nuggets  have  'grown'  in  tlie  gravels — tiiat 
is  to  say,  nodular  fr.agments  of  gold  h.ive  gradually 
accumulated  and  attached  to  themselves  smaller 
fragments  with  which  thoy  came  in  contact,  anil 
iicrliaiis  helped  to  cause  the  rc-ileiiosition  of  gold 
licid  in  suspension  or  s(dutioii  by  mineral  waters 
which  have  percolated  through  the  superincumbent 
mass  of  gravel,  (iold  nuggets  have  been  artilicially 
formed  in  the  laboratory  by  decomiiosing  solutions 
of  the  chloride  or  sulphiile.  In  the  earliest  experi- 
ments organic  matter  wa-s  added  to  eliect  the 
decomposition —e.g.  a  piece  of  wooil  ;  liut  it  has 
been  found  that  the  i>resence  c)f  organic  matter  is 
by  no  means  necessary,  and  that  fragments  of 
jnrites  and  other  mineral  bodies  eomiiioii  in 
aiiriferous  formations  are  very  suitable  nuclei  on 
wliicli  the  gold  accumulates  in  a  concretionary 
state,  resembling  natural  nuggets. 

The  more  comiiKUi  form  of  alluvial  gold  is  a.s 
grains,  or  scales,  or  ilust,  varying  in  size  from  that 
of  ordin.iry  gunpowder  to  a  minuteness  that  is 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  Sometimes  indeed  the 
particles  are  so  small  that  they  are  known  lus 
•  paint '  gohl,  forming  a  scarcely  i)erceptible  coat- 
ing on  fragments  of  rock.  When  the  gold  is  very 
line  or  in  very  thin  scales  much  of  it  is  lost  in  the 
ordinary  ]irocesses  for  treating  gravels,  by  rejuson 
of  the  fait  that  it  will  actually  lloat  on  water  for  a 
eonsiileralile  distance. 

\'ein  gidd  is  often  crystalline  in  structure,  the 
elcinentary  form  being  cubical.  In  some  localities 
too,  notably  in  Hungary,  it  assumes  most  beautiful 
leaf  like  forms,  such  fetching  a  high  price  among 
collectors  for  mineral  cabinets.  In  the  ores  of 
other  metals,  such  as  pyrites,  galena,  tlvc. ,  gold 
very  commonly  occurs  as  ,an  accessory,  but  cannot 
be  detected  excejit  by  a-ssay.  Whetlier,  as  in  all 
other  cases,  the  gold  exists  in  the  native  state  in 
such  ores  is  open  to  some  doubt.  It  is  never  found 
absolutely  pure  ;  some  silver  is  always  juesent  as 
an  alloy," and  occa-sionally  also  bi.sniutli,  lead,  and 
tellurium. 

Kroni  what  has  been  alre,a<ly  said  it  will  be 
evident  that  gold  ndning  must  be  an  industry 
lueseuting  sever.al  ilistinct  ph.oses.  Tlie.se  may  be 
classed  ius  alluvial  mining,  vein-mining,  and  the 
treatment  of  auriferous  ores. 

In  alluvial  mining  natural  agencies,  such  .as  frost, 
rain,  \c. ,  have,  in  the  cinirse  of  centuries,  ])er- 
formed  the  arduous  ta.sks  of  breaking  n]i  the  in.atrix 
which  held  the  gold,  and  washing  away  much  of 
the  valueless  materi.il,  leaving  the  gohl  concentrated 
into  a  limited  area  by  virtue  of  its  great  specilic 
gr.avity.  Hence  it  is  never  safe  to  assume  that  the 
portion  of  the  veins  remaining  as  such  will  yield 


anything  like  so  great  an  equivalent  of  cold  as  the 
alluvials  formed  from  the  portion  whidi  has  l)een 
disintegrated.  As  water  has  been  the  chief  (  but  not 
the  only)  agent  in  distributing  the  gold  and  gravel 
constituting  alluvial  iliggiiigs  or  nlacers,  the  banks 
and  beds  of  running  streams  in  tlie  neighbourhood 
of  auriferous  veins  are  likely  spots  for  the  i)rospec- 
tor,  who  linds  in  the  flowing  water  of  the  stream 
the  means  of  separating  the  heavy  grains  of  g<dd 
from  the  much  lighter  particles  of  rock,  sand,  and 
mud.  ( Iften  the  brook  is  made  to  yield  the  gold  it 
transports  by  the  simple  expedient  of  ]ila(ing  in  it 
<d)stacles  which  will  arrest  the  gold  without  ob- 
structing the  lighter  niattei-s.  .Jason's  "olden  lleece 
was  iirob.ably  a  sliee]iskin  which  had  been  pigged 
down  in  the  current  of  the  I'hasis  till  a  nuantity  of 
gold  grains  had  becmne  entangled  among  the  wool. 
To  this  day  the  same  |iracliee  is  followed  with 
ox-hides  in  lirazil,  and  with  sheepskins  in  l.iidakli, 
i  Savov,  and  Hungary.  This  may  be  deemed  the 
simplest  form  of  'alluvial  mining.'  If  the  gohl 
ileposited  in  holes  and  behind  Iliix  in  the  bed  of  the 
stream  is  to  lie  recovereil,  greater  lueparations  are 
needed.  Either  the  river-bed  must  be  dredged  by 
floating  dredgers,  worked  by  the  stream  or  other- 
wise ;  or  the  gravel  must  be  dug  out  f(U-  washing 
while  the  bed  is  left  dry  in  hot  weather;  or  the 
river  must  be  diverted  into  another  channel  (  natural 
<u- artificial )  whilst  its  bed  is  being  stripped.  The 
first-named  method  is  best  .adapted  to  large  vidumes 
of  water,  but  probably  is  least  productive  (jf  golil, 
jia-ssing  over  much  that  is  buried  in  crevices  in  the 
solid  bedrock.  The  second  idan  is  apjdicable  only 
to  small  streams,  and  entails  much  labour.  The 
tliinl  is  most  ellicient,  but  very  liable  to  .serious 
interference  by  Hoods,  which  entail  a  heavy  loss 
of  i)lant. 

In  searching  for  placers  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in 
minil  that  the  wjitercourses  of  the  country  have  not 
always  llowed  in  the  channels  they  now  occu|iy. 
During  the  long  periods  of  geological  time  many 
aii<l  vast  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  contour 
of  the  earth's  surface.  Hence  it  is  not  an  uncom- 
mon circumstance  to  liml  beds  of  auriferous  gr.avel 
occupying  the  summits  of  hills,  which  must,  at  the 
time  the  deposit  was  made,  have  represented  the 
coui-se  of  a  stream.  In  the  same  w.-iy  the  remains 
of  riverine  accumulations  are  found  forming  '  ter- 
races'  or  '  benches  '  on  the  Hanks  of  hills.  Lacus- 
trine beds  m.ay  similarly  occur  at  altitudes  far 
.above  the  reach  of  any  existing  stream,  having  been 
the  work  of  rivers  long  since  passed  away. 

So  far,  account  has  been  taken  only  of  gravels 
lying  practically  within  view.  Hut  in  many  in- 
stances an  enormously  thick  covering  of  more 
recently  distributed  material,  resulting  from  the 
denudation  of  non-auriferous  rocks,  hides  th<' earlier 
gr.avel,  which  is  auriferous.  .Such  ,a  phenomenon 
was  not  sns]iected  until  the  first  instance  of  the 
kind  was  discovered  by  some  miners  who,  in  follow- 
ing a  gravel  natch  formed  by  jm  existing  water- 
course, were  led  to  burrow  into  the  side  of  the 
adj.acent  hill,  under  which  the  gohlen  ground  con- 
tiiiued  to  be  found,  and  then  men  realised  that 
the  nio<lerii  stream  was  only  redistributing  the 
rich  .accumulation  m.ade  by  a  river  belonging  to  a 
system  that  h.ad  ceased  to  exist.  As  prospecting 
extended  .and  liecame  a  subject  for  scientific  study, 
such  instances  rapidly  multiplied,  .and  to  these  '  deep 
leads'  or  'dead  rivers '  is  due  the  bulk  of  the 
placer  gold  found  in  Australjisia  and  Californi.a. 
(ienerally  the  w.itersheds  in  the  extinct  system  run 
at  right  angles  to  the  present,  so  that  operations 
often  extend  under  modern  hill-ranges.  A  more 
snr])rising  discovery  was  tli.at  many  of  the  ancient 
river-beds  h.ad  been  filled  up  by  Hows  of  volcanic 
rock,  and  in  not  a  few  cases  several  streams  of 
molten  matter  had  at  varying  intervals  displaced 


GOLD 


281 


the  river,  which  afterwards  resumed  its  course  and 
its  liabits,  so  that  the  extraordinary  feature  is 
encountered  of  several  su|jer|)osed  beds  of  aurifer- 
ous jfiavel  alternating  with  layers  of  lava. 

Another  form  of  alluvial  digging  occurs  in 
AVestern  America  and  New  Zealand,  where  the  sea 
washes  up  auriferous  sands.  Tliese  are  known  as 
'  ocean  placers  '  or  '  beach  diggings,'  and  are  of 
minor  importance. 

Wliilst  most  placers  lia\e  been  formed  by  llowing 
water,  some  owe  their  origin  to  the  action  of  ice, 
and  are  really  "lacial  moraines.  Others  are  attrilj- 
uted  to  tlie  etiects  of  repeated  fiost  and  thaw  in 
decomposing  the  rocks  and  causing  reanangenient 
of  the  component  part.s.  Yet  another  class  of 
deposits  is  supposed  to  have  been  accumulated 
by  an  outpouring  of  volcanic  mud.  And,  linally, 
e.\perts  declare  that  some  of  the  rich  bdnkr.t  beils 
of  the  Transvaal  became  auriferous  Ijy  the  inhltra- 
tion  of  water  containing  a  minute  proportion  of 
gold  in  .solution. 

In  all  civses  the  recovery  of  alluvial  g<dd  is  in 
principle  remarkably  .simple.  It  depends  on  the 
fact  that  the  gold  is  about  seven  times  as  heavy, 
bulk  for  bulk,  as  the  material 
forming  the  ma.ss  of  the  deposit. 
The  medium  for  effecting  the 
separation  is  water  in  motion. 
The  apparatus  in  which  it  is 
applied  may  be  a  '  pan,'  a 
'cra<lle,'  or  a  'torn,'  for  opera- 
tions on  a  very  small  scale,  or  a 
'sluice,'  which  may  be  a  paved 
ditch  or  a  wooden  '  Hume '  of 
great  length,  for  large  operations. 
The  inudn.i  operandi  is  the  same 
in  all  :  (lowing  water  removes 
the  earthy  matliers,  while  obstruc- 
tions of  various  kinds  arrest  the 
metal.  As  a  rule  it  is  more 
advantageous  to  conduct  the 
water  to  the  material  than  to 
carry  the  material  to  water.  In 
many  cases  a  stream  of  water, 
conveyed  by  means  of  pipes,  and 
acting  under  the  influence  of  eon- 
sideral)le  pressure,  is  utilised  for 
removing  as  well  as  washing  the 
deposit.  This  method  is  known 
as  '  piping  '  or  '  hydraulicing  '  in 
.Vmerica.  where  it  has  been  cliiclly 
develoiied,  but  is  now  forbidden 
in  many  localities,  because  the 
enormons  masses  of  earth  washed 
through  the  sluices  have  silted 
up  rivers  and  harbours,  and  caused  immense  hiss 
to  the  agricultural  interest  by  burying  the  rich 
riverside  lauds  under  a  deposit  that  will  be  sterile 
for  many  years  to  come.  The  plan  permits  of 
very  economical  working  in  large  i|uantitics,  but 
is  extremely  wasteful  of  gold.  The  watersupjily 
is  of  |iaraniount  importance,  and  h;i.s  led  to  the 
construction  of  reservoirs  and  conduits,  at  very 
heavy  cost,  which  in  many  places  will  have  a  per- 
manent value  long  after  gold-sluicing  has  ceased. 
These  large  water-sujiply  works  are  often  in  the 
hands  of  distinct  parties  from  the  minei-s,  the 
latter  luirchasing  the  water  they  use.  To  give 
an  example  of  the  results  attained  in  alluvial 
mining,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  a  three- 
months'  working  in  one  Victorian  district  in  1888 
over  31!, 500  tons  of  wash-dirt  were  treateil  for  an 
average  yield  of  18i  grains  of  gidd  per  ton,  in-  say, 
one  part  in  700,000.  Where  water  cannot  be  ob- 
tained recourse  is  had  to  a  fanning  or  winnowing 
process  for  separating  the  gold  from  tlie  sand,  which, 
towever,  is  less  ellicacious. 

Vein-mining  for  gold  diH'ei's  but  little  from  work- 


ing any  other  kind  of  metalliferous  lode.  When  the 
vein-stuff  has  been  raised  it  is  reduced  to  a  [lulveru- 
lent  condition,  to  liberate  the  gold  from  the  gangue. 
In  some  cases  roasting  is  first  resorted  to.  This 
causes  friability,  and  facilitates  the  subsequent 
comminution.  When  the  "old  is  in  a  very  line 
state,  too,  it  helps  it  to  agglomerate.  But  if  any 
pyrites  is  present  the  effect  is  most  detrimental, 
the  gold  becoming  coated  with  a  film  of  sulphur  or 
a  glazing  of  iron  oxiile.  The  [lowdering  of  the  vein- 
stuff  Ls  usually  performed  in  stanjii  batteries,  which 
consist  of  a  number  of  falling  hammers.  While 
simple  in  principle,  tlie  apjiaratus  is  comidicated  in 
its  wcu'king  parts,  ami  is  probably  de.-tined  to  give 
way  to  the  improved  forms  of  crushing-rolls  and 
centrifugal  roller  mills,  which  are  less  costiv, 
simpler,  nuue  efficient,  and  do  not  flatten  the  gold 
particles  so  nmch.  t)ne  of  the  most  effective  is 
that  by  Jordan.  When  the  vein-stuft'  luus  Ijeen 
reduced  to  powder,  it  is  akin  to  alluvial  wiu-^li-dirt, 
and  demands  the  same  or  similar  contrivances  for 
arresting  the  liberated  gold  and  releasing  the  tail- 
ings— i.e.  mercury  troughs,  amalgamated  [dates, 
blanket  strakes,  ic.  ;  but,  in  addition,  provision  is 


Hvdranlic  Mini: 


Devil's  (reck,  llecfton,  Xcw  Zuhiml. 


made  for  catching  the  other  metalliferous  constitu- 
ents, such  as  pyrites,  which  almost  always  carry 
a  valuable  percentage  of  gold.  These  iiyiites  or 
'  sulphurets  '  are  cleansed  by  concentration  in  vari- 
ous kinds  of  apparatus,  all  deiiendingon  the  greater 
specific  gravity  of  the  [lortion  sought  to  be  saved. 

Of  the  metals  and  minerals  with  which  gidd  is 
found  intimately  a.s.sociateil  in  nature  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  antimony,  arsenic,  bismuth,  cobalt,  cojiper, 
iridium,  iron,  lead,  manganese,  nickel,  osmium, 
palladium,  platinum,  selenium,  silver,  tellurium, 
tungsten,  vanadium,  and  zinc,  often  as  an  alluy  in 
the  case  of  ipalladium,  platinum,  selenium,  silver 
(alwfiys),  and  tellurium.  The  methods  of  separation 
vary  with  the  nature  of  the  ore  and  the  conditions 
of  the  locality.  In  the  ca-se  of  suljihides  of  some 
of  the  bjise  metals  the  sulphur  can  be  oxidised  by 
burning  in  suitable  kilns,  .so  as  toalVord  siiliiliurous 
or  sulphuric  acid,  leaving  the  gold  and  other  metals 
in  the  '  cinders, '  whence  they  can  be  rccoxeicd  by 
solution.  Where  the  base  metal  is  volatile  it  may 
be  obtained  by  con<lensing  the  fumes.  To  get  rid  of 
the  sulphur  and  arsenic  in  the  ore  (with  or  without 


282 


GOLD 


GOLDAU 


utilising  them)  is  },'enerall.v  the  fii-st  stf-p,  ami 
is  most  ciiiiiiiiDnly  iierformed  in  some  kiml  of  fiir- 
nare.  This  iluiie,  the  '  sweet  '  rinih'isiuesulijerteil 
to  the  aelioii  of  elilorilie,  which  foiiiis  a  sohihle 
chhuide  with  tlie  ii»\ii.  eiusily  He|>aiahle  liy  wiishiii',' 
with  water.  There  are  many  ways  of  eti'eetiii};  thi>, 
some  heiiin  the  suhjects  of  patent  rij;ht-s,  for  whii-h 
very  hir;;e  sums  have  heen  injudiciously  |iaiil  hy 
the  Ihitish  ]iuhlie.  Sometimes  the  wiushni;,'  and 
clilorinatioii  are  eomhined  in  one  oiieratiou  hy 
nlaoin;;  salt  in  the  furnaee  ;  hut  in  manv  cases  this 
has  led  to  enormous  h)ss  of  ;;old  hy  volatilisation. 
This  ijuestion  is  too  complicated  for  dl.scussion 
here,  hut  may  he  studied  in  Lock's  Practiittl  (laid 
Miiiiini  (ISS'J),  which  contains  also  a  coniidete 
hil>lio;,'raphy  of  the  suhject. 

The  most  important  physical  iiml  cliemical 
properties  of  yold  are  as  follow  :  In  malleahility 
It  stanils  (irst  of  the  metals,  and  its  ductility  is 
remarkahle,  hence  it  may  he  heaten  into  leaves 
not  exceeilinj;  jsoVcir  "f  '^"  i"^"''  thick,  and  cjuite 
translucent,  and  1  jjrain  in  wei^'ht  may  he  nuule 
to  cover  51)  square  inches  of  surface,  or  drawn  into 
a  wire  oOU  feet  Ion;;.  Its  specilic  ;,'ravity  is  ahout 
1!I'J  when  fused,  or  104  when  haiiiiiiered,  hein;; 
less  than  platinum  and  iriilium.  Its  colour  au<l 
lustre  in  the  concrete  form  are  sullicienlly  familiar, 
hut  when  thrown  down  from  solution  in  a  minute 
.state  of  division  it  appears  hrown,  and  seen  hy 
transmitteil  light  whde  held  in  suspension  the 
atoms  exhihit  a  purple  tint,  as  also  when  it  is 
volatilised.  In  softness  il  approaches  lead,  and  in 
tenacity  it  ranks  helow  iron,  i)latinum.  copper,  ami 
silver  ;  yet  a  wire  only  ,'ili,  of  an  inch  tliick  will 
support  151)  Ih.  It  is  an  excellent  conductor  of 
heat  and  electricity.  Its  fusin;;-point  is  -idlG'  hy 
Daiiiell's  i)yrometer.  AVIien  jmre  it  is  dillicult  of 
volatilisation,  requiring  the  intense  heat  of  an  oxy- 
hydrogen  llame,  or  a  strong  electric  current.  It 
w'as  long  thought  to  he  juacticallv  non-volatile  in 
the  heat  of  an  ordinary  tnrnace  ;  hut,  fus  has  heen 
already  stated,  under  (rertain  conditions  it  is  very 
readily  vaporised,  and  immense  losses  have  been 
incurreil  in  consequence. 

Having  hut  little  allinity  for  oxygen,  gold  is  not 
atl'ected  hy  ex|M>sure  to  the  air;  out  two  oxides 
may  he  formed  arlilicially— the  protoxide,  AuO, 
hy  decomposing  gold  jirolochloride  with  a  potassic 
solution,  and  a  teroxide,  Au()_„  or  auric  acid  hy 
boiling  terchloride  with  magnesia  or  carbonate  of 
soda.  Silica,  on  the  other  liand,  attacks  it  with 
avidity,  forming  a  silicate  which  is  extremely  in- 
soluble in  w.iter,  but  decomjioses  with  age.  Sul- 
|iliuretted  hydrogen  combines  with  g<ild  atortlinary 
temperatures  to  form  a  sulphide,  which  is  soluble 
in  alkaline  sulphides,  and  slightly  so  in  pure  water. 
.V  bisulphide  Is  obtained  by  pas.siug  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  through  a  cold  .solution  of  terchloride  ; 
and  a  double  sulphide  of  gold  and  pota-sli  is  pro- 
duced by  healing  gold  in  a  very  line  state  with 
sul|ihur  anil  carbonate  of  i)otash,  constituting  the 
porcelain  gililing  kiujwn  as  '  liurgos  lustre.'  tiold 
is  adected  by  selenic  acid,  and  is  dissolved  by 
iodine  .ami  by  hyposulphite  of  soda.  It  is  not 
aHecteil  hy  alkalies,  nor  hy  hydrochloric,  nitric,  or 
sulphuric  acid  alone  ;  but  is  rapidly  dissolved  hy 
aqua  regia  (nitro-hydrochloric  acid),  and  by  any 
substance  liberating  chlorine.  Two  chlorides  are 
known  :  a  i)rot<)  salt,  AuC'l,  and  a  ter  salt,  Au 
CI,,  the  latter  forming  reddish-yellow  solutions 
with  water,  ether,  and  alcohol.  Gold  is  volatile 
in  the  presence  of  chlorine  at  all  temperatures  be- 
tween l>oiling  water  and  white  heat,  and  cannot  be 
recovered  by  comlensation,  but  only  by  deeom)iosi- 
tion  of  the  volatile  chloride.  Gold  chloride  and 
sulphide  remain  in  solution  in  presence  of  excess 
of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  an  alk.aline  carbonate, 
the  gi>ld  gradually  deiinsiting  as  the  carbonic  acid 


escapes.  Gold  solutions  are  iirecipilated  by  oxalic, 
tartaric,  citric,  and  other  organic  acids  ;  also  by 
wood,  hark,  charcoal,  and  other  organic  matters, 
the  gidd  being  thrown  down  in  a  iiulveriilent  form, 
and  recoverable  by  burning.  Gobi  is  also  juecipi- 
tated  by  irrm  suljdiate,  and  by  sulphur  dioxide 
in  the  presence  of  water,  as  a  metallic  powder; 
further,  by  copper  sulphiile,  which,  when  converted 
into  sulphate,  yields  the  gold  in  a  metallic  state 
highly  favourable  for  cidlecling.  Mineral  sul- 
phides (e.g.  pyrites)  decompose  gohl  solutions, 
and  collect  the  gold  in  a  cidierent  form ;  they 
similarly  attack  gold  chloride  volatilised  in  the 
roasting  furnace,  and  absorb  it. 

Gohl  forms  many  alloys  with  other  metals. 
Tliose  occurring  in  nature  have  been  alreaily 
mentioned  ;  their  im]iortance  is  very  small  in- 
dustrially. Hut  another  alloy,  that  with  copjii-r, 
is  of  prominent  value,  being  the  basis  of  gold 
coinages.  The  admixture  of  copjier  le.ssens  the 
density,  but  increases  the  hardness  and  fusihilit.v 
of  the  allov,  lendering  it  better  suited  to  the 
purpose.  'l''lie  ]iroportion  of  copper  in  standard 
g(d(l  coin  varies,  being  s:i:!  per  cent,  in  (ireat 
liritain,  and  10  per  cent,  in  Krance  and  the  I'nited 
States.  In  tjreat  IJritain,  since  ISlO,  gold  is  the 
only  legal  tender  for  sums  above  forty  shillings; 
in  many  other  countries  gold  coin  is  latterly  com- 
ing into  extended  use  where  formerly  silver  only 
was  employed.  The  market  ]uice  of  gohl  bullion 
varies  with  its  purity:  i>ure  gold  ('24  caral )  is 
worth  f4,  4s.  11. '.d.  per  oz. ,  while  "J'i  carat  fetches 
only  i;a,  17s.  lOJ.il.,  and  20  carat  i.'t,  10s.  9.^1.  (.see 
lilMKT.\l,Li.sM,  Vl'liHicNcv,  Mo.NEV).  The  readi- 
ness with  which  gold  alloys  with  mercury  is  very 
largely  utilised  in  collecting  the  scattered  fragments 
of  the  precious  metal,  in  treating  auriferous  s.iuds 
anil  rocks,  and,  on  a  smaller  scale,  in  gilding. 
The  conditions  governing  perfect*  amalgamation 
of  crude  gold  deuiaml  most  minute  attenlion  from 
the  miner.  The  fanciful  alloys  of  gold  made  by 
jewellers  are  cliielly  : 

Ri-d  kdW =  7.'.  parts  line  gnM  +  25  parts  copiicr. 

Ucail  l.at  i;old..=  70     „       n       „     -h  30     „     Bilvcr. 

Orwti  gohl =  75      M        il        tr     +2S      u        u 

Water  i,T.,cngoM=  60     i.       i.       m     -f  40     ,,        ,r 
Blue  gold =  75     II       II       II    -t- 25     I.     iron. 

See  Alloys,  Amalgam  ;  also  A.ssav,  Metal- 
lurgy, Mining.  Gold  may  and  often  does  cost 
more  to  prmluce  than  it  is  wortli.  In  Victoria, 
where  it  is  economically  worked,  the  total  average 
of  gold  jiroiluced  per  head  of  all  engag(;d  in 
gold-mining  wa.s  in  IISST  only  fJO,  I7s.  '2d.  ;  so 
that  the  gold  miner's  wage  may  safely  be  set  down 
as  lower  than  tho.se  given  in  the  coUmy  for  many 
other  kinds  of  work,  .'\mong  notable  gold  dis- 
coveries are  those  in  California  in  1848  ;  Australia 
(New  South  Wales  and  Victoria)  in  IS.Il  ;  lirilish 
Columbia,  IS.')}*;  New  Zealand  and  Nova  Scotia  in 
18(il;  South  .Africa  (Transvaal)  and  Sutherland- 
shire,  1868;  Western  Australia,  1870;  South  Aus- 
tralia, 188();  Kloiidyke,  18!)U.  The  enoriuous 
output  of  the  Transviial  (q.v.)  and  We.slerii  Aus- 
tralia (q.v.)  led,  in  1895-96,  to  wild  speculation. 

Fill nuuatiiig  (jold  is  an  extremely  explosive  green 
powder  made  from  teroxide  of  gold  ami  caustic 
ammonia. — J'lirplc  of  V(i.sxius  is  a  compound  of 
gold  and  tin  useil  in  colouring  Glass  (q.v. ). — Mosaic 
gold  is  sulphide  of  Tin  (q.v.). 

See,  besides  the  writer's  work  above  mentioned,  T.  K. 
Hose,  The  Metalluriiy  of  Gold  ( l.'*94 ) ;  H.  Louis,  Hand- 
hook  of  <lold  Milliwj  (1X941;  and  work.s  by  T.  S.  <3. 
Kiikiiatrick  ( 1S9U)  and  Macdermott  and  Duffield  ( 18'JO). 

Gold.  Field  of  the  C'Lfrni  of,  the  meeting 
in  l.JL'O  between  Henry  VIII.  (q.v.)  and  Francis  I. 

CiOidaUi  a  small  Swiss  town  behind  the  Rigi 
and  on  the  St  Goltbard  railway,  was  utterly  de- 
stroyed by  a  landslip,  2d  Septemijer  I8(JG;  while  the 


GOLD-BEATER'S    SKIN 


GOLDEN    BEETLE 


2S3 


neighbouring  villafjes  of  Busingen,  Kotlien,  and 
Loweiz  were  over« helmed,  and  a  [lart  of  the  Lake 
of  Lowerz  was  tilled  uii,  by  the  fall  of  the  iijiiier 
slo])e  of  Mount  Kossberg.  The  valley  is  now  a 
wild  rocky  waste,  overgrown  with  grass  and  moss. 
The  village  of  Neu-CioUlau,  on  the  line  of  the  Kigi 
railway,  consists  of  but  a  few  houses. 

CJold-beater's  8kill.  a  very  thin  but  tough 
membrane  prepared  from  the  external  coat  of  the 
•c;ecum — a  part  of  the  great  intestine — of  the  o.x. 
It  is  drawn  off  in  lengths  of  25  inches  or  more  from 
the  other  coats,  immersed  in  a  weak  solution  of 
potash,  and  scraped  with  a  blunt  knife  upon  a 
board.  After  a  soaking  in  \\'ater,  two  of  these 
pieces  are  stretched  upon  a  frame,  dried,  and  then 
separated  by  a  kiufe.  Each  strip  is  again  hxed 
with  glue  to  a  frame,  and  washed  over  with  a  solu- 
tion of  alum.  When  dry  it  is  next  coated  with 
fish-glue,  and  afterwards  with  white  of  egg.  Tlie 
piece  of  memljrane  is  then  cut  into  squares  of  5  or 
5A  inches.  A  gold-beater's  mttuhl  contains  from 
9IJ0  to  9.50  of  these  squares,  and  to  furnish  this 
nearly  400  oxen  are  required.  IJesides  its  apjdica- 
tion  in  gold-beating,  this  fine  membrane  is  used  in 
the  dressing  of  slight  wounds. 

Goltl-beatillg  is  a  very  ancient  art,  ha\ing 
been  practis<'d  from  a  remote  period  amcmg  oriental 
nations.  Gilding  with  leaf-gold  is  found  on  the 
coftins  of  Egyptian  mummies,  on  some  Greek 
pottery  vases  of  as  earlj'  a  date  as  the  4th  or  5th 
century  B.C.,  and  on  portions  of  the  jialaces  of 
ancient  Home.  Beckmann  slates  that  the  German 
monk  Theophilus,  who  appears  to  have  lived  at 
least  as  eany  as  the  12th  century,  describes  the 
process  nearl.y  as  it  is  at  present,  the  gold  having 
been  beaten  between  parchment,  winch  is  practi- 
call.y  the  same  as  the  modern  method.  Formerly 
the  gold-beater's  art  was  largely  practised  in  Flor- 
ence, but  in  that  city  the  production  of  line  gold-leaf 
has  greatly  diminished  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
19th  century  through  French  and  German  competi- 
tion, the  latter  country  es])ecially  now  making  large 
quantities  of  an  inferior  gold-leaf.     Gold-beating  is 

i>ractised  in  most  of  the  large  towns  of  the  United 
viiigdom,  but  London  is  its  chief  centre. 

According  to  the  shade  of  cidour  required  gold  is 
alloyed  for  beating  either  with  silver  or  copper  or 
with  both.  The  proiiortion  of  coi)per  rarely  exceeds 
one-twentieth  part  that  of  the  gold,  but  the  quan- 
tity of  silver  in  the  alloy  is  sometimes  much 
larger.  The  ingot  being  prepared,  it  is  rolleil  out 
into  a  ribbon  1^  inches  wide,  a  10-feet  length  of 
which  weighs  an  ounce.  This  length  of  ribbon  is 
then  annealed  and  cut  into  about  75  ]>ieces  of 
equal  weight.  Formerly  these  were  |ilaced  be- 
tween leaves  of  vellum,  but  a  tough  kiutl  of  ])aper 
is  MOW  used  with  a  leaf  of  vellum  at  intervals 
tlirough  the  packet,  which  is  from  3A  to  4  inches 
square.  The  pile  of  bits  of  gold  ribbon  thus  inter- 
leaved is  called  a  '  cutch,'  and  this,  having  been 
])lai-ed  \\\nm  a  thick  block  of  marble  about  9  inches 
scpKue,  resting  on  a  strong  liencli,  is  beaten  with  a 
hamnier  weigidng  from  15  to  17  lb.,  till  the  pieces  of 
gcdil  extend  to  the  size  of  the  squares  of  the  paper. 
The  hammer  rebounds  by  the  elasticity  of  the 
vellum,  which  saves  or  at  least  lessens  the  labour  of 
lifting  it.  Each  square  of  gold  in  the  cutch  is  now- 
taken  out,  cut  into  four  pieces,  and  placed  between 
leaves  of  (iolil-beater's  Skin  (q.v.).  This  packet, 
termed  a'shoder,'  is  beaten  with  a  9-lb.  hammer 
for  about  two  hours,  or  six  times  as  long  as  in  the 
first  or  cutch  beating.  For  the  final  beating  the 
gold  leaves  from  the  shoder  are  again  divided  into 
four,  ,T,nd  each  piece  placed  between  leaves  of  fine 
gold-beater's  skin,  anout  9.50  of  which  form  a 
jiaoket  termed  a  'mould.'  After  four  hours' beat- 
ing with  a  7-lb.  Iiammer  the  gidd-lcaf  in  the  mould 


is  of  the  thickness  u.sually  sold,  which  averages  the 
2.S2,0OOtb  i)art  of  an  inch.  Each  skin  of  the  mould 
is  rubbed  over  with  calcined  gypsum  to  prevent  the 
gidd  adhering  to  it.  One  grain  of  gold  in  the  form 
of  gold-leaf  of  the  ordinary  thickness  u.sed  in  gild- 
ing measures  about  56  square  inches,  but  it  can  lie 
beaten  out  to  the  extent  of  75  sijuare  inches.  A 
grain  of  silver  can  be  beaten  out  to  a  still  greater 
extent,  but  the  leaf  would  really  be  thicker,  since 
this  metal  has  not  nearly  the  density  of  gold. 

An  alloy  consisting  of  H7  grains  of  gold,  2  of 
silver,  and  1  of  copper  makes  a  leaf  with  a  deep 
yellow  colour.  A  comjiound  containing  4  grains 
of  gold  to  1  of  silver  gives  a  pale-yellow  leaf,  but 
as  the  jiroportion  of  silver  is  lessened  it  becomes 
deeper  in  the  yellow.  Seen  by  transmitted  light 
gold-leaf  when  only  slightly  alloyed  ap])ears  green, 
but  if  it  contains  a  large  pro]iortion  of  silver  its 
colour  is  violet.  For  external  gilding,  leaf  made 
from  pure  gold  is  the  best,  as  it  iloes  not  tarnish  by 
atmospheric  influences  ;  but  it  is  not  so  convenient 
for  ordinary  purposes. 

CiOldlierg,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on  the 
Katzbach,  13  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Liegniitz.  It 
owes  both  oiigin  and  name  to  its  former  rich  gohl- 
mines  ;  suffered  much  from  Mongols  and  Hu.ssites, 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  the  canijiaign  of  LSI."!,  and 
finally  from  great  fires  (1S63-74);  and  now  has 
mainifaetures  of  cloth,  tlannel,  &C.     Pop.  (;43(i. 

Ciold  Coast,  a  IJritish  crown  colony  on  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea,  with  an  area  of  15,000  square 
ndles,  or  including  protectorates,  4(i,(iOU  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  1,475,000  (of  whom  oidy 
150  are  Europeans).  It  extends  fiom  5°  W.  to  2'  E. 
long.,  between  the  Slave  Coast  and  the  Ivory  Coiist, 
has  a  coast-line  of  sonje  350  miles,  and  readies 
inland  to  Asliauti  (beyond  the  Piali),  in  which  (at 
Kumasi)  there  is,  since  1895,  a  British  resident.  Its 
shores  are  low  and  swampy,  and  very  ilillicult  of 
approach  owing  to  the  heavy  surf.  From  the  lagoons 
of  the  coast  the  country  rises  gradually  towards  the 
interior,  and  is  furrowed  by  numerous  small  stream.s. 
The  principal  exports  are  palm  kernels  and  oil,  india- 
rubber,  gold-dust,  ivory,  and  monkey  skins  ;  but 
cocoa-nuts,  copra,  coffee.  Calabar  beans,  corn, 
ground-nuts,  Guinea  grains,  ginger,  cam-wood, 
gum  copal,  tobacco,  and  jiorciipine  quills  are  also 
])roduced.  The  climate  on  the  coast  is  very  un- 
healthy, but  is  better  inland.  The  negro  inliabit- 
aiits  are  largely  under  the  management  of  their 
own  chiefs.  The  ex])orts  and  imports  have  eaidi 
an  annual  value  of  £000,000  or  £700,0t)0.  The  chief 
towns  are  Accra,  Elmiiia,  and  Cape  Coast  CasUe. 
The  whole  of  the  district  geogra]>hieally  known  as 
Gold  Coast  is  British,  excejit  the  French  setllcnients 
of  Grand  Bassani,  Assinie,  Giaml  Laliou,  and 
Jackeville.  German  Togoland  is  on  the  Slave 
Coast.  See  Ellis,  Uisturi/  of  the  Guhl  Cvusl  ( 1.S93), 
and  Lucas,  Historical  (Icoijraphy  of  the  Britisli 
Uulunicn,  Vol.  III.  (1S95). 

tiloldeii  Age.    See  Age. 

(lioldeil  Beetle,  the  name  popularly  given  to 
many  membei's  of  a  genus  of  c(>leo)iterous  insects, 
Chrysomela,  and  of  a  sub-family,  Chrysomelina', 
belonging  to  the  tetramerous  section  of  the  order. 
The  body  is  generally  short  and  convex,  the  an- 
tenna^ are  simple  and  wide  apart  at  the  base  :  some 
of  the  sjiccies  are  destitute  of  wings.  None  arc  of 
large  size,  but  many  are  distinguishcil  by  their 
metallic  splendour  of  colour.  The  finest  species 
are  tro|dcal,  but  some  are  found  in  Britain — e.g. 
the  golden  C.  rcrealis  with  pur]>le  stripes  found  on 
Snowdon,  and  the  brassv-green  C.  /lolita  and  C. 
stt(/i/ii//i<(  commonly  found  on  nettles  in  s|U'in^.  In 
north  lemiK'rate  countries  some  of  the  adults  of  the 
autumnal  brood  sleep  through  the  winter,  iiwakeii- 
ing  in  spring  to  re]iroductive  functions.     Some  of 


284 


GOLDEN  BULL 


GOLDEN  FLEECE 


them,  ill  the  larval  state,  conimit  ravages  on  the 
priMlm'o  of  the  fu-lil  ami  garden. 

(aoldi'll  Bull  ( I'lit.  butlii  aurcu),  so  called 
from  tin'  ^'olil  ease  in  which  the  seal  attached  to  it 
Wius  enclosed,  "its  an  edict  issned  hy  the  Kniperor 
Charles  l\'.  in  i:!.')(i,  mainly  for  the  purpose  of 
settlinjr  the  law  of  imperial  elections.  See  Ger- 
many, Kl.KCTOliS,  1U-I,I,. 

<;«»ld«'ii-«'r«'st«'tl   Wren  (/.'«•(/«/ «a-  cri^ialu.s), 

a  \eiy  lieantifiil  liird  of  the  family  Sylviidii',  the 
smallest  of  Ihitish  birds.  Its  entire  len;;tli  is 
scarcely  (hroe  inches  and  a  half.  Notwilhstand- 
\n>i  its  Knglisli  name,  it  is  not  really  a  wren,  lint 
this  name  cimtiiuies  in  |io]>nlar  Use  rather  than 
I{egnlns  and  Kin;,'lel,  which  have  heeii  proposed 
instead.  The  golden-crested  wren  is  greenish- 
yellow  on  the  upper  parts,  the  cheeks  ami  throat 
grayish-white  ;  the  crown  feathei-s  elongated,  and 
forming  a  hriglit  yellow  crest.  In  its  hahits  it  is 
intermediate    hetween    the   warhlers  and   the  tits. 


ciL^ttd  Wrgii  {Ittijutuji  criitatui). 


It  particularly  alfeefs  fir- woods.  It  is  not  un- 
common in  IJritain,  from  the  most  southern  to  the 
most  northern  parts  :  but  many  come  also  from 
more  northern  countries  to  s|iend  the  winter,  and 
it  is  on  record  that,  in  October  1S22,  thimsamls 
were  driven  on  the  co.ast  of  Xorthumberland  ami 
Unrli.'im  liy  a  severe  gale  from  the  north  east.  The 
nest  of  this  bird  is  suspended  from  the  outermost 
twigs  of  a  branch  of  tir,  some  of  them  being  inter- 
woven with  it. — .\nother  species  (/.*.  irininipiUus), 
with  Muire  vividly  red  crest,  is  sometimes  found  in 
Uritain,  and  species  are  found  in  .Vsia  and  North 
.\merica. 

<»old«'ll-oyc  Fly  {Chri/sopa  pcrla),  also  called 
Laciwing  l"ly,  a  neuropterous  insect,  common  in 
Britain;  pale  green,  with  lonj;  tlire.-id-like  antennas 
long  gauze  like  wings,  and  brilliant  u<dden  eyes. 


Golden-eye  Fly  {Chri/iopa pcrla): 
<i,    cucoon ;    b,   the    same    iiiagnined ;    c,    larva ;    d,  the  same 
iiiapiilktl,  and   frce<l  trtmi  afltiering  stiltstances ;   e,  perfect 
inttect,  on  a  bnincli  to  which  its  eggs  are  attached. 

Its  flight  is  feeble.     The  length,  from  the  tip  of  the 
antenna-  to  the  tip  of  the  wings,  is  almost  an  inch 


and  a  half,  hut  the  insect  without  wings  and 
antenna-  is  not  more  than  one-third  of  this.  The 
femiib-  attaches  her  eg^.'s,  in  groups  of  1-.J  or  Hi,  by 
long  hair  like  stalks,  to  leaves  or  twigs,  where  th<-y 
have  been  mistaken  for  fungi.  The  larva-  are 
ferocious-looking  little  animals,  rough  with  long 
hairs,  to  which  particles  of  lichen  or  bark  liccoine 
attached  :  they  are  calleil  np/ii.\-/ioiis,  ami  are  very 
useful  in  the  destruclion  of  ajihides,  on  which  they 
feed.  Till-  puo.'i  is  enclosed  in  a  while  silken 
cocoon,  from  wliich  the  lly  is  liberated  by  a  lid. 
The  general  f.icts  alxive  stated  are  also  true  of 
another  very  common  species  {C/i.  vii/r/niix) — a 
delicate  green  insect,  with  a  body  about  half  an 
inch  long.  The  species  of  C'hrysopa  emit  a  very 
di.sagreeable  odour.  The  nearly  allied  genus  Ileme- 
robius  is  also  abundantly  represented  in  IJritain 
and  elsi-wliere. 

<>ol«lfll  FleoCC  (l'"r.  toisoii  d'ur),  in  tireek 
tradition,  the  lleece  of  the  ram  C'hrysomallus,  the 
recovery  of  wliich  was  the  object  of  the  famous 
expedition  of  the  .\rgonauts  (ij.v.).  The  (loldeii 
I'leece  has  ;;iven  its  name  to  a  celebrated  order 
of  knighthood  in  .\nslria  and  Spain,  founded  by 
I'hilip  111.,  Duke  of  liuigundy  .md  the  .Nether- 
lands, at  IJruges  on  the  loth  .lami.uy  l4-2'.(,  on  the 
occiu-ion  of  his  marriage  w  ith  Isabella,  daughter  of 
King  .lobn  1.  of  rorlngal.  This  order  was  insti- 
tuted for  the  protection  of  the  church,  and  the 
lleece  was  iirobably  assumed  for  its  emblem  a.s 
much  from  lieing  the  material  of  the  staple  manu- 
facture of  the  Low  Countries  its  from  its  connec- 
tion with  heroic  times.  The  number  of  the  knight.s 
was  tliirtv  one,  and  they  themselves  lilled  up 
vacam-ies  bv  vote.  This  continued  till  l."i.">",l.  when 
Philip  II.  of  Spain  hebl  the  last  (the  •J:id )  cliapti-r 
of  the  order  in  the  cathedral  of  (Jhent;  and  sub- 
se(|uently  I'hilip  <d)taine<l  from  (Iregmv  XIII.  per- 
niissiou  to  nominate  the  kni^dits  bim.self.  After 
the  death  of  the  last  Haiisburt;  king  of  Spain 
in  170(1,  the  Emjieror  Charles  \'l.  laid  claim  to 
the  si>le  head>liiii  of  the  order  in  virtue  of  his 
po.s.se.ssion  of  the  Netherlands,  and,  taking  with 
Iiim  the  archives  of  the  order,  celebrated  its  in- 
auguration with  great  magnihceiice  at  Vienna  in 
171.'}.  I'hilip  V.  of  Spain  contested  the  claim  of 
Charles  ;  and  the  dispute,  several  times  renewed, 
was  at  la.-t  tacitly  .-idjusted  by 
the  introduction  of  the  order 
in  both  countries.  The  in- 
signia are  a  gohlen  lleece  (a 
.sheepskin  with  the  head  and 
feet  attaclu-d)  hanging  from  a 
gold  and  blue  enamelled  tlint- 
stone  emitting  llames,  and 
borne  in  its  turn  by  a  ray  of 
fire.  On  the  enamelled  obverse 
is  inscribed  I'niiiiiii  tiihonim 
noil  rile.  The  decoration  was 
originally  suspended  from  a 
chain  of  alternate  Hints  and 
rays,  for  wliich  Charles  V. 
alfowed  a  red  ribbon  to  be  sub- 
stituted, and  the  <hain  is  now 
worn  only  by  the  I  Irand  iiix-ter. 
The  S]iaiiisli  dec<iiation  ditlers 
slightly  from  the  Austrian. 
The  costume  consists  of  a  long  ndie  of  deep  red 
velvet,  lined  with  white  tatletas,  and  a  long  mantle 
of  ipurple  velvet  lined  with  white  .satin,  ami 
richly  trimmed  with  embroidery  containing  lire 
st<mes  and  steels  emitting  llames  ami  sparks.  On 
the  hem,  which  is  of  white  satin,  is  embroidered  in 
gold,  Jc  I'liij  rnipn'.'!.  There  is  also  a  ca])  of  purjile 
velvet  embroidered  in  gold,  with  a  hood,  and  the 
shoes  and  stockings  are  red.  See  Reiffenherg, 
Ilistolrc  dc  I'Oidre  dc  Tohoti  if  Or  (IS.W);  and 
Zoller,  Dcr  Ordrn  rom  Gotdcncn  Vlics  ( 1879). 


Order  of  tlic  Golden 
Fleece. 


GOLDEN  GATE 


GOLDFINCH 


285 


Ooldcn  fiiatP,  a  channel  2  miles  wide,  forming 
tlie  entrance  to  the  ma^'nilicent  Hay  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  washinf;  the  northern  shore  of  tlie  jienin- 
sula  on  which  San  Francisco  is  built.  It  is  de- 
fendeii  by  Fort  Point,  at  the  northwestern 
extremity  of  the  ])eninsula,  and  hy  a  fort  on 
Alcatraz  Island,  inside  the  entr.ance. 
C«o]d«-ii  Horde.  See  Kiptchak. 
(lioldcu  Horn.  See  Constantinople. 
(•olden  Legend  (Lat.  Aurea  Lcffcnda),  a  cele- 
brtited  medieval  collection  of  li\es  of  the  greater 
saints,  which  passed  throiij;h  more  tlian  a  hundred 
editions,  and  was  rendereil  from  Latin  into  most  of 
the  western  !anf;iiaL;es.  It  is  the  work  of  .lacobus 
de  Voragine  ( l'2.'i0-98),  a  Dominican,  wlio  was 
Arcliliishop  of  (ienoa  for  his  hist  six  years,  and 
wrote  many  works,  among  tliem  \\\v  Chnmiron 
Jainiensc,  a  history  of  (ienoa  from  mytliical  down 
to  contem])orary  times.  Tlie  (iolden  Legend  has 
182  chapters,  and  is  divided  into  five  sections, 
corresponding  to  as  many  divisions  of  the  year. 
It  contains  many  puerile  legemls  and  contemporary 
mirach>s  vomdisafed  especially  to  Dominicans.  A 
translation  was  made  by  William  Caxton,  and 
publislied  in  14,S.S.  A  good  edition  is  that  by 
Grasse  ( Dresden,  1846). 

Ciolden  \nniher  for  any  year  is  the  number 
of  that  yeai'  in  the  Metonic  Cycle  (r|.v.);  and,  as 
this  cycle  embraces  nineteen  years,  the  goMen  num- 
liers  range  from  one  to  nineteen.  The  cycle  of 
the  (ireek  astronomer  Meton  (4.S2  B.C. )  came  into 
general  use  soon  after  its  discovery,  and  the  num- 
ber of  each  j'ear  in  the  Metonic  cycle  was  markeil 
in  golilen  colours  in  the  Roman  ami  Alexandrian 
calendars.  Hence  the  origin  of  the  name.  Since 
the  introduction  of  the  (iregorian  calendar  the 
point  from  wliich  the  golilen  numbers  are  reckoned 
is  1  B.C.,  as  in  that  year  the  new  moon  fell  on  the 
1st  of  January  :  and,  as 
by  Meton's  law  the 
new  moon  falls  on  the 
same  day  ( 1st  of  .lanii- 
ary)  every  nineteenth 
year  from  that  time, 
we  obtain  tlie  following 
rub'  for  finding  the 
golden  nunilier  for  any 
particular  year.  'Add 
otir  to  t)ic  iiifiuhcr  of 
years,  and  divide  by 
nineteen  :  the  quotient 
ffii'es  t/ie  niimlicr  of 
cycles  and  tlir  remain- 
der ijifcs  the  go/den 
number  for  that  year  ; 
and  if  there  he  no  re- 
mainder, then  nineteen 
is  the  f/oldrn  number, 
and  that  year  is  the 
last  of  the  'eyelc'  The 
golden  number  is  used 
for  determining  the 
E])act  (i|.v.  )  and  the 
time  for  liolding  Easter 
(,,.v.). 

<>olden     Oriole. 

See  ( •1:1(11,1-:. 

C«  o  1  «l  c  II  •  r  o  d 

{So/ii/ai/o),  a  genus 
of  Collll)o^ita•,  closely 
allied  to  Aster.  Only 
the  common  S.  ]'ir- 
ganrca  is  British,  a  few 
others  are  European 
but  most  (more  than  100)  belong  to  Nortli  America, 
whoie  tlii.ir  IhImIii  coloiiring  lightens  up  the 
beaiilifiil  autiimnal  .scenery.     Some— e.g.  S.  cana- 


^V:^:--, 


Common  Golden-rod 

[ii  g.irilen  variety). 


densis,  grandiflora,  &c. — are  found  in  old-fa-shioned 
borders,  but  are  so  coarse  and  weedy  as  hardly 
to  merit  a  jdaee  beyond  the  .shady  corner  of  the 
roughest  shrubbery.  S.  Virgaiireu  had  at  <me 
time  a  great  re]JUtation  as  a  vulnerary,  whence 
probably  the  name  (from  Lat.  solidarr,  'to  unite'). 
The  leaves  of  this  and  a  fragrant  North  American 
species,  S.  odora,  have  been  used  as  a  substitute 
for  tea.     They  are  mildly  astringent  and  tonic. 

Golden  Kose.  a  rose  formed  of  wrought  gold, 
and  ble.ssed  with  much  sideiiinity  by  the  pope  in  per- 
.son  on  the  fourth  Sun<lay  in  Lent,  wliidi  is  called, 
from  the  first  word  in  the  service  for  the  festival, 
'La'tare  Sunday.'  The  rose  is  anointed  with  balsam, 
fumigated  with  incense,  sprinkled  with  musk,  and  is 
then  left  upon  the  altar  until  the  conclusion  of  the 
nias.s.  It  is  usually  presented  to  some  Catholic 
prince,  whom  the  pope  desires  es]iecially  to  honour, 
with  an  appropriate  form  of  words.  The  jiractice 
.seems  to  liave  originated  in  the  l.^th  century. 
Among.st  recipients  have  been  Henry  \TII.  (three 
times),  tjueen  Mary  of  England,  Maria  Theresa, 
Napoleon  TIL,  and  Isabella  II.  of  Spain. 

Gold-eye,  or  Moon-eve  (Ilyodon  tergisus),  a 
peculiar  fish,  abundant  in  the  western  rivers  and 
lakes  of  North  America.  It  has  many  technically 
interesting  peculiarities  of  structure,  and  forms  a 
family  by  itself  in  the  Phy.sostonii  order  of  bony 
fishes.      It  measures  about  a  foot  in  length. 

GoldfilH'll  (Cardiielis  eleginis),  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  British  finches  ( Fringillida').  It  is  about 
five  inches  in  length  ;  has  a  thick,  conical,  shar]!- 
pointed  bill;  and  is  noteworthy  among  British 
birds  for  its  handsome  ]iluniage,  in  which  black, 
crimson-red,  yellow,  and  white  are.  in  the  adult  male, 
exquisitely  mingleil.  The  female  has  less  crini.son 
on  the  throat  and  no  yellow  on  the  breast,  and  the 
'  gray-iiate '  or  '  bald-pate  '  young  are  also  of  coui-se 
inucii  less  gaily  adorned  than  the  full-grown  males. 


Goldfinch  ( Carduelis  elegavs). 

Ooldfinches  occur  in  small  flocks  on  open  unculti- 
vated ground,  feeding  on  thistles  ,an<l  other  com- 
posites, or  are  found  breeding  in  gardens  and 
orchards.  Thi>  nest,  usually  in  a  fruittiee,  is  even 
neater  than  tlial  of  the  chafliiich,  lined  with  the 
finest  down,  but  without  lichens  ;  the  eggs  (4  or  5) 
are  grayish-white,  with  purplish-brown  streaks 
and  spots;  there  are  two  broods  in  the  year;  the 
young  are  fed  on  insects.  The  goldfinch  is  still  a 
common  summer  bird  in  Britain,  especially  in  the 
souili  :  most  migiate  southwards  in  October.  It 
breeds  thrcnighout  Europe,  especially  in  the  south, 
and  ranges  from  the  Canaries,  through  North 
Africa,  to  Persia.  Its  soft  pleasing  song,  intelli- 
gence, docility,  liveliness,  and  lovingness  make  it, 
to  its  cost,  a  favourite  cage-bird.  See  Howarcl 
Saunders,  Manual  of  British  Birds. 


286 


GOLDFISH 


GOLDONI 


C!»ldfish<  or  ttOLDEX  Carp  ( Camssiua auratus), 
a  Chiiipso  anil  .laimncse  fiesliw.itcr  lisli  iif.iily 
iillicil  ti)  tlio  cHip  (C'.v|iiiinis),  liut  huUiii','  liiuliils. 
Ill  iw  w.iiiii  iiiilive  Hiitei's  \l  is  lirowiiisli,  like  its 
iipi;;lilioui'  spppii'S,  tlie  Crucian  Carp(t'.  runissiiis), 
wliili>  in  its  iiiorc  familiar  (Iniiicslicated  state  it 
losrs  the  Mack  and  lirown  pi^'iiient,  lieconies  ^'cildcii- 
yclliiw,  or  passes  more  completely  into  alliiiiism  in 
tliose  iiiipi;,'niented  forms  known  as  silver  lisli. 
^'ollIl^,'  speciiiii'iis  are  dark  in  colour,  llie  loss  of 
pij,'iMciit  and  (lie  consei|iieiiL  f^olden  lint  liecomin;,' 
marked  as  they  ;;ro\v  oliler.  It  seems  to  have  lieeii 
introduced  into  Kiij^land  in  IG91,  and  is  often  kept  in 
:u|uaria,  <u-  with  more  success  in  ponds,  especially 
in  such  ius  are  wariiieil  l>y  an  inllow  of  hot  water 
from  eii;;iiies.  In  temperatures  of  80^  !•".  or  more 
it  thrivi's  well  and  hreeils  aliuinlanlly.  The  tjold- 
lish  is  nalnraliscd  in  some  continental  rivers,  and 
has  ha<l  a  wide  artificial  distriliution  throu};liout 
the  world.  In  aquaria  the  lish  are  best  fed  on 
worms,  insects,  and  the  like,  and  care  must  he 
taken  that  the  water  is  kept  fresh.  Monstrosities 
such  as  douhle  or  muhiple  tails  or  miii'h  modilied 
liiis  frei|ueiitly  occur  in  arlilicial  conditions.  (If 
these  the  most  nniiarkalile  is  tlu!  '  t(descop(!  lish.' 
There  are  lar^'e  lircedin^eslalilishments  in  southern 
and  western  I'rance,  in  various  parts  of  I'riissi.i, 
and  at  I'alz  in  Styria — the  latter  fiirnishin;,' 
KiO.diii)  ;,'oldlisli  in  a  year.  See  Mulertt,  T/ic  Gotd- 
Ji.sli  iiHil  ila  Si/fitemalic  Culture  ( 1884). 

Ciiold  Hill,  a  settlement  in  Nevada,  now  jiart 
of  Vii;,'iiiiaCily  (<|.v.),  which,  on  Mount  Davidson, 
is  the  famous  (.'omstock  Lode  (q.v. ). 

Ciioldilocks  is  a  common  name  for  the  IUdiidi- 
eiilii.i  iiiiririiiiiiis.     See  l{.\N(:xciI.t'.s. 

filoltl  Lnoo.  This  tenii  is  ap[>lied  in  a  fieneral 
way  to  more  than  one  kind  ot  fahric  made  of 
thread  covered  with  i;ilt  silver  wire.  The  '  ;;old 
wire'  used  in  the  iiiauufacture  of  j,'old  thread  is 
nearly  always  in  India,  where  a  f,'reat  deal  is 
made,  composed  of  pure  silver  with  a  thin  coatin;j 
of  <i;old.  liut  in  European  countries  it  is  only  the 
very  hest  qualities  of  this  wire  which  are  made  of 
unalloyed  silver.  A  r;ood  quality  of  Kii;;lisli  jjold 
tlire.ail  is  ni.ade  from  wire  consistinj;  of  one  part  of 
copper  added  to  twenty-live  of  silver,  which  is 
afterwards  coated  with  f,'old.  liut  alloys  of  copper 
and  silver  in  many  proportions  are  used,  some  wire 
containing'  only  one  part  of  silver  to  sixty  of  cojiper. 
The  silver,  or  alloy  of  copper  and  silver,  is  made 
into  a  rod  \\  inch  in  di.amoter,  and  then  annealeil 
and  ]ioli.>hed  to  prepare  it  for  its  coaling' of  t;old. 
This  is  laid  on  in  the  form  of  leaves  of  jiiire  ^.'old, 
and  suhjected,  for  the  host  qualities  of  wire,  to  the 
(ire-;,'ihling  process — i.e.  the  >;old-coated  rod  is 
heated  to  redness  on  burning  charcoal,  which 
causes  the  leaf  to  adhere  firmly.  Rods  so  treated 
are  next  smeared  with  wax,  and  drawn  lliroiij,di 
the  holes  of  a  steel  drawplate  (see  \Viiif;,  in  Vol. 
X.).  The  aire  is  fiei|neiilly  annealed  duiin^'  the 
process  of  drawinj,',  and  this  requires  to  he  very 
skilfully  done,  or  the  -iolden  tint  of  the  surface  is 
lost.  (Jold  wire  for  thread  is  fjenerally  drawn  down 
to  a  size  mcasuiin;^  1100  to  1400  yards  to  the  ounce 
of  metal.  l'"iner  sizes  reach  the  lenj^th  of  1800  to 
'20(K)  yards  to  the  oiliice,  and  to  attain  this  lineness 
the  wire  is  drawn  thiou;,di  perforated  {jems,  such 
iUs  diamonils  or  ruhies.  The  fine  wire,  after  heiiif; 
annealed,  is  llattened  between  polished  steel 
rollers.  finally  the  Hat  wire,  or  rather  ribbon, 
is  wound  over  yellow  or  orange  coloured  .silk,  so 
as  comiiletely  to  envelop  it,  by  a  spinninjj;  engine. 
The  gold  thieail  is  then  finished.  Some  of  the  best 
<|Ualitics  of  the  metal  covering  or  'plate'  of  this 
thread  have  12  dwt.  of  gohl  to  the  pound  of  silver 
or  of  alloy.  Inl'eiior  kinds  have  as  little  as  "2 
dwt.  to  the  pound,  and  still  cheaper  sorts  of  thread 


are  coveretl  with  flattened  coiiper  wire  which  has 
received  a  thin  coaling  of  electrodeimsited  silver, 
and  this  afterwards  receives,  on  the  outside  of  the 
tlireail  only,  a  still  thinner  electro-deposited  coat- 
ing of  gold — two  grains  of  the  precious  metal 
covering  ;tO(K)  square  inches  of  surface.  For  this 
very  cheap  kind  of  thread  yellow  cotton  is  useil 
insleail  of  silk. 

The  only  difl'erencc  between  gold  and  silver 
thread  is  that  the  thin  coating  of  gidd  is  wanting 
on  the  latter.  Cold  thread  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  military  lace,  which  is  made  in  several 
patterns  for  oflicers  of  diil'erent  ranks  ami  for  various 
ilivisions  of  the  army  and  navy.  This,  however, 
is  a  woven  substance  and  not  true  lace ;  Init  some 
real  lace  is  made  both  of  g<dd  and  silver  thread, 
liotli  kinds  of  thread  ;ire  also  used  for  facings  of 
liveries,  and  for  ecclesiastical  robes,  altar  cloths, 
and  banners.  These  and  other  fabrics  are  either 
embroidered  or  woven,  but  often  only  in  ]iait, 
with  the  thread  (see  Hlioc'Al)E,  IJama.sk,  and 
KMni!Oinr;RY).  Much  of  the  'gold  thread'  used 
for  theatrical  dresses  and  decorations  has  only  a 
covering  of  Dutch  .Metal  (q.v.),  and  the  'silver 
thread  '  in  the.-^e  is  spun  with  a  covering  of  a  cheap 
white  alloy,  having  a  mere  film  of  silver  on  the 
surface. 

Ciold   loar.      See  Cot-D-IIEATINO. 

4i4»ld  of  I'loasiiro  ( Cnmch'nn ),  a  small  genus 
of  ( 'riuifei le.  The  common  Cohl  of  I'lea.sure  (C 
siilird :  Kr.  Cri»icli>ii\  Cer.  Dultrr)  is  an  annual 
plant  i>f  humble  ajipearaiice,  but  with  abumlant 
yellow  flowers.  It  is  most  commonly  known  as  a 
weed  in  lint-fields,  although  it  is  also  cultivated 
alone  or  mixed  with  r.ipesced  in  parts  of  Cerniany, 
lielgiiim,  and  the  south  of  Knropc  for  the  sake  of 
the  abundant  oil  contained  in  its  seeds.  Its  seeds 
anil  oil-cake  are,  however,  inferior  to  those  of  lint, 
and  its  oil  is  apt  to  become  rancid  and  is  less  valnccl 
than  that  of  rape  or  colza.  The  value  of  the  plant 
in  agriculture  de|iends  niucli  on  its  adaptation  to 
poor  sandy  soils,  and  on  tlw^  briefness  of  its  jieiiod 
of  vegetation,  ail.ipting  it  for  being  sown  after 
another  crop  has  failed,  or  for  being  ploughed  down 
as  a  given  manure.  The  croi>  is  cut  or  pulled 
when  the  pouches  begin  to  turn  yellow;  but  the 
readiness  with  which  .seed  is  .scattered  in  the  tiidd, 
rendering  the  iilant  a  weed  f<U'  future  years,  is  an 
objection  to  its  cultivation.  The  stems  are  tough, 
fibrous,  and  durable,  an<l  are  used  for  thatch- 
ing and  for  making  brooins  ;  their  fibre  is  some- 
times even  separated  like;  that  of  flax,  and  m.ade 
into  very  coarse  cloth  and  packing-paper.  The 
seeds  are  used  f<U'  emidlient  poultices.  ('.  dcntaUt 
is  of  similar  habit  and  properties,  but  is  not  cul- 
tivated. 

Ooldwill.  CAltl.o,  the  creator  of  the  niodeni 
Italian  comedy  of  character  and  domestic  life,  was 
born  in  170"  at  Venice,  .\lthough  be  went  thidugh 
a  course  of  law  studies  there  and  at  I'avia.  bis  hiait 
was  set  even  from  a  child  upon  plays  and  play- 
writing.  His  first  serious  attempts  were  tragedies, 
one  of  which,  lieli.inrio,  was  successful  at  Venice 
in  173'2.  But  he  soon  discovered  that  his  forte 
was  comedy  rather  than  tragedy,  ami  set  him- 
self to  eti'ecta  revolution  in  the  Italian  ((jmic  slage. 
At  that  time  the  popul;ir  comcdiis  in  Italy  were 
really  farces,  in  which  pantaloon  and  harlequin 
filled  the  principal  roles,  acting  with  ni.Tsks  on 
their  faces,  ami  trusting  very  largely  to  the  inspira- 
tion of  the  moment  for  their  biiflooneries  and 
prank.s.  For  this  style  of  thing  (loldoni  deter- 
mined to  substitute  the  comeily  of  character 
acc(U'ding  to  Molii-re,  and  a  hard  task  he  set 
himself.  Several  yearn  were  now  spent  by  him 
wanilering  from  city  to  city  of  North  Italy,  .some- 
times   practising    his    profession,    hut    always    in 


GOLDSCHMIDT 


GOLDSMITH 


287 


intimate  connection  with  companies  of  actors,  for 
wlifim  lie  wrote  various  comedies,  until  in  1740 
he  settled  in  Venice.  Then  for  twenty  years  lie 
poiireil  forth  comedy  after  comedy.  In  1701 
lie  made  an  enga^jenient  for  two  years  to  write 
for  the  Italian  theatre  in  I'aris,  and  for  that 
Iiur|)ose  moved  to  the  French  capital.  On  the 
conclusion  of  this  engagement  he  was  appointetl 
teacher  of  Italian  to  the  daughters  of  Louis 
XV.,  and  remained  attached  to  the  court  until 
the  Revolution.  He  died  6th  February  179.3. 
(ioldoni's  comedies,  more  than  I'iO  in  number, 
some  of  the  best  of  which  are  the  Villeiirjintura 
trilogy,  Locandiera,  Le  Barittfe  Chiozzotte,  Zclinda 
e  Lindoro,  Veiitaglio,  La  Bottega  di  Coffi,  and 
Damn.  Prudentc,  Avere  for  the  most  part  put 
together  too  rapidly  and  too  roughly  to  be 
adjudged  first-rate.  But,  though  they  seldom 
touch  more  than  the  e.xternal  and  superlicial 
aspects  of  life  and  society,  they  are  marked  by 
consideralile  skill  in  character-sketching,  by  faith- 
ful representation  of  contemporary  manners,  lively 
dialogue,  and  cleverness  in  the  invention  of  comic 
situ.ations.  (loldoni  wrote  Memnircs  of  his  own  life 
( 17><7  I,  and  publisbeil  at  Venice  in  1788-.S9  the  first 
collected  edition  of  his  own  works  in  -44  vols.  (3<1 
cd.  Florence,  53  vols.  18'27).  His  correspondence 
ha-s  been  edited  bv  Ma-si  (1880)  and  Mantovani 
( 1884 ).  See  Lives  by  Molmenti  ( 1879 )  and  Galanti 
(2d  ed.  1883),  and  Vernon  Lee,  Studies  of  the 
Eiqhteenlh  Century  in  Itahj  ( 1880). 

f;ol4lschnii4lt,  M.\D.\ME  (.Jen-NY  Lind),  a 
ocli'liiated  Swedish  singer,  was  liorn  of  humble 
panMit.ige  at  Stockholm,  October  6,  1820.  Her 
musical  gifts  were  apparent  from  her  third  year, 
and  at  nine  she  was  admitted  to  the  school  of 
singing  attached  to  the  court  theatre,  where  she 
received  lessons  of  Berg  and  others.  She  sang  before 
the  court  with  success,  and  at  eighteen  ajipeared 
in  the  role  of  Agatha  in  Der  Freisrhut:,  Alice  in 
Hfihirt  Ic  Diahle,  tkc,  and  soon  became  the  prin- 
cipal support  of  the  royal  theatre.  In  .June  1841 
she  went  to  Paris  to  receive  lessons  from  Garcia. 
Meyerbeer,  who  heard  her  at  this  time,  prophesied 
a  brilliant  future  for  Jenny  Lind.  Her  voice 
was  tested  with  success  in  i>rivate  in  the  Grand 
Opera,  and  erroneous  rumours  of  failure  were 
current.  She  hail  already  been  engaged  for  the 
Stockholm  0|ieia  (184-2).  In  1844  she  went 
to  Berlin,  an<l  for  a  time  studied  German ;  re- 
turning to  Stockholm,  she  was  heard  with  en- 
tlnisiasni  in  Rohert  le  Diah/e,  and  at  the  instance 
of  Meyerbeer  was  engaged  at  Berlin  in  Octolier, 
apjiearing  in  Norma  and  Meyerbeer's  operas.  In 
184()  she  visited  Vienna,  in  1847  London.  I'rices 
at  Her  Majesty's  rose  to  a  fabulous  height,  and 
'the  town,'  says  Chorley,  'sacred  and  profane, 
went  mad  about  the  Swedish  Nightingale.'  Her 
voice  at  this  time  has  been  described  as  a  soprano 
of  bright,  thrilling,  and  remarkable  sympathetic 
quality,  with  wonderfully  ilevelopecl  length  of 
breath,  and  perfection  of  execution.  .She  could  sing 
up  to  high  D  in  rich,  full  tones,  and  even  touch 
higher  notes;  she  literally  warbled  like  a  bird;  and 
especi.ally  striking  w:vs  her  rendering  of  the  weird 
Swedish  melodies.  Her  return  \isit  to  London  in 
1848  was  an  immense  triumph  ;  and  in  London, 
on  ISth  .May  1849,  she  sang  on  the  stage  for  the 
last  time  in  Itubrrto;  hencef<Mth  her  appearances 
were  confined  to  the  concert-room.  Her  share  of  the 
profits  of  ,a  brilliant  concert  tour  in  America  under 
r.arnunrs  man.agement  ( I849-.V2),  amounting  to 
i'.S.'i.OOO,  was  more  than  spent  afterwanls  in  ftmnd- 
ingand  endowing  musical  scholarships  and  charities 
in  her  native  country.  In  IS.")!  she  wa.s  married  at 
Boston  to  Otto  Goldscbmidt,  a  native  of  Hamburg, 
her  pianist.  Heturning  to  Euro|>e,  she  cuiitiiuicd 
to  sing  at  concerts  and  in  oratorios,  as  in  London 


(1856),  and  for  the  last  time  at  Dii.s.seldorf  ( 1870). 
Her  English  charities  included  the  gift  of  a  hospital 
to  Liverpool  and  of  the  wing  of  another  to  London. 
She  founded  the  Mendel.ssohn  scholarship,  and  her 
interest  in  the  Bach  Choir,  of  which  her  husband 
wa-s  conductor,  was  shown  by  her  careful  training 
of  the  female  chorus.  Her  voice  retained  its  sweet- 
ness to  the  \aj>t,  although  she  did  not  care  to  sing 
much  even  in  the  semi  privacy  of  a  crowded  draw- 
ing-room. But  from  1883  till  1886  she  was  pro- 
fessor of  .Singing  at  the  Koyal  College  of  Music. 
She  died  near  Malvern,  November  2,  1887.  Her 
moral  character  was  elevated  and  deeply  religious ; 
her  smile  was  described  as  heavenly.  See  the 
Memoir  by  Canon  Scott  Holland  and  W.  S. 
Kockstro  (2  vols.  1891). 

Gol«Isiliny,orGOLDFlNNY(Cren!7aJr!«»iWop«), 
also  called  the  Cork wing,  a  small  fish  of  the  Wrasse 
family  (  Labrida;),  common  on  British  coasts.  Like 
other  members  of  its  family,  it  haunts  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  rocks,  feeding  on  crustaceans,  molluscs, 
and  the  like.  In  colour  it  is  more  or  less  green  or 
yellow,  darker  above,  striped  along  the  sides,  with 
a  dark  spot  on  the  tail.  Like  young  wia-sse,  but 
unlike  the  adults,  it  has  a  serrated  bone  (preoper- 
culum )  on  the  side  of  its  gill-cover. 

Goldsmith,  Oliver,  was  born  at  Pallas,  in 
Longfonl,  Ireland,  on  the  lOth  November  1728,  his 
father,  the  Rev.  Charles  Goldsmith,  a  clergvnian  of 
the  established  church,  being  at  that  time  curate 
to  the  rector  of  Kilkenny  West.  When  si.\  years 
old  Goldsmith  was  placed  tinder  Thomas  Byrne, 
the  schoolmaster  described  in  the  Deserted  Vi/latje. 
After  an  attack  of  smallpox,  he  went  successively 
to  various  local  schools,  ultimately  entering  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  as  a  '  sizar,'  or  poor  scholar,  on  the 
nth  June  1744.  As  yet  he  had  shown  no  excep- 
tional ability,  nor  did  be  show  any  at  the  univei-sity. 
His  tutor  was  rough  and  unsympathetic  ;  he  him- 
self was  plea-sure-loving  and  poor.  His  father  died, 
and  his  circumstances  grew  worse.  In  1747  he  was 
involved  in  a  college  riot,  and,  escai)ing  from  the 
consequences  of  this  only  to  fall  into  further  dis- 
graces, finally  ran  away  from  his  Alma  Mater. 
Matters  being  patched  up  by  his  eMcr  brother,  he 
returned,  taking  his  B..\.  ilegree,  27th  Fcbriiai-y 
1749.  His  uncle,  the  Rev.  Mr  Contarine,  now  his 
chief  friend,  wished  him  to  qualify  for  orders,  but  he 
was  rejected  by  the  bishop  of  Elpliin.  Thereuiion 
he  made  a  false  start  for  America.  Getting  no 
farther  than  Cork,  he  w.ns  next  equi]iped  with 
£50  to  study  law  in  London.  This  disappeared 
at  a  Dublin  gaming-table.  In  1752  he  startcil  for 
Scotland  to  study  physic.  Reaching  Edinburgh,  he 
stayed  there  nearly  two  years,  leaving,  however, 
behind  him  more  legends  of  his  .social  gifts  than  his 
professional  acquirements.  From  Edinburgh  he 
drifted  to  Leyden,  again  lost  at  play  what  little 
money  he  bad,  and  finally  set  out  to  make  the 
'grand  tour'  on  foot.  After  wandering  through 
Flanders,  France,  Germany,  ami  Italy,  ami  obtain- 
ing, either  at  Louvain  or  I'adua,  a  dubious  degree 
as  M.B,,  he  returneil  to  Englaml  in  February  17.".6, 
with  a  few  halfpence  in  liis  pockets.  It  is  thought 
he  tried  strolling  ;  it  is  certain  that  he  was  .assistant 
to  an  apothecary.  Then,  with  the  aid  of  an  Edin- 
burgh frienil,  he  practised  as  a  poor  physician  in 
Soutlnvark — a  professiiui  which  he  speeilily  quitted 
feu-  that  of  proof  reailer  to  Richardson,  in  turn 
abandoning  this  to  be  usher  in  I  »r  .Milner's  '  cla.-^sical 
academy '  at  Peckham.  At  Dr  .Milner's  he  became 
acquainted  with  (iriltiths,  the  proprietor  of  the 
Muntltly  lierieir,  who  engaged  him  as  author-of-all- 
work.  His  bond.age  to  Gritfiths  lasted  only  ,a  few 
months.  His  next  mode  of  subsistence  is  obscure, 
but  in  February  1758  appeared  his  first  definite 
work,  a  translation  in  two  volumes  of  the  Memoirs 


288 


GOLDSMITH 


GOLF 


of  Jean  Miirteillie  of  lierfjerac,  a  '  Protestant  con- 
ileniiK'il  to  tlie  •,'allcys  of  France  for  his  reliino"' 
For  this  he  used  the  name  of  a  sohoolfeUow,  Jaiiies 
Williiijjtoii,  hilt  the  l)Ook  is  known  to  liave  lieen 
his  own.  After  its  ajipeanance  he  went  hack  to 
Peckhain,  to  wait  for  an  appointment  on  a  foreijjn 
station,  which  Dr  Milnor  fiail  jjroniiseil  to  ohtain 
for  liiiii.  To  procure  the  funtls  for  liis  outlit 
he  set  ahout  an  h'/iijiiir;/  into  tin-  I'nscnt  Stiitf 
of  I'lilile  LfKriiiiig  in  luiroj>c.  From  some  unex- 
plaineil  can>e,  liowever,  liis  nomination,  when 
receiveil,  fell  tlirou^'li,  ami  in  Decenihcr  wo  linil 
hiin  cmleavourin^'  to  pass  at  Sur^'eons'  Hall  for  the 
huiii1>ler  post  of  hospital  mate,  hut  without  success. 
Wliat  wivs  woi-se,  tlie  clothes  he  went  \\\<  in  liiul 
heen  ol>taine(l  on  the  security  of  his  olil  employer 
Critliths;  to  pav  his  landlaily  he  pawned  them, 
and  the  an^ry  Injokseller  threatened  him  with  a 
dehtor's  prison. 

Shortly  afterwards,  in  April  17.')9,  the  Enquiry 
was  pui)lislieil.  It  attracted  some  notice,  and 
better  days  at  length  ilawned  on  Goldsmith.  He 
started  the  periodical  called  The  Bi-e  (17">0),  and 
contrihuted  to  T/ie  Bus)/  ISixhj  and  The  Lndji's 
Miiffiizine.  Then  came  to  his  miserahle  l<Kl','in;,'  in 
Green  Arhour  Court,  Old  Bailey,  overtures  from 
Smollett,  and  John  Xewhery,  the  bookseller.  For 
the  JSritish  Miiejrizine  of  the  former  he  wrote  some 
of  his  best  essays  ;  for  the  I'uhlic  Ledger  of  the 
latter  the  celebrated  Chines  Letters  (afterwards 
liulilished  as  The  Citizen  n/  the  World),  which 
appeared  in  ITWI  61.  In  May  of  the  latter  year  he 
moved  to  ()  Wine  OtKce  Court,  F'leet  Street,  where, 
on  the  .'Jlst  of  the  same  month,  he  was  visited  by 
.lohnson.  In  ITO'i,  amon},'  other  thinjts,  he  |>ub- 
\\A\ci\  s\.  Life  eif  lUrhnrd  Xnxh,  the  Hath  master  of 
the  ceremonies;  and  he  sohl  to  lienjamin  Cidlins,  a 
Salisburv  printer,  a  third  share  in  the  vetunpub- 
lir-hed  i'ieiir  of  Wid.ejield.  In  17(H  the  'Club,' 
known  many  years  afterwards  as  the  '  Literary 
Club,'  wius  founded  ;  and  he  was  one  of  it.s  nine 
ori;;inal  membei-s.  His  next  work  was  an  anony- 
mous llistorii  of  Ene/leind,  in  n  Series  of  Letters 
front  (t  Nejlilemon  to  /lis  Son.  This  was  followed  in 
December  171)4  liy  The  Tnircller,  a  jiocui  which  at 
once  rai.sed  him  to  a  foremost  place  amon^'  the 
minstrels  of  the  day.  Two  years  later,  in  March 
17t)6,  appeared  'The  I'ieeir  of  Wakefield,  by  which 
his  reputation  as  a  novelist  wa.s  secureil.  The 
sta^'e  alone  remaine<I  untried,  and  this,  after  two 
more  years  of  oreface  writin;;  and  journey-work,  he 
attempted  with  The  (iood  Xtdiird  Man,  a  comedy, 
]>roduced  at  Covent  Garden  in  January  17GS.  It 
Wius  a  moderate  success.  But  he  a^jain  escaped  from 
enforced  compilation  (  H istories  of  Home  ami  Enj;- 
land.  H ist or >i  (f  Animated  Xatiire)  with  his  best 
poetical  etl'ort.  The  Deserted  Village  (1770);  and 
three  years  afterwards  achieveil  the  hifjhest  <lrani- 
atic  honoui-s  by  She  Stoops  tu  Com/iier,  still  one  of 
the  most  popular  of  Knjilish  actin;,'  comedies.  A 
year  later  (.\pril  4,  1774)  he  died  in  his  chanibei-s 
at  2  Brick  Court,  Middle  Temple,  of  a  fever, 
a^IKravated  by  the  obstinacy  witii  which  he  had 
relied  upon  the  popular  remedy  known  as  '  James's 
])owder.  He  wa.s  buried  on  the  9tli,  in  the  burial- 
{jnmnd  of  the  Temple  Church,  in  tlie  tnforium  of 
which  is  a  tablet  to  his  memory.  The  club  erecteil 
a  monument  to  him  in  Westminster  Abbey.  In  the 
year  of  his  death  was  published  the  unlinished 
series  of  rhymed  sketches  of  his  friends,  called 
lietaliution,  and  in  1776  the  jcu  desprit,  entitled 
The  Uaiinch  of  Venison;  an  Epistle  to  Lord 
Clare. 

Poor  in  his  youth,  Goldsmith  wa-s  not  prudent  in 
his  more  ))r()sperous  middle  a^'e.  He  died  £2(KX)  in 
ilebt,  and  there  is  rea.son  for  supposing  that  his 
dilhcnlties  embittered  his  latter  days.  When  his 
doctor  asked  him  on  his  deathbed  if  his  mind  wa.s 


at  ea.se,  he  replied  that  it  wjis  not.  As  a  man. 
Goldsmith  had  .some  constitutional  di.sadvanta;;i-s 
and  many  obviinis  faults,  nmstly  of  a  harndi'.^s 
kind.  But  he  was  thoroughly  warm-hearted  and 
genenuis,  ami  full  of  unfeigned  love  ami  pity  for 
humanity.  As  a  writer,  in  addition  to  the  mo>t 
fortunat<'  mingling  of  humour  and  tenderness,  he 
nosse.sseil  that  native  charm  of  style  which  neither 
learning  nor  labour  can  acipiire.  In  tlie  felicitous 
phrase  which  Johnson  borrowed  frmii  I'cnelon  for 
liis  epitaph,  he  touched  nothing  w  liicli  he  did  not 
.idorn.  I'lior  first  collected  the  material  for  his 
biography  in  18.37  :  in  1S48  Forster  iireparcd  from 
this  (not  without  exi>ostulatioii  on  Prior's  part) 
his  well-known  life.  Washington  living's  genial 
sketch  of  1S49  w;us  ba.'^eil  upon  Forster.  Later 
memoirs  are  that  by  W.  Black  in  the  '  Men  of 
Letters'  series  ( 1879),  and  by  the  jircsent  writer  in 
the  'Great  Writers'  (1888)"  The  last  contains  a 
bibliogra]diy  :  and  a  special  bibliograidiv  of  The 
Vienr  of  Wiilefeld  is  prefixed  to  the  facsimile 
edition  of  that  book  issued  in  lS8."i.  The  most 
modern  eilition  of  Gidilsmiths  complete  works  is 
that  by  Gibbs  (.)  vols.  1884  86). 

Ooldstllrkor.  Tiikodor,  Sanskrit  scholar, 
was  liorii  of  .lewish  parents  on  l8tli  January  182I, 
at  Kiinigsberg,  studieil  there,  at  Bonn,  anil  at 
Paris,  and  established  himself  as  prirat  doeent  at 
Berlin.  He  came  to  England  in  1850  on  the 
invitation  of  Professor  II.  Wilson,  and  in  18.52 
wa.s  ajiiioiiited  profe.^.sor  of  Sanskrit,  I'niveisity 
College,  London,  a  post  he  held  till  his  death, 
6th  Marcli  1872.  F'ouiider  of  the  Sanskrit  Text 
Society,  he  was  an  active  member  of  the  Philo- 
logical and  Royal  Asiatic  Societies.  He  wrote  all 
the  most  imnortant  articles  on  Indian  mythology 
and  philo.soptiy  (67  in  numlier)  in  the  liist  edition 
of  this  Encvclop.-cdia,  and  contributed  to  the  Athen 
unni  anil  \\'estniinstcr  Jicriea:  Of  his  separately- 
published  works  the  most  notable  are  J'anini:  his 
Plaee  in  Sanskrit  Literature  (1861);  the  Sanskrit 
text  of  the  Jauniniya-Xviiya-MalaVistara  (com- 
pleted by  Professor  Cowell ) :  and  part  of  a  gieat 
Sanskrit  Dictionary.  He  projected  numerous  other 
works,  including  ,a  text  of  the  MahfibliArata,  for 
which  he  had  made  vast  collections  of  materials. 
His  Literanj  Juinains  (2  vols.  1879)  comprises, 
with  other  papei-s,  the  articles  contiibuled  to 
Cha in hers'.s  En ei/elopirdia. 

Gold-thread,  the  popular  name  in  America 
for  Co/itis  trifolia,  a  ranunculaceous  plant  fouml 
from  Denmark  to  Silieria,  and  over  the  North 
American  continent  through  Canada  into  the 
I'nited  States.  The  leaves  are  evergreen  and 
like  those  of  the  strawberry,  but  smaller ;  the 
tlowers  are  small  and  wliite.  The  name  'gold- 
thread '  is  given  to  the  abundant  silk-like  root- 
stocks,  still  a  popular  remedy  among  the  F'rench 
Canadians  for  ulcerated  throats. 

<ioIotta  ( Fr.  /-"  Goulettc),  the  port  of  the  city 
of  Tunis,  from  which  it  is  II  miles  X.  by  rail  or 
canal.  In  the  new  ()uarter  are  the  bey's  palace,  a 
large  dock,  and  an  ai^enal  defended  by  a  battery. 
The  iiopiilation,  usually  about  atKIO,  is  trebled 
during  the  visit  of  the  liey  in  the  bathing  sea.son  ; 
the  luoportion  of  Europeans  has  greatly  increased, 
\  and  many  of  the  hou.ses  are  now  built  in  the  Euro- 
pean style.  The  harbour,  though  by  no  means 
secure,  was  long  the  most  frequented  in  Tunis  ;  but 
after  the  establishment  of  a  French  protectorate 
.some  of  the  trade  jiassed  to  Bona,  in  .\lgeiia  :_aml 
since  the  coinidetion  of  the  ship  canal  to  Tuiii.s 
(q.v.),  and  the  deepening  of  the  harliour  , there  in 
ISO.'!,  La  tJoletta  has  greatly  decayed. 

Caoir,  a  Scottish  p.ostinie  (also  goff  or  goirf—the 
latter  the  vemacular pronunciation;  the  name  being 
usual Iv  connected  with  the  Dutch   kolf   'club'),  is 


GOLF 


289 


certainly  of  meat  antii|uity,  ami  fieiiuent  refer- 
ences are  niaile  to  it  in  <ilil  Scottish  records.  In 
1457  the  .Scottisli  iiarliariicnt  passed  an  act  enjoin- 
ing' that  '  Fute  ball  and  Golfe  he  utterly  crvit 
downe,  and  nocht  usit,  and  that  the  bowe  nierkis 
he  maid  at  ilka  paroclie  kirke  a  jiaire  of  huttis,  and 
sclmtting  he  usit  ilk  Sunday.'  A  similar  act  was 
passed  in  May  1491.  It  thus  appears  that  the 
fiame  was  at  one  time  so  popular  in  Scotland  that 
the  more  important  practice  of  arclicry,  for  the 
defence  of  the  country,  stood  in  danger  of  heinj,' 
neglected.  In  1592  the  magistrates  of  Edinburgh 
issued  a  proclamation  against  playing  the  game  on 
Sunday. 

Reference  is  made  to  golf  on  Leith  Links  in 
A  Diunnil  of  Oixiirre/its  icit/iiii  Svutlaiul,  151G-75 
(Maitland  Club,  1832),  and  it  appears  to  have 
been  practised  by  all  classes  in  the  reign  of 
King  James  VI.  Charles  I.  was  much  attacheil 
to  the  game,  and  on  his  visit  to  Scotland  in 
1(541  was  engaged  in  it  on  Leith  Links  when 
intimation  was  given  him  of  the  rebellion  in 
Ireland,  whereupon  he  threw  down  his  club,  and 
returned  in  great  agitation  to  Holyrood  House. 
The  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.,  also 
delighted  in  the  game. 

Until  late  years  g(df  was  entirely  confined  to 
Scotland,  though  the  oldest  eKisting  golf  club  was 
founded  by  James  I.  at  Blackheath  in  1608  ;  but 
now  it  is  (irmly  established  south  of  the  Tweed, 
and  clubs  have  been  formed  in  almost  every 
locality  in  England  where  the  ground  is  at  ail 
siiit.'ibh'  for  the  game.  (4olf  is  jilaycd  at  several 
stations  in  India,  as  well  as  in  Canaila  and  Ca]ie 
Colony  ;  and  clubs  were  formed  at  L'airo  in  18SS 
and  at  San  Francisco  in  1889.  Ladies'  golf  clubs 
exist  in  a  flourishing  condition  at  St  Andrews, 
North  lierwick,  Westward  Ho,  &e.  The  game  is 
played  on  what  are  called  in  Scotland  Ihik.'i  ( Eng. 
downs) — i.e.  tracts  of  sandy  soil  covered  with  short 
gra,ss,  which  occur  frequently  along  the  east  coast 
of  Scotland.  The  best  Scotch  golling  links  are  St 
Andrews  and  Leven  in  Fife,  Prestwick  in  Ayrshire, 
Alachrihanish  in  Argyllshire,  North  Berwick  and 
Cullane  in  East  Lothian,  Carnoustie  and  Montrose 
in  Forfarshire,  and  Dornoch  in  Sutherland.  In 
England  the  most  important  centres  are  lloylake 
near  Liverjiool,  Westward  Ho  in  Devunshire, 
Wimbleilon  near  London,  and  Sandwich  in  Kent. 
All  of  these  are  examples  of  admirably  suited 
links,  as  the  ground  is  diversitied  by  knolls,  sand- 
pits, and  other  hazards  (as  they  are  termed  in 
golling  plira.seology ),  the  avoiding  of  which  is  one 
of  the  most  important  points  of  the  game. 

A  series  of  small  round  holes,  about  four  inches 
in  diameter,  and  several  inches  in  depth,  are  cut 
in  the  turf,  at  distances  of  from  one  to  live  or  six 
hundred  yards  from  each  other,  acccmling  to  the 
nature  of  the  ground,  so  as  to  form  a  circuit  or 
ronnd.  The  round  generally  consists  of  either  nine 
or  eighteen  holes  as  the  length  or  nature  of  the 
course  may  allow.  The  links  of  St  Andrews 
contain  eighteen  holes,  and  two  hours  are  ()ccui>ied 
in  conii>leting  the  round.  The  rival  players  are 
either  two  in  number,  which  is  the  simplest 
arrangement,  or  four  (two  against  two),  in  which 
case  the  two  partners  strike  the  ball  on  their  side 
altermitely.  The  balls,  weighing  somewhat  under 
two  ouiu-es,  are  made  of  gutta-percha,  and  painted 
white  sii  as  to  be  reailily  seen. 

An  ordinary  golf-club  consists  of  two  parts 
spliced  together— viz.  the  shaft  and  head  :  the 
shaft  is  usually  made  of  hickory  <n'  lancewood  ; 
the  handle  covered  with  leather  ;  the  head  ( heavily 
Weighted  with  lead  behind,  and  with  a  slij)  of  horn 
along  the  front  of  the  sole!  of  well-seasoned  aiiple- 
Irei"  or  lieech.  Every  player  has  a  sit  of  clubs, 
iiti'ering  in  length  and  shape  to  suit  the  distance  to 
227 


iiiiU-spouii ;    3,   jiutter ; 
5,  iron  ;  6,  niblick. 


be  driven  and  the  position  of  the  ball  :  for  (except 
in  striking  off  froin  a  IkjIc,  wlion  tlin  ball  may 
\)etecd — i.e.  placed 
advantageously  on 
alittleheai)of  sand, 
called  a  tec )  it  i> 
a  rule  that  the  ball 
must  be  stiaick  a- 
it  happens  to  li'- 
Some  positions  oi 
the  ball  reijuire  ; 
chib  with  an  iron 
head.  The  usu.il 
complement  oi 
clubs  is  about 
seven ;  but  thosr 
who  refine  on  tin- 
gradation  of  impli-- 
ments  use  as  many 
as  ten,  or  evi-u 
twelve,  which  arc 
technically  distin 
guished  as  tin 
drii-cr,  loiiff-spooii. 
mid-spoon.,  shoii 
spoon,  bi-assifi. 
2>utter,  iron,  loji 
ing-iron,  mashii . 
iron-piittcr,  cled.. 
and  niblick — the 
last  six  have  iron 
heads,  the  others 
are  of  wood.  Every 
jdayer  is  usually 
provided  with  an  attendant,  called  a  caddif,  who 
carries  his  clubs  and  '  tees '  his  balls.  Since  the 
game  has  become  so  generally  popular,  many 
modifications  and  inventions  in  clubs  have  been 
introduced.  The  earliest  and  most  permanent  of 
these  is  the  'bulger'  form  of  wooilen  club  heads. 
The  bulger-head  is  shorter  and  rounder  than  the 
old  form,  and  from  its  general  acceptance  would 
seem  to  have  answered  its  purpose  of  giving  greater 
power  in  driving.  The  otheix  are  mostlv  in  the 
way  of  iron  clubs,  and  except  the  '  masliie,'  a 
useful  short-headed  pitching  iron,  are  too  numerous 
(and  in  many  ca.ses  f.-mt.astic)  to  specify. 

Conimencing  at  a  s]u)t  a  few  yards  in  front  of  the 
home  hole — tlie  tciiiif/  ground— each  ]dayer  ilrives 
off  his  ball  in  the  direction  of  the  fust  hole,  into 
which  he  does  his  best  to  put  the  ball  in  fewer 
strokes  than  his  antagonist.  If  the  i]layers  put 
their  balls  in  in  an  equal  number  of  stroke*,  the 
hole  is  said  to  be  /«(/(■<(/,  and  scores  to  neither; 
but  if  one.  by  su|ierior  play,  holes  his  ball  in  fewer 
strokes  than  the  other,  he  gains  that  Iwdp.  and 
so  takes  ])recedence  (the  honour)  in  stiiking  oil' 
towards  the  next.  In  this  manner  they  proceed 
till  the  entire  round  is  finished,  the  match  being 
gained  by  the  player  who  has  achieved  the  greater 
number  of  holes.  Sometimes  the  interest  of  a 
match  is  maintained  till  the  very  last,  by  a  suc- 
cession of  evenly-jilayed  hcdes.  or  by  each  havin,£; 
gained  an  enual  number  during  the  round.  'All 
even  on  the  days  play '  m.ay  also  be  declared  where 
each  jiarly  has  won  the  same  number  of  rounds  as 
his  antagonist,  or  antagonists.  A  match  may  also 
consist  of  a  certain  number  of  holes  indeiiendently 
of  rounds,  when  it  of  coui^e  accrues  to  tlie  winner 
of  the  greater  number  of  holes.  In  contests  between 
professional  (dayers  the  match  usually  con.sists  of 
a  certain  number  of  holes  to  be  contested  on  more 
links  than  one. 

Throughout  the  entire  game,  he  who.se  ball 
lies  farthest  fiom  the  hole  which  he  is  approach- 
ing invariably  phiys  before  his  more  advanced 
companion.  We  have  alreaily  .said  that  the 
player    who    '  holes '    his    ball    in    fewer    strokes 


290 


GOLF 


GOLIATH    BLETLK 


than  his  rival  wins  that  liolo.  Now,  if  it  is  af,'roei! 
tliat  the  match  sliall  tail  to  the  player  who  holes 
the  entire  ronnd  in  fewest  stioliCs,  as  in  playing 
for  nicilals  or  other  prizes,  each  stroke  is  scrnpn- 
lonsly  rccorileil,  ami  scored  on  a  card  ;  hut  if  the 
match  is  to  he  yiehled  to  the  winner  of  the  f/ie<ilctt 
nuiiilirr  of  liiilcn  in  a  ronnd,  the  nnmher  of  actual 
strokes  nccil  not  necessarily  he  reckoned.  (loll, 
like  all  other  games,  has  its  especial  plira.-^eolo;,'y. 

Thus,  he  who  is 
ahout  to  ]>lay  the 
same  numher  of 
strokes  as  his 
aMtuj.'onist  has 
alrcadv  plavcd, 
..lays  ■  ilir  I'ihe  : 
if  he  is  ahout  to 
play  one  stroke 
more  than  his 
rival  has  already 
played,  he  ^>lays 
the  uihh  :  it  one 
stroke  less,  he 
jilavs  o)ic  off 
liru:  if  two 
strokes  more, 
tiro  more,  and  so 
on.  This  method 
of  reckoniiifr, 
thouf^h  some- 
what confusing 
at  lirst,  is  after 
a  little  time 
ca-sily  acqnired  ; 
ami,  from  its  be- 
ing universally  adopted  on  golling  coni-ses,  should 
receive  especial  attention.  In  the  accompanying 
illustrations  ilie  iMctliod  of  holding  the  cluh  when 
driving,  and  the  swing,  are  shown. 


Method  of  holding  the  Chih  In 
drivin-;. 


*^^ 


ki 


I  lie  .Swin^  in  driving. 

To  play  the  game  of  golf  well  rcfpiircs  long 
practice,  and  very  few  attain  to  great  excellence 
who  have  not  played  from  their  yonth.  Hut  any 
one  may  in  a  year  or  two  learn  to  play  tolerahly, 
so  as  to  take  great  pleasnre  in  the  game ;  and 
for  all  who  have  once  entered  upon  it  it  possesses 
no  ordinnry  fascination.  It  has  this  advantage  over 
many   other  outdoor  games,   that   it   is  suiteil   for 


lioth  cdd  and  young.  The  strong  and  energetic  find 
scope  for  their  energj-  in  driving  lung  halls  (crack 
jilayers  will  drive  a  hall  nhove  2()0  yards);  but 
the  more  im|ii>rtant  points  of  the  game — an  exact 
eye,  a  steaily  and  mcjisurcd  stroke  for  the  short 
distances,  and  skill  in  avoiding  hazards — are  called 
forth  in  all  cases.  Along  with  the  muscular 
exercise  required  by  the  actual  plav,  lliere  is  a 
mixture  of  walking  which  ]iarlicularly  suits  those 
whose  pui-snits  are  sedentaiy — walking,  too,  on  a 
breezy  ciunnum,  and  under  circumstances  which 
make  it  far  more  beneficial  than  an  ordinary  '  con- 
stitutional.' 

(iolf  a.-'sociat ions  are  numerous  in  Sculland,  and 
in  most  cases  are  governed  by  the  rules  laid  down 
by  the  Itoyal  and  Ancient  llolf  Club  of  St  .Andrews 
( 1754),  which  is  the  chief,  and  one  of  the  oldest  clubs 
in  the  countiT.  Tlie.se  rules  have  becii  very  gener- 
ally adopted  all  over  Englaml.  I'.nglisli  golfei-s  are 
at  the  .same  lime  nnich  indebted  to  the  exertions 
of  the  late  Mr  (Icorge  (Ileimic.  sometime  captain 
of  the  Itoyal  I'.lackhcath  (i(dl  Club,  for  keejiing 
the  game  alive  at  lilackhcalh  while  for  many 
years  it  was  unknown  elsewhere  in  the  south  ;  and 
It  was  mainly  his  fostering  inlluence  which  pro- 
moted its  growth  on  other  southern  greens.  Many 
professional  players  nnike  their  livelihood  by  gcdt, 
and  are  always  ready  to  instruct  beginners  in  the 
Uit,  or  to  ]ilay  matches  with  amateurs.  Among 
the  most  famous  jirofessional  golfei-s  were  Allan 
Hobert.son  (ilied  1859),  and  latterly  youn"  'J"om 
Morris  (died  lH7o).  '  Amateur  '  and" '  open  cham- 
pion*lii|i  meetings  are  held  annually  on  dill'crent 
greens  in  Scotlaml  and  England.  The  lirst  cham- 
pifln-hi]is  were  held  alternately  by  old  Tom  Morris 
and  Willie  I'ark,  sen.,  for  many  years.  ''S'oung' 
Tom  Morris  was  the  only  player  who,  winning  the 
trophy  three  years  consecutively,  became  its  per- 
manent posses.sor. 

For  infonnntion  concerning  the  rules  of  golf  and  the 
history  of  the  gnnic  from  the  earliest  records,  sec  (•'olf:  a 
Iloiial  (Dill  Ancknt  Giimr,  by  Kobert  Clark  ( Edin.  1870; 
mwcd.  18114);  r.'»/rf»r/ (  W.  &  K.  Chambers  :  Ediii.1887); 
TIk  Aii  i.f  fio'f,  by  Sir  W.  Simpson  (Kdin.  18SS);  Golf 
in  the  '  liadniiiiton  Library,'  by  H.  Hutchinson,  A.  J. 
lialfour,  \.  Lang,  Sir  W.  Simpson,  and  others. 

.  <;<>li:otlia.     See  C.\LyAUV. 

<iioIi:itli  Ko«'tle(i5o//«</i»«),  a genns  of  tropical 
Lamellicorn  U-etles,  in  the  subfamily  Cetoniiilic. 
They  are  distinguished  l>y  their  large  size,  by  the 
horny  processes  on  the  heads  of  the  males,  and  by 


Goliath  Beetle. 

the  toothed  lower  jaws  or  maxillre.  Several  species 
frequent  tropical  anil  South  .\frica,  and  related 
genera  occur  in  tropical  Asia.  The  male  of  the 
largest  form,  (!r>/iii//ius  i/mri/t,  from  the  Gold 
C'o.ost,  measures  about  four  inches  in  length.  In 
colour,  as  well  a.s  size,  these  goliaths  ami  their 
relatives  are  s])lendid  insects.  The  family  Cetoniid^ 


GOLLNITZ 


GONCOURT 


291 


is  familiarly  represented  in  Europe  ami  Britain  by 
tlic  llciyfc-liiifer  (Cctonia  aitrala). 

<>olIllitZ,  or  GOLLNICZBANYA,  a  mining  town 
of  Huii;;ary,  in  tlie  county  of  Zi^)s,  17  miles  SW. 
of  E|ii'rii's.  It  lias  important  iron  anil  copper 
mines,  anil  iionworks.     Pop.  4or>3. 

fiollliow.  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  Pomerania,  is 
situated  1.5  miles  NE.  of  Stettin.  It  was  formerly 
a  Hanse-town  ;  it  now  has  limekilns  and  a  trade 
in  timber.     Pop.  S430. 

CjiOloiliyilka  (Comcplwrus  or  Callionymns 
hiiikiilni.ii.s),  a  remarkable  fish,  found  only  in 
Lake  Baikal,  the  only  known  species  of  its  genus, 
which  conies  near  the  gobies,  but  is  the  type  of  a 
ilistiiict  family.  It  is  about  a  foot  long,  is  desti- 
tute of  scales,  and  is  very  soft,  its  wliole  substance 
abounding  in  oil,  which  is  obtahuMl  from  it  by 
pressure.  It  may  be  almost  saiil  to  melt  into  oil 
on  the  application  of  lire.     It  is  never  eaten. 

Goloshes  (Fr.  galochc,  'a  jiatten,  clog,  or 
wooden  slioe ; '  from  the  Low  Lat.  calopalia,  '  a 
clog,'  and  the  Gr.  kdlopoH.s),  india-rubber  over- 
shoes which  were  introduced  into  tJreat  Britain 
from  America  about  the  year  1847.  At  first  clum- 
sily made,  and  of  inferior  quality,  they  were, 
mainly  by  the  exertions  of  the  Ilayward  Rubber 
Company  in  America,  soon  much  iniproveil  in 
cpiality  and  appearance,  and  the  demand  for  them 
increased  rapidly.  The  largest  manufactory  for 
the  production  of  vulcanised  rubber  goloshes  and 
other  shoes  in  Great  Biitain  is  that  of  the  North 
British  Rubber  Company  at  Edinburgh,  where 
more  than  100  distinct  kinds  of  boots  and  shoes 
are  made,  and  the  production  amounts  to  several 
tliousand  pairs  a  day. 

The  rubber  is  ( 1 )  torn  up  into  small  i)ieces, 
washe<l,  ami  rolled  together  in  granulated  sheets; 
('-)  it  is  then  mixed,  by  the  aid  of  lieated  rollers, 
with  the  vulcanising  materials,  consisdng  of  sul- 
[ilinr,  litharge,  lampblack,  pitch,  rosin,  and  some- 
times other  materials  ;  (3)  the  final  stage  in  the  pre- 
paration of  the  material  is  carried  out  after  the  shoes 
are  made,  and  consists  in  subjecting  them  for  nine 
hours  to  a  temperatui'e  of  lietween  '200^  and  300° 
F.  Rubber  so  treated  is  said  to  be  vulcanised  (see 
IXKlA-ia'BBER).  The  so  far  pre|)ared  sheets  of 
materi;il  are  again  rolled  out  between  the  heated 
rollers,  till  they  are  of  the  reiiuircil  thickness  for 
the  shoe  uppers.  Both  soles  and  uppers  for  each 
shoe  are  cut  out  separately  with  a  knife.  The 
calico  or  other  linings  are  coated  round  the  edges 
with  some  strongly  adhesive  cement,  probaldy  dis- 
solved rubber,  and  then  all  the  pieces  are  ready  to  be 
nut  together.  The  earlier  part  of  the  work  is  done 
o.y  men,  but  women  actually  make  the  shoes.  A 
clex'er  girl  will  make  f(jrty  pairs  a  day  ;  a  very 
clever  one  fifty.  That  is  to  make  a  pair  of  shoes 
in  ten  or  twelve  minutes. 

The  chief  defect  of  .i,'oloshes  is  that  they  keep  the 
stockings  constantly  damp,  and  the  feet  uncomfort- 
able, liy  preventing  the  escape  or  the  absor^ition 
of  the  perspiration.  Various  modifications  ot  the 
orilinaiy  goloshes  are  made  :  thus,  there  is  a  kind 
with  warm  felt  lining;  another  kind  li.-ive  felt  or 
cloth  uppers  and  ankles,  and  are  often  called  snow- 
shoes. 

(lOlliar,  Francis,  theologian,  and  leader  of  the 
)iarty  who  opposed  most  zealously  the  doctrines  of 
Arminius  (q.v.).  Gomar,  or  (iomarus,  w,as  born  at 
Bruges,  30tli  January  1503,  studied  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Strasburg,  fleidelberg,  (Jxfoul,  and  Cam- 
bridge, in  the  last-mentioned  of  whicli  he  took  his 
degree  of  B.  11.  in  15S4.  In  1.594  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Divinity  at  Leyden,  and  sign.alised  him- 
self then  and  ever  after  liy  Ids  vehement  antipathy 
to  the  views  of  his  colleague,  .\rminius.  At  the 
synod  of  Dort  in  UilS  lie  was  mainly  instrumental 


in  securing  the  expulsion  of  the  Arminians  from 
the  Reformed  Church.  He  clied  as  profes.sor  at 
Groningen,  1041.  An  edition  of  his  works  wa.s 
published  at  Amsterdam  in  1045  ami  1064. 

Cioillbrooil',  calh'd  also  Bkndki!  .Vbbas,  a  sea- 
port of  Persia,  in  the  province  of  Kirman,  stands  on 
the  Strait  of  Ormuz,  opposite  the  island  of  that 
name.  Bentler  Ablias  owed  its  name  and  inijiort- 
ance  to  Shah  Abbiis,  who,  assisteil  by  the  English, 
drove  the  Portuguese  in  102'2  from  Grmuz,  mined 
that  seaport,  and  transferred  its  commerce  to  (Gom- 
broon. For  a  while  the  new  town  prospercil  :  but 
at  present  it  is  a  wretche<l  place  of  about  SOOO  in- 
habitants, mostly  Arabs,  who  trade  to  the  extent  of 
£450,000  per  annum  in  piece  goods,  sugar,  tea,  and 
pottery  (imports),  and  in  carpets,  wool,  tobacco, 
salTron,  opium,  almonds,  and  madder  (exports). 

Cloilie'ra,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands  (q.v.). 

Gomorrah.    See  Sodo.m  and  Gomorrah. 

Gonad,  ^  technical  name  for  reproductive 
organs.     See  Repeoductiox. 

Goiia'ive.S,  a  seajiort  of  Hayti,  on  a  beautiful 
bay  on  the  west  coast,  with  an  excellent  harbour, 
05  miles  XXW.  of  Port  an  Prince.  It  exports 
coli'ee,  cotton,  logwood,  and  hides.  Pop.  (1897) 
18,000. 

Goncoiirt,  Edjiond  and  .Tiles  de,  a  pair  of 
French  novelists,  born,  the  former  at  Nancy,  May 
26,  1822,  the  latter  at  Paris,  17th  DecembeV  1.S30. 
They  were  not  men  of  letters  but  artists  primarily, 
and  in  1849  they  set  out  knapsack  on  back  to  tra- 
verse France  for  diawings  and  water-colours.  Their 
notebooks  made  them  wiiters  as  well  as  artists,  and 
already  in  1852  they  had  commenced  that  literary 
partnership  which  after  twenty  years  of  obscure 
labours  was  to  conquer  the  public  and  stamp  its 
impression  upon  the  modern  novel  more  strongly 
than  any  one  had  done  since  Balzac.  Their  earliest 
serious  works  were  a  group  of  historical  studies 
upon  the  second  half  of  the  18th  centuni-,  intended 
to  be  an  effective  resurrection  of  its  habits  of  life, 
manners,  and  costume.  With  all  their  elaboration 
of  details  these  were  ineft'ective  and  superficial  from 
their  lack  of  the  calm  and  impartial  historical  sense, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  absence  of  more  essential 
qualities  still — breadth  of  view,  and  that  cieative 
grasp  of  character  by  sympathetic  insijjht  which 
is  the  rarest  gift  of  the  historian.  The  tilting  of 
the  '  Castor  and  Pollux  of  bric-a-brar'  against  the 
gigantic  figures  of  the  Revolution  was  almost  too 
pitiful  to  be  amusing.  These  Iiooks  were  Hi.stoire 
de  la  Societe  Franraise pemhint  In  liivohiiion  ( 1854 ), 
La  SoeiHe  Francaise  peiirlnnt  Ic  Directoire  (ISm), 
Portraits  iiitimcs  (hi  XVIIF  S!h-!e  (1856-58), 
Histoirc  (Ic Marie  Antoinette  (1858),  Les  Jltiitrrsse.s' 
(le  I.oiiiit  XV.  ( 1860),  La  Femme  an  XVLIL  Hi-r/e 
(1862),  anil  U Amour  an  XVIIT  Siicle  (1S75). 
Of  much  more  real  value  is  (Vorani/ ( 1873),  L'Art 
an  XVIir  Steele  (1874),  and  the  later  books  de- 
voted to  Watteau  (1876)  and  Prmlhon  (1877). 

But  the  important  wiuk  of  the  lie  Gonconrt 
brothers  commenceil  when  they  assumeil  the  novel 
as  the  mould  into  which  to  pour  the  metal  of  their 
prolonged  and  exact  observation.  Their  conception 
of  the  novel  was  that  it  should  be  an  imaginative 
attempt  to  grasp  and  summari  :  the  results  of 
this  ;  and  the  task  they  put  before  themselves  wa.s 
to  unite  by  means  of  a  ydot  such  ;is  might  have 
liappeneil  a  multitude  of  observed  facts,  and  to  cast 
around  these  an  atmosphere  which  should  illumine 
them.  Their  aim  was  to  paint  manners  by  taking 
the  traits  in  which  one  man  resemldes  a  class,  rather 
than  to  grasp  personal  character  by  the  points 
wherein  one  man  is  distinguished  from  another,  in 
the  manner  of  Balzac  or  (Jeorge  Eliot.  Hence  they 
select  as  generic  types  only  persons  of  moderate 
faculties,  and  herein  they  are  poorer  than  nature 


292 


GONDAR 


GONDS 


herself,  wliicli  not  only  creates  oliisses  and  {0"0Ui>8 
bnt  exceptional  lljinres  also.  Their  figures  suli- 
niit  to  lirV  without  siiliiluin^;  it,  ami  are  weifiheil 
down  l>y  that  irresohiteness  of  will  and  morhiil 
sensilivenes-s  to  sntlerin;;  which  is  the  especial 
disease  of  our  a;;e.  Their  suhject  is  not  so  much 
the  passions  as  the  manners  of  the  liUli  century, 
and  their  sense  of  the  enormous  iiilluence  of  envir- 
onment and  haliit  upon  man  necessitated  so  close 
a  study  of  the  arts  of  contemixirary  life  that  their 
work  will  he  valued  hy  future  historians  as  a  store- 
house of  materials.  Their  descriptive  part  is  always 
especially  prominent,  and  their  stories  usually 
commence  without  explanation  and  end  without 
denouement. 

The  novels  in  which  the  brothers  carried  out  their 
theories  disnlay  a  marvellous  unitv,  desjiite  their 
double  ori;,'in.  The  lirst,  La  Uuiniites  tic  Leitrr.t 
(1800;  new  ed.  as  Charles  Dcmailli/),  was  followed 
by  Sum-  Philumine  ( 1861 ),  linifc  Maiincrin  ( 1864), 
Ocnninii:  Lnccrteux  ( IjJB.')),  Manctte  Salomon  ( 1867 ). 
and  Madame  (lefvaianis  (1869).  The  last  is  their 
greatest  novel,  the  sharp  ami 
painful  anal.vsis  i.f  wliicli  was 
too  close  a  rellex  of  them- 
selves. Imleeil,  the  weaker  of 
the  two  did  not  .survive  this 
book,  which  m.iy  be  said  to 
have  been  written  with  his 
heart's  blood,  .\fterthedeath 
of  .Jules.  SOth  .lune  1870, 
Edmond  (who  lived  till  l'2th 
JuU-  1896)  issue<l  /,«  Fille 
£lisa  (1878),  La  Faust  in 
(1882),  and  C'/iirie  (1885). 
The  IiUes  et  Sensations 
(1866)  hail  alre.ady  revealed 
to  the  world  their  morbid 
byperacuteness  of  sensation 
so  fatal  to  nervous  health 
and  to  that  e<|uilibrium  of 
sanitv  which  behmged  to 
Goetiie,  Victor  Hugo,  and 
all  the  dlvmpiairs  ;  ami  La 
Miiisnii  tl'uii  Artiste  (IHSI) 
had  shown  their  patient  h)ve 
for  lirieiihrar  and  its  rellex 
inliueuce  upon  the  mind  ;  but 

the  Lettrcs  dr  Jiile.i  Goneourt  (1885),  and  still  nmre 
the  Journal  ilcs  Goneourt  (6  vols.  1888-92),  have 
ili.sclosed  their  conception  of  fiction  an<l  their 
method  of  work  so  fully,  that  the  latter  may  be 
aceeptetl  as  the  formal  propajjamla  of  a  school 
which  embraces  many  of  the  foremost  novelists  of 
France.  See  a  line  study  by  I'aul  liour{;et  in  his 
Koiirean.r  Essais  dc  I'si/eliolutjie  { 1885) :  and  Helloc 
and  Shedlock,  E.  and  J.  dc  Goneourt  (2  vols.  1892). 

(lioildar,  capital  of  Amh.ara  in  Aby.s.sinia,  is 
situated  on  a  ba.s.altic  hill  2;!  miles  N.  of  Lake 
Tzana  isee  Abvssinia).  tlomlar  was  formerly  the 
resilience  of  the  emperor,  ami  at  one  time  hail 
about  .lO.tXK)  inhabitants  ;  its  population  numbers 
at  present  barely  4(MK;,  thouj^h  there  are  still  some 
forty  churches.  The  hill  is  crowned  by  the  niin 
of  tlie  old  ca-stle,  built  by  Indian  architects  under 
I'ortu^'uese  direction  ;  burned  by  Theoilore  in  1S(>7. 
it  is  now  left  to  the  bats  and  liy:cnas.  The 
Mohammeilan  town  ( I.slambed  ),  at  the  foot  of  the 
hill,  formerly  noticeable  for  its  clean  streets  and 
pretty  houses,  li.os  been  deserted  in  consequence  of 
an  edict  commanding;  the  baptism  of  the  inhabit- 
ants ;  but  the  Fal.'vshas  are  permitted  to  keep  their 
Jewish  quarter.  I'art  of  the  town  was  bunied  by 
the  iJervishes  in  1S.S9.  There  are  manufactures  df 
hue  leather  and  ^'old  and  silver  lilij,Tee-work,  church 
vessels,  .and  musical  instruments  :  and  the  miests 
are  masters  of  penmanship,  and  i)repare  reli;,'ious 
paintings,  reading-desks,  and  pnaying-stools.    Most 


of  the  voting   priests  of   Abyssinia   are  educated 
here,     "fhere  is  a  considerable  transit  trade. 

<»oil«lo  koro,  a  trading-post  in  the  country  of 
the  Hari  negri>es,  on  the  l  pper  Nile,  in  about  4° 
.54'  N.  lat.  A  Catholic  mission  foumlcd  here  in 
IH.")."!  wa-s  discontinued  in  ls.'>,s  owing  to  the  bad 
climate  and  the  hostility  of  the  slave-traders.  It 
is  now  deserted  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year, 
but  in  Decenilx'r  and  .laniiary  merchants  arrive 
anil  establish  an  important  ivory-market,  which 
wa.s  formerl.v  also  a  centre  of  tin-  slave-trade.  To 
put  this  down  IJaker  establi.-hed  a  strong  militar.v 
station  here  in  1871,  and  changed  the  name  to 
Ismailia  ;  but,  liefore  the  abandunment  by  Kgypt 
of  its  pos-se.ssions  in  t'entral  Africa,  (Gordon  removed 
the  station  to  Lado,  6  miles  lower  down  the  Nile. 

(•Oll'dula  ( I  tab),  a  long  narrow  boat  (averaging 
."JO  feet  by  4)  used  cliielly  on  the  canals  of  \"enice. 
The  jirow  and  stern  tajicr  to  a  iioint,  and  curve  high 
out  of  the  water.  In  the  centre  there  nuiy  or  nmy 
not    be   a   curtained    chamber   for   the   occnpant,s. 


Venetian  Gondola. 

The  lK)al  is  usually  jiropelled  by  one  man  stand- 
ing at  the  stern,  bv  means  of  a  large  sweep  very 
deftly  iinil  powerfully  handled  bv  the  gomlolier  :  or 
there  mav  be  another  man  at  tbe  bow.  Immense 
sums  were  sjient  bv  the  wcaltliv  on  the  luxurious 
.adoniinent  of  their  gondolas,  till  in  the  16tli  cen- 
tury sumptuary  laws  were  pa.ssed,  the  con.sequence 
of  which  was  that  the  ordinary  gondola  came  to  be 
of  the  ]ilainest  funereal  black,  with  black  cloth 
cushions  .and  litting; — in  Uyron's  phrase,  'just  like 
a  cotlin  clapp'd  in  a  canoe.' 

Cioiidoiiiar.  Dtkco  S.\r.mikxto  de  AcfiiA, 
M.\i!i<lls  i)E,  Sjianisb  .amb,issador  in  England  from 
161.'{  to  16'21.  He  acquired  great  inllucnce  over 
King  .James  I.,  and  plied  him  with  all  the  arts  of 
persu.asion  to  iniluce  him  to  bring  the  projected 
Spanish  match,  the  marriiige  of  I'rince  Charles 
with  the  Infanta,  to  ,i  successful  termination. 
The  ruling  motive  of  his  policy  w.as,  however,  the 
warmly  cherished  hope  of  nein;;  able  eventually  to 
convert  the  Knjrlish  nation  to  Uoman  Catholicism. 
See  S.  I{.  (I.ardiner,  I'rinee  Charles  and  the  Spanish 
Marriage  (1869). 

CaOnds,  a  Dravidian  people,  the  most  important 
of  tbe  non-Arv"an  or  '.alionginal '  hill-races  of  the 
Centr.al  Provinces  (q.v.)  of  India.  They  probably 
entered  the  country  at  an  early  period  from  the 
north,  and  nave  their  name  to  (Jondwana,  which 
comprised  the  greater  part  of  the  Central  Provinces  ; 


GONFALON 


GONSALVO    DI    CORDOVA       293 


but  it  was  only  fvoni  the  16th  century  to  the 
Mahiatta  invasion  in  1741-81  tliat  they  ruled  the 
central  tableland.  To-day  they  number  about  a 
million  and  a  half,  and,  while  the  wilder  tribes  cling 
to  the  forest,  the  rest  have  made  some  advances 
in  civilisation.  Most  of  the  upper  classes  are  of 
mixed  blood,  and  many  of  the  race  have  embraced 
Hinduism  ;  but,  while  they  cany  ceremonial  refine- 
ments to  the  extremest  limit,  they  secretly  retain 
many  of  their  old  superstitions,  with  which  they 
have  even  inoculated  their  Aryan  coreligionLsts  in 
the  territory.  The  plebeian  Gonds  are  of  purer 
blood,  and,  as  amon;^:  the  other  hill-tribes,  both 
sexes  limit  their  necessary  attire  to  a  cloth  wound 
about  the  waist,  although  the  younger  people  often 
eke  this  out  with  earrings,  bracelets,  and  neck- 
laces. Each  village  worships  the  three  or  four 
deities  it  knows  best,  while  adudtting  the  existence 
of  an  indefinite  number  of  others.  Cholera  and 
smallpox  are  worshipped  everywhere,  and  the 
Gonds  people  the  forest,  the  rivers,  and  every  rock 
with  evil  spirits.  The  name  Gondwana  is  still 
applied  to  the  tract  which  they  principally  inhabit. 

Cionfaluil  (Ital.  (jonf alone.),  or  GoNF.wox,  an 
ensign  or  standard  ( see  1""l.\o  ),  in  virtue  of  bearing 
which  the  chief-magistrates  in  many  of  the  Italiiin 
cities  were  known  as  gonfnlonicre  (see  Florence). 

CrOnjS^,  a  Chine.se  instniment  of  percus-sion, 
made  of  a  mixture  of  metals  (78  to  80  parts  of 
copper,  and  22  to  20  parts  of  tin),  and  shaped  into 
a  basin-like  form,  flat  and  large,  with  a  rim  a 
few  inches  ileep.  The  sound  of  the  gong  is  pro- 
duced by  striking  it,  while  hung  l)v  the  rim,  with 
a  mallet,  which  puts  the  metal  into  an  extra- 
ordinary state  of  vibration,  and  produces  a  loud 
piercing  sound. 

Ciongora.  Luis  de  G6ngor.\  y  Argote, 
Spanish  lyric  poet,  was  born  at  Cordova,  11th 
July  1.561.  After  a  course  of  study  in  law  at  the 
nnivei'sity  of  Salamanca,  he  settled  <lown  in  his 
native  city  to  cultivate  the  poetic  talents  of  which 
he  had  already  shown  conspicuous  jiroofs  as  a 
student.  About  1014  he  entered  the  church,  and 
became  a  prebendary  of  the  cathedral  at  Conlova, 
and  eventually  chajdain  to  Philip  III.  He  died  in 
his  native  city,  23d  May  1627.  (;(mgora"s  earlier 
writings — sonnets  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects, 
lyrical  poems,  ode.s,  ballads,  and  songs  for  the 
guitar — are  inspired  with  mucli  true  poetic  feeling. 
His  later  works,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of 
longer  poems,  such  as  Solidades  ( or  ^olitar;/  Jfiis- 
i>i;/.i),  Fulifiiiti).  Fyruiiio  ij  Tliishe,  are  executed  in 
an  entirely  ditl'erent  ami  novel  style,  characterised, 
especially  in  respect  of  diction,  by  some  of  the 
same  distinctive  features  as  are  found  in  Euphuism 
in  England  and  Chiabrerism  in  Italy.  This  later 
style  of  Gongora,  which  his  followers  and  imitators  . 
designated  the  -stilo  i-ntta.  is  Horiil.  pedantic,  full  of 
Latin  inversions  and  mythological  allusions,  pomp- 
ous, and  mannered,  and  in  many  places  very 
obscure.  His  works  were  never  published  iluring 
his  lifetime.  The  fii-st  edition  was  printed  by 
Vicuna  in  1627,  good  but  incomplete ;  another 
good  one  is  that  of  lirussels  ( 1659).  See  Churton's 
Gongora  (2  vols.  Lonil.  1862). 

(lOlliatitrs.  a  genus  of  fossil  cephalopodous 
molhisca,  belonging  to  the  same  familv  as  the 
Ammonites.  The  genus  is  characteriseil  by  the 
structure  of  the  .septa,  which  are  lobed,  Imt  with- 
out lateral  denticnlations.  as  in  Ammonites  :  they 
consequently  exhibit,  in  a  sectiim,  a  continuous 
undulating  liue.  Siuue  forms  with  slightly  waved 
septa  approach  very  near  to  the  Nautilus.  The 
siphonal  portion  is  shorter  than  the  sides,  forming 
a  sinus  at  the  back,  as  in  the  Nautilus.  The  bust 
chamber,  the  one  tenanted  by  the  animal,  occupies 
a,  whole   wliorl,   and   has   besides    a    considei-able 


lateral  expansion.  The  shells  are  small,  seldom 
exceeding  6  inches  in  diameter.  This  genus  is  con- 
fined to  the  Paheozoic  strata  :  nearly  two  hundred 
species  have  been  described  from  the  Devonian, 
Carboniferous,  and  Triassic  systems. 

CiOIlidia,  an  old  term  in  lichenologv  for  the 
green  cells  (algal  constituents)  of  the  thallus.  See 
LlcHf;Ns. 

Goilioilieter  (Gr.  gonia,  'an  angle;'  mefron, 
'a  mea-sure),  an  instrument  used  for  measuring 
solid  angles,  and  hence  indispensable  to  the  crj-stal- 
lographer.  There  are  two  kiiuls  in  use,  the  con- 
tart  goniometer  ol  Carangeau  (which  is  sufficiently 
accurate  for  many  purposes,  but  cannot  be  used  in 
the  case  of  very  small  ciystals),  and  the  reflerting 
rjoniometer  by  Dr  WoUaston.  In  skilful  hands 
this  instrument  can  niea.sure  the  angles  of  crystals 
only  the  hundredth  of  an  inch  in  size.  Several 
elaborate  uiodifications  of  this  goniometer  are  now 
employed  by  crystallographers. 

tionorrliea  (Gr.  gonos,  'progeny  or  seed,'  and 
rheo,  'I  flow'),  a  name  originally  applied  almost 
indiscriminately  to  all  discharges  from  the  genital 
])assages  in  both  sexes,  but  especially  in  the  male. 
In  the  course  of  usage  the  term  has  been  almost 
entirely  restricted  to  the  designation  of  one  par- 
ticular kind  of  discharge,  which,  from  its  connec- 
tion with  a  contagious  poison,  was  originally  called, 
in  strict  nosological  language,  G.  rirulentn.  This 
form  of  the  disease  is  usually  caused  by  the  direct 
communication  of  sound  persons  witli  those  already 
all'ected  ;  and  accordingly  gonorrhea  is  one  of  the 
numerous  penalties  attending  an  indiscriminate 
and  impure  intercourse  of  the  sexes  (see  SYPHILIS). 
Gonorrliea  is  a  very  acute  and  painful  form  of 
disease ;  it  is  liable,  also,  to  lea\e  its  traces  in 
the  more  chronic  form  of  gleet,  which  may  last  for 
a  comsiderable  time.  Often,  moreover,  it  leaves 
some  of  the  parts  atl'ected  permanently  damaged, 
and  stricture,  sterility,  &c.  may  result.'  The  only 
constitutional  effect  of  any  importance  is  a  very 
intractable  inflanmiation  of  joints,  closely  resem- 
bling rheumatic  fever,  which  occasionally  follows 
it.  The  name  gonorrliea  was  formed  on  the 
erroneous  supposition  that  the  discharge  consists 
of  the  spermatic  fluid,  whereas,  the  disease  being 
an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  some 
part  of  the  generative  organs,  the  discharge  is  the 
mucopurulent  or  purulent  discharge  from  the 
diseased  surface.  Hence  the  name  L!/rnnorr/iagia 
has  been  proposed  for  the  ailment.  The  disease 
may  reach  its  height  in  a  period  of  from  one  to 
three  weeks ;  it  then  usually  subsides,  and  the 
various  symptoms  abate  in  severity.  For  gonor- 
rheal ophthalmia,  .see  Eye  (  Dise.\ses  of  ).  Victims 
of  gonorrhea  and  the  allied  disorders  should  be 
warned  against  consulting  any  but  medical  men  of 
high  standing  and  undoubted  character. 

tioiisalvo  di  Cordova  (the  name  by  which 

Gonzalo  Hernandez  y  Aguilar  is  usually  known), 
a  celebrated  Spanish  warrior,  was  lH)rn  at  Montilla, 
near  Cordova.  16th  March  U.'j.S.  He  served  with 
great  distinction  fii-st  in  the  war  with  the  Moors 
of  ()rana<la,  and  afterwards  in  the  Portuguese 
campaign.  At  the  close  of  the  final  contest 
with  t;ranaila  lie  concluded  the  negotiation  with 
Boabdil  (.\bu  Abdallali),  king  of  the  >Ioors,  in 
such  a  masterly  manner  that  the  rulers  of  Spain 
bestowed  upon  him  a  pension  and  a  large  estate 
in  the  conquered  territory.  He  was  next  sent  to 
the  assistance  of  Ferdinand  II.,  king  of  Naples, 
against  the  French.  In  less  than  a  year  Gonsalvo. 
with  his  limited  resources,  had  conquered  the  greater 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Najiles,  and  obtained  the 
appellation  of  'El  Gran  Capitan.'  In  conjunction 
with  King  Ferdinand  he  succeeded  in  completely  ex- 
pelling the  French  from  Italy ;  and  in  August  1498 


294 


GONTCHAROFF 


GOOD-CONDUCT    PAY 


he  returned  to  Spain,  liaving  receivwl  as  lewaril 

iiir  h\<  vdliialile  si'ivicfs  an  ei*t.-itu  in  tlie  Aliruzzi, 
Willi  tlu'  titlf  of  Dukp  of  San  Anjielo.  Wlii-n  tlie 
partition  of  tlio  kin;.'cloni  of  Naples  wa-s  (leti'iniinfl 
niioii  liv  a  I "iiipact  untoioil  into  at  Granaila,  lltli 
Noveniiior  I.VK),  (Jonsalvo  aj,'ain  set  out  for  Italy 
with  a  lioilv  of  4*K)  men,  but  lirst  took  Zante 
ami  ( Viiliafonia  from  the  Turks,  ami  restore! 
them  to  the  Venetians.  He  then  lamleil  in  Sii-ilv, 
occupied  Naples  ami  Calahria,  ami  ilemamleil  from 
the  French  that,  in  compliance  witli  the  compact, 
thev  should  yield  up  Capitanata  and  liasilicata. 
This  demand  liein^'  rejected,  a  war  hroke  out 
between  the  two  belligerent  powers,  which  wa-s 
waged  with  varied  success.  After  the  victory  of 
Cengnola,  in  Aiiril  l.JOS,  Gonsalvo  took  iiossession 
of  Calabria,  the  Abniz/.i,  Apulia,  even  the  city  of 
Naples  itself,  and  then  laid  siege  to  llaeta,  but 
wa.-  forceil  to  retreat  before  a  superior  force  of  the 
enemy.  (»n  the  •2'.Uh  December  of  the  same  year, 
liowever,  he  fell  upon  them  unexpectedly  near  the 
Garigliano,  and  obtained  a  comjilete  victory.  The 
French  armv  was  almost  annihilateil  :  the  fortress 
of  tiacta  fell ;  and  the  possession  of  Naples  was 
to    the    Spaniards.      Kini;    Fcnlinand   of 


secureil  to  the  Spaniards.  Kin 
Sjiain  bestowed  the  duchy  of  Sesa  upiin  the  con- 
(pievor,  and  appointed  him  viceroy  of  Naples,  with 
unlimited  authority.  Hi.s  good-fortune,  however, 
maile  him  manv  jiowerful  enemies  ;  ami  he  was  re- 
called to  Sp.aiii  and  to  neglect.  Hi-  lived  on  his 
estates  in  (iran.ada  till  his  dealli,£d  I>ccendier  1515. 
Goiitrliarofr,  Iv.^x  Ai.EX.\Ni)iiovncii  ( 1S13- 

01),  Kus^ian  novelist,  was  born  a  merchants  son 
at  Siniliirsk,  aiid  for  many  yeai-s  was  in  a  govern- 
ment ollice  at  St  Petersburg."  A  Common  Slot ;/ wan 
translated  in  IS'.M  ;  T/ir  Ohlumocs  is  his  masterpiece. 

GoilZSIifa,  a  princely  family  which  gave  a 
line  of  dukes  to  Mantua  and  Montferrat.  The 
sway  of  this  race  over  Mantua  e,\temled  over  a 
period  of  three  centuries,  and  many  of  its  mendjers 
were  magnilicent  [iromoters  and  cultivators  of 
arts,  science,  and  literature.  The  tbinzagas  gradu- 
ally monopcdised  all  the  chief  posts  of  connuand, 
both  civil  ami  military  :  in  14.32  they  were  invested 
with  the  title  and  jurisdiction  of  hereditary  niar- 
quise.s,  and  in  15:i()  with  that  of  dukes  or  sovereigns 
of  the  state.  Alter  their  elevation  to  ducal  dignity 
they  were  the  faithful  champions  of  the  imperial 
interests  in  their  policy  with  other  states.  The 
House  of  (lonzaga  ami  that  of  the  VLsconti  Dukes 
of  Milan  were  iier|petually  at  w.ir  (see  M.KXTlA). 
The  mari|uisate  was  granted  to  Ciovauni  Francesco 
in  143:i.  The  tenth  ami  last  Duke  of  Mantua, 
Fenlinando  ('arlo,  who  hail  coiuilenanced  tlie  French 
in  the  War  of  tin'  Succession,  was  deprived  by  the 
Emperor  Joseph  I.  of  his  states,  and  placed  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire.  He  died  in  e,\ile  in  1708, 
leaviri','  no  issue.— A  branch  of  the  family  ruled 
t;uasialla  till  174(). 

(>;oil7.a£m  Llioi,  known  as  St  ALOv.slf.s,  was 
born  in  the  castle  of  Castiglione,  near  Brescia, 
9th  March  1508,  and  w.as  educated  at  Florence, 
Mantua,  and  Home.  Kenouncing  his  niar(|uisate 
of  Castiglione  in  favour  of  his  brother,  he  entered 
the  Societv  of  .Jesus  in  1585.  At  Itome  during  a 
visitation  "of  the  jilague  he  gave  himself  up  with 
wonderful  .self-devotion  to  the  care  of  the  sick  ; 
and,  stricken  by  the  malady,  died  21st  June  1591. 
He  wius  beatified  in  I6il,  and  canonised  in  1726.  See 
the  Life  of  St  Alo)/siiii)  Gonzaria.  edited  liy  E.  H. 
Thompson  ( 18G7 ) :  the  Italian  Life  by  Cepari  ( trans. 
byGoldie,  1S91);  and  Aubrey  de  Veres /;«■«.'/»■  (1888). 

ClUod.  John  Mascin.  physician  and  writer,  was 
born  May  25,  1704.  at  Kiiping  in  Essex,  where  his 
father  was  an  Inde])endent  minister.  He  was 
.apprenticed  to  a  surgeon-.a])otliecary  at  (iosport. 
next  c'oininued   his  medical  studies  in  London,  and 


commenced  practice  as  a  surgeon  in  Sudbury  in 
1784.  Monev  ditlicnlties  drove  him  to  Lomlon  in 
1793,  where  lie  combined  medicine  with  the  ni<ist 
miscellaneous  literary  activity.  In  1820  he  took 
iiis  .\I.D.  ilegree  at  "Marischiil  College,  Alierileen, 
and  died  January  2,  1827.  Good's  writings  em- 
brace jioenis,  translations  of  Job,  the  Song  of 
Songs,  ami  I.,uerelius,  cs.says  on  prisons,  medical 
teclinology,  and  the  history  of  medicine.  He  colla- 
borated with  Dr  Oliiithiis  tMcgory  and  Newton 
IJosworth  in  the  I'mitoloijin  or  Jiini/rhi/Kii/iii.  com- 
jirisiiir)  a  Gciievul  Uktioiianj  of  Arts,  licieiices.  mid 
Giiicral  Liltratiire,  in  twelve  volumes,  which  was 

I  completed  in  1813.     His  ambitious  ]iocni,  T/nJSook 

':  of  2\alurc,  was  published  in  ls20. 

GoodnlK  Fkeiiicimck,  an  English  artist,  the 
sou  of  Edward  tioodall  (1795-1870),  an  engraver, 
who  early  encouraged  his  .son's  artistic  i.alents.  was 
Ijorn  in  Lomlon,  Septenilier  17,  1822.  He  was  only 
seventeen  years  of  age  when  he  exhibiteil  his  lii-st 
])icture  at  the  Hoyal  Academy,  'French  S<diliei-s 
•  pl.aying  Cards  in  a  Cabaret.'  "'The  Keturn  from  a 
Christening,'  which  received  a  iirize  of  £50  from 
the  British  Institution,  'Tired  Soldier"  (1842), 
'Village  Festival'  (1847),  'Hunt  the  Slipper' 
(1849),  'liaising  the  Maypole'  (1851),  and  'Clan- 
nier  at  the  Traitors'  (Jate'  (1850)  are  amonj.'st 
the  best  of  his  early  idctures.  A  visit  to  \enice 
and  Egypt  in  l857-.")9  led  him  to  turn  his  atteiitiim 
to  Italian  and  oriental  subjects,  such  as  '  Beciting 
Ta.sso  '  ( 1859),  '  .Song  of  the  Nubian  Slave  '  (  1804 ), 
'Rising  of  the  Nile'  (1805),  '  Mat-r  Dtdoiosa' 
(1808),  'Sheep- washing  near  the  I'yrainids  of 
Gizeh  '  (1870).  'Daughters  of  Laban  '  (1^78), 
'  Beturn  from  Mecca  '  (1881),  'Flight  into  Fgyj.t ' 
(1885),  ami  numerous  others.  tJoodall  was  elected 
a  Boyal  Academician  in  1803. 

Good-COIldlH't  ray  is  an  ad.lition  toonlinary 
pav,  granted  to  privates,  lance-corixirals,  and  .acting 
Ixiinbardiers  of  the  British  armv.  To  earn  one 
penny  a  cl.iy  the  soldier  must  iiave  served  two 
years  without  his  name  having  appeareil  in  the 
"leginiental  defaulters'  book,  in  which  seriou.'* 
crimes  are  reconleil.  For  a  second  ]ieniiy  six  yeai-s' 
service  is  rei|uisite,  and  the  soldier  iiiiisi  have  held 
the  first  ]ieniiv  for  two  yeiirs  without  an  entry  in 
tlie  regiment.al  defaultei-s'  book— called  a  \  term  of 
go(Kl  conduct.'  A  third  penny  can  similarly  be 
earned  after  twelve  years'  service,  a  fourth  after 
eighteen,  and  othei-s  after  periods  of  live  years. 
I  Each  ]>enny  carries  with  it  a  badge  or  Chevron 
t  (q.v.)  to  be  W(un  on  the  left  sleeve.  A  special 
rule  enables  a  man  who  has  served  without  an 
entry  for  14  years  continuously  to  obtain  his  fourth 
and  "succeeding  badges  and  good-conduct  pay  two 
.years  sooner  than  he  otherwise  would  do.  ttne 
badge  ami  the  pay  attached  to  it  is  forfeiteil  for 
every  entry  in  the  regimental  def.anlten-'  book, 
but  "may  lie  regained  by  a  '  half-term  of  good 
conduct '  (one  year)  for  each  badge  lost.  A  soldier 
who  deserts,  or  is  sentenced  by  court-martial  to 
penal  servitude  or  to  be  discharged,  or  by  a  civil 
court  to  imprisonment  exceeding  six  months,  for- 
feits, as  a  result  of  the  sentence,  all  his  biidges  and 
good-conduct  liay  ;  and  a  court-martial  may  spe- 
cially sentence  liini  to  this  forfeiture  for  any  oll'ence. 
Sergeants  and  full  corporals  or  bonibanlieis  when 
reduced  to  the  ranks  are  allotted  the  good-conduct 
iiay  and  badges,  less  one,  which  their  service  wimlil 
have  entitled  them  to  if  they  had  not  been  iiro- 
moteil,  though  none  is  granteil  to  them  while 
non-coininissioned  otljcers.  Sergeants  of  distin- 
guisheil  or  meritorious  service,  however,  are  granted 
annuities,  not  over  f'20  each,  receivable  iluring 
active  service,  ami  also  on  retirement,  together 
« ith  a  silver  medal  inscribed  '  for  meritorious 
service,'    or     '  for    distinguished    conduct    in    the 


GOODEXIACE.^ 


GOOD-WILL 


295 


flelJ.' — In  the  navy  verj-  similar  rules  govern  the 
issue  of  good-conduct  pay,  but  its  amount  is  limited 
to  threejieuce  a  day,  and  petty  otticei's  may  hold  it. 
In  the  United  States  the  pay  of  ])rivate  soldiers 
increa.ses  from  S13  to  $18  per  month  accordinj:  to 
length  of  service  ;  and  the  pay  of  officers  in  active 
service,  from  chaplain  to  colonel,  increases  by  10 
per  cent,  for  eveiy  five  yeare'  service  till  the  com- 
pletion of  twenty  yeai-s'  service. 

CrUOdeniaoeae,  an  order  of  corollifloral  di- 
cotyledons, closely  allied  to  Canii)anulacese  and 
Lobeliacea?.  The  200  species,  the  great  part  herbs, 
are  mostly  natives  of  the  Australian  and  South 
African  regions.  Goodcnia  ovata  is  a  pretty  yellow- 
tiowered  shrub  of  Australia.  Sc(evola  TaccaJa  is  a 
shrub  from  the  pith  of  which  the  Malays  make  a 
kind  of  rice-paper.  The  young  leaves  are  eaten  as 
a  salad. 

Good  Friday,  the  name  applied  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  Anglican  Church  to  the  Friday  before 
Easter,  sacred  as  commemorating  the  crucifixion 
of  our  L<jrd  ;  jxtraskeiie.  Holy  Fritlay,  or  Friday  in 
Holy  Week,  was  its  general  appellation.  This  day 
was  kept  as  a  dav  of  mourning,  of  rigid  fa-st,  and 
of  special  prayer  from  a  very  early  period.  It  was 
one  of  the  two  paschal  days  celeorated  by  the 
Christian  church,  and  in  meinor\-  of  the  crucifixion 
was  called  by  the  Greeks  Paar/ta  StiHirOsimun,  or 
the  '  Pasch  of  the  Cross.'  In  the  Catholic  Church 
the  service  of  this  day  Is  very  peculiar :  instead 
of  the  ordinary  mass,  it  consists  of  what  is  called 
the  Mass  of  the  Pre-sanctilied.  the  sacred  host  not 
being  consecrated  on  Good  Friday,  but  reserved 
from  the  preceding  day.  Formerly  all  the  faithful 
partook  in  silence  of  the  eucharist,  but  at  present 
communion  is  forbidden  on  Good  Friday,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  celebrant  and  of  sick  persons. 
The  priests  and  attendants  are  vested  in  black  ; 
the  altar  remains  stripped  of  its  oinaments,  as  on 
Holy  Thni-sday  ;  a  wooden  clapper  is  substituted 
for  the  bell  at  the  elevation  of  tlie  host;  the  priest 
recites  a  series  of  prayers  for  all  cla-sscs,  orders,  and 
ranks  in  the  church,  and  even  for  heretics,  ]>agans, 
and  Jews,  though  the  ministers'  genuHexion  is 
omitted  before  this  last  petition,  in  detestation  of 
the  feigned  obeisance  with  which  the  Jews  mocked 
Christ.  But  the  most  striking  part  of  the  cere- 
monial of  Good  Friday  is  the  so-called  '  adoration 
of  the  cro.ss,'  or,  as  it  was  called  in  the  Old  English 
popular  vocabulary,  'creeping  to  the  cross.'  Xlie 
black  covering  is  removed  from  a  large  cracitix 
which  is  placed  before  the  altar,  and  the  entire  con- 
gregation, commencing  with  the  celelirant  priest 
anil  Ids  ministers,  ajiproach,  and  upon  their  knees 
reverently  kiss  the  hgure  of  our  crucified  Lord.  In 
the  eyes  of  Protestants  this  ceremony  appears  to 
partake  more  strongly  of  the  idolatrous  cliaracter 
than  any  other  in  tlie  Komari  Catholic  ritual  ;  but 
Catholics  earnestly  repudiate  all  such  construction 
of  the  ceremony  (see  Idol.a,try,  I.m.^ge-woeshii'). 
The  \cvy  striking  office  of  TeiiehriE  ( '  darkness ' )  is 
held  upon  Good  Friday,  as  well  as  on  the  preceding 
two  days  :  it  consists  of  the  matins  and  lauds  of 
the  following  day,  and  has  this  peculiarity,  that  by 
the  close  all  the  lights  in  the  church  have  l)een 
gradually  e.xtinguislied  excejit  one,  which  for  a 
time  ( as  a  symbol  of  our  Lord's  death  and  burial ) 
is  hidden  at  the  Epistle  corner  of  the  altar. 

In  the  Anglican  Church  also  Gooil  Friday  is  cele- 
brated with  snecial  solemnity  :  proper  psalms  are 
aiipoiuted,  ami  one  of  the  three  special  collects  is 
a  prayer  for  'all  Jews,  Turks,  heretics,  and  infidels.' 
In  some  ritualistic  churches  the  improjicria,  or 
'reproaches,'  ado^jted  from  the  Roman  service,  are 
sung ;  and  Bach  s  Passion  juusic  is  frei|uently 
heard.  In  England  and  Ireland  Good  Friday  is 
by  law  a  dies  iioit,  and  all  business  is  suspended  : 


bvit  this  is  not  the  case  in  Scotland  or  the  United 
States.  In  Scotland  the  day  until  recently  met  with 
no  peculiar  attention,  except  from  members  of  the 
Episcopal  and  Roman  Catliolic  comnmnions ;  but 
of  late  years  there  have  been  services  in  some  Pres- 
byterian churches  in  the  larger  towns.  See  also 
Ckoss-buns,  and  CRAMr-lUNU.S. 

Good  Hope.    See  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Goodrich,  Samcel  Gri.swold,  an  American 
autlior,  best  known  liy  his  jien-name,  Petee 
Parley,  was  born  in  Ridgefield,  Connecticut,  19th 
August  1793,  and  edited  in  Boston  an  annual  called 
The  Tolcu  from  1828  to  1S42,  to  which  he  contrib- 
uted poems,  tales,  and  essays,  and  in  which  the 
best  of  Hawthorne's  '  Twice-told  Tales '  first  ap- 
peared. He  published  some  two  hundred  volumes, 
mostly  for  the  young,  and  dealing  with  historj-, 
geography,  travels,  and  natural  history.  Many  of 
his  books  were  rejirinted,  and  became  popular  in 
Great  Britain.  He  died  9th  May  1860.  See  his 
Recollections  of  a  Lifetime  (2  vols.  New  York, 
1857). 

Goodsir,  John,  anatomist,  was  boni  in  1814, 
at  Austruther  in  Fife,  studied  arts  at  St  Andrews 
University,  and  was  next  apprenticed  to  a  dentist 
in  Edinburgh,  attending  the  medical  cla.sses  there 
the  Mhile.  In  1839  he  published  a  striking  essay 
on  the  teeth,  and  next  year  became  keeper  of 
the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in 
Edinliurgh,  where  he  lectured  on  the  diseases  of 
bone  and  cartilage  (1842-43).  He  also  investi- 
gated the  minute  stiiicture  of  the  healthy  tissues, 
and  wa-s  one  of  the  first  observers  who  strongly 
insisted  on  the  importance,  throughout  the  animal 
textures,  of  the  cell  as  a  centre  of  nutrition. 
His  important  memoirs  on  Secreting  Structures 
and  on  the  Human  Placenta,  ami  many  of  Ids 
papers  in  comparative  anatomy  ami  natural  his- 
tory, are  still  of  value.  Of  these  a  volume  was 
issued  in  184.5.  In  1S44  Goodsir  was  ajipointed 
assistant  to  Dr  Monro,  professor  of  Anatomy  in 
the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  two  years  later 
became  his  successor.  Here  he  maintained  a  wide 
reputation  as  an  anatomical  teacher.  Ill-health 
overtook  him  near  the  close  of  his  life,  and  he  died 
6th  ilarcli  1S67.  See  the  Memoir  by  Professor 
Turner  (1868). 

Good  Templars,  a  temperance  society  founded 
in  the  United  States  in  1852  and  introduced  into 
England  in  1808.  Their  organisation  is  largely 
modelled  on  that  of  the  Freemasons,  total  abstin- 
ence principles  being  furthered  by  means  of  lodges, 
pass- words,  grips,  and  insignia.     See  Tejiper.\nce. 

Good-will,  when  used  as  a  legal  term,  has  two 
meanings,  which  have  been  conveniently  distin- 
guished as  personal  and  local  good-will.  Personal 
good-will  is  that  interest  which  is  sold  along  with 
a  profession,  and  is  transferable  from  one  peison 
to  another  by  the  recommendation  of  the  seller, 
and  his  agreement  not  to  compete  with  the  buyer, 
as  when  a  doctor  or  a  dentist  sells  his  practice. 
Local  good-«ill  is  the  saleable  interest  which 
attaches  to  a  jiarticular  business  at  a  particular 
place,  or,  as  Lord  Eldon  <lefined  it,  '  the  chance 
that  the  old  customers  will  re-sort  to  the  old  place,' 
without  the  further  ailvantage  of  personal  stipula- 
tions with  the  seller,  as  in  tlie  sale  of  >ucli  a  busi- 
ness as  'The  Railway  Hotel,'  "The  Market  Shop.' 
When  an  old  business  is  transferred  the  possession 
of  the  jiremises  and  the  old  stock  ( which  is  neces- 
sary to  the  ac(|uirenient  of  the  gooil-will )  is  usually 
regukited  by  special  agreement,  and  what  goes  as 
good-will  is  the  right  to  carry  on  the  old  business, 
to  represent  that  it  is  the  old  business  that  is 
carried  on.  to  use  the  trade  name  and  the  trade- 
mark, and  to  l>eneHt  by  the  covenants  made  by  the 
previous  ow  ner  for  the  protection  of  his  business. 


296 


G00r)-^^  ii.L 


GOODWIN    SANDS 


In  a  strict  view  tliere  is  no  siicli  tliiiijj;  iis  ii  trans- 
fenilile  };<«Ml\vill  of  so  pei-soniil  n  tm^*iness  as  a 
uiediciil,  le;;iil,  or  other  |irot"<'ssiimal  praotiee.  In 
tlie  sale  of  these  tliere  ou^'ht  therefore  always  to 
lie  a  sli|nilation  that  the  seller  shall  not  eoniiiete 
with  the  huycr  hv  imietisinj;  in  the  same  locality, 
or  that  he  sliall  retire  from  praetioe  :  and  that  the 
seller  shall  iiitnnliice  ami  recommeml  the  Imyer  to  his 
connection  as  his  i|ualilicil  successor.  At  lirst  such 
a  covciiaiil  was  son^'lit  to  he  set  aside  as  invalid, 
on  the  t,'nmml  that  it  tendcil  to  restrain  the  natural 
liherty  of  trade  ;  lint  the  eoiirls  have  now  lirmly 
eslaliiished  that,  if  a  delinite  railius  of  moderate 
length  is  tixed  n])on,  it  does  not  sensilily  restrain 
trade,  iiiilsniiieli  as  the  person  covenantin;;  can  ;,'o 
lieyoml  those  limits,  and  trade  as  much  as  he 
iilciises.  If  the  party  breaks  his  covenant  he  is 
liahle  to  an  action  for  dama;,'es.  See  Charles  E. 
Allan,  y/i.'  I.:(ir  ir/idiiifi  to  liootl-vill  (  1S89). 

(lioodwill  KaiKis,  famous  sandhanks  streteh- 
ing  aljont  10  miles  in  a  NK.  and  S\V.  direction  at 
an  average  distance  of  oj  miles  from  the  east  coast 
of  Kent.  Large  level  patches  of  sand  are  left  dry 
when  the  tide  receiles,  and  allVird  a  linn  foothold, 
so  that  cricket  has  often  ticen  ]ilayed  upon  thcni. 
When  covered  the  sands  are  shifting,  and  may  he 
moved  hy  the  prevailing  tiile  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  considcrahly  change  the  form  of  the  shoal.  The 
general  oiilline,  however,  has  heen  fairly  constant, 
altliough  the  survey  of  188.')  hy  Stall' commander 
Tizaid,  K.N.,  has  ilemonstrated  a  temlency  to  more 
iiiiporlaiit  motion  than  usual.  The  shoal  is  diviiled 
into  two  princip.il  parts,  called  the  North  (oiodwin 
and  the  South  (loodwiii  respectively,  lielween 
which  is  the  deep  iidel  nameil  Trinity  15ay,  where 
three  steamships  have  heen  iieacefuUy  anchored  at 
one  time.  In  1841  it  wius  proposed  hy  W.  Hush, 
C. E. ,  and  .1.  I).  I'aine,  architect,  to  liuild  a  liar- 
hour  of  refuge  on  the  (iooilwin  Sands  hy  enclosing 
Trinity  l>ay  with  a  solid  wall  of  ni.asonry,  having 
a  large  iion  lighthouse  at  the  entrance.  The 
North  (loodwin  is  of  irregular  seiuicircular  shajie. 
with  the  curved  houndary  on  its  northern  or  outer 
edge.  The  North  Sand  Head  light-vessel  is  moored 
a  little  to  the  eastward  of  its  northern  extreme, 
exhiliits  a  white  Hash  light,  and  is  ahout  7  miles 
ilistant  from  Kamsgate.  So  far  hack  as  179o  a 
lightshiji,  showing  three  lights,  was  moored  to  the 
northeast  of  this  shoal.  The  South  Coodwin  is  in 
shape  somewhat  like  a  erah's  claw  with  its  lower 
part  fully  extendeil.  The  South  Sand  Head  light- 
ship lies  otr  its  sonth-western  extremity,  and 
exhiliits  a  douhle-tlash  white  light.  <tn  the 
western  side  riilcs  the  tluU  Stream  lightship, 
displaying  a  white  revolving  light.  .\  fourth  light- 
ship, known  as  the  East  loiodwin,  lies  It  mile 
to  the  eastwaril  of  the  sands,  ami  exhiliits  a  green 
revolving  light.  Pa.s.sing  ships  not  infreiiuently 
foul  these  lightships,  notwithstanding  the  penalty 
of  £.")0  and  exjienses  to  which  they  lieconie  liahle. 
On  .Wth  Novemher  1878  no  fewer  than  three  un- 
known ships  in  succession  ran  into  the  East  (iood- 
win  lightship.  All  four  of  the  lights  are  visihle 
10  miles  in  clear  weather.  Each  vessel  is  painted 
red,  has  her  name  in  hoM  letters  on  both  sides, 
and  is  otherwise  distinguished  hy  the  dis|)osition 
of  her  mast  or  masts.  In  foggy  weather  a  fog 
siren  is  sounded  on  the  South  Sand  Head  lightship. 
and  gongs  are  beaten  on  board  the  other  three. 
Should  a  ship  be  observed  standing  into  danger. 
warning  guns  are  lired  without  delay.  The  (oiod 
win  Sancis  are  also  marked  by  nine  buoys  moored 
in  well-delined  |iositions  arounrl  them,  and  ilistin- 
guishahle  from  one  another  by  their  various  colours 
and  shape.s.  One,  the  north-east  (Jooilwin  bimy, 
is  a  Courtenay's  .self-acting  whistle  buoy.  This 
admirable  system  of  lightshi]is  and  buoys  has 
robbed  the  OooJwins  of  much  of  their  danger. 


These  sands  have  always  been  dangerous  to 
ve.s.sels  pa.ssing  through  the  Straits  of  Dover.  On 
the  other  hand,  they  .serve  as  a  lireakw>ater  to 
form  a  secure  anchorage  in  the  Downs  (ij.v.)  when 
easterly  or  south-easterly  winds  are  blowing.  The 
Downs,  tlimigh  safe  under  these  circumslaiiees, 
biM'ome  ilangcious  when  the  wind  blows  strongly 
oil-shore,  at  which  lime  ships  are  apt  to  drag  their 
anchors,  and  to  straiul  uimn  the  perliiliims  (lood- 
wins.  As  a  rule,  wrecks  are  soon  swallowed  up 
by  the  greedy  sands.  One  ship,  the  Oiilr  I'listlr,  of 
1(KK»  tons  burden,  entirely  ilisappeareil  in  an  hour. 
In  May  1841,  however,  the  ship  Klliitnt  remained 
ashore  on  the  North  (ioodwin  for  nineteen  lon- 
secutive  tides,  anil  was  got  oil'  only  slightly 
damaged.  The  timbers  of  another  wreck  were 
exposed  to  view  at  intervals  for  forty  years. 
.Many  celebrated  wrecks  have  taken  place  here, 
the  most  terrible  having  been  the  loss  of  an  entire 
Heet  of  thirteen  men df-war,  during  the  'great 
storm'  on  the  night  of  the  'Jlitli  of  November  I70.'{, 
on  the  Sands  and  neighbouring  shore.  In  two  of 
these,  the  Mmii  and  the  llisttiiiiliiiii,  every  soul 
Iierished.  Admiral  lieaumont  with  1'2(K»  ollicers 
and  men  weie  lost.  Many  jioor  wietchcs  got  on 
to  the  (Joodwins  when  the  tide  was  out,  and  were 
seen  from  the  shore.  Mr  T.  I'owcll,  the  then 
mayor  of  Deal,  seizeil  the  custom-house  boats,  and 
paid  live  shillings  for  every  man  saved.  Over 
two  hunilrcd  were  rescued  who  would  certainly 
have  been  overwhelmed  by  the  rising  tide.  In 
December  18(l.'i  here  foundcicd  the  Aiinirii,  a 
transport,  when  no  fewer  than  three  hundred 
persons  perished  ;  in  December  1814  the  lliiti.ih 
Queen,  an  Ostend  jiacket,  was  lost  with  all  hands; 
and  in  .lanuary  18,"i7  the  mail  steamer  Viulet  was 
destroyed. 

These  ilangerous  sands  are  said  to  have  once 
been  a  low  fertile  island  called  Lomea  [Iiifera 
Iiisiiht  of  the  Homans),  belonging  to  Earl  (oidwin, 
where  he  liveil  and  kept  his  Meets;  but  in  1014, 
and  again  in  IO!)!l,  it  was  <iverwlielmed  by  a  sudden 
inundation  of  the  sea,  which  also  did  great  damage 
in  other  Jiaits  of  Europe.  The  tale  is  that  at  the 
|>eriod  of  the  ('oni|uest  by  William  of  Normandy 
these  estates  were  taken  from  Earl  Oodwin's  son, 
and  bestowed  niion  the  abbey  of  St  .Augu-line  at 
Canterbury.  The  abbot,  having  diverted  the  funds 
with  wliicii  it  should  have  been  maintained  to  the 
building  of  Tenterden  steeple,  allowed  the  sea- 
wall to  fall  into  a  dilapidated  condition  ;  and  so, 
in  the  year  lOitil,  the  waves  rushed  in,  and  over- 
whelmed the  whole.  Tenterden,  it  should  be 
noted,  is  an  inlaml  place  near  the  south-west  fron- 
tier of  Kent,  I'l  miles  NNE.  of  lliistings.  Thus 
'Tenterden  steeple  was  the  cause  of  the  Coodwin 
Sands  ; '  so,  at  least,  says  one  of  the  manv  legends 
ciuinected  with  these  remarkable  shoals.  Hut 
geology  indicates  a  date  long  anterior  to  the 
catastrophe  of  the  legenil. 

Ditliculty  is  expciicnced  in  linding  firm  anchor- 
age for  the  lightships ;  and  all  etlorts  to  estab- 
lish a  lighthouse  have  been  hitherto  unsuccessful. 
In  1840  a  he.acon,  having  a  refuge-gallery  at  its 
summit  capable  of  containing  forty  (leople,  was 
erecteil  by  Captain  Hullock,  K.N.,  which  stood 
for  some  years,  and  another  in  1847  <iii  piles  of 
iron  screwed  into  the  sanil,  on  Dr  I'otfs  method, 
but  this  was  washed  away  twd  months  afterwards. 
As  soon  as  a  vessel  is  known  to  have  been  ilriven 
upon  the  sands,  signal  rockets  are  thrown  u)i  and 
guns  fired  from  the  lightships,  when  one  or  more 
of  the  four  lifeboats  from  Kamsgate,  Deal,  Waliner, 
or  Kingsilown  immediately  launch  to  the  rescue, 
followed  usually  by  '  liovellers"  boats.  These 
'hovellers,'  as  the  pilots  ami  boatmen  of  the 
Cini|ue  Torts  are  called,  show,  in  seasons  of 
tempest  and  danger,  an  intrepidity  which  is  worthy 


GOODWOOD 


GOOSE 


297 


of  all  praise.     See  Gattie,  Memorials  of  the  Good- 

tvin  Sands  (I'im). 

CiOodwond.  tlie  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Kichmond, 
SA,  miles  NE.  iif  Chichester.  An  l.Stli  century 
hiiililin;,'  Ijy  ('lianibers  ami  W'yatt,  it  has  a  notalile 
collection  of  iiortraits  ;  and  its  ]iark  is  fanio\is  for 
it.s  ceilans  and  other  trees,  which  in  \~'ii  indnded 
'  thirty  ditVerent  kinds  of  oaks  and  4()0  dili'erent 
American  trees  and  shrnhs '  ( Bishop  I'ocock's 
Trarels  thniiirih  Enrjiand,  Camden  Society,  1889). 
Here  i.s  the  ]]icturesqne  raceennrse,  where  the 
famous  Goodwood  nieetin;,'  is  held  at  the  end  of 
July,  at  the  close  of  the  London  .sea.son.  It  was 
established  in  1802;  hut  its  importance  (since 
1H2.))  was  due  to  Lord  George  lientinck's  e.\er- 
tions. 

Ooodyear.  Charles,  an  American  inventor, 
was  l)orn  'iOth  December  180(»,  at  Now  Haven,  Con- 
necticut. He  failed  as  an  iron  manufacturer  in  18.30, 
but  in  18.34  turned  his  attention  to  india-rubber, 
the  manufactured  products  of  which  had  hitherto 
proved  failures  because  of  their  liability  to  soften  in 
the  heat  of  summer.  Amid  poverty  and  ridicule, 
sometimes  in  ])rison  for  debt,  he  patiently  pursued 
the  e.\periments  which,  after  he  hail  obtained  a 
tresh  iilea  from  his  assistant  Hayward's  >ise  of 
.sulphur,  ended,  in  1844,  in  the  issue  of  his  patent 
for  vulcanised  rubber  (see  IXDlA-RUliliEli ).  This 
process  he  afterwards  perfected,  discovering  new 
uses  to  which  his  product  could  be  applied,  until 
it  required  sixty  patents  to  secure  his  inventions. 
He  received  medals  at  London  (I8.')l)  and  Paris 
( 18.55 ),  as  well  as  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  ; 
although  kept  in  continual  litigation  and  con- 
sequent  poverty  by  shameless  infringements  of 
his  rights,  he  yet  lived  '  to  see  his  in.aterial  ajiplied 
to  nearly  live  hundred  uses,  and  to  give  employ- 
ment, in  England,  France,  Germany,  and  the 
L'nited  States,  to  60,000  persons'  (  Partem ).  He 
died  at  New  York,  July  1,  1800.  See  Pierce, 
Tria/s  of  ati  Inveidor  (New  York,  186G);  and 
Parton,  Famous  Americans  of  Recent  Times 
(Boston,  1807). 

GoogO.  Barsaby,  poet,  was  boin  about  1540 
at  .\lvingham,  in  Lincolnshire,  studied  both  at 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  and  at  New  College, 
O.xford,  then  travelled  on  the  Continent,  joining  on 
his  return  the  household  of  his  relative  Sir  William 
Cecil,  and  becoming  one  of  the  gentlemen-pensioners 
of  (Jueen  Elizabeth.  He  died  in  the  month  of 
February  1594.  He  was  a  friend  of  Ccorge  Turber- 
ville,  and  resenilded,  without  eq\ialling,  him  in 
the  manner  of  Ids  translations  and  the  metres 
of  his  poems.  His  best  works  are  a  series  of  eight 
eclogues  and  his  Cnpido  Coiajiicrcd,  which  it  is 
not  unlikely  that  Spenser  may  have  seen.  A  col- 
lection of  his  Eclogues,  Eintaphs,  and  Sonnets 
was  published  by  Edward  Arber  in  1871. 

Gooh',  a  town  and  river-jiort  in  the  West 
Rilling  of  Yorkshire,  is  situated  at  the  juiu'tion 
of  the  Ouse  with  the  Don,  22  ndles  SSE.  of 
York.  The  town  has  since  1829  grown  rapidly, 
and  now  ranks  amongst  the  chief  ])orts  of  the 
kingdom.  It  possesses  extensive  docks,  which  are 
annually  entered  and  cleared  by  some  4G00  vessels 
of  more  than  1,100,000  tons  burden.  The  annii.al 
value  of  the  imports  amounts  to  about  4}  nullions 
sterling,  and  that  of  the  exports  to  more  than  4;' 
nullions.  Amongst  the  imports  are  shoddy  for 
manufacturing  purposes,  oil,  logwood,  timber, 
champagne,  farm-produce,  and  groceries.  Coal, 
cloth,  and  machinery  are  amongst  the  chief  ex- 
ports. There  are  iron-foundries,  alum,  sugar,  and 
cordage  manuf.actories,  ship  and  boat  building 
yards,  and  establishments  for  sail-nniking  and 
agricultural  maclnne making.  Pop.  (1851)  4722; 
(1881)  10,418;  (1891)  15,413. 


Gourklias,  or  Gurkhas,  since  1769  the  domi- 
nant race  in  Nepal,  claindng  descent  from  Hindu 
immigrants,  but  now  almost  everywhere  commingled 
with  the  original  Mongolian  stock.  They  fought 
fiercely  and  brilliantly  in  the  war  of  1814-15.  Im- 
mediately afterwards  three  or  four  battalions  were 
raised  for  the  service  of  the  British  power  in  India. 
The  Goorkhas,  who  are  a  short,  thick-set  race,  are 
brave  and  faithful  soldiers,  fought  in  the  Afghan 
and  Sikh  wars,  and  lent  \aluable  aid  to  the  British 
in  the  suppression  of  the  Mutiny  ;  and  some  ten 
regiments  of  Goorkhas  recruited  from  Nepal  and 
the  borders,  now  form  a  most  valuable  element  in 
our  native  Indian  army.  Those  from  the  western 
districts  are  much  more  distinctively  a  fighting  race 
than  those  from  the  eastern  parts. 

Goosander  {Mcrr/ns  mcrr/anscr),  a  web-footed 
bird  in  the  duck  family  (Anatidie),  in  the  same 
genus  as  the  Mergansers,  of  which  it  is  the  largest 
British  representative.  The  adult  male,  which 
measures  26  inches  in  length,  has  the  head  and 
upper  part  of  the  neck  of  a  rich  shining  green,  the 
feathers  of  the  crown  and  back  of  the  lieail  elon- 
gated, the  back  black  and  gray,  the  wings  black 
and  white,  the  breast  and  belly  of  a  delicate 
reddish-lnitl'  colour.  The  bill,  legs,  and  feet  are 
orange-red.  The  female,  which  is  rather  smaller, 
has  the  head  reddish-brown,  with  a  less  decided 
tuft  than  the  male,  and  much  grayer  plinnage. 
The  edges  of  the  bill  are  saw-like  above  and  below, 
being  covered  with  numerous  sharp  tooth-like  pro- 
jections directed  liackwards.  The  goosander  is  a 
native  of  the  Arctic  regions,  extending  into  the 
temperate   parts   of   Euro|>e,   Asia,    and   America. 


Goosander  {Mergus  merganser). 

In  the  southern  p.arts  of  Britain  it  is  seen  only 
in  winter,  and  then  only  in  severe  weather,  the 
females  and  young  migrating  southwards  more 
frequently  than  the  old  nuvles,  and  not  nnfrenuently 
aiipearing  in  small  Hocks  in  the  south  of  Scotland 
and  north  of  England.  In  some  of  the  estuaries 
and  fresh-water  lakes  in  the  northern  parts  of  Scot- 
land it  spends  the  whole  year.  It  usually  nests 
under  a  ledge  of  rock,  in  the  hollow  trunk  of  a 
tree,  or  under  the  shelter  of  the  twisted  roots,  and 
lays,  about  the  end  of  .April,  eight  to  thirteen 
creamy-white  eggs.  It  feeds  almost  entirely  on 
living  lish,  which  its  serrated  bill  ami  its  ixiwer  of 
diving  admirably  adapt  it  for  catching.  The  llcsh 
of  the  goosander  is  extremely  rank  and  coarse. 

Goose  (Anscr),  a  genus  of  web-footed  birds 
belonging  to  the  duck  family  (Anatiihv).  The  bill 
is  rather  high  at  the  b.a.se  ami  not  longer  than  the 
head  ;  the  upper  jiart  of  the  beak  is  slightly  hooked, 
and  the  lamelhv,  characteristic  of  all  the  duck  tribe, 
are   short,    tooth-like,  and   altogether  adapted   to 


298 


GOOSE 


(JOOSKUKUKV 


cro|>|iinj;  the  gmss  aiul  other  lierliajjo  on  wliich  the 
gi-cso  ohietiv  tVt'il.  The  feet  are  short  aiul  com- 
iiletely  wehlieil  ;  the  hiiultoe  is  proeiit  ;  ami  the 
lejrs  are  phioeil  ciiiiiparativcly  far  forwanl,  so  that 
tlio  iiioveiiicnts  on  laiul  are  less  awkward  than 
those  of  most  iliieks.  (ieese  swim  little,  ami  never 
(live.  N\  hen  nii^'ratin^'.  or  on  other  lon^'  llij,'hts, 
they  usually  lly  in  a  iloulile  line,  converjrin;,'  to 
form  a  more  or  less  iierfect  weiljre,  led  by  a  sin;,'le 
gander.  The  j,'enus  is  reiiresented  liy  over  a  dozen 
species  occurring  throughout  the  pahearetic  and 
nearctic  regions.  Only  one  species  is  certainly 
known  to  nest  in  liritain — tlie  llray  Laggoose 
(.^1.  ciiicixiis) — from  which  our  common  domestic 
goose  is  believed  to  be  descendeil.  This  species 
used  to  breed  abundantly  in  the  fen  districts 
of  England,  l)ut  has  become  very  rare  since  the 
drainage  of  these  parts.  It  still  breeds,  though 
not  commonly,  in  the  northern  counties  of  Scot- 
land and  in  the.  Hcbriiles,  and  large  Hocks  are 
seen  in  winter  ill  some  of  the  central  counties 
of  Ireland.  The  nest  is  placed  among  heather  or 
on  a  ledge  of  rock,  and  is  made  of  reeds,  moss,  or 
grasses.  The  eggs,  usually  live  to  si.\  in  number, 
are  surrounded  by  down  plucked  by  the  female 
from  her  own  breast.  The  length  of  the  adult 
male  is  about  3d  inches;  of  the  female,  30  inches; 
the  plumage  is  grayish-brown  on  the  upper  parts, 
blni>h-gray  on  the  wiiig-coverts,  dull  white  with 
black  m;irkings  on  the  under  parts  ;  the  feet,  legs, 
and  liill  .lie  llesli  coloured,  and  the  nail  at  the  tip 
of  the  bill  is  white.  This  bust  characteristic  is 
shared  by  a  snniller  species,  the  Whitelionted  or 
Laughing  Goose  {A.  tiUiifiuiis),  and  by  it  these 
two  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  other 
two  commcm  species  which  have  the  nail  lilack. 
'I'lie  white-fronted  goose  arrives  in  Britain  every 
winter  in  large  Hocks  as  soon  a.s  severe  weather 
sets  in  on  the  Continent.  The  male  mea-sures 
27  inches ;  the  prevailing  colour  is  brow  n.  The 
l!c;in  tJoo.se  (.-1.  scijctiiin)  and  the  Pink-footed 
( loose  (j4.  brachi/rhj/ncus)  are  clcsely-allied  species, 


Bean  Goose  (Anat  scyctum). 

common  in  many  parts  of  the  country  from  autumn 
till  late  in  spring.  The  bean  goose  is  said  to 
exhibit  a  fondness  for  newly-sown  beans,  among 
which  it  causes  considerable  havoc.  Its  plumage 
is  darker  than  that  of  the  preceding  species;  its 
length  is  34  inches.  It  is  readily  domesticated.  The 
smaller  ]iink-footecl  goose  has  the  legs  and  feet  of 
a  i)iiik  colour ;  the  bill  pink  above,  black  at  the 
ba.se  and  edges ;  the  naif,  as  in  the  bean  goose, 
black. 

A  great  rarity  in  Britain  is  the  white  North 
American  Snow  Goose  (Chen  hyiicrboretis),  which 
is  found  all  over  North  America,  but  breeds  in  the 


far  north.  The  Canada  Goose  (Ikniicia  cana- 
tUiisis),  found  all  over  North  America  (where  it 
is  the  commonest  wild  goose),  is  partially  domesti- 
cated in  Europe,  where  it  breeds  freely.  Among 
the  scagi'cse  the  genus  Bernicla,  representeil  by 
our  Barnacle  Goose  (i|. v.)  and  Brent  Goo.se  (i|.v.), 
must  especially  be  noted.  In  other  genera  there 
are  many  interesting  forms  which  can  only  l>e 
mentioned.  The  Kgy |>tian  or  Nile  t loose  ( .1  Io/im/icii 
aii!//jliac(i),  which  is  often  seen  ligured  on  Egyptian 
monuments,  was  the  'fo.\-goose'  or  '  clieiialo|iex  ' 
of  the  (iieeks,  so  called  perhaps  on  account  ot  the 
burrows  in  which  it  brecils  or  the  fo.\-like  colour  of 
part  of  its  plumage.  It  is  frei|nenlly  kept  in  con- 
linement,  and  liiuls  its  nearest  relative  in  the 
Orinoco  (Joose  (Aluiinrlnii  jiilMita)  of  north'ea.st 
South  America.  Ni>table  also  is  the  African 
Spur-wingeil  CSoo.se  ( I'lcctropterus),  in  which  the 
corner  of  the  wing  bears  a  strong  spur.  \'ciy 
unicMie,  with  sharply  clawed  and  only  slightly 
webljed  toes  is  the  Semi  iialniate  (!oo.se  {Aiisadiius 
Mill  ijKil  mat  lis)  of  Australia,  which  in  habit  and 
anatomy  suggests  a  crane.  Also  Australian  and 
very  peculiar  is  the  sluggish  and  heavy,  thick- 
billed  Cape  Barren  Goose  (Ct'/c<//»7.vHora/iu//</H(//«), 
rapidly  becoming  scarce  (see  CEltEol'Sl.s).  Eiually 
this  last  I'orm  leads  us  to  the  yet  more  remote 
Cnemiornis,  which  formerly  inhabited  New  Zea- 
land, but  liaving  wholly  lost  the  power  of  flight 
naturally  became  extinct. 

Although  the  common  goose  has  been  long 
domesticated,  and  was  probably  among  the  very 
first  of  ilomesticated  binls,  the  varieties  do  not 
diller  widely  from  each  other.  Eiiulcii  O'cise  are' 
remarkable  for  their  perfect  whiteness,  Tuuloiinc 
Gctsc  for  their  large  size.  As  a  domesticated 
bird  the  goose  is  of  great  value,  both  for  the  table 
and  on  account  of  its  quills  and  line  soft  feathers. 
The  (piills  supplied  all  Europe  with  jiens  before 
steel  pens  were  inventcil,  ami  have  not  ceiused  to 
be  in  great  demand.  Geese  must  have  free  access 
to  water,  and  when  this  is  the  case  they  are  ea.sily 
reared  and  rendered  profitable.  Two  broods  are 
sometimes  |iroduce<l  in  a  season,  ten  or  eleven  in  a 
brood,  and  the  young  geese  are  ready  for  the  table 
three  months  after  they  have  left  the  shell.  They 
live,  if  permitteil,  to  a  great  age.  \Villugliliy 
records  an  instance  of  one  that  reached  the  age  of 
eighty  years,  and  was  killed  .at  last  for  its  mis- 
chievousness.  (ireat  flocks  of  gee.se  are  kejit  in 
some  places  in  England,  ])articularly  in  Lincoln- 
shire, and  regularly  jducked  live  times  a  vear  for 
feathei-s  and  ([uills.  Geese  intended  for  tlie  table 
are  commoiily  shut  np  for  a  few  weeks,  and 
fattened  before  being  killed.  Great  numbers  are 
imported  from  ilolland  and  Germany  for  the 
Lomloii  market,  and  fattened  in  England  in 
establishments  entirely  devoted  to  this  purpo.se. 
Michaelmas  is  the  great  goose  season.  GouscMiins 
are  an  esteemed  delicacy.  The  gizzards,  heads, 
and  legs  of  gee.se  are  also  .sold  in  sets,  under  the 
name  of  r/ilj/cts,  to  be  used  for  pics.  The  livers  of 
"eese  have  long  been  in  renuest  among  epicures 
both  ancient  and  modern.  Tiie  /iiitc  dc  Joii:  ijins  of 
Strasburg  is  ma<le  from  livers  in  a  state  of  morbid 
enlargement,  caused  by  keeping  the  geese  in  an 
apartment  of  very  high  temperature.  See  B.\1!N.\CLE 
Goose,  Cereopsi.s,  Dick,  S\v.\x. 

Gooseberry  (flrossuldi-in),  a  sub-genus  of 
Kibes  (see  Cir.ItANT),  distinguished  by  a  thorny 
stem,  a  more  or  less  bell-shaped  calyx  and  flowers 
on  1-3-llowered  stalks.  The  common  gooseberni' 
i  Hibcs  Gros.sidaria }  is  a  native  of  many  jiarts  of 
Europe  and  the  north  of  .Asia,  growing  wild  in 
rocky  situations  and  in  thickets,  particularly  in 
moniitainous  ilistricts  ;  but  it  is  a  iloubtfnl  native 
of  Brit.iin.  although  now  to  be  seen  in  hedges  and 
thickets  almost  evervwhcre.     There  are  three  main 


GOOSEBERRY 


GOOSEBERRY    CATERPILLAR       299 


vaiieties,  formerly  regarded  as  distinct  species  :  ( 1 ) 
It.  GrijssiiUiria,  now  merely  var.  puhcsreiis,  in  wliich 
the    hairs   are  glandular   and   cover   the    berries ; 

(2)  var.  ui-a-crispa,  in  whieli  tlie  hairs  are  non- 
glandular,  and  fall  off  the  lierries  before  rijieninj;  ; 

(3)  var.  rcrlinatum,  in  which  hairs  are  found  only 
on  the  leaf-margins.  The  varieties  jirodueed  by 
cultivation  are  very  numerous,  chielly  in  England, 
where,  and  particularly  in  Lancashire,  the  greatest 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  this 
valuable  fruit-shrub.  In  the  south  of  Europe  it  is 
little  known.  It  does  not  a|ipear  to  have  been 
known  to  the  ancients.  Its  cnltivation  cannot  be 
certainly  referred  to  an  earlier  date  than  the  17th 
century,  and  was  only  in  its  infancy  at  the  middle 
of  tlie  ISth,  when  the  largest  gooseberries  produced 
in  Lancashire  scarcely  weighed  more  than  i  oz., 
whereiis  prize  gooseberries  now  sometimes  reach  2 
oz.  Many  well-known  diversities  of  form,  colour, 
and  flavour,  as  well  as  of  size,  mark  the  ditierent 
varieties.  For  the  production  of  new  varieties 
the  gooseberry  Ls  propagated  by  seed  ;  otherwise, 
generally  by  cuttings,  v\hich  grow  very  freely. 
Any  good  garden  soil  suits  the  gooseberry.  It  is 
rather  the  better  for  a  little  shade,  but  sullers  from 
mucli.  The  bushes  are  trained  in  varicjus  ways, 
but  it  is  necessary  to  prune  so  that  they  may  not 
be  choked  up  with  shoots  ;  yet  care  ought  to  be 
taken  to  have  an  aljundant  supply  of  young  wood, 
which  jiroduces  the  largest  berries.  Summer 
rather  than  winter  pruning  is  now  largely  recom- 
mended. Besides  its  well-known  wholesomeness 
and  pleasantness,  and  its  use  for  making  an 
excellent  preserve  and  jelly,  the  riiie  fruit  is  use<l 
for  nuiking  wine  and  vinegar.  An  effervescent 
gooseberry  wine,  which  might  well  claim  attention 
under  its  own  name,  is  often  fraudulently  sold  as 
cliampagne.  The  use  of  unripe  gooseberries  for 
tarts  increases  the  value  of  this  fruit-shrub.  Tiie 
gooseljerry  season  is  prolonged  by  training  plants 
on  north  walls,  and  by  covering  the  bushes  with 
matting  when  the  fruit  is  nearly  ripe.  Unripe 
gooseberries  may  be  kept  in  jars  or  bottles,  which 
are  closely  sealed  while  heated  to  e.xpel  air,  and 
placeil  in  a  cool  cellar,  to  be  used  lor  tarts  in 
winter. 

^'ariln^s  derivations  have  been  given  of  the  name 
gooseberry,  but  most  probably  the  first  syllable  is 
a  corruption  of  e/roscille,  the  French  name  of  the 
fruit,  from  wliich  also  comes  the  Scotch  i/rozct  or 
fjrozart.  Attempts  to  introduce  the  European 
gooseberry  into  North  America  have  invariably 
failed,  owing  to  the  appearance,  sooner  or  later, 
of  mildew  among  the  plants.  Anujng  the  other 
species  or  varieties  most  worthy  of  notice  are  li. 
o.i'i/ticiiiit/ioith's,  extending  across  the  u])per  Nortli 
American  continent  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
I'ai-ilic,  and  now  largely  grown  for  market  in  the 
middle  states  ;  li.  dicaricKtitin  and  It.  irrif/uum, 
botli  of  north-west  America — all  agreeable,  tliough 
small  anil  more  or  less  acid  ;  li.  f/riicilc,  found  in 
mountain-meadows  from  New  York  to  Virginia, 
witli  lilne  or  purplish  berries  of  exipiisite  llavour  : 
Ji.  aririiliirc,  a  Siberian  s]iecies,  witli  sweet,  well- 
llavourcd  yellowish  or  ]mrplish  smooth  berries  ;  all 
of  wliich,  and  probalily  othei-s,  seem  to  deserve 
ir)ore  attention  than  they  have  yet  received  from 
horticulturists. — The  Snowy -flowered  tioo.se  berry 
(  U.  iilvrum  ),  a  native  of  America,  is  remarkable  for 
its  lieautiful  white  pendulous  llowcrs.  Its  berries 
in  size  and  cidour  resemble  black  currants,  and 
make  delicious  tarts.  R.  .s-jicciosttm,  from  the 
same  region,  is  very  ornamental. — JR.  .iccratile,  of 
Siljfria,  and  other  species,  forming  the  sub-genus 
Botrycarpum,  have  a  character  intermediate  be- 
tween currants  and  gooseberries,  being  prickly 
shrulis,  with  tlicir  berries  in  racemes. — The  so-called 
Ca|ie  or  I'eruvian  (ioosebcrry  is  a   I'liysalis  (fpv.  ). 


For  the  Coromandel  Goosebeny,  see  Cap.ajibola. 
—The  Goo.SEBEKRY  BuG  is  tlie'llarvest  Bug(fi.v.). 
Gooseberry  Caterpillar,  a  name  applied  to 
the  larv;e  of  two  very  ditierent  insects,  botli  injuri- 
ous to  gooseberry  and  currant  bushes.  ( 1 )  The 
JIagpie  Moth  {A/jriLms  r/rossiilariata),  appearing 
about  midsummer,  has  usually  a  black  head,  yellow 


The  Magpie  Moth  {Abraxas  grossulariata) : 
a,  caterpillar;  6,  cUrj-salis. 

body,  and  white  wings  spotted  with  black.  From 
eggs  laid  on  the  leaves  of  the  above-mentioned 
bushes  caterpillars  hatch  in  September,  feed  for  a 
brief  space,  and  then  hide  themselves  till  May  or 
June  of  the  next  year.  The  cater])illar  is  a  '  luoper,' 
drawing  itself  up  into  a  peculiar  curve  when  alarmed, 
and  has  a  black  head,  creamy  body  with  some  stripes 
of  reddish-orange  along  the  side  and  elsewhere,  and 
with  a  row  of  black  spots  along  the  middle  line  of 
the  back.  After  a  period  of  voracity,  it  spins  a 
transparent  cocoon  and  passes  into  a  chrysalis, 
'yellow  at  first,  but  afterwards  shining  black,  with 
orange-coloured  rings.'  Care  of  the  bushes,  syring- 
ing with  various  washes,  and  gathering  the  torpid 
cater|nllars  are  the  usual  means  of  prevention  and 
remedy.  (2)  More  destructive  than  the  above  is 
the  larva  of  the  Gooselierry  Sawlly  (Xcmatits  rilcsii), 
which  plays  haxoc  with  the  leaves  of  our  bushes. 
The  female  saw- 
fly  appears  about 
April  and  lays 
her  eggs  on  the 
leaves.  The 
grubs  hatch  in  a 
week  or  less,  and 
eat  small  round 
holes  first  in  the 
leaf  on  which 
they  are  born, 
then  all  over  the 
bush.  The  adult 
lly  is  a  yellowish 
insect  with  trans- 
parent wings, 
and  measures 
abcmt  a  third  of  Gooseberry  SawHy  (iVenwiu*  riiMii): 
an  inch  in  length.  a,  adult  By  ;  i,  uatural  size  ;  c,  larva  ; 
The       larva       is  li,  pupa- 

bl  u  i  s  h-i'ree  n, 

with  black  head,  feet,  tail,  and  spots,  with  twenty 
feet,  and  a  length  of  about  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  when  full  grown.  At  matuiitv  they  drop 
from  the  bushes,  and  l>urv  themselves  in  the 
ground  to  undergo  their  metamoridioses.  The 
grulis  of  late  summer  broods  remain  as  such, 
but  within  cocoons,  throughout  winter,  finishing 
their  metamorphoses  as  the  gooseberry  Inishes 
are  becoming  leafy  in  spring.  Miss  Ormerod 
recommends  removing  the  surface  soil  in  early 
spring  from  under  the  bushes,  treatment  with  lime, 
picking  off  attacked  leaves,  drenching  the  bush 
with  warm  water  not  hot  enough  to  hurt  the  leaves, 
dusting  with  tiour  of  sulphur,  \'c.     Dusting  with 


300 


GOOSE-FISH 


GORDON 


hellebore  )in\V(ler  is  danjferoiis  to  those  who  may 
eat  the  berries  from  which  the  poison  has  not  been 
reniovfil.  In  re;;iinl  to  IkiIIi  thcs.'  |iracli(iillv  iiii 
(Hirtant  insects,  consult  Miss  C)rnieroil's  Mniiinil  nj 
liijiiriuus  Instils  (  Loml.  IS81 ). 

Goo.SO-lisll.  a  common  name  In  America  for 
the  An;;li'rlish  (see  AncI-EU).  The  American 
(loose-lish  (  Lo/Jtitt.'i  (tiiit'n'ctinns)  is  one  of  the  best 
known  of  the  live  species  of  Lophins,  ■,'rows  to  a 
leiij;tli  of  4  t<i  5  feet,  ami  wei-ihs  from  15  to  170  lb. 
It  is  ilark  brown  above  ami  tlirty  white  below,  is 
hiileons  in  appearance  (  beinjr  also  know  n  as  '  « i<U- 
};ab'  anil  '  clevillish '),  and  has  a  most  voracious 
appetite,  preyin;i  inilill'ercntly  on  all  kinds  of  lish, 
anil  catiiij;  occasionally  fowls,  such  as  gulls  and 
dncks.     It  is  |.ractically  useless  for  any  purpose. 

tioosiToot.    See  Chexopodii'M. 
GooKCui'iiss.    See  Cleaver.s. 

Goplicr,  a  name  in  nse  in  some  j)arts  of 
America  for  various  kinds  of  grouml  si|uirrel  (see 
Chitmixk),  for  the  I'rairie  Dog  ('|.v.),  for  the 
Pouched  Hat  (q.v.),  and  even  for  the  land  tortoise 
of  the  southern  state.>i. 

<i!o|>lu>l*  M'o«mI.  The  jirobable  identity  of  the 
pophcr  \miim1  I.I  Scripture  with  the  Cypress  (q.v.) 
is  allirmed  on  account  of  the  qualities  of  the  wood, 
and  on  account  of  the  agreement  of  the  radical 
consonants  of  the  names. 

CiO|t|»illi;<'II.  a  tow  M  of  Wiirtcmbnrg,  '2(j  miles 
by  rail  KSK.  of  Stuttgart,  ha.s  a  16tli  -  century 
castle,  a  mineral  spring  (alkaline  carbonic  acid), 
and  carries  on  manuf.ictnres  of  woollen  cloth, 
Iia|ier,  toys,  \c.      Top.  I4,.S37. 

Gupiirn.     See  I.SDI.V,  p.  luo. 

tiornklllHir.  capital  of  a  district  in  the  North- 
«esl  I'roxinccs  of  India,  on  the  Hapti,  ■13(1  miles 
N\V.  of  Calcutta,  with  an  active  trade  in  grain 
and  timber.  Top.  ( 1891 )  64,980.— The  tlat,  well- 
watered  distiict  of  IJoraklipnr  has  an  area  of  4.198 
sq.  m..  three  fifths  of  which  is  cultivated,  iind  a 
fourth  under  forest.  Pop.  (1891)  2,994,057,  nine- 
tenths  Hindus. 

CaOrainy,  or  C!i>rit.\Ml  {Osnhromcnus  olfax), 
a  lish  of  the  family  Anabasiihe  or  Labyrlnthi- 
branchida',  a  native  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago, 
highly  esteemed  for  the  table,  and  introduced 
on  that  account  into  India,  .Mauritius,  Cayenne, 
and  the  I'rcncli  West  India  Islands.  Its  form  is 
deep  in  proportion  to  its  length,  the  he.-xd  small, 
and  terminating  in  a  rather  sharp  short  snout, 
the  mouth  small,  the  tail  rounded,  the  dorsal  and 
anal  lins  having  numerous  rather  short  spines, 
the  lirst  rav  of  the  ventral  lins  extending  into  a 
very  long  lilament  :  it  attains  the  size  of  a  large 
turbot.  It  is  sometimes  kept  in  large  jai-s  by  the 
Dutch  residents  in  .lava,  and  led  on  water-plants. 
It  was  introduced  into  .Mauritius  about  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century,  and  soon  spread  from  the  tanks 
in  which  it  w.as  at  lii'st  kept  into  the  streanis, 
multiplying  abundantly.  The  goramy  is  interest-  I 
ing  also  on  other  account.s.  It  is  one  of  the  nest- 
building  lishes,  ,and  at  the  breeding  season  forms 
its  nest  by  entangling  the  steins  and  leaves  of 
aquatic  grasses.  Both  the  male  and  female  watch 
the  nest  for  a  month  or  more  with  careful  vigilance,  | 
and  violently  drive  aw.ay  every  other  lish  which  ' 
apjiroaches,  till  the  spawn  is  hatched,  afterwards 
aliording  a  similar  parental  protection  to  the 
y(uing  fry. 

tiordiail  knot.  The  traditional  origin  of 
this  famous  knot  was  as  follows.  The  Phrygians, 
seeking  a  king,  were  informed  by  the  oracle  at 
Delphi  that  they  were  to  choose  the  lirst  person 
they  met  riding  on  an  oxcart  towards  the  temple 
of  Zens.     That  pers(m  was  Oordius,  a  i)Oor  jieasant. 


who  accordingly  was  elected  king.     He  afterwards 

dedicated  his  car  and  yoke  to  Zeus,  in  the  acnqHilis 
111  (Mirdium  (a  city  named  after  himself ).  and  tied 
the  knot  of  the  yoke  in  so  skilful  a  manner  that  an 
oracle  declared  whoever  should  unloose  it  would  lie 
ruler  of  all  .Asia.  \Vlien  -Mexander  the  (ireat 
came  to  (iordium,  he  cut  the  knot  in  two  with  his 
swiird  and  applied  the  prophecy  to  himself. 

CiOrdiailllS,  the  name  of  three  Honian  em- 
perors, lather,  son,  and  grandson. — The  first, 
SlAKCt  s  .\NriiXIts  (;(iRr>l.\XIS,  wa-s  descended  by 
the  father's  side  from  the  famous  family  of  the 
(Iraccbi.  .After  being  .-cdile,  in  which  capaiity  he 
celebrated  gl.idiatorial  sports  with  great  miigiiili- 
cence,  he  twice  lilleil  the  ollice  of  consul,  (hi  the 
conclusion  of  his  second  term  of  olliee  he  was 
appointed  iiriHMinsul  of  Africa.  He  was  a  man  of 
modest  and  gentle  manners,  great  liberality,  and 
refined  literary  taste.  The  tyranny  and  injustice  of 
the  Kmperor  .\Iaximinus  at  length  excited  a  rebel- 
lion in  -Africa,  the  anthoi'sof  which  iiroclaimed  (!or- 
dianus  emperor,  although  he  was  tlien  ('i.'iS)  in  his 
eightieth  year.  At  the  same  time  his  son  was  con- 
joined with  him  in  the  exercise  of  im|ierial  author- 
ity. The  younger  (lordianus,  however,  was  de- 
feated and  slain  in  battle  by  Capellianus,  viceroy 
of  .Mauritania,  before  Carthage,  whereu|>on  his 
father  put  an  end  to  his  own  existence,  having  been 
emperor  for  little  more  than  a  month.-  M.MiciS 
AxToNIf.s  i;<iniii.\xrs,  grandson  of  the  tireceding, 
was  vaised  to  the  dignity  of  Cicsar  along  with 
Pupienus  and  H.'ilbiniis,  who  were  also  elected 
emperoi-s  in  oiqiiisition  to  Maximinus  ;  and,  in  the 
same  year  ( 238 ).  after  the  three  hist  namcil  had  all 
fallen  by  the  hainls  of  their  own  solilieis.  (ior- 
dianus  was  elevated  by  the  Pra-torian  bands  to  the 
rank  of  Augustus.  Assisted  by  his  fatherinlaw, 
Misithens,  a  man  distinguished  for  his  wisdom, 
virtue,  and  courage,  whom  he  made  prefect  of  the 
Pratorians,  (Jordianus  marched  in  '242  into  Asia, 
against  the  Persians,  who  under  Shahplir  (.Sapor) 
had  taken  possession  of  Mesopolanda  .'ind  had 
advanced  into  Syria.  Antioch,  which  was  threat- 
ened by  them,  was  relieved  by  (lordianus  ;  the 
Persians  were  <lriven  back  beyond  the  Knphrates ; 
iind  tlordianns  was  just  about  to  inarch  into  their 
country  when  Misitheus  died.  Philip  the  -Arabian, 
who  siicceeiled  Misitheus,  stirred  up  the  soldiery  to 
as.sassinate  the  emjieror  (244). 

Gordiiis.    See  H.\iR  EEL. 

(Gordon.  Tiik  Kamii.v  hf.  This  great  Scottish 
historical  house  takes  its  origin  and  name  from  the 
lands  of  (loidoii  ill  lierwicksliire.  The  lirst  traces 
of  it  are  found  in  the  beginning  of  the  l.'ttli  century, 
when  (Jorilons  witnessed  cliartei's  by  the  Karls  of 
Dunbar  and  -March,  and  granted  lands  and  iia.s- 
turagcs  to  the  monks  of  Kelso.  In  I.S05  Sir  -Ailani 
of  tiorilon  held  under  King  Kdward  I.  of  Kngland 
the  otfice  of  joint-justiciar  of  Lothian,  and  sat  at 
Westminster  ils  one  of  the  representatives  of  Scot- 
land. He  was  among  the  Last  to  join  the  banner 
of  IJruce,  w  ho  rewarded  his  adherence  by  a  grant 
of  the  northern  loidshi])  of  Stratlibogie.  The  grant 
failed  of  etl'ect  at  the  time  ;  but  it  was  renewed  by 
King  David  II.  in  I.1.i7,  and  by  King  U<diert  II.  in 
1.376.  L'nder  this  last  renewal  Sir  .lolin  of  (!<>rdon, 
the  great-grandson  of  Sir  .Adam,  entered  into 
possession,  ami  so  transferred  the  chief  .seat  of  the 
family  from  the  .Merse  and  Teviotdale  to  the  banks 
of  the  r>ee,  the  Deveron,  and  the  Spey.  The  direct 
male  line  came  to  an  end  in  his  son  .Sir  -Adam, 
who  fell  at  Homililon  in  1402,  leaving  an  only 
daughter  to  inherit  his  lands,  but  transmitting  his 
name  through  two  illegitimate  brothei-s— .John  of 
(Jordon  of  Scurdarg,  and  Thomas  of  Cordon  of 
Huthven — to  a  wide  circle  of  the  gentry  of  .Mar, 
Buchan,  and  Stratlibogie,  who,  calling  tlieniselves 


GORDON 


301 


'Gordons,'  styled   the   descendants  of  tlieir  niece 
'  SetonGordons. ' 

Dukes  of  Gordon. — Elizaljeth  of  Gordon,  the 
heiress  of  Sir  Adam,  married  before  1408 
Alexander  of  Seton  (son  of  Sir  William  of  Seton), 
vlio  before  1437  was  createil  Lord  of  Gordon. 
Their  son  Alexander,  who  took  the  name  of 
Gordon,  was  made  Earl  of  Hiintly  in  1449,  and 
Lord  of  Badenoch  a  few  years  afterwards.  He 
acqnired  by  marriajje  the  baronies  of  Cluny, 
Aboyne,  and  Glenmuiek  in  Aberdeenshire ;  and 
had  grants  from  tlie  crown  of  tlie  lordship  of 
Badenoch  and  otiier  lands  in  Inverness  shire  and 
Moray.  He  died  in  1470,  and  was  sncceeded  by 
his  second  son  George,  wlio  had  niarrieil  Anna- 
bella,  daughter  of  King  James  1.,  and  who 
added  to  his  territories  the  lands  of  Schivas  in 
Aberileenshire,  and  Boyne,  En/.ie,  and  Nether- 
dale  in  Banttshire.  He  was  chancellor  of  Scot- 
land from  1498  to  1501,  and,  dyin''  soon  after- 
wanls,  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexander,  the 
third  earl,  who  acquired  Strathaven  (or  Stratli- 
doiin)in  Banttshire,  and  the  Brae  of  Lochaber  in 
Inverness  shire.  He  commanded  the  left  wing  of 
tlie  Scottish  army  at  Flodden.  Dying  in  1.5"24,  he 
was  sncceeded  by  his  grandson  George,  the  fourth 
earl,  who  acquired  the  earldom  of  Moray,  held  the 
oMices  of  lieutenant  of  the  north  and  chancellor  of 
the  realm,  and  was  reputed  the  wisest,  wealthiest, 
and  most  powerful  subject  in  Scotland.  The  crown, 
counselleii  to  clip  his  wings  lest  he  should  attempt, 
like  the  Douglases  in  the  previous  age,  to  overawe 
the  throne,  stripped  him  of  the  earhlom  of  Moray, 
and,  rushing  into  revolt,  befell  (or  died  of  apo|ilexy ) 
at  Corrichie  in  1562.  Sentence  of  forfeiture  was 
pronounced  ujion  his  corpse,  but  was  rescinded  in 
156.'),  and  his  son  George  succeeded  as  fifth  earl.  He 
died  in  1576.  His  son  George,  the  sixth  earl,  was 
conspicuous  as  the  head  of  the  Koman  Catholics  in 
Scotland.  He  defeated  at  (ilenlivet  a  royal  force 
sent  against  him  under  the  Earl  of  Argyll  in  1594, 
l>ut,  submitting  to  the  king,  obtained  an  easy  pardon, 
and  wa<  made  Marquis  of  Huntly  in  l.")99.  He  died  in 
Ki.'ili.  llisscm  George,  thesecoml  marquis,  espouseil 
the  royal  cause  in  the  great  civil  war  of  his  time. 
'You  may  take  my  head  from  my  shouhleis,' he 
said,  in  answer  to  tempting  otters  from  the  Coven- 
anters, '  but  not  my  heart  from  my  king.'  When  he 
resided  in  Aberdeen  in  1639  he  was  attended  daily 
by  twenty  four  gentlemen,  of  whom  three  were 
barons,  wliile  eight  gentlemen  guardeil  his  mansion 
by  night.  He  was  beheaded  at  Edinburgh  in  1649. 
His  son  Lewis,  the  tliird  marquis,  Mas  restored  by 
King  Charles  II.  in  1651,  but  died  in  1653.  His 
son  (Jeorge.  the  fourth  marquis,  was  created  Duke 
of  (Jordon  in  16S4.  He  held  the  castle  of  Edin- 
burgh for  King  James  VII.  at  the  Revolution  ;  and, 
dying  in  1716,  was  succeeded  by  his  son  .Vlexamler, 
the  second  duke,  who  died  in  I7'2s.  He  lived.  Bos- 
well  says,  '  in  sequestered  magiiilicence.  correspoml-. 
ing  witii  the  grand-dukes  of  Tuscany,'  with  whom 
he  believed  that  he  could  count  kindred.  His  son 
Cosmo  George,  the  third  duke,  ilied  in  17.52,  leaving 
three  sons.  The  youngest,  Loril  (Jeorge  (!ordon 
(<|.v.),  led  the  I'rotestant  mob  which  saekeil  Lon- 
don in  I7.SI);  the  elilest,  .\le\ander,  who  became 
fourth  duke,  was  the  author  of  the  well-known  song. 
'  Cauld  Kail  in  .Mierdeen.'  His  wile,  the  sprightly 
Jane  Maxwell,  daughter  of  Sir  William  .Maxwell  of 
Monreith,  was  even  more  noted  for  her  lieauty  than 
her  wit,  and  w,as  known  as  the  '  beautiful  Duchess 
of  Gordim'  (died  1812).  The  fourth  duke  .lied 
in  1H27,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  (ieorge, 
the  (il'th  duke,  on  whose  death,  without  issue,  in 
1836,  the  title  of  D\ike  of  (ionlon  (being  limited 
to  the  heirs-male  of  the  body  of  the  first  duke) 
became  extinct,  the  title  of  Earl  of  Huntly 
fell   into   abeyance,   and   the  title   of   Marquis  of 


Huntly  was  adjudged  to  the  Earl  of  Aboyne,  as 
heir-male  of  the  body  of  the  first  marquis.  The 
estates  went  to  the  duke's  nejihew,  Charles,  fifth 
Duke  of  Kichmond  and  Lennox,  grandson  of  the 
fourth  Duke  of  Gordon.  Elizabeth,  Duchess  of 
Gordon  (1774-1S64I,  widow  of  the  fiftli  duke,  long 
survived  her  husliand,  and  was  a  woman  of  noble 
character  and  eminent  pietv  (see  her  Lifi  iin'l 
Letters,  by  A.  M.  Stuart,  1866).  The  title  of  Duke 
of  Gordon  was  revived  in  1876  in  tlie  person  of  the 
sixth  Duke  of  Kichmond. 

M.\RQtj"lSES  OF  Hi'XTLY. — Lord  John  Gordon, 
second  son  of  the  first  Marquis  of  Huntly,  was 
made  Viscount  of  Melgnnd  and  Lord  Aboyne  in 
1627.  Three  years  afterwards  he  was  burned  to 
death  in  the  tower  of  Frendraught.  In  1632 
his  elder  brother  George  was  nuule  Viscount  of 
Aboyne,  whicli  title,  on  his  succession  to  the 
Marquisate  of  Huntly  in  16.36,  devolveil  on  his 
son  Lord  James,  who  distinguished  liimself  on  the 
king's  side  during  the  wars  of  the  Covenant,  and 
died,  it  is  sahl,  of  a  broken  heart,  a  few  days 
after  the  execution  of  King  Charles  I.  in  1649. 
His  younger  brother.  Lord  Charles  CJordon,  was 
made"  Earl  of  Aboyne  in  1660  :  and  his  great-great- 
grandson,  Gleorge,  who  had  been  a  favourite  at  the 
court  of  Marie  Antoinette,  succeeded  as  liftli  Earl 
of  Aboyne  in  1794,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  and 
as  nintii  Marquis  of  Huntly  in  18.36,  on  the  death 
of  tlie  fifth  Duke  of  Gordon.  In  18.53  the  ninth 
marquis  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  .son  Charles, 
tenth  marquis,  who  died  in  1863,  and  the  marquis- 
ate of  Huntly  and  earldom  of  Alioyne  fell  to  his 
eldest  son  Charles,  eleventh  marquis. 

E.\RL.s  OF  SrxHERL.xsD.— Aliout  the  year  1512 
Adam  Gordon  of  Aboyne,  second  son  of  the  second 
Earl  of  Huntly,  married  Elizabeth,  the  heire-ss  of 
Sutherland,  and  was  progenitor  of  the  Gordon 
Earls  of  Sutherland,  who  bore  the  surname  of 
Gordon  till  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  when 
they  exchanged  it  for  that  of  Sutherland,  which 
hail  been  borne  by  the  earlier  earls. 

LocHis\  AR  ,\ND  Kex.miee.— William  of  Gordon 
(1306  29),  the  second  son  of  Sir  Adam  of  (iordon, 
was  the  iirogenitor  of  the  knightly  family  of  Lochin- 
var,  which  in  16.33  was  raised  to  the  peerage  by  the 
titles  of  Lord  of  Lochinvar  and  Viscount  of  Ken- 
mure.  William,  the  sixth  viscount — the  'Kenmnre's 
on  and  awa' '  of  Jacobite  song — was  beheailed  in 
1716  for  his  .share  in  the  rising  of  the  ])revious  year. 
The  ]ieerage.  then  forfeited,  was  restored  in  1824, 
but  has  lieen  in  alieyance  since  the  death  of  Adam, 
the  nintli  vLscount,  in  1847. 

E.vRLS  OF  Aberdeen. — According  to  old  tradi- 
tion this  house  descends  from  one  of  the  illegitimate 
brothers  of  Sir  Adam  of  (iordon,  who  was  slain  at 
Homildon  in  140'2.  Its  first  authentic  member  wa.s 
Patrick  (Jordon  of  Methlic,  who  died  on  the  banks 
of  the  Vtlian  in  1445.  In  1642  its  chief.  Sir  .lolin 
G.mlon  of  Iladdo,  was  created  a  baronet  of  Nova 
Scotia.  He  was  beheaded  at  Eilinburgh  in  1644, 
bequeathing  the  name  of  '  Haddo's  Hole'  to  one  of 
the  aisle.s  of  St  Giles'  Church,  which  hail  been  his 
prison.  His  son.  Sir  George  (.Iordon  of  Haddo, 
became  a  Lord  of  Session  in  16S0,  Lord  I'lesident 
in  l(i81,  and  Lord  Chancellor  in  the  following  year. 
He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1682.  by  the  titles 
of  Earl  of  -Vberdeen,  Viscount  of  Eormartine.  Lord 
Haddo.  Methlic,  Tarves.  and  Kellie.  He  died  in 
1720  with  the  character  of  being  '  a  solid  statesman, 
a  fine  (uator,  speaking  slow  but  strong.'  Some  of 
these  lineaments,  it  has  been  thought,  ieai)])eared, 
with  his  love  of  letters,  in  his  great -great -grandson, 
the  fourth  Earl  of  .Mierdeen  (q.v.).  Among  other 
members  of  the  house  of  (iordon  not  ineiitioiied 
above  were  Colonel  John  (iordon.  one  of  the  assa.<siiis 
of  Wallenstein  :  (iordon  I'aslia  ;  and,  through  his 
mother.  Lord  Byron. 


302 


GORDON 


See  FocnABERs.  Tliero  is  a  MS.  Hiiloria  Com- 
jitndium  de  Ori'jiitc  et  Incnmento  Uonlonitr  Faniilite 
(1515),  by  an  Italian  monk,  Feircrius ;  a  MS.  Oriyo 
et  J'rogretsus  Fiimilitf  HI ustritsimtr  (lorilonionim  in 
Scotia^  by  Gortlon  of  Straloch  (ilied  ICHl);  and 
histories  of  tlie  liouse  by  William  Gordon  (1727)  ami 
C.  A.  Gordon  (17^4).  Sec  the  more  valuable  (•'rnail- 
iigie  nntl  Pntiiiree  of  the  K<iih  of  Siitliciiaml  Iwliicli 
has  much  on  the  Gonlons),  by  Sir  Hubert  Gordon  of 
Gor.lonstoun  (nTitten  1G;!9,  jmblishcd  1813,  witli  continu- 
ation ). 

Ciordoii,  .\n.\M  Lixns.vY,  the  first  of  Aus- 
tnili:in  pcipts,  w.as  liom  at  I'aval  in  the  Azores 
in  IS.'i:?,  the  son  of  a  retired  arniy-e.aiitain.  At 
twenty  he  sailed  to  Adelaide  to  push  his  fortune, 
ainl  tried  in  turns,  hut  without  success,  shcep- 
fanuiu",  'over-landing,'  and  cattle-driving' in  South 
Australia,  cnier^^ing  to  liglit  in  Melliourne  .as  the 
hpst  gentleman  steeplechase-ridor  in  the  colony. 
His  broken  circnnistances  and  religious  hopeless- 
ness deepened  the  natural  gloom  of  his  tempera- 
ment, and  at  lengtli  he  tlirew  up  the  struggle,  and 
blew  out  liis  brains  at  Urighton,  a  marine  sulmrh 
of  .Mellxmrne,  24111  .June  ISTO.  He  li.ad  publisheil 
in  1867  Hcaspnii/  <i)iil  Smo/:c(/nft,  a  very  tiiiei|Ual 
v(dunie,  yet  containing  a  few  admirable  lyrics 
relleeting  closely  tlie  siunhre  colour  of  his  life  and 
the  p.assHHiate  ilespair  that  at  liist  drove  him  to  the 
refuge  of  death.  His  Ax/itnrol/i,  a  llrmnntic  J.ijric, 
(1H(>7),  was  an  ambitious  atteni))!  at  a  task  for 
which  his  powers  were  inadei[uatc,  oidv  relieved 
from  absolute  failure  by  the  beauty  of  tlic  lyrics 
with  which  it  is  intei"sperscd.  His  la-st  volume, 
Fiiiih  liallads  (itid  flii//npi)ifi  Illii/mrs,  appeared, 
it  is  said,  nn  the  very  day  of  his  uidiapjiy  death, 
with  a  iledicalioii  to  Major  Wliyte-Melville.  Tlie 
opening  poem,  'The  Sick  Stock-rider,'  is  a  marvel- 
lously vivid  tiansciijit  from  the  Imsh-life  ho  knew, 
steeped  with  the  irresistible  pathos  of  reality. 
'How  we  be.at  the  Favourite'  is  said  to  be  the 
most  popular  poem  in  Australia,  .and  eert.iinly  it  is 
the  best  ballail  of  the  turf  in  the  English  tongue, 
nnequalleil  in  its  kind  for  fire  and  speed. 

See  A.  P.  Martin's  article  in  Tcmi'lc  Bar  for  18S4  (vol. 
Ux. ),  Marcus  Clarke's  introduction  to  the  coniplete  edition 
of  Gordon's  poems,  and  D.  B.  W.  Sladen's  Australian 
PmIji  (ISXS). 

dordoii,  THAni-Es  George  ('Gordon  Pasha), 
was  lioin  at  Woolwich,  28th  January  bs.'!."},  fourth 
son  of  General  (Jordon,  Koyal  Artillery,  by  his  wife 
Elizabeth  Enilerby,  and  descended  from  the  ( lonlons 
(if  Park,  a  cailet  liraneli  of  the  House  of  Huntly. 
Krom  school  at  Taunton  he  passed  in  1847  to  the 
Military  Academy,  Woolwich;  in  1S.")2  entered  the 
lioyal  Kngineers  ;  and  saw  his  first  active  service 
in  ihe  trenches  before  Sebastojioi,  where  lie  served 
from  .January  18.55  to  the  end  ot  the  siege,  being  once 
[^lightly  wounded.  After  the  fall  of  tlie  south  side 
tiorilon  proceeded  to  Kinburn,  returneil  again  to 
Sebastopol,  and  was  employed  in  the  demolition  of 
the  docks  ,aiid  destruction  of  the  forts  ;  and  lie  was 
siiliseiiuently  engageil  in  surveying'  the  new  frontier 
lietween  Turkey  and  Russia  in  Eurojie  ami  Asia. 
In  1800  he  went  to  China  and  took  part  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Peking  and  the  destruction  of  the  famous 
Summer  Palace  near  that  city.  In  1803  he  w.i.s 
appointed  to  the  conim.and  of  a  Chinese  force 
nllicered  by  Europeans  and  -Americans,  and  during 
tliat  and  the  following  year  wa.s  engaged  almost 
incessantly  ag.aiust  the  Taiping  rebels  in  the  rich 
provinces  of  Chehkiang  and  Chiang-sfl.  In  two 
campaigns  he  fought  thirty-three  .actions  and  took 
nniiieious  w.illed  towns,  crushing  the  foiniid.able 
rebellion  which  h.ad  so  long  wasted  the  fairest  jiro- 
vinces  of  China.  This  feat  of  arms  achieved  in  the 
space  of  eighteen  numths,  and  at  a  cost  of  only 
£200,000,  placed  the  young  major  of  engineers  in 
the  foremost   rank    of    the    soldiers    of    his  dav. 


Keturning  from  China  in  1865,  'as  poor  ils  when 
he  hail  entered  it,'  he  was  appointed  to  the  ordi- 
nary engineer  ihities  at  Giavescnd,  where  he 
remaineii  for  six  years,  devoting  the  greater  part 
of  his  spare  moments  to  relieving  the  want  ami 
misery  of  the  poor,  visiting  the  sick,  leaching, 
feeding,  and  clothing  the  many  waifs  and  strays 
among  the  destitute  boys  of  the  town,  .and  provid- 
ing emplovmeiit  lor  them  on  board  ship.  In  1872 
he  "[uitteil  (Iravesend  for  ISiilgaria.  wliere  lie  re- 
mained a-s  commissioner  on  the  Danube  for  nearly 
two  years. 

At  tlie  close  of  187.'}  he  accepted  em]doynient 
under  Isni.ail,  Khedive  of  Egypt,  and,  proceeding  to 
the  Soudan,  took  up  the  work  wiiich  Sir  Samuel 
Itaker  bad  begun  two  veal's  earlier— that  of  o]ien- 
ing  up  the  vast  regions  of  the  enualorial  Nile,  and 
the  lakes  which  recent  exploration  had  discovered. 
In  these  distant  and  unhealthy  regions  he  remained 
for  three  yeai-s,  overcoming  by  extraordinary  energy 
and  resolution  all  dilliculties  of  nature,  hostile  man 
and  climate.  .\  chain  of  posts  was  established  along 
the  Nile  ;  steamers  were  brought  from  Egypt  in 
sections,  put  together  above  the  last  rapid,  and  the 
navig.ition  of  J.ake  Albert  Nyan/a  successfully 
accomplished.  I'nderlying  all  this  labour  there 
wiis  in  (Joidon's  mind  a  purpose  beyond  gain  or  ex- 
ploration. It  was  the  .aliolition  of  the  slave-trade 
which  heretofore  liad  been  the  one  great  object  of 
Soudanese  commerce.  Discovering  that  his  ell'oits 
to  sui>i>re.ss  this  trade  must  remain  unsuccessful 
unles.s  his  power  extended  to  the  vast  plain  coun- 
tries lying  west  of  the  Nile  basin — Koi'<l<ifan  and 
Dar-Filr — Gordon  returned  to  Egvpt  and  England 
in  1876. 

Coing  out  again  in  .January  1877,  lie  was 
appointed  by  the  Khedive  side  governor  of  the 
entire  Somlan,  with  unlimited  powei's  over  a 
region  that  stretched  from  the  .second  cataract 
of  the  Nile  to  the  (Jreat  Lakes,  and  from  the 
Ped  Sea  to  the  head-waters  of  the  streams  that 
fall  into  Lake  Tcliail.  During  the  next  three 
yeare  he  tr.avcrsed  in  all  directions  this  vast 
territory.  Now  he  wa.s  settling  a  frontier  dis]>ute 
with  the  Abyssinian  feudatories  in  the  east  ;  now 
swoojiing  down  with  scanty  escorts  u]ion  .some 
slave  raider  or  rebellious  chieftain  in  western 
Dar-Ertr.  For  months  together  he  seemed  to  live 
on  the  back  of  his  camel.  Neither  the  numbers  of 
his  enemies  mu'  the  fiercest  sun  of  terrible  deserts 
could  check  his  energy.  His  presence,  multiplied 
by  incessant  toil  into  twenty  times  the  reality, 
awed  the  wild  tribes  into  obedience,  and  fiu'  the 
first  time  in  its  history  the  Soudan  seemed  to  feel 
that  law  and  justice  were  united  with  government. 
Early  in  1880  all  this  ceased.  Gordon  resigned  his 
command.  A  great  change  was  coming  in  Lower 
Egypt,  and  it  was  evident  that  under  the  new 
svstem  which  was  being  inaugurated  at  Cairo 
.jliere  could  be  no  place  for  sueh  a  master.  A  short 
visit  to  Indi.i,  continued  on  to  the  old  scene  of  his 
first  famous  enterprise  in  China,  filled  up  the 
greater  portion  of  18S0;  but  the  close  of  the  year 
found  Gordon  in  Ireland  intent  upon  relieving  the 
almost  chronic  unha]ipiness  of  that  island.  Struck 
with  the  terrible  scenes  of  poverty  which  he  wit- 
nessed in  the  south  and  west  of  the  island,  he 
propounilcd  a  scheme  of  liind-law  improveiiient, 
which,  although  then  met  with  ridicule  or  silence, 
Iia.s  since  Iieen  largely  made  the  basis  of  legisla- 
tion ;  but  these  views  did  not  tend  to  make  their 
holder  .acceptable  in  the  eyes  of  .authority,  and,  to 
escape  the  ucce-ssity  of  accepting  some  insignificant 
routine  appointment  at  home,  (lordon  volunteered 
to  take  another  olticer's  duty  in  the  .M.auiitiiis, 
where  for  another  year  he  reinaineil  unnoticed  and 
unthought  of. 

From  Mauritius  Gordon  proceeded  to  the  Cape 


GORDON 


:iU3 


in  colnniiil  employment,  ami  tinally  returned  to 
En^Iaml  in  the  close  of  ISS'i.  Almost  tlie  whole  of 
the  lollDwiiif;  year  was  spent  by  him  in  Palestine 
in  iinljroken  ijuiet  and  retlci-tion.  Early  in  1S84  he 
was  asked  hy  the  IJritish  j,'overnmi'nt  to  proceed 
once  more  to  the  Somlin,  where  the  events  which 
had  taken  place  in  E^'vpt  since  he  quitted  it  tour 
years  before  had  ;,'iven  lise  to  a  long  catalogue 
of  catastrophe.  The  Moslem  po|)ulations  had  risen 
in  revolt,  ilefeating  the  armies  ot  Egypt  and  isolat- 
ing her  garrisons.  To  remove  these  garrisons  fi-om 
the  Soudan  was  the  primary  object  of  Gordon's 
nussion  ;  tliat  accomplished,  lie  was  to  proclaim 
the  separation  of  the  country  from  Egyjdian  rule. 
I!ut  all  this  was  changed  by  the  lianl  logic  of  facts. 
A  month  after  Gordon  reacheil  Khartoum  that 
place  was  invested  Ijy  the  troops  of  the  Mahdi, 
the  leader  of  the  Soudan  revolt.  Then  liegan  what 
may  truly  he  called  the  s\ipremely  heroic  period  of 
Gordon's  life.  The  world  seemed  to  recognise  that 
a  great  man  was  in  the  throes  of  a  groat  ])eril.  In 
an  age  when  merit  is  rarely  found  unobtrusive, 
and  when  genius  is  apt  to  exhibit  its  light  on  the 
house-toj),  Gordon,  whose  whole  life  had  been  one 
endeavour  to  depreciate  his  own  merit  and  to  deny 
himself  the  glory  of  his  actions,  became  at  once 
the  centre  of  perhaps  the  widest  attention  given  in 
our  time  to  one  man.  After  the  siege  of  Khar- 
toum had  lasted  live  months  a  relief  expedition  was 
organised  in  England.  In  September  the  advance 
up  the  Xile  began.  Early  in  5loveml)er  the  troops 
entered  the  Soudan  at  the  Second  Cataract,  the 
greater  portion  of  the  expedition  moving  in  boats 
built  in  England  for  the  passage  of  the  upper 
cataracts,  many  of  which  had  never  been  navigated 
by  any  craft.  After  two  months  of  very  arduous 
labour  the  advance,  crossing  the  desert  from  Korti, 
.and  tinding  at  the  latter  place  some  of  Gordon's 
steamers,  arrived  in  the  eml  of  January  1885  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Khartoum.  It  was  too  late. 
Tlie  ]dace  hail  been  taken  by  the  Mahdi  two  days 
earlier.  Gordon  had  fallen.  One  thing,  however, 
was  g.ained  liy  the  toil  and  lilood  of  this  expeili- 
tion.  It  was  the  journal  kept  by  Gordon  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  siege.  From  this  journal  he 
stands  before  us — as  in  no  other  way  ccmid  he  have 
been  revealed  to  us — a  wonderful  instance  of  cour- 
age, faith,  resolution,  and  humility  ;  a  man  from 
whose  life  and  death  we  gather  that,  amid  all  the 
change  of  science  and  system,  the  mould  in  which 
the  true  hero  is  cast  remains  the  .same. 

See  Andrew  'tt'ilson's  Ever  Victorious  Arm;/  (18(18); 
Birkbeck  Hill's  Gordon  in  Central  Africa  { 1881 ) ;  Gordon's 
own  Itillcclions  in  Palestine  (1884),  Last  Journals 
(18S.5),  and  Letters  to  his  Sister  (1888) ;  and  the  Lives  of 
iiini  by  Hake  (  The  Stori/  of  Chinese  ti'ordon^  2  vols.  1884- 
8.")),  Avcli.  Forbes  (1884),  Viy  his  brother,  Sir  Henry 
Gordon  (18SG),  Sir  W.  F.  Butlor  (1880),  !>.  liuidfjcr 
(ISIKJ),  and  the  books  on  the  Fgyptian  Soudan  by  Ohr- 
walder  (trans.  1892)  and  Slatin  I'aslia  (trans.  ISWJ). 

(liordnii.  Lord  George,  was  born  in  Lomlon, 
'2tiili  December  ITol,  the  third  son  of  the  third 
Duke  of  Gordon.  From  Eton  he  entered  the 
navy,  and  rose  to  be  lieutenant,  but  quitted  the 
service  during  the  Ameiiean  war,  after  a  dispute 
with  the  .\ilnuralty.  Elected  in  1774  M.l'.  I'or 
the  pocket  borough  of  Ludgershall,  Wiltshire,  he 
presently  attacked  both  sides  with  such  freedom 
as  to  give  rise  to  the  saying  that  there  were 
'three  jiarties  in  parliament — the  ministry,  the 
opposition,  and  Lord  George  Gordon.'  Still  he 
disjilayed  considerable  talent  in  debate,  ami  no 
dcliciency  of  wit  or  argument.  .V  bill  having,  in 
1778,  passed  the  legislature  for  the  relief  of  Kom.an 
Catholics  from  certain  (lenalties  and  disabilities 
(see  Catiioi^ic  EMANCir.VTloN),  the  I'roteslant 
Association  of  London  was,  among  other  societies, 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  its  repeal,  and 


in  November  1779  Lord  George  wa.s  elected  its 
president.  On  '2d  June  1780  he  headed  a  vast 
and  excited  mob  of  .'50,(100  persons,  who,  decked 
with  blue  cockades,  marched  in  procession  from  St 
George's  Fields  to  the  House  of  Commons  to  pre- 
sent a  petition  for  the  repeal  of  the  measure. 
Dreadful  riots  ensued  in  the  metroimlis,  lasting 
live  days,  in  the  course  of  which  many  Catholic 
chapels  and  private  dweUing-liouses,  Newgate 
prison,  and  the  mansion  of  the  chief-justice.  Lord 
Manstield,  were  destroyed.  The  niagistrates  feared 
to  read  the  Riot  Act,  but  at  length  on  the  7th, 
when  thirty-six  lires  were  bla/ing  at  once,  the 
troo])S  were  called  out  by  the  king,  and  everywhere 
drove  the  rioters  before  them,  ilo  lieing  killed,  '248 
wounded,  and  13.3  arrested,  of  whom  '21  were  after- 
wards executed.  Property  to  the  amount  of 
£180,000  had  been  destroyed  in  the  riots,  a  vivid 
description  of  which  is  given  in  Dickens's  Barnnby 
UikUjc.  Lord  George  himself  was  tried  for  high- 
treason  ;  but  Erskine's  defence  got  him  oil'  on  the 
ground  of  absence  of  treasonable  design.  His  sub- 
seipient  conduct  seemed  that  of  a  person  of  unsound 
mind.  Having,  in  1786,  refused  to  come  forwar<l  as 
a  witness  in  a  court  of  law,  he  was  excommunicated 
by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  for  contempt.  In 
1787  he  was  convicted,  on  two  olllcial  informations, 
for  a  pamphlet  reflecting  on  the  laws  and  criminal 
justice  of  the  country,  and  fiu-  jiublishing  a  lilicl  on 
Marie  Antoinette  and  the  Fiench  ambassador  in 
London.  To  evade  sentence  he  retired  to  Holland, 
but  was  sent  back  to  England,  and  ajiprehended  at 
Birmingham.  He  died  in  Newgate  of  fever,  1st 
Novemlier  1793,  having  latterly  become  a  proselyte 
to  Judaism.  There  is  a  vindication  of  lum  by  Dr 
Robert  Watson  ( 1795). 

Gordon,  Sir  John  Wat.son,  Scottish  portrait- 
painter,  son  of  Captain  AVatson  of  the  royal  navy, 
was  liorn  at  Edinliurgh  in  1788.  His  training  in 
art  was  got  in  the  stu<lios  of  his  uncle,  George 
Watson,  ami  Sir  Henry  Kaeburn.  At  first  he 
essayed  imaginative  subjects,  but  on  Raeburn's 
death  in  18'23  he  stepped  into  his  place  as  the  (ii-st 
portrait-iiainter  of  Scotland.  Three  yeai's  later 
he  took  the  surname  of  (Jordon  ;  in  18.50  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy 
and  knighted,  and  in  1851  he  became  a  London 
Royal  -Vcademician.  (iordon  was  as  national  in 
his  art  as  it  is  possible  for  a  portrait-painter  to  be  : 
and  nearly  every  man  of  note  in  Scotland,  besides 
not  a  few  in  England,  sat  to  him  for  their  jior- 
traits.  Among  his  best-known  works  may  be  men- 
tioned '  Sir  Walter  Scott,'  '  Dr  Chalmers.'  '  Earl  of 
Dalhousie,'  'Sir  Alexander  Hope,'  '  Lord  President 
Hope,'  '  Sir  John  Shaw  Lefevre,'  and  'the  Provost 
of  Peterhead.'  The  last  picture  g.aiiied  the  gold 
medal  at  the  French  Exhiliition  of  1855.  Gonhm 
was  not  a  distinguished  colourist,  grays  and  quiet 
hues  being  predominant  in  his  pictures.  He  died 
at  Edinburgh,  1st  June  1864. 

Ciordoil,  LtciE,  Lahv  DlFF,  a  clever  writer, 
was  the  only  child  of  John  Austin,  the  jurist,  and 
of  Sarah  Taylor,  his  wife,  and  was  born  in  London, 
•24th  June  1S21.  In  18'26  she  went  with  her  parents 
to  tiermany,  whence,  after  two  years'  stay,  she  re- 
turned, speaking  German  like  her  native  langu.age. 
-\t  Houlogne  in  IS.'U  she  met  Heine,  an  acquaint- 
ance renewed  with  temler  pathos  twenty  years 
later,  when  Heine  was  dying  at  Paris,  'in  1840 
she  became  the  wife  of  Sir  Alexander  DutrcJordon. 
In  1842  she  gave  to  the  world  the  (irst  of  her  long 
series  of  translations  from  the  tlerman,  Niebuhr's 
(ioih  nnd  Heroes  of  (t'rceec.  This  w.as  followed  by 
the  Anther  ]Vitcli,  begun  1843  ;  the  Frntch  in 
A/fftcrs,  published  1845  ;  and  Feuerbach's  llcmorh- 
able  Crimitieil  Trials,  1846.  In  1840.  in  conjnnction 
with  her  husband,  she  translated  Ranke's  House  of 


304 


GORDON 


GOKGEI 


Bi-iiii/tiihitrrf.     Ill  1850  appeared  her  translation  of 
Wailly's  Sti-i/ri  nnil  Wiiirsm  :  in  1853  she  translated 
Coniti'sse   d'ArliDUville's    ]'illii<ir    Ihutur,    nn<l,    to-  ' 
jjcllior  with    lior  liusliaml,  Kanke's   Firilimiml  iiikI  ' 
MitjiinilinH.      In  the  midst   of  her  husy  life,  alter-  | 
natin;;  hetween  translation  work  and  tlie  choicest 
society,  her  liealtli  ^'ave  way,  and  she  was  ndviseil  I 
to   try   the   climate   of   the    Cape   of   liood   Hope. 
Tlienco,  l.st>l-IJ2,  were  |)enned  her  genial  and  viva- 
oions  /,.7^■/■.s•  fiiiin  tlic  Ciipf.      After  her  return  to 
Enjjland  in  l.SlVi  she  the  same  year  visited  Kgypt  for 
tlie  sake  of  her  health.     She  retnrned  to  Kngland, 
Jnne  18li3,  hut  was  forced  again  to  retreat  t«i  Kgviit 
the  same  year.      She  ilied  at  Cairo  on   14th  July 
18()0.  and  w;us  liuried  in  the  cemetery  there.     Her 
J.'t/ris  from   Kr/ii/d  (1S63)   and    l.nsf  I.itln-x  finm 
Eiji//>t  (1875),   oliservant   and   hright   and  cheerlnl, 
form   perhaps  her  hest  contrihution  to  literature. 
See  Janet  Koss,  Three  Generations  of  Eiiiflis/iwomen 
(18S9). 

<>ordoil,  I'.\TT!irK,  siddier  of  fortune,  was 
horn  at  Ivi-iter  Auchleuchries,  on  the  coa-st  of 
Aherdeenshire,  31st  March  16.35.  Hrought  up  liy 
Ills  mother  !w  a  Catholic,  at  sixteen  he  sailed 
from  Aberdeen  to  Dan/ig,  and  entered  the  .lesnit 
college  of  liraunslierg.  Ilis  restless  temper  could 
not  long  endure  the  stillness  and  austerity  of  that 
retreat,  and,  making  liLs  escape  from  it  in  1G.J3,  he 
led  for  some  time  an  unsettled  life,  until  in  1(5.55 
lie  enlisterl  under  the  Hag  of  Sweden,  then  at  war 
with  Poland.  During  the  six  yeai-s  that  he  took 
jiart  in  the  struggle  between  tlie.se  two  powers  lie 
was  re]>patedly  made  [irisoner,  and  as  often  took 
service  with  his  captors,  until  .again  retaken.  He 
had  risen  to  the  rank  of  captain-lieuti'iiant,  when 
lie  resolved  to  try  his  fortune  next  with  the  czar, 
and  in  lOGl  joined  the  Muscovite  stan<lard.  Here 
his  services  in  di.sei|iliiiing  the  Kussian  siddiers 
gaincil  him  rapid  promotion— lieutenant-colonel  in 
lt)0'2.  an^l  colonel  in  1(5(5.5.  Hearing  that  the  death 
of  his  elder  lirother  had  made  him  'gooilman  <if 
.\uclileuchries,'  he  wished  to  return  to  Seotlanil  ; 
hut  t hen;  was  no  escape  from  the  ltns>iaii  service. 
The  e/ar,  however,  sent  him  on  a  mission  to  Eng- 
land in  160(5.  On  his  return  he  fell  into  <lisgiace  ; 
liut  during  1670  76  he  was  engaged  in  sulMluiiig 
the  Coss.oeks  in  the  I'kraine,  in  1(577  in  defending 
Tschigirin  against  the  Turks  and  the  Tartars.  His 
gallant  performanee  of  that  duty  prociireil  him  llie 
rank  of  major  general.  In  11583  he  was  maile 
lieutiMiantgeneral  ;  in  1685  obtained  leave  to  visit 
Knglanil  and  Scotl.and.  James  II.  wished  him  to 
enter  the  English  service  ;  but  it  was  in  vain  that 
he  petitioned  for  leave  to  quit  Ku.ssia.  In  1088  he 
w.os  made  general,  and  now  beg.in  his  intimacy 
with  the  ( '/ar  I'eter,  who,  in  the  following  year, 
oweil  to  (iordon's  zeal  and  courage  his  signal 
triumph  over  the  conspirators  against  his  throne 
and  life.  In  1698  he  crushed  the  revolt  of  the 
Strelitzes  during  the  czar"s  absence  from  Ku.ssia. 
On  '2l)tli  November  1(599  he  ilied  at  Moscow.  See 
I)r  Joseph  Ilobertson's  edition  of  Piis.tiii/c.i  fri»n  the 
Dian/  of  General  Patrick  Gordon  (Spalding  Club, 
18.59). 

Oitl'lloil  Itflinett,  Mount,  a  mountain  seen 
in  Africa  by  Mr  Stanley  in  1875.  It  lies  south  of 
Albert  Xyanza,  a  little  north  of  the  equator  ami 
east  of  .30°  E.  long.  It  is  a  truiicate<l  cone, 
probably  an  extinct  crater,  and  ri.ses  14.(X)0  or 
15.000  feet  in  height.  It  is  sometimes  covereil  with 
snow.       See   KfWKNZORI. 

<i(>r<loilia.  a  genus  of  Tei-nstrrcmiace.-p.  G. 
Lasitint/iii.s,  the  Loblolly  Bay.  which  covers  eon- 
sider.able  tracts  of  sw.ampy  coast  in  the  Culf  of 
Mexico,  is  a  handsome  tree  (50  to  60  feet),  with 
evergreen  leaves,  and  large  white  fragrant  ttowets. 
The  bark  is  used  in  tanning. 


iiore.  Mrs  C.\thkI!IXE  (_;i!ACE,  a  clever  and 
pi'olilic  English  novelist,  daughter  of  Mr  MofMly, 
wine  nierchant,  was  Ihuii  at  Ea~t  Ketford,  Not- 
tinghamshiie,  in  1799.  In  18'J3  she  was  married 
to  Captain  Charles  Artiiur  (one,  with  whom 
she  resided  f<U'  many  years  gn  the  Continent,  snp- 
liiuling  her  family  liy  her  littrary  labours.  These 
were  varied  and  voluminous  to  an  •■xtraordinary 
ilegree,  amounting  in  all  to  more  than  seventy 
works.  She  died  at  l.ynwood,  Hants,  .lannary  29, 
1861.  Her  lirst  piibli^ihed  work  was  'J'/n nxii  Miinh- 
mont  ( 1823).  Sonieof  her  early  novels,  as  the  I.cttre 
(Ic  Cachet,  and  the  Jiriijn  of  Termr  (1827),  were 
vivid  descriptions  of  the  French  Hevcdution  ;  but 
her  greatest  successes  were  her  novels  of  English 
fashionable  life,  conspicucnis  among  which  were 
Cecil,  or  the  Atlrnilnns  of  ii  ('itjininli  (  1.S41 ),  and 
Urminf/ton  (1842),  J  lie  Anilxissailiirs  Wife,  The 
Hankers  Wife,  &c.  She  also  wrote  The  Hose 
Fancier's  Manual  (1838).  Mi-s  (one's  liooks  are 
clever.  She  had  seen  lunch  of  the  world  both  at 
home  and  abroail,  and  was  never  at  a  loss  for 
ihar.acters  or  incidents.  The  chief  feature  of  her 
novels  i>.  the  lively  caustic  pictures  of  fashion- 
able an<l  high  society,  but  tliey  are  wanting  in 
genuine  feeling  and  simplicity. 

CiorJ'o.  a  small  island  in  French  Senegal,  lying 
immediately  south  of  Cape  Verd,  is  almost  entirely 
covered  by  the  town  of  Goree,  an  unhealthy  place 
of  (1885)  2200  inhabitants.  Its  comiiiercial  iin- 
]>ortance  is  ra)iidly  being  transferred  to  the  ])ort 
of  Dakar,  which  lies  over  against  it  on  the  main- 
land. 

<i!orcy.  a  munici|ial  burongh  and  market-town 
of  Counly  \\'e\fni(l.  ."ill  miles  S.  of  Dublin  by  rail, 
and  3  miles  inlainl  from  Si  Cieorge's  Channel. 
To]).  ( 1851  )  2973;  ( 1891 )  2213. 

(liorsoi.  -VltTliii!,  eomniander-in-cliief  of  the 
Hungarian  forces  during  the  revolt  of  1849,  was 
born  at  Toporez,  in  the  county  of  Zips,  5tli  Felnn- 
ary  1818.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  revolt  in  1.S48, 
(iiirgei  at  once  oflered  his  services  to  the  Hungarian 
independent  goveniment,  and  liist  ilislinguiSheil 
himself  liy  compelling  .lellacbiihs  Croatian  reserve 
of  10, (KK)  men  to  capitulate  to  him  at  Oziua,  on  7th 
Octolier.  After  this  exploit  he  was  given  a  com- 
mand against  Windischgriitz  on  the  westem  fron- 
tier, lint,  iliiven  back  by  the  .Austrian  gener.al  to 
H.a.ab  by  20tli  December,  and  learning  that  limlapest 
had  fallen  and  the  government  had  lied  to  Debrec- 
zin,  Gorgei  made  a  wiile  detour  tbrough  the  moun- 
tains to  the  north  of  the  capital,  and  joined  his 
troops  to  the  army  in  the  neighbourhood  of  De- 
breczin.  t'f  this  force  (iiirgei  was  made  coiu- 
mander-in-cliief  in  the  end  of  March  1849.  Then, 
advancing  westwards  to  the  relief  of  Komoni, 
which  still  held  out  against  the  Austiiaiis,  he 
ilecisively  routed  the  enemy  in  a  succession  of 
battles  between  .A]iril  2  and  .April  10.  On  April 
22  he  ed'ected  the  relief  of  the  beleaguered  city, 
and  four  days  later  routed  the  Austrians  so 
thoroughly  at  I'jSziiny  that  they  were  com|ielled 
to  evacuate  the  ccmntry.  Meanwhile  a  new  .Austrian 
army  was  being  ei|ui]ipeil,  and  the  l!ussiaiis  were 
inv.niding  the  country  Iroiii  the  north  and  northeast. 
.At  this  critical  period  (liirgei  wjisteil  valuable  tune 
in  the  siege  of^  ofeii  (liuda).  .After  ollering  an 
obstinate  but  unavailing  resistance  to  the  Austrians 
in  several  battles  near  Komorn.  Ciirgei  w.as  again 

j  comiielled  to  retreat  eiustwards  :  but  at  Waitzen  he 
encountered  the  Russians.  Still  retreating,  by  way 
of  Tokay,  he  reached   in   the   beginning  of  .August 

!  (Jrossw.ardein,  where  he  again  sull'ered  defeat  from 
I'askevitch.  the  IJussian  general.     On   11th -August 

j  he  wa.s  nominated  dictator  in  Kossuth's  stea<l  at 
Arad,  and  two  days   later  surrendered  his  army  of 

I  24,000  men,  the  la-st  of  the  Hungarian  forces  in  the 


GORGES 


GORILLA 


305 


fielil,  unconilitiimally,  to  the  Russian  coiiinianiier 
Riuli;,'er,  at  V'ilaj,'os,  near  Arad.  Goigei  hiniseli 
was  iiiiprisoned  for  some  time  at  Kla;;enfuit,  in 
Cariiitliia,  but  eventually  set  at  liberty.  His 
countrymen  (including  Kossuth)  accused  him  of 
treachery,  a  charge  to  which  he  replied  in  Mci/i 
Lebeii  iiiid  Wir/:ni  in  Unqarn  in  lS.'iii  nnil  IS.'fi 
(Leip.  1S.V2).  With  Kossuth  and  the  civil  govern- 
ment he  failed  all  along  to  act  in  cordial  sympathy 
and  harmony,  and  he  is  also  said  to  have  shown 
personal  jeah>usy  of  the  other  Hungarian  generals. 
lie  returned  to  Hungary  in  18GH,  ami  in  1884  was 
presented  with  an  address  by  260  of  his  old  coni- 
l)anions  in  arm.s. 

dorges.  Sir  Ferdinando,  styled  '  the  father 
of  colonisation  in  America,'  was  born  about  1.565 
at  Ashton,  in  Somersetshire.  He  founded  two 
riymoutli  companies  (1606-20  and  1620  35)  for 
acquiring  and  planting  lands  in  New  England,  and 
in  16.30  received  from  the  king  a  cliarter  constitut- 
ing liim  proprietor  of  Maine.  He  adhered  to  the 
king  in  the  Civil  War,  and  died  some  time  in  1647. 
His  son  neglected  the  province,  which  linally  placed 
itself  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts,  to 
wliich  ccilonv  Sir  Ferdinando's  grandson  .sold  his 
rights  in  1677  for  -£1250. 

<>orgias,  a  celebrated  Greek  rhetorician  and 
sophist,  of  the  time  of  Socrates,  was  bom  at 
Leontini,  in  Sicily,  and  came  to  Athens  as  am- 
bassador fj-om  his  native  city  in  427  B.C.  He 
subsequently  settled  in  Greece,  and,  becoming 
famous  as  a  teacher  of  eloquence,  travelled  from 
place  to  place,  acquiring  wealtli  as  well  as  fame. 
He  died  at  LarLssa  about  380,  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years  old.  He  seems  to  have  drawn  the 
e.\tremest  consequences  of  the  sophistic  nega- 
tivism ;  teaching  that  nothing  is,  and  if  it  were, 
it  would  be  unknowable,  and  if  there  were  such 
a  thing  as  knowledge,  it  would  be  uncommuni- 
cable  (.see  Sophists).  Plato's  Dialogue  (rori/ida 
is  written  against  him.  Of  a  large  work  by  him 
on  Nature  nothing  remains.  Two  works  attrib- 
uted to  him  are  extant,  the  Awilocpj  of  Paki- 
metks,  and  the  Encomium  on  Helena,  but  their 
genuineness  is  disputed.  The  best  edition  is  by 
Blass  (Leip.  1871). 

GorgO.  or  GOROON,  according  to  Homer,  a 
frightful  female  monster  inhabiting  the  infernal 
regions.  Hesiod  mentions  three  (iorgones — Stheno, 
Euryale,  and  Medusa,  of  whom  the  last  named  is 
the  chief  inheritor  of  the  characteristic  attributes 
of  the  single  Homeric  Gorgon.  Their  habitation 
was  on  the  brink  of  the  Western  Ocean,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Night  and  the  Hesperiiles ;  but 
Herodotus  and  oilier  later  writers  place  it  in  Libya. 
They  were  generally  represented  as  winged  virgins 
with  brazen  claws  anil  enormous  teeth,  having  on 
their  heads  serpents  in  jijace  of  hair,  and  two  .ser- 
pents round  their  bodies  by  way  of  girdle.  Accord- 
ing to  later  legends,  Medusa  was  originally  a  very 
beautiful  maiden,  and  tlie  only  one  of  three  sisters 
who  was  mortal.  Having  become  a  mother  by 
Neptune  in  one  of  Minerva's  temples,  that  virgin 
goddess  changed  her  hair  into  serpents,  which  gave 
her  so  fearful  an  appearance  that  whoever  looked 
on  her  was  turned  into  stone.  She  was  slain  by 
Perseus,  and  her  heail  placed  in  the  shield  of 
Minerva. 

VorgOIlia,  a  genns  of  corals  of  the  .Vlcyonarian 
type,  in  which  the  colony  of  polypes  fcniiis  a 
branched  but  llattened  growth,  su]iported  by  an 
internal  axis  of  horn  (cornein)  originally  derived 
from  the  ba-ses  of  polypes.  The  genus,  which 
includes  over  a  score  of  widely  distributed  species, 
is  nearly  allied  to  the  black  "coral  ( /Vc.n(H;((  <(«/(- 
piif/ics)  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean,  from  the 
black  horny  axis  of  which  ornaments  are  often 
228 


matle ;  and  to  the  sea-fan   (Rhipidogorgia  Jiubel- 
lum),    the    much    branched   fan-like    skeleton    of 


•«JS 


Sea-fan. 

which  is  often  brought  home  as  a  curiosity  from 
the  West  Indies. 

GorgOIIZOla,  a  village  (pop.  4000)  12  miles 
NE.  of  Milan,  with  a  line  church,  silk  manu- 
factures, and  trade  in  a  special  kind  of  cheese. 

Oorlinin,  GeorgeCohnklius  ( 1787-1857 ).  vicar 
of  Brampford  Speke,  in  North  Devon,  and  hero  of 
the  'tiorhamca.se'  (1848-50),  which  arose  when 
I)r  Phillpotts,  Bishop  of  Exeter,  refused  to  institute 
him  on  a  presentation  by  the  Lord  Chancellor. 
The  bishop  found  him  to  be  of  unsound  doctrine 
as  to  the  etticacy  of  the  .sacrament  of  baiitism  ; 
inasmuch  as  he  held  that  spiritual  regeneration  is 
not  given  or  conferred  in  that  sacrament,  and  in 
|iarticnlar,  that  infants  are  not  made  therein  '  mem- 
bers of  Christ  and  the  children  of  God,'  as  the  cate- 
chism and  formularies  of  the  church  declare  them  to 
be.  The  case  was  brought  before  the  Arches  Court 
of  Canterbury,  which  decided  (1849)  that  bap- 
tismal regeneration  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  that  the  appeal  must  be  dismissed 
witli  costs.  From  this  decision  Gorham  appealed 
to  the  judicial  committee  of  Privy-council.  That 
court  found  that  ditierences  of  opinion  on  various 
]>oints  left  o]ien  were  alw.ays  thought  consistent 
with  subscription  to  the  articles,  and  that  opinions 
in  no  important  particular  to  be  distinguished  from 
Gorham's  had  been  maintained  without  censure 
by  many  eminent  iirelates  and  divines  :  the  court 
therefore  decided  that  the  juilgment  of  the  Arches 
Court  should  be  reversed,  and  Gorham  was, 
after  some  further  litigaticm,  instituted  to  Bramp- 
ford Speke.  During  the  two  years  that  the  suit 
was  pending  the  theological  question  wa-s  discussed 
with  acrimony  in  sermons  and  pamphlets. 

Gorliniiibiiry.    See  Bacon  (Francis). 

lioviWiX  (Trogludnlix  GuriUit).  a  great  African 
ape,  generally  referred  by  naturalists  to  the  same 
genus  with  the  chimpanzee,  although  Professur 
Isidore  tieott'roy  St-Hilaire  has  attempted  to  estab- 
lish for  it  a  separate  genns.  It  has  received  the 
mime  by  which  it  is  now  known  in  consequence  of 
its  being  supposed  to  be  the  same  animal  which  is 
mentioned  in  the  Perijdiix  of  Hanno  the  Cartha- 
ginian navigator,  who  visited  the  tropical  parts  of 
the  west  coast  of  Africa  about  the  year  350  B.C., 
although  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  gorilla 
of  Hanno  is  not  the  chimpanzee,  or  perhaps  a 
species  of  l>aboon.  Vague  accmmts  of  a])es  of  great 
size,  of   which   very   wonderful   stories  were   told. 


306 


GORILLA 


GORRKS 


were  from  time  to  time  hroiinlit  from  Western 
Africa;  l>ut  it  was  nut  till  1S47  lliat  tlie  gorilla 
liecanic  really  kimwii  to  iialuralisls,  wlicii  ii  skull 
was  soul  to  I'mlcj^snr  Wviiiaii  of  Hosloii  liy  I'r 
■Wilson,  an  Aniorioan  inissionarv  on  the  (lalioon 
Kiver.  Since  tliat  time  not  only  have  skeletons 
anil  skins  lioen  olitained  in  siidlcieiit  nini)lper  for 
scientilic  oxaniinnticui,  but  information  lias  also 
liecM  prociircil  coiiocrniii;;  the  lialiits  of  the  animal 
in  his  native  haunts.  The  accounts  of  the  ;;orilla 
j;iven  in  I  In  Chaillu's  l\.r/iloiiitiiiii.\  iiiiil  Adrriilitirs 
7/1  IC'/iiii/iiriii/  Afiiiii  (Lond.  IStil  )  soon  came  to  he 
re^'arili'il  hy  the  hi^'hest  scientilic  authorities,  and 
parliiiilarly  l>y  llwen.  as  in  the  main  trustworthy, 
notwithstandinj;  all  the  doulil  that  was  cast  over 
that  traveller's  narrative  of  his  adventures;  and 
they  arc  in  accordance-  with  all  that  has  heen  learnt 
from  other  sources,  and  with  llie  inferences  to  lie 
deduced  from  the  dentition  and  o9teolo;,'y  of  the 
animal. 

The  fjorilla  dillers  from  the  chimiinnzee  in  its 
greater  si/.e  ;  the  height  of  an  adult  male  in  an 
erect  jiostnie  licin;;  commonly  aliout  5  feet  6 
inches  or  o  feet  >S  inches,  although  there  is  rea.son 
to  think  that  it  someiimes  exceeds  G  feel.  The 
general  aspect  of  the  creature  may  lie-jathered  from 
the  accompanying'  li^'ure.     The  skin  is  very  black  ; 


Gorilla  (  Troijlmlytca  Gorilla ). 

the  hairy  coverin;;  of  the  back  is  thicker  than  on 
the  belly  ;  its  colour  varies  in  individuals  and  on 
dill'erent  jiarts  of  the  bodv  from  reddi.sh-brown  to 
black. 

The  skeleton  is  very  powerful  and  massive,  and 
dillers  from  the  human  skclet<in  in  the  following 
(among  other)  points.  The  skull  is  extremely 
prognathous,  the  .supraorbital  ridges  are  enor- 
mously developed ;  there  is  a  great  crest  between 
the  frontals  and  parietal  bones  which  joins  the 
occiput  crest.  The  canine  teeth  are  very  large, 
particularly  in  the  male.  The  cervical  vertcbiie 
liave  very  long  spinous  jiroces.ses.  The  ribs  in- 
crease progressively  in  their  span,  the  chest  cavity 
being  thus  more  or  less  conical  in  form.  The  arm 
bones  are  much  longer  than  in  man,  while  the  leg 
bones  are  shorter. 

The  muscular  anatomy  shows  also  certain  markeil 
ditrerenccs  from  man,  its  does  also  the  brain.  The 
gorilla  cannot  be  regarded  as  nearer  to  man  than 
the  chimpanzee  and  <irang.  There  are  a  number  of 
varieties  of   the  gorilla,   but  apparently   only    one 


Hand  (a)  and  foot  (6)  of  Gorilla. 


species,  which  is   conlined   to  the  forests  of  West 
Africa  between  2°  N.  and  .V  S.  lat.,  and  6°  and  Iff" 
E.    long,     it    is    |irincipally    a    vegetable    feeder, 
though    like   most 
apes  it  also  |ircys 
upon  small  mam- 
mals,    birds,    and 
their  eggs. 

The  gorilla 
wanders  about  in 
families,  consist- 
ing of  one  male 
and  female  and 
their  young ;  most 
of  the  time  is 
spent  11)1011  the 
gronnil,  though 
the  animal  is  a 
skilful  climber. 
It  is  not  so  fero- 
cious   !i    creature 

as  has  liecn  supposed,  and  when  molested  gener- 
ally avoids  an  eneounlcr;  but  if  driven  into 
a  corner  it  will  defend  itself,  and  its  enormous 
strength  renders  it  a  dangerous  enemy.  On  such 
occasions  it  will  advance  to  the  attack,  beating  its 
breast  with  its  lists  and  giving  forth  a  furious  roar. 
The  gorilla  has  not  been  hitherto  tamed,  ami,  in  an 
adult  state  at  least,  seems  very  imaiiablc  of  it.  In 
ISTCi  a  live  gorilla  was  brought  to  lierlin,  the  (irst 
aulhenlie  iiistaiieeof  the  introilnction  of  the  animal 
into  Kiirope  :  ami  in  liSST  a  young  gorilla  was  ex- 
liibited  .-It  the  Zoological  Cai'ilens  in  the  Hegent's 
I'ark.  The  name  given  to  this  animal  in  its  native 
country  is  y'l/itin,  or  Iiir/criia.  On  the  Loango 
coast  it  is  calle(l  X'/JiDir/d.  For  the  sUelet<in,  see 
Antiii:i)1'(iiii  AiMvS,  and  the  books  there  cited. 

fiurklllll  (I'utcli  G(iriiiclicm),  a  forlilied  town 
of  South  Holland,  on  the  Mcrwede,  22  miles  ESE. 
of  Kollcnlani,  possesses  an  arsenal,  some  manu- 
factures, and  a  miscellaneous  trade.     I'op.  l'J,30U. 

<.oiiit7..  a  town  of  Pnissi.an  Silesia,  is  situated 
on  a  diilivity  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Neisse,  49 
miles  W.  of  Liegnitz.  ( »ne  of  its  olil  mural  towers, 
(he  Kaisertrutz,  is  now  the  guard  house  ami 
armoury.  Among  the  beautiful  (iothic  cliurchi's 
the  most  interesting  is  that  of  St  I'eter  ami  St 
I'aul,  built  ll-':<  !I7, With  live  naves.  Outside  1  hi' 
town  is  the  Kreuzkapclle,  an  imitaliou  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  at  .lerusalem,  built  I4HI  H!).  A  railway 
viadiul.  upwards  of  2720  feet  in  length  and  118 
feet  high,  here  crosses  the  valley  of  the  Neisse. 
Giirlitz  has  manufactures  of  cloth,  which  is  its 
staple,  cotton,  linen,  and  fictile  wares,  with  iron- 
foumlries  and  machineshops.  Hero  Jaccdi  I'ocliiue 
spent  most  of  his  life  and  dieil.  Pop.  ( IS4;t )  l.").2tl(); 
(ISnO)  62,l.')ri,  mostly  Pi<ilcstants.  Coililz  was 
taken  and  held  alternately  by  the  Swedes  and  the 
Imiierialists  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

<iorres.  .I.xkoF!  .Iosi;ph  von,  a  distinguished 
German  author,  was  born  at  Coblenz,  2rith  .lannary 
1776.  In  common  with  most  of  the  anient  yontli 
of  the  time,  (liirres  threw  himself  eagerly  into  the 
movement  of  the  I'rench  Kevolution  ;  and  a  join  iial 
established  by  him,  Dujs  IMliv  lihitl.  ailvanced 
the  most  extreme  opinions  of  the  time.  In  179!)  he 
went  to  Paris  as  the  chief  of  a  deputation  to  nego- 
tiate the  annexation  of  the  liliinc-land  to  the 
Ercneh  Republic,  but  in  Paris  became  convinced  of 
Nap<ileon's  dcsiiotism.  On  his  return  to  (iermany 
he  settled  down  as  a  lecturer  on  ]iliysics  in  his 
native  town,  and  devoted  himself  excliisivelv  to 
literature  for  several  years.  In  1.S07  lie  jniblished 
the  lirst  part  of  his  well-known  collection  of 
(Jerman  Vull.shin-Iicr ;  anil  in  ISIO  his  work  on 
Asiatic  mythology.  Prom  these  studies,  how- 
ever,   he   was  aroused   to   the  liope  of   liberation 


GORTSCHAKOFF 


GORZ 


307 


from  French  tyranny  )>y  the  reverses  of  the  Krencli 
ariiis  in  the  Russian  expedition.  Ajjpealing  to 
tlie  national  sentiment  of  his  countrymen  in 
tlie  Kheiiilsclicr  Mer/iUr,  lie  became,  in  truth,  the 
literary  centre  of  the  national  movement.  After 
the  re-establishment  of  German  indcpemlence 
(Jcirros  (lenounccil  the  encroachments  of  domestic 
alisohitism  with  the  same  ener^'y,  until,  havinj,' 
lirawn  upon  himself  the  displeasure  of  the  Prussian 
f;overnmi'nt,  he  was  oljlij^'ed  to  tlee  to  France,  and 
afterwards  to  Switzerland.  In  1827  he  .accepted 
the  professorship  of  the  History  of  Literature  in 
the  university  just  founded  at  Munich  by  tlie 
liljcral  Kins  Louis  of  Bavaria.  His  later  years 
were  devoteil  to  literature,  and  to  the  contro- 
versies as  to  mixed  marriages  and  Hermesianism 
(see  Herme.s).  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Cath- 
olic journal,  Die  Hisfon'scli-Polifm-hcn  lUriftnr.  His 
chief  work  w.as  his  Cliri-itUrhc  Mi/sh'k  (1S4'2;  new 
ed.  1879 ).  He  died  29th  January  i848.  An  edition 
of  his  works  (9  vols. )  appeared  between  1854  and 
1874.     See  the  Life  by  Sepp  { 1876). 

C;ortsclinkoir,   Prince   Alex.vnder   Miph- 

AELOVITCII,  Kussian  statesman,  was  born  at  St 
Petersburg,  10th  .July  1798,  being  the  scm  of  Prince 
Mil  hael,  a  distinguished  olficer.  He  was  educated 
at  the  celebrated  Lyceum  of  Tzarskoe-Selo,  and  ac- 
riuired  experience  in  diplomacy  under  Nesselrode. 
Amliassador  at  Vienna  ( 18.54-50 ),  he  <lisplayed  great 
judgment  and  ability  during  the  rrimean  war,  .and 
it  was  chiclly  througli  his  intluence  that  Kussi.a 
agreed  to  the  treaty  of  Paris.  After  this  event 
Prince  Gortschakott' succeeded  Ne.sselrode  as  minis- 
ter of  foreign  affairs.  When  France  became  hostile 
to  Austria  on  the  Italian  question,  he  cultivated 
the  friendship  of  the  former.  Desirous  of  restor- 
ing the  prestige  of  Russia  in  Euro]ican  att'airs,  he 
addressed  a  circular  dispatch  to  the  Powers  in  18(10 
in  favour  of  the  principle  of  nation.alitics  in  the 
Two  Sicilies.  He  also  favoured  the  l-'rench  expe- 
dition of  1861  to  Syria  on  behalf  of  the  oppressed 
Christians,  but  he  ileclined  to  associate  himself 
with  France  and  Great  Britain  in  their  unfriendly 
attituchr  towards  the  United  St.ates  after  the  out- 
break of  the  civil  war.  Touching  the  Poli-^h  in- 
surrection of  186.'i,  he  repudiated  foreign  dictation, 
and  .asserted  the  right  of  Russia  to  settle  her 
internal  .allairs  in  accordance  with  her  own  interests 
an<l  the  integrity  of  the  empire.  By  this  step  he 
acquired  great  popularity  at  home  and  respect 
abroad,  ami  he  was  apjiointed  ch.ancellor  of  the 
empire  in  July  180.3.  From  this  time  until  the 
ascendancy  of  Bismarck  he  was  the  most  pow'erful 
minister  in  iMirope. 

He  remained  neutral  during  the  struggle  be- 
tween Prussia  and  Austria;  and,  owing  to  a 
delinite  nnderstiinding  between  the  Russian  and 
Pru.ssian  chancellors,  the  neutrality  of  Austria 
was  secvired  in  the  great  Franco- Prussian  war 
of  1870.  (JortschakolV  further  av.ailed  himself  of 
this  war  to  cownterai't  the  injury  done  to  Russian 
iiilluence  by  the  treaty  of  Paris.  At  tlie  London 
Conference  in  January  1871  he  procnre<l  the  re- 
vision of  the  treaty,  and  the  formation  of  another 
putting  an  end  to  the  neutralisation  of  the  l!la(d< 
Sea.  For  this  service  the  emperor  conferred  iiiion 
him  the  dignity  of  Serene  Highness.  In  187.'{-74  lie 
manifested  a  desire  to  preserve  friendly  relations 
with  Fngland  in  regard  to  central  Asia,  but  this 
was  scarcely  consistent  with  his  aggressive  jiolicy. 
In  the  Servian  war  of  1878  (Jiutscliakofl"  took  up 
an  indecisive  .attitude;  and  after  the  conclusion 
of  the  Turko-Hussian  war,  the  repudiation  of  the 
treaty  of  Sa,n  Slefano,  and  the  signing  of  the 
treaty  of  llerlin  his  inlluence  begun  to  wane.  .At 
the  Berlin  Congress  Bismarck  and  lieaconslield  hail 
paid  nicue  attention  to  SchouvalolV  tli.an  to  the 
chancellor.     Gortschakoft"  altogether  ceased  to  be 


the  tirst  factor  in  European  politics  befoie  Alex- 
ander II.  was  assassinated,  and  long  before  he  was 
superseded  by  M.  <le  Giers  as  minister  for  foreign 
allairs  in  March  1882.  Gortschakoll's  s]ihero  of 
action  was  European,  not  local  ;  he  ignoreil  too 
much  Russian  developments  and  Russian  as|iira- 
tions,  took  no  active  interest  in  the  serious  linan- 
cial  and  industrial  problems  .aft'ecting  his  country, 
or  in  the  growth  of  Nihilism,  and  he  even  f.ailed  to 
bear  his  part  in  the  abolition  of  serfdom.  After  his 
retirement  he  left  Russia  for  Baden-Baden,  where 
he  died  on  1st  March  ISS.S.  Gortschakolt'  w.as  a 
man  of  considerable  culture  and  a  friend  of  the 
liberal  arts.  His  diplomatic  circulnrs  were  remark- 
able for  their  excellent  diction,  their  wit,  and  their 
resistless  logic.  The  name  is  also  l^nglished  by 
Gorichakoff  and  Gorcliukor.  See  Klaczko's  'J'irn 
C7iancel/ors  {Mng.  trans.  1876). 

Gortscliakolf,  Prince  iIicH.\EL,  cousin  of 

the  above,  was  born  in  1795,  and  served  against 
the  French  in  1812-14  and  against  the  Turks 
in  1828-29.  In  the  war  of  the  Polish  revolution 
of  18.S1  he  greatly  distinguished  himself.  an<l 
was  made  general  of  artillery.  He  was  ajijiointiMl 
military  governor  of  Wars.aw  in  1840,  and  took 
part  in  the  invasion  of  Hungaiy  in  1849.  On  the 
outlneak  of  the  Crimean  war  he  twice  commanded 
the  Itussian  army  despatched  to  the  D.anubian 
Principalities,  on  the  second  occasimi  leading  the; 
retreating  Russian  forces  into  Bessarabia  after 
the  raising  of  the  siege  of  Silistria.  In  IS.V) 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  the 
Crimea  and  southern  Russia.  He  was  defeated 
on  the  Tchernaya,  but  recovered  his  l.aunds  by  his 
gallant  defence  of  Sebastopol,  and  by  his  skilful 
retreat  to  the  North  Fort  after  the  blowing  up 
of  the  fortress.  Alexander  II.  apjiointed  him 
governor  of  Poland  in  1856,  and  he  was  engaged 
in  carrying  out  the  conciliatory  policy  of  the  czar 
when  his  death  occurred  on  May  HO,  1861. 

Gory  Dow,  a  dark-red  slimy  film  sometimes 
seen  on  ilanip  walls  and  in  sha<ly  places.  Its 
appearance  on  the  whitewashed  walls  of  damp 
cellars,  I'vrc.  is  apt  to  occasion  alarm  from  its 
resemblance  to  blood.  It  is  one  of  the  lowest 
forms  of  vegetable  life,  an  alga  of  the  group  I'al- 
mellacea?,  and  allied  to  the  plant  to  wliicti  the 
phenomenon  of  Red  Snow  (q.v. )  is  due.  Its 
botanical  name  is  J'or/i/iyn'i/iiim  friictitum  ( /'«/- 
inellti  n-Kcnta).     See  Palmell.\CE.E,  and  Al-G.E. 

Ciorz,  capital  of  the  Austrian  crown-land  of 
Gor/.-(iradisc.a,  in  the  Kiistenland,  is  charmingly 
situated  in  a  frnitful  )dain,  near  the  Ison/o, 
;j5  miles  NNW.  of  Trieste  by  rail.  Shut  in  by 
mountains  on  all  .sides  except  the  south,  it  enjoys 
an  almost  Italian  climate,  and  has  of  late  years 
acquired  some  fame  as  a  healtlire.«ort.  Among 
its  principal  buildings  are  the  old  castle  of  tin' 
former  Counts  of  Giirz  and  the  former  .lesuit 
college,  both  now  used  as  barracks;  the  cathedral, 
with  a  beautiful  sacristy;  and  the  iirincc-bishop's 
and  several  other  palaces.  The  surrounding  plain 
is  covered  with  vineyards,  and  industries  are  the 
cultivation  and  export  of  fruit  and  wine,  whilst 
Giirz's  specialty  has  long  been  the  printing  of 
Hebrew  liooks  fiu'  the  East.  There  are  dyewi>iks, 
.and  important  manufactures  of  Hour,  sugar,  cotton, 
silks,  rosoglio,  paper,  leather,  soa]>,  and  matches. 
In  a  Franciscan  cloister  close  by  are  the  graves  of 
Charles  X.  of  France  (q.v.),  the  Due  d'Angonli  nie 
and  his  wife,  and  the  Conite  de  Chambord.  Pop. 
(1869)  10,(1.59;  (1890)  21,825.  See  Schatzmayer, 
At  Kurort.  Orirz  (1880). — The  Austrian  lllyrian 
Kiistenl.and  ( '  Coastland ')  includes  the  ]iiinci|iali(y 
of  Gdrz-Gr.adisca,  the  margr.aviate  of  l.-tria,  \sitli 
the  Quarncro  Islands,  and  Trieste  and  its  territory. 
Its  boundaries  are  the  Adriatic  on  the  south,  ami 


308 


GOSCHEN 


GOSPELLERS 


on  the  remaining  sides  Venice,  Cnrintliin,  Camiola, 
anil  Croatia.  Area,  3075  so.  ni.  ;  poii.  (IHSO) 
647,94.'t;  (lS0O)C95,:in4. 

<i«»sfll<>ll.  Ckkuijk  .To.VCIlIM,  En<,'lisli  sUtes- 
niaii.  sun  nl  a  l.niKlun  nicrrliant  of  (Jernian  i-x- 
traction,  was  liorn  in  London,  ,\n;,'nst  10,  IS.fl, 
and  \v,as  edncated  at  Knjjliv  ami  (hiid.  lie  is 
LL.lt.,  D.C.L.  r.n.S.,  and  V.V.  In  18(i:t  lie 
wrote  on  exchange,  and  entered  [larlianient  as  a 
Lilieral  for  the  City  of  London.  When  Lord 
Kusscll,  after  I'alini-i'ston  s  death,  reorganised  the 
Lihcral     ministry,     he     a|iiKiinliMl     (ioschen    Vice- 

r resilient  of  the  Hoard  of  Trade.  N<iveMilier  I.SO.'i. 
n  the  fcdlowing  January  the  latter  entered  the 
caUinet  in  <-onsei|iience  of  his  appointnient  ius 
chancellor  of  the  Dnchy  of  Lanc.uster.  When 
(Ilndstoiie  liccame  |>riineniinister  in  IStiS,  Cosclien 
took  ollice  as  President  of  the  Poor-law  Hoard, 
bnt  three  years  later  l)ecame  the  head  of  the 
Admiralty,  which  post  he  retained  nntil  the 
fall  of  the  (iladstone  ministry  in  1S74.  (loschen's 
next  pnldic  work  was  th<?  regulation,  in  con- 
junction with  Jouhert,  of  the  Kgyptian  hnances 
(lS7tit.  Then  in  1S78  lie  represented  Creat 
Britain  at  the  international  monetary  conference 
held  at  Paris,  and.  two  yeai-s  afterw.aids,  as  am- 
hassador  extraordinary  to  the  Porte,  enforced  on 
Turkey  the  fMlliliiient  towards  (heece  of  the  treaty 
of  lierlin.  He  strenuously  opposed  Home  liule;  in 
18S7-92  w.os  I'nionist  Clianccdior  of  the  Kxcliequer, 
and  in  18SS  converteil  part  of  the  National  iJebt. 
)u  IS!).->-l!)00,  .as  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  he 
made  inovision  for  increasing  the  navy.  He  has 
puldished  works  on  tiiiance  (Foreii/ii  ICrr/i/iriijrs. 
IGth  ed.  lHn4 1,  education,  &c.,  and  lias  lieen  Lord 
Kector  of  .M)erdeen  and  Eiliiiliiiigh  I'niversities. 
He  sat  for  London,  1863-80:  Uipon,  ISS0-S5;  Kasl 
Edinhurgh,  1SS.5-8G  ;  and  St  Ceorges,  Hanover 
Smiare,  1887-liX)0,  when  he  retired  from  puldic 
life.  His  grandfather  wa.s  the  famous  Leipzig 
bookseller,  Oeorg  Joachim  Cosclien  (17.52-1828). 

laOsliaM'k  (lit.,  'goo.se-liawk')  (^Js?  (//•),  a  genus 

in    the   family    Falconida>,    nearly   related   to   the 

sparrow-hawks    (Accipiter),    .and   like    the   Latter 

(listiuguished  from  the  falcons  jiropcr  hy  not  h.aving 

a    toMiheil    or    notched    hill.       The    Ihitish    s]>ecies 

[A.    iKiliimlinrins)    is    now    only    a    visitor,   and    a 

rjire  one.     It  is  common  in   the  forests  of   north- 

^,_^,^^  ern    anil    central 

Europe,  .and 

ranges      a.s      far 

east     as     J,a])an, 

and  iis  f.ar  south 

.as    .Morocco    .and 

Egypt.       It  is  a 

raii.acious      bird, 

following     small 

maiiim.als        and 

game-liirds         in 

swift,  persistent, 

and      rapidly 

iltered         lliglit. 

The       ]u'evalent 

<iilour      of       the 

,        r^^_ {\         1  iir-        I'lii'iiage  is  ashy- 

/        l^ify""^  ''*    I'i        I'lowii  :    the  size 

^       K'   '  .w      A       "f    tl'e     females, 

■  winch      are     de- 

eiiledly  the 
larger,  is  about 
two  feet.  The 
nest  is  large, 
built  of  sticks, 
and  placed  in  a  tree.  The  eggs  (four)  are  bluish- 
gr.ay  in  colour,  and  laid  in  .April  or  .NLav.  The 
goshawk  Used  to  breed  in  lirit.ain.  and"  though 
termed  '  ignoble  '  was  employed  in  Falconry  ((j.v,  j 


Goshawk  (Attur  palumbarim). 


[  for  hunting  ground-game,  on  which  it  naturally 
preys. 

The  goshawk  of  the  northern  United  State-s  (A. 
alrii-iipilliiK)  is  larger  and  handsomer,  but  other- 
wise very  like  the  Europe.iii  species.  .Siidubon 
describes  its  meteor  like  lliglit,  the  power  of  steer- 
ing atl'ordcd  by  the  long  tiiil,  its  vigilant  industrious 
rapacdty,  ami  the  characteristic  erect ness  of  its 
altitude  when  perched  or  engageil  with  its  prey. 
A  stray  specimen,  said  to  have  lieeii  shot  in  Pertli- 
shire,  is  preserved  in  the  Edinburgh  .Mu.seuiii.  The 
.Uistralian  (loshawk  (.1.  imi-ir  linlliiinlid),  soiue- 
tiiiies  i-alled  a  white  eagle,  is  remaikable  in  being 
'  a|ip.ueiitlv  a  permanent  albino.' 

<>OslieiI,  that  part  of  ancient  Egypt  which 
Phar.aoh  iire.senteit  to  the  kindred  of  Joseph  when 
they  came  to  sojourn  in  that  roiintry,  ajipears  to 
have  Lain  between  the  e.a-stern  delta  of  the  Nile 
anil  the  Isthmus  of  .Suez,  as  far  south  as  the 
modern  Ismailia.  The  distriet  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  h.ive  lain  rouinl  about  the  Egyptian 
Kesem  (Coslien  is  dixnn  in  the  Seiituagint ),  a 
name  pre.served  in  the  da.ssical  Pn.acusa  ( l',a- 
Ke.sem ),  now  Fakoos,  about  4.")  miles  S.  of  Dnnii- 
ettn.  But  in  l,8K,'>-87  M.  Naville  Irie.l  to  prove 
that  Coshen  is  represented  by  Saft  (d-Hc)ina,  6 
miles  E.  of  Zagazig.  in  the  W.ady  Tnmilal.  See 
the  I'lDirth  Mnnuir  nf  ilti-  Kiimil  E.ijildniliuii  Fund 
(  ISSS). — The  L\M>  i)K  CdsHKN  w.as  the  name  given 
to  a  part  of  the  ISarolong  country  in  lieclmaiiai.ind, 
Soiitli  .Africa,  which  became  in  I KS4  the  seat  of  a 
mushroom  Itoer  repul)lic,  foundeil  by  the  marauders 
who  had  supporteil  Moshette,  therival  of  Mont- 
sioa  in  his  contest  for  the  headship  of  the  IJaro- 
longs.  It  was,  along  with  the  rest  of  HeihuaMa- 
liitid,  declared  to  lie  under  Ihitish  Jirotcction  in 
September  lss."i. 

Goslai*.  an  ancient  town  of  Hanover,  sitiiateil 
on  the  north  slope  of  the  Harz  .Mountains,  27  miles 
SE.  of  Hildesheim.  At  one  time  a  free  imperial 
city,  and  the  residence  of  the  emperors,  it  ha.s 
several  noteworthy  old  buildings,  as  the  tower 
called  the  '  Zwinger,'  with  walls  2.S  feet  tliick ; 
the  Late  I{omanesi|ue  church  Neuwerk,  of  the 
I2tli  century,  .and  the  I'ran ken berger  church  (1108, 
restored  1880),  both  with  ancient  frescoes ;  the 
emperor's  house,  built  in  lOfiO  by  Henry  ML,  tlic 
dwelling-house  of  the  einperoi-s  till  the  niiddle  of 
the  1.3th  century,  the  meeting-])lace  of  more  than 
a  score  of  iiii]ieiial  diets,  restored  in  1867-80,  and 
adorned  with  frescoes  by  Wislicemis  ;  the  town- 
bouse,  built  in  ll.'tt>84;  and  the  Kaiserworth,  an 
old  building  containing  statues  of  eight  eirijierors. 
To  the  south  of  the  town  is  the  Hamiiielsbcrg,  a 
mountain  formerly  very  rich  in  silver,  gold,  copper, 
lead,  sulphur,  and  green  vitriol  (sulphate  of 
iron ).  The  mines  have  been  worked  since  !)68, 
•and  are  still  in  operation.  Cosl.ar  w.as  founded 
by  Henry  I.  in  920.  About  13.50  it  joined  the 
Hanseatic  League.  Its  ancient  prosperity  be^'an 
to  depart  from  it  in  the  middle  of  the  lOtli 
century  ;  and  it  suirercd  severely  from  the  .Swedes 
in  the  Thirty  Veai-s'  War.  In  1802  it  ce.ased  to  be 
,a  free  imperial  town  and  fell  to  Pru.ssia,  to  whom 
it  again  returned  in  1806,  after  having  in  the 
meantime  belonged  to 'Westphalia  ( from  1807)  and 
Hanover  (from  1816).  Here  were  born  Henry  IV. 
and  Marshal  Saxe.  The  Wordswoitlis  were  here  in 
1798.  Pop.  (  187.51  98.38:  ( 189.5)  18,966.  See  works 
by  Mithoir  ( 1874)  and  Wolfstieg  ( 1885). 

Gospellers,  a  word  used  with  three  different 
designations.  (1)  A  term  aiiplicd  by  the  Roman 
Catholics  to  those  Reformers  who  taught  the  jieojde 
the  words  of  Scriiitiiie  in  their  own  vulgar  tongue, 
as  Wyclif  and  his  followers. — (2)  \  class  of 
.-\ntinomians,  .about  the  period  of  the  Reformation, 
who  drew    'strange   inferences '  from    the  doelriiie 


GOSPELS 


309 


of  i)ieilestinatii)n.~(3)  Tlie  iiriest  wlio  leails  the 
Cospel  in  the  communion  service  of  the  ('liurcli  of 
England,  standing  on  the  north  side  of  the  altar. 

GospelSi  Tlie  word  ciiatjintiun,  which  in  chissi- 
cal  (ireek  originally  meant  'the  reward  for  good 
news '  (Odi/sseji,  xiv.  152 ;  conip.  '2  Sam.  iv.  10,  LXX. ), 
liut  afterwards  simply  'good  news'  (Plutarch, 
Lucian,  Appian),  has  from  Anglo-Saxon  times  lieen 
rendered  liy  the  word  Guspd  (Godspell— i.e.  story 
of  God  [Christ]).  In  the  New  Testament  it  is 
always  used  in  tlie  singular,  and  means  '  the  good 
news  of  the  kingdom '  as  proclaimed  liy  t'hrist  and 
his  apostles.  Perhaps,  however,  in  Mark  i.  1 
there  is  some  trace  of  the  technical  sense,  as  denot- 
ing a  written  narrative  of  the  life  and  utterances  of 
Jesus,  which  it  had  fully  acijuireil  hy  the  end  of 
the '2d  century  (Justin  Martyr,  Apol.  I.  66:  'the 
memoirs  of  the  apostles  .  .  .  which  are  called 
gospels ' ).  The  gradual  rise  of  the  hi>-t(Mical  por- 
tion of  tlie  New  Testament  (belonging  for  the  most 
part  to  a  later  period  than  the  Ejiistlcs,  which  are 
the  earliest  extant  documents  of  Christianity )  lia-s 
already  been  brieliy  traced  in  the  article  HlBLE 
(Vol.  II.  p.  1'24),  where  also  the  fact  of  the  lixation 
of  the  four-fold  gospel  canon  before  the  do.se  of  the 
'2d  century  has  been  stated  ;  see  also  separate 
articles  on  M.VTTHEW,  MARK,  Luke,  and  John. 
Here  it  is  enough  to  say  that,  since  the  canon 
was  ecclesiastically  settled,  it  has  l>een  the  un- 
varying belief  of  the  church  in  all  its  branches 
that  these  four  gospels  are  to  be  received  as  clothed 
with  a|iostulic  authority — Matthew  and  John  as 
written  liy  apostles,  Mark  and  Luke  as  written  by 
companions  of  apostles. 

(Jf  the  four,  that  of  John  is  distinguished  by 
peculiarities  which  give  it  a  unii|ue  place  amimg 
the  New  Testament  writings,  and  will  most  con- 
veniently be  treated  in  the  separate  article.  The 
hist  three,  on  the  other  hand,  have  very  much  in 
common  ;  in  fact,  they  present  such  a  similarity 
in  matter  and  form  that  they  readily  admit  of 
being  brought  under  one  and  the  same  'com- 
bined view'  nx  'synopsis,'  from  which  circum- 
stance they  have  since  the  time  of  ( Iricsbacli  ( who 
coined  the  phrase)  been  commonly  designated  the 
'synoptical'  gosiiels  (see  the  lliuiitdiiks,  such 
as  Tiscliendorf  s  Synopsis  Emiiijelim).  The  re- 
semblance is  both  in  substance  and  in  language. 
( 1 )  They  give  the  same  general  outline  of  the 
life  of  .lesus,  and  to  a  large  extent  select  the 
same  incidents  for  iletailed  treatment.  Thus,  they 
relate,  on  the  whole,  the  same  miiacles,  ami  jire- 
serve  the  same  discourses.  They  arc  silent  also  on 
the  same  points;  two,  for  examjile,  gi^e  the  woe 
lironounced  u[ion  Chorazin  and  Ijethsaida,  but  no 
one  of  the  three  has  anything  precise  to  say  about 
the  occasion  that  called  it  forth.  Various  attempts 
have  been  made  to  represent  in  tabular  and  graphic 
form  the  amount  of  material  coiucideiice  between 
the  synoptics  ;  but  it  is  [irobably  impo.ssible  to  do 
so  with  ali.soliite  exactness.  The  following  estimate, 
however,  the  result  of  a  recent  somewhat  careful 
examination,  may  be  taken  as  apiuoximately  repre- 
scnting  the  facts.  Of  a  total  of  1071  verses, 
Matthew  has  ;!S7  in  common  with  Mark  and  Luke, 
IMO  ill  common  with  Mark,  184  in  common  with 
Luke,  and  ."170  peculiar  to  himself.  Of  Mark's  (i(i'2 
verses,  4U0  are  common  to  all  three  synoptists,  145 
common  to  Mark  and  Matthew,  (it)  common  to 
Mark  and  I, like,  and  .51  (on  a  liberal  estimate) 
peculiar  to  himself.  Luke  out  of  1151  vei'ses  shares 
:V.m  with  Matthew  and  Mark,  170  with  Matthew,  41 
with  Mark,  ami  has  544  peculiar  to  himself.  ('2) 
They  often  agree  in  a  remarkable  manner  in  the 
order  in  which  they  give  the  events  they  relate,  even 
where  the  events  themselves  are  only  hiosely  con- 
nected ;  thus,  in  Matt,  ix.,  Mark  ii.,  ami  Luke  v., 
the  miraculous  healing  of  the  paralytic,  Matthew's 


call  and  feast,  the  dLscourse  on  fa.sting,  follow  one 
another ;  in  two  gospels  the  la-st-mentioned  dis- 
course is  immediately  followed  by  the  incident  in 
the  cornfield,  which  again,  in  all  three,  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  healing  of  the  withere<l  liaml.  In 
Matthew'  and  Mark  the  death  of  the  liaptist 
is  introduced  at  the  same  point  and  in  the  same 
way,  but  out  of  its  chronological  order.  I'or 
full  discussion  of  these  and  other  instances  refer- 
ence must  be  made  to  the  text-books.  (3)  In  many 
instances  they  use  identical  langunge.  This  cir- 
cumstance would  be  striking  enough  even  if  it 
were  observable  only  in  cases  where  discourses  are 
reported,  when  it  is  remembered  that  these  dis- 
courses were  almost  certainly  spoken  in  Aramaic  ; 
but  its  significance  is  vastly  increased  when  it 
occurs  in  n.arrative  iia.ssages  (Matt.  xiv.  19,  '20; 
Mark,  vi.  41,  4'2 ;  Luke,  ix.  10,  17;  Matt.  xvii.  5; 
Mark.  ix.  7  ;  Luke,  ix.  35 ;  Matt.  ix.  1-8 ;  iMark, 
ii.  1-1'2:  Luke,  v.  17-'20 — wliere  observe  the  jiaieii- 
thesis  common  to  all  three,  '  then  saitli  he  to  the 
sick  of  the  palsy'),  when  it  is  shown  in  the  use  of 
rare  words  or  expressions,  or  when  all  coincide  in 
((noting  the  Old  Testament  in  a  way  that  diti'eis 
both  from  the  Hebrew  and  the  Septuagint  text. 

It  is  only  in  modern  times  that  such  phenomena 
as  these  in  the  synoptic  gospels  have  attracted 
serious  attention  or  received  critical  study.  Doubt- 
less they  had  been  often  noticed  before,  liut  the 
fact  of  so  large  a  degree  of  coincidence  was  not 
felt  to  be  at  all  surprising.  All  three  gosjiels  were 
held  to  be  tirst-hand  narratives,  and  ]irimarily  all 
by  the  same  author,  the  inspiring  spirit  of  (Jod. 
The  resemblance,  therefore,  was  only  what  might 
have  been  expected.  AVere  further  explanation 
pre.s.sed  for.  it  was  enough  to  suggest  that  .MiiiU 
iiad  copied  from  Matthew,  and  Luke  had  access  to 
both,  anil  this  a.ssumed  dependence  of  the  later  on 
the  earlier  evangelist  was  not  felt  to  atf'ect  in  any 
way  their  importance  as  reall.v  indejieiHlent,  be- 
cause immediatel.v  inspired.  Alore  embarrassing 
were  their  apparent  divergences  and  even  seeming 
contradictions  in  narrating  what  purjiortcd  to  be 
the  same  events  (e.g.  the  resurrection  and  the 
post-resurrection  appearances  of  Jesus),  and  their 
discrepancies  of  language  in  relating  what  seemed 
to  be  the  same  discourses.  The  reconciliation  of 
these  discrepancies  and  divergences  (which  were 
held  to  be  apparent  only)  was  the  object  of  numer- 
ous conii)ilers  of  '(lospel  H.armonics.' 

The  .so-called  '.synoptical  problem  '  took  shape  in 
(Germany  towards  the  close  of  the  18th  century. 
The  discussion  began  in  a  refutation  by  Koppe 
{Mrirciis  mm  Epihjnuitur  M(ilt/iai\  17S2)  of  tlie 
traditionally  received  view,  fii'st  started  by  Augus- 
tine, that  Mark  in  writing  bis  gospel  bad  mcidy 
followed  Matthew  and  abridged  him.  Iiiiportaiit 
contrilnitioiiN  towards  the  aihancement  of  the 
ipiestion  were  nuade  in  succeeding  tiecades  bv  such 
men  a.s  Lessing,  Eichhorn,  Griesbach,  Schleier- 
macher,  Gieseler,  l)e  Wette,  Lachmann,  Haur, 
Ewald,  Bleek,  Kitschl,  and  others  too  numerous  to 
mention.  In  the  course  of  the  investigation  three 
broad  lines  of  explanation  were  attempted.  ( 1  I  The 
'  Kenutzungs-hypothese,'  or  borrowing  hypothesis, 
sought  to  explain  the  facts  by  sujiposing  that  the 
second  evangelist  in  order  of  time  (  whoever  lie  w  as ) 
borrowed  from  the  first,  and  that  the  third  borrowed 
from  either  or  both  of  his  predecessors.  Of  this 
theory  numerous  forms  are  logically  and  inathe- 
matically  conceivable,  and  almost  all  of  these  have 
in  the  coiir.se  of  a  century's  iliscussion  found  able 
advocates.  IVrhajis  the  most  po|iular  form  li:is 
been  the  'combination'  theory — that  Mark  i-  a 
combination  of  Matthew  and  Luke.  ("2)  The 
'  Ur-evangeliunis-liy))otliese'  sought  to  establish  the 
existence  of  a  primitive  written  gospel,  no  longer 
extant,  to  which,  however,  all  the  evangelists  had 


310 


GOSPELS 


access,  mill  of  wliicli  lliey  eacli  inmle  iiKlcpeiiileiit 
use.  (3)  The  '  tnulitiimliypollie.Nis  '  was  lliiit  cacli 
evanj^elist  ilrew  liis  matter  iiuleiiciKlciitly  of  tlic 
otlieix  from  an  oral  aiiOKtolic  lra<litioii  wliioli  had 
bceoiiie  stereotv|ie(l. 

The  rfsult  ot  the  iliscussiou  hiv-s  liecn  to  make  it 
plain  that  no  one  of  these  theoiics  is  hy  itself 
siillicirnl  to  covi-r  all  the  faets  of  the  ease.  The 
horrowin;;  hy|iotliesis  may  aceount  for  the  coinci- 
ileiices,  Imt  it  leaves  the  iliscrejianoies  niiexplained 
and  inexplicahle.  Tlie  same  riMnark  ap]>lies  to  the 
a.ssuniplion  of  a  jirimitive  f^osiiel  or  gospels  ;  it  has 
heeii  found  necessary  hy  its  atlvoeates  to  a.s.siiiiie  a 
mnhiplirity  of  lost  doenments  in  a  manner  that 
raises  ilillioiilties,  historical  and  other,  oiiite  its 
Hreat  as  those  which  it  seeks  to  remove.  The  oral 
tradition  theory,  ajjain,  mi^lit  .serve  to  account  for 
the  discrepancies,  hnt  when  it  is  sonj;ht  to  explain 
the  immense  aminint  of  coinciilence  hy  means  of  it. 
the  improliahility  of  a  stereotype  tradition  of  such 
mass,  conlinini,'  itself  so  clcsely  to  the  same  inci- 
dents, told  ill  so  nearly  the  same  onler  and  in  lan- 
guage so  little  varying,  is  seen  to  he  very  great. 
But,  on  the  other  liaiiil,  it  is  now  more  or  less 
generally  admitteil  that  all  three  theories  contained 
important  elements  of  truth.  (1)  In  conneetioii 
with  the  oral  traililion  hypothesis  itseems  toler,ahlv 
clear  that  for  at  least  a  generation  after  the  deatli 
of  Chrisi  no  important  attempt  was  made  to  com- 
mit to  writing  .-iny  record,  however  liiief,  of  the 
leading  facts  of  his  life  or  tin'  main  elements  of 
his  preaching.  This  was  no  doubt  partly  due  to 
the  widespread  helief  that  his  second  coming  and 
the  enil  of  the  world  were  close  at  hand.  The 
epistles  were,  as  has  already  Ix-eii  said,  the  earliest 
literary  )iioductions  of  t'hristianity,  and  these  were 
all  called  forth  liy  occa-sions  much  more  deliiiite 
than  any  that  hail  as  yet  presented  tiiemselves  for 
writing  menioiis  of  t'hrist.  l!ut  the  life  and  words 
of  (lirist  were  the  continu.al  suhject  of  the  preach- 
ing and  catechising  of  the  apostles  and  their  con- 
verts, a  sulijeet  they  naturally  expounded  in 
connection  with  the  Old  Testament  scri])tnres. 
These  he  hail  jierfi'ctly  and  completely  fullilleil, 
and  Christ  was  therefore  sought  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment prophecies  in  a  way  that  made  the  early 
Christians  feel  little  need  of  a  written  gospel. 
That  this  traditional  preaching  and  catechising 
would  tend  to  become  stereotyped  within  each 
apostolic  circle  is  manifest  ;  hut  that  it  wsts  also 
capable  of  taking  dilleient  foniis  in  did'eient  circles 
is  shown  (to  take  obvious  examples)  by  the  want 
of  coriesjiondence  between  the  narratives  of  the 
nativity  and  of  the  resurrection  as  given  in 
Matthew  and  Luke  resj)ectively.  (2)  As  regards 
a  primitive  gospel  (or  I  r-evangelium,  as  Kichliorn 
lii-st  called  it),  specialists  are  becoming  more  and 
more  at  one  in  recognising  two  relatively  |iriinitive 
documents  embodied  wholly  or  in  part  in  the  exist- 
ing syno|)tists.  These  consist  ( <( )  in  the  gos]iel 
according  to  .Mark,  or  an  earlier  draft  thereof; 
{/>)  in  a  so  called  'logia'  document,  ci>mi>osed 
mainly  of  sayings  and  discourses  of  the  Lord — a 
document  which  wius  largely  drawn  npim  by  the 
authors  of  the  first  and  third  gospels  for  much  of 
what  they  have  in  common  with  each  other  apart 
from  Mark.  The  reasons  for  abandoning  the 
ancient  view  of  Mark's  dependence  on  Matthew, 
and  for  now  regarding  his  as  the  earliest  of  our 
existing  gosjiels.  depend  largely  on  considerations 
as  to  his  language,  style,  and  general  point  of  view 
which  cannot  be  even  indic.ited  here,  nor  does  space 
allow  mention  to  bo  made  of  the  various  minute 
points  which  have  led  many  acute  scholars  to 
distinguish  between  an  original  Mark  (I'r-Marcus  j 
.and  the  ]iresent  form  of  the  second  gospel.  'I'he 
design.'ition  of  the  'logia'  document  is  taken  from 
a  much  discussed  fragment  of  a  very  earlv  author, 


I'ajiiits,  preserved  hy  Eusehius,  to  the  effect  that 
'.\fatthew  composed  tn  lot/ia  |the  oracles,  or  the 
di-coui-ses  of  our  Lord  |  in  the  Hebrew  j  i.e.  .lewisli- 
.\iaiiiaicj  diahi-t,  and  each  one  interpreted  them 
as  he  could.'  Schleiermacher  was  the  iirst  to  ]ioinl 
out  the  importance  of  this  passage  in  its  possible 
hearings  on  criticism.  (3)  The  hollowing  hypo- 
thesis, in  the  .sense  that  tlie  authors  of  the  liist  and 
third  gospels  knew  and  very  freely  used  the  earlier 
work  of  Mark,  is  by  no  means  a  violent  one,  .and 
.seems  in  many  ciuses  to  alloid  the  true  explanation 
of  the  facts. 

The  drift  of  current  opinion  among  specialists 
may  perhaps  be  staled  somewhat  as  follows:  When 
after  the  lapse  of  a  generation  or  so  it  began  to  be 
seen  that  |iiobably  the  end  of  all  things  was  not 
yet  i|uile  at  hand,  and  that  in  all  likelihood  the 
j  ehuich  had  still  before  her  a  prolonged  period  of 
I  work  in  the  present  world,  it  was  felt  to  be  a 
]  titling  thing  that  the  most  im]iortant  utterances 
I  of  the  ].,ord,  which  the  apostles  had  been  in  the 
j  habit  of  ijuoling  as  supremely  authoritative  for 
I  all  Christians,  should  be  ]ireserved  from  the  risk 
of  ijcrveision.  inteipolation.  or  oblition.  Thus 
came  to  be  written  down,  by  some  apostolic  man 
— very  likely  by  the  ai)ostle  Matthew  himself,  a 
jiractised  scribe — a  collection  of  discourses,  par- 
ables, ]iredictioiis,  and  aphorisms,  not  imiirobably 
in  somewhat  loo.se  connection,  yet  at  the  same 
time  not  without  some  incidental  notice  of  the 
circiiiMslances  which  occasioned  a  gi\en  iilterance, 
or  some  notes  of  the  dialogue  which  led  uji  to  the 
weighty  aphorism.  This  collection  wjus  (as  has 
been  seen)  written  in  Aramaic.  About  the  same 
time,  Mark,  the  '  interpreter '  of  Peter,  as  ancient 
tradition  calls  him,  was  arranging  in  (Ireek  his 
fragmentary  recollections  or  memoirs  of  what  he 
had  heard  I'eter  tell  of  the  incidents  of  the  period 
of  his  own  )ieison.il  converse  with  .lesns.  These 
he  would  not  scru|)le  to  sup]dement  with  matter 
drawn  from  other  sources,  so  long  as  he  knew  it 
to  be  trustworthy.  Hoth  the  above  documents 
obtained  wide  currencv,  the  former  was  translated 
into  (Ircek  more  or  less  inailei|uately,  the  two 
were  seen  to  be  miitn.ally  coinplemenlaiy,  and  it 
was  inevitable  that  an  attempt  should  be  made 
to  coijibine  them.  This  was  successfnlly  done  liy 
the  author  of  the  Iirst  gospel,  a  writer  in  (!reek, 
who  had  in  view  in  the  tii-st  instance  .lewish  Chris- 
tians, and  sought  to  bring  into  all  possible  clear- 
ness the  organic  develo]iment  of  Christianity  out 
of  the  Old  Testament  disjiensation  of  symbol, 
])rophecv,  and  promise.  After  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  when  Home  had  become  one  of  the 
most  im])ortant  I'cntres  of  Christianity,  there  was 
edited  in  that  city  the  present  form  of  the  second 
gospel,  specially  ailai>ted  for  the  apiprehension  and 
acce]itance  of  (Jentile  Christians.  At  a  somewhat 
later  date,  and  possibly  in  Itome  also,  wiis  coin- 
piled  the  third  gospel  in  ile]ienilence  chietly  on  the 
•  loyia  '  diicuiiieiit  and  on  .Mark,  but  not  without 
some  knowled;;e  of  the  first  gos])el,  and  with  iiii- 


jiortant  additions  from  oral  or  written  sources 
which  cannot  now  be  traced,  but  which  luobahly 
represented  a  .Juihean  tradition. 

Thus  it  apjiears  that  each  of  the  three  theories 
enumerated  aiiove  has  something  real  to  contribute 
by  way  of  explan.ation  of  the  ori;;in  of  the  s\  imptic 
gospels.       I'riniitive    documents    are   embodied    in 
them  :    they  contain   an   element  of  ancient  oral 
tradition  ;  and    they  are   not   independent   one    of 
another,     liut  no  one  of  them  is  a  primary  docu- 
ment in   the  sense  of  having  been  written   in   its 
jiresent  form  from  direct  Jpersonal  knowledge;  and 
1  it   is   obvious   that   each   succeeding  evangi-list,    in 
.  availing  himself  of  the  liibours  of  his  predecessor, 
!  did  so  with  a  feeling  of  ]ierfect  freedom,  not  claim- 
ing for  himself,   nor  according  to   his   fellow,   nor 


GOSPELS 


GOSSAMER 


311 


expecting  for  eitlioi-  from  the  church  any  title  to 
autliority  as  infallible. 

Harmonies  of  the  Gospels.— Compilations  of  this 
nature,  designed  to  facilitate  comparison  and  mutual 
illustration  of  the  diifercnt  narratives,  and  to  bring  out 
their  essential  agreement  and  Cfuisistency  in  seeming 
divergence,  began  to  be  made  at  an  early  date.  The 
earliest  known  is  tlie  JJktUsmron  of  Tatian  (q.v.). 
Jer<jme  also  makes  allusion  to  the  work  of  a  certain 
'I'heophilus,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  toward  the  close  of  the 
2d  century,  who  had  left  a  moimnient  of  his  ingenuity 
by  *  htting  together  into  one  whole  the  things  said  by  the 
four  evangelists.'  Eusebius  tells  us  that  in  the  middle 
of  the  ;3d  century  a  certain  Amnionius  of  Alc.'candria  also 
constructed  a  diatessaron,  taking  Matthew  as  his  basis, 
and  placing  side  by  side  with  him  the  parallel  passages 
in  the  other  three  gospels.  This  work  suggested  to 
Eusebius  himself  the  jdan  of  his  own  Scctiona  ami 
Cum, an.  In  this  each  gospel  is  divided  separately  into 
sections  which  are  numbered  continuously,  and,  further, 
there  is  a  table  of  ten  canons  each  containing  a  list  of 
passages.  The  first  canon,  in  four  columns,  exhibits  all 
the  passages  which  are  common  to  the  four  gospels ;  tiie 
second,  third,  and  fourth,  in  three  colunnis,  show  the 
passages  whicli  are  found  in  any  three  ;  the  fiftli,  si.'ith, 
seventli,  eighth,  and  ninth,  those  which  are  common  to 
any  two ;  and  tlie  tenth,  in  foiu-  separate  hsts,  the  pass- 
ages peculiar  to  a  single  evangelist.  This  work  of 
Eusebius,  which  was  afterwards  adajited  to  the  Vulgate 
by  Jerome,  continued  to  be  used  as  a  key  to  the  concord- 
ance of  the  gospels,  down  to  the  IGth  century.  Of 
liost-Reformation  harmonies,  the  earliest  is  the  Harmtniia 
Ki-i(n'nUcii  of  Osiander  { 1.537),  whose  doctrine  of  inspira- 
tion led  him  to  believe  that  each  evangelist  must  have 
written  in  strict  chronological  order,  and  that  therefore, 
wherever  there  is  the  slightest  divergence  as  to  time, 
jjlae  ■,  or  circumstance  between  any  two  evangelists  in 
any  given  narrative,  it  is  necessary  to  assume  the  events 
thus  ditferently  related  to  have  been  distinct.  On  these 
l»rinciples  lie  is  c  impelled  to  make  out  that  Peter  denied 
his  Lord  nine  times.  Calvin's  Haniw/iia  ex  tribua 
EfdiujfUstU  Composlta  (1.553)  represents  a  much  more 
moilerate  view.  'J'lie  number  of  works  bearing  the  title 
of  Jftfnttonic9  or  Si/nopacs  that  have  appeared  during  the 
last  three  centuries  is  very  great.  The  best  and  most 
jiojiular  of  them — such  as  those  of  Clericus  (1700), 
iMucknight  (17.51)),  Griesbaoh  (1770),  llobinson  (1S45) 
Wieseler  (1S43),  Anger  (1852),  Stroud  (1853)— are 
enumerated  by  Tischendorf  in  his  own  Si/aopsU 
Enimiilica,  the  latest  and  most  convenient  of  them  all 
(5th  ed.  1881). 

LrrER.vTUUE. — For  the  older  Uterature  on  the  -synoptic 
gospels,  reference  must  be  made  to  the  handbooks  of 
Biblical  Introduction  and  Church  History,  and  to  the 
more  recent  commentaries.  Among  these  last  that  of 
Alford  in  his  Greek  Tcshimcnt  (7th  ed.  1874-77)  retains 
an  lionourable  place.  See  also  the  Speaker  n  Comituntarit. 
Of  tr.uislations  from  the  German,  the  connnentaries  of 
Aleyer  and  Lange  claim  special  mention  ;  of  the  former, 
which  is  the  less  homiletical  and  more  scientific  of  the 
two,  the  latest  (7th)  German  edition  is  by  B.  Weiss 
( 18.S3  yf) ).  Keil's  Commentary  on  Mattliew  appeared  in 
1877,  and  that  on  Mark  and  Luke  in  187i*.  In  the  new 
Hitml-VoinmcnUtr  zuiii  Neuen  Testament  tlie  synoptics 
are  ably  treated  by  H.  J.  Holtzmann  (1889).  Ewald's 
J  he  (Ini  ersten  Eraiirielien  iihersel:t  u.  crkldrl  (lS71Hs 
still  of  value.  See  too  Keuss,  HUluire  Jiruiii/dU/ae  ( 187G ) ; 
and  coni]iare  tlie  bibliographies  under  Buile  and  Jesus. 
For  the  apocryphal  (Sospels,  see  ApcicKvrii.\. 

On  the  synojitical  problem  the  fullest  and  latest  state- 
ments are  to  be  found  in  Holtzmann,  Einlcitann  in 
i/na  Neiic  Testament  (2d  ed.  188(1),  and  B.  Weiss,  kinl. 
ill  d.  Neitc  Test.  (2d  ed.  188',)).  The  latter  has  been 
translated  into  Enghsh,  .4  Manual  nf  Introduction  to  the 
New  Testament  (1887).  Both  these  writers  recognise  a 
'logia'  document,  and  the  priority  of  Mark  to  both  the 
first  and  the  third  canonical  gospel.  Weiss,  however, 
thinks  that  the  logia  document  contained  a  very  consiiler- 
able  number  of  incidents  also,  and  that  Mark  had  access 
to  it.  The  fullest  discussions  by  Kngli.sh  scholars  are 
those  of  Dr  E.  A.  Abbott  in  the  art.  'Gospels'  in  vol. 
i.  of  /•Jnc//.  Brit.  ( 1880),  and  by  Professor  Salmon,  His- 
turiral  Introduction  to  the  Books  of  tlie  Nim  Testament 
(4th  ed.  1889).  Dr  Abbott  seeks  to  disentangle  the 
original  *  triple  *  tradition  borne  witness  to  by  the  three 


synoptics  ;  he  finds  tli.it  Mark  is  of  earlier  date  than 
MattliBSv,  and  contains  the  earliest  Greek  tradition,  itself 
a  translation  of  the  very  early  Aramaic  tradition.  Dr 
Salmon  argues  for  a  form  of  the  I'r-evangelium  hyjiothesis  ; 
he  thinks  the  theory  of  a  common  iireek  original  is 
required  by  the  verlial  coincidences,  and  by  the  common 
citations  of  the  Old  Testament.  Mark's  gospel  represents 
the  original  source  most  fully,  but  was  probably  latest  in 
publication,  and  certainly  not  copied  eitlier  liy  Matthew 
or  by  Luke.  Dr  Westcott  in  his  Introduction  to  the 
Stud;/  of  the  Gospels  (1851;  7th  ed.  1888),  which  un- 
fortunately has  not  been  brought  down  to  date,  argues 
for  the  oral  hypothtsis.  This  theory  is  also  lliat  of 
Alford.  Of  the  borrowing  liyjiothesis  the  latest  and 
ablest  e.xponent  is  Dr  Pfieiderer,  who  in  his  Urchristen- 
thum  (1887)  sliows  the  priority  of  Mark,  but  thinks  that 
Matthew  depended  chieHy  on  Luke.  For  detailed  study 
of  the  relations  of  the  synoptics,  Rushbrooke's  Sfinup- 
ticon  ( 1880 ),  which  gives  all  the  textual  facts  with  graphic 
completeness,  may  be  characterised  as  indispensable. 
Compare  also  Kushhrooke  and  Abbott's  little  manual 
entitled  Common  Tradition  of  the  Si/noptical  Gospels  in 
the  Text  of  the  Revised  Version  (1884). 

Gospoi't  ('Gild's  ]iorb'),  a  market-to\vn  and 
seaport  of  Knylaud,  in  the  county  of  Hants,  stands 
on  the  western  shore  of  Portsmouth  harbour,  and 
directly  opjiosite  Portsmouth,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected b}'  a  Hoating  bridge.  Here  are  an  exten- 
sive iron-foundry  for  the  manufacture  of  anchoi-s 
and  chain-cables,  naval  powder-magazines,  several 
barracks,  the  Itoyal  Clarence  victualling  yard, 
which  contains  a  brewery,  a  bi.scuit-baking  estab- 
lishment worked  entirely  bv  steam,  and  numercms 
storehouses,  and  Haslar  ilospital  ((j.v.).  The 
town  has  also  some  sail-making  and  yaclitbuild- 
ing,  and  considerable  coasting  trade.  Pop.  (18.51) 
7414;  (1S91,  with  Alverstoke)  25,45'_'. 

dtOSSaillCI*.  a  light  iilamentous  sulistance 
which  often  tills  the  atmosphere  to  a  remarkable 
degree  during  tine  weather  in  the  latter  part  of 
autumn,  or  is  spread  over  the  wliole  face  of  the 
ground,  stretching  from  leaf  to  leaf,  and  from  plant 
to  plant,  loaded  with  entangled  dew-droiis,  which 
glisten  and  sjiarkle  in  the  sunshine.  Various 
opinions  were  formerly  entertained  concerning  the 
nature  and  origin  of  gossamer,  but  it  is  now  sufli- 
ciently  ascertained  to  be  produced  by  small  spidei-s, 
not,  however,  liy  any  single  species,  but  by  several, 
not  im]irobably  many,  species;  whilst  it  is  also 
said  to  be  |)roduced  by  young  and  not  by  mature 
spiders,  a  circumstance  which,  if  placed  beyond 
doubt,  would  belli  to  account  for  its  appearance 
at  a  particular  season  of  the  year.  The  product  ion 
of  gossamer  by  spiders  was  first  demonstrated  by 
the  observations  of  Dr  Hiilse  and  Itr  Lister  in  the 
17th  century  :  liut  these  observations  did  not  for 
a  long  time  meet  with  due  regard  and  credit,  ]iar- 
ticularly  amongst  the  naturalists  of  continental 
Eurojie,  It  is  not  yet  well  known  if  the  gossamer 
spread  ONcr  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  inoiluced  by 
the  same  sjiecies  of  spider  which  produces  that 
seen  Moating  in  the  air,  or  falling  as  if  from  the 
clouds.  ^\"hy  gossamer  threads  or  webs  are  pro- 
duced by  the  spiders  at  all  is  also  a  i|Uestion  not 
very  easily  answeriMl.  That  they  are  meant  merely 
for  entangling  in.soct  jirey  does  not  seem  probable  ; 
the  extreme  eagerness  which  some  of  the  small 
spiders  known  to  produce  them  show  for  water  to 
drink  has  led  to  the  suiiposition  that  the  dew- 
drops  which  collect  on  them  may  be  one  of  the 
objects  of  the  formation  of  those  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  wliilst  it  has  been  also  supposed  that 
they  may  allord  a  more  rapid  and  convenient  mode 
of  transit  from  place  to  place  than  the  employment 
of  the  legs  of  the  animal.  As  to  the  gossamei-s  in 
the  air,  conjecture  is  still  more  at  a  loss.  They 
are  certainly  not  accidentally  wafted  up  from  the 
ground,  as  might  be  supposed  ;  the  spiders  whicli 
produce  them  are  wafted  uji  along  with  them  ;  but 


812 


GOSSAN 


GOTHAM 


vlii-tlier  fi)r  the  mere  oiiiiiyiiu'iit  of  an  ai-rial  ex- 
cursion, or  in  order  to  shift  from  jiliiee  to  place, 
is  not  clear,  altlionjjli  the  latter  siioposition  is,  on 
the  wliole,  the  most  |irol)iihle.  The  threads  of 
^'ossamer  are  so  delicate  that  a  single  one  eaiinol 
he  seen  unless  the  sun  shines  on  it  ;  liul,  heinj; 
driven  ahout  h_v  the  wind,  they  often  hecome 
heaten  to;;et her  "into  thicker  threiuls  and  Makes. 
They  are  often  to  lie  felt  on  the  face  when  they 
are  "scarcely  visihle.  The  siiidei-s  which  |iro<luce 
these  threails  shoot  them  out  from  their  spinMerets, 
a  viscid  fluid  hein;:  ejected  with  ^'reat  force,  which 
presently  hccomes  a  thread  :  sometimes  several 
sucli  threads  are  oroilnced  at  once  in  a  radialinj; 
form,  and  tlicsi>,  hein;;  can^dit  hy  the  aseendin;,' 
current  of  heated  air,  are  liorne  upwards,  the  si)ider 
along  with  them.  It  hius  heen  .said  that  the  spider 
has  even  some  |iower  of  fruidin;;  in  the  air  the 
weh  hy  which  it  is  wafted  up  (see  Sl'll'KH)-  The 
etymoiof;y  lui-s  heen  luuc-h  disputiMl.  Acconling  to 
Slieat,  (j'issdiia-i-.  the  Miildle  En;,disli  f/nssmiin;  is 
gimsc  .siiiiiiiHr,  the  siimiiicr  meaning;  siiiiiiiicr-Jiliii. 
Another  derivation  is  from  (!(m/  and  sniiiiiici;  the 
latter  word  lieiiig  from  the  Uoniance  .iumdrni,  '  a 
skirt.'  from  the  le','eml  that  ^'ossamer  is  shreds  of 
the  Vir;;iu  Mary's  shroud,  w  hich  she  ciisl  away  w  hen 
she  Wius  taken  up  to  heaven. 

Gwssail.   a  miuing   tr>rm   for  oxiile  of  iron  and 
quart/..     See  IlKiN. 

Gosse,  1*1111.11'  flr.Mtv,  naturalist,  was  horn  at 
\Vi>rcester,  lOtli  .\pril  islll,  and  lirought  ui>at  I'oole. 
In  1827  he  went  to  Newfoundland  as  a  clerk,  and 
was  afterwards  in  turns  farmer  in  Canada,  s(|ho()l- 
master  ill  .Matiama,,   and   iiiofessional   naluralist   in 
Jamaica,      lictuniin;;  to   lOii^'laiid,  he  ijuMishcd   in 
1840  the   CiiiiKilidii  y  lit  Ill-Ill  i.st,  ami   after  another 
stay  in  the  West  Indies  settled  in  Eiij;laii<l  to  a  hiisy 
life  of  letters.      His  early  experiences  and  ohserva- 
timis  supplied  the  material  for  his  po|iular  hooks, 
the  riclily  illustrated  liinh  uf  Jiiiiiiiirii  (  1H.")1  )  and 
A    ynliirii/i-st's  Siijiiiini   in    Jiiiiiiiii''t    (  KS.")1  ).      His 
Natiii-iili-sl'.i  Ilmulili-  mi  llic  fhroiis/iirc  Cmixl  { iSii'.i), 
A'jiiiiniiiii  (18.-)4),  and  Man  mil  of  Mm  in r  Zoolui/i/ 
( I S.'i.')-.')(i )  inspired  Charles  Kinjj;sley's  (i/iiiirii'i.  and 
o]iened  up  a  new  liraiich  of  science  to  Eiit;lishmeii. 
Closse  was  elected  a  I'ellow  of  the  Uoyal  Society  in 
IS.ie,  and  over  sixty  monograidis  in  its  I'roricdiiiiis 
are   from    his    ]ien.        His    hest  known    work,    the 
111, nirtiiic  uf  Sill itiitl  Ili.ftiini.   apjiearcd  in    ISUO-G'2. 
Later  and  more  severely  seientilic  works  were  his 
Aiiiiiiiliiiiiii    /;/•//((«»((•«"(  1860)  and   the  I'rclieinsik 
Annul im-  itf  th(  I'liiiiliuniihr  (188,'>).      In  188tj  he 
plaeeil  in  the  h.iiids  of  |)r  C.   T.    Hudson  the  notes 
and  drawing's  of  .i  lifetime  on  the  microscopic  study 
of  the  Kotifer.v.      Mr  (;osse  siient    the   last   thirty 
years  of   his  life  in  a  retired  South  Devon  village, 
iind   died   iMX    August    1888.  — EhMlM)   \Vll.l.l.\M 
CiissK,  his  only  son.  was  horn  in  London,  Sejitemher 
•21,  1841),  was  edin-at<'d  in  Kevoiisliire,  and  hecaine 
at  eighteen  an   assistant  lihrarian   at   the   ISritish 
Museum,    in     187.">     translator    to    the     I5i>ard     of 
Trade.      He  travelled  in  Scandinavia  and   Holland, 
and  niJide  himself  ma-ster  of  the  languages  r.f  these 
countries.      In  1H,S4  he  succeeded  Mr  Leslie  Stephen 
as  Clark  lecturer  in   English  literature  at  Trinity 
College,  Camhridge,  a  ]iost  from   which  he  retired 
in     1889,    having   four    years    hefore   receiveil    the 
honorary   degree    of    M'.A.    from    the    univei-sity. 
During'    1884  8.-)      he      lectured      in      lioston,     at 
Harv.anl  ami   Vale  colleges,  and  in   I!altimore  and 
New  York.     Mr  (lo-sse  has  tried  various  forms  of 
verse,  and  jiosscsses  many  of  the  ipialities  of  the 
genuine  poet.      Among   his   writings   in   verse  are 
Madri'i'i'-i,  Sunijs,    iinil   Sonnets   (1870);    Un    Viol 
and   Flute,    lyrical   jioeius   (1873);    King   Erik,  a 
tragedy   (1870);    The    Unknovn    Lover,    a  drama 
( 18^8 )";  New  Pucinn  ( 1879) ;  and  Firdausi  in  Exile, 


and  other  Poems  (IS86).  His  chief  writings  in 
prose  are  in  the  lield  of  literary  criticism  ;  .\i>rt/iern 
Studies,  a  series  of  essays  on  Sean«liiia\  Ian  and 
Dutch  literature  ( 1 879 ) ; "  (.V«,v.  >"'  'English  .Men 
of  Letters'  (I8H2);  Sinnleinl/i  nntnri/  Stiidiis, 
on  Lodge,  \Vchster,  Itowhiuds,  llerrick,  CriLshaw, 
Cowley,  Etheredge,  and  (»tway  (1,88,"?);  l-inni 
S/m/:esj>e(ire  to  Pi,/ie  ( 1 885 ) ;  Life  o/Conifrrir  ( 1 888 ) ; 
Jliston/  of  KiiilitccnthCenturii  Literature  (1889); 
Crilii-nl  KilK'fits  ( 189G) ;  and'a  Ilistonj  of  Mvdim 
Knijlish  Litenitnrc(\S01).  Itesides  tliese  he  con- 
trihntcil  many  critical  essays  towards /■.'/(////.vA  J'oils 
(  188(1  81  ),  clitcd  F.iiiilisli  bdis  (1881  ),  and  a  fault- 
less complete  edition  of  Cray  (1884).  He  puh- 
lished  a  Life  of  his  father  in  1891),  and  contrihuted 
the  article  rouruY  to  this  EneyclopaMlia.  The 
Secret  of  Xarcisse,  a  prose  tale,  ajipeareil  in  189'2. 

Got,  Fu.\Ni'i)ls  .Il'LKS  EnMoNi),  actor,  was  horn 
at  Lignerolles  in  1822,  entered  the  Conservatoire  in 
1841,  ami  in  1844  made  his  dehut.  He  wa-s  soon 
one  of  the  li^icst  comedians  of  his  day.  Eroiii  IS-M) 
to  l.StKi  he  Wiis  a  memher  of  the  Comi-dic  Eraiuaise, 
playing  with  success  such  jiarts  ius  l''igaro  in  the 
older  comedy,  hut  in  general  reganled  as  the  main- 
stay of  the  new  iliamatic  school.  In  18(;U,  with  the 
emperor's  special  permis.sion,  he  appeared  at  the 
Odeon  Jis  Aiulrc  Lagardein  Aiigier's  Coh/k'/h'",  and 
organised  a  <-ompaiiy  to  carry  the  play  through 
France.  He  has  repeatedly  played  ill  Lomhin.  hi 
1881  lie  wiis  decoiateil  with  the  iioss  of  the  Legion 
of  Honour.  His  most  fmished  performances  were  as 
Cihoyei  in  Augiei's  Effrontis  and  Fils  dc  Giboycr, 
and  as  ISernard  in  Lcs  Fotirehitmbaiilt. 

<i4»lllil.  a  town  of  Cermany,  alternately  with 
Coliurg  the  cajutal  of  the  duciiy  of  Saxe-Cohurg- 
(iotha,  stands  .-(l  miles  W.  hy  S.  of  Weimar,  on 
the  northern  outskirt  of  the  Tliuringian  Eorest, 
and  is  a  handsome,  well-liuilt  town,  with  line 
p.arks.  The  iiriiici]ial  piihlic  building  is  the  castle 
of  Friedcnsteiii,  huilt  in  1648  on  the  site  of  a 
former  one,  on  a  rock  78  feet  ahove  the  town  ; 
it  contains  a  lihrary  of  200,l>0()  volumes  and  (ilJOO 
-MSS.,  and  a  very  valuahle  nuiidsmatic  collection. 
The  new  museum  (1878),  in  the  Kciiais-ance 
style,  now  harhours  the  pictureg.-illcry,  in  wliich 
Cianach,  Van  Ey(k,  Ilolbeiu,  Kiihens,  and  Itcm- 
hrandt  are  represented  ;  a  very  excellent  cabinet 
of  engravings  ;  a  natural  history  collection  ;  col- 
lections of  Egyptian,  Koinan,  tireek,  and  (ierman 
aiitii|uilies  ;  aiid  a  Japanese  and  Chinese  innseuin. 
A  new  observatory  w:us  built  in  ls74.  tiotha 
is  an  active  industrial  town,  the  princiiial  manu- 
factures being  shoes,  lire-engine  pipes,  sugar,  and 
toys.  Cotha  sausages  have  a  widespread  celeb- 
rity. Several  hundreds  of  designers,  engravers, 
printers,  and  coloureis  of  luajis  are  employed  here 
in  the  large  geographical  estahlishnieiit  of  Justus 
Perthes  (ii.y.),  who  also  juiblishes  the  Ahnanueh 
(e\.v.)deaothn.  Pop.  ( 187o)  22,928  ;  (1890)29,134. 
See  IJeck,  Ueschielitc  dcr  Sladt  GuLIm  (1870). 

<;»llia,  Diiiiv  OF.  See  Saxe  -  Coburg- 
(Jmii.v. 

tiothaill.  Tales  ok  the  Men  ok,  a  collection 
of  jests,  in  which  the  people  of  (Jotham,  a  village 
in  'Nottinghamshire  (7  miles  SSW.  of  Notting- 
ham), are  represented  as  .saying  ami  doing  the 
most  foolish  things.  These  tales  are  similar  to  the 
Asteia,  w  facetia-,  ascribed,  without  authority,  to 
the  .■jth-ceiitnrv  .Mcxandri.in  ]ihiloso].her  Ilierocles. 
The  stories  seem  to  have  been  lirst  jiriiitcd  al>out  the 
midille  of  the  Kith  century,  under  the  title  of  Merrie 
Tales  of  the  Mud  Men  of  Oothum,  guthrred  toejether 
by  A.  P.,  of  Phisicke  Doctoiir  :  but  thoy  had  heen 
orally  current  in  the  time  of  Henry  \l.,  reference 
being  made  to  '  the  foles  of  Gotam  '  in  the  Tow  neley 
miracle  pl.ays,  the  only  known  MS.  of  which  was 
written  about  that  period.     The  initials  'A.  B.'  of 


GOTHAM 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE       313 


tlie  [jutative  compiler  were  doulitless  iutendeJ  Ijy 
the  iiriiiter  ti)  signify  Andrew  lioorde  (ij.v.),  who 
was  piipularly  regarded  as  'a  fellow  of  iulinite 
jest.'  I5ut  there  is  no  reason  to  sup|)ose  that 
Jiooide  had  any  hand  in  the  work,  his  initials 
being  placeil  on  the  title-page  —as  also  on  that  of 
the  t/t'^/i  of  Scuijtn — in  order  to  jironiote  its  sale. 
Long  before  the  men  of  Gotham  were  saddled  with 
the  unenviable  reputation  of  being  typii-al  block- 
lieads  similar  jests  had  been  told  at  the  exjiense 
of  the  jiuojile  of  Norfolk,  as  we  learn  from  a  curious 
Latin  poem  entitleil  Dcsfrijdiu  Xurfuhicnsium, 
written  in  the  l'2th  century  hy  a  monk  of  Peter- 
boiough,  which  is  printed  in  Wright's  Early 
Mi/ntcn'cs  and  other  Lntin  Poems.  In  tliis  'poem' 
occurs  the  familiar  jest  of  the  man  who  was  riding 
on  horseback  with  a  sack  of  meal,  and  considerately 
placed  the  sack  on  las  own  shoulders  to  lighten  the 
Iiorse — a  story  which  reappears  in  the  tiotliamite 
drolleries  and  in  the  Binarritrcn  of  the  Siciir 
Gaiilard,  by  Etienne  Tabourot  (1549-90),  and 
which  is  at  the  ]jresent  day  current  in  Ceylon. 

The  tiotliamite  jest  most  generally  known  Ls  that 
of  the  attempt  of  the  villagers  to  hedge  in  a  cuckoo, 
so  that  it  should  'sing'  all  the  year  round.  Among 
other  witless  exploits  they  tried  to  drown  an  eel 
that  had  eaten  up  all  the  fish  in  their  pond  ;  they 
fastened  their  rents  on  a  hare  which  they  h,ad 
caught,  and  sent  it  off  to  their  landlord  ;  a  smith 
burned  down  his  smithy  by  thrusting  into  the 
thatch  a  red  hot  ploughshare,  to  destroy  a  wasp's 
nest;  .and  twelve  of  them  went  a-fishing,  and  before 
returning  home  one  counted  their  number  to  see 
whether  all  were  safe,  but  omitted  to  include  him- 
self, whereupon  they  weened  that  one  of  them  was 
drowned,  and  were  lamenting  this  misfortune,  when 
a  traveller  coming  up,  and  learning  the  cause  of 
their  distress,  soon  set  their  minds  at  ease.  Such 
jests  are — mutatis  mutandis — common  to  almost  all 
the  races  of  mankind,  from  Iceland  to  Japan,  from 
Ceylon  to  the  West  Highlands  of  Scotland  ;  and  it 
is  curious  to  find  that  the  inhabitants  of  some  par- 
ticular district  or  village  are  popularly  held  uji  as 
arrant  simpletons.  In  Britain,  besides  the  men 
of  (iotliam,  the  '  earles  of  Austwick  '  in  Yorksiiire, 
the  villagers  near  Marlborough  Downs  in  Wilt- 
shire, the  'gowks  of  Cordon'  in  Berwickshire,  and 
the  folk  of  Assvnt  in  Sutlierlandshire  ;  in  Ger- 
many, the  Schili\burgers  ;  in  Holland,  the  people 
of  Kampen  ;  in  Belgium,  the  townsfolk  of  Dinant ; 
in  France,  the  inhaliitants  of  Saint-Mai.\cnt, 
are  credited  with  all  sorts  of  absurdities.  The 
citizens  of  Abdera,  Siilonia,  &c.  were  the  noodles 
of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  not  a  few  of  the 
.so-called  jests  of  Hierocles  reapjiear  in  our  early 
English  collections  of  faeetiie,  with  a  blundering 
Welshman  or  Frenchman  in  place  of  the  pedant  of 
the  Asleia,  and  in  more  recent  compilations— '  doe 
Miller' and  its  congeners — the  conventional  Irish- 
man or  Highlander.  The  similarity  of  simpleton 
stories  in  countries  far  apart  at  once  suggests  the 
question  of  their  origin  and  ditl'usion,  as  in  the  case 
of  popular  tales  generally.  \o  doubt  in  many 
instances  they  sprang  up  indepemlently,  for  human 
nature  is  everywhere  much  alike;  but  it  is  e<|ually 
certain  that  a  consMerable  number  have  been 
borrowed  by  one  people  from  another,  sometimes 
imported  orally,  most  irer|Uently  taken  from  written 
sources.  But  however  widely  modern  scholars  may 
dill'er  in  opinion  regarding  the  gencalogv  of  popular 
fictions,  their  virtual  identity  among  ilivers  races 
is  an  interesting  evidence  of  the  kinship  of  man. 

The  Tales  of  thr  Mad  Men  of  O'othain  continued  to  be 
issued  ill  chap-book  form  down  to  the  second  decade  of  the 
19th  century.  The  tirst  reprint  of  the  original  work  was 
niaile  in  KS-tO,  with  an  introduction  by  Mr  J.  O.  HalliwelL 
The  7'rt/t',s  were  also  printed  in  W.  C.  Hazlitt's  ShuK'tspcare 
Jest-books  (ltsG4);    in  John  Ashton's   Chap-book^  oj  the 


Eighteenth  Century  (1882);  and  in  K.  H.  Cunningham's 

Amusinij  Prose  Chap-books  (1889).     For  a  coMipendious 

collection  of  simpleton  stories — of  which  the  Gotlianiite 

tales  form  but  a  tritlin;;  part — see  W.  A-  Cloustou's  Book 

of  No'jdles  (Lond.  1888),  which  will  be  found  to  contain 

j  references  to  all  the  important  books  dealing  with  the 

I  subject,  oriental  and  other.     .See  also  W.  J.  Tlioius,  in  the 

Foreiijn  Quarterhi  Review  (18:i7,  No.  40l;  and  JJcutiChir 

j    Volkshumur,  by  Muritz  Busch  ( lierlin,  1877). 

I     Gothard.    See  St  (JoTTHARn. 

Gothenburg  (Swed.  Gijteborg),  next  to  Stock- 
holm the  most  important  town  of  Sweden,  stands 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Gtita,  in  57°  4'2'  N.  lat.  and  11° 
58'  E.  long.  Although  originally  founded  by 
Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1618-21,  the  town,  in 
consequence  of  numerous  tires,  is  quite  modern 
— regularly  built  and  clean,  with  several  canals, 
crossed  by  numerous  bridges.  The  harbour  is 
excellent,  and  .seldom  obstructed  by  ice.  The 
few  buildings  which  deserve  special  mention  are 
the  exchange,  cathedral,  and  town-hall.  There  is 
a  museum  (art,  zoology,  industry)  besides  a  line 
garden  belonging  to  the  Horticultural  Society. 
The  more  important  industries  embrace  ship- 
building, iron-working,  sugar-refining,  the  manu- 
facture of  matches,  paper,  wood  pulp,  and  jiorter, 
and  herring-fishing.  The  exports  consist  i)rin- 
cipally  of  iron,  timber,  grain,  butter,  matelics, 
paper,  wood  pulp,  zinc  ore,  hides  ;  the  imports  of 
coal,  iron,  salt,  flour,  grain,  machinery,  oils,  rice, 
wines  and  spirits,  and  sugar,  the  annual  vahie  of 
imports  and  exports  being  each  about  S  niillicms. 
The  port  is  entered  and  cleared  by  about  5070 
vessels  of  1,815,380  tons  burden  every  year.  The 
commercial  importance  of  Gothenburg  dates  from 
the  Continental  blockade  of  1806,  when  it  became 
the  chief  British  depot  in  northern  Europe.  The 
town  has  given  its  name  to  the  Gothenburg 
Licensing  System,  which  originated  here  in  18U5. 
.\11  the  wine  and  spirit  shops  are  ke]it  Ijy  a 
company  licensed  by  the  town  authorities,  and 
are  conducted  by  salaried  managers ;  all  profits 
remaining  after  the  company  ha.s  been  alloweil  live 
per  cent  on  its  capital  go  into  the  town  treasury. 
See  Licensing  L.\\v.s.  Pop.  (1877)71,707;  (IS88) 
99,647;  (1895)  111,250. 

Gothic  Architecture.  Cnder  this  title  aie 
comprised  the  various  styles  of  architecture  which 
jirevailed  in  western  Europe  from  the  middle  of  the 
12th  century  till  the  revival  of  cla.ssic  architecture 
in  the  16th  century.  The  term  Gothic  was  at  first 
bestowed  by  the  Renaissance  architects  on  the 
medieval  styles  as  a  term  of  rej>roach.  This 
epithet  they  applied  to  every  kind  of  medieval  art 
which  had  existed  from  the  decline  of  the  classic 
taste  till  its  revival,  all  other  styles  being  by 
them  consiilered  as  harbarons  and  Guthir.  The 
name  has  now,  however,  become  generally  adojited, 
and  has  outlived  the  renroach  at  first  implied  m  it. 
It  has  also  become  limited  and  defincil  in  its 
application.  During  the  19th  century  the  arts 
of  the  middle  ages  have  been  attentively  studied, 
and  their  origin  and  history  carefully  traced  ;  and 
as  tlie  knowledge  of  these  styles  has  increased,  a 
feeling  of  ailmiration  has  succeeded  to  that  of  eon- 
tempt,  and  tJothic  now  ranks  as  one  of  the  noblest 
and  completest  styles  of  architecture. 

Orit/in. — The  origin  of  tlothic  architecture  Inis 
given  rise  to  many  very  ingenious  speculations.  It 
has  been  said  that  the  style  w;is  copied  <lirectl.v 
from  nature  ;  that  the  pointed  arches  an<l  ribs  of 
the  vaults  were  imit.ated  from  the  overaiching 
branches  of  trees  ;  ami  that  the  stems  of  an  avenue 
were  the  originals  of  the  pillars  of  the  (Jothic  aisles. 
Others  have  strenuously  maintained  that  the 
invention  of  the  pointed  arch  was  a  mere  accident, 
arising  from  this  form  having  been  observed  in  the 
interlacing   of   the   circular  arches   of    a   Norman 


3H 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE 


mi'iule.  It  liiis  also  l>ocii  slatecl  that  the  style  was 
iiii|iiirtcd  fniiii  the  Kast  <luriii^;  the  Crusailes,  ami 
that  tlie  iiieilieval  aicliitects  had  but  little  to  ilo 
with  its  oii^'iu.  More  careful  study  of  the  Gothir 
t)uililiM^;s  which  reiiiaiu  to  us  has  dispelled  tlie»e 
fanciful  idexs,  and  settled  the  (iri;,'iu  and  prof^ress 
of  the  art  on  historical  as  well  as  internal  evidence. 

To  trace  Gothic  up  to  its  primary  elements  we 
have  to  j;o  far  liack  in  the  world's  history.  Many 
diverse  styles  have  prevailed  at  ilillereiit  epochs 
and  in  dilt'erent  countries,  and  the  later  styles  have 
invarialdy  heen  influenced  hy  those  which  precede<l 
tlicni.  All  the  various  styles  of  architecture  may, 
however,  be  classed  under  two  t,'roups,  the  represent- 
atives of  which  are  (ireek  arcliitecture  and  Gothic 
architecture.  These  are  the  two  tyi)ioal  styles,  and 
in  them  are  containeil  ami  exhibited  in  a  very  pure 
form  the  elements  from  which  all  other  styles  are 
produced.  This  is  true  in  the  same  sense  a-s  it  is 
also  true  that  all  things  in  nature  are  derive<l  from 
a  few  primary  elements.  But  as  there  are  many 
varieties  in  nature,  so  there  are  many  develop- 
ments of  the  two  typical  forms  of  architecture,  all 
of  w  hicli  may  lie  classed  ;us  styles. 

The  principles  which  underlie  the  two  {jreat 
divisions  of  architecture  are  structural  in  character  ; 
for  the  ilecorative  features  of  all  true  styles  are 
founded  on  the  construction.  The  lii-st  of  these 
divisions  is  distin;i{uislied  by  the  employment  of 
the  horizontal  beam  lus  the  method  of  spanning' 
openings;  while  in  the  other  the  arch  is  the 
means  used  for  the  same  purpose.  All  other 
snecilic  ditlerences  of  style  are  subordinate  to 
tlieso  leadinj;  factors,  (jf  these  ilivisions  (Jreek 
architecture  is  accepted  as  the  highest  type  of 
the  trahcnlcd  style— i.e.  the  style  whose  ^irinci- 
pal  feature  is  the  straight  lintel  :  Gothic,  as 
the  type  of  urcmttcd  architecture,  in  which  the 
voids  are  spanned  by  arches.  These  typical  forms 
nri'sent  many  v.arieties,  Koinaii  .\rcliitecture  ('I- v.) 
Iii'ing  the  transitional  form  between  them.  The 
trabeate  form  of  construction  w.us  common  to  the 
jirimitive  iidiabitants  both  of  Greece  and  Italy. 
The  early  Itomaus'  buildings  were  therefore  tra- 
beate in  principle,  and  their  exteriors  were  dcciir- 
ated  with  colunms  crowned  by  straight  architraves 
ami  cornices.  But  in  course  of  time  they  gradually 
introduced  inside  these,  and  hidden  from  view,  a 
real  construction  with  arches  and  vaults.  These 
constructional  elements  had  long  lieen  in  u.se 
amongst  the  Ktruscans  in  Italy  for  ilrains,  bridges, 
gateways,  and  other  utilitarian  purposes,  and  by 
slow  degrees  they  obtained  recognition  as  architec- 
tiiial  features  in  the  elevations.  Their  use  gradu- 
ally e.xtenib'd,  especially  in  the  construction  of  in- 
teriors, and  liy  means  of  vaults  the  Romans  were 
able  to  roof  in  large  area-s  without  encumbering 
the  lloor  with  pillars.  This  was  fouml  to  be  a 
very  advantageous  and  lasting  system  of  construc- 
tion, and  under  the  eni|iire  was  carried  out  in 
many  iminirtant  examples,  as,  for  inst.ance,  in  the 
baths  of  C'aracalla  and  Diocletian,  the  B.usilica  of 
Maxentius,  \-c.  In  their  works  of  public  utility, 
where  use,  not  decoration,  was  the  chief  object, 
the  Komans  always  adopted  the  arch  as  the  fittest 
mode  of  construction — as  in  their  Aqueducts  (q.v.), 
bridges,  \c.  The  arch  thus  came  gradually  more 
and  more  into  use  ;  ami  about  the  time  when  the 
barbarians  first  overran  the  pro\  inces  the  arcuated 
form  of  construction  was  universal,  and  some 
attempts  had  been  made  to  conform  tlie  trabeate 
decoration  to  the  circular  arches  by  bending  the 
architrave  round  the  curve — as  in  the  palace  of 
Diocletian  at  Spalato  in  Dalmatia. 

To  the  Komans,  therefore,  is  due  the  introduction 
of  an  arcuated  construction  with  a  well-developed 
internal,  and  a  partially-developed  external,  decora- 
tion.    The  early  Christians  .idopteil  their  forms  of 


construction  and  decoration  from  the  Komans. 
They  were  also  indebted  to  them  for  the  plans  of  the 
buildings  which  became  the  types  of  the  Christian 
.sacred  edifices  during  the  middle  ages.  There 
was  no  new  style  created  by  the  early  Christians. 
Their  buildings  were  ail  founded  on  Itonian  design 
till  about  the  lotli  century.  The  Basilica  (q.v.), 
or  Itoman  courthouse  and  inarketjihice,  was 
found  to  be  admirably  adapted  for  early  Chrislian 
worship,  and  the  general  opinion  has  bitherlo  bi-cn 
that  the  church  was  derived  from  the  basilica.  But 
this  view  has  lieen  combateil  by  Professor  Baldwin 
Brown  in  his  work  Frum  Scliuhi  to  Viitliiilnit 
(1K,SG).  in  which  he  clerives  the  form  of  the  nave 
from  that  of  theschida',  or  balls  of  meeting  of  guilils 
])ermitted  umler  the  empire,  amongst  which  the 
liurial  societies  of  the  Christians  were  nunii  roils  ; 
whilst  he  attributes  the  apse,  a  very  prominent 
feature  in  early  churches,  to  the  memorial  cellie 
erected  by  ]mgans  ami  Christians  alike  in  the 
cemeteries,  and  afterwards  introduced  along  with 
the  bodies  of  .saints  into  the  churches.  There  can 
be  no  iloubt,  however,  that  the  circular  t<'m]iles 
were  the  piolotyiies  of  the  Chiistian  Baiitistcriea 
(q.v.)  which  usually  accomiianied  the  bivsiliciLs.  In 
erecting  their  buildings  tlie  Christians  not  only 
adopted  the  |)l.iiis  and  mode  of  construction,  but 
used  the  actual  materials  of  the  buildings  of  the 
Komans,  many  of  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the 
barbarians.  \Vhere  such  materials  were  abundant 
— as  in  Home  and  central  Italy — the  early  Christian 
architecture  very  closely  resembled  that  of  the 
Koiiian  buildings  which  had  (neccded  it.  But  in 
more  remote  districts  the  builders,  finding  no  leaily- 
made  materials  at  hand,  had  to  design  aii<l  prepare 
new  ones.  In  doing  so  they  followed  as  closely  as 
they  could  the  Koniaii  originals,  Imt  their  buildings 
partook  more  of  the  <*oiistriiction:il  than  the 
ilecorative  elements  of  Koman  aichitectuie.  The 
Koman  ornament  thus  dropped  out  of  use;  and 
when,  in  process  of  time,  decoration  was  desired, 
each  new  people  followed  its  own  ideas.  The 
traditional  Koman  ilecoration  thus  became  to  a 
great  extent  lost,  and  new  styles  develo]ied.  In 
this  way  the  Teutonic  tribes  introduced  into  their 
architecture  the  scenes  of  hunting  and  lighting  in 
which  they  rejoiced,  the  oriianienl  showing  the 
figures  of  animals  and  men  intermixed  with  the 
acanthus  leaves  and  other  foliage  of  Koman 
design. 

Tlie  did'ercnt  forms  of  vaulting  develoiied  by  the 
Komans  were  followed  throughout  the  empire 
during  its  decline,  but  gradually  special  forms 
were  adopted  in  the  diHeicnt  provinces.  Thus  the 
architects  of  the  Kast  preferred  the  </oiiii' lis  the  dis- 
tinguishing feature  of  their  style,  and  those  of  the 
West  retained  the  plain  tunnel-vaull.  The  former 
style  is  called  Byzantine  (q.v.),  and  has  been  the 
type  of  all  Kastern  medieval  architecture  ;  and  the 
latter  Koniancsi|ue  (q.v.),  and  has  been  the  iiiigin 
of  all  the  nicdieval  architecture  of  western  IJinipe. 
This    Komanesque  style  varied  much   in  ditteient 

iirovinces — being  more  K<mian  in  ty|>e  in  central 
taly  and  Provence  where  Koman  examples 
abounded,  and  more  Gothic  on  the  Khine  and  in 
Switzerland  and  l,onili:irdy  where  the  Teutonic 
elements  prevailed.  Koman  forms  were  still 
adhereil  to  in  the  (.iotliic  provinces  as  late  as  the 
!)tli  century,  when  we  find  Charlemagne  erecting 
his  great  mau-soleuni  at  Aix  in  imitation  of  San 
A'itale  at  Kavenna,  which  was  itself  derived  from  a 
Koinaii  original. 

Ilixt'iry. — The  various  niodincatioiis  in  difterent 
countries  all  contributed  to  the  general  progress  of 
the  art;  but.  as  might  be  expected,  it  is  to  the 
banks  of  the  Khine  w  here  the  successors  of  Cliarle 
magne  chiefly  dwelt  that  we  must  look  for  the 
first  step  in  the  development  of  Gothic  architecture. 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE 


315 


The  followinfr  short  sketcli  of  tlie  history  of  the 
vanltini^  will  show  how  this  occurred. 

The  Koiiiau  basilicas,  and,  like  them,  the  early 
Christian  churches  (for  ground-plan  see  the 
article  BASILICA),  were  divided  into  a  central 
nave  and  two  or  four  side-aisles,  the  former  se]iar- 
ated  from  the  latter  by  one  or  two  rijws  of 
columns  on  each  side.  These  columns  cairied 
arches  on  which  rested  the  side-walls  of  the  nave, 
which  were  carried  sufficiently  hi^rli  to  clear  the 
roofs  of  tlie  side-aisles,  and  admit  windows  to  lij;ht 
the  central  nave.  This  row  of  windows  afterwarils 
became  the  Gothic  Clerestory  (q.v. ).  At  the  ea.st 
end  of  the  nave  was  a  great  arch  leading  into  an 
open  space,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  tlie  apse. 
Tlie  latter  was  semicircular  in  ])lan,  ami  was 
usually  roofed  with  a  vault  in  the  form  of  a  semi- 
dome.  This  feature  was  also  afterwards  more  fully 
developed,  and  surrounded  with  radiating  chapels 
in  Gothic  churches.  The  nave  and  side-aisles  were 
originally  rooted  with  wood,  but,  owing  to  their 
fre(|uciit  destruction  by  tire,  it  became  necessary 
to  cover  the  churches  with  a  more  enduring  kind 
of  construction.  It  was  then  attemi)ted  to  intro- 
duce vaulting ;  but  the  skill  of  the  workmen 
had  degenerated,  and  many  ettbrts  were  needed 
before  a  system  suitable  for  the  rec|uirements 
of  the  period  ami  within  the  capacity  of  the 
builders  was  arrived  at.  But,  as  we  shall  presently 
see,  when  the  principle  of  pointed  vaulting  was 
once  grasped,  the  development  of  the  style  followed 
with  astonishing  rapidity.  To  trace  the  progress  of 
vaulting  from  the  early  simple  tunnel-vault  copied 
from  the  work  of  the  liomans  to  the  fully-developed 
and  magnificent  groins  of  Gothic  cathedrals  is  a 
most  interesting  inquiry  ;  ami  indeed  includes  the 
history  of  the  development  of  Gothic  aichitecture. 
There  is  one  consideration  which  will  help  to 
e.xplaiu  how  the  Itoman  vaults  came  to  be  gradually 
modilicd  and  new  forms  sought  out.  To  the  Itoman 
emperors  who  built  the  splendid  vaults  of  the 
baths,  and  who  h.ad  a  subdued  world  at  command, 
materials  and  /n/joitr  were  of  small  consiileration. 
They  could  therefore  atibrd  to  build  in  a  style 
which  required  perfect  materials  and  workmanship. 
But  medieval  ]irinces  and  bishojis  coiihl  obtain 
neither.  To  economi.se  the.se,  therefore,  the  utmost 
skill  and  attention  were  required.  It  was  necessary 
to  avoid  those  large  and  e.xpensive  materials  of 
which  the  Romans  were  so  lavish,  and  to  adopt  the 
-sinqilest  and  easiest  forms  of  construclion. 

The  lirst  vaults  tried  were  sinqile  semicircular 
tunnel-vaults.  It  was  found  that  these,  besides 
being  \ery  gloomy,  required  very  massive  walls  to 
resist  their  thrust.  An  attemi)t  was  then  nuule  to 
relieve  this  thrust  by  tntitsrcrsc  arches  {a,  a,  fig. 
1 )  thrown  across — at  intervals — under  the  tiinnel- 
vault,  to  act  as  strengthening  ribs.     This  idea  was 


Fig.  1. 

also  borrowed  from  Koman  precedent.  Buttresses 
with  a  slight  projection  were  ajiplied  outside  to 
abut  the  transverse  arches,  and  a  beam  of  wood 
was  sometimes  introduced  at  the  wall-head  from 
buttress  to  buttress  to  assist  in  opjiosing  the  thrust 
of  the  vault. 

This  was  the  first  attempt  to  concentrate  the 
■weight  of  the  vault  on  single  points.  In  the  side- 
aisles,  where  the  span  was  small  and  manageable, 
the  Koman  intersecting  vaults  (i,  Ij,  lig.  1)  were 


Fig.  2. 


used  :  and  as  the  main  roofs  with  their  tunnel- 
vaulting  were  found  very  gloomy  and  ill  lighted,  it 
was  considered  desirable  that  similar  intersecting 
vaults  should  be  used  to  cover  them  also,  so  ius  to 
admit  of  the  clerestory  windows  being  rai-sed  in 
order  to  light  the  vaulting.  But  bow  was  this  to 
be  managed  with  the  inferior  materials  and  work- 
manship at  command?  If  the  transverse  arches 
AB,  CL)  (tig.  2) 
are  .semicircular, 
and  the  side- 
arches  AC,  BD 
the  same  —  the 
vault  being 
formed  by  two 
i  n  t  ersec  t  i  ng 
cylinilers  — then 
tiie  inter.secting 
groins  AD  and 
CB  must  be 
elliptical.     This 

was  a  difficult  form  of  constniction  :  the  medieval 
builders  found  it  easier  to  construct  the  groin  or 
diagonal  arches  of  a  circular  form  with  radius  EA 
(lig.  3),  and  to  fill  in  the  triang'ular  spaces  ABK, 
<S:c. ,  with  slightly  domed  vaults.  These  .'semi- 
circular edges  or  groins  gradually  came  to  foini 
independent  ribs.  At  first  they  were  oidy  marked 
by  a  bead  on  the  angle,  but  being  the  chief  con- 
structional element  of  the  vaulting  they  .soon  came 
to  lie  distinctly  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
vault  as  independent  members  with  the  name  of 
groin  ribs,  the  development  of  which  played  so 
im]iortant  a  part  in  Gothic  vaulting.  When  the 
space  to  be  covered  was  square  the  above  form  of 
vault  was  found  to  answer,  and  each  bay  of  the  nave 
usually  included  two  bays  of  the  side-aisles,  sus 
in  fig.  4.  But  this  arrangement  looked  awkward 
externally,  the  windows  of  the  clerestory  not  group- 
ing well  with  those  of  the  side-aisles.  A  transverse 
arch  (rt,  a,  fig.  3)  was  then  introduced,  carrying  up 
the  design   from  the  nave  piers  to  the   vaulting. 


Fig.  3. 

This  form  of  vault  is  called  hexapartite.  All  the 
above  varieties  of  vaulting  were  fully  developed 
during  the  11th  and  12th  centuries  in  the  round- 
arched  styles  of  the  Rhine. 

In  France  these  forms  were  al.so  tried  ;  but  it 
was  found  that  the  semicircle  is  not  a  good  form  of 
arch  unless  loaded  on  the  haunches,  many  of  the 
churches  which  were  vaulted  in  this  manner  during 
the  11th  century  having  to  lie  buttressed  or  rebuilt 
in  the  r2th  and  13th  centuries.  In  I'lovence 
(where  the  Itoman  inllnence  continued  to  be 
strongly  felt,  owing  to  the  large  number  of  Itoman 
buildings  still  surviving  in  the  countiy  )  the  tunnel- 
vault  (lig.  i)  was  in  use  probably  as  early  sus  the 
9th  or  loth  century.  But  the  form  of  the  vault 
adopted  then  dill'ered  from  that  of  the  Itonians  in 
being  pointed  instead  of  round.  The  pointed 
form  mav  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Moors  in 
S 


pain 


bv  whom  it  was  used  ius  a  decorative  feature. 


but  it  Wius  undoubtedly  adojited  in  I'rovence  as  a 
simply-constructed  nietliod  of  vaulting.  This  form 
of  arch  wa-s  thus  probably  suggested  in  the  12th 
century  to  the  architects  of  tlie  north  of  France, 
who  iit  once  saw  how  well  it  would  overcome  tho 


316 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE 


ilillk'iilty  of  tlie  jieUUng  of  the  liuuiiclie.s  in  tlie 
.-eiiiicircular  aicli.  They  were  tliiis  led  to  tlie  aJoj)- 
tion  «f  tlie  ]n)inteil  form  for  their  transverse  anhes 
Its  It  stniftiintl  i:r/in/icnl,  anil  still  retaineil  the 
seniicireular  form  in  the  j;roins.  The  next  cuiestion 
which  eiif,'a^eil  attention,  anil  the  solution  of  which 
leil  to  the  further  use  of  the  ixiinteil  arch,  was  the 


Fig.  4. 

vauUin;,'  of  ohlDui,'  spaces.  This  hail  been  trieil 
with  semicircular  .-uchi's,  but  it  was  fouml  tluit 
with  that  form  the  vault  wciuUl  re(|uire  to  be  very 
nuieh  ilonieil — the  iliameter  of  the  arches  c,  c  {lit;. 
1)  being  so  nuich  smaller  than  that  of  a,  a — 
whercius  l>v  using  ]iointe(l  arches,  of  ilillerent 
railii,  for  the  transverse  and  side  arches  all  might 
be  kept  to  about  the  same  height.  This  is 
more  fully  explained  by  lig.  5.  If  A 15  be  the  dia- 
meter of  the  transverse  arch  (»<(,  lig.  1)  and  AC 
that  of  the  siile  arches  (iv),  it  is  clear  that  the 
semicircular  side  arch  AL)C  cannot  reach  the  height 


of  the  transverse  arch  AEB,  even  when  stiltetl  as  at 
I)'.  Hut  in  the  pointed  arch  (!'E1!  the  same  dia- 
meter rises  to  very  nearly  the  height  iif  the  trans- 
verse arch.  The  pointed  arches  A* '15  and  A'CIJ' 
(lig.  6)  show  huw  easily  arches  of  this  form,  what- 
ever tlieir  iliameter,  can  be  carried  to  the  same 
height.  I!y  the  introduction  of  this  new  form  of 
arch  the  vaulting  was  strengthened,  and  the 
thrust  brought  to  bear  steadily  on  single  iioints. 

We  have  now  traced  the  history  of  vaulting  from 
the  time  of  the  Komans  to  the  l"Jlh  century,  when 
the  principles  of  (iolhic  pointed  vaulting  were  fully 
developed  ;  and  we  have  dwelt  particularly  on  this 
subject,  because  it  includes  the  principles  which 
regulated  the  whole  of  the  (Jotbic  style,  (iolhic 
was  not  the  invention  of  an  individual,  but  a 
necessary  growth  —  a  gradual  development  from 
structural  reijuirement.  This  is  clearly  the  case 
with  regard  to  the  vaulting,  as  we  have  en- 
deavoured to  show  above,  and  the  same  might  be 
|>roved  regarding  every  member  of  the  style.  Thus 
It  might  be  shown  how  the  ribs  became  gradually 
more  deciiled,  expressing  the  part  they  bore  in  the 
support  of  the  roof  ;  how  the  nave  ]iiers  or  ]ull,-irs 
were  subdivided  by  degrees  into  jiarts,  each  shaft 
bearing  on  a  separate  cap  a  separate  mendierof  the 
vaulting;   how  the   buttresses  were   developed   as 


they  were  required  to  resist  the  thrust  of  the  groins 
concentrated  on  points;  and  how  the  flying  but- 
lres.ses  were  forced  upon  the  (lothic  arcbilicls  nuieh 
against  their  will,  as  a  mode  of  supporting  the 
arches  of  the  roof. 

The  history  of  the  flying  buttress  is  curious.  The 
thrust  of  the  tunnel-vault  was  sometimes  resisted 
by  half-tunnel-vaultsover  the  side  aisles  (see  lig,  4). 
The  latter,  therefore,  rei|uired  to  be  high,  and  a 
"allery  was  usually  introduced.  In  the  S'aiihex  at 
Vezelay  (tig.  7)  we  have  this  gallery  witli  the  \ault- 
ing  used  lus  a  counterpoise  to  tliat  of  the  central  vault. 
This  is  a  line  example  of  vaulting  in  the  transition 
state,  that  of  the  gallery  resisting  the  main  \ault, 
as  in  lig.  4,  and  being  at  the  same  time  groined. 


Fig.  7. 

This  leaves  rather  a  weak  ]ioint  opposite  the  trans- 
veive  arches,  to  strengthen  which  the  part  of  tlie 
semi-tunnid-vault  (lig.  4)  opposite  the  transverse 
arch  is  left  standing,  although  the  rest  is  altered  by 
the  groining.  At  Vezelay  (lig.  7)  this  arch  timidly 
shows  it.self  as  a  small  Hying  buttress  above  the 
roof.  It  is  easy  to  see  bow  this  idea  woiiM  gradu- 
ally develop  itself  into  the  bold  'arc-boutant'  of  a 
later  date.  The  galleries  were,  in  later  examples, 
disiiensed  with  to  admit  of  larger  clerestory  « indows, 
and  the  Hying  buttresses  were  left  standing  free. 
The  architects  linding  them  indispensable,  then 
turned  their  attention  to  remler  them  ornanient.'il. 
Piiiiirii'lcs  may  also  be  sIkiwu  to  owe  their  luigin 
to  their  use;  they  acted  as  weights  to  steady  the 
buttresses  and  ]iiers.  We  shall,  under  their 
separate  heads,  ]ioint  out  how  each  element  of 
(iothic  architecture  was  in  the  strictest  .sense  con- 
structional, the  decoration  being  in  harmony  with 
its  actual  use,  or  as  I'ugin  has  said,  'decorated 
construction,  not  constructed  deciuation.' 

The  full  ilevelopment  of  (Iolhic  vaulting,  which 
was  the  forerunner  of  the  wliole  style,  was  lirst 
carried  out  in  the  royal  domain  in  ^'rauce  about 
the  middle  of  the  l'2tli  ccnturj'. 

The  Normans  had  settled  in  the  north  of  France 
more  than  two  centuries  before  this,  and  had  ajiplied 
their  talents  and  the  fruit  of  their  conquests  to  the 
building  of  splendid  temples  in  honour  <if  their 
victories.  In  doing  so  they  followed  out  the  ri>uiid- 
arched  style,  and  brought  it  forward  by  a  great 
stride  tow'ards  true  Gothic.     See  NoRMAN  AliCHl- 

TKCTfRE. 

South  of  the  royal  domain,  in  Burgundy,  there 
had  existeil  for  centuries  great  establishments  of 
monks,  famous  for  their  architecture.  The  abbey 
of  (luny  was  their  central  .seat,  whence  they  sent 
out  colonies,  and  built  abbeys  after  the  model  of 
the  parent  one.  The  style  in  which  they  worked 
was  also  an  advanced   Komanesque,   but  dillerent 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE 


317 


from  that  of  the  Normans.  We  have  alreadj-  seen 
that  another  school  existed  in  Provenre  :  and  in 
Aquitaine,  Auvergne,  and  Pinton  still  further 
varieties  of  Romanesque  were  developeil. 

Between  these  provinces  lay  the  royal  domain. 
Owing  to  the  weak  state  of  tlie  kingdom,  architec- 
ture had  hitherto  made  little  progress  in  the  Isle  of 
France.  Ahoiit  the  heginning  of  the  12tli  century 
the  monarchy  revived,  ami  for  the  next  two  cen- 
turies the  royal  domain  wius  governed  liy  « ise  and 
powerful  monarclis,  who  succeeded  in  re-estahlisliing 
the  royal  supremacy.  A  new  impulse  was  thus 
given  to  the  literature  and  arts  of  the  country,  liy 
which  architecture  profited  largely.  From  the  state 
of  ruin  into  wliich  the  kingdom  had  fallen,  there 
were  scarcely  any  churches  existing  worthy  of  the 
new  state  of  things.  Novel  and  great  designs  were 
formed  :  hitherto  almost  all  the  important  churclies 
of  France  belonged  to  the  abbeys  ;  now,  under  the 
royal  patronage,  cathedrals  began  to  be  built. 
The  bishops,  envious  of  the  power  of  the  monks, 
lent  their  powerful  aid,  and  the  whole  of  tlie  laity, 
especially  in  the  towns  which  were  now  emancipat- 
ing themselves  and  forming  independent  communes, 
joineil  heartily  in  the  work.  Witli  such  a  universal 
impulse,  no  wonder  that  arcliitecture  took  a  gieat 
stride  and  new  forms  were  introduced.  It  is  to 
this  period  and  people  that  we  owe  the  earliest 
development  of  the  pointed  (iothic  style. 

We  nave  already  seen  at  Vezelay  how  nearly  the 
Burgundian  monks  had  approached  to  Gothic.  To 
complete  t!ie  development  it  only  required  the 
side-walls  and  vaulting  of  the  nave  to  be  raised,  .so 
as  to  admit  of  windows  over  the  roofs  of  the  side- 
galleries  ;  and  the  Hying  buttresses  to  be  raised 
witli  them,  so  as  to  receive  the  thrust  of  the  vault 
— the  latter  being  constructed  witli  ])ointed  groin 
ribs,  and  the  side  and  transverse  arches  carrieil  to 
the  height  of  tlie  groins.  The  lay  architects  of 
the  royal  domain  soon  accomplished  this  step,  and 
the  new  style  sprung  up  and  progressed  with  the 
most  astonishing  rapidity. 

The  earliest  example  we  have  of  the  fully 
developed  (Jothic  style  is  the  cathedral  of  St 
Denis,  in  wldch  are  depositeil  the  remains  of  the 
kings  of  France.  It  was  founded  by  the  Abbe 
Suger  in  1144.  The  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  of 
Paris  soon  followed,  and  almost  contemporary  with 
it  arose  the  magnificent  cathedrals  of  Chartres, 
Rheiius,  Amiens,  Beauvais,  Bourges,  and  a  host  of 
others. 

Another  cause  which  temled  much  to  hasten  the 
progress  of  the  style  was  the  invention  aliout  the 
same  time  of  painted  glass  (see  Gl.vss,  Painted). 
The  Itomanesc|ue  architects  had  been  in  the  habit  of 
decorating  their  cliurches  with  frescoes  and  other 
paintings  ;  but  this  new  mode  of  introducing  the 
most  brilliant  colours  into  their  designs  was  at  once 
seized  upon  liy  the  northern  architects.  The  snuiU 
rounil-arched  windows,  wldch  were  still  in  many 
instances  retained  long  after  the  pointed  arch  ha<l 
become  usual  in  the  vaulting,  no  longer  sufticed 
when  filled  with  stained  gla,ss  to  light  the  churches. 
They  were  therefore  eidarge<l,  two  or  even  three  were 
thrown  into  one,  divided  oidy  by  miillions  ;  this 
com{>ound  window  Wivs  again  increit-ed  until  the 
compartment  of  tlie  clerestory  becaine  almost  wholly 
absorbed.  The  architects  were  then  forced  to 
conform  the  arches  of  their  windows  to  the  pointed 
outline  of  the  side-arches  of  the  vaulting.  This 
desire  for  more  and  more  space  for  stained  gla-ss 
was  the  origin  of  the  window-tracery  which  forms 
so  beautiful  a  feature  of  the  style.  It  is  the 
last  attenuated  remains  of  the  wall  space  of  the 
clerestory,  whicli  was  at  last  entirely  absorbed. 

Fig.  8,  from  Xotre  Dame,  Paris,  is  a  good  illustra- 
tion of  the  mode  of  progress  of  French  (Jothic. 
The   left-hand   portion   of  the  elevation  .shows  the 


kind  of  fenestration  adopted.  The  clerestorj-  win- 
dows are  small ;  and,  in  order  to  adnnt  more  light, 
the  windows  and  vault  of  the  gallerj-  are  kept  very 
high.  Tills  was  the  original  design  ;  but  during 
the  constnietion  of  the  cathedral  the  importance  of 
stained  glass  hail  become  so  great  that  the  design 
wa-s  altered  so  as  to  give  larger  windows  in  the 
clerestory  for  its  display,  as  shown  on  the  right- 
hand  portion  of  the  elevation.  The  gallery  is  at 
the  same  time  reduced  to  a  mere  triforium  with 
verj'  small  windows,  and  the  aisle  windows  are 
greatly  enlarged.  The  upper  or  clerestory  window 
also  shows  the  sim|de  early  form  of  tracery  ;  that 
in  the  aisle  window  being  later  and  more  advanced. 


SriS^^S-^ 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  9. 


Fig.  9  shows  two  bays  from  Tournay  Cathedral, 
and  is  a  good  specimen  of  the  mode  in  which  the 
whole  space  of  the  side- walls  was  made  available 
for  winelow-tracerv  and  stained  glass. 

The  further  history  of  Gothic  architecture  in 
France  is  simply  the  enthusiastic  iVdlowing'  out,  to 
their  furthest  limits,  and  in  the  most  logical  and 
artistic  manner,  of  the  principles  above  indicated, 
on  which  the  early  architects  had  unconsciously 
been  working  when  they  oiiginateil  the  style.  So 
long  as  the  Gothic  architects  worked  on  these 
principles  they  advanced  an<l  improved  their  arclii- 
i  tocture.  When,  however,  the  style  had  liecome 
fully  developed  and  matured  (about  1300  A.D. ) 
the  spirit  of  progress  died.  No  new  features  were 
developed.  The  architect.s  seemed  to  think  that 
in  its  main  elements  their  style  was  coni]dete,  and 
contented  themselves  Mith  continuing  the  tradi- 
tional style  of  their  forerunners,  and  pushing  to 
their  extreinest  limits  the  principles  handed  down 
to  them.  They  became  jiroud  of  their  scientific 
knowledge,  and  of  the  accuracy  with  which  they 
could  calculate  and  provide  for  the  thrusts  of  the 
dirterent  arches,  and  the  artistic  element  became 
subordinate  to  the  engineering.  The  height  of  the 
cathedrals  was  extended  till,  at  Beauvais,  it  ex- 
ceeded the  power  of  the  architects  to  prop  up  the 
vaulting.  The  svstem  of  buttresses  ami  pinn.icles 
was  developed  with  the  utmost  skill,  till  at  last  the 
original  simidicity  and  repose  of  the  designs  were 
lost,  and  the  exteriors  presented  a  scientific  but  con- 
fused system  of  scall'oldingand  proppingup  in  stone 
(see  BiTTr.E.s.s).  The  simple  and  beautiful  forms 
of  the  early  tracery  became  altered  into  all  luanner 
of  Mowing  curves,  graceful  but  unmeaning,  in 
I  the  Flamboyant  period  (q.v.);  and,  in  short,  the 
I  art  became  lost  in  mere  cleverness  of  design  and 


318 


GOTHIC    ARflllTKCTlHK 


dexterity  of   execution,  and   the  arcliitcct's  place 
was  usurped  liy  the  freemason. 

It  is  in  the  cathe<lrals  of  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries,  ahovo  referred  to,  that  we  find  the 
nohlest  development  of  the  Uothie  style,  livery- 
thin^'  tended  to  this  result.  The  nation  wa.s 
unitcil  in  the  ellort— all  the  science,  all  the  arts, 
all  the  li'iunin^'  of  the  times  were  reiilred  in  the 
church.  In  it,  and  that  almost  exclusively,  the 
sculptor,  the  |iainli'r,  the  hist<uiau,  the  moralist, 
and  the  divine,  all  found  .scope  for  the  expressicm 
of  their  ideji-s  on  the  sculpturcil  w.'ills,  porches,  and 
niches,  or  the  jiainted  \vin<lows  of  the  cathedrals — 
the  churches  of  the  people.  The  development  of 
the  ilcconvtive  features  ]iro;;ressed  simultaneously 
with  that  of  the  constructional.  The  Itonian  acan- 
thus and  other  inrichments  were  lon^'  followed,  hut 
■.'radually  mixlilied  {;is  aliove  mentioncil )  liy  Ten 
tonic  iniluencc  as  shown  in  the  hunting;  and  fif;lit- 
iuf,'.  as  well  as  rclit;ious  scenes  represented  in  the 
'  historied  '  capitals  and  .sculptures  of  their  archi- 
tecture wherever  they  penetr.ated.  This  style  of 
carving  hecame  trailition.al,  .and  was  adhered  to  for 
centuries  liy  the  nioiiastic  orilers.  Ihit  at  the  re- 
vival of  the  12lli  century  these  traditional  f(Uius 
were  jjradually  departe<l  from,  ami  the  .architects 
sou;;hl  inspiration  for  their  sculpture  directly  from 
nature.  At  lirst  the  hdiage  w,as  treated  conven- 
tionally, hut  gradu.illy  came  closer  to  nature,  till 
in  the  completed  style  of  the  14tli  century  e.ach 
leaf  and  (lower  exactly  inutatcd  the  shapi'  and 
enihodieil  the  spirit  of  the  n.atural  type.  ^Ioulll 
ings,  huttresses,  pinnacles,  ami  all  the  sni.aller 
features  following  the  rule  of  nature  were  in 
finitely  v.arieil  and  heautiful.  These  will  be  treated 
of  under  their  separ.ate  heads. 

The  progress  ol  the  ( Gothic  style  in  other  ccuintries 
is  no  less  remarkahlc  than  in  Trance.  .\t  no  time 
in  the  world's  history  diil  any  style  of  architecture 
ever  spread  so  wide,  or  give  rise  in  such  a  short  time 
to  so  many  splendid  huildings.  No  sooner  had  the 
style  heen  inventeil  in  the  centr.al  provinces  of 
France,  than  it  immediately  spread  over  the  west 
of  Europe,  superseding  all  otlier  styles,  and  pro- 
ducing similar  spleiidiil  huildings  wherever  it  \\<;\>t. 

We  shall  note  shortly  a  few  of  the  peculiarities 
of  the  stylo  in  England,  (ierm.any,  ami  Italy.  It 
spreail  also  over  the  south  of  France  and  Spain  ; 
Vnit  in  the  Latter  countries  it  presents  the  char- 
acter of  an  importeil  rather  than  that  of  a  native 
or  freely-adopte<l  art. 

Eniilish  (iutliir. — At  the  Conquest  in  1060  the 
Normans  introiluced  their  rounil  arched  style,  some 
fine  spccinuTis  of  which  still  exist  hoth  in  ICngl.and 
and  Scotland — St  Cross,  near  W  inchester  ;  Durham 
Cathedral  :  Kel.so  and  .leilhurgh  Ahheys,  &c.  lint 
these  hiiililings  are  not  copies  of  those  of  Noriuandy. 
The  English  h.avc  alw.ays,  in  adopting  styles,  given 
them  a  national  impress.  .\s  it  was  with  the 
Norui.an,  so  it  w.as  to  a  still  greater  degree  with 
the  pointed  tJothic,  which  was  introiluced  into 
England  ahout  1174  hy  William  of  .Sens,  who 
superintended  the  rehuilding  of  Canterbury  C.allie- 
dral.  The  English  architects  soon  began  to  follow 
out  a  jiointcd  style  of  their  own.  They  Ixirrowetl 
much  from  Erance,  ami  worked  it  out  in  their  own 
way,  forming  what  is  now  called  the  Karlij  EikjUsJi 
style.  The  dill'erences  between  the  early  tiothic  of 
France  and  Englaiul  extend  to  almost  every  detail. 
The  mouldings,  ba.ses,  caps,  pinnacles,  buttresses, 
and  foliage  of  the  latter  are  all  impressed  with  the 
early  English  feeling.  In  France  the  character  of  the 
early  (iothic  is  one  of  unrest — a  constant  struggle 
forward.  In  Engl.ind  the  effort  after  iirogre.ss  is 
not  so  distinct — that  of  carefulness  .and  comidete- 
ness  prevails.  In  the  phtns  of  the  catheilrals  the 
differences  are  marked  (see  figs.  10,  11),  as  the 
accompanying  plans  of  the  cathedrals  of  Salisbury 


and  Amiens  show.  The  eastern  termination  of  a 
French  cathe<lral  or  church  is  invariably  circular 
eniled  or  apsidal — >a  form  ilerivcd  from  the  early 
Christian  apse.  The  English  cathcilral,  on  the  con- 
trary, has  almost  always  a  square  e.-ist  end.  The 
French  transepts  have  almost  no  projection  beyond 


■^t'f  •     *  ♦    f^»^«& 


4-     «» 


*-^ 


+  + 

+  + 

+  + 

+  + 


if  1       1  IT* 

Fig.  10.— Salisbury  Cathedral 

the  line  of  the  aisles  ;  the  English  ones  have  great 
projections— Salisbury  (q.v.)  and  Canterbury  (q.v.) 
having  tuo  transepts.  The  French  calhedr.ils  are 
short  and  very  loftv ;  the  English,  long  and  compar.a- 
tively  low.  The  I'rench  huildings  are  perhaps  the 
grandest  and  most  aspiring,  the  English  the  most 
finished  and  i>icturcsque. 

The  construction  ot  the  exterior  of  the  'chevet' 
or  apsidal  east  end  wjis  a  dilficully  with  the  French 
and  (iermans,  and,  as  at  Heauvais  and  Cologne 
(q.v. ),  resembles  an  intricate  and  confu.sed  mass  of 
scafiblding.  One  of  the  churches  in  which  this 
picturesque  feature  is  most  successfully  c.arrieil  out 
is  St  Ouen,  Itouen.  The  gicat  complication  of 
pinnacles  and  Hying  buttres.scs  which  marks  so 
many  of  the  great  French  churches  is  here  reiluced 
to  a  minimum.  This  difliculty  was  avoided  by  the 
English  siiu.are  en<ls,  which  afforded  scope  for  a 
large  lielil  of  stained  glass  in  <a  single  great 
traceried  window,  as  in  most  of  the  English 
examples. 

The  western  portals  of  the  French  cathedrals, 
such  .as  Klieims  (see  Door)  and  Amiens  (q.v.),  are 
among  the  Iwddest  and  most  magnificent  features 
of  their  architecture.     In  these  the  English  were 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE 


319 


occasionally  not  far  behind,  as  the  western  portals 
of  Peterborough  and  York  show  ;  but  the  English 
portals  are  generally  smaller  and  less  efl'ective  than 
tlie  French  ones. 

Tlie  outlines  of  the  English  cathedrals  are  usually 
very  pictiuesque   and  well  balanced,  the  western 


Fig.  11. — Amiens  Catliedral. 

towers  grouping  harmoniously  with  the  central, 
and  in  this  respect  tlie  English  have  tlie  advantage. 

Tlie  vaulting  of  the  French  churches  is  almost 
a,l\vavs  quite  sim]ile  in  design,  but  in  the  applica- 
tion of  vaulting  the  Englisli  carried  out  their  own 
ideas.  They  were  always  fond  of  wooden  roofs, 
and  probably  this  in.ay  have  led  to  the  invention  of 
the  ni.uiy  beautiful  kinds  of  vaults  which  form  so 
fine  a  feature  of  English  Gothic  ( see  F.\NTi:.\CEKV ). 
In  England  the  style  lasted  longer  than  on  the  Con- 
tinent, being  retained  till  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 
about  the  middle  of  the  16tli  century. 

The  liermans  were  nearly  a  century  in  adopting 
the  pointed  style  .after  its  invention  in  France  :  .and 
when  it  was  introduced  it  retaiiieil  the  appearance 
of  a  foreign  importation.  It  never  was  so  com- 
pletely naturalised  as  in  England.  Tlie  so-called 
beauties  of  the  (lerman  (lotliic  are,  for  the  most 
part,  to  be  regarded  rather  as  excellent  specimens 
of  nia.soniy  th.an  as  artistic  develo|unents  of  the 
style.  The  open-work  spires,  for  example,  which 
are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  England,  are  line 
nieces  of  construction,  and  have  a  striking  ell'ect ; 
nut  from  the  first  there  is  a  tendency  to  commit 
the  work  to  masons,  who  rejoice  in  displ.aying 
their    manual    dexterity.       The    later    Gothic   in 


Germany  is  the  most  splendid  develojiment  of  the 
stone-cutter's  art  and  the  ilraughtsman's  ingenuity  ; 
these  run  riot,  while  the  artist  is  entirely  wanting. 
The  distortions  of  lig.  12  may  serve  a-s  an  example. 


Fig.  12. 

Tlie  Gothic  style  forced  its  way  also  into  classic 
Italy,  but  there  it  was  never  understood  nor  prac- 
tised in  its  tnie  spirit.  It  was  evidently  an  imita- 
tion from  the  beginning.  The  Italian  architects 
tried  to  vie  with  those  of  the  north  in  the  size  of 
their  buildings,  some  of  wliicb,  such  ,as  San  I'etronio 
at  Bcdogna  and  Jlilan  Cathedral,  are  enormous. 
The  former  illustrates  the  defects  of  Italian  tJothic. 
The  arches  are  very  wide,  and  there  are  few  ])iers. 
There  is  therefore  a  bare  and  naked  eH'ect,  -which 
is  not  compensated  for  by  any  richness  of  sculpture 
or  colour.  There  is  a  want  of  .^crilr  about  Italian 
Gothic  buildings,  as  there  is  about  those  of  Italian 
cla.ssic  architecture,  both  ancient  and  niodeni. 
Size  alone  is  depended  on  f(U'  producing  grandeur 
of  efl'ect.  No  attempt  is  made  to  mark  the  si?e, 
and  give  a  scale  by  which  to  judge  of  the  dimensions 
of  the  buildings  in  those  styles.  A  large  classic 
temple  is  simply  a  small  one  magnified.  In  true 
Gothic  architecture  the  case  is  different.  Not  only 
are  the  general  dimensions  magnified  in  a  large 
edifice,  but  also  the  parts  are  miiltiplieil.  The 
columns  and  shafts  remain  of  the  same  size,  but 
their  number  is  increased.  The  arches  are  enlarged 
in  proportion  to  the  general  dimensions,  but  the 
caps,  bases,  and  mouldings  remain  of  the  same 
size  as  in  a  smaller  building,  and  thus  indicate  the 
greater  size  of  the  arch.  A  true  Gothic  building 
of  large  dimensions  thus  tells  its  own  greatnes.s, 
but  in  a  classic  or  Italian  Gothic  edifice  the  size 
has  to  be  found  out.  Stained  glass  was  little  used 
in  Italy.  It  may  have  been  intended  to  decorate 
the  walls,  which  otherwise  have  such  a  bare  and 
cold  appearance,  with  frescoes — as  indeed  is  the 
case  in  a  few  examples.  The  church  of  St  Francis, 
,at  Assisi,  is  the  mo>t  remarkable  building  of  this 
kind,  and  is  a  very  interesting  example  of  fresco- 
decoration  (see  Fresco).  Italian  Gotliic,  however, 
was  most  successful,  especially  in  Venice  and 
Verona,  in  domestic  edifices,  the  i>alaces  of  those 
cities  being  amongst  the  finest  structures  of  their 
kind  in  Europe.  The  medieval  monuments  of 
Italy,  too,  are  especially  beautiful  and  apjiropriate. 

The  towns  of  Italy,  being  early  enfranchised, 
have  also  many  municipal  buildings  in  the  Gothic 
style  ;  and  to  these,  as  well  !W  to  those  of  ndgiuni, 
allusion  is  made  in  the  articles  on  tlie  several  towns 
and  in  Municipal  ARCiiiTUCTiiRE. 

AVe  might,  in  the  s.ame  manner,  trace  the  Gothic 
style  in  all  the  other  countries  of  western  Europe  ; 
but  its  history  is  similar  in  .all.  It  is  in  Engl.and 
and  Fr.ance  that  the  true  spirit  of  the  style  was 
most  felt  and  the  finest  examples  remain.  (tur 
sp.ace  h.os  not  permitteil  us  to  enter  minutely  into 
the  various  styles  of  (iothic  in  each  country.     The 


320       GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE 


GOTHS 


more  inipoit;int  of  these  will  lie  treatol  so]iarately 
(see     Kahi-Y     Ksci.isii,     Decuratkd,     I'kki-kn- 

mri'LAR,   Kl.AMIlOYANT). 

We  nmy,  however,  state  generally  that  lioth  in 
France  and  Kii;;liinil  the  style  hail  a  I'oniiileto  exist- 
ence— it  was  liorn,  arrived  at  maturity,  ami  (lie<l. 
When  the  spirit  of  the  early  architects  had  imshed 
the  ile>i;;n  to  its  ntniost  limits  they  rested  from 
their  lahours,  well  satistied  with  their  s|ilenilid 
achievements.  Their  successors  occupied  them- 
selves with  forms  ami  iletails,  and  with  the  perfect- 
ing of  everv  minute  part.  The  art  linally  pa.ssed 
away,  ami  left  architecture  in  the  hands  of  trade 
corporations— ni.tsons,  c.irnenters,  ]>himhers,  &c.  - 
who  monopolised  the  wiiole  work,  and  acted  iiide- 
ix'iKlently,  to  the  exclusion  of  one  direiling  mind. 
The  result  was  a.s  we  have  seen  :  arehilei'tnre  he- 
came  masonic  skill,  and  Hothic  wa.s  linall.v  super- 
seiled  hy  the  revival  of  cla.s.sic  architecture  in  the 
16th  century.  The  l{enais.sance  of  the  arts  of  (ireece 
and  Konie  during  the  last  two  or  three  centuries 
has  in  the  lillh  century  Keen  followed  l>y  a 
revival  of  (lothic  ari'hitecture.  Kven  tluring  tlie 
17th  ami  ISth  centuries  a  few  attempts  were  made 
to  resuscitate  the  ohl  style  in  churches,  and  in 
the  IStli  century  a  hold  eflbrt  in  the  direction 
of  inlroilucing  it  into  domestic  architecture  was 
unilertaken  hy  Horace  Walpole,  Hatty  I.angley, 
and  others.  But  the  |)resent  revival  may  lie 
said  to  h.ave  fairly  commenced  in  1S19,  when 
Iticknian  puhlished  liLs  Atlem/il  to  tliscrimiiiiiti:  the 
Sli/li-.s  <if  KiHjlixh  Arihiti-ftnre,  a  very  careful  and 
complete  work,  the  conclusions  of  which  have  l)een 
generally  adopted  and  adhercil  to.  Other  works 
hy  I'ligin,  Cotman,  Uritton,  ami  others  soon 
followed,  illustrative  of  (lothic  architecture  hotli 
at  home  and  ahroad.  One  of  the  most  prominent 
supporters  of  the  revival  wa.s  Augustus  W.  I'ugin 
(1S12  r>'2),  who  lioth  hy  his  writings  and  in  his 
l>ractice  hrought  the  tiothic  style  nrai'tically  before 
the  i)u)>lic  in  the  lirst  half  of  tlie  19th  century. 
Since  that  time  it  has  heen  greatly  used,  almost 
.'ill  onr  modern  churches  and  many  other  pnlilic 
huildings  lieiiig  designed  in  the  (lothic  style.  The 
nairies  iif  IMward  IJarrj,  (Jeorge  (lilliert  Scott,  K. 
Strec-t,  and  liurgess  are  well  known  in  connection 
with  the  Hinises  of  Parliament,  the  Law  Courts 
in  liondon,  and  numerous  churches  and  cathedrals 
hoth  in  Knglainl  and  abroad.  A  reaction  lias 
within  recent  years  taken  place,  especially  in 
secnl.'ir  structures,  but  (Jothic  is  still  regarded  jus 
the  most  suitalile  style  for  ecclesiastical  eililiccs. 

In  the  I'nited  States  classical  nioilels  were 
generally  followeil,  even  in  ecclesiastical  archi- 
tecture, till  the  building  of  Trinity  Church,  New- 
York,  in  1H40,  by  Richard  Ipjohn — the  lirst  in- 
stance in  which  the  Gothic  style  (  Knglish  (Jotliic) 
was  used  with  skill.  Since  then  (lothic  has  been 
the  prevalent  style  for  churches  ;  and  a  luodilieil 
Gothic,  mainly  North  Italian,  has  also  been  much 
used  for  civil  liuihlings  in  the  I'nited  States. 

In  France,  the  land  of  its  birth,  Gothic  arclii- 
tecture  has  been  very  thoroughly  studied,  and  its 
principles  and  beautie.s  have  been  lulmirably 
analy.seil  and  illustrated,  notably  in  tlie  splcndi<l 
work  by  the  late  Violletle  Due,  I.c  Dktioniiaire 
rttisttn/te  (/c  r Arvhitcrt lire  frtinrfti.st'. 

The  beauties  of  Italian  Gothic  have  also  had 
their  admirers,  and  have  been  charmingly  <lescril>ed 
and  illustrateil  by  Uuskin.  IJut  this  style  has  not 
been  much  ailojited  in  northern  countries. 

In  the  changi's  of  fashion  with  regard  to  archi- 
tecture Gothic  may  at  present  a])pear  to  be  reced- 
ing, but  the  stuily  and  elucidation  of  its  principles 
have  clone  much  to  modify  men"s  views  with  regard 
to  the  elements  of  the  .art,  and  will  doubtless  con- 
tinue to  inlluence  the  principles  and  practice  of  the 
architecture  of  the  future. 


.Sec  lilo.ram's  Prinrijil't  nf  (lothic  Arrhilreltirt  {WX> ; 
lltli  I'd.  3  vols,  1HH2I ;  Kickiimn's  (/othir  An-hitccture  hy 
Parker  (1H4K);  liritton's  Anti'iiiitirn  of  (Irral  Britain 
(IKio);  Fugin's  werks,  hucIi  as  the  EftmpUt  of  ilolhic 
Arcltitectnrc  (lt<35)  and  tlie  S/xrininin,  .Vc.  (1H23 ) ; 
E.  .SharjR-'s  ArchiUctutal  Paralltit  ( IH4« ) ;  Viollet-U-Uuc, 
J>ictionnaire  (1854-(iy);  Street'ii  lirirk  and  Marbtf  of 
Middle  Agts  (1874)  and  (iothic  Ari-hitrcture  in  Hjxiin 
(1869);  Ituskiii's  .S7o?icao/ IVnirc  ( lHi>l-5:i) ;  Fergiisson'* 
Uiftorii  of  Ar,  hilrrturr  (ISC')  76). 

faOtlllund  (Swed.  (lotaland  ami  Unlnril.e),  the 
southernmost  of  the  three  old  provinces  of  Sweden, 
with  an  area  of  .3.5,,SOO  sq.  m.  and  a  population  of 
over  two  .ami  a  half  millions. — (2)  A  Swedish  island 
(Swed.  Guttland)  in  the  lialtic,  44  miles  E.  from 
the  niainl.ind,  constitutes  with  F.arii,  Gotska, 
S.andf),  and  other  smaller  islands  the  ]iiovince  of 
Gottland  or  Wisliy.  Area.  1217  sq.  m.  The  island 
consists  mainly  of  terrace-like  slopes  of  limestone, 

}  which  are  cnciicleil  by  cliirs  broken  by  numerous 
deep  fiords,  more  especially  on  the  west  coast  ;  the 
eastern  parts  are  Hat.  The  cdiniate  is  mild.  Next 
to  .agriculture,  the  chief  occupations  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, (a  little  over  5ll,(KK))  are  shipping,  fishing,  seal- 
lisliiiig,  fowling,  ami  limebuiiiing.  In  the  middle 
ages  the  island  beliin;;ed   to  the  Cerinan  Ilansealic 

I   League,  but  was  restored  to  Sweden  in  \iH'i.     The 

'  cajiital  is  Wisby  (ij.v. ). 

(■otiis.  The  native  name  of  the  Teutonic 
iieople  known  as  Goths  (in  Lat.  (lutlii,  tloltlii) 
liad  the  two  forms  (/i/^(».v  (sing.  '/'H^«)and  Giitos 
(sing.  Giil.s);  from  the  latter  w.as  formed  the 
componnd  Giil-t/iiiu/a,  'people  of  the  (Joths.' 
Their  earliest  known  abode  was  on  the  southern 
coasts  and  the  isl.ands  of  the  IJaltic.  The  island 
('Otiiland  derives  its  name  from  thi'in.  The 
Scandiii.avian  tr.aditions,  reduced  to  writing  in  the 
12th  centur>%  speak  of  a  country  on  the  lialtic 
calleil  Ilnidlifjotdldiiil,  which  must  have  owed  its 
name  to  the  liranch  of  the  Goths  calleil  in  Anglo- 
Saxim  poetry  Hnide,  and  (perhaps  with  etymolo- 
gisin"  corru]ition)  Ilretligotaii  and  Ilreth.as.  The 
Hra'de  .are  staled  in  an  An^'lii  Saxon  iioeiii  (  Wiil- 
sit/i)  to  have  had  their  home  on  tlie  Vistul.a. 
Whether  (iotlis  ever  inhabited  the  Scandinavian 
iieninsul.a  is  doubtful:  the  '  tlothland' of  Sweden 
IS  etymologically  not  '  the  land  of  the  Goths,'  but 
'  the  l.antl  of  the  (;auts'(in  A.S.  GritUix),  a  dis- 
tinct, though  doubtless  a  kindred  jieople. 

The  native  tr.adition  of  the  Goths,  .according  to 
their  historian  Jordaiiis  (Oth  century),  represented 
them  as  having  originated  from  Sc-.iiidinavia.  This 
tradition,  however,  is  probably  a  iiiero  develop- 
ment of  the  common  Teutonic  myth  which  placed 
the  creation  of  mankind  in  an  unknown  region 
beyond  the  northern  sea,  and  lia.s  therefore  no 
historical  viilue. 

The  elder  Pliny  (died  79  A.D.)  mentions  the 
Goths  i,Gu1loncs)  in  two  jia-s-sages  of  \\\s  Xatmal 
llistoiii,  once  in  a  mere  enumeration  of  the  Ger- 
I  manic  peoples,  and  once  in  what  luirports  to  be  a 
j  quotation  from  the  Greek  traveller  Pythe.xs  (4th 
century  B.C.).  If  Pliny's  citation  be  accur.ate, 
Pytheius  refened  to  the  Guttones  as  dwelling  on 
the  shores  of  an  estuary  called  Mentonomon,  and 
.as  tr.ading  in  amber,  gathered  by  the  inhabitants 
of  an  Lsl.and  dist.ant  from  them  .a  day's  sail.  It  lias, 
however,  been  suggested  that  the  people  mentioned 
by  Pytheas  were  tlie  Tentones  living  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Elbe.  In  a  Greek  MS.  it  wmild  be  eiLsy  to 
misreiul  Teutones  as  Guttones,  and  the  former  name 
actu.ally  occurs  in  the  context.  I5ut  even  if  this  be 
so,  we  may  perhajis  infer  that  in  Pliny's  time  the 
'(Juttones'  were  a  maritime  peo]>le,  ;is  he  quotes 
the  supposed  statements  of  Pythe.as  withmit  any 
remark.  A  generation  Later  the  Goths  ( Golones, 
Gotliones)  are  spoken  of  by  Tacitus,  who  says  that 
among  them  the  kingly  power  was  greater  than 


GOTHS 


321 


among  the  otiier  Gerniauic  peoples,  though  they 
still  retained  their  freeiloni.  He  relates  that  in 
the  reign  of  Tilierius  a  Marconiannie  exile  named 
C'atualda,  who  was  resident  among  the  Gotones, 
collected  an  army  and  made  himself  king  of  the 
Marcomanni.  The  indications  given  hy  Tacitii^ 
seem  to  imply  that  he  regarded  the  (loths  as  the 
easteinmost  people  of  Germany  ( the  boundary  of 
whirh  was  the  Vistula),  and  that  their  territory 
reached  to  the  Baltic.  Their  southward  emigra- 
tions must  have  commenced  soon  afterwards,  for 
the  geographer  Ptolemy  ('2d  century)  assigns  to 
the  '(Jythones'  a  position  in  Sarmatia  (on  the 
ri(j)tt  hank  of  the  Vistula),  divided  from  the  sea  hy 
the  Slavonic  Wends.  The  history  of  their  south- 
ward wandering  is  unknown,  the  story  told  hy 
Jordanis  heing  oliviously  mythical.  What  seems 
certain  is  that  early  in  the  8d  century  the  Goths, 
vastly  increased  in  numhers  liy  the  accession  of 
many  conciuered  peoi)les,  were  occupying  a  territory 
nortii  of  tlie  Black  Sea  ami  the  Danube  months. 
The  eastern  portion  of  them  received  the  distinctive 
names  (Jstrogoths  ('East  Goths')  and  Greuthungs 
( '  dwellers  on  the  san<l ' ),  while  the  western  portion 
were  called  Visigoths  ( '  West  (Joths' )  arul  Thervings 
(probal)ly  'dwellers  anumg  the  trees').  Mingled 
with  the  (loths  proper,  or  adjoining  them,  were  a 
number  of  other  East  Germanic  peoples  who,  like 
tlieni,  had  emigrated  from  the  Baltic  coasts. 
Chief  among  these  were  the  Vantlals  and  the 
Gepiihe,  the  neighbours  of  the  Goths  on  the  west 
and  on  the  north  respectively.  The  geographical 
position  of  the  Heruli,  Burgunils,  Scirians,  Rugians, 
and  Turcilings  at  this  time  cannot  be  determined. 
All  these  nations  were  often  classeil  together  under 
the  general  name  of  Goths. 

In  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Philip  the  Arab 
('248-4!))  the  Goths  are  said  to  have  been  ruled  by 
a  king  named  Dstrogotha.  (There  is  no  strong 
reason  for  regarding  this  name  as  an  etymological 
figment:  it  does  not  me.an  'Ostrogoth,'  but  is  to 
be  compared  with  such  Teutonic  names  as  Austro- 
wald,  Easterwine,  Earcongota. )  In  his  reign  a  war 
broke  (Uit  between  the  Goths  and  the  Roman 
empire  ;  at  the  battle  of  Abritta  the  Romans  were 
totally  defeated,  and  the  Emperor  Deeius  and  his 
son  were  killed.  For  eighteen  years  the  eastern 
pro\inces  of  the  emi)ire  sufl'ered  terrible  ravages 
from  the  (ioths,  but  these  calamities  were  avenged 
by  the  victories  of  the  Emperor  Claudius  ( thence 
surnameil  Gothicus).  After  the  death  of  Claudius 
in  '270,  his  successor  Aurelian  conceded  to  the 
<n>ths  the  province  of  Dacia,  on  condition  of 
furnishing  a  body  of  2000  men  to  the  imperial 
army.  Such  of  the  native  inhabitants  as  did  not 
choose  to  remain  as  subjects  of  the  Goths  were 
proviiled  with  new  settlements  south  of  the  Danube. 
NVitli  some  interruptions,  the  ]ieaceful  relations 
between  the  Goths  and  the  Romans  continued  for 
more  than  a  hundred  years.  During  this  perioil 
the  old  nan\es  Visigoth  and  Ostrogoth  received  a 
new  sense  as  e.\i)ressive  of  a  national  distinction. 
The  Visigoths  or  Thervings  of  later  history  are  the 
descendants  of  the  people  established  by  Aurelian 
in  Dacia;  the  Ostrogoths  or  Greuthungs  are  the 
descendants  of  the  Goths  who  remained  in  southern 
Russia. 

In  the  4th  and  succeedijig  I'enturies  writers  who 
aHectiMl  i-lassicality  of  diction  frec|Uently  applied  to 
the  Goths  the  ob.solete  names  of  (Jeticand  .Scythians. 
which  in  antiquity  belonged  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  regions  in  which  the  (!otlis  were  now  settled. 
I'sually  the  tioths  were  regarded  as  the  actual 
descenilants  of  these  historic  peoples,  and  the  name 
(iiitlii  seems  to  have  been  imagined  to  he  a  corrup- 
tion of  (hid'.  In  the  6th  century  ( 'assiodorus, 
followed  by  the  Goth  Jorilanis,  endeavoured  to 
blend  into  one  story  the  facts  of  Getic  history, 
•2'29 


taken  from  Herodotus  and  other  classical  writers, 
and  the  (Jotliic  traditions  of  a  migration  from  the 
extreme  north.  In  modern  times  the  hyipothesis  of 
the  identity  of  Goths  and  Geta-  has  Vjeen  advocated 
by  so  distinguished  a  scholar  as  Jacob  Grinmi,  but 
is  now  generally  rejected. 

In  the  ndddle  of  the  4tli  centurj'  the  Ostrogothic 
king  Ermanaric  established  by  conquest  a  powerful 
enijiire,  extending  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia.  About  the  year  375  this  emidre  wa« 
subjugated  by  the  Huns.  The  Visigoths,  with  a 
small  portion  of  the  Ostrogoths,  escaped  a  similar 
fate  by  crossing  the  Danube,  and  placing  theni 
selves  under  the  protection  of  the  Roman  empire. 
The  o])pression  of  the  provincial  governors  soon 
provoked  a  revolt.  The  eastern  emperor,  Valens, 
collected  a  great  army  and  marched  into  Thrace 
for  the  purpose  of  subduing  the  barbarians  ;  but 
at  the  battle  of  Adrianople  (August  9,  37S)  the 
Romans  sutt'ered  a  ruino\is  defeat,  and  Valens 
himself  was  killed.  The  Goths,  however,  were  too 
ill  organised  to  make  ell'ective  use  of  their  victory, 
and  Theodosius,  the  .successor  of  Valens  in  the 
empire  of  the  East,  and  afterwards  sole  sove 
reign  of  the  Roman  empire,  found  it  possible  in 
a  few  years  to  bring  back  to  their  allegiance  the 
whole  Gothic  peojde,  excepting  tho.se  who  were 
under  the  yoke  of  the  Huns.  This  result  wa-s  not 
attained  without  great  and  dangerous  concessions. 
The  \'isigoths  received  large  grants  of  land  in 
Thrace,  and  the  Ostrogoths  in  Phrvgia.  They 
were  permitted  to  govern  themselves  by  their  own 
laws,  and  40,000  of  their  warriors  were  embodied 
into  a  separate  army  (called  firi/croti),  receiving  a 
high  rate  of  pay.  Many  of  their  nobles  also  were 
promoted  to  high  positions  in  the  imperial  .service. 
So  long  as  Theodosius  lived  these  measures  «eie 
successful  in  securing  the  loyalty  of  the  Goths  ; 
but  the  excessive  favour  shown  to  barbarians  who 
hail  so  lately  been  enemies  provoked  serious  dLs- 
content. 

The  Goths  thus  incorporated  into  the  Roman 
emi)ire  had  for  the  most  [lart  been  converted  to 
Christianity  ;  princi|ially,  it  is  believed,  owing  to 
the  lalxMirs  of  the  Arian  bishop  Wultila  or  I'lphihus 
(q.v.),  a  Goth  who  had  received  a  learned  education 
at  Constantinople,  and  who  lived  as  a  missionaiy 
among  the  Visigoths  from  340  to  .381,  The  new 
faith  was  with  extraordinary  rapidity  accepted, 
not  only  by  the  two  great  branches  of  the  Gothi<' 
people,  but  by  all  the  smaller  nations  of  kindred 
race.  For  two  huiulreil  years  the  Goths  remained 
faithful  to  the  Arian  creed  taught  by  Wulfila  and 
his  disciples.  Unlike  the  Vandals,  who  were 
adherents  of  the  same  sect,  the  Arian  tioths  were 
honourably  distinguished  liy  their  free(h)m  from 
bigotry.  Although  themselves  the  object  of  the 
most  virulent  religious  hatred,  they  were,  even  at 
the  height  of  their  power,  very  seldom  guilty  of 
persecution. 

On  the  death  of  Theodosius  in  39.5  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Roman  world  was  divided  between  his  tw() 
sous,  Arcadius  becoming  emperor  of  the  E;ist,  and 
IIon<uius  emperor  of  the  We.st.  One  of  the  lirst 
acts  of  the  ministers  of  Arcadius  was  to  lower  the 
pay  of  the  Gothic  soldiery.  The  Visigoths  at  once 
rose  in  rebellion,  and.  electing  .»  iheir  king  a  young 
ofliccr  of  distinction  named  .Vlaric  (q.v.),  proceedeil 
to  overrun  Greece.  The  eniper<)r  was  compelled  to 
nuike  terms  ;  Alaric  wa.s  made  military  governor 
of  Eastern  Illyricum,  and  remained  ipiiet  for  three 
years,  preparing  for  an  irruption  into  Italy.  In  the 
year  4(K1  he  entered  the  peninsula,  but  apparently 
nu't  with  no  great  success.  After  being  defeated 
by  Stilicho  at  Pollentia  (Easter  Sund.iy,  402),  he 
retired  to  lUyria,  receiving,  however,  a  large 
sum  of  money  from  the  Romans  as  the  price  of 
peace.     A  second  invasion  in  408,  provokeu  by  the 


322 


GOTHS 


■lisrejiard  of  treaty  olili^ations  on  the  pait  of  tlie 
Koiiiaiis,  lia<l  very  ilillereiit  results.  Stiliclio  \v,as 
(leail,  and  tlie  liarl>arian  soliliers  iif  Italy,  exa-s- 
perateil  liy  ollioial  tyranny,  deserteil  to  tlie  standard 
of  Alaric  in  ^;reat  numbers.  Koine  was  tlnice 
l«'siej.'ed  ;  twice  tlio  city  was  saved  by  the  sub- 
niis.sion  of  the  senate,  but  on  the  third  occiusion 
it  was  taken  by  storm  and  delivered  u|i  to  plunder. 
.\lthou;;h  terrible  exoesse-s  were  coniniitted  liy  the 
tJotlis,  the  lioman  writei"s  speak  with  ;.;reat  admira- 
tion of  the  humanity  and  nioileration  dis]>layed  by 
.\laric  himself,  llouorins,  secure  in  the  impief; 
liable  fortress  of  Havenna,  and  ein'Oura;.'ed  by  hopes 
of  supjiort  from  roiistaiitinople,  lefuseil  to  come  to 
terms,  and  Alaric  was  preparing  to  ellect  the  entire 
subjugation  of  Italy,  when  his  career  was  cut  short 
by  death  in  410. 

Alaric 's  successor,  Atawnlf,  abandoned  the  de.sijrn 
of  conc|uerin^;  Italy,  and  led  his  people  into  southern 
(!aul.  .\t  Narb(uiiie  he  married  the  dau^'hter  of 
Theodosius,  the  princess  (ialla  I'lacidia,  who  had 
been  taken  captive  by  Alaric  in  Itome.  (In  the 
approach  of  a  Konian  army  under  Constantius 
the  Visi;;oths  cros.sed  the  Pyrenees  into  Spain, 
where  .\tawulf  was  murdered  in  41.5. 

The  next  king,  Wallia,  submitted  to  the  Romans, 
and  in  the  name  of  the  empire  conquered  nearly 
the  whole  of  Spain.  As  the  reward  ot  his  services, 
he  received  permission  to  settle  with  his  people  in 
the  south  of  (Jaul. 

The  '  kingdom  of  Toulouse,"  founded  by  Wallia 
in  418,  was  increaseil  by  the  comniests  of  his  sue 
cesson-,  until  under  Euric  (who  ilied  in  Asr-i)  it 
included  the  whole  of  (laul  south  of  the  Loire  ami 
west  of  tlie  Ulione,  ii-s  well  as  Provence  ami  the 
greater  part  of  Spain.  The  most  notewortliy  event 
in  the  history  of  this  kingdom  wjus  the  great  battle 
fought  in  4r>l  on  the  .\Iauiiac  iilains  near  Troyes 
(eoinmonly  miscalled  the  battle  of  Chalons),  in 
which  the  Visigoths  under  their  king  Theoderic  (or 
Theoderiil)  I.,  united  with  iIk;  Komans  and  the 
Franks,  indicted  a  crushing  defeat  on  the  vast 
army  of  the  Huns  under  .\ttila  (i|.v.).  Theoileric 
was  killed,  but  the  result  of  tlie  battle  was  the 
dissolution  of  the  Hunnish  empire,  and  the  salva- 
tion of  European  civilisation  from  the  deluge  of 
barbarism  which  had  threatened  to  overwhelm  it. 

In  the  reign  of  .\laric  II.,  the  .sucees.sor  of  Euric, 
the  kingdom  of  Toulouse  came  to  an  end.  The 
Frankish  king  Clovis  ( Chlod.ivech,  UlrMlawili), 
whose  recent  conversion  to  Catholic  Christianity 
enabled  him  to  give  to  a  war  of  niiiirovoked  aggres- 
sion the  specious  aspect  of  a  crusade  against  the 
heretics,  invaded  the  Visigoth  territ<Mies  in  .507.  The 
battle  fought  on  the  '  lieM  of  Voclad,"  near  Poitiers, 
decided  the  sovereignty  of  (iaul.  .Marie  was  killed, 
and  the  Visigoths  abandoned  to  the  conqueror  all 
their  territories  north  of  the  Pyrenees,  retaining  of 
their  (iaulish  pos.se.ssions  only  a  small  striii  of 
country  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Lyons.  The 
subsequent  history  of  the  Visigoths  must  be 
reserved  until  we  have  related  the  history  of  their 
Ostrogothic  kinsmen. 

After  their  subjugation  by  the  Huns  in  the  later 
]>art  of  the  4th  eentuiy,  the  Ostrogoths,  tleiiid.-e, 
and  the  smaller  'dotliic'  peoples  appear  to  have 
adopted  the  nomad  life  of  their  conc|uerois,  and 
they  formed  part  of  the  va-st  horde  which  followed 
Attila  into  (Jaul.  On  the  collapse  of  the  Hunnish 
dominiim  these  nations  regaineil  their  in<lependence. 
The  Ostrogoths  settled  lii-st  in  the  neighbourluHjil 
of  Vienna,  under  their  king  Walamer,  a  member 
of  the  .-^maling  f.aniily,  who  tr.iced  their  descent 
through  Ermanaric  and  Ostrogotha  to  a  legendary 
hero  naiiieil  Ainala.  Imineiliately  after  their 
emancipation  the  Ostrogoths  are  found  occu|)ying 
the  position  of  mercenaries  of  the  Ea.stem  Empire. 
In   462   the   friendly   relations   between   AValamer 


and  the  eni])eror,  which  had  been  for  a  time  re- 
lin<|iiished,  were  reneweil,  and  Walainer's  nephew, 
Theoderic,  the  son  of  Theodenier,  a  boy  eight  years 
(dd,  wius  sent  as  a  hostage  to  Constantinople,  where 
he  remained  ten  years,  receivin;;  the  eilucation  of  a 
Koman  noble.  Shortly  after  his  relinn  the  Ostro- 
goths, juessed  by  famine,  abandoned  their  homes, 
and  iMigrateil  in  a  body  towanls  the  .south  east. 
Their  inroails  in  -Miesia  and  Thrace  caused  great 
alarm  at  Constantinople,  ami  the  emperor  was 
constrained  to  purcluise  peace  by  granting  them 
peniiission  to  si'ttle  in  -Macedonia,  and  by  bestow- 
ing on  them  large  gifts  cif  land  and  inonev. 

Ill  474  the  young  Theoderic  became  king  of  the 
Ostrogoths.  After  finirteeii  years  spent  in  petty 
warfare,  sonietimes  lus  the  ally  and  .sometimes  as 
the  enemy  of  the  Hoinans,  he  obtained  from  the 
Emperor  /eno  permission  to  wrest  the  dominion  of 
Italy  from  the  nsnriier  Odovacar  (Odoacer,  i|.v.). 
Like  most  of  the  military  expe<litions  of  the  (ioths, 
the  invasion  of  Italy  was  the  emigration  of  an 
entire  people;  aii<l  the  number  of  persons  who 
accomiianied  the  march  of  Theoderic  wiis  pi(d).ably 
not  less  tli.an  a  quarter  of  a  million.  After  a  war 
of  five  years  the  work  of  comiuest  was  comiileted 
by  the  capture  of  Havenna  ami  the  submis.si(in  of 
(idovacar,  who,  it  is  said,  was  soon  afterwards 
bnitally  ami  treacherously  murdered  by  Theoderic  s 
own  hand. 

Notwithstanding  this  evil  beginning,  the  thirty- 
three  years'  reign  of  Theoderic  in  Italy  w.as  one  of 
singular  humanity  ami  wischnn,  and  secured  for  the 
country  a  degree  of  tranquillity  .and  ]irosperity  such 
a-s  it  liJid  not  enjoyed  for  centuries.  The  historian 
Procopius,  though  a  Ityzantine  courtier,  pronounces 
him  not  inferior  to  the  best  and  wisest  of  Kornaii 
emperors.  The  [jartisans  of  Odovacar  received  a 
general  amnesty  :  the  necessary  provision  of  lands 
for  the  (loths  was  carefully  carried  (Uit  so  ;i.s  to 
press  as  lightly  as  possible  on  the  native  popula- 
tion ;  the  fiscal  ami  judicial  systems  were  re- 
oiganise<l,  and  all  acts  of  extortiim  or  injustice  on 
the  part  of  ollicials  were  sternly  rejircsseil.  The 
Ootlis  anil  the  Pom.ans  continued  to  be  distinct 
nations,  each  judged  by  its  own  tribunals  ami  by 
its  own  laws,  liiiiite<l  and  supplemented  by  a  new- 
code  containing  a  few  iirovisicuis  which  were  maile 
biniling  on  all  the  subjects  of  the  kingdom.  The 
Catholics  were  granted  entire  ei|uality  with  the 
adherents  iif  the  king's  own  faith  ;  the  Jews,  in  all 
other  Christian  lands  the  victims  of  oppie.s.siiui,  en- 
joyed nn<ler  Theoderic  full  liberty  of  worship,  an<l 
juoteetioii  from  all  encroachment  on  their  civil 
rights.  It  is  impossible  to  reail  the  oliicial  letters 
written  in  Theoderics  name  by  his  Koman  secre- 
tary, Ciussiodorus,  without  the  deepest  aitiniration 
for  the  kings  unwe.iried  eneigy  and  enlightened 
zeal  for  the  welfare  of  his  subjects.  It  is  true  that 
in  the  la-st  three  years  of  his  life,  when  he  w;is 
worn  by  age  and  hara.s.sed  by  suspicions  of  wirle- 
spread  trea.son,  his  fame  was  t.arnished  by  the 
judicial  inurdei's  of  Hoethins  and  Symmachus.  and 
by  acts  of  o]ipre.ssion  directed  ag.ainst  the  Catholic 
Church.  Hut  there  have  been  few  pos,se.ssors  of 
absolute  power  who,  on  the  whole,  have  used  it  so 
nobly. 

Theoderic  died  in  526,  and  his  daughter  Aniala- 
swintlui  was  apjiointed  regent  on  behalf  of  her  son 
.-\tlialarie,  then  ten  years  old.  When  .^thalaric 
ilied  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  .Vmalaswintha  asso- 
ciateil  with  herself  in  the  kingdom  her  father's 
nephew,  the  b.-vse  and  cowardly  Theodahad,  by 
whose  orders  she  was  .soon  afterwards  murdered. 
Theoderic  li.ad  not  long  been  dead  before  the  dis- 
orilered  state  of  the  kingdom  testified  to  the  in- 
capacit.y  of  his  successors ;  and  the  Ostrogothic 
power  was  threatened  by  a  new  danger  in  the  am- 
bition of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  who,  not  content 


GOTHS 


323 


witli  the  formal  aiknowleilj^eiueiit  of  sui)reiiiacy 
wliioli  hail  satislieil  his  [ireilecessors,  was  resolved  to 
make  Italy  an  inte^^'rul  part  of  his  own  Joiiiinions. 
In  536  the  ^jreat  <;eneral  Belisarius  was  sent  for  the 
purpose  of  conoueriiii,'  the  country.  The  Goths 
'lejKjsed  Theoilaiiatl,  and  elected  to  the  throne  a 
distin^;uished  sohlier  named  Witigis,  who,  on  Ids 
elevation,  married  Amalaswintha's  daughter  llata- 
^wintha.  After  four  years  Belisarius,  though 
enormously  overmatched  in  numbers,  had  subdued 
all  but  the  extreme  north  of  Italy,  and  held 
Witigis  and  his  ijueen  |)risoners,  when  he  was 
lecalled  by  Justinian's  jealousy  to  Constantinople. 

Soon  after  his  return  the  op|)ression  of  the 
imperial  representatives  in  Italy  not  only  jnovoked 
into  revolt  the  Goths  who  hail  submitted  to 
Koman  rule,  but  e.vcited  mutiny  among  the 
Roman  soldiers,  who  deserted  to  the  enemy  in 
great  numbers.  In  a  few  months  the  new  king  of 
the(Joths,  Hildiliad,  who  had  jireviously  maintained 
a  precarious  footing  in  the  north,  found  himself  at 
the  head  of  a  powerful  army.  His  career,  however, 
was  cut  short  by  assassination  ;  and  after  a  short 
interregimm  the  Goths  conferred  the  crown  on  his 
nephew  Totila,  otherwise  named  IJadwila.  After 
a  sti'Ui'gle  of  a  few  years,  in  which  Totila  displayed 
not  oiily  brilliant  military  talent,  but  a  chivalrous 
generosity  and  humanity  which  e.xtorteil  the  ad- 
miration of  his  enemies,  the  imperial  cause  in  Italy 
was  felt  to  be  desperate,  and  in  544  Belisarius  was 
again  .sent  to  take  the  command  of  the  army.  But 
owing  to  the  insuljonlination  of  his  officers,  and  to 
other  causes,  he  had  little  success,  and  after  Kve 
years  was  recalled  at  his  own  request.  The  enter- 
prise in  which  Belisarius  had  failed  was  accom- 
[)lished  by  the  aged  eunuch  Xarses,  who,  in  55'2, 
landed  in  Italy  at  the  head  of  a  colossal  army. 
The  Ostrogoths  suffered  a  crushing  defeat  at 
Taginie  (Tadino),  where  Totila  was  killed.  His 
successor.  Tela,  fell  a  few  months  later  in  the 
l)attle  of  Mons  Lactarius,  near  Vesuvius.  The 
remnant  of  the  defeated  army  was  suffered  liy 
Narses  to  march  unmolested  out  of  Italy  ;  their 
subsequent  fate  is  unknown.  In  the  course  of  the 
next  two  yeai's  the  few  outstanding  Gothic  garri- 
sons surrendered,  and  Italy  became  a  portion  of  the 
Byzantine  empire.  The  nation  of  the  Ostrogoths 
had  ceased  to  exist. 

We  now  return  to  the  history  of  the  A'isigoths. 
The  conquering  progress  of  Clovis,  after  the  battle 
of  Voclad  in  .507.  was  checked  by  the  armed  inter- 
vention of  Theoderic  the  Ostrogoth,  who  compelled 
the  Franks  to  leave  the  Visigoths  in  possession 
not  only  of  their  Sjianish  dominions,  but  also  of  a 
small  tract  of  country  in  Gaul,  including  the  cities 
of  Carcassoime.  Xarbonne,  and  Nimes.  The  former 
Visigothic  territories  in  I'rovcnce  Theoderic  an- 
nexed to  his  own  kingdom,  and  he  assumed  the 
guardianship  of  liis  infant  grandson  .\malaric,  the 
son  of  Alaric  II.  During  Theoderics  life  the  Visi- 
gothic kingdom  was  ailministered  by  him  in  the 
name  of  Amalaric  ;  in  Spain,  however,  his  general 
Tlieudis  practically  reigned  as  a  tributary  king. 
After  Theoderics  death  .\malaric  was  acknow- 
ledged as  sovereign  of  the  Visigoths,  but  his  direct 
rule  was  confined  to  the  Gaulish  dominions, 
Theudis  still  retainin''  the  real  authority  in  Sjiain. 
.\  defeat  bv  the  Franks  having  caused  Amalaric  to 
cross  the  Pyrenees,  he  was  murder(Hl  in  o'.il  by 
order  of  Tlieudis,  who  then  assumed  the  crown, 
and  reigned  till  he  died  by  an  assassin's  hand  in 
.i4S.  The  Visigothic  state  now  became  what  it  had 
been  prior  to  419,  a  jturely  elective  monarchy,  and 
the  choice  of  the  kings  wiis  frequently  attended  by 
civil  war.  Athanagild,  who  was  placed  on  the 
throne  by  a  rebelliwn  in  which  he  was  aided  by  an 
army  from  Justinian,  reigned  prosperously  for 
fourteen  years  (5.54-.J67)  ;  but  his  Byzantine  allies 


(the  'Greeks,' as  they  were  called)  seized  several 
of  the  Spanish  cities,  and  were  not  completely  dis- 
lodged until  about  G2.'j. 

The  brilliant  reign  of  Leovigild,  who  made 
Toledo  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  was  marked 
by  the  subjugation  of  the  Suevic  kingdom  in  north- 
western Spain  and  I'ortugal.  In  572  Leovigild 
a-ssociated  with  himself  in  the  kingdom  his  two 
sons,  Ermenegild  and  Keccared.  'I'he  foimer,  a 
convert  to  (.'atholiclsni,  rebelled  against  his  father, 
but  after  two  years  was  conquered,  and  afterwards 
jiut  to  death.  It  is  said  that  he  wai  offered  his 
life  and  restoration  to  his  royal  dignity  if  he  would 
return  to  the  Arian  faith.  By  the  Catholic  Church 
he  was  leverenced  as  a  martyr,  and  was  formally 
canonised  by  Pope  Sixtus  V. 

On  the  death  of  Leovigild  his  son  Reccared, 
already  a  crowned  king,  succeeded  without  the 
formality  of  election.  One  of  his  first  acts  was  to 
announce  his  determination  to  adofit  and  to  estab- 
lish the  Catholic  religion.  The  (.ioths,  who  were 
evidently  weary  of  their  jiosition  of  ecclesiastical 
isolation,  and  had  lost  interest  in  their  hereditary 
creed,  accepted  the  change  with  surprising  readi- 
ness. Revolts  took  jdace  in  Gaul  and  in  the 
former  Suevic  kingdom,  but  these  were  soon  sup- 
pressed ;  and  the  Arian  clergy  and  laity  were  in 
overwhelming  numbers  admitted  into  the  Catliolic 
Church. 

The  conversion  of  the  Visigoths  was  a  political 
necessity.  The  secure  establishment  of  their 
dominion  was  impossilde  so  long  as  they  were 
divided  from  the  subject  people  by  religious  differ- 
ences, and  had  against  them  the  iiowerful  organ- 
isation of  the  Siianish  Church.  This  formidable 
adversary  was  now  converted  into  an  ally  ;  but 
uniiappily  the  weakness  of  the  monarchy  enabled 
the  church  to  exact  ruinously  great  concessions 
as  the  price  of  its  support.  In  the  course  of 
the  7th  century  the  Visigothic  state  became 
giadually  more  and  more  subservient  to  the 
church.  The  kings  were  elected  by  an  assembly 
of  bishops  and  court  officials,  the  former  often 
being  in  a  large  majority.  The  three  sovereigns 
who  succeeded  for  a  time  in  vindicating  their 
independence — Swinthila  (620-631),  Kindaswinth 
(641-649),  anil  Waiuba  ( 672-680 )— were  eventually 
either  dejiosed  or  induced  to  abdicate  ;  and  in  the 
next  reign  the  ground  lost  by  the  church  was 
always  more  than  regained.  It  is  hardly  too  much 
to  say  that  under  the  more  ecclesiastically-minded 
kings  the  countrv  \\as  governed  mainly  in  the 
interests  of  the  clerical  order ;  and  on  the  whole 
the  influence  of  the  priesthood  was  so  e.xercised  as 
to  foster,  instead  of  to  check,  the  many  causes  of 
decay  and  disorganisation  which  brought  about  the 
ruin  of  the  kingdom.  The  efforts  of  Witica  (701- 
710)  to  carry  out  extensive  reforms  in  church  and 
state  were  indeed  secondetl  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Toledo,  but  were  virulently  oi)posed  by  the  "teat 
body  of  the  clergy.  Of  his  successor,  Roderic, 
'  the  last  of  the  Goths,'  legend  has  a  ''real  deal  to 
Siiy,  but  history  knows  oidy  that  his  defeat  on  the 
banks  of  the  (Juadalete  (August  711)  placed  the 
dominion  of  Spain  in  the  hands  of  the  Moorish 
invadei-s.  Under  the  pressure  of  the  Moslem  yoke 
the  Christians  of  the  Peninsula  became  united  into 
one  nation,  and  the  Goths  cea.sed  to  exist  as  a 
separate  peoide :  but  the  Spanish  nobility  have 
always  laid  claim  to  Gothic  descent. 

The  last  portion  of  the  Gothic  race  to  disappear 
as  a  distinct  community  was  that  branch  of  the 
Ostrogoths  (known  in  the  6th  century  as  7V<r(/,i/- 
tir)  who  inliabited  the  Crimea  from  the  time  of 
Ermanaric.  In  the  reign  of  Justinian  these  CJoths 
received  a  Catholic  bishop  from  Constantinople, 
and  in  the  official  language  of  the  Eastern  Church 
'(iothia"  continued  to  be  the  name  of  the  Crimea 


324 


GOTHS 


OOTTINGEN 


down  to  the  18lh  centuiy.  In  I5(i2  the  fiinious 
traveller  Husbecq  met  at  ConstHntinople  with  two 
Crimean  eiivojs,  ami  wrote  down  a  Ion;;  ILit  of 
words  of  their  lan;;nai;e,  whieli  he  reco;;nised  as 
having;  an  alhnitv  willi  liis  native  Flemish.  The 
words  are  for  the  most  jiart  uni|nestioiialiIy  tlothie. 
It  is  |ios.silik'  that  in  the  Crimea  the  Cotliie  sjieeeli 
may  have  snrvived  to  a  miu'h  later  time;  in  IT.")!) 
the  Jesuit  Mondoif  learned  from  a  native  of  that 
re^^ion,  whom  he  hail  ransomed  from  the  Turkish 
galleys,  that  his  countrymen  spoke  a  lan;,'na;,'e 
navin-;  some  resemlilanre  to  ( Jerman. 

The  Gothic  lan;;uage  is  now  classed  hy  phil- 
olo;;ists  as  lielon;;in;;,  to^^ether  with  the  Scandi 
navian  dialect,  to  the  '  Kiust  tJermaiuc'  ^rroup,  so 
called  in  contra<listinclion  to  the  'West  Cermaidc,' 
which  incluiles  (lid  En^;lish  atnl  Low  and  Hi;;li 
Cierman.  In  some  of  its  features  the  East  (ler- 
manic  form  of  Teutonic  speech  is  more  prinutive 
than  the  other  branch  — e.;;.  in  the  preservation  of 
the  inllexional  final  -c  (liecomin;.'  in  (iotliic  v  and  in 
Old  Noi-se  )■),  which  in  West  tiermanic  i.s  lost.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  are  certain  features  (such  a-s 
the  substitution  of  lujfitr-,  ■iii</ir-,  fcir  the  ori;;inal 
■aiiir-,  -iiiir)  in  which  the  eivstern  lirancli  shows  a 
later  sta;;e  of  development.  As  the  IJible  trans- 
lateil  by  Wullila  is  several  centuries  ohler  than 
the  earliest  written  renniins  of  any  other  Teutonic 
lanj^'ua^je,  the  value  of  Cothic  in  the  study  of 
Teutonic  philolo;,'y  is  very  ;.'rcat,  althou;;!!  the 
mistaken  notion  that  it  represents  substantially 
the  ancestral  form  of  the  Teutonic  lanxua;;es  as  a 
whole  led  the  scliolai-x  of  an  earlier  ^-eneration  into 
many  errors  which  are  still  often  repeated  in 
ponular  handbooks.  The  Gothic  written  character, 
believed  to  be  the  invention  of  Wullila,  is  substan- 
tially an  ado])tion  of  the  ordinary  Creek  alphabet 
of  tlie  4tli  century,  some  letters,  however,  being 
taken  from  the  Latin,  and  others  from  the  Kunic 
alphabet  used  by  the  Coths  before  their  conversion. 
The  most  scientilic  grammar  of  the  language  is 
that  of  W.  Braune  ( Eng.  trans.  1883);  Douses 
Iiitrot/ii'tii/ii  to  till-  (lothii:  of  Vlphilas  (1886)  is 
also  valuable.  The  most  complete  dictionarv  is 
still  that  of  Schulze  (Magdeburg,  1848),  which 
gives  full  references  to  the  piussages  in  which  the 
words  occur,  and  also  the  Creek  worils  which 
they  render  in  Wullila's  translation.  It  should, 
however,  be  checked  by  compariscm  with  later 
works — e.g.  with  Schnlzes  abridgment  of  1867, 
or  the  conci.se  dictionaries  of  Heyne  and  Bern- 
hardt. A  useful  vocabulary,  with  an  outline  of 
the  grammar,  has  been  published  liv  l'rofes.sor 
Skeat(18G8). 

The  scanty  written  remains  of  the  Gothic  lan- 
guage are  scarcely  entitled  to  the  name  of  litera- 
ture. Wullila's  translation  of  the  Bible,  however, 
is  a  work  of  extraordinary  ability,  and  from  its 
early  date  and  its  extreme  faithfulness  is  of  .some 
value  for  the  textual  criticism  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  extant  portions  comprise  the  greater 
part  of  the  four  gospels,  parts  of  .St  I'aul's  epistles, 
and  some  vei'ses  of  Ezra  and  Xehemiah.  The 
remaining  Gothic  writings  are  a  portion  of  a  com- 
mentary on  the  gospel  of  St  .lohn,  two  title-deeds 
referring  to  property  at  Kavenna  and  at  Arezzo. 
and  a  fragment  of  a  Gothic  calendar.  All  the 
existing  Gothic  MSS.  seem  to  have  been  writt*'n  in 
Italy  in  the  lirst  half  of  the  (3tli  century.  The 
most  important  of  tlie.se,  the  beautiful  Coder 
Arijeiitdi':  of  the  gospels,  was  discovered  in  the 
IGtli  century  in  the  niona-stery  of  Werden  in 
Westphalia,  and  is  now  at  I'psala.  Of  (Jotliic 
inscri|itions  in  the  Kunic  character  only  three  are 
known,  all  probably  belonging  to  the  4tli  century  : 
two  of  them  are  merely  men's  names  (Tilarids, 
Ranya)  scratched  on  spear-heads,  and  the  third 
consists  of  the  words  Giitani  uiri  (or  ukiri)  hfiilni/. 


'  the  holy  ...  of  the  IJoths,'  on  a  gold  necklet 
founil  in  18:18  at  Petrossa  in  Wallachia.  See  Henry 
Bradley,  T/ic  Hoths,  to  thr  ctiil  of  tlir  Dominion  in 
^jHiin  ( •  IStoiy  of  the  Nations '  .series,  1888). 

<iiiittfr«l:iiiiiii«-riiiiK>    See  BAci.N.MtoK. 
Ciuttrri«Ml  von  StrasbiirK,  »■  famous  medi 

eval  (ierman  poet,  who  llourislied  about  the  close 
of  the  l'2tli  and  the  beginning  of  the  l.'itli  century, 
contemporary  with  Hartiminn  von  Aue,  «hom 
he  celebrates  ils  the  lirst  of  German  narratms. 
Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  to  the  prologue  of  w  ho.se 
I'luzinil  he  alluiles,  and  Walter  von  der  \'ogcl 
weide.  Gottfrieil's  poem,  Tiislau  iinti  f.in/i/r. 
extends  to  lO.fi.Vi  short  rhymed  lines,  but  was  left 
unlinished,  and  emls  abruptly.  It  wjus  conipletcil 
about  I'ilO,  and  lie  himselt  dieil  between  that  ycai 
and  1220.  The  story  itself  is  of  course  of  Celtic 
origin  ;  and  there  is  hardly  anolhcr  theme  thai  ha~ 
laid  sncli  a  potent  spell  ujion  the  imaginatir>ii  of 
poets  in  every  age.  Gottfried's  immediate  source 
was  a  poem  of  the  Kicncli  trouvcre  Thomas,  ol 
which  only  fragments  now  exist  ;  but  in  his  hands 
the  theme  has  been  treated  with  a  new  poetic 
vigour  and  mastery  at  once  of  pathos  and  of 
pa.ssion.  Gottfried's  works,  with  later  continua 
tions  of  7'm/«»  by  I'lrich  von  Tiirheim  and  Ilcin 
rich  von  Freiberg,  were  pnblishcil  by  Fr.  Ileinrich 
von  .ler  Hagcn  ( 182."!).  The  lii'st  edition  is  that  of 
liechstcin  (2d  ed.  187;)).  -Modern  (ierman  trans 
lations  have  been  jj;iven  bv  Kurtz  (1844),  Simrock 
( 1885),  an. I  Willi.  Hertz  ( 1877).  Wagner  has  made 
use  of  Tristan  for  Ills  opera  I'riatnn  iinJ  Isolde. 
See  works  by  Franek  (1865)  and  Goltlier  (1887). 
Ciottheir.     See  BlTZiL-.s. 

l!oHillK«'ll  (  loth  century  (lii/iniri),  a  town  in 
the  former  kingdom  of  Hanover,  lies  538  feet  above 
sea-level  in  the  Leine's  wide  valley,  encircled  by 
gentle  hills— the  highest,  the  Hainberg  (  1240  feet ). 
By  rail  it  is  67  miles  S.  of  Hanover,  and  lid  NK. 
of  Cassel.  The  ramparts,  long  since  outgrown,  and 
now  i)lanted  with  lindens,  form  a  charming  pro 
nienade ;  but  architecturally  Gottingen  lia.s  noth 
ing  much  to  boast  of — a  ijnaint  mt/i/imis,  a  statue 
of  William  l\'. ,  anil  a  few  antiigue  buildings,  one  of 
which,  the  .lacobikirche,  has  a  steejile  320  feet  high. 
The  celebrated  um\ ers\l\  {(non/iti  Aii</i(x/(i)  wa- 
founded  1734-37  by  Baron  Miinchliausen,  undci 
the  auspices  of  George  II.,  Elector  of  Hanover 
and  king  of  England,  and  now  has  120  profe.s.sors 
of  various  grades,  and  more  than  IIHK)  students  ol 
philosophv,  theology,  medicine,  and  jurisprudence. 
Connected  with  it  are  the  library  of  .jOO,(M>0  \olumc-. 
anil  oOOO  MSS..  the  art  museum,  the  splendid 
botanic  garden  I  laid  out  by  Haller).  the  observa 
torv,  the  laboratoni',  the  lying-in  hospital,  \c., 
as  also  the  Hoyal  Society  (1750)  which  publishes 
the  well-known  Transactions  and  the  Uollinije, 
Gelehrte  Aiizeigen.  Longfellow,  Motley,  Tickiior, 
Bancroft,  and  several  other  illustrious  Ameri<'aiis 
studied  at  Gottingen,  whose  native  atiiiiiiii  in 
elude  many  of  tJermany  s  most  famous  .sons.  The 
'(Jotlinger  Dichterbnnd '  w;is  a  small  poet  band 
(Voss.  the  two  Stolbergs,  Klopstock,  Biirger,  \c. ) 
who,  in  the  '  Storm  and  Stress  days  of  1770-78  <lid 
much  for  the  revival  of  national  feeling;  by  the 
'  liiittinger  Sieben  '  are  meant  the  seven  profe.s.-ors 
(Albrecht,  Dalilmann,  Ewald,  (Jervinus,  the  two 
tJrimms,  and  Weber)  who  for  their  liberal  tend 
eiicies  were  in  1837  expelled  by  King  Ernest 
Augustus.  The  book-tratie  is  of  more  importance 
than  the  manufactures — woollens,  sugar,  chemicals. 
&c.  Pop.  (1875)  17,057:  (1885)  21,598,  of  whom 
1714  were  Catholics,  and  5.'{6  .lews.  Kaised  to  .i 
town  in  1210,  and  a  cimsiderable  member  of  the 
Hanse  in  the  14tli  century,  (iottingen  sutlereil 
much  iluring  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  when  it  was 
taken  by    Tilly    in    1626,    and    recaptured    by    the 


GOTTSCHALK 


GOUGH 


325 


Swedes  in  1632.     See  works  l>v   Frensdorff  (1878) 
and  Hasselljlatt  (1881). 

Gottschalk,  a  monk  of  Fnlda,  studied  Augns- 
tine's  works  in  the  mona-stery  at  Orbais  in  the 
diocese  of  Soissons,  and  adopted  such  strong  views 
on  Predestination  (q.v. )  that  Kabanus  (q.v. ),  Arcli- 
bisliop  of  Mainz,  had  liiui  condemned  as  a  lieretic 
in  848.  His  own  archbishop,  Hincmar  (q.v.)  of 
Kiieims,  depo.sed  and  imprisoned  him  ;  and  thongli 
•  I'lttschalk  recanted  under  the  lash,  he  died  in 
jirison  868. 

Gottschall,  RvDOLF  von,  poet  and  novelist, 
born  at  Breslau  30th  September  1823,  made  his 
delmt  witli  poems  in  1842.  Successful  plays  were 
I'itt  iind  Fo.v  and  Lambeitinc  von  Miricoitrl.  Die 
Gottin  (1853)  and  Carlo  Zcno  (1854)  were  epic 
poems.  Die  Deutsche  Natioualliteratitr  dcs  lOtcn 
Jdhrhxndcrts  (4  vols.  1855-92)  and  Poctik  (6th  ed. 
1893),  are  his  most  important  books  on  the  history  of 
literature.  His  dramatic  works  (including  Catharine 
Hoirard,  Am)/  Robsart,  and  Arabella  Stuart)  fill  12 
volumes;  his  novels  (including  Withered  Leaves, 
translated  1879)  are  numerous,  as  also  e.s.says 
published  in  Unsere  Zcit  and  other  magazines 
cditeil  by  him  ;  and  he  published  several  recortls  of 
travel  ( Italy,  Paris,  &c. ).    He  was  ennobled  in  1877. 

Gottsrhed,  Joh.^nn  Christoph,  an  important 
lignre  in  the  history  of  German  literature,  was  born 
at  .Jndithenkirch,  near  Kiinigsberg,  in  Prussia, 
February  2,  1700.  At  the  univei-sity  of  Kcinigs- 
berg  he  .studied  pliilosophy,  belles-lettres,  and 
languages.  In  1724  he  removed  to  Leipzig,  where 
in  1730  he  became  professor  of  Philosojihy  and 
Poetry,  and  in  1734  professor  of  Logic  and  Meta- 
physics. He  died  12th  December  1766.  Between 
1729  and  1740  Gottsched  exercised  a  sort  of  .lohn- 
sonian  dictatorship  in  the  world  of  polite  literature 
in  Germany.  At  lirst  he  laid  down,  in  various 
periodicals  which  he  edited,  rales  and  theories  for 
the  composition  of  poetry,  and  sharply  criticised 
the  bombastic  absurdities  of  the  Silesian  school  of 
l)oets.  At  the  same  time  be  laboured,  to  the  best 
of  his  abilities,  to  improve  his  mother-tongue  as 
a  literary  vehicle,  by  aiming  at  greater  polish, 
formal  completeness,  and  elegance.  But  his  chief 
endeavoui-s  were  directed  to  the  reformation  of  the 
(German  drama,  a  work  in  which,  in  co-operation 
with  the  Xeubers,  he  did  indee<l  effect  a  \er\ 
meritorious  alteration,  in  that  he  raised  the  moral 
tone,  the  literary  workmanship,  and  the  ta.ste  of 
the  acting  plays,  banisheil  the  coarse  Imtlboneries 
of  Hanswurst  ('Jack  Puilding)  from  the  boards, 
and  recommended  as  models  the  best  class  of  French 
theatrical  pieces.  But  his  reforming  zeal  carried 
him  too  far,  and  brought  him  on  to  tlie  dangerous 
ground  of  excess.  He  became  pedantic  and  vain  ; 
his  critical  faculty  became  distorted  ;  he  manifested 
a  petty  jealousy  of  all  literary  authority  save  his 
own,  opposing  himself  to  the  Swiss  writers  Bodmer 
and  Breitinger,  and  refusing  to  see  any  merit  in 
Klopstock  and  Lessing.  His  own  model  ilrama. 
The  Di/infi  Cato  ( 1732 ),  notwithstanding  its  immense 
success,  is  sadly  barren  of  poetry  and  dramatic 
action.  He  did,  however,  leave  one  useful  work, 
Nothiger  Vorrath  zttr  Gt'srhivhtv  dcr  ])t:ntsfhen 
dramatisvhen  Dichtkunst  (1757-65),  an  unlinished 
catalo^ie  of  plays  from  1450  to  1760.  See  llanzel, 
Gottsched  und  seine  Zcit  (1848);  and  Bernays, 
Goethe  und  Gottsched,  zu-ci  lliograjihicn  (1880). 

Gotz  von  Berlirliingen.  '  "f  the  Iron  Hand,' 
a  German  knight  of  the  iSth  century,  was  born  at 
Jaxthausen,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1480.  ((iiitz  is  an 
abbreviation  of  Gottfried.)  His  education  was  c(m- 
ilucted  by  his  uncle  Conrad,  with  whom  he  attended 
the  diet  of  Worms  in  1495.  From  1497  onwards  to 
1525  his  restless  spirit,  and  the  general  turbulence 
of  the  time,  involveil  him  in   continual   feuds,  in 


which  he  displayed  a  mixture  of  lawless  daring  and 
chivalrous  magnanimity.  At  the  siege  of  Lands- 
hut  (1.505)  he  lost  his  right  hand,  which  was 
replaced  by  an  artificial  one  of  steel,  cannin"ly 
invente<l  by  himself  ;  it  is  still  shown  at  Jagstfeld. 
Twice  he  was  declared  under  the  ban  of  the  empire 
for  acts  which  were  little  better  than  acts  of  brig- 
andage or  highway  robherj- — in  1512  for  plunder- 
ing a  Vjand  of  Nuremberg  merchants,  and  in  1516 
tor  carrying  ofl'  Count  Philip  of  Waldeck  and 
extorting  a  large  ransom  for  his  liberation.  Having 
joined  Duke  Llrich  of  Wiirtemberg  when  this 
prince  was  attacked  ( 1519)  by  the  Swabian  league. 
Glitz,  after  making  an  heroic  defence  of  Mockmiihl, 
was,  contraiy  to  the  articles  of  his  capitulation, 
taken  prisoner,  and  only  released  at  the  inteices>ion 
of  his  friends,  Geoige  von  Frundslierg  and  Franz 
vim  Sickingen,  on  j)ayment  of  2fXK)  llorins  ransom. 
In  the  Pea-sants'  A\  ar  of  1525  he  took  i)art  with  the 
insurgents  and  was  chosen  leader  of  a  part  of  their 
forces.  This  step  he  a.scribes  to  compulsion  ;  more 
likely  it  was  the  result  of  liis  own  restless  and  tur- 
liulent  sjurit,  and  of  a  desire  for  revenge  on  his  old 
enemies  of  the  Swabian  league.  Although  acquitted 
of  blame  for  his  particiiiation  in  this  atlair  ov  the 
supreme  court  of  the  empire,  he  wa-s  nevertheless 
captured  by  his  enemies  of  the  Swabian  league, 
kept  a  prisoner  at  Augsl>uig  f<u'  a  couple  of  yeare, 
and  at  last  sentenced  to  perpetual  imprisonment 
ill  his  own  castle,  and,  in  case  of  his  breaking 
this  condition,  to  a  tine  of  20,0t)0  Horins.  He  was 
(mly  freed  from  this  irksome  bondage  on  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  league  in  1540.  Two  years  later  he  was 
again  in  action,  fighting  with  the  emjieror  in  Hun- 
gary against  the  Turks,  and  two  years  later  still 
in  France.  He  died  July  23,  1.562,  in  his  castle  at 
Hornberg  on  the  Neckar.  He  wrote  an  account  of 
his  own  life,  published  by  Pistorius  (Xiirn.  1731; 
Bresl.  1813),  which  furnishes  an  excellent  picture 
of  the  social  life  and  manners  of  the  period,  and  on 
which  Goethe  gioumled  his  drama  of  Goct:  von 
Berlichingen,  translated  by  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Gouda  (Dutch  Tcr  Gouu-c),  a  town  of  South 
Holland,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hollaendsche 
Y.ssel,  13  miles  by  rail  XE.  of  Kotteitlam.  The 
church  of  St  John  has  a  .suite  of  magnificent  stained- 
glass  windows  ( 1560-1603)  by  the  brothei-s  Crabeth 
and  a  fine  organ.  Gouda  makes  clay-pipes,  candles, 
cigars,  and  trades  in  Gouda  cheese.     Pop.  20,100. 

Goudilliel.  Cl.\ude,  composei,  born  at  Besan- 
con  in  1505,  taught  music  at  Home,  composed 
masses,  motets,  chansons,  harmonised  Marot's 
psalms,  and  perished  at  Lyons  as  a  Huguenot, 
29th  August  1572  (just  after  St  Bartholomew). 

Goilgll,  HfGH  GOLOH,  Viscoi'.NT,  boin  at 
Woodstown  in  Limeiick  3d  November  1779,  served 
at  the  Cape,  in  the  West  Indies,  and  through  the 
Peninsular  war,  especially  distinguishing  himself  at 
Talavera  and  Vittoria.  In  1837  he  went  to  India 
as  major-general,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
made  commander-in  chief  of  the  foices  sent  against 
China.  After  storming  Cantim  and  forcing  the 
]ii).ssage  of  the  Yang-tsze  Kiang,  he  compelled  the 
Chinese  to  sign  the  treaty  of  Nanking  ( 1842).  In 
1S43  he  defeated  the  Mahrattas  at  Maharajpur, 
and  brought  about  the  peace  of  tJwalior.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  Sikh  war  in  1845  he  woi>teil  the 
enemy  in  the  brilliant  battles  of  Mudki,  Firoz- 
shah,  ami  Sobraon,  for  which  he  wa.s  given  a 
lieerage.  In  1848  the  Sikhs  renewed  the  war,  but 
were  again  defeated  by  Gougli  at  KamnaOTr, 
Chillianwalla,  and  (lujerat,  victories  which  resulted 
in  the  annexation  of  the  Punjab  to  British  Iiulia. 
(Jough  was  in  IS49  created  a  viscount,  and  al>out 
the  same  time  returned  to  England.  He  was  matle 
tield-mai-shal  in  1862,  and  died  near  Dublin,  2J 
-March  1869. 


326 


GOUGH 


GOULD 


Gonght  John  Hartiiolomew,  temperance 
lecturer,  was  born  fit  Sandgate,  Kent,  August 
22,  1S17;  liis  father  was  a  peiisioiier  of  the  IViiin 
sular  war,  liis  mother  a  village  srhooliuistress.  At 
the  age  of  twelve  he  was  sent  to  America,  .iinl 
workeil  on  a  farm  in  Oneida  county,  New  York. 
In  1831  he  went  to  New  York  city,  where  he  found 
employment  in  the  hinding  dep.irtment  of  the 
Methodist  hook  establishment ;  Imt  habits  of  dissi- 
pation lost  him  this  employment,  and  reduced  him 
to  that  of  giving  recitations  and  singing  comic  songs 
at  low  grog-shops.  lie  wjls  married  in  ISSil ;  but 
his  ilninken  habits  reduced  him  to  poverty  and 
delirium  tremens,  and  prob.ably  ciused  the  death 
of  his  wife  and  chiUl.  In  1842  a  benevolent  l^uaki-r 
iniluced  him  to  attend  a  temperance  meeting  and 
take  the  i)ledge  ;  and  soon  afterwards,  resolving  to 
devote  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  the  cause  of 
temperance,  (iough  attended  temjierance  meetings 
and  related  his  experience  with  such  ett'ect  ,as  to 
influence  many  others.  A  few  months  Later  he  had 
a  short  relapse  into  drunkenness ;  Imt  .an  eloi|uent 
confes.sion  restored  him  to  favour,  and  he  lectured 
with  great  pathos,  humour,  .ami  camestnefs  in 
various  ii.arts  of  America.  In  ls."i.')  he  w.as  eng.aged 
by  the  London  Tem]ieriUice  LcagUf,  and  lectured 
for  two  veal's  in  the  I  niteil  Kingdom,  where  he 
attracted  large  crowds  to  his  meetings.  He  wivs 
again  in  England  in  18.')7-60  and  1878.  In  some 
of  his  later  addres.ses  he  took  uji  literary  .and  social 
topics,  and  acquired  a  moder.ate  fortune  bv  his 
lectures.  He  died  at  Krankford,  Pennsylvania, 
P'ebruary  18,  1886.  He  jmblished  an  Aiilohln- 
r/rdjihi)  (1S46);  Oiatiuiis  (18o4);  Toiijicrftmc  Ad- 
dress (1870):  Teiiipcranre  Lectures  (1879);  an<l 
Sindig/it  (aid  Shridon;  or  Gleanings  from  mi)  Life- 
?c(«/.(lS80). 

Goiisll,  KiC'll.VRI),  English  antiquary,  was  born 
in  Lonihin,  21st  October  17."?5.  On  leaving  Henet 
(now  Corpus  Christi)  College,  Cambridge,  in  17r>(i, 
he  beg.an  work  as  a  professed  antiquarian  by  a 
visit  to  Peterborough  and  Crowlaml,  .and  continued 
to  make  similar  excursi<ms  down  to  1771.  Two 
years  l.ater  he  commenced  the  iireparation  of  an 
English  version  of  Camden's  liritiiiinid,  whi<'li  w.as 
issued  in  178!).  I!ut  three  years  previously  he  hail 
published  his  important  .Srptdr/ini/  Monuitictits  nf 
Great  Brituin,  which  was  brought  down  only  to  tlie 
end  of  the  l.>th  century.  Amongst  numerous  minor 
works  from  Coughs  pen  was  a  Ilisliuii  if  the 
Societi/  if  Aiitioiifirirs  if  Luiiduii  ( 1770).  He  died 
at  Eniield,  in  Miildlese-\,  20th  Kebruary  !80!). 

CaOlljOII.  -Ieax,  the  most  skilful  sculjitor  of 
France  during  the  lUtli  century.  The  date  and 
]d.ace  of  his  birth  are  not  known.  The  finest  pro- 
ductions of  his  chi.sel  are  a  tigure  of  '  Di.ana  reclining 
by  a  St.ag,'  now  in  the  Louvre,  a  rem.arkably  vigor- 
ous and  graceful  work  ;  the  reliefs  for  ornament- 
ing the  Kountain  of  the  Innocents,  also  in  the 
Louvre  :  the  sepulchral  nmnument  to  the  Duke  of 
Breze,  in  Houen  Cathedral— if  it  is  by  him — 
executed  some  time  between  1.540  .and  1552  ;  .ami 
several  reliefs  in  the  Louvre,  where  Coujon  winked 
from  l.Vi5  to  1.562,  especially  four  Caryatides.  He 
was  a  Huguenot,  but  seems  to  have  illed  before  the 
IJartliolomcw  ma.ssacre  in  1572. 

fioillhliril.  a  town  of  New  South  AVales,  134 
miles  S\V.  of  Sydney  by  rail,  with  sever.al  tan- 
neries, boot  and  shoe  factories,  Hour-mills,  and 
breweries,  and  a  busy  tr.ade  in  agricultural  pro- 
duce. It  is  a  substantially  built  town,  with  g.as 
(1879)  and  a  good  supply  "of  water.     The  seat  of 

an  Anglican  and  of  .a  H an  Catholic  bislio]i,  it 

contains  a  handsome  Church  of  England  cathedral 
(Gothic,  consecrated  in  1884)  and  a  IJom.an  Catholic 
cathedral.  It  has  .also  a  Catholic  college  and  a 
convent.     Pop.  10,916. 


Goiilkiirii,  Edward  Mevrrick,  U.I).,  son  of 

Edward  lloulburn,  .serjeant-at-law,  was  born  1818. 
He  was  educated  at  Etcui  and  Malliol  Ccdlegi', 
O.\ford,  where  he  gr.ailualed  in  IS."!),  and  in  1841 
was  elected  a  Kellow  of  .Mnlon.  AftiT  bidding  the 
(t.xford  incumbency  of  Holywell,  he  became  head- 
master of  Hugby  ( 1850-58),  in  succession  to  DrTait. 
He  next  becanie  prebendary  of  St  Paul's  (1858); 
chaplain  to  the  t/ueen,  and  vicar  of  .St  ,John's, 
Paddington  (18.59);  and  Dean  of  Norwich  ( ISlili), 
which  ollice  hi'  resigneil  in  I8S!I.  In  1872  he  led 
the  opposition  to  Dean  .Stanley's  proposal  to  make 
subscription  to  the  .\tlianasian  Creed  permissive  in 
the  Cii.sc  of  ordination.  Among  his  publications  are 
Tlie  Philusojdiii  if  Grinnmar  (1852),  T/iniiei/its  on 
Persoiiid  lic/iyion  ( 1862),  and  T/ie  Office  of  the  llohj 
Communion  (1863).  He  died  3il  May  18117.  See 
Life  by  lierdmore  Compton  (18!)!l). 

Gould.     !>ee  Uarini;  (!oi"LD. 

Gould,  liKN.iAMiN  ApTHoRP,  astronomer,  was 
born  in  ISoston,  Massachusetts,  27lh  September 
1824,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1844,  and  received  the 
degree  of  Ph.D.  at  (lottingen  in  1848.  He  con 
ducted  the  Astronomieid  Jniirna/  from  1849  to 
1861,  was  director  of  the  Dudley  Ob.'ier\  atory  at 
Albany  in  18.56-59,  and  in  1866  determined  by  aid 
of  the  subuiarine  cable  the  dill'erence  in  longitude 
between  Europe  and  .•\miTica.  In  charge,  frotii 
1868,  of  the  national  observatmy  at  Cordoba  in  the 
.\rgentine  Itepublic,  he  organised  a  .series  of  stations 
throughout  the  country,  and  ni.appeil  a  large  part 
of  the  .southern  heavens:  his  I  ranometnj  of  thi 
Southern  Hearens  did  for  the  southern  hemisphen- 
what  .'Vrgelander's  At/us  did  for  tin-  iu)rtlierii. 
After  his  return  be  received  the  ilrgrci'  of  LL.  D. 
from  Harvard  (IS85)  and  from  Coluiid)!;!  (1887)- 
He  publisherl  valuable  astronomical  reports  and 
charts,  and  was  a  member  of  numerous  scientific 
societies  in  Europe.  His  death,  27tli  November 
1896,  was  brought  about  by  a  fall  downstsiirs. 

Gould.  .Iav,  American  financier,  w.as  born,  the 
son  of  a  farmer,  at  IJoxbury,  New  York,  27th  May 
1836.  lie  made  a  survey  of  luarts  of  the  state, 
engaged  for  a  short  |icriod  in  lumbering,  and 
accumulated  enough  capital  to  become  in  18,57 
the  principal  shareholder  in  the  bank  of  Stiouds- 
burg,  Pennsylvania.  He  now  liegaii  to  buy  up 
r.ailroad  bonds,  and  in  18.59  established  himself 
as  a  broker  in  New  York  city.  He  was  president 
of  the  Erie  railw.ay  compiuiy  till  1872,  and  after 
wards  invested  largely  in  the  stocks  of  other  rail 
ways  and  telegnijib  companies.  In  18,S2,  a  iiucstion 
of  liis  commercial  stability  having  arisen,  lie  took 
the  elVective  step  of  prodming  stock  certificates 
having  a  f.ace  value  of  ?:53,0(MI,000,  .and  ollered  to 
produce  .*20,(MM),(KK)  more  :  in  IS87  it  was  estimated 
that  he  coiitiolled  over  13,t)0()  miles  of  railway. 
He  dieil  iiiilaiiiented,  2d  December  1892,  worth 
some  .?.50.()00,000. 

Gould,  .loll.N,  ornithologist,  liom  at  Lyme, 
Dorsetshire,  in  1804.  Hemoving  in  early  life  to 
the  neighlKiurhooil  of  Windsor,  where  his  father 
was  foreman  in  the  Roval  Oardens,  his  ruling 
pa-ssion  soon  showed  itself.  He  became  curator  to 
the  Zoological  Soiiety's  Museum  in  1827,  when  the 
friendshiii  of  Mr  N.  A.  \'igors  encouraged  him  in 
the  inoduction  of  the  lii>t  of  the  large  illustr.ated 
folios  the  publication  of  whirli  from  time  to  lime 
establi-bed  his  reputation.  This  was  a  Centiirif  of 
Birds  from  the  Ilimediii/ii  Mountains  (1832),  the 
plates  Iteing  drawn  and  coloured  by  his  wife.  Next 
after  this  foUoweil  Monor/raiih  of  the  I!a/nj)hastidir 
(Toucans)  (1834),  leone's  Arinm  (18.37),  Birds  of 
/:/»■<//«■(  18.32  .37),  iijn\  Monotfrajdi  of  the  Trof/onielo' 
(18.38).  Assist.ance  was  now  granted  him  to  pro- 
ceed to  Australia  in  order  to  study  its  natural 
history  ;  the  results  of  his  investigations  appeared 


GOUNOD 


GOURD 


327 


in  Birdx  of  Australia  (7  vols.  1840-48),  Mam- 
maU  of  Australia  (1845),  and  Fnmihj  nf  Kan- 
gar'j»s  (1841-42).  His  Monograph  of  the  Odon- 
'tophorinm  (American  Fartriflges)  appeared  in 
1844-46,  and  his  Hiimmin/j  Birds  in  1849.  He  took 
immense  pains  with  the  ilhistiations  to  the  latter, 
the  hummingbirds,  of  which  he  had  a  splendid  | 
collection  on  view  at  tlie  Exliibition  of  18.51,  being 
great  favourites  with  him.  (Mould's  other  great 
works,  several  of  whicli  wei-e  left  untinished,  were 
Birds  of  Great  Britain  (1862),  Birds  of  Asia,  and 
Birds  of  New  Guinea,  (iould,  who  was  a  Kellow 
of  tlie  Zoological  Society,  and  contributed  largely 
to  its  Proceedings,  heljied  to  prepare  tlie  dei>art- 
ment  '  Birds  '  in  the  Zoologij  of  tlie  Voi/ar/e  of  the 
Bcnrjlc,  was  a  keen  spoilsman,  an  accurate  ob- 
server, and  a  patient  and  successful  labourer  in 
hi.s  chosen  liela  of  study.  He  died  3d  February 
1881.  See  Westminster  licvicir,  1841,  and  Nature, 
1881  :  and  the  elaborate  Anah/tieal  Index  to  his 
works  by  ft.  Bowdler  Sharpe  (1893). 

Gounod,  Charles  Fr.-vncois,  an  eminent 
French  composer,  was  born  in  Paris,  17th  June 
1818,  and  studied  at  the  Conservatoire  under 
Halevy,  Lesueiir,  and    Paer.     Obtaining    the    first 

fnize  in  1839,  he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  complete 
lis  musical  education,  and  while  there  devoted 
himself  chieHy  to  religious  music.  On  his  return 
to  Paris  he  was  for  a  time  attaclieil  to  the  church 
of  the  Missions  Etrangeres,  where  his  earliest 
compositions  were  performed ;  one  of  them,  a 
Messe  Solennelle,  was  the  first  work  which  brought 
him  into  general  notice.  For  a  time  he  contem- 
plated taking  orders,  and  went  through  part  of  the 
preliminary  novitiate.  His  first  opera,  Sappho,  was 
produced  in  1851  ;  in  1852  he  wrote  choruses  for 
Ponsard's  drama  of  Uh/ssc:  and  in  18.54  appeared  his 
opera  of  La  Nonne  Sanijlantc.  His  comic  ofiera, 
Lc  M'jdeein  Mo/ifre  lui  ( 1858),  was  a  great  success  ; 
it  was  followed  in  1859  liy  Faust,  which  at  once 
attained  European  popularity,  and  raised  its 
composer  to  the  foremost  rank  of  contemporary 
musicians.  Philemon  et  Baueis  followed  in  18ti0  ;  in 
1862,  La  Peine  dc  Saba  (brought  out  afterwards  in 
Englanil  as/cf»e):  in  1S()4,  Mireille  :  in  18ii7,  Romeo 
et  Juliette;  in  1878,  Pohjeurte  :  in  1881,  Le  Trihut 
de  Za.Mora.  He  also  published  much  church 
music,  including  several  masses,  hymns,  and 
motets  or  anthems,  and  was  extensively  popular  as 
a  song-writer.  His  oratorio.  The  Redemption,  pro- 
duced at  the  Birmingham  Festival  in  1882,  and 
deemed  by  the  composer  his  masterpiece,  has 
achieved  great  iiopularity  in  Britain,  though  less 
esteemed  aliioad  ;  its  sequel.  Mors  ct  ]'ita,  written 
for  and  pioduceil  at  the  succeeding  Festival  in  1885, 
has  not  gained  equal  approval.  From  1870  to 
1875  he  resided  in  England,  where  his  works  are 
as  much  admired  as  in  liis  own  country,  his  sacred 
music  [iiobably  even  more.  A  master  of  the 
orchestra,  he  was  the  originator  of  new  and  impres- 
sive combinations.  His  ilraiuatii'al  faculty  is  often 
dominated  by  the  lyric  element  ;  he  exhibits  a 
singular  combination  of  the  mystic  and  the  volup- 
tuous— e.g.  sensuous  melodies  with  solemn  religious 
harmonies.  Faust  is  generally  reganled  as  his  most 
enduring  work.  A  member  of  the  Institute  (186G) 
and  a  Commander  of  the  Legion  of  Hmiour  (1877), 
he  died  18th  October  1893.  See  works  by  Pagiierre 
(1890)  and  Marie  Anne  de  Bovet  (1891). 

Goiira.  a  genus  of  beautifully  crested  ground- 
loving  pigeons,  incluiling  the  largest  and  jierhaps 
finest  members  of  the  family.  They  inhabit  Xew 
Guinea  and  adjacent  islands,  where  they  are  fond 
of  walking  in  pheasant-like  fashion  along  the  forest 
paths.  They  nest  on  trees  and  feed  on  fruits.  The 
first  known  species,  G.  eoronatus,  is  ,a  beautiful 
binl  over  two  feet  in  total  length,  with  the  charac- 


teristic fan-like  crest  on  the  head.  It  is  some- 
times kept  among  poultry,  and  its  flesh  is  much 
esteemed. 

Gourd  ( Citcurbita ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Cucurbitacea>,  nearly  allied  to  the 
cucumber,  having  male  and  female  (lowers  on  the 
.same  plant,  the  Howers  large  and  yellow.  The 
species  are  annual  plants  of  very  rapid  growth,  their 
leaves  and  stems  rough,  their  leaves  broad  and 
lobed,  their  stems  often  very  long  and  trailing ;  they 
are  natives  of  warm  climates,  although  the  native 
region  of  the  kinds  cliielly  cultivated  is  very 
uncertain,  and  they  have  probably  been  greatly 
modified  by  long  cultivation,  so  that  perhaps  all 
of  them  may  be  forms  of  one  original  species,  a 
native  of  .some  of  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia.  The 
Common  Gourd  or  Pumpkin,  Cifrouille  of  the 
French  (C  2"'J"')'  ^vith  smooth  globose  or  pear- 
shaped  fruit,  varying  from  the  size  of  a  large  apide 
to  50  or  100  ill.  in  weight,  is  much  culti- 
vated both  in  gardens  and  fields  in  almost  all 
parts  of  the  worlil  of  which  the  climate  is  warm 
enough  for  it  ;  and  the  fruit  is  not  only  a  very 
important  article  of  human  food,  but  is  also  used 
along  with  the  superabundant  shoots  for  feeding 
cattle.  In  many  countries  immjikins  are  a  princi- 
pal part  of  the  ordinary  food  of  the  poorer  classes, 
and  are  much  used  e\en  by  the  wealthy  ;  they  are 
not  eaten  raw,  but  dressed  in  a  great  \ariety  of 
wavs — as  in  pies,  with  sugar,  spice,  &e.,  or  sliced 
and  fried  with  oil  or  butter,  or  niaile  into  soups, 
&e.  Pumpkins  are  much  cultivated  in  North 
America.  In  England  they  are  also  cultivated, 
but  not  to  a  great  extent,  and  never  as  food  for 
cattle. — The  Vegetable  Marrow  ((_'.  orifera  or  C. 
sueeada)  appears  to  lie  a  mere  variety  of  the 
pumpkin.  It  is  now  more  generally  cultivated  in 
Britain  than  any  other  kind  of  gourd,  being  one  of 
the  most  hardy,  and  its  fruit  of  excellent  quality 
and  useful  for  culinary  inirposes  at  almost  every 
stage  of  its  giowth.  M  hen  full  grown  the  fruit 
is  elliptic,  very  smooth,  generally  about  9  inches 
long  and  4  inches  in  diameter ;  but  there  are 
many  varieties  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the 
fruit  and  by  the  delicacy  of  the  texture  and  flavour 
of  the  flesh. — One  of  the  most  valuable  gourds  for 
culinary  purposes  is  the  Great  Gourd  (C.  maxima). 


The  Great  Gourd  {Cueiirhiin  umxinta): 
Branch  with  flower. 

of  which  the  Spanish  Gourd  is  a  green-fruited 
variety;  and  the  Great  Yellow  (lourd,  the  largest 
of  all,  has  yellow  fruit,  with  firm  flesh  of  a  deep 
yellow  colour.  It  is  sometimes  fully  2IH)  lb.  in 
weight  and  8  feet  in  circumference.  The  form 
of  the  fruit  is  a  somewhat  Hatteneil  globe  ;  when 
boiled  it  is  a  very  pleasant  and  wliolesome  article 
of  food.     It   is  much  cultivated   in    the   south   of 


328 


GOUROCK 


GOUT 


Europe.  Tlie  Krencli  cill  it  Potiron,  and  use 
it  laryelv  in  kou])». — The  S(|ua>ili  ( C  iiirlopcpo) 
clitferM  f'loin  all  these  in  j.'eneially  forniin;;  a 
liusli,  instead  of  senilin-;  out  lonj;  trailin;;  shoots  ; 
also  in  the  extremely  lliitteiieil  fruil,  the  outline 
of  whioli  is  ;renerally  iire;,'ular,  and  its  whole 
form  often  so  like  some  kinds  of  caii  that  in 
(Jermany  one  variety  is  commonly  known  as 
the   Eldtur's   llnl,   and   the   name   Turk's   t'tijj  is 


Fruit  of  Cucurbita  muxima. 

bestowed  on  another.  The  S(|ua.sli  is  re^'arded  a.s 
one  of  the  best  ;,'ourds,  and  is  murh  eultivateil  in 
some  parts  of  Kurope  and  in  North  .\merioa. — The 
Warti'd  (nnird  (('.  nrriirnsn ).  wliicli  has  a  very 
hard  skinned  fruit  covered  with  lar;,'e  warts,  and 
the  Musk  l!ourd  ( C.  mosr/iK^o  ),  distin;.'uislied  by 
its  musky  smell,  are  less  hardy  than  the  kinds 
already  named  ;  <as  is  also  the  (lran;;e  (iourd  (C 
Kiinintiii),  sometimes  cultivated  on  account  of 
its  beautiful  oran;.'clike  fruit,  which,  however, 
althou^di  sometimes  idilile  and  wlmlesome.  is  not 
iinfreciuently  vcrv  unlit  for  use,  mi  account  of  colo- 
cynth  developed  in  it.  This  is  ajit  to  be  the  ca.se  in 
some  decree  with  other  ;.'onrils  also,  but  the  bitter 
ta.ste  at  <mce  reveals  the  ilan;,'er.  The  same  remark 
is  ai>plicable  to  the  younj;  shoots  and  leaves,  which, 
when  perfectly  free  from  bitterness,  are  an  excel- 
lent substitute  for  s)iinacli.  In  Scotland  even  the 
most  harily  f,'ourils  are  f.'enerally  reared  on  a 
hotbed  and  planted  out.  In  Kn;;land  it  has  been 
suj»^'ested  that  railway-banks  nii;;ht  be  made  pro- 
iluctive  of  a  ),'reat  rpiantity  of  human  fooil  by 
iilantin;;  them  with  K'^urds.  Itiiic  ^'ounls  may  be 
kept  f<ira  louf,-  time  in  a  cool  well  ventilated  place, 
nor  are  they  injured  by  cuttint;  oil'  portions  for  use 
as  reipiired.  The  name  fjonr J  is  often  extended  to 
many  other  Cucurbitacea".  See  ('ICVRIJITACE.«, 
Ci'ci-MitKi:,  iVc.  ;  also  Uottle-gdiiu). 

Cioiirock.  a  watering,' idace  of  Kenfrewshire, 
on  the  Firth  of  t'lyde,  :!  miles  WN'W.  of  (Jreenock 
by  a  railway  opened  in  lss!»,  since  which  time  it 
has  become  the  startin;.'-point  of  several  lines  of 
steamers.  At  Kemiioch  Point  here,  behind  which 
ri.ses  liarrhill  (-ITS  feet),  stands  '(Iranny  Kem- 
poch,'  a  prehistoric  monolith  associateil  with  the 
witches  of  Kenfrewshire  (Kiti^i.  In  ItiHS  tlie  first 
red  herrinr' ever  cured  in  (ireat  liritain  was  cured 
at  Conrock.  Pop.  ( 1841  )  2169 ;  ( 1891  )  4471.  See 
U.  Macrae's  Kolc.i  ahoiit  Gnurovl  ( 1880). 

Ooilt  ( Kr.  (]iiiit(c,  from  Lat.  ijutta,  'a  drop),  a 
medieval  term  of  uncertain  date,  derived  from  the 
humoral  ])atholo;.'y  (see  HuEU.M.vriSM ),  indicatiu}; 
a  well-known  fmiu  of  disea.se,  which  occurs  for  the 
most  ]iart  in  persons  of  more  or  less  luxurious 
habits,  and  pa.st  the  middle  period  of  life.  In  its 
most  common  ami  easily  recognised  form,  it  mani- 
fests it.self  by  an  acute  inllammation  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  one  of  the  joints,  usually  the  balTof 
the  great  toe;  and  to  such  attacks  only  the  name 
was  once  applied.     Hut  its  use  is  now  extended  by 


nmst  writers  to  include  all  injurious  ellects  in  any 
part  of  the  b<Hly  proiluced  by  the  same  condition  of 
the  system  which  leads  to  the  inllamuuilion  of  the 
joints.  The  name  podagra  ((Ir.  jukI-,  'foot,'  and 
iiifm,  'seizure')  imlicates  the  leading  char.icter  of 
llie  disca.se  as  ap]ireliendeil  by  all  antiiiuily  ;  and 
the  very  numemus  references  to  the  ili-order  so 
called,  not  only  in  the  meilical  writings  of  Hippo- 
i-rates,  (Jalen.  .\reta-n>,  Cadius,  Aurelianus.  ami 
the  later  (!reek  physicians,  but  in  such  purely 
literarv  works  as  those  of  l.ucian,  Seneca,  Ovid, 
and  Pliny,  show  not  (mly  the  fre<iuency,  but  the 
notoriety  tif  the  disea.se.  The  allusions,  imb'ed, 
are  of  a  kiml  which  give  ample  proof  that  the 
es.sential  characters  of  gout  have  not  been  cliiiiiged 
in  the  lap.st-  of  centuries.  it  is  caricatuied  liy 
Lucian  in  his  burlcsijue  of  'J'riiiiii/iiii/tiiirii  in  lan- 
guage fUlite  applicable  to  the  disease  as  now  ob. 
serveil  :  while  the  comu'ction  of  it  with  the  advance 
of  luxury  in  linme  is  recogni.sed  by  Seneca  (F.pist. 
il.")!  in  the  renuu k  that  in  his  day  even  the  women 
li.'td  become  gouty,  thus  setting  at  naught  the 
iuithority  of  physicians,  which  hail  asserted  the 
little  liability  of  women  to  gout.  I'liny  likewise 
(book  .x.xvi.  ihap.  10)  leniarksnpon  the  increitse  of 
gout,  even  within  his  own  time,  not  to  go  back  to 
that  of  his  father  and  grandfather;  he  is  of 
opinion,  further,  that  the  disease  must  have  been 
imported,  for  if  it  had  been  native  in  Italy  it 
would  surely  have  had  a  I. alio  name.  Ovid  and 
l.uiian  reproiMit  gout  as  mostly  incurable  by  medi- 
cine: from  this  view  of  it  I'liny  dis-ent>.  The 
list  of  i|uack  remedies  given  by  Luciau  is  (me  of 
the  most  curious  relics  of  antiijnity. 

(iciuinl  Cuiisis  of  Gout,  —  In  more  than  half  the 
eases  gout  can  be  traced  to  inheritance.  There  is 
in  fact  no  disease  in  which  hereditary  transmi-ssicm 
is  more  clearly  established  :  in  some  families  its 
recurrence  is  not<u'ious.  Professor  (autaiii  of 
Naples  even  states  that  in  his  country  'the  hereili- 
tary  tenilency  has  been  handeil  down  from  the 
period  of  the  (Jreek  colonisation  and  the  Itonian 
I'mjiire.'  Yet  even  in  those  strongly  predisposed  to 
it  Its  actual  occurrence  may  be  avoidcil  by  strict 
regulation  of  the  diet  and  habits.  For,  if  it  is 
certain  that  it  may  be  inherited,  it  is  no  less 
certain  that  it  may  be  aci|uired,  tlnuigli  ]ierlia|>s 
not,  at  all  events  not  readily,  by  every  one  ;  and 
that  the  most  important  of  the  causes  which  le.-id 
to  it  are  errors  in  iliet.  Of  these  )>opuhir  opinion 
has  seizeil  upon  excessive  consumption  of  .'ilcidiid 
alone;  and  tliere  is  no  doubt  that  .ilcohol,  especi- 
ally in  the  fmni  of  strcuig  wine  or  lieer,  ha-s  a 
powerful  ell'ecl.  lint  comidete  abstinence  fnmi 
alcohol  will  not  jirotect  tlio.se  juedisposed  to  it  fnmi 
the  development  of  gout,  unless  tiiey  are  careful 
with  regard  to  food  its  well  ;  overeating,  es]ie<-iallv 
excessive  indulgence  in  animal  food  and  in  riidi 
and  highly  seasoned  dishes,  is  no  less  certain  to  be 
prejudicial.  Too  little  exercise,  es|iecially  when 
associateil  with  too  much  fi«iil  <pr  drink,  is  also 
hurtful.  Chronic  lead-jioisoning  is  freiiuently  a,s.so- 
ciateil  with  the  development  of  gout,  though  the 
reason  of  this  is  not  yet  understooil.  tJout  is  much 
more  common  in  the  male  than  in  the  female  sex. 
It  is  .s.'iid  to  be  most  common  at  the  present  day 
in  England,  e.speciallv  in  Loiirlmi,  and  in  s<uitliern 
Italy. 

Essential  Katuie  iif  Gout. — It  lia.s  long  been 
known  that  the  tojihi  or  vhalkstoncs  depf>sit«d 
under  the  skin  in  most  well-marked  and  .severe 
ca.ses  of  gout  ccmsist  largely  of  urate  of  soda ;  and 
that  I'ric  Acid  (ipv.)  and  its  salts  are  often 
excreted  in  large  amount  in  the  urine  of  gouty 
|iersons.  liut  it  wits  first  shown  by  l)r  (now  Sir) 
A.  (Jarrod  that  this  substance  is  always  present  in 
considerable  quantity  in  the  blood  in  ckses  of  gout ; 
in  chronic  gout  at  all  times,  and  in  acute  gout  for 


GOUT 


329 


some  time  before  the  occurrence  of  an  attack.  It 
is  now  a^'reed  by  all  that  the  presence  of  this  sub- 
stance in  excess  in  tlie  system  is  an  important 
factor  in  the  production  of  <j;out ;  but  authorities 
ilitt'er  as  to  how  its  presence  is  to  be  explained. 
There  are  two  main  theories  on  tlie  subject  whicli 
it  nmst  suttice  to  menti(m  :  ( 1 )  that  the  processes 
of  disintegration  ^.'oing  on  in  the  body,  particularly 
in  tlie  liver,  lead  to  its  formation  in  excessive 
amount;  (2)  that  tliere  is  not  excessive  formation, 
but  defective  elimin.'ition  of  it  by  the  kidneys. 
There  is,  however,  a  third  theory  with  regard  to  the 
origin  of  gout,  which  attiibutes  its  occurrence  to 
a  perverted  condition  of  tlie  nervous  system,  and 
regards  the  presence  in  excessive  amount  of  ur.ate 
of  soda  in  the  blooil  as  a  subordinate  though  still 
important  feature  of  the  disease. 

Si/iiijjtoiH-1  of  Ariitc  '  retfiilKr'  Gout. — Sydenham's 
treatise  on  gout,  written  idO  years  ago,  is  interest- 
ing not  only  as  containing  the  well-considered 
views  of  a  master  in  the  medical  art,  but  also  as 
the  faithful  description  of  the  disease  by  one  of  the 
victims  of  it.  His  account  of  the  paroxysm  of 
regular  gout  may  be  given  here  with  some  abbrevi- 
ation. After  some  weeks  of  previous  indigestion, 
atten<leil  with  flatulent  swelling  and  a  feeling  of 
weight,  rising  to  a  climax  in  spasms  of  the  thighs, 
the  patient  goes  to  bed  free  from  pain,  and  having 
had  rather  an  unnaturally  strong  appetite  the  day 
before.  In  the  middle  of  the  night  lie  is  awakened 
by  a  pain  in  the  great  toe,  or  sometimes  in  the  heel, 
the  ankle,  or  the  calf  of  the  leg.  The  pain  re- 
sembles that  of  a  dislocated  l>one,  and  is  accom- 
panied by  a  sense  as  if  \v;iter  not  perfectly  cold 
were  poured  over  the  affected  limb  ;  to  tliis  succeeds 
chilliness,  with  sliivering,  and  a  trace  of  feverish- 
ness,  these  last  symptoms  diminishing  as  the  pain 
increases.  From  hour  to  hour,  until  the  next 
evening,  the  patient  sulfers  every  variety  of  tcnture 
in  every  separate  joint  of  the  affected  limb  ;  the 
]>ain  lieing  of  a  tearing,  or  crushing,  or  gnawing 
character,  the  tenderness  such  that  even  the  weight 
of  the  bedclothes,  or  the  shaking  of  the  room  from 
a  person's  walking  about  in  it,  is  unbearable.  The 
next  night  is  one  of  tossing  and  turning,  the  uneasy 
limb  being  constantly  moved  about  to  tind  a  better 
position  ;  till  towanls  morning  the  victim  feels 
sudden  relief,  and  falls  over  into  a  sleep,  from 
which  he  wakes  refresheil,  to  Hud  the  limb  swidlen; 
the  venous  distention  usually  jiresent  in  the  early 
stage  having  been  succeeded  liy  a  more  general 
form  of  swelling,  often  with  itching  between  the 
toes,  and  a  peelingoU'  of  the  cuticle.  This  indi- 
vidual attack  may  be  repeated  many  times  in  the 
course  of  what  is  termed  '  a  lit  of  the  gout,'  which 
sometimes  extends  over  a  period  of  weeks,  or  even 
months,  before  the  patient  is  cmnpletely  relieved  ; 
or  the  attacks  may  occur  in  lioth  limbs,  or  in 
several  other  parts  of  the  body  in  succession,  the 
real  termination  of  the  '  fit'  being  at  last  in<licated 
by  an  apparently  complete  restoration  of  health, 
and  even,  in  .some  coses,  by  a  period  of  imjiroved 
■•onditicm  and  capacity  for  exertion,  as  compare<l 
with  the  state  of  the  patient  before  the  attack. 

Such  are  tlie  principal  features  of  the  '  regular 
gout.'  In  this  form  it  might  almost  be  called  a  local 
ilisease  ;  although  the  cimnection  of  the  att.acks 
witli  deranged  digestion,  or  with  a  v.ariety  of  other 
minor  .ailments  too  couijilex  to  be  ilescribetl  here, 
and  the  obvious  relief  olitained  thnnigh  the  'ht' 
from  the  symptoms  of  constitutional  sult'ering, 
point  to  a  cause  of  the  disease  o)ieiating  over  a 
larger  range  of  functions  than  those  included  in 
the  ordinary  local  manifestations  at  this  ]ieriod. 
Regular  gout,  accordingly,  forms  only  part  of  a 
nosological  picture,  in  which  the  so-called  irregular, 
atonic,  metastatic,  or  retrocedent  forms  have  to  be 
included  before  it  can  be  said  to  be  at  all  comjilete. 


These,  indeed,  form  almost  all  the  darker  shadows 
of  the  picture ;  for  regular  gout,  thougli  a  \  erj- 
painful  disorder,  can  hardly  he  said  to  be  dangerous 
to  life,  or  even  to  the  linili  allected,  at  least  until 
after  many  attacks. 

It  is  the  tendency,  however,  of  gout  to  fall  into 
irregular  fcunis  ;  and  herein  lies  its  danger.  One 
source  of  local  aggravation  is,  indeeil,  soon  ajiparent, 
and  it  leads  rapidly  to  other  evils.  The  joints 
which  have  lieen  repeatedly  the  seat  of  the  regular 
paroxysm  become,  more  or  less  ]iermanently, 
crippled  and  distorted.  A  white,  friable,  chalk- 
like material  is  gradually  deposited  around  the 
cartilages  and  ligaments,  and  sometimes  in  the 
cellular  tissue  and  under  the  skin  ( tophi  or  chalk- 
stones).  Sometimes  this  material  is  discharged 
externally  by  ulceration,  and  then  usually  with 
relief.  At  other  times  it  accumulates  into  irregu- 
lar masses,  or  'nodosities,'  which  entirely  destroy, 
or  at  least  greatU'  iiiijiair,  the  movement  of  the 
limb.  The  patient  is  laid  up  more  or  less  jierman- 
ently  in  his  arm-chair  ;  and  exercise,  the  great 
natural  sjiecilic  remedy  of  the  gouty,  is  denied  by' 
the  very  conditions  of  the  diseased  state  itself. 

Othc'i-  Miiiiifi.tiiiiioiis  of  Goiit.—\\M\  regard  to 
what  shoulil  be  incluiled  under  the  term  in-rtfular 
gout  tliere  is  much  dilleicnce  of  opinion.  It  is 
sometimes  no  doubt  used  as  a  refuge  tor  ignorance, 
when  no  other  cause  can  be  discovered  to  explain 
symptoms  of  ill-health.  It  is  certain,  however,  that 
regular  gout  often  alternates  with  a  morbid  con- 
dition in  some  other  part  of  the  body,  and  that 
many  diseases  occurring  in  those  whose  family 
history  or  habits  of  life  may  be  considered  to  pre- 
dispose to  gout,  whether  they  themsehes  have 
suffered  from  regular  gont  or  not,  are  lienelited  by 
hygienic  and  medicinal  measures  similar  to  those 
which  do  good  in  undoubteil  cases  of  gout  :  and 
most  physicians  agree  in  sjieaking  of  such  as  forms 
of  gout.  The  most  important  of  these  we  shall 
here  enumerate,  in  connection  with  the  organs 
att'ected.  Heart  (ind  Woot/- rc.v.vWs  — pal  [li  tat  ion, 
irregularity  of  heart  acticm,  angina  jiectoris, 
and  atheroma  with  its  cmiseiiuence,  phlebitis. 
/, II mis — asthma,  bronchitis.  Nen-oiis  si/stcm  —neur- 
algia, headache,  epilepsy,  mental  disorder.  S/,'i)i — 
eczema.  Diiffstirr  oii/min — inilammation  of  throat, 
various  forms  of  indigestion,  ciamii  or  inilamma- 
tion of  stomach,  jaundice.  I'n'miri/  oii/nns — irri- 
tability of  bladder;  stone,  especially  the  uric  acid 
form  (see  CvLCt'HS);  dialietes;  above  all,  chronic 
liright's  disease.  It  is  impossible  within  the  limits 
of  such  an  article  as  the  lu-esent  to  give  any  de- 
scription of  the  various  manifestations  of  the  gouty 
tendency  ;  the  above  list  of  ailments  ( most  of  them 
treated  separately)  will  give  some  idea  of  their 
complexity  and  importance. 

TrciitiDeiit  of  Goiit. — The  (■('/■(•  of  gout,  in  the 
highest  sense  of  the  word,  demands  the  careful 
consideration  of  all  its  ]ircdisposing  causes  in  the 
individual,  and  the  strict  regulation  of  the  whole 
lite  and  habits  accordingly,  from  the  earliest  pos- 
sible period.  It  is  the  dithculty  of  accomplishing 
this  which  makes  gout  a  disease  proverbially  in- 
tractable ;  for  the  regular  attacks  of  the  di>e,a.se 
seldom  occur  till  pretty  late  in  life,  hnig  after  the 
habits  have  been  fully  formed  which  are  most 
ailverse  to  the  cure.  Kigid  temperance  in  eating 
and  drinking,  with  daily  exeici.se  proportionate  to 
the  strength  and  cmidition  of  the  individual,  in 
reality  constitutes  the  only  radical  cure  of  the  gont, 
the  lesson  of  ages  of  experience  as  read  to  the  gouty 
by  the  light  of  .science.  lint  the  lesson  is  not 
learned,  or  only  learned  when  too  late.  It  should 
never  be  forgotten  that  a  man  of  gouty  family,  or 
individually  much  exposed  to  the  can.ses  of  the 
disease,  can  only  hope  to  escape  it  in  his  old  age  by 
habits  of  life  formed  at  an  early  period,  and  by  a 


330 


GOUTWEED 


GOVERNMENT 


rilti.l,llt((.'^^>^ll     i^x.!*     I.i'<l     KVltbl     Ii.r>iiii,  «iiv 

ill  virtiu's  iif  ('olcliiciiiii  lii.v.)  iiic  ii<'rliii|is 
overrated  liy  the  imlilic  ;  lunl  its  (lan^'iTs 


careful  avoiilanco  of  most  of  tlie  coiniiion  dissiiia- 
tion-i  of  yontli.  Tliat  the  di.sease  may  lie  wanieil 
otr  ill  lliis  way  there  is  ample  eviileiioe  ;  and  it  is 
not  k's^j  certain  that  there  is  no  c)ther  way  of  livin<; 
secure  from  ;;oiit.  The  treatment  of  the  lit,  in  so 
far  as  it  does  not  resolve  itself  into  the  i-eleUrateil 
prescript  ion  of  'patience  anil  Ihinnel,'  must  lie  a 
subject  of  medical  ]>rescriiition.  IJlisters,  leeches, 
and  especially  cold  applications,  thou^di  they  may 
j;ive  temporary  relief,  aie  studiously  to  lie  avoideil; 
the  Last  sometimes  even  lead  to  a  fatal  result.  The 
well-known  virtues  of  Colch 
somewhat 

are  not  less  striking;  than  its  \  irtucs.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  in  cautious  medical  hands  colchicuin 
is  a  remedy  of  <;reat  value  in  the  gouty  paroxysm  ; 
and  of  equal  value  perhiijjs  are  certain  natural 
mineral  waters,  as  those  of  Vichy  ami  Carlsliad. 
Alkalies  and  their  salts,  especially  potash  anil  lithia 
waters,  as  prepared  artilii-ially.  with  minute  doses 
of  iodine  .and  ludmine,  li,i.ve  likewise  lieeii  much 
recommendeil  for  the  cure  of  ^'oiity  deposits.  For 
the  ilistinctions  of  gout  ami  rheumatism,  and  the 
presumed  relation  hetween  them  in  some  ca.ses,  see 
KllKlMATisM.     See  Sir  Dvce  Duckworlli's  TVrw^/.vc 

o,<  );i„>i  (issii). 

(lioiltweod.     See  BlSHorwKKn. 

(iovail.  a  police-lmrgli  (since  lsr)4)  of  Lanark 
and  llenfrew  shires,  on  the  .south  li.ink  of  the 
(.'lyde,  outside  the  municipal  boundaries  of  (Jlusgow, 
and  about  .'{  miles  west  ot  its  centre,  but  connected 
with  the  city  )iy  conlinuous  rows  of  buildings.  Its 
leailing  industry  is  shipbuilding,  (lovaii  I'ark,  40 
acres  in  e.\tent,  was  gifted  in  ISH.")  by  Mrs  Klder,  at 
a  cost  of  tod.dOO.  I'op.  ( isriti)  L>l'.>-.'";  (  l«71  )  in,200  ; 
( 1,SS1  )  jd.-lifJ  ;  (  ISOl  )  ():^,:?ti4. 

CiOVri'IlllM'llt.  The  term  'government  ■  signi- 
fies tlie  ailministration  of  the  public  alliiirs  of  a 
community  ;    in  a  secondary  sense   it   denotes  the 

persons  to  whom  that  administration  is  coi itted, 

or  a  select  numlier  of  such  ]iersons  in  whom  the 
principal  powers  of  management  are  vested.  The 
domain  of  government  extends  in  theory  over  the 
whole  legishitive  ami  administrative  busines.s  of 
the  country  at  home  and  abroad  ;  but  some  ilepart- 
nieiits  of  our  domestic  affairs,  such  as  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice  and  the  business  of  the  ]ierma- 
nent  civil  service,  are  not  treated  in  piactice  as 
matters  of  governmeut.  According  to  the  various 
uses  of  the  term,  we  speak  of  our  constitutional 
government  or  (Uir  system  of  government  by  party, 
or  the  i>olicy  of  a  particular  government,  anil  we 
draw  a  distinction,  when  necessary,  between  the 
principal  and  t!.e  subordinate  members  of  the 
government  of  the  day.  There  is  a  distinction  in 
kind  between  the  administration  of  public  atlairs 
and  the  management  of  any  |irivate  concern  ;  but 
we  sjieak  metaipliorically  of  the  domestic  govern- 
ment of  a  Iiousetiidd  :  or.  with  a  nearer  ajipioach  to 
correctness,  of  the  self-government  of  municipali- 
ties ami  other  civil  districts  in  regard  to  their  local 
atlairs.  There  may  also  be  small  and  iiM]ierfectly 
developed  communities,  whether  carried  on  under 
a  patriarchal  rule  or  under  the  form  of  a  \  ill.ige- 
community,  or  in  some  other  rudimentary  form  of 
society,  to  which  it  would  be  dillicult  to  ap|ily  the 
terms  of  the  art  or  practice  of  government  with 
anything  like  exactnes.s.  In  the  ca-se  of  an  ordinary 
independent  state  the  sphere  of  government  in- 
cludes the  ailministration  of  public  all'airs  at  home 
and  the  intercourse  of  the  community  with  foreign 
nations.  These  functions  may  be  separ.ited  and 
modilied,  a-s  when  a  state  forms  part  of  a  federal 
union  or  confederation  or  combination  of  states,  in 
which  the  component  communities  have  divested 
themselves  of  some  portions  of  their  sovereign 
power  in  favour  of  a  central  or  combined  authority. 


to  which  certain  kinds  of  public  atlairs  have  l>een 
delegated.  The  same  remarks  ap|>ly  to  dependent 
and  .semi-inile]iendent  slates,  including  such  a.s 
have  been  brought  under  an  empire,  or  have  been 
mediatised,  or  neutralised,  or  in  any  other  way 
have  come  under  the  piotcction  or  managenient  of 
ji  supcrioi'  [lower  or  combination  of  powers.  In 
colonies  the  local  authorities  may  be  entitled  to 
exercise  the  rights  of  government  almost  as  freely 
as  in  the  case  of  a  protected  state,  subject  only  to 
the  reserved  rights  of  the  mother-country  and  the 
supreme  dominion  of  the  home  governmi-nt,  if  the 
necessitv  for  its  exiicise  should  occur.  There  is 
indeed  iiardly  any  limit  to  the  modes  in  which  the 
relations  between  superior  and  subordinate  com 
munities  may  be  constituted  in  matters  of  govern- 
ment, subject  to  the  oliservation  that  the  rights 
conferred  on  the  inferior  power  may  be  so  great 
that  they  practically  amount  to  independence,  or 
may  be  so  clo.sely  bound  that  they  give  hardly 
more  than  the  beiielits  of  municipal  self-govern- 
ment. 

The  origin  of  fcovernment  may  be  found  in  the 
social  instincts  of  mankind.  As  .soon  as  a  com- 
munity attains  to  great  numbers,  or  a  large  extent 
of  territory,  some  form  of  regular  authority  will 
be  required  and  will  necessarily  be  established. 
I'lato  is  accu.sed  of  having  seen  no  diUcrence  in 
kind  between  a  large  household  and  a  small  stiite. 
.•\ristotle,  or  the  Aristotelian  author  of  the  I'o/ilirx, 
conceived  the  state  a-s  being  'prior  to  the  indi- 
viduivl,'  in  the  .sense  that  it  is  the  true  object  of 
the  social  instinct  implanted  in  all  men.  and  only 
requiring  the  legislator's  wisdom  to  bring  it  to 
l)erfectioii.  Every  communily  is  established  with 
a  view  to  some  good  end,  and  the  state  (which 
embraces  all  other  communities)  must  have  been 
established  with  the  object  of  .attaining  the  highest 
good.  This  theory  is  ue.arly  identical  with  the 
modern  opinions,  in  which  a  distinction  h.as  been 
made  without  much  real  ditlerence,  th.at  the  state 
was  founded  with  the  object  of  obt;iining  the 
greatest  hapiiiness  of  the  greatest  number,  and 
that  governments  are  intended  to  fullil  the  higher 
aspirations  of  humanity.  Many  other  theories  of 
government  have  been  advanced  ■•ucording  to  the 
varying  circumstances  of  ditlerent  limes.  It  was 
found  convenient  in  one  age  to  secure  a  respect  for 
authority  by  an  ajipeal  to  the  divine  right  of 
kings  :  at  another  time  thinkers  have  been  content 
to  lind  the  principles  of  government  in  following 
the  niomentarv  wish  of  the  majority.  Hobbes 
solved  the  dilKculty  by  a  new  and  arbitrary  dogma. 
Mankind,  according  to  his  view,  seeking  refuge 
from  the  dangers  of  a  slate  of  nature,  were  led,  not 
by  any  social  instinct,  but  by  motives  of  fear  .and 
prudence,  to  enter  into  a  solemn  comjiacl  by  which 
they  linally  renounced  the  freedom  which  belonged 
to  the  individual  man.  The  compact  having  once 
been  made;  the  state  becomes  the  'Leviathan,'  or 
all-powerful  lieing,  to  wluim  absolute  and  unchang- 
ing obedience  is  due.  Lcnke  and  many  later 
writers  took  up  the  idea  of  a  social  contnu't  as  a 
convenient  image  for  describing  the  lonibiiied 
action  of  mankind,  but  guarded  their  jiosition  by 
declaring  that  the  emiipact  might  at  any  time  be 
altered  or  reversed. 

We  may  leave  these  barren  .sjieculations  as  to 
the  origin  of  government  with  the  remark  that, 
according  to  the  more  modern  opinion,  such 
questions  can  only  be  solved,  if  at  all,  by  the 
methods  of  comparative  history.  It  is  of  more 
importance  to  inquire  as  to  what  are  the  essential 
characteristics  ot  government  in  the  political 
sense  of  the  term.  In  the  cimsideration  of  this 
part  of  the  subject  the  mere  forms  of  govern- 
ment may  be  disregarded.  The  correct  answer  to 
tlie    problem    seems    to    be  that    government,   in 


GOVERNMENT 


331 


relation  to  the  subject-matter  with  whicli  it  is  con- 
cemeil,  is  in  the  longiun,  ami  continually  tends 
to  be,  the  expression  of  the  will  of  the  dominant 
power  in  the  state.  The  expression  may  be  diffi- 
cult, owing  to  the  complexity  of  the  constitution 
or  the  number  of  constituent  parts  among  which 
the  power  is  distributed,  or  owing,  as  often 
happens,  to  the  existence  of  artihcial  restrictions 
designed  to  afford  opportunities  for  delay.  Again, 
the  will  of  the  real  rulers  may  be  in  a  state  of 
acquiescence,  and  the  arriving  at  any  decision  in 
favour  of  change  may  be  impeded  in  many  ways, 
as  by  the  influence  of  custom  and  tradition,  the 
reluctance  felt  about  disturbing  an  existing  dele- 
gation of  power,  or  the  feeling  that  responsible 
and  removable  governors  can  safely  be  trusted. 
After  making  all  deductions  it  seems  clear  that 
government  is  in  fact  an  expression  of  the  wishes 
of  those  who  have  the  ultimate  dominion,  and 
that  in  free  communities  its  course  and  even  its 
form  are  determined  by  the  general  will  of  the 
people.  The  forms  of  government  are,  however, 
in  some  decree  determined  liy  accidental  circum- 
stances, such  as  the  survival  of  institutions  which 
have  become  obsolete,  or  wliich  have  been  adapted 
to  existing  needs  though  their  original  object  has 
come  to  an  end.  The  possHile  variations  in  the 
form  of  government  are  almost  countless,  but  it  is 
still  convenient  to  adopt  to  some  extent  the  ancient 
methods  of  clas.sification,  according  as  the  rule  of 
the  state  is  given  to  the  one,  the  few,  or  the  many. 
Another  method  of  division  is  based  on  the  dis- 
tinction lietween  those  states  in  wliich  the  gover- 
nors and  governed  have  apparently  been  opposed 
to  each  other,  and  those  m  which  the  contest 
between  prerogative  and  popular  liberty  has  ended 
in  national  self-government. 

Plato  and  Aristotle  distinguished  governments 
as  true  or  pure  when  power  is  given  and  used 
for  the  good  of  the  subject,  and  as  false  or  per- 
verted when  it  is  maintained  for  the  private  inter- 
est of  the  ruler.  Among  sttch  true  forms  they 
counted  monarchy  or  royalty,  in  which  one  ruled 
for  the  good  of  all,  and  aristocracy  or  the  rule  of 
a  class,  equally  acting  in  the  common  interest ; 
besides  these  rare  and  ideal  forms  they  found  an- 
other pure  form  in  the  niixod  or  constitutional 
government,  which  was  the  favourite  'polity'  of 
the  Greek  states  when  jilaced  vinder  favourable 
circumstances.  It  must  lie  remembered,  however, 
that  their  arguments  are  made  difficult  of  applica- 
tion to  modern  times  by  the  facts  that  the  states 
were  very  small,  and  that  the  great  bulk  of  the 
population  was  enslaveil  ;  the  last  circumstance 
gave  a  disproportionate  importance  to  the  military 
class,  on  which  the  existence  of  society  depended, 
so  that  the  ancient  'polities'  were  in  practice 
dominated  by  an  armed  middle  class,  taken  collec- 
tively as  representing  the  wliole  people.  Hence  it 
was  express!}-  laid  down  in  tlie  Aristotelian  Politics 
(lib.  iii.  chap.  7),  that  'in  a  constitutional  govern- 
ment the  fighting-men  have  the  supreme  power, 
and  the  armed  men  are  the  citizens.'  In  the  same 
place  will  be  found  an  account  of  the  perversions  of 
true  government.  'Tyranny,'  or  ilespotism,  is  a 
monarchy  having  in  view  tiie  interest  of  the  master 
of  the  state.  Oligarchy,  of  whidi  tiiere  are  many 
varieties,  exists  when  a  small  class,  generally  con- 
sisting of  the  rich,  has  the  whole  government  in  its 
power.  In  .-Vristotle's  view  the  rule  of  a  wealthy 
class  was  of  the  essence  of  an  oligarchy.  Demo- 
cracy, or  tlie  rule  of  the  many,  was  on  tiie  same 
principle  identified  with  governmi'ut  in  the  interests 
of  tlie  needy.  The  author  of  the  Politics  does  not 
seem  to  have  believed  tliat  a  wealthy  community 
coulil  be  a  democracy,  or  to  ha\e  concei\ed  the 
idea  of  representative  government  or  of  aclemocracy 
in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term.     The  democracy 


describeil  by  him  was  obviously  of  an  unstalile 
and  temporary  character,  ready  to  suffer  a  further 
penersion  towards  ochlocracy  or  a  mere  mob-govern- 
ment, ending  in  anarchy  and  the  eventual  interposi- 
tion of  a  despotic  or  nii^itaiy  form  of  government. 

Aristotle  distinguished  five  kinds  of  monarchy 
among  the  true  or  legitimate  systems.  The  lir.st 
was  the  Spartan  form,  or  that  which  existed 
in  Crete,  the  power  of  the  kings  in  each  ca-se 
being  strictly  limited  by  the  constitution.  Next 
came  the  despotic  form  of  monarchy,  such  a-s 
was  found  in  tlie  Asian  empires,  differing  only  from 
tyranny  because  the  barliarians,  as  slave>  liy 
nature,  were  perfectly  willing  to  obey.  The  third 
was  tlie  Dictatorsliip,  wliicli  in  t^reece  wa,s  not 
hereditary,  but  which  has  al«  ays  tended  in  modern 
times  to  become  .so.  Anotlier  kind  might  be  called 
the  Heroic  form,  the  kings  in  ancient  times  having 
been  '  priests,  and  judges,  and  warriors,  and  having 
a  supreme  authority  in  all  things.'  Last  in  the  list 
was  the  absolute  kingsliip,  '  exercising  an  universal 
]iower,  like  that  of  the  state  over  the  pulilic  pro- 
perty, or  that  of  the  master  over  a  household  ' 
(Arist.  Pul.  iii.  chap.  15;  Jowett's/"^/W.  Ixv.).  The 
last-described  monarchy  is  certainly  a  separate  form 
of  government,  but  it  was  obviously  liable  to  pass 
at  any  moment  into  a  tyranny,  unless  a  succes- 
sion of  disinterested  '  benevolent  desiiots  "  could  be 
found.  It  should  be  observed  that  Ari>totle  did 
not  tliiiil<  that  any  monarchy  ought  to  be  heredi- 
tary, and  that  he  considered  absolute  monarchy  to 
be  contrary  to  the  law  of  nature.  His  summary  of 
the  causes  which  had  induced  the  transition  from 
the  old  kingship  to  the  modern  republic  is  full  of 
interest  and  information.  The  reason,  he  says, 
why  ancient  governments  were  monarchies  is  that 
in  early  times  there  were  only  a  few  good  men  who 
could  confer  benefits,  and  so  they  were  made  into 
kings.  The  reason,  he  adds,  wliy  democracies  are 
now  necessary  is  that  all  men  are  '  pretty  much  on 
an  equality ; '  he  is  referring,  of  coui-se,  to  the  free- 
men who  had  the  franchise  and  a  capacity  for  office. 
'  ^\'hen  good  men  increased  in  numlier,  royaltie.s 
passed  into  aristocracies.  These  degenerated  into 
oligarchies.  Oligarchy  passed  into  "  tyranny,  "  and 
tyrannies  became  democracies,  for  the  rich  became 
fewer  and  fewer,  and  the  poor  more  and  more 
numerous ;  and  democracy  seems  to  lie  the  only 
form  of  go\ernment  any  longer  possible,  now  that 
cities  are  increased  in  size.'  He  shows,  however, 
his  pei'sonal  iireference  for  the  mixed  constitution 
or  '  polity,'  as  probably  the  best  form  of  government 
after  the  ideal  'rule  of  the  best,' or  'aristocracy' 
in  the  highest  sense  of  the  term.  The  stage.s 
throngh  which  oligarchy  usually  pa.ssed  are  summed 
up  a.s  follows  :  at  first  there  is  a  higli  qualification 
for  office,  and  then  as  vacancies  in  ofiice  occur,  a 
scheme  of  co-optation  is  devised  :  afterwards  hered- 
itary succession  is  introduced,  and  finally  a  few 
powerful  families  set  uji  an  alisolute  and  arliitrary 
rule.  Democracy  in  tlie  same  way  has  se\eral 
stages  from  that  in  which  all  men  are  equal  in  cir- 
cumstances and  power,  if  Mtcli  an  '  Utopian  p.arity ' 
were  possible,  to  the  stages  when  a  small  qualifi- 
cation is  imposed,  w  hen  every  one  takes  a  share  in 
the  government,  and  lastly,  when  law  ceases  and 
the  government  is  carried  on  by  the  decrees  of  the 
tr.ansient  majority. 

Plato  constructed  an  ideal  state,  an  aristocracy 
in  which  pbilosoiiliei-s  were  kings,  and  thouglit 
that  of  inferior  governments  there  were  only  four 
worthy  of  notice,  though,  ihuibtless,  there  were 
many  intermediate  forms  both  among  tireeks  and 
barbarians.  He  calls  the  first  Timocracy,  being 
a  constitution  of  the  fashionable  Spartan  type,  in 
which  the  ]iowers  of  the  kings  ami  classes  of  citizens 
were  limited  by  strict  discipline,  and  the  govern- 
ment  was  conducted   on    '  princiiiles    of    honour,' 


332 


GOVERNMENT 


GOWER 


which  in  practice  came  to  something  like  iiiilitun' 
:.'Overnment.  It  sliouM  lie  nliserved  that  the  wonl 
■  tiinoor.ioy  i''  ii1m>  ii-rd  tii  denote  tlie  system  of 
distnlmtiiij;  honours  and  olliies aceordinf;  to  wealth, 
a  state  of  thing's  to  wliieh  the  title  of  a  idutoeiaey 
would  iieiha]is  he  more  ai>]iro|iriate.  Next  in 
Plato's  list  came  <  >li;;ari-hy,  with  its  attendant  evils 
of  avarice  and  corruption  :  then  Democracy,  de- 
scriheil  as  'a  plcasinj;  lawless  and  various  kind  of 
;;overnment  ; '  and  lastly.  Despotism,  thc'ilisease 
and  ileath  of  ;,'overiiment.'  I'olyliius  (hook  vi. 
extr.  :?,  chap.  1  )  mentions  the  states  of  lyaceihemon, 
Mantinea,  Crete,  and  Cartha-ie  as  those  which 
were  praised  hy  all  writers  of  anfiijuity.  He  ditVers 
from  rlato  a.s  to  the  fact  of  resenihiaiiie  hctween 
the  ^'overnmentsof  Crete  and  Sparta,  not  perceivinj; 
that  they  were  alike  in  their  halance  of  powci-, 
thoujih  their  laws  and  institutions  were  ilillerent. 
riie  laws  of  I,ycurj;us  appeared  to  him  to  he  rather 

the   'work   iti  soi livinity  '  than   the  etl'ort  of  a 

human  iniiid.  The  ;;overnment  of  Carthaj;e  wn.s 
praised  as  hein;;  limited  in  much  the  same  way,  the 
Kinj;,  senate,  and  people  all  haviiij;  a  share  of 
power:  hut  hi-  lii;.'licst  couimenilation  was  reserved 
lor  the  Ihiman  Itejiulilic.  Of  this  he  has  left  an 
interesting;  account,  of  which  Cicero  alterwanls 
made  considerahle  ase  in  his  treatise  J/r  Ji'ijuililici'. 

Pa-ssin^  to  modern  times,  we  lind  that  the  e.xist- 
ing  kinds  of  f;overnment  are  still  in  many  ea.se.s 
much  inlluenced  hy  traditions  of  the  empire,  and 
to  some  extent  hy  the  usaj.'es  of  feudalism.  The 
autocratic  form  of  ^'overnment  still  survives,  tliou;,'h 
the  ruler's  apparently  alisolute  ]iower  is  ;;eneraily 
limited  hy  a  '  hureaucracy.'  In  the  ;,'reater  part  of 
Kurope  we  lind  constitutional  monarchies,  in  which 
the  powers  of  the  crown  and  the  various  classes  in 
the  community  are  suiiposed  to  lie  halanied  a;,'ainst 
each  other.  The  temlency  of  most  of  these  limited 
monarchies  is  ai>parently  towards  democracy. 
The  democratic  repuhlic  has  heen  most  successful 
ill  the  I'liited  Slates  of  .\nierica  and  in  the  ohl- 
estahlished  Swiss  Confederation.  We  have  also 
seen  the  estahlislunent  of  empires  of  a  medieval 
type,  as  well  as  jjovernments  founded  on  a  prin- 
ciple called  C;esaiism,  in  which  a  <leniociacy  is 
-uppose<l  to  have  delegated  its  powers  to  a  dii'ta- 
tor.  \'arious  circumstances  have  led  to  the  foriria- 
lion  of  dual  ami  complex  monarchies,  and  to  the 
plai'ing  of  various  communities  in  depeiulent  and 
-iihorilinate  positions.  The  most  important  feature 
in  modern  governments  is  the  extensiim  of  the 
representative  system,  which  can  he  hest  studied 
in  the  history  of  Creat  P.ritain,  justly  praised  as 
the  '  MotherOf  Parliaments'  .Mr  .Mill's  wmk  on 
Iit'jiri:.'H'/iffifin'  dfH-rrnntdif  should  he  consulted  on 
the  <|iiesticMi  whether  our  modern  societies  i)uj;lit  to 
make  |irovision  fiU'  protecting  the  minority.  The 
)irohlems  of  government  are  continually  changing, 
ami  new  remeilies  will  he  reipiired  ,as  fresh  clilli- 
culties  arise,  hut  the  main  ohject  of  all  govern- 
ments, under  whatever  forms  they  exist,  must  he 
the  fullilinent  of  the  laws  and  the  preservation  of 
order  and  liherty. 

What  is  the  hest  form  of  government  is  a  ques- 
tion which  every  one  will  answer  acconliiig  to  liis 
own  ilisposition,  if  a  specific  answer  can  he  given 
without  reference  to  the  varying  circumstances  of 
states  and  coiiimunitii-s.  Some  aid  in  the  matter 
mav  he  cditained  hy  the  stmly  not  only  of  treatises 
dealing  clirectly  with  the  art  of  government,  hut 
also  of  jioliticai  satires  and  the  numerous  writings 
upon  tlie  ideal  state  and  the  first  princijiles  of 
society.  .Among  these  may  he  mentioned  the 
Utopia  of  Sir  Thoina.s  More,  the  I)c  Monnreliin  of 
Dante,  the  sketch  of  a  new  government  in  Hurton's 
Aiirttiiin!/  of  Meltinrhnlji,  Harrington's  Oraoia,  ami 
Lord  ISacon's  Xiic  Attnutis,  besides  Dr  ,Iowett's 
Introductions  to  the  llipablic  and  Politics,  and  the 


other  treatises  upon  the  subject  which  have  already 
been  mentioneil. 

.\nien^'  the  nmltitudc  of  modem  writhigs  which  deal 
with  tlif  ahKtr,-ict  principles  of  govermiifiit  jiarticular 
iiutico  is  due  to  Sir  G.  C.  Lewirt'ri  trcatiscH  on  the  Brtt 
Formt  of  fworrrniiinit  and  the  Mtthi^ix  of  Oisfn^ation 
ami  Rcnaoniiuj  in  Palitict ;  Mr  Herbert  Spenccr'.s  works 
on  Social  Statics  Ai\d  t\i*i  Principlrn  of  Socioto<iii ;  Huiii- 
holdt  on  the  Sphere  (tnd  Duties  of  (lovernment ;  and 
tluizot's  Histoire  des  Orii/iites  du  (ioiivrynement  lieprf- 
seiitatirc  en  Finopf.  Auuiiig  the  treatises  which  deal 
witli  the  grtiwth  of  governments  by  the  tiieth<i<ls  of  coni- 
jiarative  liist<iry  Sir  H.  .S,  Maine's  work  on  Kurhi  /imti- 
tntions  is  one  of  tlie  most  inijiortant.  A  general  view  of 
the  rise  of  the  governments  of  ICuriijie  is  to  be  found  in 
Mr  Hallaiii's  Vii  ir  of  the  Sliih  of  Kiic'ijir  diirimi  the  Middle 
Aoes,  with  which  sliould  be  compared  tiuizot's  Histxire 
(it'iu'ride  de  In  Ciciliitatioti  en  Knrojie.  AVith  re-spect  to 
the  growth  of  the  liritish  coii-stitution  the  reader  should 
refer  to  the  general  essays  and  histories  nf  Hnme.  Mac- 
aulay,  and  Freeman,  ami  for  iiKire  special  infonnatinn  to 
the  constitutional  liistories  of  England  by  Mr  Hallain  and 
l)r  Stubbs,  Karl  Kussell's  Entjiisit  fiorernmeid  and  Con- 
:tiitotion,  liarl  Grey's  Parliamentai'ii  fi'ireniiiicnt.  and 
Hagehot's  essay  on  tlie  English  Constitution.  On  the 
important  subject  of  ])olitical  institutiniis  in  America  the 
fullest  information  may  l>e  found  in  Storer's  Contuit nttirtj 
nil  the  Conatitulion  of  the  Undid  Stales,  and  in  the  valuable 
work  of  Professor  IJryce  on  the  American  Comwoniren/th. 
See  the  articles  Ari.stocr,xcv,  Autocracv,  C.vbinet, 
Ce.ntr.m.ih.vtion,  Civil  Skkvke.  Comminism,  CoNiiRF.ss, 
Democr.vcv,  Loc.m.  Government,  Oligarchy,  1'ari.ia- 
ME.VT,  Privy  Coi'XCIl,  Socialism,  kc. 

<»ovoriU)r«  the  supreme  executive  magistrate 
of  a  si.ile  or  colony.  The  varying  functions  of 
governors,  governoi'sgeneral,  and  lieuteiiant-gover- 
noi-s  are  exiilained  in  the  articles  I'MTKD  STATES, 
India,  i*s.c.      Kor  the  governor  of  a  steam-engine, 

see  STKAM-ENlilNK. 

4aOW<  Nkii,,  a  famous  fscot<di  violin-idayer,  wa.s 
horn  at  Inver,  near  Dunkeld,  •22i\  Marcli  17'27,  and 
hefoie  he  reached  manhood  had  hecome  the  best 
iierfonuer  of  reels  and  stratlisoeys  in  Perthshire. 
Through  the  notice  of  the  Duke'  of  .\thole,  with 
whom  he  was  a  life-long  favourite,  lie  was  intro- 
duced to  the  patronage  of  the  principal  nobility 
and  gentry  tlinuighout  Scotlaml  :  and  sui  h  wa.s 
the  kindly  esteem  in  which  he  was  helil  that  Sir 
Henry  Haehuin  was  several  times  em]iloyed  to 
paint  his  ])ortrait  for  his  jiatrons.  He  died  1st 
Slarch  1.S07.  (iow  comoosed  nearly  a  hundred 
tunes,  mostly  of  a  lively  cliaractcr  ;  hut  it  is  cliietly 
to  the  tiadituin  of  his  singular  skill  with  the  how 
that  his  name  owes  its  survival  almost  as  a  house- 
hold wonl  in  Scotland. — His  youngest  son.  Natii- 
ANIKI.,  born  •2Ht\\  May  1766,  was  trained  .is  a 
violin-player  in  Edinburgh,  where  in  17H'2  he  be- 
came one  of  the  king's  tnimiieters  for  Scotland, 
and  subseijueiitlv  Wit-s  leader  of  a  fashionable  baml, 
and  a  successful  teacher.  His  first  venture  as  a 
musicseller  (1796-1S1.1)  was  not  successful,  and  a 
second  attempt  ended  in  bankniptcy  in  1S27:  but 
his  admirers  came  to  his  aid.  and  his  few  remain- 
ing years,  though  <larkened  bv  sickness,  were  not 
distressed  by  actual  want.  lie  died  17th  .lanuary 
1S31.  He  published  numerous  and  very  full  collec- 
tions of  Scotch  airs  and  songs  ;  and  his  own  com- 
positions number  over  two  hundreil  -among  tliein 
'  Caller  lleniiig.' 

<iowt'r,  part  of  (Uamorganshire  (ij.v.). 

<iiOWer.  JiiHX,  English  poet,  was  born  luobably 
about  l.'WO,  anil  seems  to  have  belonged  to  a 
family  th.at  owned  land  both  in  Sulhdk  .and  in 
Kent'  Ihit  little  is  known  of  his  life  .save  that  he 
was  rich  and  well  educated,  did  not  marry  till  late 
in  life  (probably  in  1397),  became  blind  aliout  I4(X), 
and  died  in  the  later  half  of  1408.  His  tiuub  is 
still  to  he  seen  in  St  Saviour's,  Southwaik.  He  was 
a  persoual  friend  of  Chaucer,  who,  in  dedicating  to 


GOWER 


GOWN 


333 


him  his  Troilus  oiid  Cress-idii,  addressees  him  as  Ihe 
'moral  Gower' — an  epitliet  that  has  iiulissohililv 
liiikeil  itself  with  his  name.  Near  the  conclusion 
of  the  Cuiifessio  Auinnti.s  Uinver  makes  Venus  in 
some  copies  pay  a  warm  compliment  to  Chavicer  as 
her  'disciple  and  poet,'  which  is  followed  imme- 
diately by  lines  expressing  «arm  loyalty  towards 
Kicliard  ll.  Both  these  passages  are  omitted  in 
the  copy  dedicated  to  Henry  of  Lancuster,  then 
Earl  of  Derby  (afterwards'  Henry  IV.),  which 
appeared  at  a  time  wlien  ( 'haucer  was  in  trouble 
with  the  government,  and  this  fact,  taken  in  con- 
junction with  Chaucer's  expre.ssed  dislike  (Intro- 
duction to  the  Man  of  Lawes  prologue)  to  a 
certain  kind  of  sensational  stories— of  'unkynde 
( ' unnatural ' )  abliominaciouns,'  wliieh  he  exemplilies 
by  the  stories  of  Canace  and  A|)ollinus  of  Tyre — 
two  of  the  best  told  tales  interspersed  in  the 
Coiifissio  A iiiantis~\eA  Tyrwhitt  to  the  conjecture 
that  the  friendship  between  the  two  poets  was 
interrupted  in  their  old  age.  But  in  this  there  is 
really  no  ground  for  any  inference  further  than 
that  Gower  was  merely  a  timid  and  time-serving 
man ;  while  the  conjecture  is  completely  demolished 
by  the  discovery  that  Chaucer's  poem  was  written 
hrst  (before  1385),  and  by  the  fact  that  Chaucer 
took  the  substance  of  the  Man  of  Lawes  Tale 
direct  from  Nicholas  Trivet's  French  prose  chronicle 
of  the  Life  of  Constance  (written  about  IXU),  and 
not  indirectly  through  Gower's  version  of  the  same, 
a-s  was  supposed  by  Tyrwhitt,  Wright,  and  most 
scholars  dowu  to  the  appearance  of  Mr  Brock's 
English  translation  of  Trivet  in  Oi-iijiiials  and 
Ai<ii/or/iies  of  some  of  Chniirer's  Ciintcrbitry  Tales, 
published  for  the  Chaucer  Society  (187'2-75). 

Gower  wrote  three  large  works  in  three  lan- 
guages, the  Speculum  Mcditaiili.s,  in  French  verse, 
rediscovered  at  Cambridge  in  1896;  the  Vu.r  Cla- 
riuiiUis,  A  tedious  Latin  elegiac  poem,  written 
1.382-84,  describing  Wat  Tyler's  rebellion  in  1381, 
full  of  dreary  allegorising  and  moralisation  (edited 
by  Rev.  H.  O.  Coxe,  Koxburghe  Club,  1850);  and 
the  long  poem  entitled  Cutifessiu  Amantis,  written 
'  in  our  English  .  .  .  for  England's  sake,'  of  which 
the  date  is  uncertain,  but  it  must  have  been  in 
existence  in  139'2-93.  In  a  passage  in  the  earlier 
edition  of  the  last  work,  dedicated  to  Richard  II., 
he  tells  us  how  he  met  the  king's  barge  one  day 
when  rowing  down  the  Thames  at  London,  and 
how  the  king  invited  him  on  board,  and  commanded 
him  to  write  a  book  upon  some  new  matter.  There 
are  extant  also  hfty  French  ballads,  written  by 
Gower  in  his  youth  (  Roxburghe  Club,  1818). 

(_;ower's  Coiifestiio  Ainantis  consists  of  a  prologue 
and  eight  books,  written  in  verses  of  eight  syllaljles, 
rhyming  iu  i)airs.  The  long  prologue  gives  a 
sombre  account  of  the  state  of  the  world  at  that 
time,  and  the  ]ioem  opens  by  introducing  the 
author  himself  in  the  character  of  an  unhappy 
lover.  Venus  then  appears  to  him,  and  appoints 
her  priest  called  (Jenius  to  hear  the  lover's  con- 
fession i>f  all  the  sins  he  has  committed  against 
love.  I'nder  each  several  head  the  confes.sor  con- 
soles hiui  and  gives  him  warning  by  relating 
apposite  stories  of  the  fatal  eflects  of  each  passion 
in  the  experiences  of  former  lovers  in  like  ca.se.  It 
ends  with  the  lover's  petition  in  a  strophic  poem 
aildressi'd  to  Venus,  her  judgment,  and  finally  the 
lover's  cure  and  absolution.  The  stories  in.serted 
are  taken  from  (Jvitl's  Mctii>iii>r///<uses,  the  Oesia 
ICoinaimniiii,  the  medieval  histories  of  Troy  and 
Alexander  the  Great,  from  the  Pantlietm  and 
Spccuhtiii  Re(jiiiit  of  Godfrey  of  \'iterbo,  the 
romance  of  Sir  Lancelot,  and  the  Chronicles  of 
Cassiodorus  and  I.sidorus.  The  mixture  of  Ovidian 
and  Christian  morality  is  often  incongruous  enough, 
and  the  whole  poem  is  dull  and  prolix  to  the  la-st 
degree.       Without    originality,    narrative    power. 


pathos,  or  humour,  Gower  yet  commands  respect 
for  the  laborious  equality  of  his  verse,  and  his 
work  remains  a  splendid  monument  of  English. 
Mr  Lowell  is  too  severe  ui)on  his  uniformity  of 
commonplace,  his  omnipresent  tediousness,  his 
imperturbable  narrative,  the  tremendous  hydraulic 
power  of  liLs  allegory  to  squeeze  out  all  feeling  and 
freshness,  the  frozen  levels  of  his  verse,  and  the  in 
evitable  recurrence  of  his  rhyme  regularlv  nertina 
cious  as  the  tick  of  an  eight-day  clock  ;  althougli 
indeed  it  cannot  altogether  be  deuied  that  '  he  hits 
positively  raised  tediousness  to  the  precision  of 
science,  and  has  made  dullness  an  heirloom  for  the 
students  of  our  literary  history.'  Tlie  best  editions 
are  by  Dr  Reinliold  Fauli  (3  vols.  Lond.  1857)  and 
G.  0.  Macaulay  (4  vols.  1899-1901,  vol.  i.  givin.; 
Gower's  works  in  French ). 

(•own,  a  loose  upper  garment  worn  by  members 
of  universities,  civil  magistrates,  and  the  like. 
The  use  of  the  gown  liy  ecclesiastics  hai*  been 
erroneously  derived  from  the  custom  of  the  friars, 
but  is  more  probably  to  be  traced  to  the  i>ractice 
of  inviting  doctoi-s  of  divinity  to  preach,  and  to 
the  power  of  the  university  to  license  graduate 
preachers.  Originally  the  gown  wa>  merely  the 
out-of-door  dress ;  and  after  the  Reformation  the 
clergy  (mostly  Puritan)  who  did  not  hold  degrees, 
regarding  enviously  the  comely  wide-sleeved  gown 
which  wa-s  the  mark  of  the  graduate,  adopted  a 
gown  of  their  own  or  of  Genevan  devising.  In 
1444  all  doctors  and  grailuates  of  the  Benedictine 
order  were  authorised  to  use  their  scholastic  habit 
when  preaching  before  a  large  congregation  ;  and  in 
1571  the  gown  formed  part  of  the  preacher's  'com- 
mon apparel  abrode.'  Addison,  in  the  S/ierfafor 
(1714),  .speaks  of  the  clergy  'equipped  with  a  gown 
and  a  cassock  ;  '  and  both  garments  were  retained 
until  within  the  I9tli  century.  In  Edinburgh,  at 
the  coronation  of  Charles  I.,  the  Archbishop  of 
(Glasgow  and  others  not  engaged  in  the  service 
'changed  not  their  habit,  but  wore  their  black 
gowns  without  rochets  or  sleeves  ; '  but  in  the  same 
year  a  warrant  was  sent  dow  n  from  London,  direct- 
ing the  use  of  the  'whites'  by  bishoiis  and  arch- 
bishops, and  ordering  all  inferior  clergymen  to 
preach  in  their  black  gowns,  but  to  use  their 
surplices  while  reading  the  prayers  and  iu  other 
services.  In  the  18th  century,  however,  even 
during  the  service,  the  surplice  was  almost  un- 
known in  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church.  The 
controvei-sy  in  the  Anglican  Church  as  to  exchang- 
ing the  surplice  for  the  gown  in  preaching,  which 
arose  about  1840  and  exercised  the  church  for  a 
generation,  has  never  received  a  dehnitive  settle- 
ment. 

The  academic  gown  is  a  survival  of  the  tohardus. 
a  garment  with  many  folds,  which  came  in  when 
the  doctors  began  to  wear  long,  priestly  robes  as  a 
distinctive  mark  of  their  standing  ;is  clerics.  At 
Padua,  for  instance,  certainly  iis  early  as  the 
Itith  century,  the  gown  and  .-.quare  cap  were  the 
insignia  of  a  doctor:  and.  at  a  later  period,  the 
undergraduate  of  Trinity  C<dlege,  Cambridge,  wore 
a  gown  of  violet  colour  to  distingui^h  him  from  the 
doctoi's,  who  wore  a  scarlet  gown.  The  purple 
gown  couunon  to  all  rectors  of  univei>ities  luis  been 
described  ;t-  the  livery  of  the  j>opes  :  in  the  words 
of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  it  is  a  reminiscence  of 
'  the  ilark  times  when  the  ^)apal  .see  arrogated  to 
itself  the  exclusive  right  ot  e.stablishing  univer 
sities.'  On  the  Continent  the  several  faculties 
possess  distinctive  colours,  altlKUigh  in  some  uni 
versities,  a.s  at  Leipzig  and  Tubingen,  only  two 
colours  have  been  used.  In  Britain  a  similar  custom 
obtains  in  the  full  ilress  of  doctors  ;  the  faculty, 
like  the  univei-sity,  of  a  graduate  is  indicated 
by  his  hood.  The  gowns  of  under-graduates  are 
now    black,    except   at   Glasgow,    Aberdeen,   and 


334 


GOWRIE 


GOWRIE   CONSPIRACY 


St  Andrews ;  l>iit  in  some  of  the  Eiiglisli  univer- 
sities suriiliees  are  worn  in  college  cliai)el  on  Sun- 
ilays  and  saints'  days.  I'niversitv  [ireacliers  in 
Kn;{land  wear  aciuleniic  f;owns.  In  the  United 
States  there  is  no  distinctive  aoadeniie  dres-s.  See 
\iitis  iind  (,hiii-if.i,  5th  series,  vol.  xi.  :  and  a  jiaper 
in  I'rof.  Oelitzseh's //-(ji  ( Eng.  trans.  ISS'J). 

Ciowrie,  Carse  of.    See  1'euth.shike. 

Ciowrie  Conspiracy  is  the  name  driven  to 

one  of  tlie  most  sin;;ular  ejiisodes  in  the  history 
of  Scotland,  althouyli,  the  very  existence  of  a  l>lot 
is  slill  a  mailer  of  controversy.  As  set  forth  hy 
James  ^'I.,  the  details  of  the  conspiracy  are  lus 
follows.  Early  in  the  morning,  on  Tuesday,  ."ith 
August  1600,  as  his  majesty  wa-s  ahont  to  begin 
a  slag-hunt  in  Talkland  Park,  Fife,  Alexander 
Kuthven  came  to  him  with  the  information  that, 
!is  he  was  walking  alone  near  I'erth,  on  tlie  jirevious 
evening,  ho  had  met  and  seized  an  individual  of  sus- 
iiicious  appearance,  with  a  pot  full  of  foreign  gold 
tiidilen  under  his  cloak.  After  having  conlineil 
him  in  '  a  jirivy  denied  house,'  he  had  hastened  to 
Falkland  to  lay  the  nuitter  before  the  king,  and  to 
rec|uest  him  to  ride  over  to  Perth  for  the  iiurpose 
of  taking  possession  of  the  treasure,  and  of  exam 
ining  the  mysterious  stranger.  Though  at  lirst 
disinclined  to  believe  the  '  uncouth '  story,  dames 
was  ultimately  induceil,  by  the  thought  that  the 
foreign  money  might  betoken  an  agent  of  the  pope 
and  the  Jesuits,  to  prmnise  that  he  would  accom- 
pany Kuthven  to  I'erth.  This  he  did  at  the  close 
of  the  hunt,  not  waiting  to  change  his  horse,  and 
riding  at  such  speed  that  his  attendants,  amongst 
whom  were  the  Duke  of  Lennox  and  the  Earl  of 
.Mar,  did  not  overtake  him  till  within  a  short 
distance  of  the  city.  At  Perth  he  was  received 
by  Kutliven's  brother,  the  Earl  of  (lowrie,  in 
such  a  manner  as,  to  make  it  appear  that  the 
visit  was  wholly  unexiiected,  and  kept  waiting 
a  long  time  before  any  refreshment  was  oH'ered 
him.  After  his  own  dinner,  and  whilst  the 
gentlemen  of  his  retinue  were  still  at  table, 
James  wa,s  taken  by  Kuthven  through  several 
rooms  to  a  small  study,  which  was  situated  on  the 
lirst  story,  and  of  which  one  of  the  windows  over- 
lookeil  the  courtyard  of  Gowrie  House  and  the 
other  a  public  street.  On  crossing  the  threshold 
the  king  oeheld  "not  a  bound  man.  but  a  free  man, 
with  a  ilagger  at  his  girdle.'  At  this  moment 
Kuthven,  having  lockeil  the  door,  snatched  the 
armed  man's  dagger  ami  held  the  point  to  the 
king's  breast,  telling  him  that  he  wa.s  now  a 
prisoner,  swearing  many  bloody  oaths  that  if  lie 
crieil  or  made  any  attempt  to  open  a  wimlow  the 
dagger  would  go  to  his  heart,  and,  further,  re- 
proaching liini  with  the  murder  of  the  first  Earl 
of  <;o«rie,  who  had  )>een  executed  for  trea.son  in 
l.')84.  At  this  James  began  to  expostulate  with 
Kuthven,  who  so  far  relented  a-s  to  leave  the  king 
in  the  armed  man's  keeping,  while  he  himself  went 
out  to  consult  his  brother,  the  earl.  During  his 
absence  James  iiuestii>ned  the  armed  man,  who 
protested  that  he  had  been  thrust  into  the  room 
without  knowing  for  what  purpo.se,  aiul  who 
willingly  obeyed  the  order  to  open  one  of  the 
windows,  the  king  himself,  scnipulously  faithful 
to  a  promise  extorted  from  him  by  Kuthven,  being 
unwilling  to  do  so.  In  a  few  moments  Alexander 
returned,  and,  declaring  that  there  wa-s  no  help  but 
that  the  king  must  die,  produced  a  garter  with 
which  he  attempted  to  bind  his  hands.  A  fierce 
struggle  ensued,  during  which  the  armeil  man 
stood  behind  the  king's  back,  'doing  nothing  but 
trembling  all  the  time,'  and  of  which  the  result 
was  that  James  was  able  to  reach  the  open  window 
and  to  call  for  help.  Whilst  this  was  going  on  in 
the  study,  a  servant  of  the  household  had  entered 


the  hall  where  < lowrie  still  was  with  Lennox, 
Mar,  anil  the  other  cimrtiers,  ami  informed  him 
that  the  king  had  rid<len  oil'  to  I'alklatid.  At  thi.s 
the  whole  company  hastily  rose  to  follow,  and  luul 
reached  the  street  when  the  king  s  cries  were  heard. 
Lennox,  Mai,  ami  the  other  attendants  at  once 
turiieil  back  and  niiule  for  the  upper  story  by  way 
of  the  main  stairca.se,  but  were  prevented  by  a 
barred  door  from  reaching  the  king.  John  Kam>ay, 
a  royal  retainer,  hiul  also  heard  his  master's 
voice,  anil,  linding  a  door  open  at  the  foot  of 
the  turret,  at  once  entered  and  ran  up  the 
winding  stairs.  They  leil  directly  to  the  study, 
of  whiidi  Kuthven  had  f(jigotten  to  do-e  the 
entrance,  and  in  which  the  hand  to-hand  struggle 
was  still  going  on.  Drawing  his  hunting-knife 
Kanisay  twice  stabbed  the  king's  antagonist,  who, 
loosing  his  hold,  wii-s  thrust  ilown  the  staitv  by 
James  and  despatcheil  by  Sir  Thoimus  Ei>kine 
ami  Dr  llerries,  who  were  at  that  moment  coming 
U)i ;  his  last  words  were  'Alius,  1  had  na  wvte 
(blame)  of  it.'  Scarcely  hiul  this  taken  place  when 
the  Earl  of  (Jowrie  ap]>eare<l  on  the  scene,  bearing 
a  drawn  sword  in  each  hand,  and  followed  by  se>  en 
of  his  servants.  A  short  encounter  ended  with  the 
death  of  the  earl,  who  exiiired  without  littering  a 
word.  The  inhabitants  of  Pel  lb.  by  whom  (lowrie, 
who  was  their  provost,  was  much  beloved,  hearinj; 
of  his  fate,  siirrouiuled  the  house  and  (hreatened 
revenge,  lint  after  the  king  had  addressed  them 
from  a  window,  and  admitted  the  maj'istrates,  to 
whom  he  related  the  ciicumstances,  tliey  i|uietly 
dispersed,  and  James  was  able  to  return  to  Falk- 
land. On  the  authority  of  the  king's  declaration 
(oiwric  and  Kuthven,  whose  dead  bodies  were  pro- 
diiceil  al  the  bar,  were  declared  traitors,  and  three 
i>f  tlieir  servants  were  hanged.  On  the  other 
hand,  marks  of  royal  favour  were  bestowed  on  all 
who  had  come  to  the  king's  a.ssistance  in  the  stuily. 
Kamsay  was  knighted,  and  subsecjuently  created 
Viscount  of  Iladilington  ami  Earl  of  Holderness  ; 
Sir  Thomas  Eiskine  wa.s  laiseil  to  the  peerage  a- 
Lord  Dirli'lon.  and  Dr  Merries  received  tne  honour 
of  knighthood  as  Sir  Hugh  llerries  of  Cowsland. 
Hender.son,  the  'armed  man,'  after  having  <d)tained 
a  free  jiardon,  was  rewarded  with  a  gift  of  laiid.s 
and  a  large  pension. 

To  the  events  of  1600  there  was  a  sequel  a 
few  years  later.  In  1608  Ceorge  Sjuott,  a  notary 
in  Eyemouth,  w.'is  .-ipprehended,  condemned,  anil 
executed  for  being  privy  to  a  consjiiracy  between 
(lowrie  and  Kobert  Logan  of  Kestalrig.  He  con- 
fes.sed  to  having  seen  several  letters  written  by 
Logan  to  the  earl,  and  to  having  retained  one 
of  them,  but  no  document  of  the  kind  alluded 
to  Wius  actually  Jiiit  in  at  the  trial.  Next  year, 
however,  there  were  produced  live  letters,  .said 
to  have  been  discovereil  amongst  Sprott's  papers, 
and  allegeil  to  contain  jiroof  of  a  plot  to  Kidnap 
the  king.  On  the  strength  of  them  Logan,  who 
had  died  in  the  meantime,  but  whose  mouldering 
bones  were  ilug  up  ami  brought  to  trial,  was 
ileclared  to  have  been  guilty  of  liigh-treiu~on. 
From  the  very  lirst  the  story  of  tlu'  iMiiispiiacy 
was  received  with  incredulity  by  many  in  Scot- 
land, and  amongst  these  by  the  clergy  of  Edin- 
burgh, with  Kcd>ert  Kriice  at  their  head,  and  by 
the  fjueen  herself:  whilst  the  Duke  of  Lennox, 
though  he  had  a)>iieared  as  one  of  the  chief  wit- 
nesses at  the  trial,  a.sserted  that  'if  it  were  gi»en 
to  him  to  his  oath,  he  couhl  not  say  whether  the 
practice  proceeded  from  (lowrie  or  the  king.'  In 
England  Eli/abeth,  on  being  informed  by  a  s[)ecial 
messenger  of  what  had  taken  place,  gave  him  to 
understand  that  she  'did  not  believe  (iowrie  and 
his  brother  to  be  so  guilty  a.s  they  were  repre- 
sented.' In  France  James's  .statement  was  openly 
ridiculed.      This    attitude    of    scepticism    is    still 


GOYANA 


GOZZI 


335 


iiiaintainetl  by  some  writers,  who  point  out  that, 
with  the  exception  of  liurton's  general  remark 
tliat  '  seizing  upon  or  kidnapjiin;;  a  king  hail  in 
that  (lay  become  almost  a  icinstitutiunal  method 
of  eti'ecting  a  change  of  ministry  in  Scotland,' 
nothing  has  ever  been  urged  to  prove  that  either 
(Jowrie  or  Kuthven  could  benelit  by  the  king's 
murder  or  captivity,  whilst  by  the  death  of  tlie 
earl  and  his  brother  James  was  freed  from  a  deljt 
of  over  £80,000,  and  rid  of  a  iiolitical  o|iponent  in 
the  person  of  the  one,  and  possil)ly  uf  a  rival  in 
the  queen's  art'ection  in  that  of  the  other;  that, 
whilst  there  is  no  trust\\-ortliy  exidence  to  jn-ove 
the  interview  in  Falkland  Park  to  have  been  of 
Huthven's  seeking,  the  king  very  shortly  before 
had  sent  letters  to  both  the  brothers  ;  that,  whilst 
the  reason  alleged  by  the  king  to  account  for  his 
visit  to  Gowrie  House  is  paljiably  absurd,  that 
given  by  Kuthven,  who  ascrilied  it  to  the  m.atter 
of  the  debt,  is  reasonable;  that  the  ]ioint  wliich 
tells  most  against  Gowrie — viz.  his  comluct  on 
receiving  the  false  information  of  James's  de- 
parture for  Falkland — is  not  inconsistent  witli 
innocence  ;  that  the  position  of  the  study  to  which 
the  king  was  taken  makes  it  incredilde  that  it 
I'ould  have  been  selected  for  a  criminal  pnipose  ; 
that  in  his  various  statements  Henderson,  wlio 
was  produced  as  being,  but  was  not  {jenerally 
lielieved  to  have  been,  the  '  armed  man,  contra- 
flicted  not  only  the  king  and  Kamsay,  but  himself 
as  well ;  that  Kuthven  s  dying  exclamation,  '  Alas, 
I  had  na  wyte  (blame)  of  it,'  may  reasonably  be 
looked  upon  as  referring  to  the  origin  of  his  struggle 
with  the  king  ;  that  Sprott,  whose  confession  Wiis 
the  only  evidence  connecting  (Jowrie  and  Kestalrig, 
was  looked  on  as  a  madman  by  the  king's  warmest 
sympathisers  ;  that  the  famous  letters  were  not 
produced  at  his  trial ;  that  in  the  following  year 
they  did  not  at  first  convince  tlie  jury,  who  brought 
in  a  verdict  of  guilty  against  Loj'an  only  after 
they  had  been  remonstrated  with  by  the  Earl  of 
Munbar ;  and,  finally,  that  those  letters  bristle 
with  iliscrepaneies,  contain  no  proof  of  a  plot  for 
the  abduction  of  the  king,  whom  they  do  not  even 
mention,  and  cannot,  from  their  dates,  be  made 
to  refer  to  any  event  intended  to  take  place  till 
limg  after  tlie  5th  of  August.  There  is  yet  anotlier 
view  adopted  liy  tlio.se  wlio,  whilst  admitting  the 
innocence  of  Gowrie  and  Kuthven,  liud  it  dithcult 
to  believe  that  the  king  devised  a  plot  in  which  he 
was  himself  to  play  a  dangerous  part.  It  is  in 
substance  tlie  same  as  that  set  forth  at  the  time 
by  Sir  William  Bowes,  the  English  agent  in  Edin- 
burgh, in  a  letter  to  Sir  John  Stanhope.  It  is  to 
tlie  ell'ect  that  there  was  no  conspiracy  on  either 
side,  but  that  the  struggle  in  the  study  arose  out 
of  some  sharp  words  that  jiassed  between  the 
king  and  Kuthven  concerning  tlie  execution  of  tlie 
latter's  father,  and  that  all  the  subseiiuent  events 
were  in  part  contrived,  in  part  utilised,  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  James's  conduct  wliat  Howes 
calls  'an  hmiouiable  cloak.'  See  Louis  A.  Barbe's 
Tntffct/i/  (if  Guivric  Huti.ic  (Paisley,  1SS7). 

Cioyaiia,  a  town  of  Brazil,  40  miles  N.  by  'W'. 
of  Pernambuco,  witli  a  large  Carmelite  monastery, 
and  flourishing  sugar-plantations.     Pop.  10,000. 

Ciioya   y  Luoiente^s.  Fk.vnci.sii),  the   most 

ilistinguished  painter  of  the  new  Spanish  school, 
was  born  at  Fuente  de  Todos,  in  Aragon,  SOth 
March  1746,  and  received  his  lirst  education  in  art 
in  the  academy  at  San  Luis,  Saragossa.  On  his 
return  from  a  visit  to  Kome,  the  talent  and  speed 
with  which  he  executed  .some  paintings  for  the 
royal  tapestry  manufactory  gained  the  aiijirobation 
of  the  celebrated  Mengs,  who  .superintemled  that 
work.  His  scenes  from  the  common  life  of  the 
Spanish    people    excited  .special    admiration.      In 


1780  he  was  elected  member  of  tlie  academy  of 
San  Fernando.  From  this  time,  although  he 
remains  in  all  his  work  a  thorough  Spaniard,  the 
influence  of  Vela-sipiez  and  Itembiandt  is  observable 
in  his  paintings.  Among  the  most  celebntted  of 
these  is  his  portrait  of  Charles  I\'.,  for  which  he 
was  made  court-painter,  in  18"24  he  went  to  Paris 
for  liLs  health,  and  continued  to  reside  in  F'rance 
till  his  death  at  Bordeaux,  16tli  April  1828.  See 
Lives  l>y  Vriarte  (1SG7),  Lefort  (1877),  De  la 
Vinaza  (1887),  and  Kothenstein  (Lond.  1900). 

Goyaz,  the  central  province  of  Brazil,  falls 
within  tlie  dry  plateau  region,  rising  in  tlie  south 
to  an  important  range  of  mountains  ( see  Bk.vzil  ), 
and  has  an  area  of  287,4,30  sij.  m.  The  river 
Tocantins  traverses  most  of  the  province  from  south 
to  north,  and  receives  the  Araguay,  which  forms 
the  western  boundary  ;  the  southern  frontier  Ls 
marked  by  the  Paianahyba.  The  climate  in  the 
south  is  healthy,  but  in  the  north  malignant  fevers 
are  common,  and  the  cattle  are  subject  to  goitre. 
The  pro\ince  had  once  some  fame  a.s  a  source  of 
gold  and  diamomls ;  but  these  products  aie  ex- 
hausted, and  its  deposits  of  iron  and  rock-salt  are 
not  worked.  Stock-raising  is  the  chief  industry, 
the  cattlemen  being  mostly  half-civilised  raqmiroi. 
The  population  was  estimated  in  1895  at  230,000, 
mostly  half-castes.  There  are  also  several  thousand 
wild  Indians. — The  capital,  Goyaz,  on  the  Vernielho, 
a  tributary  of  the  Araguay,  preserves  in  its  cathe- 
dral and  large  government  buildings  traces  of 
better  days.     Pop.  8000. 

Gozo  (called  by  the  Romans  Ganlns),  an  island 
in  the  Mediterranean,  lying  4  miles  NW.  of  Malta 
and  belon"ing  to  Britain,  has,  with  the  adjacent 
smaller  island  of  Comino,  an  area  of  20  sij.  ni. 
and  a  pop.  ( 1891 )  of  16,.500.  The  surface  is  hilly, 
but  the  soil  is  fertile.  The  chief  town  is  Babato, 
situated  near  the  centre  of  the  island.  The  history 
of  Gozo  is  identical  with  that  of  Malta  (q.v. ). 

Gozzi.  Count  C.\klo,  Italian  dramatist.  wa.s 
born  at  ^'enice  in  March  1722.  The  publication  of 
several  slight  but  witty  and  satirical  pieces  made 
liini  known  in  his  native  city,  and  the  part  he  took 
in  combating  the  theatrical  innovations  of  Ciiiari 
and  Goldoni  made  him  famous.  For  the  ]iuri)Ose  of 
counteracting  the  attempts  of  these  two  writei>  to 
free  the  Italian  stage  from  the  jiuerilities  of  the 
Commedia  dell'  Arte  by  the  introduction  of  trans- 
lations of  newer  French  dramatic  works,  Gozzi 
wrote  a  satirical  iioem,  TnrtoiKt  ilcgi  Jiijliisui  per 
lAiinu  Bisestih:  (1757),  and  a  comedy,  I'uihn  itdV 
Amijix  (Idle  tix  Miiaraiiric  (1761).  In  this  hist 
work  he  struck  a  vein  wliicli  for  a  time  [iroved  to 
be  extremely  popular,  and  lie  wrote  several  similar 
'dramatic  fairy-tales,' as  he  called  them,  the  best 
\iem^^  L' A  i(</c/lino  Bel  Verde.  But  the  best  known, 
from  Schiller's  translation  of  it,  is  Tiiniiiilut,  which 
*;ozzi  himself  borrowed  from  a  Persian  source 
(Xizanii).  His  latest  dramas  were  modelled  upon 
those  of  Calderon,  but  they  enjoyed  only  a  mode- 
rate success.  Gozzi  died  4th  Ajiril  1.S06.  In  1772- 
74  he  edited  a  complete  collection  of  hi.-  own 
works  in  10  vols. ;  but  a  fuller  edition  came  out 
at  Venice  in  14  vols,  in  1802.  See  his  Memoirs 
( 1797  ;  Eng.  trans,  by  J.  A.  Symoiids,  2  vols. 
1889).— His  brother,  CofNT  i;.\.si''.\iui  GdZZI,  w;u> 
born  at  Venice,  "JOth  December  1713.  His  lirst 
atteiii]its  in  literature,  the  translation  of  dramas 
from  the  French  for  production  in  the  theatre  of 
Sant'  Aiigelo  at  'Venice,  were  not  succe.>.sful. 
But  his  next  ventures,  the  editing  of  two  journals, 
Gazzetta  Vciictu  (from  1760)  and  Oaserralore 
Vciietu  (from  1761),  to  which  he  contributed 
very  copiously,  established  his  fame  a.s  one 
of  the  most  elegant  writers  of  literary  Italian. 
The  second  of    these  works  was  an  attempt   to 


336 


GOZZOLI 


GRACCHUS 


imitate  the  Kn^lisli  S/Hrtntor.  For  some  time 
(Jozzi  was  iiri'H,s  cciisDr  in  Venice.  He  ilied  at 
Padua,  aotli  Deoenilier  1786.  liesiile.s  tlie  wiirk.-- 
nanioil  he  also  wrote  //  Montlii  Morale  (171)0),  a 
collection  of  essays;  Lilltre  Fnuiigliiiri  (1755); 
and  (rii(t/i:io  (/ti)li  .liitir/ii  Poiti  .io/»ri  In  Modrniii 
Ciiixiii'i  i/i  Dilute  ( 175H),  a  defence  of  the  kin;;  of 
Italian  iioets  ajtainst  the  strictures  of  Kcttinelli. 
t'ollected  editions  of  his  works  were  pulilisheil  at 
Venice  (12  vols.  1794-9S,  and  22  vols.  1H12). 

<aO/.'Zoli,  ItKN-ozzo  (projierly  lieiiozzo  di  I.esc), 
an  Italian  fresco  painter,  a  jiupll  of  I'ra  Anf,'elico. 
was  liorn  at  l''lorence  alxiut  1420.  At  .Montefalco 
(14.">0  .")2)  he  painted  the  '  \'irv;iM  ;.'i»inv'  lier  (iirdle 
to  St  ThnnKis '  in  S.  Kortunato.  and  a  .>crii'>  of 
frescoes  illustratinj,'  the  life  of  St  Kraiicis,  an  An 
nunciation,  and  a  ('ruciti.\ioii,  in  the  nioniustery  of 
S.  Francesco.  At  Florence  (U.'iti  (i4)  he  adorned 
the  Palazzo  Hicoardi  with  .scriptural  sulijects.  and 
painted  various  similar  frescoes  at  San  (Ii'mijinano 
(14ti4  ti7l.  His  name  is  likewise  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  a  series  of  twenty-four  line  frescoes  in 
the  Campo  Santo  or  cemetery  at  I'isa  (14()S-,S4). 
He  died  at  Pisa  in  14i)H.  His  works  show  -^reat 
individuality  of  treatment,  true  landscape  feelin;;, 
and  >omething  of  the  naturalistic  tendencies  of  Fra 
Fili|>jio.  See  an  article  l>v  Stillman  in  the  Centiin/ 
for  Novemlier  IHHit. 

Ciraar,  I:k(^niki:  hk.  a  Huti'li  physician  and 
anatomist,  was  horn  at  .Scliooiilio\en,  .'toth  .luly 
lti4I,  studieil  at  Leyden  undi'r  |)ulMli^*  (  Dc  Ic 
l!oc),  hetter  known  as  Sylvius,  ;iiid  afterwanU  in 
France,  takin;;  the  dej;ree  of  doctor  of  medicine  at 
Angers  in  Kiti.").  The  ye.ir  after  he  .settled  at  Delft, 
where  he  juactised  until  his  death,  17tli  August 
1673.  In  \tHi:i  he  wrote  /Jis/iiilntio  Molirn  </,■ 
yatitiit  et  Usn  Surd  I'fiiirictitiri,  which  gained  him 
a  great  reputation.  In  the  c<mr.se  of  his  investiga- 
tions in  ahdomin.'il  anatomy  lu'  discovered,  in  HJ72, 
the  (Jriuilian  vesicles  or  follicles  of  tlie  female  ovum 
(see  <»\  AKV  ).  He  wrote  several  di.->ertatioiis  on  the 
organs  of  generation  in  Imth  se.xes,  which  involved 
him  in  a  prolonged  and  angry  controversy  with 
Swaiiimerdam.  His  O/nrii  Oiiiiiin  were  piililished 
at  Leyden  in  1677,  and  repuhlished  in  1680  and  1705. 

Graaflaii  Vesicles.    See  ovariotcj.mv. 

(•raaf-ReilK't.  a  town  of  Cape  Colony,  nearly 
"irdlcd  liy  the  Sunday  lUver,  185  Uiiles  N.  of  Port 
tlizalietli  hy  rail.  Founded  in  1784.  it  still  pre 
serves  the  ipiaint  and  simple  characteristics  of  the 
old  Dutch  town  ;  and  with  its  vineyards,  orchards, 
and  gardens,  in  coiitr.isi  to  the  Imrning  karroo 
])lains  that  encircle  it,  it  has  heen  well  called  'the 
gem  of  the  desert.'  The  streets  are  wide,  with 
rows  of  oak,  orange,  and  other  trees,  and  limad 
channels  of  running  water  ;  the  houses  white,  with 
overhanging  thatches  and  broad  'stoeps.'  Behind 
it  tlie  Sneeuwherg  Mountains  rise  to  a  height  of  KHM) 
to  1.500  feet.  Pop.  6000.— The  division  of  the  same 
name  ha-s  an  area  of  3792  sq.  m.,  and  a  population 
of  ahout  17,000. 

(■raoclllis,  the  name  of  a  lioman  family,  of 
the  gens  Sempronia,  which  contrihuted  several 
famous  citizens  to  the  state:  (1)  Tiherius  Sem 
pronius,  a  distinguished  oppcment  of  llannilial  in 
the  second  Punic  war,  who  fell  in  li.ittle  against 
Mago,  212  Fi.f'.,  and  was  honoured  hy  Hannihal 
with  a  splendiil  funeral.  (2)  Tiherius  Semproniii>, 
the  father  of  the  two  trilmnes  whose  fame  lia-- 
overshadowed  all  the  others.  He  was  horn  ahout 
210  B.C.,  filled  succe.s-sively  all  the  high  otHces  of 
state,  conquered  the  Celtiheri,  and  hy  his  kinilly 
treatment  of  the  S[>aniards  earned  their  lasting 
gratitude.  He  married  Cornelia,  the  youngest 
daughter  of  P.  Scipio  Africanns.  who  bore  him 
twelve  children,  of  whom  all  died  in  youth  save  a 
daughtei',  Cornelia,  who  nuirried  P.  Scipio  .\frieanus 


the  youn"er,  and  the  two  illustrious  sons  wliose 
history  follows. 

TiiiKHifs  Skmi'Ronhs  Ck.vcciiis  was  liom 
about  168  li.c.,  and  wa.s  educated  with  great  care 
by  his  excellent  mother,  his  father  having  died 
while  he  was  yet  very  voung.  He  was  already  a 
distinguished  soldier  wlien  in  137  he  .served  as 
ipmstor  to  the  army  of  the  consul  .M.incinus  in 
Spain,  where  the  remembrance  of  his  father's 
honour,  after  forty  years,  emibled  him  to  gain 
better  terms  for  tlie  2().0(K1  Human  .s(ddiers  who 
lay  at  the  mercy  of  the  Numantlnes.  Hut  the 
peace  was  repudiateil  at  Kome,  and  .Mancinus  was 
strip]ied  naked  an<l  .sent  back  to  the  Num;intines. 
as  it  in  tliat  way  the  treaty  could  be  remlered  \oid. 
The  hopeless  poverty  in  which  thousands  of  the 
Roman  citizens  were  sunk  now  l>egan  to  weigh 
upon  the  mind  of  (iracclius,  and  ere  long  he 
plunged  into  an  agitation  fi>r  reform  to  which  he 
was  soon   to  .sacrilice  his  life.      Elected  tribune  of 

the  people  in    1 3.'!.  1 nile.iv(iure<l  to  reimpose  the 

agrarian  l.iw  of  l.icinius  .sliolo.  and  after  \  lolent 
opposition  on  the  part  of  the  aristocratic  party, 
who  had  bribed  his  colleague  M.  Octavius  C;ecina, 
he  succeeded  in  passing  a  bill  to  that  ell'ect. 
Tiberius  ( Iracclius,  his  brother  Cains,  ami  his 
father-in-law  Appiiis  Claudius  were  ajipointed 
triumvirs  to  eiifoice  its  provisions.  >leantinie 
Atlalus,  king  of  Pergamus,  liicd,  and  bei|Ueatlied 
all  his  wealth  to  the  Komaii  people.  (Jracchiis 
therefore  luoposed  that  this  should  be  divided 
among  the  poor,  to  enable  them  to  procure  agri- 
cnltnial  implements  and  to  stock  their  newly- 
ac(|uiied  farms.  It  is  .said  that  he  also  intended 
to  extend  the  franchi.se,  and  to  receive  Italian 
allies  as  Komaii  citizens.  Hut  fortune  turned 
against  the  good  tiibnne.  He  was  accused  of 
having  violated  the  .sacred  character  of  the  tribune 
ship  by  the  deposition  of  C;ecina,  and  thoiisanils  of 
the  tickle  mob  deserted  their  champion  and  bene- 
factor. The  .sellish  and  unscrupulous  aristocrats 
formed  .a  ring  for  his  destruction,  a  bad  eminence 
in  which  belonged  to  P.  Corn.  Scipio  Nivsica.  In 
the  midst  of  the  next  election  for  the  trihune.slii|> 
Tiberius  (Iracclius  with  some  hundreds  of  his 
friends  was  foully  murdered. 

C.viis  SE.MfHoNifs  (Jii.vctHC.s  Was  nine  years 
younger  than  his  brother,  and  had  greater  natural 
powers  and  wider  aims.  His  brother's  death 
occurred  while  he  was  serving  in  Spain  under 
Scijiio  Africanns,  and  deterred  him  for  some  years 
from  entering  into  public  life,  but  at  length  he 
unexpectedly  returned  to  liimie.  urged  by  his 
brothers  shade  to  take  up  his  mission.  He  stood 
for  the  tribuneshiji,  and  «as  elected  in  123,  and  a 
second  time  the  year  after.  His  lii>.t  meiusnre  was 
to  renew  his  brot^ier's  agrarian  law,  which  hail  by 
the  m.achin.'itions  of  the  nobles  been  kept  in  abey- 
ance. With  passionate  earnestness  he  devoted 
himself  to  thi'  cause  of  the  poor,  >\ho.se  immediate 
misery  he  relieved  by  employing  them  upon  new 
roads  throughout  all  parts  of  Italy.  l!ut  not  all 
his  noble  devotion  to  the  real  good  of  Home  could 
save  him  from  his  brothers  fate.  Hy  an  intrigue 
of  the  .senatorial  party  his  colleague  M.  Livius 
Drilsus  was  brilieil  to  iiiidermine  the  inlluence  of 
Cains  by  far  surpa.ssing  him  in  the  libeiality  of  his 
public  measures,  and  by  his  benefits  to  the  com 
minis,  and  consequently  Caius  was  rejected  from  a 
third  tiibunesliip.  M  the  expiry  of  his  term  tlie 
senate  began  to  repeal  his  enactment.s.  Caius 
aippearlng  in  the  Forum  to  make  opposition, 
a  fearful  riot  ensued,  in  which  it  is  said  as 
many  .is  3000  of  his  partisans  were  slain.  Caius 
held  .aloof  from  the  light,  but  was  at  length  com- 
pelled to  -seek  safety  in  flight.  He  escaped  to  the 
grove  of  the  Furies  with  ,i  single  slave,  who  first 
slew    Ills   master  and   then    himself.     The   people 


J 


GRACE 


GRADUATION 


337 


saw  too  late  the  folly  of  wliioli  they  had  been 
guilty  in  aliamloniiig  their  best  friend  in  the  hour 
of  nee<l,  and  endeavoured  to  atone  for  their  crime 
by  erecting  statues  to  the  two  Ijrothers,  by  declar- 
ing sacred  the  spots  where  their  Idood  liad  been 
shed,  and  by  ottering  sacrilices  to  them  as  to 
deities.  Their  mother  survived  them  long,  and 
upon  her  toml>  tlie  Konian  peo]ile  inscribed  the 
words,  'Cornelia,  mother  of  the  Gracchi.'  Seethe 
articles  AoRAUlAN  L.vws  and  lliiMi;. 

GrilVe,  in  theology,  is  general  or  special. — 
Cuiiiiiwn  or  qeneral  grace  denotes  the  love  which 
God  has  to  all  his  creatures,  and  the  light  of  nature 
and  of  conscience  which  they  all  enjoy.  Special  or 
particuUd-  grace  is  tlie  love  which  God  has  for  his 
elect  people,  and  by  which  lie  saves  them  from 
their  sins.  Special  or  saving  grace  is  spoken 
of  as  electing,  justifying,  sanctifying  grace :  also 
as  iiniiutcd  grace — the  grace  of  Christ's  righteous- 
ne.ss  imputed  to  those  that  believe  on  him.  Grace 
is  further  elHcacious  and  irresistible  ;  and  elect 
or  believing  people  are  said  to  stand  to  God  in  the 
covenant  of  grace,  Adam's  relation  to  his  Maker 
before  the  fall  being  the  covenant  of  works. 
When  man  is  said  to  be  in  a  state  of  r/race,  it 
implies  that  he  is  in  the  enjoyment  of  this  divine 
love  and  favour.  St  Paul  dra«s  a  sharp  contrast 
(Rom.  .\i.  )  between  '  grace'  and  '  works.' 

Grace  at  Meals  was  the  custom  of  the  Jews  ; 
and  Our  Lord  'blessed'  or  'gave  thanks'  before 
distriliuting  the  loaves  and  fishes,  and  again  before 
and  after  the  Last  Supjier.  That  it  was  the  general 
practice  of  the  early  Christians  to  give  thanks, 
seemingly  at  every  meal,  is  evident  from  the  writ- 
ings of  St  Paul  and  of  the  Fathers.  The  Gelasian 
Sacramentary  {end  of  5th  century)  contains  prol)- 
ably  the  most  ancient  graces  of  the  Latin  Church 
now  extant.  At  Clifiord's  Inn  the  'acted  grace' 
consisted  in  the  raising  three  times,  in  allusion  to 
the  Trinity,  of  four  loaves,  representing  the  four 
gospels,  which  the  president  then  ))ropelled  along 
the  polished  tables  to  the  vice-chairman,  to  sym- 
bolise the  spread  of  the  gospel  to  the  heathen. 
The  canon  A'on  Nobis,  Dominc  by  William  liyrd 
(([.v. )  is  often  sung  in  England  at  public  dinners  in 
place  of  a  grace  after  meat.  The  old  college  grace, 
'  Benedictus  benedicat,'  and,  after  dinner,  '  IJene- 
dicto  beneilicatur,'  may  also  be  mentioned. 

CIrace,  William  Gilbert,  cricketer,  was  born 
18th  .July  1848,  at  Downend  near  Biistol,  fourth 
son  of  the  village  doctor  ;  was  a  very  distinguishcil 
cricketer  by  1864,  and  soon  was  by  far  the  foremost 
of  cricketers,  not  merely  playing  in  the  great  matches 
at  home  but  making  cricketing  tours  in  Canada 
and  the  United  States  ( 1871 ),  and  Australia  ( 1873). 
He  studied  medicine  mainly  at  IJarthoIomew's 
Hospital  ( 1875-78),  and  took  L.R.C.P.at  Edinburgh 
in  1879,  whereupon  he  settled  in  practice  at  Bristol 
— finding  time  also  for  many  a  brilliant  exhibition 
of  his  favourite  game.  He  received  a  testimonial 
of  £1400  in  1879,  and  in  1895,  when  he  received  one 
of  over  £.')000,  he  had  scored  a  century  a  hundred 
times.  He  published  Crirhct  in  1891,  and  resigned 
the  captaincy  of  the  Gloucestershire  eleven  in  1899. 
His  four  brothers,  all  doctors,  were  also  famous 
cricketers,  especially  (ieorge  Frederick  ( 1850-80). 
See  his  Crirhetinr/  lic/ninis'xitces  (1899). 

tlraceilieH.  a  village  5  miles  NE.  of  Ashby- 
de-la  Zoucli,  with  ruins  of  a  nunnery  and  the  manor 
where  Francis  Beaumont  (q.v. )  was  born. 

Ciracellill.  a  village  with  a  Moravian  settle- 
nu-nt  ( 174(3)  '2  miles  SW.  of  Ballymeua. 

Graces  { Lat.  Gratitc,  Gr.  Charites)  divine 
per.sonilications  of  grace,  gentleness,  and  beauty, 
usually  described  as  daughters  of  Zeus,  who  are 
given  l)y  Hesiod  as  three  in  number :  Aglaia, 
'Thalia,  and  Euphrosyne.  The  earliest  concep- 
'230 


tion  seems  to  have  been  but  one  aspect  of  Aphro- 
dite ;  the  division  into  a  plurality  of  beings  came 
later.  Originally  the  Lacedemonians  had  only  two 
Charites,  Cleta  and  Phaenna  ;  the  Athenians  aXao 
ha<l  but  Hegemone  and  Auxo.  In  the  early  ages 
the  graces  were  represented  in  elegant  dra])cry ; 
at  a  later  period  slightly  draped,  or  entirely  nu<le, 
usually  holding  each  other  by  the  han<l,  or  locked 
in  eacli  other's  embrace. 

Graokle.    See  Grakle. 

Ciil'ailicilt,   a  term  used  chielly  in  connection 

with  railways  to  signify  a  departure  of  the  line 
from  a  perfect  level.     See  Railway,  Road. 

tiradisca*  a  town  of  Austria,  on  the  Isonzo, 
•25  miles  NW.  of  Tiicste.  First  fortilicd  by  the 
Venetians  in  1478,  tJradisca,  with  its  territory, 
came  into  the  hands  of  Austria  in  1511,  and  during 
the  next  century  and  a  half  tiguriMl  frequently  in 
the  wars  between  Austria  and  Venice.  In  1647  it 
became  a  principality  of  the  emjiire,  but  lapsed  to 
the  imperial  crown  again  in  1717,  and  in  1754  was 
united  to  Giirz  (q.v. ).     Pop.  1464. 

Gradual,  an  antiphon,  introduced  into  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Mass  in  the  5th  or  6th  century,  .sung  after 
the  epistle,  and  so  called  either  from  the  altar-steps 
(gradus),  where  it  was  formerly  sung,  or  because 
it  was  sung  while  the  minister  ascended  the  steps 
of  the  Ambo  (q.v.)  where  the  gospel  was  read. 
From  Septuagesima  to  Holy  Saturday  the  'alleluia  ' 
with  which  the  gradual  is  followed  is  replaced  by  a 
mournful  chant  called  the  Trrirt.  The  words  of  the 
gradual  are  nearly  always  taken  from  the  Psalms; 
and  they  are  invariably  sung  to  '  idain  cliaunt ' 
melodies,  the  compositions  under  this  title  of  Haydn, 
Mozart,  and  others  being  graduals  in  name  only. 
These  melodies  are  contained  in  the  Gradnal  (Old 
Eng.  Gritile),  a  volume  of  ritual  music  intended 
chiefly  for  the  choir,  and  containing  all  the  plain 
chaunt  melodies  appointed  for  the  service  of  mass 
throughout  the  year. 

Gradual  Psalms,  or  Soscs  of  Degrees,  a 

name  given  both  by  the  Hebrews  aiul  in  the  Chris- 
tian service-books  to  the  fifteen  psalms,  120-134 
( 119-133  in  the  Vulgate).  The  origin  of  this  name 
is  uncertain.  The  oldest  e.xplanation  makes  it  an 
allusicm  to  the  fifteen  steps  between  the  cmirts  of 
the  temple,  on  each  of  which  a  later  rabbinical 
tradition  asserts  that  one  of  the  iisalms  was  sung  ; 
and  others,  again,  have  regarded  these  psalms 
either  as  containing  a  prophetic  allusion  to  the 
return  from  captivity,  or  as  having  been  sung  in 
the  'going  up'  from  Babylon.  But  the  tradition 
has  no  support  ajiart  from  the  Talnuul,  and  carries 
a  suggestion  of  having  been  invented  to  meet  the 
case  ;  while  the  plural  number  of  the  title,  '  goings 
up,'  is  against  the  second  explanation.  A  third 
conjecture,  which  has  more  to  recommeml  it,  sup- 
poses that  the  p.salms  were  sung  by  pilgrims  when 
going  up  to  Jerusalem  for  the  great  annual  feast.s. 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  they  are  recited  on 
all  Wednesdays  in  Lent,  except  the  last. 

Graduation.  By  the  term  graduation  is 
nu^ant  those  processes  by  which  linear  scales  and 
circles,  <n'  circular  arcs,  are  divided  into  any 
required  number  of  parts.  Such  methods  are  con- 
stantly employed  in  the  division  of  the  scales  of 
barometei-s,  thermometers,  cathetometers,  reading 
arcs  or  circles  of  theodolites,  sextants,  teIescoi)es, 
nmral  circles,  spectroscopes,  and  in  many  other 
instrument*  where  precision  and  accuracy  of 
measurement  is  necessary.  Since  any  mechanical 
process  for  executing  such  division  must  be  pre- 
ceded by  some  independent  original  gra<luation  of 
the  mechanical  instrument  itself,  it  is  obvious  that 
all  metho<ls  of  graduation  must  ultimately  depend 
upon  some  original  graduation.     The  subject  may 


338 


GRADUATION 


tlierpfoie  t)e  considered  first  in  reference  to  origiinil 
"jradimtion  ;  and  afterwards  the  reproduction,  l)_v 
hand  or  machine,  of  ori^'inally  •,'nuluated  lines  or 
arcs  may  he  dealt  with. 

The  most  cleiiieiitarv  process  in  r)n};inal  ■rrailua- 
tion  is  the  operation  of  ilividinf;  a  line  into  a  j;iven 
immher  of  eciual  parts.     Let  .VIJ  ( lij;.  1 )  lie  a  line  : 

it  is  retjuired  to 
divi<le  it  into, 
say,  seven  e<iual 
part.s.  From  A 
draw  AC,  mak- 
ing; any  conveni 
ent  an^de  with- 
Ali,  and  on  AC 
lay  oil' with  com- 
passes or  a  scale 
seven  equal  dis- 
tances from  A. 
.loin  HI),  sup- 
posing 1)  to  he 
lart    on    AC,   and 


Fig.  1. 


at    the    end    of    the    seventi 

throu;,'h  the  other  points  of  division  of  AC  draw 
lines  parallel  to  liC.  These  will  cut  AB  into 
seven  equal  parts.  In  practice,  however,  this 
method  is  not  very  accurate  and  is  not  often  em 
ployed.  In  another  method,  that  known  as  run- 
till  nil/  hiticdioii,  the  lent;th  of  half  the  line  is  laid 
otl',  liy  means  of  the  beam-compass,  from  Iwtli  ends; 
these  lengths  from  the  two  ends  should  a-^ree  in  one 
point  as  iieinj;  the  middle  ]ioint  of  the  line  ;  if  they 
do  not,  then  the  point  midway  hetween  them  is 
taken  a-s  beinj;  the  midille  point,  anil  is  found  hv 
means  of  a  pair  of  line  compasses  and  a  lens.  Eadi 
half  of  the  line  is,  liy  the  same  means,  halved 
again,  and  .so  on  until  the  required  number  of 
ilivi.--ions  is  obtained.  Similar  division  of  a  straight 
line  may  be  obtained  by  laving  oil',  by  a  pair  of 
spring-dividers,  one  after  another,  from  one  end  of 
tlie  line,  the  smallot  ji.irt  reiiuircd.  Obviously,  if 
there  is  any  error  in  the  lii-st  dist.ance  thus  laid 
down,  it  will  be  multiplied  in  the  last  in  proportion 
to  the  whole  number  of  divisions.  This  method  is 
known  as  xfrji/tini/. 

The  original  graduation  of  circles  or  of  circular 
arcs  is  a  matter  of  .some  dilKcultv,  as  it  require.s  on 
the  part  of  the  operator  such  skill,  ^latience,  and 
care  a.s  is  possesseil  by  few.  In  this  connection 
the  names  of  Craham,  Bird,  Troughton,  Kamsden, 
and  Siirims  may  be  mentioned  as  those  whose 
work  has  been  of  high  value  to  the  astronomer 
and  physicist.  The  lirst  method  which  may  be 
described  by  which  a  circle  can  be  divided  is  practi- 
cally the  same  a.s  that  of  bisection  in  the  ca.se  of 
the  straight  line.  Since  the  clunil  of  an  arc  of 
60°  is  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  circle  (the  chord 
and  two  radii  to  its  extremities  forming  an  ei|ui- 
lateral  triangle),  if  this  length  be  laid  oil'  from  any 
point  on  the  circle  an  angle  of  60'  is  thereby  deter- 
mined. The  half  of  this  angle  may  be  obtained, 
and  when  added  to  00°  forms  the  quadrant  or 
90°.  Continual  Ijisection  of  60°  gives  the  smaller 
divisions  of  degrees  and  fractions  of  a  degree. 
Troughtim's  method  chqiemls  on  an  entirely  iliHerent 
princijile.  A  cylindrical  roller  is  employed,  w  hose 
dimensions  are  such  that  in  ndling  on  its  axis  once 
round  the  outside  edge  of  the  circle  it  revolve.s  six- 
teen times.  The  edge  of  the  ndler  is  itself  divi<led 
into  sixteen  equal  parts  by  repeated  bisection.  It 
is  then  held  firmly  by  a  frame  against  the  edge  of 
the  circle,  so  that,  on  being  moved  alw.ays  tangenti- 
ally  to  the  circle,  it  revolves  on  its  axis  round  the 
e<lge  of  the  circle.  In  doing  so  marks  are  made 
on  the  edge  of  the  circle  corres|)ondiiig  to  the 
divisions  on  the  roller;  of  these  there  will  be  2.">6, 
each  interval  being  equal  to  843  minutes  of  arc. 
The  further  division  of  these  intervals  into  <legrees 
and  minutes  is  effected  by  means  of  a  sulxlividing 


sector,  placed  concentrically,  and  rolling  with  the 
roller.  Kor  the  details  of  the  mani]>ulation  of  this 
sector  reference  may  be  made  to  Tnuighton's  paper 
in  the  J'/iiluso/ihiiiit  'J'liiiisactioiin,  IKOil. 

The  reproduction,  or  copi/hii)  as  it  is  termed,  of 
graduated  straight  scales,  circles,  or  circular  arcs, 
by  cojiying  them  from  jiatterns  originallv  graduated 
with  great  accuracy,  may  l«!  iloiie  by  hand  or  by 
mechanical  contrivances.  In  cojiying  a  straight 
scale  the  'work'— i.e.  the  ]iiece  of  metal  or  other 
mateiial  whose  division  is  re<juiied  — is  laid  parallel 
to  and  llat  with  the  iiattern  whose  giadMalion  is 
copied.  \  straight-edge  is  laid  across  both,  so  ;is 
to  coincide  with  one  of  the  divisions  in  the  patterii, 
and  the  dividing-knife  is  drawn  carefully  along  the 
edge,  and  across  the  work.  In  copying  circles  the 
work  is  screwed  (irmly  ilowii  on  and  concentric 
with  the  pattern  ;  the  ilividing-knife  is  then  used 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  cojiying  straight  scales, 
being  guided  by  an  index  steel  bar,  the  edge  of 
which  Ls  exactly  coincident  with  a  radius  of  the 
circle. 

Copying  is  now  more  usually  effected  by  instru- 
mental means,  the  machines  for  this  iiurpo.se  being 
the  linear  and  circular  dividing  engines.  In  the 
linear  dividing-engine  the  ]irinclpal  jiart  is  a  care- 
fully tinned  screw,  which  rcvohcs  in  bearings  in 
two  supports.  Coniiected  with  the  screw  is  a  crank 
hamlle  anil  a  disc  whose  jdane  is  ]ierpendicular  to 
the  axis  of  the  .screw,  and  whose  flat  edge  is  divided 
into  a  number,  usually  40f)  or  .WO,  of  equal  parts. 
As  the  handle  is  turned  the  screw  rotates,  but  does 
not  move  in  the  direction  of  its  length  (it  may, 
therefore,  for  distinction  be  referred  to  as  the  lixed 
.screw).  At  the  same  time  the  disc  also  revolves, 
and  each  division  on  its  edge  ]iasses  an  index  lim- 
on  a  part  of  the  supjiort  close  to  it  ;  the  number  of 
complete  turns  and  fractions  of  a  turn  of  the  screw 
may  thus  be  easily  counted.  If,  now,  the  li.xed 
screw  pa.ss  through  a  hollow  travelling  nut  or 
screw,  the  latter  will  move  backwards  and  forwards 
according  as  the  lixed  screw  is  rotated  one  way  or 
the  other.  Thus,  e.g.,  if  the  'pilch 'of  the  fixed 
screw  be  one  millimetre,  and  the  handle  be  turned 
ten  limes  and  a  little  more,  corresponding  to  fifty- 
six  divisions  (of  which  let  there  be  .'iOO)  on  the 
graduated  edge  of  the  disc,  the  travelling-.screw, 
and  anything  there  may  be  in  connection  there- 
with, will  advance  through  10j'„''„  nim.  -i.e.  101 12 
mm.  The  handle  is  so  connected  with  a  ratchet- 
wheel  that  the  lixed  .screw  can  only  be  rotated  in 
one  direction,  so  that  the  travelling-.screw  can  only 
travel  in  one  direction,  usually  from  left  to  right. 
Attached  to  the  travelling-screw  is  the  dividing- 
apparatus,  which  is  a  light  frame  suiqiorting  a 
vertically-placed  steel  needle,  with  a  line,  hard 
point,  and  ca]>able  of  a  to  and-fro  niotion  in  a  hori- 
zontal line  at  right  angles  to  the  lixed  screw.  This 
needle  serves  jls  a  marker  whereby  divisions  may 
be  made  on  any  object  whose  graduation  is  desired. 
I-'or  instance,  to  divide  a  given  length  into  a  certain 
number  of  equal  parts,  the  travelling-screw  is 
allowed  to  advance,  by  turning  to  the  rei|uisite 
amount,  .so  that  the  ]ioint  of  the  needle,  starting 
from  one  end  of  the  line,  moves  through  a  distance 
ei|nal  to  one  of  the  equal  jiarts.  A  mark  is  then 
made  w  ith  the  needle  ;  the  travelling-screw  is  again 
advanced  through  precisely  the  same  ilistjuice,  and 
another  mark  is  made:  tills  juocess  is  continued 
until  the  whole  length  is  divided.  The  length  of 
mark  made  by  the  steel  imiiit  may  be  adjusted, 
within  certain  limits,  by  increasing  or  decreasing, 
by  screws,  the  range  of  the  marking-point.  In 
addition  to  this,  however,  it  is  desirable  in  some 
cases  to  make  every  tenth  m.ark  longer  than  the 
others,  exceiiting  the  fifth,  which  may  be  inter- 
mediate. This  is  effected  by  a  wheel  whose  cir- 
cumference is  cut  up  by  rectangular  notches,  into 


GRADUATION 


GRAFENBERG 


339 


which  one  part  of  tlie  frame  lioldinj;  tlie  needle  tits 
when  at  the  end  of  its  possilile  raii^e  of  motion  ; 
every  tenth  notch  beini;  deciier  than  tlie  otliei's 
(except  the  fifth  as  above),  the  ran<;e  of  markin" 
is  longer  in  tiiis  case  than  the  others.  This  wheel 
is  turned  by  ratchet-work  in  the  to-and-fro  motion 
of  the  marking-point.  The  carriage  attached  to 
the  travelling-screw  may  also  support  a  small 
reading  microscope  :  thus  the  linear  dividing-engine 
may  be  used  to  test  with  great  accuracy  the  dis- 
tance between  two  points,  each  lying  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  cross-wires  in  the  field  of  view  ;  all 
that  is  necessary  is  to  focus  one  of  the  jioints,  count 
the  number  of  whole  and  fractional  turns  of  the 
screw  required  to  bring  the  second  point  into  focus, 
and  thus  the  distance  may  be  obtained. 

For  the  purpose  of  <lividing  circles  the  circular 
dividing-engine  is  employed.  This  instrument  was 
lirst  constructed  bv  Ramsden,  afterwards  im]iroved 
by  Troughton,  anil  more  recently  by  Simnis.  The 
essential  features  of  a  circular  ilividing-engine  are 
a  circular  plate  carefully  divided  Ijy  original  gradua- 
tion, and  capable  of  rotation  on  its  axis;  a  tangent- 
screw,  working  in  a  ratched  edge  of  the  circle,  and 
thus  capable  of  turning  it  through  any  required 
angle  ;  a  dividing-knife  worked  radially,  so  that, 
when  the  tangent-screw  turns  the  circle  through 
successive  equal  angles,  radial  lines  may  be  drawn 


Fig.  2.  — Dividing-engine. 

on  any  work  laid  on  the  divided  circle.  Fig.  2 
rejiresents  one  form  of  the  instrument.  A,  A 
is  the  circle,  usually  i  or  5  feet  in  diameter, 
divided  at  its  edge,  and  ratched  into  teeth  at 
its  lower  edge,  C.  The  axis  of  the  circle  is  in 
the  column,  E.  TT'  is  the  tangent-screw;  T',  a 
handle  for  turning  it  ;  T,  a  iliscshaped  head,  the 
divisions  on  the  circumference  of  wliich  allow  of 
the  number  of  whole  and  fractional  turns  of  the 
screw  being  counted.  The  carriage,  I),  in  which 
works  the  dividing-knife  (not  seen  in  the  figure), 
may  be  adjusted  to  diH'erent  heights  liy  the  screws 
on  the  pillars,  1',  which  support  the  pandlel  beams 
on  which  the  dividing-knife  carriage  moves ;  it 
may  also  be  adjusted  to  circles  of  dili'erent  radii 


by  moving  the  carriage  along  these  l)eams  to  the 
requisite  amount  from  the  centre.  When  in  action 
the  tangent-screw  is  pressed  against  the  ratched 
edge  of  the  circle  by  a  handle,  K,  with  an  eccentric 
knob.  This  ])ressure  may,  of  course,  be  relieved 
when  the  screw  is  not  in  use.  The  tangent-screw 
is  sometimes  turned  by  a  treadle,  or  even  by  clock- 
work. Its  pitch  being  accurately  known,  the  an'de 
through  which  the  circle  turns,  due  to  one  revolu- 
tion of  the  tangent-.screw,  as  noted  by  the  divided 
head,  T,  is  determined  once  for  all  for  any  machine. 
The  work  to  be  divided  is  fixed  down  on  and  con- 
centric with  the  circle,  A  ;  a  mark  is  made  as  origin 
with  the  dividing-knife,  the  tangent-screw  is  then 
made  to  turn  the  circle  through  one  of  the  smallest 
divisions,  and  another  mark  is  made ;  another  equal 
turn  of  the  screw  is  made  and  another  mark  cut  on 
the  circle,  and  so  on  until  the  division  of  the  whole 
circle  is  completed.  This  is  the  method  by  which 
the  large  circles  used  in  astronomical  instruments 
are  graduated,  and  such  is  the  perfection  to  which 
these  have  been  brought  that  the  circular  dividing- 
engine  may  be  looked  ujion  as  being  one  of  the 
most  perfect  of  scientific  measuring  instruments. — 
For  graduation  in  universities,  .see  Degrees,  Uni- 
versity. 

dradiis  ad  Pariiassuin  (Lat.,  'a  step  to 
Parnassus  ' ),  a  dictionary  of  prosody  used  in  making 
Latin  and  Greek  verse.  The 
best  known  is  the  Latin  one  by 
John  Carey,  LL.D.  (1756-1826), 
teacher  of  the  classics  and  author 
of  .school-books,  whicli  was  pub- 
lished in  1824. 
Ciripcia.    Magx.\.       See 

>L\(;.NA  GiLECIA. 

tJraefz,    Heinrich,    Jewish 

theologian,  was  born  in  1817  at 
Xions  in  I'osen,  and  studieil  at 
Breslau,  where  in  1854  he  be- 
came teacher  in  the  Jewish  sem- 
inary, and  in  1870  also  extra- 
ordinary professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity. He  died  7th  September 
1891.  He  wrote  commentaries 
on  Ecclesiastes,  Song  of  Solomon, 
Joel,  the  Psalms,  and  a  work  on 
Gnosticism  and  Judaism  ;  but  is 
remembered  by  his  great  Ge- 
sr/u'c/itc  dcr  Jttdcn  (11  vols.  1853- 
75;  4th  ed.  1892;  abridged  in  3 
vols.  1888-89  and  translated  in  5 
by  Bella  Lciwy  in  1891-92). 

Ciraf.   AltTilto,   Italian  poet 

of  Gernuvn  extraction,  was  born 

at    Athens    in    1848,    sjient    his 

youth  in  Koumania,  studied  law 

at  Naples,  and  in   1874  began  to 

lecture  on  law  in  the  University 

of  Kome.     Meanwhile  he  became 

eminent  as  a  poet,  has  published 

several    volumes    of    verse,    and 

numerous  works  on  liteiary  liistory ,  myths,  legends ; 

and  since  1882  is  Professor  of  Italian  literature  at 

Turin. 

draft  Heinrich,  professor  of  theology  at  Leipzig, 
studied  under  Keuss  at  Strasburg,  and  died  IBtli 
July  1869.  His  name  is  identifie<l  with  the  theory 
of  the  Pentateuch  taught  by  Keuss  in  1833  that 
tlie  '  Priestly  Document '  of  the  Pentateuch  was 
written  after  the  exile.     See  Pentateuch. 

Ciriireilberg.  a  village  in  the  north-west  cornei 
of  Austrian  Silesia,  50  miles  N.  of  OIniiitz.  It  is 
celebrated  as  the  spot  where  the  water-cure  (see 
HvuROPATHV)  was  introduced  in  1826  bv  Vincenz 
Priessnitz  ( 1799-1851 ).  It  still  is  visited  "yearly  by 
some  1500  persons. 


340 


GRAFFITI 


GRAFTING 


Graftiti  (Ital.  ginJJUo,  'asciiitchiiij,'),  or  Wai.I.- 
SCKIBBl.lNiis,  the  ntiiiK' f;iven  to  certain  chisses  of 
mural  insoiiiitions  ami  ilrawinj^s  foiiml  at  I'oiiipeii, 
Koine,  ami  other  aiicienl  cities  in  Italy.  Thev  are 
generally  scrateheil,  with  a  stylus  or  similar  shiirp 
instrument,  or  scrawled,  with  rc<l  chalk  or  char<'iml, 
iin  walls,  iloor  i)(>sts,  and  iiorticoiiillai's,  and  seem 
to  he  the  WDrk  of  idle  sihonllmys,  limnnei's,  trillei's, 
and  the  like  'donothin;; '  folk;  hut  some  were 
executed  with  more  serious  intention.  Accordinj;ly 
we  liml  that  the  suhjecls  that  oftenest  occur  are 
doggerel  verses,  quotations  from  the  poets,  amatory 

Fig.  1. — Specimen  of  Gratfiti — Auije  amat  Arabieiium 
(' Auge  is  in  love  with  Arabienus'). 

effusions,  names  with  o]i|iridiricins  e])ithets  attached, 
Coai"se  and  often  ohscene  words  and  li^^ures,  ru«le 
caricatures,  especially  of  jjladiators,  of  which  lig.  2 
is  a  specimen,  and  other  instances  of  the  thousand 
ami  odil  ways  in  which  the  impulses  of  the  restless 
idler  jirompt  him  to  express  his  fancies.  Amongst 
the  more  serious  examples  there  are  electioneering 
admonitions,  playhills,  and  similar  pulilic  announce 
inents,  philosophic  apophthegms,  notices  of  house- 
hold events,  time-tables  of  doniesti(^  work,  .and  ex- 
clamations and  sentences  of  even  tr.ajjic  import. 
These  scrihhlings  ,aiul  rude  ilrawinj;s  derive  import- 
ance from  the  fact  that,  like  I'mir/i  ami  similar  comic 
journals,  they  serve  as  an  admirahle  index  to  the 
current  life  of  the  peoiile,  especially  in  I'onipeii, 
where  the  greatest  numfier  of  them  have  heen  dis- 
covered. Without  them  we  should  have  a  far  less 
ailecpiate  idea  of  the  street-life  of  the  ancient 
Koman  people.     They  also  throw  much  light  upon 

the  pliriuseology 
and  iili(mi  of  the 
vernacular 
spoken  towards 
the  end  of  the  1st 
century  .\.l>.  in 
the  cities  of 
southern  Italy. 
Three  languages, 
or  rather  three 
alph.aliets,  were 
used  —  La  t  in, 
< ;  r  e  e  k,  a  n  d 
Oscan.  Of  these 
Latin  w.os  much 
the  most  com- 
monly employed. 
In  It(tme  ffi-ajfi/i 
have  heen  found 
on  .some  of  the 
great  liuildings 
of  the  ancient 
city,  as  the  Palace 
of  the  Ciesai's, 
Nero's  Golden  House,  and  toniI»s  on  the  Via 
Latina,  as  well  as  in  the  Cataconihs.  These  last 
consist  for  the  most  part  of  lists  of  mere  names, 
pious  prayers  and  wishes,  and  invocations  to  the 
martyi's.  The  first  collection  of  ijnifliti  from 
Pompeii  was  puhlislieil  hy  Bishop  Cliristopher 
Wordsworth  in  1837,  and  is  reprinte<l  in  his  ^V/.s- 
irl/aiiics  (1879).  All  that  have  been  iliscovered 
anil  jiublished  up  to  the  present  time  are  to  be 
f<mnil  in  vol.  iv.  of  CurjK  In.srr.  I.al.  ( 1871,  edited 
by  Zangemeistcr  under  the  title  Iti.siri/ilioiics 
I'ltriettiriii' Poinpcitnitr,  Hcrciilriiiciises,  et  St/ihiiinn  ) 
and  the  supplementary  volume.  The  inscriptions 
in  the  Oscan  charactei-s,  of  which  there  are  two 
varieties,  as  there  likewise  are  of  both  the  Greek 


Fig.  2. — Gladiator. 


and  the  Latin,  are  not  contained  in  the  collections 
just  quoted  ;  but  they  will  be  found  in  l-'iorelli's 
Iiisrr,  Osciinnn  Afioijrujiliii  (lS,-)4).  Compare  also 
(iarnicci's  (hiiffili  i/c  J'ninjici  (Paris,  1S">6),  and 
Kiliiiliiinih  l!irieii\  vol.  ex. 

liriifl'iltlla  a  town  of  Klieiiish  Prussia,  12  miles 
K.  bv  S.  of  Diisseldorf,  with  cotton  .iml  iron  manu 
f:u-tures.      Pop.  Gf)9!». 

Ol'ariiim.  a  mode  of  ]>ropagation  a]iplicalile  to 
all  kindr-  lit  trees  ami  shrubs,  and  even  herbaceous 
plants  whose  tissues  are  lirm.  The  operation  con- 
sists in  the  in.serting  of  a  branch  or  bml  (si-ion)  of 
one  tree  into  some  part  of  another  t ri-e  ( .v/w7.' ),  so  a.s 
to  bring  aliout  a  union  of  the  two.  The  practice  of 
grafting  is  dijulitle.ss  one  of  ;;reat  antiquity,  and  its 
origin  may  in  all  probability  be  traced  to  a  natural 
proce.ss  which  is  of  frequent  occurrence.  It  luu- 
been  observed  that,  when  two  branches  of  a  tree 
or  branches  and  even  the  stems  of  kindred  trees 
growing  closely  together  overliip  and  touch  each 
other,  the  bark  becomes  wounded  or  abraded,  and 
the  returning  juices  exuding  from  the  ruptured 
ves.sels  in  the  A/lniniiini  (<j.v.)  produce  granula- 
tions by  which  a  perfect  incorporation  of  structure 
is  etl'ected,  an<l  the  ]>arts  become  one.  The  (diject 
of  grafting  is,  first,  to  perpetuate  and  increase  the 
stock  of  varieties  and  sun  varieties  of  fruit  trees, 
the  innate  qualities  of  which  cannot  be  transmitted 
with  certainty  to  their  prof.'eny  by  seeds,  and  which 
would  be  nu)re  slowly  and  less  surely  multiplied  by 
any  other  artificial  mode  of  proii.'Lgalion ;  secondly, 
to  increase  and  accelerate  the  truilfuliiess  of  fruit 
trees — for,  the  elaborated  sap  being  impeded  in  it> 
descent  at  the  junction  of  the  scion  witii  the  stock, 
the  proce.ss  of  maturation  is  thereby  |iromoted,  ami 
fertility  more  lar^idy  and  quickly  induced.  (Jld 
and  unfrnilful  trees,  whose  stenis  and  roots  are 
vigorous  and  healthy,  may  be  rendered  fruitful  in 
the  coui-se  of  two  or  three  yeai-s  by  having  their 
tops  cut  back  and  re-grafted  with  .scions  from  a 
fruitful  and  healthy  tree,  tirafting  is  also  em 
l)loyed  for  the  purpose  of  ilwarling  fruit-trees,  while 
at  the  same  time  abnormally  increasinj;  their  fruit 
fulness.  This  is  attained  partly  by  the  selection  of 
a  stock  which  exerts  a  restrictive  inlhience  on  the 
scion,  and  by  double  grafting— i.e.  grafting  twice 
or  oftener  at  will.  \'ery  young  trees  are  thus 
rcndereil  prodigiously  fruitful,  .and  are  in  demand 
for  the  purjiose  of  pot  culture  and  planting  in 
orchard-houses.  Trees  damaged  by  wind  or  other 
wise  lia\e  theii'  injuries  repaired  by  ^'rafting,  .ami 
those  that  are  uneciually  balanced  may  be  brought 
to  perfect  symmetry  by  the  judicious  insertion  of 
scions  in  the  ill  furnished  parts. 

In  grafting  it  is  ]>articularly  to  be  attended  to 
th.at  the  (illnir)iiiiii  of  the  .scion  is  brought  into  con- 
tact with  that  of  the  stock.  The  hard  wood  of  the 
oiu-  never  unites  with  that  of  the  other,  remaining 
separate  and  marking  the  place  of  the  oi)eration 
even  in  the  oldest  trees.  For  .scions  or  gTafts, 
pieces  of  about  six  to  eight  inches  long  are  ".'enerally 
taken  from  the  shoots  of  the  previous  summer,  witii 
several  buds ;  but  portions  of  shoots  of  two  years  old 
are  sometimes  successfully  emidoyed.  The  time 
for  grafting  is  in  .spiing,  ii>  soon  jis  the  sap  begins 
to  appear.  The  .scion  should,  if  possible,  be  taken 
from  a  he.althy  and  fruitful  tree,  but  .scions  from 
the  extremities  of  lateral  branches  are  more  likely  to 
liecome  speedily  fruitful  than  those  from  the  upper- 
most branches,  where  growth  is  most  vigorou-s. 
The  scion  should  be  kejit  for  a  few  days  before 
grafting,  so  that  the  stock  may  rather  exceed  it, 
not  only  in  vigour,  but  in  the  progiess  of  its 
spring  growth:  ami  for  this  pur]io.se  it  may  be 
plaeeil  in  the  ground,  in  a  rather  dry  soil,  sheltered 
from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  .Scions  may  be 
kept  for  some  time,  and  easily  carried  to  a  dLstance, 


GRAFTING 


ORAFTON 


341 


Yvj.  1.— Cleft-'rafting 


by  sticking  their  lower  end  into  a  potato  or  moist 
moss  or  clay.  The  end  should  always  be  freshly 
cut  oft"  when  the  scion  is  to  be  used.  There  are 
various  modes  of  grafting. 
r/r/f-ym/t,,,,/  dig.  1)  Is 
very  commonly  practised 
when  the  stock  is  veiy  con- 
siderably thicker  than  the 
-cion.  The  stock,  bein"  cut 
nver,  is  cleft  ilown,  and  the 
graft,  cut  into  the  shape  of 
a  wedge  at  its  lower  end  by 
a  sharj)  tliin  knife,  is  in- 
serted into  the  cleft.  This 
mode  of  grafting  is  particu 
larly  applicable  to  branches 
of  lar^'e  trees,  when  the  introduction  of  a  new  variety 
of  fruit  or  increaseil  fruitfulness  is  sought. — Croic/i- 
<jr(ifti)i(j  is  used  for  still  tliicker  sto<-ks,  whicli  are 
cut  across,  and  then  cleft  down  by  two  clefts 
crossing  one  another  at  right  angles,  two  scions 
bein"  inserted  close  to  the  bark  in  each  cleft ;  or 
no  cleft  at  all  is  made,  and  any  desired  num- 
ber of  scions  obliquely  cut  away  on  one  side 
are  siiiijily  inserted 
between  the  bark  and 
wood  of  the  stock,  the 
operation  in  this  case 
being  deferred  till  the 
bark  readily  parts  fiom 
tliewood.  In  this  kind 
of  grafting  a  longi- 
tudinal slit  in  the  bark 
of  the  stock,  o]iposite 
to  each  graft,  is  ad- 
vantageous. —  TijliriHC- 
fjrafting  (tig.  2)  is' the 
mode  most  commonly 
practised  for  young 
trees  in  nui-series.  For 
this  it  is  necessary 
that  the  stock  and  the 
scion  should  be  of  not 
veiydirt'erent  thickness. 
A  slit  or  a  very  nanow  angular  incision  is  made 
in  the  centre  of  the  stock  downwards,  and  a 
similar  one  in  the  scion  upwards,  both  having 
been  first  cut  obliquely  at  conesponding  angles; 
and,  tlie  tongue  thus  made  in  the  scion  being 
inserted  into  the  incision  in  the  stock,  they  are 
fastened  veiy  closely  an<l  thorouglily  togetlier"  In 
saddUgrufting  tlie  end  of  the  stock  is  cut  into 
the  form  of  a  wedge,  and  the  scion  is  atiixeil  to 
it,  the  base  of  the  scion  having  been  cut  or  slit  up 
for  the  pui-pose. — Sliuiililer-gmfting,  used  cliietly  for 
ornamental  trees,  is  performed  Ijy  cutting  oliliipiely, 
and  then  cutting  across  a  small  part  at  top  of  the 
stock,  so  as  to  form  a  shoulder,  the  scion  being  cut 
to  tit  it. — Peg-griifliiKf,  not  now  much  in  use,  is 
accomplished  by  making  the  end  of  the  scion  into 
a  peg,  and  boring  the  top  of  the  stock  to  receive 
it. 

Whichever  of  these  motles  of  grafting  is  adopted 
the  graft  must  be  fastened  in  its  idace  by  tying, 
for  which  puipose  a  strand  of  bast-matting  is 
commimly  usetl.  The  access  of  air  is  further  pre- 
venteil  by  means  of  clay,  which  has  been  woiKed 
uji  with  a  little  chopped  liay.  luuse  or  cow  dung, 
and  water,  and  which  is  applied  to  the  place  of 
junction  so  as  to  form  a  liall,  tapering  both  upwards 
and  downwards.  In  France  a  conipositi(m  of  '2S 
I)arts  black  pitch,  28  Burgundy  pitch,  16  yellow- 
wax,  14  tallow,  and  14  sifted  ashes  is  generally 
used  instead  of  clay.  The  progress  of  the  buds 
shows  the  union  ofthe  graft  and  stock,  but  it  is 
not  generally  safe  to  remove  the  clav  in  less  than 
three  months ;  and  the  ligatures,  although  then 
loosened,   are   allowed   to  remain   for  some    time 


Fig.  2. 

!.  tongue-graftiug ;  b, 
ligature  applied;  c, 
clay  applied. 


do.  with 
do.   with 


longer.      From  some   kinds   of  fniit-trees  fruit  is 
often  obtained  in  the  second  year  after  grafting. 

Budding  (q.  v. )  is  in  principle  the  same  as  graft- 
ing ;  and  Jtidcgraftiiig  is  a  kind  of  budding  in 
whicli  a  ring  of  bark  with  one  or  more  buds  is 
used  instead  of  a  single  bud,  and,  a  stock  of 
similar  thickness  having  been  cut  over,  a  corre- 
sponding ring  of  bark  is  removed,  and  the  foreign 
one  sul)stituted.  This  is  commonly  performed  in 
spring,  when  the  bark  parts  readily,  and  is  one  of 
the  surest  modes  of  grafting. — Iiiarrhing  or  graft- 
ing by  (t]>]iro<iil(,  in  «hich  the  scion  is  not  cut 
oft  from  its  parent  stem  until  it  is  united  to  the 
new  stock,  is  practised  chieHy  in  the  case  of  some 

t  valuable  shrubs  kept  in  pots,  in  which  success  by 
the  ordinaiy  methods  is  \ery  doubtful. 

An  etiect  is  produced  by  the  stock  on  the  scion 
which  it  nourishes  analogous  to  that  of  a  change 
of  soil ;  much  of  the  vigour  of  a  strong  healthy 
stock  is  also  communicated  to  a  scion  taken  even 
from  an  aged  tree.  There  is,  moreover,  in  .some 
degiee,  an  influence  of  the  elaborated  sap  descend- 
ing from  the  sci(jn  on  the  stock  which  supports  it. 
An  iniiiortant  part  of  the  practical  skill  of  the 
gardener  or  nurseryman  consists  in  the  selection  of 
the  proper  kinds  of  stocks  for  different  species  and 

;  varieties  of  fruit-trees.  The  stock  and  scion,  how- 
ever, must  not  be  of  sjjecies  extremely  dissimilar. 
No  credit  is  due  to  the  statements  of  ancient 
authors  about  vines  grafted  on  fig-trees,  apples  on 
planes,  &c.,  the  semblance  of  which  can  only  have 
been  brought  about  by  some  delusive  artilice :  for 
all  attempts  at  grafting  fail  except  among  plants  of 
the  same  genus,  or  at  least  of  the  same  natural 
family. 

Herbaceous  plants  with  lirm  stems,  as  dahlias, 
are  sometimes  giafte<l.  Some  kinds  of  idants,  of 
small  size,  in  pots,  are  idaced  in  moist  liothouses 
or  hotbeds,  under  bell-glasses,  whilst  the  junction 
of  tlie  scion  and  stock  is  going  on,  w  hich  in  these 
circumstances  takes  place  veiy  surely  and  \ery 
expeditiously.  But  an  accumulation  of  too  much 
moisture  under  the  bell-glass  must  be  guarded 
against. 

CiraftOU.  a  rising  town  of  Xew  South  \\'ales, 
350  miles  XE.  of  Sydney,  situated  on  both  sides 
of  the  Clarence  Kiver,  and  4.5  miles  from  the  sea. 
The  river  is  navigable.  The  agricultural  district 
yields  sugar  and  tobacco ;  and  gold,  silver,  coal, 
and  copper  are  found.  Poji.  4770.  — Grafton  is  also  a 
town  of  5000  inhabitants,  9  miles  SE.  of  Worcester  in 
Ma.ssachusetts  :  and  of  a  railway  centre  (pop.  3100) 
in  West  Virginia,  99  miles  SE.  of  Wheeling. 

Grartoii,  Arou.sTr.s  Heney  Fitzeoy,  Dike 
i)F,  statesman,  a  descemlant  of  Charles  II.,  was 
born  1st  October  173.),  and  in  1757  succeeded  his 
grandfather,  the  second  duke  (see  Charles  II.). 
He  first  came  to  the  front  in  political  life  in  1763  in 
the  opposition  to  Bute,  and  in  July  1705  he  took 
ofhce  as  Secretary  of  State  luider  KoeUingham.  but 
resigned  in  the  following  .May.  Two  months  later 
Pitt  became  premier  and  Earl  of  Chatham,  making 
Crafton  Fii-st  Lord  of  the  Trea-sury  ;  but  in  conse- 
ipience  of  Chatham's  ccmtinucil  illness  (Jrafton  was 
com)ielled  to  take  upon  his  own  shouldei's  the  re- 
sponsible duties  of  (lead  of  the  government  from 
September  1767.  He  resij;ned  in  1770,  accepted 
the  otlice  of  Lord  I'rivy  Seal  under  Lord  Xortli  in 
1771,  and  filled  it  until  November  1775.  When  the 
new  Kockingham  ministry  was  formed  in  March 
1782  Grafton  took  his  old  post  as  Loril  I'livy  Seal, 
but  resigned  office  thirteen  months  later.  He  tiled 
at  EusKm  Hall.  Sutlolk,  14tli  March  ISll.  In- 
dident,  vacillating,  somewhat  obstinate  in  his 
political  life,  and  openly  immoral  in  his  private 
life,  Grafton  was  the  target  at  which  Junius  (q.v.) 
shot  some  of  his  sharpest  invectives. 


342 


GRAGNANO 


GRAHAM 


(irafCnsno,  a  town  of  Italy,  '20  miles  by  rail 
SE.  of  Naples,  with  manufactures  of  wine  ami 
macaroni.     I'op.  8611. 

Graham,  the  name  of  .in  illustrious  Scottish 
fnniily  of  Anglo  Norman  origin,  who  settled  in 
Scotland  during  the  I'Jth  century.  A  Sir  William 
de  (Ir.'eme  received  from  David  I.  the  lands  of  Al>er- 
corn  and  Dalkeith,  and  extensive  grants  of  estates 
were  made  to  his  descendants  hv  \Villiam  the  I.ion, 
Alexander  I!,  and  III.,  and  by  Iving  Uobert  Itruce. 
One  of  their  chiefs.  Sir  tlolin  de  (Iraiiam  of  Dundall, 
was  the  bosom  friend  of  the  patiiot  Wallace,  and 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Kalkirk,  duly  ■-'•2,  12i)S. 
From  the  war  of  independence  downwards  the 
(Irahams  have  taken  a  prominent  j)ar(  in  the  public, 
and  especially  in  the  warlike,  ad'au's  of  the  country. 
PatricK  (iraham  of  Kincardine  was  made  a  peer  in 
14.51  under  the  title  of  Lord  tiraham.  His  grand- 
son was  created  Earl  of  Montrose  by  .James  IV. 
( l.V>4-.">),  and  fell  with  his  sovereign  at  the  battle  of 
Flocblen.  The  third  earl  twice  held  the  ollice  of 
High  Treasurer  of  Scotland,  and  was  api)ointed 
Lord  Chancellor  in  l.'i9!t.  On  resigning  that  ollice 
he  was  appointed  \"iceri)V  of  Scotland  for  life.  His 
grandson,  the  lifth  earl  and  hi'st  .Marijuis  of  Mon- 
trose, is  the  glory  of  the  House  of  Orabam  ( see  Mox- 
TltosK).  His  eldest  surviving  s(m,  who  w.os  born  in 
1631  an<l  died  in  l(i!>!),  was  termed  the  '  (lood  Mar- 
(|uis.'  He  w.os  peculiarly  andable  in  his  ilisposition, 
and  deligbteil  in  the  (|uiet  and  ]ieace  of  priv.ile  life. 
The  fourth  mari|uis  was  appointeil  High  Admintl  of 
Scotlanil  in  ITO.i  and  President  of  the  Council  in 
1706.  He  w.-vs  a  lirm  snp)iorter  of  the  union  between 
England  and  Scotland,  and  was  created  Duke  of 
Montrose  in  1707.  He  held  the  ollice  of  Keeper  of 
the  Privy  Seal  under  (^neen  Anne  (1709-13),  was 
.appointed  Secretary  of  St.ite  for  Scotland  by  tieiu'ge 
I.  in  1717,  .and  a  secoml  time  Keeper  of  the  Oreat 
Seal  in  Scotland.  He  wasChancelli>rof  the  \iniver- 
sity  of  (il.a.xgow,  .and  dieil  in  17-1'2.  His  grandson,  the 
third  duke,  held  in  succession,  under  the  ministry  of 
William  Pitt,  the  otlices  of  (me  of  the  Lords  of  the 
Treasury,  Paym.a-ter  of  the  Forces,  one  of  the  Com- 
nussionersof  the  Indi.an  lioard.  Master  of  the  Horse, 
Lord  .Justice-general  of  Scotland,  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade,  and  .Joint  Paym.oster  of  the  Forces. 
He  w.os  also,  like  his  father.  Chancellor  of  the  univer- 
sity of  ( Jla-sgow,  and  Lord-lieutenant  of  the  counties 
of  Stirling  and  Dumbarton,  in  which  he  had  great 
inlluence.  '  Few  individu.als,'  s.ays  Sir  Nathaniel 
Wraxall,  '  however  distinguished  by  birth,  talents, 
parliament.aiy  interest,  or  iiublic  services,  h.ave 
.attained  to  more  splendid  employments,  or  have 
arriveil  at  greater  honours.'  He  <lied  in  1836.  The 
fourth  duke  was  Lord  Stew.ard  of  the  Household, 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lanc.xster,  and  Post- 
master-general. He  dieil  in  1S74.  The  fanuly 
honoui-s  and  estates  were  then  inherited  by  his  third 
and  only  surviving  son,  the  lifth  duke.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  the  title  of  the  family  is  not  taken 
from  the  town  of  Montrose,  but  from  their  hereditary 
estate  of  '.Vuhl  .Montrose,'  which  David  Craham 
receiveil  from  Robert  Hruce  in  exchange  for  the 
lands  of  Cardross  in  Dund)artiinsliire. — The 
Grahams  of  Fintrj-,  Duntrune,  liichbrakie,  Esk, 
Menteith,  Netherbv,  and  Norton  Conyers  are 
minor  branches  of  tlie  family.  See  Dr  .James  Tay- 
lor's Great  motoric  Fumilics  of  Scotland  ( 1887). 

Gralinin.  Dot:r..\i,,  the  literan-  liellman  of 
Gl.aigow,  was  lK)rn  in  the  vill.age  of  Kaploch,  near 
Stirling,  aUint  17'24.  He  wa.s  a  hunchback,  and 
from  an  early  .age  laboured  irregularly  a.s  a  farm- 
servant.  He  followed  Prince  Charlie's  army  on  its 
southern  march  to  Derby,  apparently  .as  a  kind  of 
sutler,  and  made  his  way  home  -oon  after  the  dis- 
aster at  Cullo<len.  Five  months  later  he  hail  his 
metrical    narrative   ready,    which,   grotesque    .and 


]>itiful  doggerel  as  it  is,  lia.s  no  mean  value  as  a 
record  of  tlie  fre>h  observations  of  an  honest  and 
not  unintelligent  eye-witness.  Soi>n  after  this  be 
took  np  his  iibode  in  (ilasgow,  where  his  ready  wit 
soon  made  him  something  of  a  public  character, 
but  he  still  plied  his  calling  as  a  prosperous  cliap- 
num  or  jieitlar.  Here  al.so  he  made  himself  the 
|)<>etical   chronicler  of   jia-ssing  events,   .and   wrote 

many  of  the  chap-1 ks  which  he  sold,  and  which 

quickly  became  extraordinarily  popular.  He  was 
appointed  '  skellat '  bellman  ( for  ordinary  announce- 
ments) of  the  city,  not  earlier  than  1770;  but 
there  is  no  mention  of  his  name  in  the  town- 
cmincil  records.  He  died  iOth  July  1779.  Many  of 
his  rambling  ballads  and  jirose  chap-books  were 
anonymous,  and  are  now  impossible  to  trace ;  of 
the  former  the  liest  known  are  ./n/iti  llielaxilman's 
liemarl.x  on  Glastjuir  and  'J'iiniiiii.v/iil,r.  His  num- 
erous prose  chap-bo(d<s  are  both  humorous  and 
i^ood-humoured,  but  never  touch  the  regi<ui  of  the 
literary,  and  are  moreover  disligureil  by  a  constant 
coarseness  and  by  occasional  gro.ssncss  of  obscenity 
which  ailmit  of  no  extenuation. 

The  most  popular  wire  The  Whole  Proceedingt  of 
Jockejt  ttiul  Maiii/»t  P(idit;i  from  Cork,  Lothian  Tom,  The 
Hialorii  of  John  Cheap  the  Chapman,  the  Comieal  and 
Witt;/  Joken  of  John  Falkirk  the  Merr;/  Piper,  Leper  the 
Tailor,  John  Falkirk's  Cariehet,  Comical  Hiilury  of 
Simple  John  and  hin  Tviire  Mi»fortiines,  and  (leorye 
Ilnrhnnan.  lioth  Scott  and  Motherwell  meant  to  have 
edited  some  of  Dougal  (irahani's  work.  This  wa.s  finally 
done  ill  a  coin[>letc  edition  in  two  haiid.somc  volumes  l>y 
George  .MaclJrogor  (Glasgow,  1883). 

Graliaiii,  Sin  J.\me.s  Robkrt  George,  Eng- 
lish statesman,  was  horn  at  Netherby,  in  Cumber- 
land, June  1,  1792,  and  educated  ,al  Westminster 
.and  (Queen's  College,  Candnidge.  As  juivale 
secretary  to  the  Hritish  ndnisier  in  Sicily  in 
1813,  he  h.ad  a  hand  in  the  negotiations  with 
Murat  at  Naples.  After  bis  return  for  Carlisle  as 
a  Whig  in  1826  be  became  a  warm  supporter  of 
Catholic  emancipation  .an<l  a  zealous  advocate  of 
the  Heform  Hill.  Earl  Grey  thereupon  ottered  him, 
in  1830,  the  post  of  First  Lord  of  the  .Admiralty, 
with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  I!ut  in  IS.'U  he  secedeil 
from  the  government,  dis.agrciing  with  his  col- 
leagues on  the  ap|uopriation  clau.se  of  the  Irish 
Church  Temporalities  Act  ;  and,  going  over  to  the 
Conservatives,  became  in  1841  Home  Secretary 
under  Sir  Uobert  Peel.  In  1844  he  issued  a  w.ar- 
rant  for  oi>ening  the  letters  of  Mazzini,  and  caused 
the  information  thus  (d)taiiied  to  be  communicated 
to  the  .-Vustrian  minister,  an  act  by  which  the  min- 
istry, and  Graham  in  particular,  incurred  great 
obhxpiy.  He  also  encimntered  great  displeasure 
north  of  the  Tweed  by  his  high  handed  methoil  of 
dealing  with  the  Scottish  Church  during  the 
troubles  which  endeil  in  the  Disruiition  and  the 
formation  of  the  Free  Church.  He  gave  Peel  warm 
support  in  carrying  the  Corn  Law  Hejieal  IJill,  and 
re-signed  oHice  ( 1846)  with  his  chief  as  soon  .as  that 
measure  w.as  carried.  On  the  ileath  of  Peel  in  1850 
he  became  leader  of  the  Peelite  i)artv  in  the  Lower 
House,  and  in  I)eeeml>er  18.52  took  ollice  in  the 
Coalition  Alinistry  as  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 
He  retired  from  otticial  life  in  February  1855,  and 
died  at  Netherbv,  October  26,  1861.  See  Life  by 
Torrens  (2  vols.  "1863)  .and  by  Lonsdale  (1868). 

Graham,  -hius,  X'lsanxT  Di'mjee,  wa.s  the 

elder  son  of  Sir  William  Graham  of  Claverhouse, 

in  Forfarshire.      His  birth  is  |)laced  witl )re  like- 

lihooil  in  1649  than  in  1643,  for  he  did  not  matricu- 
late at  St  Amirews  till  Februarv  166J.  After 
three  years  there,  then  four  i)erliaps  soldiering 
under  Turenne,  in  1672  he  entered  the  Dutch 
■service  .as  comet  in  the  Prince  of  Or.ing^e's  horse- 
guards.  In  1674  at  the  battle  of  Seneti'  he  saved 
(.according  to  the  Grameid)  William's  life;   in  1677 


GRAHAM 


GRAHAME 


343 


he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  next  year  received 
a  commission  as  lieutenant  in  a  troop  of  horse 
commanded  by  his  cousin,  the  tliird  ilaniuis  of 
Montrose.  At  this  time  the  government  of  Charles 
II.  was  engaged  in  its  insane  attempt  to  force 
Episcopacy  upon  the  people  of  Scotland.  A  system 
of  tines  and  military  coercion  was  carried  on 
against  all  nonconformists ;  conventicles  and  field- 
preachings  were  prohibited ;  penalties  were  in- 
flicted on  all  who  even  harboured  the  recusants ; 
and  the  nation  lay  at  the  mercy  of  informei-s. 
Maddened  by  oppression,  ami  fired  by  a  fierce  zeal 
for  the  Covenant,  the  western  peasantry  tiew 
to  arms ;  but  their  efforts  were  irregular  and 
detached,  and  each  successive  failure  only  aggra- 
vated tlieir  sufferings.  Many  were  executed  ;  the 
gaols  were  crowded  with  prisonei-s ;  and  those 
who  fled  were  outlawed,  and  their  property  confis- 
cated. In  this  miserable  service  Claverhouse,  now 
sheriff-depute  of  Dumfriesshire,  was  employeil.  At 
Drumclog,  on  Sunday,  1st  June  1679,  he  encoun- 
tered an  armed  body  of  Covenanters,  but  was 
defeated,  some  forty  of  his  troopers  being  slain, 
anil  himself  forced  to  flee  from  the  field.  Three 
weeks  later,  at  Bothwell  Brig,  he  served  as  a 
simple  captain  of  cavalry.  These  are  the  only 
art'airs  that  can  even  by  courtesy  be  called  battles 
in  which  Claverhouse  was  engaged  in  Scotland 
previous  to  .James  II. "s  abdication.  They  dis- 
played no  generalship.  In  detecting  and  hunting 
down  the  Covenanters  lie  evinced  the  utmost 
activity  ;  still,  he  had  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
the  Wigtown  martyrdoms,  and  if  he  caused  shoot 
.lolin  Brown,  the  '  Christian  Carrier,'  it  was  after 
finding  of  anus  and  refusal  to  take  tlie  oath  of 
abjuration.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel,  and 
in  lUfii  became  sheriff'  of  Wigtownshire,  in  16S3 
was  sworn  a  ]irivy-councillor,  in  1084  got  a  gift 
of  the  Forfarshire  estate  of  Umlhope,  and  was 
made  constable  of  Dundee.  That  same  year  he 
marrieil  Lady  Jean  Cochrane,  the  daughter  of  a 
Whig  house,  who  bore  him  one  short-lived  son, 
ami  who  afterwards  wediled  tlie  Viscount  of  Kil- 
sytli.  In  N'ovemlier  16SS,  an  his  march  up  to 
London  to  stem  the  Revolution,  Claverhou.se  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Viscount  Dundee ;  four 
months  later  he  rode  with  fifty  troopers  out  of 
Kilinburgh.  and,  being  joined  by  the  Jacobite  clans 
and  three  hundred  Irish,  raise<l  the  stamlard  for 
King  .lames  against  William  and  Mary.  After 
various  rapid  movements  in  the  north,  he  seized 
Blair  Castle,  the  key  of  the  Highlands;  and 
Cieneral  Mackay,  commanding  the  government 
forces,  marched  against  him  from  Edinburgh.  Un 
the  evening  of  STth  July  1HS9  the  two  anides  met 
at  the  head  of  the  Pass  of  Killiecrankie.  Mackay  s 
force  was  between  30(X)  and  4000;  Dundee's  only 
2(MX).  Two  minutes  decided  the  contest ;  before 
the  wilil  rush  of  the  clansmen  the  redcoats 
wavered,  broke,  and  ran  like  sheep.  Their  loss 
was  "itKW,  the  victoi-s'  90()  oidy  ;  but  one  of  the 
900  was  Ian  Dhu  nan  Cath  (or  '  Black  .lolin  of  the 
Battles'),  as  the  Highlanders  called  Dumlee.  A 
musketliall  struck  liiiu  as  he  w;i.s  waving  on  his 
men,  and  he  sank  from  his  Middle  into  the  arms  of 
a  sohlier  nameil  Jolinstone.  '  How  goes  the  day?' 
murnmred  Dundee.  'Well  for  King  James,' said 
.lohnstone,  "  but  I  am  sorry  for  your  lordship.'  '  If 
it  is  well  for  him,'  was  the  dying  man's  answer.  '  it 
matters  the  less  for  me.'  Wrappeil  in  two  plaiils, 
his  body  was  borne  to  Blair  Castle;  and  in  the 
church  of  Old  Blair  they  Iniried  him.  where  in  1S89 
the  Duke  of  .\tliole  idai-ed  a  tablet  to  his  memory. 
'  Bh)oily  Claverse,"  *  B<uuiie  Dundee' — the  two 
names  illustrate  the  opposite  feelings  Ixune  towards 
one  whom  the  malice  of  foes  and  the  favour  of 
friends  have  invested  with  a  factiti(uis  interest. 
He  was  neither   the  devil   iiu'arnate  th.at  legend 


and  Lord  Macaulay  have  painted  him,  nor  the  17th- 
centun-  Havelock  of  Aytoun,  Napier,  and  Paget. 
True,  'Wodrow  himself"  admits  that  '  the  Hell- 
wicked-witted,  bloodthirsty  Graham  of  Claver- 
house hated  to  spend  his  time  with  wine  ami 
women  ;'  Lochiel's  biographer  records  how  he  never 
was  heard  to  swear,  and  how,  '  Ijesides  fanuly 
worship,  performed  regularly  evening  and  moniing 
in  his  house,  he  retired  to  his  closet  at  certain 
liours,  and  employed  himself  in  that  duty.'  But, 
then,  we  have  Claverhouse's  own  admission  ( 1679) : 
'  In  any  .service  I  have  been  in  I  never  inquired 
farther  in  the  laws  than  the  orders  of  mv  sujierior 
officers ' — an  admission  that  accuses  whilst  excus- 
ing, and  that  is  applicable  to  his  whole  career. 
Bonnie  at  least  he  was  in  outward  form,  with 
the  '  long  dark  curled  locks,'  and  the  'melancholy 
haughty  countenance,'  which  we  know  by  his  por- 
traits and  by  Scott's  matchless  description. 

The  letter  purporting  to  be  written  to  James  II.  by 
Dmidee  after  he  had  got  his  death-womid,  and  first  pub- 
lished in  llacpherson's  Orujinal  Papers  ( 1775 1,  is  almost 
certainly  a  forgery,  though  not  Macpherson's.  The 
fJramei'J  is  a  long  but  unfinished  Latin  epic  by  James 
PhiUp  of  Alnierieclose  (c.  1056-1713),  one  of  Dundee's 
followers.  Written  in  1691,  it  was  first  edited  by  the 
Rev.  A.  D.  Jliu-doch  for  the  Scottish  History  Society 
(18«8).  Mark  Napier's  Memorials  and  Letters  (if  Dundee 
(3  vols.  lS.59-62)  is  perhaps  the  worst  life  in  the  language, 
still  well  worth  sifting.  See  also  Aytoun's  Lays  of  the 
Scottish  Cavaliers  (1849) ;  Paget's  Paradoxes  and  Puzzles 
(1874);  Claverhouse,  by  Mowbray  Morris  ('EngUsh 
Worthies'  series,  1887);  and  Clavers,  the  Despot's 
Champion,  by  'a  Southern'  (1889). 

Grabani,  Thom.v.s,  a  Scottish  chemist,  wa-s 
born  in  Glasgow,  '21st  December  180.'>.  Having 
studied  at  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  he  1)ecame  in 
1880  professor  of  Chemistry  in  his  native  city, 
and  in  1837  he  accepted  the  corresponding  chair  at 
L'niversity  College,  London.  In  18.j.')  he  was 
appointed  Master  of  the  Mint,  and  resigned  his 
professorship.  He  died  in  London,  16th  Sei>tember 
1869.  His  name  is  most  closely  ivssociated  with 
the  subject  of  the  molecular  ditlusion  of  gases,  his 
researches  in  connection  with  which  led  him  to 
formulate  the  law  'that  the  dift'usicm  rate  of  gases 
is  inversely  as  the  square  root  of  their  density.' 
Amongst  his  important  menioii-s  on  chemistry  we 
may  mention  the  following  :  'Absorption  of  Gases 
by  Liquids  ; '  '  Absorption  of  Vapours  by  Liquids ; ' 
'  Law  of  Diffusion  of  Gases  ; '  '  Researches  on  the 
Arseniates,  Phosphates,  and  Modifications  of  Phos- 
phoric  Acid  ;'  'Motion  of  Gases,  their  EHu^ion  and 
Transpiration  ; '  '  Diffusion  of  Liquids  ; '  •  Liqtiid 
DiH'usion  aiiplied  to  .\nalysis;'  '  Liquid  Trans- 
piration in  Relation  to  Chendcal  Composititm  ;'  and 
'Molecular  Midiility  of  Gase.s.'  These  were  con- 
triliuted  to  various  scientific  journals,  and  were 
ctdlected  in  1876.  His  excellent  Elements  of  Chem- 
istry appeared  in  1837.  See  /.//'<■  unil  II  orhs  of 
Grnhriin,  bv  Dr  R.  Angus  Smith  (Glasgow, 
1884). 

Ciraliani,  Thom.vs.    See  Lysedoch  (Lord). 

Cirahame.  J.^mes,  author  of  The  Sabbath,  was 
born  at  Llhvsgow,  April  '22,  176o.  The  son  of  a 
]>rosperous  lawyer,  he  went  in  1784  to  Edinburgh  to 
study  law,  and,  after  qualifying  as  a  writer  to  the 
Signet,  was  admitted  a»>  an  advocate  in  1795. 
Finding  law  uncongenial,  at  forty-four  he  took 
ordei's,  au<l  was  successively  curate  of  Shipton  in 
Gloucestershire  and  of  Sedgefield  in  the  county  of 
Durham.  Ill-health  compelled  him  to  return  to 
Scotland,  where  soon  after  he  died.  September  14, 
1811.  Grahame's  poetical  works  include  Man/, 
Queen  of  Seuts,  a  dramatic  poem  ( 1801 ) ;  The  Sab- 
bath ( 1804 ) ;  Brifi-fh  Georrjies  ( 1804 ) ;  The  Birds  of 
Scotland  ( 1806) ;  and  Puenis  on  the  Abolition  of  the 
Slave-trade  (1810).     His  fame  rests  securely  on  his 


344 


GRAHAM'S   LAND 


GRAIL 


lilankvoi-se  |i<>eiii,  The  Sithlntt/i.  It  falls  far  short  I 
of  C'owi)er"s  vif;our,  varioty,  and  real  j;eiiiiis,  lint  in 
its  toiuler  devotional  feeling  ami  occasional  felicity 
in  describing;  fjniet  Scottish  scenery  it  is  not  nn- 
wortliy  of  that  master,  whom  he  resemhled  further 
in  the  retiiinfj;  amiahility  of  his  character. 

liraliaill's  Land,  an  island  of  the  Antarctic  I 
Ocean,  discovered   liy  I!is<oe  in   ls.'i2,   lies  lietween 
6.')'  and  07    S.    hit.      lii   front,   towanis  the  north, 
are  a  nnmlier  of  islets,  calleil  Hiscoe's  Chain. 

Graliaill.stuwil,  the  caidtal  of  the  eastern  ])ro- 
vince   of   Cape  Colony,  stamls   near  the  centre  of 
the  maritime  division  of  Alhany.  17'2S  feet  aliove  1 
sea  level.     J!y   rail   it   is    Kiti   miles   NE.    of   Port  | 
Elizaheth,  aiid  43  N\V.  of  Port  .\lfred.     It  is  the 
seat  of  two  bishops — AnjJilican  and   Poman  Catho-  ' 
lie  :  and  in  its  An^dican  cathedral  is  a   monument 
to  Cohnnd  (Jrahaiii,  after  whom  the  city  is  named. 
Leather  is  mannfactnred,  and  amon;.'  the  institii-  I 
tions  of   the  place  are  its  niusenm,   St  Andrew's 
College,   a  jmulic  lihrary,  a  general  hospital,  and 
large  barracks.     Pop.  ("l875)  ti'JO;{ ;  (ISDl)  IU,498, 
of  wliiini  about  7INKI  aie  whites. 

liralianistOWII.  New  Zealand.     See  TuAME.s.  ! 

(•raiaii  .lips.    See  Ali>s. 

<irail.  I.Hi.KND  OK  TiiK  IIoLY  (etymology  un-  > 
certain ).  Tiie  spellinf;  varies  considerably  in  the 
oldest  texts  from  gninl  to  r/naiis.  A  ves.sel  of 
some  kind  is  obviously  intended,  and  derivation 
has  been  suggested  from  the  Low  l,at.  r/ini/n/i.i  or 
nrailiilii.s  ('a  shallow  vessel  ),  which  appears  also 
in  the  forms  f/nt.mlc,  gid.ti/ilc,  fjrazitln,  and  <  (Id  Fr. 
(jia.iitl.soy  f/nizdls.  See  DucangeKavie,  (Uoss.  Meil.  j 
ct  Inf.  Lilt.,  under  MJnusala.'  This  etymology  is 
supported  by  the  testimony  of  Helinandns  (<■.  P2()4), 
'  gradalis  dicitur  gallice  sculella  lata  et  alii|uantU' 
lum  profunda,  in  oua  dapes  solent  aiiponi.  I't  dicitur 
nomine  graal.  I)iez,  Etijmol.  II  ui-trrliinli,  liOl, 
snggest.s  a  lost  crnUilis  from  crutii.t,  the  Low  Latin 
form  of  i-riilcr,  as  the  original  of  the  above-cited 
forms.  Other  etymologies  liave  been  suggested, 
but  all  are  wcuthless. 

Chronoloijiciil  Arriiiiiiciiiciit  uf  the  Grail 
Itoiiiances. — («)  Chrestien's  portion  of  the  Conte 
dn  Graal,  ciirn  11!K) ;  (6)  Gauticr  de  Doulens'  con- 
tinuation of  same,  rin-ii  1195  in  <me  form,  with 
expansions  rirca  I2(K):  (c)  Robert  de  liorron's 
poem,  120(J-10;  (rf)  Qneste  del  Saint  Craal,  about 
the  same  date  ;  (c)  Grand  St  Graal,  only  known  in 
a  redaction  of  i-imi  P2.'tO  .">(),  but  extant  in  a  le.-^s 
extended  form  prior  to  12()4;  (/)  Wolfram  von 
Eschenbach's  Parzival,  rirrti  P210:  (7,  /( )  continua- 
tion of  Conte  du  Grajil  by  Manessier  ami  (Jerbert, 
cin-a  1220-.30;  (/)  the  firose  Perceval  le  (lallois, 
c(Vc«  P22.>;  (/.)  prose  continuation  of  IJobcrt  de  Hor- 
nm's  ])oeui  known  as  the  1  )idol  Perceval,  rirra  1230- 
r>0 ;  (/)  Heinrich  von  dem  Tiirlin's  Din  Krone, 
l)rior  to  12.">il.  Per^onagis  and  i>art  of  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  Grail  romances  also  a)>pear  in(/;i) 
the  .Mabinogi  of  Perednr  ab  Evraw  and  (h)  the 
alliterative  metrical  romance  Sir  I'erceval.  IJotli 
these  last  are  in  I4th  I.'ith  century  .\ISS.,  but  are 
certainly  oMer,  though  jiosterior  in  their  present 
form  to  Chrestien,  whom  Ijoth  liave  used. 

Subjcct-mattcf  of  tin'  Huiiiiinrcs. — The  legend 
consists  of  two  portiims  :  a  Quest  relating  ( 1 )  how 
Perceval  comes  to  the  castle  of  the  Kislicr  King, 
sees  the  (Jrail,  fails  to  ask  concerning  it,  is  re 
I)roved,  has  to  wander  many  years,  comes  a  second 
anil  thiril  time  to  (irail  Ca.stle,  makes  whole  a 
V)roken  swonl  or  slays  the  enemy  of  the  Fisher  King, 
is  hailed  by  the  latter  .as  his  nephew,  and  succeeds 
him  in  his  kingship  (a.  h,  f,  ij,  h  ),  or  relea.ses  him  at 
once  from  supernaturally  jirolonged  life  (/. )  or  from 
the  enchantment  of  death  in  life  (/)  (the  same  inci- 
dent.* a.«  in  i(,  /,  17,  /i  reappear  in  part  in  «i,  but 
the  Grail  is  replaced  by  a  head  in  a  dish);  (2) 


how  Galahad,  Perceval,  ami  ISors  alone  of  .Arthur's 
knights  .succeeil  in  beholding  the  Grail,  follow  it 
to  the  ea.st,  where  (lalahail  and  Perceval  die,  but 
I  tors  returns  to  Arthur's  court  (</,  c) — ami  an  Early 
History  relating  how  the  (Jrail  was  given  by  Christ 
todoseph  of  .Vrimathea  (c,  il,  c,  j/,  /i,  /, ),  .'ind  how  it 
came  to  Knglan<l  either  in  the  charge  of  Hrons, 
.loseph's  brother-inhiw  (c,  /.  ),  or  of  .lo^cphc, 
.losei)h's  son  (</,  c).  In  all  these  vei'sion>  the  (irail 
is  a  cu])  or  ve.s.sel,  and  in  the  Early  History  forms  it 
is  the  cup  useil  lirst  by  Christ  at  the  Last  Supper, 
.sccomlly  by  .Joseph  to  collect  the  blood  wliiidi 
Mowed  from  Christ's  wounds  as  he  bung  upon,  or 
after  hi-  body  was  descended  from,  the  cros;..  In 
(  /')  Wolfram  .'in  entirely  ilill'erent  account  i-  found  : 
tlie  (irail  is  a  [uecions  stone,  fallen  from  heaven, 
and  given  in  charge  to  Titurel  and  his  dynasty  the 
(irail  kings. 

Niiliuc  anil  I'lijjicrtie.s  uf  the  11  rail. — In  the  Que.st 
romances,  the  oldest  ]portion  of  the  cycle,  and 
notably  in  the  Conte  ilu  ( iraal.  the  Grail  is  simply  .a 
Muraculous  fooil-jiroduciug  vcs-cl.  With  a  broken 
sword  which  oidy  thedcstincd  hero  can  make  whole, 
and  a  lance  which  drops  bli>od.  it  is  simply  one  of 
three  talismans,  and  its  importance  in  the  conduct 
of  the  story  is  not  greater  than  theirs.  The  Cliris- 
tianisation  of  the  legenil  brought  about  a  jirofimiid 
change  in  the  conception  of  tbetirail.  This  change 
is  only  fully  manifest  in  Pobert  de  liorron,  where 
the  iiri>iH'rties  of  the  (ii.iil  arc  (•xclusivcly  s|iiritual  : 
it  separates  the  pure  from  the  impure,  .and  gives 
to  the  former  as  full  ;inil  -weet  solace  a.-  their 
heart  could  long  for.  In  the  other  Early  lIL-tory 
forms,  and  in  those  later  t/uest  vei'sions  whidi 
have  been  allected  by  the  Early  History,  the  (Irail 
retains  its  nuiteri.al  side  by  side  with  its  spiritual 
properties,  even  where,  a.-  in  the  c.a>e  of  il.  c. 
and  //,  these  vei'sions  ari'  written  in  .'i  mystical 
and  theological  sjiirit.  From  (il)  IJueste  we  learn 
that  the  (irail  strikes  with  ilumbness  those  to 
whom  it  .appeals.  In  Widfram  (  /')  the  spirit  is 
likewise  mystical  and  theological,  but  of  course  the 
sacramental  nature  of  the  Grail,  so  prominent  in 
those  romances  whirh  identify  it  with  the  I.,ii.st 
Supper  cup,  is  wanting,  hence  the  .-.yniliolism  is  on 
dill'erenl  lines.  Here  too,  however,  the  material 
jiroperties  of  the  (Irail  are  a.s  strongly  insisted  upon 
as  the  spiritual  ones. 

lliipiitlirtii-iil  Dcrclopmciit  of  the  Ler/rtid.—'VhK 
(Jrail  is  originally  a  portion  of  the  gear  of  ohl 
Celtic  divinities,  more  esjiecially  of  the  god  of  the 
underworlil,  whose  name  among  the  Cymry  Wiis 
liran.  Numerous  Celtic  sagas,  as  well  a-  existing 
Celtic  folk-t.ales,  tell  of  a  hero  w  ho  journeys  to  the 
lan<I  of  sh.ailes  and  brings  back  talismans,  ]>rominent 
among'st  them  the  inexhaustible  ve.s.-el  of  plenty 
and  rejuven.atinn.  At  an  early  j>eriod  this  tale  got 
mixed  \\\>  with  a  Perc'dur  .saga,  m  which  the  hero, 
to  avenge  a  kinsman,  hail  to  seek  for  a  magic 
lance  and  sword.  The  result  of  the  fusion  m.iy  l>e 
traced  in  the  forms  which  underlie  the  Mabinogi  of 
Perednr,  the  Conte  du  Gr.o.al,  and  the  metrical 
.Sir  Perceval.  Perednr  thus  came  in  contact  with 
liran,  lord  of  the  under-world,  who  wa.s  identi- 
lied  with  ISran  the  Blessed,  whom  later  Welsh 
tradition  m.ade  the  hero  of  a  conversion  of  Hritain 
story.  This  Praii  is  the  IJions  of  the  .lo-,eph  of 
.\rimathea  legend,  and  by  this  means  the  old 
Celtic  heathen  vessel  of  increa-e  and  youth  came 
into  connection  with  the  follower  of  Christ,  who 
was  at  an  eaily  ilat<?  a  favourite  legendary  ligure 
on  Hritish  soil,  the  Evangelium  Nicodemi  which 
relates  his  legend  having  l>een  widely  known  there 
at  a  time  when  continental  literature  is  .altogether 
silent  regarding  it.  The  Chri-tiani.-ation  of  the 
Celtic  sag.a  hail  ]irobably  begun  Ijcfore  Chre.stien, 
though  only  to  a  very  slight  extent.  It  was 
fully  carried  out  by  men  who  wrote  after,  and  in 


GRAILE 


GRAMMAR 


345 


opposition  to  liim,  and  wlio  wished  to  make  the 
story  a  vehicle  for  moral  and  religious  teaching. 
Itobert  de  Borron  alone  worked  out  the  concei)tion 
in  a  fairly  consistent  Avay  ;  in  the  other  theological 
romance-writers — e.g.  the  authors  of  the  Queste, 
of  the  Grand  St  Graal,  and  (ierliert — the  (Jraal  is 
at  least  as  much  heathen  as  Christian.  In  these 
romances  the  tendency  is  rather  moral  tlian  dog- 
matic :  they  are  in  the  main  glorilications  of 
asceticism,  and  in  especial  of  physical  chastity. 
This  latter  idea,  almost  foreign  to  the  earlier 
works  of  the  cycle,  is  most  fully  worked  out  in 
the  (^)ueste,  a  new  hero,  (ialahad,  lieiiig  especially 
created  to  typify  the  virtue  of  virginity.  The 
t,lueste  was  one  of  the  romances  used  hy  .Malory  in 
his  Morte  Darthur;  hence  tlie  (ialahad  story  has 
had  a  gi-eat  and  al>iding  inlluence  upon  Englisli 
literature  through  Tennyson  and  others.  Wolfram 
von  Eschenbach,  like  Robert  de  Borron  ami  the 
author  of  the  Queste,  received  the  story  from 
Chrestien,  and,  like  them,  was  dissatished  with 
the  hitter's  treatment  of  it.  He.  however,  has 
worked  out  a  religaous  and  ethical  ideal  of  a  far 
nobler  and  truer  kind  than  that  found  in  the 
t^ueste.  His  conception  is  based,  not  upon  chastity, 
but  upon  charity,  and  the  (irail  becomes  with  him 
a  symbol,  not  of  ascetic  longing  and  its  unearthly 
reward,  but  of  human  striving  and  human  love  in 
their  noblest  manifestation. 

Evidence  in  support  of  the  foregoing  contentions, 
together  with  f\ill  summaries  of  the  lomances  them- 
selves, and  bililiography  and  analysis  of  the  inves- 
tigations of  previous  students,  will  be  found  in  the  I 
writer's  Htudics  oh  fhc  Legend  of  the  Holi/  Grail, 
ii'ith  especial  Referctiee  to  the  Hjjpotliesis  of  its- 
Celtic  Orif/in  (1888).  Compare  also  M.  (;ast<m 
I'aris's  Hintoirc  Litfcrairc  de  /a  Fniiire,  vol.  nxx. 
(ISSS);  and  for  alleged  Buddhist  inlluence  ujion 
the  (irail  legend,  the  writer's  article  in  the  Aiehau- 
/otjiral  lUrieu-,  June  18S9.  See  also  ROMANCES, 
Map  (Walter),  Texnysox. 

<>raile.    See  Gradual. 

(■rain.  For  grain  imports  and  exports,  see 
FoDD,  Vol.  IV.  p.  720  ;  also  the  articles  Whe.vt,  iVc. 

Cirain,  as  a  unit  of  weight,  is  supposed  to  be 
the  average  weight  of  a  seed  or  well-ripened  ear  of 
wheat ;  of  such  grains  7<K30  are  held  to  be  a  pound 
avoirdupois.  The  grain  is  also  the  '20tli  jiart  of  a 
scrujile  in  apothecaries'  weight,  and  the  ■24tli  part 
of  a  pennyweight  troy.     See  also  Gram.mk. 

(■rain  Coa^t.    See  Gi-ixea. 

(■raining;,  a  kind  of  dace  found  in  the  .Mer.sey 
and  some  few  English  rivers,  and  in  Swiss  lakes, 
distinguished  by  I'ennant  and  Yarrell  as  a  sepa- 
rate sjiccies  {Leii<-isens  laneasteieiifiia),  Imt  reganhMl 
by  (Junther  as  only  a  local  variety  of  the  dace  (A. 
ralgaris).     See  D.\CE. 

Clrains  of  Paradise,  or  MALEoriiTT.v 
Pepper,  an  aromatic  and  extremely  hot  and 
jiungent  seed  imported  from  Guinea.  It  is  the 
produce  of  Ainoiiiiiiii  (iraiia  I'diitdisi,  a  plant 
of  the  order  Zingibeiace;e.  By  the  natives  these 
seeds  are  used  as  a  spice  or  condiment  :  in  Europe 
(■hielly  in  veterinary  practi4i',  and  frauibilently  to 
increase  the  pungency  of  fermented  ami  spirituous 
li(piors.  By  56  tieo.  III.  chap.  ."iS,  brewers  and 
■lealers  in  beer  in  England  were  )irohibiteil.  uinler 
a  heavy  penalty,  from  even  having  grains  of  para- 
dise in  tlieir  ]iossession.  This  drug  is  nmch  used 
to  give  apparent  strength  to  bad  gin.  The  name 
Maleguetta  Pepper,  <«■  Guinea  IVjiper  (i].v.),  is 
also  given  to  other  pungent  seeds  from  the  west  of 
-Africa. 

(•raklo,  the  common  name  of  many  birds  of 
the  Starling  family  (Sturnidie),  all  tropical  or 
subtropical.     They  have  very  nmch  the  habits  of 


starlings,  which  some  of  them  even  excel  in  their 
imitative  powers,  anil  particularly  in  the  imitation 
of  human  speech.  TliLs  is  remarkably  the  case 
with  the  Mina  Birds  or  Hills  Wynas  (Gracula 
jai'aiia),  common  in  India,  which  are  ea.sily  tamed 
and  taught.  Many  grakles  feed  on  seeds  and 
fruits,  while  others  are  useful  as  destroyer--  of 
insects.  See  Starlix<:.  —  In  the  I'nited  States 
the  name  Grakle  or  (Jrackleis  ajijilied  to  .several 
species  of  the  genera  Scolecojihagus  and  Quiscalus, 
oumivorous  birds,  also  called  '  blackbirds '  ami 
'  boat-tails.' 

(■rallas  or  Grallatorks  (Lat.,  'stilt- 
walkers'),  an  old  order  of  wading  and  running 
birds,  including  rails  (Itallida'),  snipes  and  curlews 
(Scolo|)acidie),  plovers  (Characlriid:c),  bustards 
(Otididic),  cranes  ((Jniida-),  herons  ;ind  bitterns 
(.Vnleida'),  storks  (Ciconiid;e  ),  and  numerous  other 
families.  These  are  gnmped  by  modern  ornithol- 
ogists in  a  number  of  smaller  orders,  while  the  idd 
order  Gralhe  is  abandoned  as  too  hoi)elessly  large. 
They  are  mostly  long-legged  marsh  or  coast  l)irils, 
generally  with  long  legs  and  bills.  Tlieir  distribu- 
tiim  is  very  wide,  the  four  largest  families  ( rails, 
sni]ies,  plovers,  and  herons)  being  cjuite  cosmo- 
politan. 

(lirain.    See  Chick  Pea. 

Ciraniineie.    See  Grasses. 

(■raniniar  deals  with  the  usage  of  soine  one 
form  of  speech.  It  may  be  described  as  a  section 
of  the  larger  science  of  language  (see  article  Phil- 
ology), which  treats  of  the  origin,  develoj)ment, 
and  general  character  of  the  ]irincipal  familio  of 
language  and  of  human  speech  as  a  whole.  In 
common  use,  however,  grammar  means  not  a  branch 
of  science,  but  a  treatise  on  some  one  well-delined 
form  of  speech  as  used  in  the  present  day,  a.~  by 
French  grammar  \\e  mean  a  Ijook  on  the  usage  of 
Paris ;  by  English  grannnar  we  mean  an  account 
of  the  language  spoken  ami  written  by  educated 
men  throughout  tireat  Britain,  which  language, 
however,  is  only  one  dialect  of  English  speech,  tlie 
East  Midland.  That  dialect  by  favouring  couili- 
tions  has  sujierseded  the  other  dialects,  southern  and 
niutbern,  which  were  once  s])oken  aiul  written,  and 
are  still  in  a  lessening  degree  spoken,  in  ditl'erent 
parts  of  the  island. 

Grammar  has  two  ]iarts.  The  lirst  de.scribes 
the  forms  of  a  language,  the  single  words  which 
occur  in  it,  its  nouns,  verbs,  i.*lc.  :  and  its  mo<liti- 
cations  of  such  forms,  the  c;ises  of  its  nouns,  the 
persons  and  tenses  of  its  verbs.  \c. .  useil  to  exjire^s 
niodilications  of  the  .same  idea,  as  'child.'  '  child  >,' 
'children,'  'spring,'  'sprang.'  "sprung.'  in  English. 
This  is  called  the  morphology  of  a  language,  or 
(more  loosely)  its  etymology.  The  second  part 
deals  with  the  use  of  these  forms  in  cmubination  : 
their  syntax — i.e.  tlieir  arrangement  in  order  of 
speech.  The  general  iirinciples  of  this  will  vary 
little  in  tlie  ditl'erent  languages  of  the  same  family  : 
but  each  language  has  its  idioms,  as  wc  call  them, 
its  own  special  relinements  of  usage,  and  it  is  in 
the  clear  discrimination  of  these  that  the  ]iractical 
value  of  a  grammar  lii's. 

tirammar  in  this  function  may  be  called  special. 
It  does  not  enter  into  the  history  of  the  forms  which 
it  describes  ;  it  is  sutiicient  if  it  sets  forth  what  they 
are  at  a  ]iarticular  time,  without  show  ing  how  they 
became  such.  But  it  is  jiossible  to  a  considerable 
extent  to  trace  the  history  of  these  form: — e.g.  we 
can  see  how  literary  English  has  developed  out  of 
the  English  of  Chaucer,  and  that  from  the  English 
of  an  earlier  day,  how  the  forms  have  changed 
mostly  in  the  direction  of  uniloniiity,  and  how  (to 
a  lesser  degree)  their  syntax  has  altered.  To  trace 
this  belongs  to  historical  grammar,  and  some  of  the 
results  of  this  science  are  now  commonlv  given  in 


346 


GRAMMAR 


each  spc-cial  gvaniinar.  Lastly  we  can  compare 
t«;;i^tlicr  the  forms  ami  usajio  nf  c<ij;nato  ilialects. 
We  Piin  ciimiinre,  e  ;;. ,  the  ;,'riiiiiiii.ii-  nf  mil  literary 
English  ilialeet  ami  that  of  the  speeeh  ol  Doi-set, 
OS  set  forth  hy  Mr  liarnes  ;  and,  employing;  the 
results  of  historieal  j;iamiiiar,  we  eaii  trace  hack 
the  varyinj;  development  of  Kiif;lisli  speeeh  as  a 
whole :  or  we  can  compare  the  de\  elopment  anil 
trace  the  connection  ol  En;;lisli  ami  of  (W'rmaii 
speech,  ami  the  relation  of  each  of  these  to  Latin 
or  to  (Ireek,  till  we  arrive  at  some  kiiowled;;e 
of  a  common  speech  of  which  all  these  are  only 
derived  forms.  This  is  the  work  of  coiii|iaiative 
graiiiniar. 

Natnrally,  wo  do  not  learn  our  own  siieecli  from 
a  written  grammar.  A  c-hild  learns  his  winds  and 
their  use  from  those  around  him,  not  ,is  a  whole, 
hilt  ime  hy  one  ;  and  he  forms  new  words  for  him- 
self on  the  analogy  of  those  he  has  already  aci|iiire<l. 
When  he  linds  that  any  of  these  formations  are 
not  nseil  hy  others  he  rejects  them,  .ami  so  he 
assimilates  his  speech  to  that  of  those  around  him. 
It  is  when  we  have  to  deal  with  a  speech  which  is 
not  our  own,  either  that  of  a  forei;,'n  nation,  or  of 
our  own  laii;;u,age  at  some  earlier  period,  or  of  some 
ilialect  of  our  own  langua;,'e,  that  we  need  a 
f.'rammar.  The  earliest  works  on  };ranimar  were 
due  to  the  second  of  these  causes.  At  -Mexandria, 
the  trreat  commercial  and  literary  centre  of  (ireeco 
in  the  ilays  when  the  seiiaiate  tiieek  states  had 
ceased  to  he  aiitononions.  there  was  for  the  liist 
tiiin-  a  huge  collection  of  the  works  of  earlier 
writers,  especially  the  Homeric  iMiems.  The  .age 
was  one  destitute  of  original  ahility  :  the  loss  of 
freedom  had  caused  the  loss  of  the  motives  which 
li.ad  produced  the  literature  of  the  past.  Hut  it 
contained  a  large  numher  of  literary  men.  whose 
activity  Wiis  chielly  spent  on  the  work  of  their  ine 
decessoi-s.  This  w,is  to  them  in  language  and  in 
style  archaic;  it  rei|nire(l  glosses —.as  we  should 
say,  glossaries— .anil  explanations  of  disused  forms. 
Hence  arose  the  lii-st  grammarians,  men  often  of 
eons]>icuous  ahility  in  their  own  line,  such  .as 
Zenodotiis  and  Aristarclins.  .\t  a  later  time, 
Homans  who  wished  to  learn  (Ireek  had  grammars 
hased  uiion  (Ireek  models,  compiled  for  them  in 
Latin,  and  these  have  heen  the  parents  of  all 
Europe.iii  grammars  to  the  ]nesenl  day.  The 
grammatical  terms  with  which  we  are  familiar  are 
conseiiueutly  in  the  main  Latin  translations  of 
fJreek  originals,  and  heeause  of  this  they  are  often 
less  intelligihie  than  they  might  he. 

It  is  to  the  (ireeks  that  we  owe  the  nunilier 
of  the  so-called  'parts  of  speech.'  I'.nt  their  eight 
were  not  the  same  .as  ours.  They  had  (  1  )  the 
noun:  (2)  the  verli  (terms  which  go  hack  to 
Aristotle,  though  in  his  use  the  'verh'  meant 
all  that  is  logically  called  the  predicate);  (3) 
the  participle,  so  called  hec.ause  it  j>artook  of  the 
nature  of  hoth  the  noun  and  the  verh — it  wa-s 
a  noun  in  form,  yet  it  governed  a  ca.se  like  a 
verh;  (4)  the  article:  (o)  the  jnonoun  :  (())  the 
preposition,  .so  called  not  as  heing  placed  hefore  a 
ca.se,  hut  as  .set  hefore  a  verh  or  noun  in  coiniMisi- 
tion  ;  (7)  the  ailverh — i.e.  the  'additional  predi- 
cation,' not  anything  specially  helonging  to  the  verh, 
as  the  Latin  name  seems  to  imply:  (H)  the  con- 
junction.    The  Romans  modilied   this  list.     Kiist, 


Its  place 
and  the 


hy  dividing  the  noun  into  the  snlistuntive 
adjective:  this  is  a  gain  to  logic,  hut  .as  a  matter 
of  history  the  two  go  h.ack  to  the  same  origan. 
The  thill"  ami  the  quality  of  the  thing  were  alike 
expressed  hy  the  noun,  .and  the  analogic  feeling  in 
m.an  suggested  that  they  should  he  represented 
when  together  hy  nouns  of  the  same  class — i.e. 
with  the  s.ame  terminations  :  hence  we  have  the 
grammatical  property  called  gender,  which  is  alto- 


gether inilepenilent  of  natural  gender.  Secondly, 
they  rejected  the  article  in  their  grammar,  not 
having  it  in  their  speech.  Here  they  were  histor- 
ically right,  for  the  Creek  article  was  cnily  a 
pronoun.  L.ater  Latin  developed  a  new  one  out  of 
a  ditl'erent  pronoun,  il/e,  ween  in  various  forms  in 
the  dillerent  Koiiiance  languages — French,  Italian, 
Spanish,  \c.  Ihit  lia\  ing  lost  the  article  they  fell 
hound  to  lill  up  its  jdace  :  thi'refore  they  put  in 
the  interjection,  wliirli  i>  the  I'onvenlional  stereo- 
typed exiuessiiMi  of  the  natural  cries  which,  we 
may  helieve,  in  days  hefore  articulate  speech 
existed,  eked  out  the  earliest  and  sim|>lest  means 
of  communication— i.e.  gestures  (see  article  I'llll. 
()l,iii;V).  The  interjection  is  therefme  no  '  iiart  of 
speech  : '  it  is  an  imperfect  undeveloped  '  speech 
whole;' and  the  (Jieeks  rightly  did  not  include  it 
in  their  list. 

If  we  exclude  the  interjection,  we  can  prove 
hy  inean.s  of  historical  giamin.ar  that  these 
dillerent  part.s  of  speech  run  hack  to  two,  the 
noun  and  the  verh;  and  the  distinction  even  of 
these  rests  on  the  inahility  of  mir  analysis  to 
separate  them  completely.  It  is  true  that  nouns 
•are  distinguished  hy  'case  sullixes  ' — hi/nis,  /ii/iinii, 
liijii.  Iiiiiii,  &c  in  Latin;  ami  the  verh  hy  'per 
sonal  sutlixes  ' — «//)«,  mmis,  iimul,  ike.  :  hut  there 
w.as  doiihtless  a  time  in  our  parent-speech  when 
no  such  'suHixes'  existed,  and  all  that  lies  he- 
hind  them  may  have  heen  in  those  earlier  days 
identic:il  for  noun  and  verh.  Our  own  langu.age 
shows  the  jiossihility  of  using  one  form — e.g.  '  love,' 
alike  for  noun  and  verh.  The  piononn  dillei's  from 
the  nonn  in  meaning  hy  its  greater  generalilv. 
'This'  includes  all  ohjects  in  our  immediate  iieigli- 
hourhood,  hooks,  chairs,  tallies,  ^c.  ;  'he'  includes 
all  '.lohiis,'  '  Smiths,' iVc.  In  form  it  dilleis  only 
hy  the  simpler  and  on  the  whole  the  more  archaic 
character  of  its  root  or  ultimate  element.  The  term 
']iionouii'  exinesses  only  one  snliordinate  use  -the 
aiiajihoric  or  'reference'  use,  hy  virtue  of  which, 
having  once  uttered  a  man's  diirerentiating  name, 
'.John,'  or  the  like,  we  refer  to  him  afterwards,  so 
long  a-s  clearness  periuits,  only  .as  'he.'  The  origin 
of  adverhs  and  iirepositioiis  nut  of  nonns  or  inn- 
nouns  is  very  ohvious  in  mir  own  language  :  '  once  ' 
is  Old  Eng.  liiiis.  the  genitive  of  ('//  ('one'); 
'seldom'  is  an  old  dative  plural  of  .viVi/ ( '  rare  ' ) : 
to  go  '  afoot '  was  to  go  '  on  '  foot ;  '  heside  '  is  '  hy 
side  (of);'  and,  if  we  are  unahle  to  reach  the  original 
form  of  preiiositions  like  'on  '  and  '  hy,'  we  do  not 
douht  lli.at  in  days  heyoiid  our  analysis  they  were 

nouns    1 lifying    other   words   which    then    lllled 

the  place  of  the  nouns  and  verhs  of  later  times. 
Similarly,  conjunctions  are  either  noun-cases 
or  condensed  .sentences;  '  whilst' is  'whiles,'  the 
genitive  of  'while'  (time),  with  a  final  I,  which 
ni.ay  he  .analogous  to  that  of  'lest'  (another  con- 
junction ),  originally  'thi  less  the.'  then  'lesthe,' 
and  '  leste  ; '  '  liowheit,'  '  heeause  '  ( hy  cause  of)  ex- 
plain themselves.  Thus  the  eight  parts  of  speech 
may  lie  traced  hack  to  not  more  than  two. 

All  language  at  all  times  of  which  we  have  any 
knowledge,  and  doiihtless  from  the  very  heginning 
of  human  s]ieecli,  is  .a  moditication  of  existing 
comhinations  of  .souml.  Langinige  piohahly  hegan, 
.as  h.as  heen  already  suggested,  with  the  use  of  cries 
to  help  out  gestures.  These  cries  were  .associated 
hy  use  with  particul.ar  ideas,  and  that  most  ele- 
mentary Language  (or  langu.ages,  for  there  is  no 
need  to  suppose  that  langu.age  s]irang  up  in  one 
]ilace  onlv,  the  circumstances  heing  everywhere 
similar)  w.as  suhject  to  the  same  laws  which  mould 
our  sjieech  at  the  present  d.ay.  Groups  of  scmnd 
exjiressing  the  reiiuired  thought  are  comhined 
together,  as  '  m.an  and  'kind,'  or  'house'  and 
'top.'  The  comliination  may  he  such  tli.at  the 
ditl'erent   parts   are   alw.ays  separahle;   then    e;uli 


GRAMMAR 


347 


souiid-jjronp  (or  word,  as  we  may  now  call  it) 
remains  intact,  and  the  relation  which  one  word 
bear'*  to  another  in  the  ex[)ression  of  the  entire 
thon;;ht  dejiends  on  the  position  of  the  words,  the 
stress,  or  the  pitch  of  the  voice  with  which  each 
Is  pronounced,  or  other  more  minute  conditions.  A 
lanj;uaf;e  of  which  this  is  the  pievailini;  character 
is  called  'isolating,'  and  Chinese  is  tlie  liest-known 
type.  It  seems  inadequate,  yet  the  facility  with 
which  ideas  can  be  expressed  in  such  a  language 
may  be  seen  from  the  diflerent  grammatical  values 
which  the  same  sound-group  can  have  in  our  own 
language  in  phrases  like  '  love  is  sweet,'  '  we  feel 
love,'  '  God  is  love,'  '  I  love  you,'  <Jcc. 

But  nearly  all  languages  admit  of  combination 
more  complete  than  this,  whevehy  two  or  more 
worils  can  be  joined  together,  so  that  a  single 
sound-complex  expresses  two  or  more  ideas  in  com- 
bination— e.g.  '  freeman,'  '  black-bird,'  '  thankful,' 
'high-bom,'  'backbite,'  'ill-treat,'  ili'C.  Each  of 
these  may  form  the  model  for  numerous  copies ; 
thus,  '  thankful '  can  produce  '  youthful,'  '  health- 
ful,' which  are  later  English  comjiounds.  Then 
came  hybrid  compoumls,  where  the  liist  memlier  is 
of  Latin  origin  (of  course  through  the  Nornuiii), 
as  'merciful,'  'masterful.'  In  this  last  we  .see 
that  the  exact  nature  of  the  original  compound  is 
obscured,  and  that  'ful'  gives  merely  the  addi- 
tional sense  of  'like,'  as  though  the  compound  had 
been  'masterlike,'  which  does  indeed  occur  in  a 
briefer  form,  and  with  a  secondary  sense,  as 
'masterly.'  This  example  throws  light  on  the 
history  of  all  word-formation.  A  word  may  cease 
to  be  felt  as  a  compound  commonly  through  change 
of  form  in  one  or  both  of  its  parts,  as  'masterly,' 
where  the  idea  of  the  skill  of  a  master  in  some  art 
alone  remains;  or  'hussy'  (house- wife),  where 
both  parts  of  the  compound  are  lost.  Sometimes 
only  one  syllable  may  remain,  as  in  '  lord '( loaf- 
ward  ).  Often  some  great  change  of  idea  joins  with 
phonetic  change  in  obscuring  the  nature  of  a  com- 
pound, as  in  fortnight  ( fourteen-night ).  Now,  when 
the  last  part  of  the  coiupouml  fullils  certain  condi- 
tions, it  may  be  used  in  the  formation  of  countless 
other  words  :  -//<■  (like),  which  is  found  in  ().  E.  in 
'eorth-lic,'  '  cyne-lic'(  earthly,  kingly),  passes  (m  in 
its  simi>ler  form  -///  in  '  daily,'  '  princely,'  (X:c.  ;  and 
-hi  is  then  what  grammarians  call  a  sutti.x,  an 
element  which  cannot  be  used  alone,  but  can  be 
added  on  at  jdeasure  to  another  word  to  modify 
its  meaning.  The  conditions  are  (1)  that  the  form 
of  the  so-called  suHix  must  be  a  convenient  one 
phonetically:  ('2)  that  it  nnist  have  been  in  use 
in  a  considerable  nundjer  nf  compounds  at  the  same 
time  :  for  '  bridegroom  '  ( bride-man  ),  '  nightingale  ' 
(nilde-rinle,  night-singer),  'gossip'  [God-.s-ih,  tiiod- 
related )  have  produced  no  analogous  forms  in 
English  owing  to  the  rarity  of  the  use  of  their 
second  member;  (."5)  that  the  last  mendier  nnist  lie 
general  in  its  sense,  or  at  least  acquire  some  general 
sense  in  composition.  A  suffix  is  especially  favdured 
which  can  be  mentally  referred  to  some  common 
word  of  general  sense,  though  it  may  really  have 
nothing  to  do  with  that  word.  Thus,  in  'credible,' 
'invincible,'  &c.  the  original  suthx  h/c  {-hili  in 
Latin)  is  seen:  but  in  many  words  which  come 
tons  through  the  Fren(di.  'probable,'  'annable,'" 
preceiled  the  last  syllable  :  thus  these  words  seemed 
to  mean  'able'  to  be  |>roved,  or  to  be  loved  ;  and 
so  words  like  '  knowable.'  'lovable,'  'relialile' 
sprang  up  in  abundance.  Independentl.v  of  these 
conditions  of  the  origin  of  sutlixes,  it  is  also  neces- 
sary that  the  first  member  of  a  compound  remain 
nn(discured.  Thus,  no  words  have  been  formeil  on 
the  model  of  'orchard'  (tniitiinnl),  tliough  ■(>;■(/ as 
a  Nornuin-French  sullix  has  jiroihiced  derivatives 
like  'drunkard,'  on  the  analogy  of  'bastard,' 
'wizard.' 


We  are  justified  in  inferring  from  the  English 
suBi.xes  which  can  be  explained  as  remnants  of 
words  (-ful,  -hj,  -dom,  -hood,  and  the  like)  that 
the  others  whose  history  can  no  longer  be  traced 
had  a  similar  origin  :  ami  even  in  extending  this 
principle  to  those  formative  sutiixes  which  reach 
back  to  the  earliest  period  of  language.  It  is  a 
sound  axiom  that  what  is  in  language  has  been  and 
will  be ;  it  is  only  by  dealing  witli  spoken  languages 
that  we  can  infer  the  nature  of  those  known  to  us 
by  tradition  only.  It  cannot  be  said  with  certainty 
that  we  should  assign  the  same  origin  to  those 
other  suffixes — which  we  call  inflectional — to  which 
we  owe  the  cases  of  our  nouns,  and  the  persons, 
tenses,  and  voices  of  our  verbs.  The  persons,  in- 
deed, of  the  verbs  were,  it  is  most  probable,  ^)ro- 
The  m  in  'am'  represents  original  'I,    so 


'  am  '  meant  'exist  I,'  and  was  a  compound  of  two 
words,  originally  as  separate  as  '  I  exist ; '  s  repre- 
sented '  thou,'  and  t  (Eng.  th  in  '  loveth,'  &c. )  was 
'  he.'  But  we  cannot  say  exactly  what  the  tense- 
suffixes  were,  though  we  believe  they  are  the  rem- 
nants of  words;  nor  what  were  the  ca-se-sutlixes 
of  the  nouns — what,  for  example,  was  the  s  w  Inch 
still  marks  our  genitive  case,  or  the  s  of  our 
plurals.  But  we  know  that  we  can  make  a  'noun 
of  multitude'  by  making  .such  a  compound  as 
'  man-kind,' and  there  is  no  reason  why  -f.v  (the 
original  form  of  -s,  our  plural  suffix)  may  not  once 
have  been  some  such  word  as  'kind,'  and  com- 
pounded in  the  same  manner.  Such  a  history  is  in 
accordance  with  all  we  know  of  the  processes  of 
language. 

It  will  be  apparent  from  what  has  been  said  that 
there  never  was  in  any  language  some  one  period 
in  which  its  suffixes  were  made,  succeeded  by  a 
perioil  in  which  there  was  no  more  growth  but 
only  decay.  T'ormation  is  always  goin.u  on,  though 
more  slowly  in  languages  which  are  stereotyjied  by 
literature.  In  English  we  have  almost  ceased  to 
use  our  second  pei'sonal  suffix  -st,  in  '  lovest,'  I'^rc. 
But  that  sf  is  itself  an  English  growth  :  the  older 
English  form  was  s;  in  tlie  (dd  Mercian  Psalter 
(edited  by  Mr  Sweet  in  his  Oldrst  Eiit/lis/i  Te.rls) 
we  find  ijoth  'thu  dydes '  and  'thu  dydest,'  '  tliu 
bis'  and  'thu  bist,'  &e.  Other  Teutonic  languages 
show  the  same  (independent )  development.  Still 
more  do  '  formative  suffixes' go  on  growing.  One 
of  our  commoner  English  sutlixes  ( tised  to  make  a 
dinunutive)  is  -let,  seen  in  comparatively  recent 
words,  like  'brooklet,'  'strcandet,' &c.  But  the 
form  is  really  a  development  of  the  older  -ct  (the 
French  -elte)  in  'helmet,'  'banneret,'  'cygnet.' 
Several  of  these  forms,  like  'islet.'  'circlet,' ami 
'eaglet,'  were  formed  out  of  nouns  which  ended  in 
I :  and  so  new  ones  were  formed — '  ring-let,'  &c.,  iis 
though  the  /  had  always  lielonged  to  the  suffix.  We 
are  getting  a  new  suffix  in  -lu'st,  seen  in  '  tobacco- 
nist, i^c.  This  is  an  extension  of  the  old  suffix 
(Oreek.  through  Latin  into  French)  -/>/,  in  'jurist,' 
'dentist,'  v^tc.  :  this  seems  to  be  due  to  words  where 
the  n  belongs  to  the  root-part,  ii-s  '  mech.an-ist,' 
'  pianist,"  and  other  late  forms. 

A  common  method  of  inflection  in  language  is, 
not  by  suffix,  but  by  change  of  the  original  vowel  : 
thus,  we  have  'man,'  but  plural  'men;'  anil  in 
verbs  we  find  luesent  'drink,  preterite  'drank,' 
past  particijile  'ilrunken.'  These  can,  however,  be 
traced  to  the  influence  in  ilill'erent  ways  of  lost 
suflixes.  Thus,  the  old  declension  of  '  man  '  wjis 
nom.  '  mann  ; '  gen.  '  mannes  ; '  dat.  '  nienn(i) : ' 
jilur.  nom.  'menn(i);'  gen.  'manna;'  dat.  'man- 
nuni.'  It  is  clear  that  the  change  of  u  to  c  had  at 
first  nothing  to  do  with  the  plural,  for  it  is  fouml 
in  singular  and  ]ilural  alike  when  /  followed  :  this 
vowel  had  the  property  of  modifying  <i  in  a  preced- 
ing syllable  to  i\  But  when  the  cjises  were  lost, 
as  happened  in  English  mainly   through   Norman 


348 


GRAMMAR 


iuHueiice,  '  man '  reniitiiied  lus  the  only  singular 
form,  and  'men'  iv-  tlio  only  |iluial  ;  so,  for  gram- 
matical imrposi'^,  llie  jilural  mi;,'lit  truly  l>e  said 
to  \h;  made  l>y  clian^'injj;  <i  to  t.  Similar  is  tlie 
history  of  'mouse,'  idnr.  'mice;'  'jjoose,'  [dur. 
'};eese,  <!i.o.  The  verlichanj^e,  /,  «,  ii,  has  a  nmst 
synimetiical  look,  and  seems  as  though  it  must 
have  heen  deviseil  to  exjiress  the  elianfje  of  rela- 
tion. As  a  fact,  however,  in  this  and  all  sinnlar 
cases,  /'  and  ii  re|irescnt  in  all  (lermanic  lan;'na;;es 
ori;,'inal  e  and  o  :  and  these  two  vowels  jirobaldy 
represent  developments  of  a  minute  variation  in 
pitch-accent  (f  hcing  higher  than  »/),  dating  from 
oeyond  the  historic  perioil  of  the  parent  speech  ; 
and  this  variation  marks  indeed  tense  distinctions 
— e.g.  in  Mreek,  pres,  dirlvomtity  perf.  lU'dorka  : 
but  it  is  also  found  in  mmns  such  as  ginos, 
ffdiiox,  and  it  seems  to  have  h.ad  nothing  to  do 
with  tenses  at  tirst.  The  secoml  change,  that  in 
'ilrank,'  'ilninken,'  has  (juile  a  dillerent  orijjin, 
Imt  one  equally  removeil  from  tensefonnation. 
Like  the  tirst  variation,  it  represents  a  very 
ancient  change— due  to  the  fact  that  in  the 
parent  language  the  syllaldes  innne<liately  pre- 
ceding or  following  that  which  liore  the  stress- 
accent  were  wcakciieil  :  no  language  shows  better 
than  Knglish  how  to  slur  a  syllable  immediately 
preceding  or  following  a  stressed  one— e.-;.  in 
'alime"  (where  the  last  syllable  is  stressed)  the  a, 
originally  the  full  a  of  'all,'  is  sounded  like  the  » 
of  'but,'  or  the  o  of  'son;'  the  same  scmnd  is 
commonly  heanl— e.g.  in  such  a  word  as  '  liberty,' 
insteail  of  the  (/-of  the  middle  syllable,  the  stress 
being  on  the  first.  Now  in  the  past  participle  the 
stress  was  on  the  siillix  no  (seen  as  -en  in 
'drunken'),  and  hence  the  vowel-change  in  the  root. 
I!ut  it  odiUy  ha]ipcns  that  just  the  .sann;  change 
took  [ilace  in  the  plural  of  the  i)erfect  itself,  owing 
to  the  plural  |>ersonal  sultixes  being  stressed  in  the 
jiarent  language;  and  so  the  (Md  Knglish  singular 
third  jiorson  was  'drank,'  but  the  thinl  plural 
was  'ilruncon'  (a  precisely  parallel  case  is  the 
(Ircek  sing,  m't/ti,  iilur.  n/iiii-ii,  orig.  iiliiaii).  So 
there  was  a  time  when  it  was  right  to  .say  '  I 
drank'  and  'we  drunk;'  but  a  meaningless  dis- 
tinction like  this  couhl  not  be  maintained  ;  one 
form  was  bmind  to  sn]iplaiit  the  other,  and  •ilrank  ' 
won  ;  but  '  won,'  the  jdur.  of  •  wiiinan,'  siipplanteil 
the  sing.  '  wann  ; '  •stung' beat  'staiig:'  'sprang' 
anil  'sprung'  were  used  inditreicntly  at  the  begin- 
ning of  this  century,  as  Ijy  Scott  and  Ityron,  to 
hell)  their  ihyines  ;  and  here  and  in  other  verbs 
there  is  still  some  tluctuation  of  use,  even  among 
educated  men.  These  examples  may  suffice  to 
show  tliat  vowel -ch.inge,  though  extremely  useful 
to  mark  grammatical  distinctions,  was  not  in  any- 
way designed  for  this  end,  which  has  been  reached 
by  unconscious  ilitfereiitiation  :  for  we  may  infer 
from  what  we  t:a.n  observe  in  languages  whose 
history  can  be  traced  that  the  prehistoric  di.s- 
tinetions  in  the  earliest  recorded  languages  had  a 
like  accidental  origin. 

The  history  of  grammatical  forms  may  then 
be  roughly  sketched  thus.  They  arose  |)iobably 
always  from  composition.  Such  <'om|iounds  were 
subject  to  phonetic  corruption,  and  the  unstressed 
syllables  were  slurred  and  lost  their  individuality  ; 
or  one  member  of  the  compound  ceased  to  be  used 
independently,  some  other  word  having  sniierseded 
it,  the  result  lieing  the  same  as  in  the  first  case — 
viz.  the  loss  of  special  significance  in  one  jiart  of 
the  compound  ;  and  when  the  |)art  so  generalised 
is  the  final  syllable,  that  syllatde  1>ecomes  a  mere 
suffix,  and  can  express  relation,  as  the  -///  in 
'  fatherly,'  or  the  -,<  in  '  fathers.'  Furthermore,  the 
cases  o{  the  nouns  and  the  persons  of  the  verbs 
thus  formed  were  liable  to  variations  of  form  in 
the   same  noun  or  verb,  due  to  the  incidence  of 


stress  or  the  inlluence  of  one  syllable  on  another. 
The  irregularities  thus  proiluccil  were  again 
levelled  in  process  of  time  by  the  natural  tendency 
to  do  away  with  diflerences  which  are  no  longer 
si'Tiificant ;  hence  came  symmetry  of  inflection, 
which  is  not  the  earliest  stage  in  grammar,  but 
rather  the  result  of  long  uncon.scious  play  of 
physical  and  mental  forces.  Again,  inflections 
constantly  perished,  either  by  simple  phonetic 
decay,  or  more  commonly  thrmigh  change  of 
nationality,  as,  lor  examide.  when  the  Teutonic 
and  other  races  adopted  the  Latin  of  the  coii(|Ueied 
lioman  piovinees,  or  when  the  descendant-  of  the 
Normans  began  to  use  the  national  speech  of 
Lngland.  Thus  ari.ses  much  simplification  of  vhat 
is  to  the  sjjeakers  a  foreign  grammar  ;  .ilso  there 
is  a  great  growth  of  hybrid  forms,  Normaii-Frcneh 
winds  combining  willi  English  siiflixcs,  and  virr. 
rcrti/i.  With  the  dying  nut  of  inflections  ari.ses  a 
great  giowth  of  indeilinable  words— adverbs,  con- 
junctions, and  prepositions  :  some  cases,  as  the 
locative  or  the  ablative  in  tJreek,  or  the  instru- 
mental in  Latin,  became  almost  extinct  :  the  few 
surviving  forms,  as  (Ireek  locatives  in  •(■('  and  abla- 
tives in  -I'/v,  bcliinging  to  noiiiis  of  the  «  clas>.  lost 
their  connection  wilh  those  iiouiis  ;  they  remiiined 
i.-ol.ated  forms,  freed  from  the  levelling  tendencies 
which  allected  the  oilier  cases  of  the  same  noun, 
because  no  longer  felt  to  be  in  connection  with 
them.  Thus  they  could  become  the  origin  each  of  a 
new  group  of  forms,  extending  (as  did  the  so-called 
(Iieek  adverbs  in  -r ;  and  ->'/.v)  to  nmny  other  classes 
of  nouns  besides  that  which  gave  them  birth. 
\  ery  commonly  this  isolation  of  .some  particular 
form  may  aii.se  while  the  case  is  still  in  full  use, 
through  some  accidental  break  of  connection.  In 
Knglish  our  one  surviving  ca.se  form  in  the  genitive 
is  -.V,  yet  this  very  form  has  been  the  parent  of 
numeions  adverbs:  'anes'  (already  mentioned) 
was  the  genitive  of  'an'  (one):  the  connection 
was  lost,  and  the  adverb  'once'  arose,  and  pro- 
duced 'twice'  (older  form  'twi-es'),  'thrice'  by 
mere  analogy,  no  such  genitives  having  ever 
existed;  so,  too,  'forwards,'  'always,' and  many 
otliei's  are  analogical  forms — no  tnie  genitives, 
but  cojiies  of  the  model  set  by  an  isolated  genitive. 
It  has  been  well  said  by  one  of  the  greatest  of 
modern  German  idiilologists,  I'rofessor  H.  I'aul, 
th.it  isiilatiiin  is  the  es.sential  condition  of  all 
siieech-ileyelo|>ment. 

Lastly,  even  while  cases  survive  in  use,  it  is 
nece».saiy  to  su]iplement  them  by  prepositions, 
becau.se  (except  perhaiis  in  languages  which,  like 
the  Kinnish,  liave  fifteen  cases)  there  are  not 
enough  case-forms  to  express  the  nunierou-  rela- 
tions in  space  ('to,'  'from,'  'in,'  'upon,'  'by,' 
'near,'  'with,'  &c. )  in  which  one  person  or  thing 
may  stand  to  another.  As  cases  die  out  tin-  need 
iiicrea.ses,  and  modern  Kuroiiean  languages  express 
practically  all  relations  by  )iieposition.s.  This 
jirinciple  is  sometimes  called  analysLs,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  combinatory  'synthetic'  principle 
of  older  forms  of  l.inguages.  Natuially  no  language 
is  ever  com|>letely  analytic  :  even  in  Knglish  words 
like  '  father's '  and  '  love's '  still  attest  that  the 
language  was  once  synthetic. 

Those  who  desire  fuller  insight  into  the  iirinciplef  of 
grammar  (a.s  seen  in  languages  of  tlie  Indo-European 
type)  may  consult  the  well-known  works  of  Prof,  llax 
Miiller;  A.  H.  Hnyce's Prineipli n iif  Coinimrativcl'liHnl'ini, 
and  his  Juli-ijdiiclion  to  llu  Si-kncc  <-/  Lanijiwj'.  which 
treat  the  subject  from  a  different  standpoint ;  'W.  l>. 
Whitney's  Life  and  Urowlh  i<!  Lamjuagc,  and  his 
LinquUtic  Sli'iilii.i:  H.  Taul'-s  i'rincipkn  dcr  Sjiracli- 
riiKChkhte,  an  invaluable  hut  difficult  work,  translated, 
though  not  made  materially  easier,  by  Prof.  Strong.  A 
synoptic  riew  of  the  relation  of  the  IndoKuropean  lan- 
guages will  be  found  in  the  still  unfinished  drundriss  dcr 
LT'iletdttndtn   (irammatik  of   Karl    Brugniann    (vol  i. 


GRAMMAR-SCHOOLS 


GRAMPUS 


349 


tran^5.  by  AVright).  Excellent  works  on  special  languages 
are  Whitney's  Sanskrit  Granuuar  and  Delbriick's  AH- 
iudischc  SynUix ;  for  Greek,  may  lie  mentioned  (out  of 
many)  Brugmann's  Grannnar  in  J.  Miiller's  Haiulbuch  dcr 
kia!f:ii.s>:k€/i  A/tertumsicisscnsckti/t,  and  D.  B.  Monro's 
Homeric  Grammar — a  most  suggestive  book ;  for  Latin, 
Stolz's  Grammar  (also  in  Miiller's  HandhurU)^  and 
Drilger's  Historical  Latin  Si/iita.r,  whicli.  though  old,  is 
stiU  the  most  systematic  work  on  the  subject ;  innumer- 
able valuable  articles  bearing  on  botii  Greek  ami  Latin 
are  to  be  found  in  Kuhn's  Zritucltrift,  Bezzenberger's 
Beitnir/e,  tlie  Memoirfx  dr  la  Sorirli'  dr  Liiitv'istique,  the 
Cambridge  and  the  American  Journals  of  I'hilology ;  for 
Keltic,  the  Grammars  of  Zeuss  and  \\'indisch  (Old  Irisli, 
trans,  by  Dr  N.  Moore),  and  Prof.  Khys's  Lectures  on 
Welsh  Philology  ;  for  the  Romance  languages  collectively, 
the  Grammar  of  Diez  and  the  (still  unfinished)  (Irinxl- 
rissdcr  ronianischen P/i ilulnrjic  of  G.  Grober ;  special  works 
on  these  languages  are  too  numerous  to  mention.  For 
Teutonic  languages  there  is  an  excellent  series  of  gram- 
mars published  by  Niemeyer  (Halle),  on  Icelandic  by 
Noreen,  on  Old  High  German  by  Braune,  and  on  Middle 
High  German  by  Paul  ( .Strong  and  K.  Meyer's  Hislorij  of 
the  Gcrttiaa  Lanf/uafic  may  also  be  found  useful);  on 
Gothic,  Braune  ;  see  also  Douse's  Ulfilas,  and  Prof.  Skeat's 
little  edition  of  the  Gospel  of  St  Mark  in  Gothic.  For 
English,  Sweet's  Awjlo-Sa.ron  Rciukr  anil  Cook's  trans. 
of  Sievers'  Grammar  of  Old  English  are  t)ie  best ;  Prof. 
Skeat's  Principles  of  Siu/lish  Etf/molo(f>t  should  also  be 
consulted  ;  Storm's  Emjlisckc  Philolor/ie  is  excellent,  but 
still  a  fragment ;  A.  J.  Ellis'  Earlii  Eniilish  Pronuncia- 
tion {o  vols.  1S69-89)  is  a  mine  of  information  on  the 
history  of  the  English  language. 

<>i'niniiiar-soliools.    See  Educition. 

Cirauillie  is  the  standanl  unit  of  French 
measures  of  weight,  and  Is  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
centimetre  of  distilled  water  at  0°  Centigrade  (cor- 
responding to  32°  F.)  ;  the  other  weights  liave 
received  Tiames  corresponding  to  the  number  of 
grammes  they  contain,  or  the  ntimlier  of  times  tliey 
are  contained  in  a  gramme  (.see  Decim.\l  System, 
JMlCTliic  Sv.STEM).  A  gramme  =  l.')-43248  grains 
troy,  from  wliich  the  equivalents  in  English  meas- 
ure for  the  other  weights  can  easily  he  found  ;  thus  : 

Grains  Troy.  LI'.  Avoinluiiiiis. 

Centigraiiiine  =  -1543234  =        -0000220462 

Decigramme     =  1-543234  =         -000220462 

Gbamme            =  15-43234  =         ■002-20462 

Decagramme    =  154-3234  =        -02-204G2 

Hi-ctogramnie  =  1543-234  =         -220462 

Kil.iRramme     =  15432-34  =  2-20462 

Myriagramme  =  154323-4  =  22-0462       =     -19684  cwt. 

Quintal  (q. v.)  =  1543234  =2-20-402          =  1-96S4       .. 

Gr.\M.ME-.-\.T0M. — A  quantity  of  an  elementary 
substance,  sucli  that  tlie  numlier  of  granimes- 
weiglit  is  the  same  as  the  atomic  number  of  the 
element — e.g.  12  grammes  of  carlion  (C=  12). 

Gr,vmiie-equi\  ALENT.— A  number  of  grammes- 
weight  of  a  substance,  elementary  or  compound, 
equal  numerically  to  the  quantity  of  that  substance 
wiiich  is  chemically  equivalent  to  unit  «eiglit  of 
hydrogen — e.g.  8  grammes  of  oxygen,  9  grammes  of 
water. 

Gramme-molecule. — A  quantity  of  a  substance, 
elementary  or  compound,  sucli  tliat  the  number  of 
grammes  and  the  molecular  weight  are  numerically 
the  same — e.g.  32  grammes  of  oxygen  (0..  =  32),  18 
grammes  of  water  ( H„0  =  IS ). 

Graillllli<'he'le,  a  town  of  Sicily,  33  miles  SW. 
of  Catania,  on  a  mountain-ridge,  171)8  feet  above 
sea-level.  I'cautiful  marbles  are  produeeil  in  the 
neighbourliooil.  It  was  fouinlcd  in  lli!l3  in  jilace  of 
the  neighbouring  town  of  Ochiola,  which  had  been 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake.     Pop.  11,804. 

<i!railimoilt  (Fr. ;  r.elg.  Oermrriixlicrijrii),  a 
small  town  in  the  Belgian  province  of  E.ast  Fl.anders, 
on  the  Dender,  14  miles  by  rail  S.  by  E.  of  Ghent, 
with  an  episcopal  .seminary,  and  famous  manu- 
factures of  lilack  lace.     Pop.  !)s;!(). 

(>raiiioiit.  or  Gk.vmmon  r,  I'hilihert,  Comtk 
HE,  a  celebrated  French  courtier,  was  born  in  1021. 


His  grandfather  was  husband  to  '  la  belle  Coi-is- 
ande,'  one  of  the  many  mistresses  of  Henry  IV. 
While  still  very  young  he  distinguished  himself 
as  a  volunteer  under  Conde  ami  Turenne,  and 
quickly  became  a  favourite  at  the  c<Mirt  of  Lcmis 
aIV.,  from  his  handsome  hgiire,  lively  wit,  anil 
wonderful  luck  at  play.  Hut  liis  gallantries  brought 
him  exile  from  France  in  lUfi'J.  He  found  a  plcii-sant 
refuge  and  congenial  society  among  tlie  merry 
profligates  that  thronged  the  court  of  Charles  11. 
of  England.  Here  he  took  his  share  in  all  the 
intrigues  tliat  formed  the  .sole  occupation  of  those 
gilded  reproliates  of  both  sexes  who  modcUcd  their 
morals  on  the  king's.  He  married,  but  not  without 
compulsion,  Elizabeth  Hamilton,  sister  of  Count 
Anthony  Hamilton,  with  whom  he  afterwards  re- 
turned to  France,  there  to  live  as  he  had  lived  in 
England.  Ninon  de  I'Enclos  said  he  was  the  only 
old  nian  who  could  aft'ect  the  follies  of  yontli  without 
being  ridiculous.  At  eighty  he  inspired  bis  memoirs 
or  at  least  revised  them  when  written  by  his 
brother-in-law,  Anthony  Hamilton  ( 1046-17"20). 
This  strange  book  Is  a  remarkable  re\-elation  of  a 
world  of  intrigue  and  villainy,  saved  from  detesta- 
tion only  by  its  brilliancy  and  wit.  It  is  written 
with  equal  grace  and  vigour,  and  its  portraits  are 
among  the  best  materials  for  the  domestic  history 
of  the  time.  Gramont  survi\cd  till  1707.  His 
Memoircs  was  first  printed  anonymously  in  1713, 
and  an  English  translation  by  Boyer  was  published 
in  1714.  'The  work,  though  actually  the  compo.si- 
tion  of  a  foreigner,  is  an  acknowledged  French 
classic,  and  has  often  been  reprinted,  sometimes  in 
forms  as  sumptuous  as  the  editions  by  Renouard 
(1812)  and  Gn.stave  Brunet  (ISfjO).  "  Tlie  best 
English  editions  are  Edwards's  (1793),  Malleville's 
(1811),  Bohn's  (1846),  and  that  published  by  John 
C.  Nimmo  in  1889. 

Grampians,  a  name  very  loosely  ajiplied  to 
the  mountain-system  of  the  Scottish  Highlands. 
Some,  for  instance,  restrict  it  to  a  '  chain  '  of  heights 
bordering  the  Lowland  plain  from  Dumbarton  to 
Stonehaven,  whilst  others  include  a  'range'  ex- 
tending from  Stonehaven  to  Ben  Nevis,  as  well  as 
the  Cairngorm  gioup,  Schiehallion.  v'vrc.  Hector 
Boece  adopted  the  name  in  1527  from  Tacitus 's 
3foiis  Orampiiis  or  Granjiiiis,  the  scene  in  86  A.n. 
of  Agricola's  crushing  defeat  of  Galgacus.  Where 
that  battle  was  fought  has  itself  been  hotly  eon- 
tested.  Ardoch,  Dalginross,  near  Conirie,  and 
Uiie,  near  Stonehaven,  are  sites  named,  also  the 
junction  of  the  Isla  and  Tay.     See  also  Victori..\. 

GraiupOUIld,  a  decayed  Cornish  village,  till 
1824  returning  two  members  to  parliament,  7  miles 
SW.  of  St  Austell.     Pop.  495. 

Grampus  (a  sailor's  corruption  of  Ital.  r/ran 


Grampus  {Orea  gladiator). 

pcscc,  or  Span,  tjroa  pc:,  'great  fish'),  a  cetaceous 
animal,  common  in  almost  all  seii-s  from  Greenland 


350 


GRAN 


GRANBY 


to  Ta.siiiiinii\,  not  uiifrc<|uetit  in  the  Atlantic,  and 
well  known  on  the  Itritish  coasts.  ( '(instituting 
the  K^nns  l.)rcii,  it  is  the  largest  of  the  I>eliihiniil;f, 
often  more  thiui  20  feet  in  lengtli ;  its  form  si>in<lle- 
shai>ecl,  hilt  thicker  in  iiroportion  than  the  porpoise, 
from  which  it  also  (lill'ers  in  the  much  greater 
height  of  its  ilorsal  hn,  in  its  roumlcil  heiul,  ami 
its  permanent  conical  teeth.  It  is  remarkahle  for 
its  great  strength  and  voracity,  and  is  the  only 
cetacean  which  preys  systematically  on  its  warm- 
hloiHled  kindred — on  small  doljdiins  and  |>orpois&s, 
lielugiLs,  and  even  whales — the  grampuses,  or 
'killers', as  English  sailoi-s  also  call  them,  a-ssein- 
hling  in  herds  to  pursue  whales. 

Gran,  a  royal  free-town  of  Hungary,  is  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  here  crossed 
by  a  bridge  of  boats,  2o  miles  N\V.  of  I'esth,  and 
opposite  the  mouth  of  the  river  tiran  (length,  loO 
miles).  The  town  is  the  see  of  the  primate  of 
Hungary,  and  its  great  domed  cathedral  ( 1821-56), 
on  the  castle  liill,  rivals  in  its  magnilicent  propor- 
tions St  Peter's  at  Home.  The  palace  of  the  prince- 
archbishop,  who  is  |>rimate  of  Hungarj-,  and  luus 
a  rent  roll  of  t'HO,(KX),  is  the  chief  of  many  build- 
ings in  connection  with  the  cathedral.  The  warm 
mineral  springs  of  (Iran  have  also  some  fame. 
Top.  (1890)9349.  Gran  was  the  cradle  of  Christian- 
ity in  Hungary  ;  here  fSt  Stephen,  the  tirst  king, 
was  born  in  979,  and  baptised  and  crowned  in  1000. 
In  the  ne.xt  two  centuries  it  became  the  greatest 
commercial  town  in  the  kingdom  ;  the  old  name, 
I.strof/rriniim  ( 'IJanube  grain-town"),  a]i]ieai-s  now 
in  the  Magyar  Eszteryom,  and  the  Hungarian-Latin 
atrif/onhim.  Gran's  fortunes  never  recovered  from 
the  storming  by  the  Tartars  in  1241. 

Oranada,  an  ancient  Moorish  kingdom  of  Spain, 
embraciii''  the  south-ea-stern  jiortion  of  Andalusia, 
and  now  divided  into  the  three  moilern  provinces  of 
Granada,  Almeria,  and  Malaga,  the  united  areas 
of  which  amount  to  I1,0IV2  sq.  m.,  and  the  united 
l".p.  (1877)  1,:{28,4G4;  (1887)  1,361,456.  Except 
111  the  narrow  strii>  of  coast  region  along  the 
Mediterranean,  the  surface  is  a  succession  of  moun- 
tain and  plateau  rising  in  the  centre  to  the  snow- 
capped Sierra  Nevada :  but  the  soil  is  fertile,  and 
the  ancient  (iranaila.  which  became  an  independent 
kingdom  after  the  fall  of  the  caliphate  of  Cordova 
in  12.'<0,  supported  a  population  of  3  millions, 
and  sent  100,000  men  into  the  field.  From  1246 
the  Moorish  kings  were  obliged  to  recognise  the 
su|)reiiiacy  of  the  kings  of  Ciistile.  A  iiuanel, 
however,  which  arose  between  the  vassal  king  of 
Granaila  ami  Fenlinand  and  Isabella  in  the  15th 
century  resulted  in  a  war  of  eleven  yeai-s'  duration, 
the  result  of  which  was  the  complete  C(mi|uest 
of  Granada  by  the  Spaniards  in  1492,  and  the 
total  destruction  of  Moorish  authority  in  Spain. 

The  laodeni  iirovince  of  Granada  ha-s  an  area  of 
4928  sq.  111.,  which  includes  the  highest  mountains 
in  the  Peninsula,  and  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
regions  in  Europe.  A  great  portion  belongs  to  the 
biisins  of  the  Jenil  and  the  Fardes  ((iuadiana 
Menor),  tributaries  of  the  Gua<lal(juivir:  the  Gua<l- 
alfeo  iind  other  streams  How  into  the  Mediterranean. 
The  climate  is  warm,  but  tempered  by  the  snow- 
clail  mountain-ranges ;  the  fruitful  soil  yields  the 
pnMlucts  of  !M)th  the  temperate  and  subtropical 
zones.  Neither  the  mineral  spiings  nor  the  rich 
deposits  of  salt,  iron,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  sulphur, 
marble,  and  alabaster  are  much  worked  ;  the 
silk  industry,  formerly  important,  has  nearly  dis- 
appeared, and  the  manufactures  are  now  c^iieHy 
weaving,  sugar  ami  brandy  refining,  &c. ;  and  the 
trade  of  the  province,  liinderetl  by  a  rock-l>ound, 
inhospitable  coast  and  the  absence  of  roads,  is 
unimportant.    Pop.  ( 1877 )  479,066  :  ( 1887 )  480,594. 

Gr.\N.\D.\,  the  chief  town  of  the  province,  and 


forinerlv  capital  of  the  kingdom,  luis  .«adly  declined 
since  tiie  uays  of  its  Moorish  masters,  but  still 
ranks  as  one  of  the  larger  cities  of  Spain.  It  lies 
at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  on  and  lietween 
two  hills,  the  scmthernmost  being  the  site  of  the 
famous  Alliambra((i.v.),  and  is  2245  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  126  (by  rail  179)  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Seville. 
It  overlooks  a  fertile  and  extensive  plain,  and 
stamis  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jenil,  which  is 
here  joine<l  by  the  Darro.  The  northern  hill  is 
occupied  by  the  Alhaicin,  the  oldest  part  of  the 
town.  The  main  part  of  the  town  lies  m  the  [dain 
to  the  west  of  this,  on  Iwitli  sides  of  the  Darro, 
which  is  here  mostly  arched  over ;  and  the  wide 
suburbs  of  Elvira  ami  Antii|Ueruela  stretch  farther 
to  the  west  and  north.  The  modern  town  is  common. 
jilace  and  dull,  with  wide  streets,  open  square>, 
and  many-windowed  houses ;  but  the  old  liouso, 
with  their  Hat  roofs,  tunets,  many-coloured  awn- 
ings, balconies,  and  fountains,  preserve  still  a  half 
oriental  a-spect,  and  the  labyrinths  of  narrow,  tor- 
tuous, ill-paved  lanes  that  for  the  most  part  pass 
for  streets  here  and  there  oiler  picturestjue  views. 
The  chief  centres  of  commercial  activity  are  the 
ohl  and  handsome  sfpiare  known  as  the  A'ivar- 
rambla  and  the  Zacatin,  or  old  bazaar,  a  street 
which  still  retains  much  of  the  Moorish  style. 
On  the  outskirts  of  the  town  there  is  a  shady 
-Manieda.  Granada  is  the  seat  of  an  arclibislioii, 
and  has  a  univei-sity  ( l.jSl  )  attended  by  nearly 
1000  students.  The 'cathedral,  begun  in"  1529,  is 
profusely  decorated  with  jaspers  and  coloured 
marbles,  iind  contains  the  tombs  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  and  of  Philip  1.  and  his  con.sort 
Juana,  fine  specimens  of  Italian  KenaLs.sance  sculp- 
ture, doubtfully  attributed  to  Torrigiano.  In  the 
monastery  of  San  Cenmiiiio  the  'Creat  Captain,' 
(lon.salvo  di  Cordova,  is  biirieil.  The  industry  and 
trade  of  the  town  are  inconsiderable.  Pop.  (1877) 
76,108;  (1887)66,778.  The  modern  city  of  Cranada 
was  founded  by  the  Moors  in  the  8th  century,  not  far 
from  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  Celtiberian  town,  Illi- 
beris,  and  rajiidly  rose  to  distinctiim  as  a  wealthy 
trading  city  and  as  a  seat  of  arts  and  architecture. 
According  to  the  common  account,  about  1350  the 
pop.  numliered  200,000,  and  at  the  time  of  the 
Sjianish  con«|uest  reached  400,000  :  the  city  was 
surrounded  by  a  wall  fortified  with  lO.'lO  towers, 
contained  70  libraries,  and  was  the  seat  of  50 
schools  of  learning.  But  this  is  more  or  less 
legendary. — The  etymology  of  Granaila  is  doubtful, 
but  the  woi-st  explanation  is  that  which  makes 
the  name  mean  pomegranate.  The  Mtxirs  calletl  it 
Kaniit(lii/i  or  hiiniuttuhiil-Yuhoud — i.e.  Granaila 
of  the  Jews,  to  whom  this  (|uarter  of  the  early  tow  n 
was  given  up,  the  Arabs  retaining  Illiheris,  which 
they  called  Elvira.  Karnattah  possibly  signifies 
the  hill  or  city  of  stiangei-s.  See  I're.-cott's  Finli- 
iiaiitl  tint/  Jsttljil/ti  (18.37);  M  ashington  Irving's 
Coiiqiicxt  of  GitiiiiuUi  ( 1829 ) ;  Lafuente  y  Alcantara, 
Jlisloiui  tic  Granatin  (4  vol.s.  Gran.  1843). 

Ciranada,  a  department  and  city  of  Nicaragua. 
The  department,  lying  between  the  Pacific  and 
Lakes  Nicaragua  and  Managua,  has  an  area  of 
nearly  2600  so.  m.  ;  it  is  mostly  a  level  savannah, 
but  contains  the  volcano  of  Masava  and  the  Mom- 
bacho  i*ak  (4500  feet).  Pop.  about  70,fKI0.  — The 
city  stands  on  the  north-Avest  side  of  Lake  Nicar- 
agua, .ind  is  connected  with  Managua  by  rail. 
Founded  in  1522,  it  was  formerly  the  chief  town  of 
the  republic,  but  has  sutl'ered  greatly  from  the 
civil  wars  ;  it  Ls  still,  however,  of  some  importance 
as  a  trading  centre.     Pop.  about  10,000. 

Ciranadilla,  the  edible  fruit  of  Passiflora 
qwnliiiiKjitlaris.     See  PaSSION'-FLO\VER. 

Granby,  John  Maxxer.s,  M-vrquls  of,  an 
English  general,  the  eldest  son  of  the  third  Duke 


GRAN  CHACO 


GRAND  RAPIDS 


351 


of  Rutland,  was  bom  January  2,  1721.  He  en- 
tered the  army,  and  soon  after  attaining  tlie  rank 
of  lieutenantfieneral  (1759)  was  sent  to  Ger- 
many as  second  in  command,  under  Lord  Georjje 
8ackville,  of  the  British  troops  co-operating'  with 
tlie  kinj,'  of  Prussia.  After  the  Viattle  ot  Min- 
den  he  was  appointed  comuiander-inchief  of 
the  British  troops,  and  held  that  post  during  tlie 
remainder  of  the  Seven  Yeai-s'  A\  ar.  After  the 
peace  of  1763  he  was  constituted  master-general  of 
the  ordnance,  and  in  1766  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army.  He  died  at  Scarhorough  19th  October 
1770.  Thougli  very  popular  in  his  time,  as  is  evi- 
denced by  the  frequency  with  which  his  jrartrait 
was  a  public-house  sign,  he  was  the  subject  of  some 
of  Junius's  most  terrible  invectives.  His  military 
qualities  api)ear  to  have  been  overrated.  See  Life 
by  W.  E.  ^Lanners  (1899). 

Gran   C'haco,   an   extensive  central   tract    of 
South  America,  extending  from  the  southern  troi)ic 
to  29^  S.  lat.,  and  bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  Para- 
guay and  Parana,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Argentine 
provinces  of  Santiago  del  Estero  and  Salta.     Its 
area,  about   180,000  sq.   m.,  exceeds  that  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  by  one-half.     The  portion  south 
of  the  Pilcomayo  belongs  to  Argentinia,  and  the 
remaining  third  to  Paraguay  ;  but  the  possession 
of  the  ujjper  section  of  the  PilcoTuayo  is  disputed 
by  Bolivia.     The  country  rises  gradually  from  the 
Parana  towards  the  north-west  a.s  far  as  2.5  40'  S. 
lat.,  when  it  dips  to  the  valley  of  the  San  Francisco 
— l)art  of  a  great    depression   extending  through 
Bolivia  nearly  to  the  frontier  of  Peni,  and  subject 
to  annual    inundations.      The   Chaco    is    watered 
principally    by   two    long,    nariow,   and    tortuous 
streams,   the  Bermejo  and  the  I'ik-oinayo,  flowing 
south-east  in  courses  generally  jiarallel,  and  about 
ISO    miles   distant    from    each    other.      Only   the 
former  has  been   explored   throughout,    but  it  is 
known  that  Ixjth  i)ossess  an   unusual   number  of 
obstructions,   though   these  are   quite   removable, 
consisting  mainly  of  shallows  caused  by  the  com- 
pact argillaceous  bed  which  is  a  geological  charac- 
teristic of  the  whole  Chaco  subsoil.     The  bed  of 
the  Bermejo  also  oscillates  backward  and  forward, 
and  in  1870-72  the  river  opened  up  a  new  channel 
(known  as  the  Teuco)  for  nearly  200  miles.     The 
most  northern  jiart  of  the  Chaco  is  an  extremely 
arid  zone,  but  the  banks  of  the  upper  Pilcomayo 
are  fertile  and  its  sands  auriferous.    To  the  north'of 
the  Bermejo  there  are  numerous  and  wide  marshes 
and  stretches  of  jungle,   drained  by   many  small  | 
streams  ;  but  the  land  is  well  wooded,  chieHy  with  { 
va.st  seas  of  ]ialms  (here  an  indication,  however,  of 
marshy  lands  subject  to  inundation,  as  the  local 
algaroba  is  of  dry,  high  land),  while  -south  of  the 
Bermejo   the   primeval   forest   extends  into  Salta. 
The  annual  rainfall  is  probably  80  inches,  all  con- 
centrated into  the  six  months  from  November  to 
May  ;   then  wide  sections   become  almost  a  lake 
ilistrict,  whilst  in  seasons  of  extraordinary  floods 
the  Paraguay  and  the  other  great  rivei-s  create  a 
vaster  sea  than  the  Nile.     Thus  much  of  the  region 
is  of  modern  alhnial  formation,  and  exceedingly 
fertile.     A    very    dry   season    succeeds,    and   some 
districts  are   then   utterly   waterless,   or  the  wells 
that  have  been  sunk  are  impregniiteil  with   salt. 
The  average  temperature  is  80°  F.  ;  the  climate  is 
said  to  be  equable,  and  in  the  southern   section 
-uitable   to    colonists    of    the   Anglo-Saxon    race. 
Since  15.37,  when  the  first  explorer.  Captain  .Tuan 
lie  Ayolas,  marched  with  2.50  men  into  the  wilder- 
ness   from   which   none    ever  returned,   numerous 
expeditions  have  been  sent  out  from  the  surround- 
in''  countries;    but  the    savage   tribes    (. still   un- 
subdued    throughout    the     unexplored     interior), 
swamps,   lagoons,   and    floods    defeated   all    early 
attempts  to  open  up  the  country.     In  1884  garrisons 


were  established  along  the  Bermejo,  and  since  1885 
permanent  settlements  have  been  made.  Already 
there  are  many  agricultural  colonies  and  small 
towns  along  the  Paraj,'uay,  connected  by  rail  and 
telegraph;  the  Bermejo  lands,  on  both  banks  for 
400  miles  from  its  mouth,  have  been  conceded  by 
the  Argentine  government  for  various  enterprises ; 
thousands  of  hands  are  emi)loyed  in  the  timber 
trade,  and  steam  sawmills  are  in  operation  ;  cattle- 
raising  and  farming  are  carried  on,  and  from  the 
sugar-ca.ne  refined  sugar  and  rum  are  manufactured. 
Concessions  also  have  been  granted  for  railways 
from  Corrientes  to  the  Bolivian  frontier.  See 
an  interesting  paper  by  Captain  John  Page  in 
l'ro<:.  Roy.  Geoy.  Hoc.  (1889). — Clutcu,  the  (^uichua 
word  for  'hunt,'  may  refer  to  the  great  Imlian 
battues :  but  umler  the  Incas  it  was  applied  to  the 
numbering  of  flocks,  and  so  came  to  signify  «  ealtli 
— Orati  Chaco  thus  meaning  'great  riches.' 

Grand-combe,  L.\,  a  town  in  the  French 
department  of  Gard,  41  miles  NXW.  of  Nimes. 
Near  it  are  very  important  collieries.  Poi). 
6111. 

Grandees  (Span,  (jramks),  since  the  13th 
century  the  most  highly  privileged  class  of  nobility 
in  the  kinjrdom  of  Castile,  in  which  the  member 
of  the  royal  family  were  included.  Their  honours 
were  hereditary  ;  they  held  lands  from  the  crown 
on  the  tenure  of  military  service,  were  exeinpte<l 
from  taxation,  could  not  be  summoned  before  any 
civil  or  criminal  judge  without  a  special  warrant 
from  the  king,  and  could  leave  the  kingdom,  and 
even  enter  the  service  of  a  foreign  jirince  at  war 
with  Castile,  without  incurring  the  penalties  of 
treason.  Besides  this,  they  had  the  right  of  beinjj 
covered  in  the  presence  of  tlie  king.  In  the  iiationtU 
a.ssemblies  they  sat  immediately  behind  the  [uel- 
ates  and  before  the  titled  nobility  (titalndos). 
Under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  they  "were  deprived 
of  most  of  their  peculiar  juivileges  ;  and  Charles  V. 
converted  them  from  an  indeiiendent  feudal  nobilitv 
into  a  dependent  court  nobility.  Under  Josepii 
Bonajiarte  their  dignities  and  pririleges  were 
entirely  abolished ;  but  they  were  jiartially  legranted 
at  the  subsequent  restoration.  Grandees  are  still 
members  of  the  senate  in  their  own  right. 

Grand  Forks,  capital  uf  Cnind  Forks  countv. 
North  Dakota,  on  the  Bed  Hiver  of  the  Nortli, 
opposite  the  mouth  of  Bed  Lake  Kiver,  is  about 
.55  miles  N.  of  Fargo,  at  the  intersection  of  two 
railways.  It  has  several  flour  and  saw  mills,  iron- 
works, and  a  biewerv,  besides  a  large  transit  trade 
in  wheat.     Pop.  4979. 

Grand  Haven,  caidtal  of  Ottawa  countv, 
Jlichigan,  on  Lake  Michigan,  .tnd  on  the  south 
bank  of  Grand  Kiver,  31  miles  \V.  bv  N.  of 
(Jiand  Raoids  by  rail.  It  has  a  good  liarliour, 
with  two  lighthouses,  and  slii]>s  large  ouautities 
of  lumber  and  grain.  It  contains  several  lumber- 
mills  and  manufactories  of  wooden  wares,  iVc.  ;  ami 
a  medicinal  spring  rendei-s  the  place  a  summer- 
resort.     Pop.  5914. 

Grand  Jury.    See  Jt  ey. 

Grand  Pensionary.    See  Pension. \i! v. 

Graildpre,  a  village  in  the  French  department 
of  Ardennes,  on  the  river  Aire,  40  miles  NNE.  of 
Chiilcms.  Hereon  14th  Septemlier  1792  Dumourie/, 
was  defeated  by  the  Allies. 

Grand  Rapids,  capital  of  Kent  county, 
Michigan,  stancfs  at  the  head  of  steamboat  naviga- 
tion on  (Jrand  Hiver,  here  crossed  by  six  bridges, 
and  at  the  junction  of  several  railways,  60  miles 
WNW.  of  Lansing.  The  river,  which  enters  Lake 
Michigan  40  miles  below,  here  falls  18  feet  in  a 
mile,  and  across  it  extend  the  rapids  which  give 
name    to    the    town.       Conducted    by    canals,    it 


352 


GRAND   SERJEANTY 


GRANITE 


supplies  inotivepowcr  to  niiiiieroiis  siiwiiiillK  and 
iiiatiiifact<irie.s  of  fuiiiilure  and  wooik-ii  wure,  fiirm- 
iiit!  iiiipleiiients.  Hour,  iiiaeliineiy,  &c.,  tliou;;li 
steam  is  now  in  use  in  most  of  the  factories ; 
f,'ypsunii|uarries  near  tlie  town  supply  al>unilant 
material  lor  stucco  plaster  anil  kinilred  prepani 
tions.  White  liricks  are  also  larj,'elv  made  hcri', 
and  many  of  the  houses  and  churches  are  liuill 
of  them.  The  citv  is  the  seat  of  an  Kpiscojial 
hislmp.  I 'op.  (1H70)  16,507;  (1880)  32,010;  (1885) 
41,0:«  :  (IH'Ml)  on.'iTS. 

Vraild  SerjoailJy  (martint  scrjaniliu.  or 
iii'iyiiiiin  MiTitiiiiii.  •  ;;reat  service")  was  one  of  the 
nmst  lionouralile  of  the  ancient  feudal  tenures. 
According;  to  Littleton,  ti'nure  l>y  ^,'rand  serjeanty 
is  where  a  man  holds  his  lands  or  tenements  of  our 
soverei;,'U  lord  the  Iciut.'  hy  such  .services  as  he  ou^dit 
to  do  in  his  proper  j>ersoM  to  the  kin^',  as  to  carry 
the  hanner  of  the  kinj;,  or  his  lance,  or  to  lead  Ids 
army,  or  to  be  his  nuirshal.  or  to  carry  his  sword 
before  him  at  his  coronation,  or  his  carver,  or  his 
butler,  or  to  be  one  of  his  chamberlains  of  the 
receipt  of  his  exche(|Ui'r,  or  to  do  other  like  ser\  ices. 
The^e  honor.-iry  services  were  expressly  retained 
when  the  military  tenures  were  abolished  ii\  lOdl. 
Strathlieldsaye  is  hehl  hy  the  Huke  of  \Veilin;,'tou 
in  ^'raml  serjeanty,  the  service  reipiireil  bein^  the 
presentatimi  to  the  soverei^;n  of  a  llaj;  bearing;  the 
national  colours  on  each  anniveixary  of  the  battle 
of  Waterloo.  The  service  by  which  the  Duke  of 
Marlhorou;;h  holds  the  manor  of  Wood>toek  is  the 
presentation  to  the  sovereij;n  of  a  French  slandaril 
on  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  lilenheim. 

In  Scotland  f^raud  serjeanty  was  not  known  as 
a  separate  tenure — that  is  to  say,  lands  held  on 
condition  of  honorary  services  rendereil  to  the 
sovereign  were  not  attemled  with  any  iirivilcfies 
other  than  those  attai'hin;;  to  lands  held  in  a  similar 
manner  of  a  subject  .sujierior.  In  that  country  a 
tenure  by  honorary  service  was  known  a-s  a  Blanch 
Holding!  i|.  v.). 

<>raiulsoil.     See  Clt.wsdN. 

(■raiuivillo,  the  pseudonym  of  .li;.\N'  IciNAfK 
IsiDOKE  (iKUAlil),  a  French  caricaturist,  who  was 
born  at  Nancy,  .Sd  September  ISO.'t.  In  1828  he 
lirst  attracted  attention  by  a  series  of  humorous 
sketches  entitled  /,<■.<  Mi:tuiiii>i-plio.ws  dti  Jniir,  in 
which  men  with  animals'  faces  show  forth  the 
follies  and  foibles  of  human  nature.  'I'liis  was 
followed  by  several  similar  series  of  satirical  cari- 
catures of  social  relations,  as  Auimaiix  Parhnits, 
Let  Cents  Pioccibes,  Let  Flciim  Aniinfm,  itc. 
He  also  practised  politicil  caricature  with  ;,'reat 
success.  liesides  this  line  of  work,  he  contributed 
illustrations  to  splendid  I'ditions  of  the  Fiiliha  of 
Lafontaine,  Hnhiii.suti  Cnisoc,  dnllicrr's  Tiai'iU, 
iScc.     (Jrandville  ilied  in  Paris,  17th  March  1S47. 

(iirailU4'IIIWIltll.  a  risin;:  port  in  Stirlinf,'shire, 
3  miles  LNE.  of  Kalkirk.  Foun<led  in  1777,  aiul 
erected  into  a  police  bur;;li  in  1872,  Gran<,'enioulli 
has  extensive  <|U,ays  and  warehouses,  docks  (in- 
cluding; a  larjje  one  opened  in  1882),  a  firavin^;- 
dock,  and  shipbuihliuf;  yards.  The  trade  of  the 
Iport  has  risen  very  rapidly.  In  1840  the  shipping,' 
entering;  and  clearin;.;  it  was  SLtWil  tons  ainiuiillv  ; 
in  1870,840,32(5:  in  1885.  1,4.')7,091  :  and  in  lS!i4, 
1,790,281  (one-third  in  the  foreign  trade)  tons— the 

t)ort  ranking  hflh  in  Scotland.  Since  1887  there 
las  been  a  regular  line  of  pa.ssenger  steamers 
between  tirangemouth  and  London,  owned  by  the 
Carroll  Iron  ('om|iany,  who.se  works  are  within  2 
miles  of  the  port.  The  nrincipal  imports  are 
timlier,  henij),  lla.x,  tallow,  ileals,  iron,  and  grain  ; 
and  the  exports  are  ni.anufactured  iron,  and  coal. 
Grangemouth  is  noteworthy  iis  having  been  the 
place  where  some  of  the  earliest  experiments  in 
Steam-navigation  (i\.\.)  were  made.      In  1801  the 


first  Vhiirltitle  Ihnnlii.s  was  built  there.      I'op.  ( 1831 ) 
I  l.V> ;  ( 1871 )  2,'>6'.t :  ( 1881  I  4.->0O  ;  ( iHitl )  6,354. 

(•railKCr,  .I.\mks,  born  about  1723.  was  cdu 
cated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  cllcd  vicar  of 
Shiplake,  in  Oxfiudshire,  in  1770.  He  published  a 
long  popular  Hinijiiiji/iiinf  l{i/,tori/  nf  Enqlntiil 
(1700;  5th  eil.  0  vols.  1S24),  which'  was  ■  ailapte.l 
to  a  catalogue  of  engraved  IbiMsh  heads.'  ami 
insisted  much  '(ui  the  utility  of  a  colleclicm  of 
engraved  portraits.'  Hi^  advice  led  to  extraor 
dimirv  zeal  in  cidlecting  ]iort] aits,  and  'granger 
ised  copies'  became  the  name  for  works  embellished 
with  engravings  gathered  from  all  iiuarters—  frc 
i|nenlly  secured  by  the  unconscionable  mutilation 
of  \aluable  books  of  ,all  kinds.  .\  grangerised 
Uibh>,  in  45  vols,  folio,  contained  r)(MKI  prints,  anil 
was  valm'd  at  .'ilKM*  guineas.  An  edition  of  l.efevre's 
X'oltaire  in  0(1  vols,  contained  12, (MM)  engravings 
(mostly  portraits),  and  co-t  the  lalK)ur  of  twenty 
years;  it  sold  in  1850  for  tS(Kt.  A  grangeri.sed 
Clareiulon's  Itebellion  was  illustrated  by  Mr  Suth 
erianil  at  a  cost  of  l'l(l.(KKI.  In  1888  a  London 
bookseller  had  on  .sale,  for  i'l.">(Kl.  a  copy  of  lioy dell's 
Shake-peiire,  extended  by  the  insertion  of  ihiiusands 
of  plato  to  30  Milumes  ;  the  sale  price  probably  did 
not  npiesent  the  cost  of  the  grangerising. 

(•railifors.  an  American  iussociation  of  agricul- 
turists, founded  by  ii  government  clerk  named 
Kelly  in  1807,  under  the  title  of  'pations  of  hu.s- 
baniiry.'  The  society  had  a  ritual  and  four  orders 
for  men  and  women,  and  aimed  at  the  social  im- 
provement and  industrial  benelit  of  the  farming 
cl.ass.  Hy  1875  there  were  as  many  as  30,(XJO 
granges  organised,  but  the  number  was  after- 
warils  reduced  by  dissensions.  In  1888  the  asso- 
ciation was  united  with  the  Natimuil  Farmers' 
Alliance,  founded  in  the  Western  States  about 
1871  ;  and  in  18112  the  iiintcd  body,  which  had 
attracteil  a  following  amongst  working  men  gener- 
ally, aciiuired  political  importance  as  the  People's 
Party  or  Po])ulists,  and  had  to  be  reckoned  witli  at 
elections.  "This  party  advocates  the  imblic  owner- 
ship of  the  railways  and  tramways,  direct  issue  of 
money  by  government  without  the  intervention  of 
banks,  free  coinage  of  silver,  and  bi-nn.'tallism. 

4irl'a III '4*11  s,  the  ancient  name  of  a  small  river 
of  .\>i,a  Minor,  tluwing  fmm  the  norlliern  side  of 
Mount  Ida  to  the  Projionti^,  and  now  known  Jis 
the  Kodsha-sn.  (»n  its  banks  Alexander  the  Great 
(i|.v.)  defeated  the  Persians. 

Iiiraiiicr  «1<'  <'assiH;iiar.    See  C.\ss.\onac. 

UrailitO  lltal.  </"""'",  'gritty;'  Lat.  f/ranuin, 
'grain').  Tliis  well  known  rock  is  a  thoroughly 
crystalline-granular  aggregate  of  quartz,  felspar, 
and  mica.  The  felspar  is  generally  orthoclase 
(]>ink  or  gray),  but  some  plagioclase  is  often 
present.  The  mica  may  be  mnscovitc  or  biotite, 
and  other  varieties  also  occur,  but  the  most 
common  perhaps  is  mnscovitc.  There  is  no  base 
or  matrix  in  this  rock— the  several  crystals  and 
crystalline  granules,  confusedly  coinTiiingled,  being 
biiund  together  by  their  faces.  In  crystallising  out, 
the  felspar  and  mica  have  interfered  with  each 
other's  devclojiment,  so  that  these  minerals  larely 
.-issume  perfect  crystalline  forms.  The  quartz 
still  more  rarely  a]>pears  in  the  form  of  jicrfect  or 
even  approximately  perfect  crystals,  but  occurs  as 
irregular  crystalline  grannies,  or  seems  to  be 
moulded  upon  and  hemmed  in  between  the  other 
minerals.  Fluid  cavities  are  generally  plentiful  in 
the  quartz.  As  a  general  rule  the  component 
crystals  of  granite  have  separated  <mt  in  the  follow- 
ing order :  mica,  felspar,  ouartz.  C>ccasionally,  how- 
ever, it  is  found  that  the  fel.spar  and  the  quartz 
have  crystallised  together,  and  thus  mutually 
interfered  with  each  other's  form.  More  rarely 
the   formation   of    the   quartz  has   even   preceded 


GRANITE 


GRANT 


353 


that  of  the  felspar.  All  varieties  of  texture  are 
met  with  among  granites,  from  very  finegrained 
up  to  ooarselv-crvstalline  rocks,  in  which  the 
component  crystals  may  be  several  inches  in 
diameter.  The  coarser-grained  kinds  are  called 
pegmatite.  In  the  variety  known  as  gruphie 
granite  the  quartz  is  crystallised  in  the  ortlm- 
clase,  fonning  alternate  zigzag-slia[>ed  laininu-, 
which,  on  a  cross-fracture,  pre.sent  the  ai]pear- 
ance  of  Hebrew  writing.  The  accessory  minerals, 
such  as  beryl,  topaz,  tourmaline,  garnet,  sphene, 
&.C.,  are  met  with  chietly  in  irregular  cavities,  and 
in  such  cavities  very  line  crystals  of  the  essential 
minerals  often  occur.  Scattered  through  the  body 
of  the  rock,  however,  accessory  minerals  are  not 
uncommon,  especially  apatite  and  sphene,  and  less 
freciuently  zircon — these  three  minerals  occurring 
as  inclusions  in  the  essential  minerals.  The  rela- 
tive proportion  of  mica,  felspar,  and  quartz 
varies  ;  in  many  granites  felspar  forms  more 
than  half  of  the  bulk  of  the  rock — quartz  coming 
next,  and  mica  last.  In  otlier  granites  there  is 
extremely  little  quartz,  while  mica  is  more 
jilentiful.  Sometimes  the  rock  is  rendered  por- 
phyritic  by  the  appearance  of  large  crystals  of 
orthoclase,  embedded  in  a  granitoid  or  finely- 
erystalline  ground-mass.  It  is  generally  the 
felspar  which  gives  tlie  prevalent  colour  to  a 
granite — the  rock  being  red  or  gray  according  as 
flesh-coloured  or  white  felspar  predominates.  \'erv 
often  dark  patches  and  nodules  occur  in  granite. 
Sometimes  these  are  fragments  of  foreign  rocks 
more  or  less  altereil;  at  other  times  they  are  com- 
posed of  the  same  minerals  as  tlie  granite  itself, 
but  in  different  proportions — mica  often  predomi- 
nating. Veins  of  similar  composition  are  also 
found  ramifying  through  granite.  Tliese  and  the 
patches  together  are  supposed  to  be  'tlie  result  of 
ditterentiiition  accompanying  the  crystallisation  of 
the  original  magma  ' — the  dark  portions  being  more 
basic  in  composition  than  the  rock  in  which  they 
occur.  Most  granites  are  traversed  by  lighter- 
coloured  \eins — some  of  which  are  finer  "rained 
and  others  coarser  than  the  rock  in  whicli  they 
appear.  The  origin  of  these  veins  is  uncertain. 
They  would  appear  to  be  of  contemporaneous 
origin  with  the  granite,  and  to  have  sometimes 
formed  in  rents  of  the  original  pasty  magma,  pos- 
sibly by  segregation  of  the  minenils  from  the  sur- 
rounding nias.s.  The  Hne-graiued  veins,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  probably  injected  before  the 
granite  had  become  quite  consolidateil.  It  seems 
certain  at  least  that  the  rock  of  the  veins  and  the 
granite  itself  originally  formed  portions  of  one 
and  the  same  mi>lten  mass. 

Amongst  varieties  of  granite  may  be  mentioneil 
hornblcndln  granite,  in  which  hornblende  is  added 
to  the  other  constituents.  When  this  is  the  case, 
mica  is  only  sparingly  ]uesent.  When  schorl 
(black  tourmaline)  re|ilai-es  mica,  we  have  scliorl- 
aeeoii.i  granite.  Greisrn  is  a  gramilar  aggregate  of 
qiiartz  and  mica.  Aplite  is  a  line-grained  aggre- 
gate of  quartz  and  orthoclase.  with  sometimes  a 
little  mica.  These  three  last-mentioned  varieties 
are  met  with  chielly  in  veins  proceeding  from 
masses  of  ordinary  granite. 

Granite  usually  occurs  in  great  bosses  or 
amorphous  masses — aTid  frequently  forms  the 
nuclei  of  mountain-chains.  Its  petrographical 
charactei's  and  l)ebaviour  in  the  tield  prove  it  to 
be  of  igneous  origin,  at  all  events  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases,  and  to  have  consolidated  at  con- 
siderable depths  in  the  earth's  crust.  Hence  it 
belongs  to  the  Plutonic  class  of  igneous  rocks. 
Some  writers  have  held  that  certain  gninites  are 
of  metamorphic  origin,  but  the  aiqiearances  which 
seem  to  support  this  \iew  have  of  recent  years 
received  another  interpretation.  And  although, 
231 


in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  it  cannot  be 
asserted  that  no  granite  is  of  metamorphic  origin, 
yet  it  would  appear  that  granites  of  demonstrably 
metamorphic  origin  \vA\e  not  yet  been  discovered. 
Those  which  are  supposed  to  be  of  such  origin 
are  intimately  associated  with  crystalline  .schists, 
which  tbem.selves  are  believed  to  be  the  result  of 
metamoriihic  changes.  At  one  time  granite  was 
looked  upon  as  the  oldest  of  primitive  rocks,  but 
it  is  now  Known  to  be  of  various  ages.  Its  pre.sence 
at  the  surface  is  due  of  course  to  denudation,  which 
has  removed  the  great  nuisses  of  rock  that  origin- 
ally covered  it. 

The  nnue  durable  kinds  of  granite  are  largely  used 
as  building  materials  in  bndges  and  engineering- 
works,  and  also  in  public  buildings  and  dwellings. 
The  ditficulty  of  W(jrking  it  makes  it  expensive, 
lint  this  is  counterbalanced  by  its  great  durability. 
It  cannot  be  cut,  like  the  majority  of  building- 
stones,  with  saws,  but  is  worked  first  with  huge 
hammers,  and  then  with  pointed  chisels.  The 
success  with  which  the  Egyptians  o]_perated  upon 
this  refractory  stone  is  very  extraordmari'.  They 
worked  and  polished  it  in  a  way  that  we  cannot 
excel,  if,  indeed,  we  can  come  up  to  it,  with  all  the 
apjiliances  of  modern  science ;  and  not  content  with 
polishing,  they  covered  some  of  the  lilocks  \\  ith  the 
most  delicate  and  sharply-cut  hierogly]ibics  : 

The  granites  best  known  in  the  British  Islands 
for  ornamental  ]iurpo.ses  are  the  gray  Aberdeen 
gianite  and  the  reddish-coloured  Peterhead  granite. 
Uf  this  last-mentioned  variety  handsome  polished 
columns  for  public  halls  have  been  constructed. 
On  the  Continent  granite  has  been  quariied  for 
sinular  purposes  in  several  countiies  :  as  near 
Baveno  in  Italy,  and  in  the  islands  of  Sardinia  and 
Elba ;  in  Normandy  and  Brittany  :  in  southern 
Sweden,  Finland,  the  Tyrol,  Switzerlaml.  iVc.  In 
North  America  granites  are  worked  at  a  number 
of  places,  as  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire.  Massa- 
chusetts, Connecticut,  New  York,  Slicbigan,  and 
California,  and  at  vaiions  places  in  the  Canadian 
province  of  Quebec.  The  rock  would  probably  be 
more  aliniulantly  used  than  it  is,  were  it  not  for 
the  fact  that  in  many  cases  it  occurs  at  elevations 
and  in  distiicts  more  or  less  ditticult  of  access. 

The  soil  produced  bv  the  weathering  of  granitic 
rocks  should  be  fertile,  as  their  component  in- 
gredients yield  the  necessary  elements.  But  in 
hilly  districts,  where  granite  is  chieHy  developed, 
the  fine  clay  which  results  from  the  decomposition 
of  the  felspar  is  washed  away,  so  that  only  the 
quartz  sand  is  left  on  the  shipes — fornung  a  thin, 
ungrateful  soil.  In  the  hollows  and  Hats  whither 
the  clay  is  transported  we  find  geiierallv  a  cold, 
stiH',  and  wet  subsoil,  which  is  only  worried  with 
(liHiculty.  In  low-lying  granitic  tracts,  especiallv 
iindcr  genial  climatic  conditions,  the  .soil  which 
results  from  the  weathering  of  granite  is  sometimes 
very  fertile.  See  Geo.  F.  Harris,  Granite  and  the 
Granite  Industries  ( 1888). 

Gran  Sasso  d'  Italia  ( 'Great  Bock  of  I taly  ■ ), 
also  calleil  Mcinti-;  ('(iund,  from  the  resemblance 
to  a  horn  which  it  presents  on  the  e.-ist,  is  situated 
on  the  borders  of  the  Abruzzi.  between  Teramo  and 
Aquila.  It  is  the  highest  summit  of  the  Apen- 
nines, having  .an  elevation  of  9574  feet. 

Ciraiisoii.  or  (iH.v.ND.sox.  an  ancient  town  in 
Switzerland,  on  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel,  "21  miles 
SW.  of  Neuchatel  ;  pop.  ITti'Z  Here  in  147G  the 
Swiss  defeated  Charles  the  Bold  (q.v.). 

Grant,  in  English  law,  the  conveyance  of  pro- 
perty by  dciil.  jlovables  are  granted  when  tliey 
are  comjiriscd  in  a  bill  of  sale  or  deed  of  gift. 
Incorporeal  beredilaments,  and  interests  in  land 
not  in\ol\ing  actu.il  jiossession,  were  also  said  to 
lie  in   grant  ;    but  a  freehold  in  possession  could 


354 


(JllANT 


only  be  conveyed  liy  liverj'  of  seisin— i.e.  liy  solemn 
ilelivery  of  uosse.ssion.  The  Keal  Fro]>erly  Act  of 
1845  eniicUHl  that  the  iiiiniediate  fiveholil  iiii^'ht  lie 
conveyed  l>y  ileed  of  grant.  It  is  no  longer  neces- 
sary to  use  the  word  'grant;'  other  words,  such 
Its  'convey,' will  have  the  same  eflect.  A  grant  of 
the  reversion  of  land  under  lea-se  was  formerly 
completed  hy  the  le.ssee  attorning  ( liecoming )  tenant 
to  tlie  grantee  ;  hut  the  necessity  for  attornment  is 
MOW  aliiilisheil.  In  the  ("nitcii  States  generally 
livery  of  seisin  is  dis|><'nsed  with,  and  the  term 
'grunt     H|i|ilics  to  all  transfers  of  real  property. 

Gr<lllt«  I'.VMIl.v  OK.  .Vmong  various  conflicting 
theories  as  to  the  origin  of  this  family,  the  most 
pvobahle  is,  as  the  name  seems  to  imlicate,  that  it 
IS  of  Norman  extraction,  and  that  it  was  intro- 
iluced  into  Britain  at  the  Coni|uest.  ()cca.sionaIly 
it  appears  in  parts  of  Kngland  ;  hut  hy  tlie  middle 
of  tlie  13th  century  it  had  cst.iliMshcd'itsclf  in  the 
north  of  Scotland— Laurence  h- (irant  holding  the 
responsihie  oflice  of  sherill'  of  Inverness  in  1'263. 
He  and  his  descendants  acijuired  large  territories 
in  the  great  Cale<lonian  Cilen,  and  also  in  Strath- 
spey, Freuchie,  now  Ca-ntle  tJrant,  near  (irantown, 
hccoming  their  principal  l)an)MV  and  ri'sidcMce. 
Tlie  si.xth  lairil  of  Freuchie  was  knighted  hy  King 
.lames  \'l.,  and  his  grandson  had  his  lanils  ereeteil 
into  the  regality  of  (!rant — whence  their  designa- 
tion since.  Sir  Ludovick  (!rant,  fourth  laird  of 
tirant,  married  a.s  his  second  wife,  Lady  Margaret 
Ogilvie,  daughter  of  James,  fifth  Earl  of  Findlater 
and  Scalield,  and,  through  this  marriage,  their 
grandson  succeeded  in  ISII  to  the  earldom  of  Sea- 
lielil,  assuming  the  surname  of  Ogilvie  in  .adilition 
to  that  of  Grant.  Through  another  marriage,  a 
younger  brother  of  the  fourth  laird  of  (Jrant  suc- 
ceeiled  to  the  estates  of  the  ('ol(|uliouns  of  Luss, 
and,  assuming  the  surname  of  ('i>Ii|ulioun,  became 
the  ancestor  of  the  present  familv  of  that  name. 
y'Ac  Vhiifs  ofdrinit  (:<  vols.  4to,  IHS.'J),  iirepared  liy 
Sir  William  Fra-ser,  K.C.H.,  for  the  family,  pre- 
sents a  history  of  its  descent,  .md  also  sliows  the 
<li-ipersion  of  its  numerous  cadet  branches,  many 
members  of  which  have  become  clistinguished  in 
various  spheres  of  life. 

Grant.  Sik  Ai.EX.VNDKH,  of  Dalvey,  was  born 
at  New  York  in  1826,  and  represented  one  of  the 
oldest  branches  of  the  Clan  (Maiit.  Kducated 
at  Harrow  and  lialliol  College,  Oxford,  he  gradu- 
atfil  \\..\.  in  1.S4S,  and  was  elected  to  an  Oriel 
fellowslii|>.  Here  he  editeil  the  Kthirs  nf  Ariatatli- 
(1S.")7),  with  Fnglish  notes,  a  work  which  still 
maintains  a  reputation  by  its  suggestive  pre- 
liminary essays.  He  succeeded  as  baronet  in  1856, 
was  appointed  inspector  of  schools  at  Mailras  in 
1.S.58,  anil  became  professor  of  Historv  in  Eljihin- 
stime  College  there;  then  its  principal  ;  and  after- 
wards vice-chancellor  of  Elgin  ( 'ollege,  ISondiay, 
in  all  which  positions  he  did  much  to  promote 
the  interests  of  educaticm  in  India.  On  the  death 
of  Sir  David  Brewster  he  was  in  18ti8  chosen  as 
lirincipal  of  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  an  oflice 
which  he  enjoyed  for  sixteen  years,  during  which 
took  pliice  the  inauguration  of  the  new  medical 
•school,  and  the  tercentenary  celebration  of  the 
university.  His  Storii  nf  the  Uiiivcrxiti/  of  Edin- 
liiirgh  (1884)  was  publisheil  in  connection  with  the 
latter  event.  Earlier  works  were  Aristntlc  and 
Xenojihon,  in  Blackwood's  'Ancient  Classics;'  and 
y.Vcf.vi-  Studies  (1870),  a  volume  of  es-says  written 
by  various  .scholars.  The  universities  of  Edinburgh 
and  (Jlasgow  conferred  upon  him  the  degree  of 
LL.D.,  and  Oxford  that  of  D.C.L.  He  married,  in 
1H59,  Su.san,  dau'diter  of  Professor  Ferrier  of  St 
Andrews,  and  died  suddenly  on  1st  Deceml>er  1884. 

Grant.  Mns  Anne,  a  miscellaneous  writer, 
whose  works  were  among  the  first  to  draw  jiublic 


attention  to  the  romantic  scenery  and  peculiar 
manneo  of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  wa-*  uorn  in 
(ilasgow,  "ilst  February  17o.i.  She  was  the  ilaugli- 
ter  of  a  British  ollicer,  Duiu-an  .M'Vicar,  who 
became  barrack -master  of  F'ort-Augustus.  She 
married  in  1779  the  Rev.  .lames  Orant,  formerly 
chaplain  of  the  fort,  minister  of  I,aggan.  Left 
a  widow  in  ilestitute  circumstances  in  l.slll,  Mrs 
(irant  published  by  sub.-^cription  a  vcdume  of 
Poems  (1803),  which  were  well  receivi-d  ;  I.etter.i 
from  the  Moinitttiiis  (1800),  a  highly  popular 
work;  Memoirs  of  an  Aiiiericiin  Latlij  (1808); 
Essays  on  the  Superstitious  of  the  JlitjhIiniJrrs  of 
Scot  Id  ml  (1811),  &C.  In  18'25  she  received  a  pen- 
sion of  £1(J0  a  year,  ami  by  legacy  from  Sir 
AVilli.im  (irant,  Miister  of  the  Kcdls,  she  enjoyed  a 
similar  annuity.  Slie  dieil  on  7th  November  183.S. 
A  memoir  of  her  life,  and  a  selection  from  her 
corresjiondence,  forminjj  a  continuation  of  her 
Letters  frviii  the  Moviitriiiis,  were  edited  b\  her  son, 
J.  1'.  <;'rant.  in  1844. 

Grant,  Cii.\iti,Es,  Loiii)  (Ileneu;,  .•»on  of 
Charles  (Jrant,  sometime  M.l'.  for  Inverness-shire, 
and  a  distinguishe<I  director  of  the  East  India 
Com)iany,  was  boni  at  Kiddei)iur,  near  Calcutta, 
in  1778.  He  was  of  the  Craiits  of  Sheuglie, 
cadets  of  the  (^i rants  of  (irant.  He  was  eilucated 
at  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took 
his  degree  of  M.A.  in  1804.  In  1805  he  published 
a  poem  on  the  llesloratiot)  of  Learning  in  the 
East,  which  had  won  the  univei-sity  prize  awarded 
by  l)r  Claudius  Ihichanan.  He  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1.S07,  but  never  practised.  In  1811  he  was 
elected  Jl.l'.  for  the  Inverness  district  of  burghs; 
and  afterwards,  succeeding  his  father  in  the  county 
represeiilaticui,  continueil  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons till  1835,  when  he  was  raised  to  the  peerjige. 
(irant  hehl  for  five  years  the  ollice  of  a  Lord  of  tlie 
Tiea.sury,  and  in  1819  was  appointed  Secretary 
for  Ireland,  which  he  continuecl  to  be  for  aliotit 
two  years.  As  Irish  Secretary  he  endeaMiiired 
to  sup|iiess  the  Orange  demonstrations,  to  .~ecure 
the  impartial  ailministiation  of  justice,  and  to 
devise  a  system  of  national  education  adajited 
for  Catholics  as  well  as  Protestants.  F'rom  18'23 
to  1827  (irant  was  Vice-]>resideiit  of  the  IJoard 
of  Trade ;  from  1830  to  1834  President  of  the 
Board  of  Control  ;  and  from  18.34  to  18.39  Secretary 
of  State  for  the  Colonies.  After  this  he  with- 
drew in  a  great  measure  from  iiublic  atliiirs.  but 
su]i]iorted  the  l.,ibeial  party  by  Iiis  vote.  He  died 
at  ('aimes,  in  France,  in  1806,  unmarried.  Lord 
Brougham  pronounced  tjrant  to  be  '  the  purest 
statesman  lie  had  ever  known.'  He  was  an 
elo(|Uent  sjieakei.  though,  jiartly  from  diliidence 
and  partly  from  indolence,  he  spoke  Imt  seldom. 
Some  of  his  despatches  as  colonial  .secretiiry,  on  the 
rights  of  the  natives  in  the  colonies,  on  iepre.~~ing 
ichd.atn ,  ami  abolishing  slavery  throughout  the 
liriti.sli  pos.se.-isions  in  South  Africa,  are  models  of 
elevated  and  just  thought,  and  of  line  iniine.ssive 
English. 

Grant,  sm  Francis,  fourth   .son  of   Francis 

(irant  of  KilgTaston,  Perthshire,  Wiis  born  in  Edin- 
burgh on  I8th  .January  1803.  He  was  educated 
at  ilarrow  and  the  university  of  Eilinbiirgh  for  the 
Scottish  bar,  but  abandoned  th.at  iirofes.sion  to 
follow  his  natural  genius  for  painting.  A  noble 
portr.ait  by  Velasquez  is  said  to  have  exercised  an 
especial  influence  over  the  young  ))ainter  >  future 
career.  His  fii-st  picture  was  exhibited  in  18.34, 
when  he  at  once  took  rank  fimong  the  liest  portr.ait- 
painters  of  the  il.av,  and  wa.--  regarded  .as  a  worthy 
successor  of  Lawrence.  His  most  famous  works 
are  those  in  which  he  has  combined  the  like- 
nes.ses  of  distinguished  characters  with  scenes  of 
English  sport.     The  'Meet  of  H.M.  Staghounds,' 


GRANT 


355 


painted  in  1837  for  Lord  ChesterKeld,  and  contain- 
ing no  less  than  forty-six  portraits  ;  the  "  Melton 
Hunt,'  executed  for  the  Duke  of  Wellington  ;  and 
the  'Cottesmore,'  for  Sir  It,  Sutton,  are  the  best 
known  in  this  class.  Among  his  other  paintings 
may  be  mentioned  the  equestrian  portraits  of  the 
Queen  and  Prince  Consort  for  Christ's  Hosi)ital ;  the 
picture  of  the  beautiful  JIarchioness  of  \\  aterford  ; 
and  those  of  Lonls  Palnierston,  Russell,  Uough, 
Macaulay,  Hardinge,  iVc.  In  1842  Grant  was 
elected  Associate,  and  in  1851  Academician.  In 
1866  he  became  President  of  the  Koyal  Academy 
and  was  knighted.  In  1870  Oxford  conferred  upon 
him  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  He  died  (ui  .5th  October 
1878. 

Crailt,  J.\MKS,  of  Corrimony,  in  Inverness- 
shire,  a  cadet  of  the  Grants  of  (irant,  born  in  1743, 
died  in  1835,  was  author  of  Essoi/s  oh  the  Origin  of 
Society  (1785)  and  T/to!«//its  on  the  Origin  and 
Descent  of  the  Gael  (1814). 

Grant,  J.\>ie.s,  military  novelist,  was  horn  in 
Edinburgh,  1st  August  1822,  and  in  18.32  sailed 
with  his  father,  an  army  officer,  for  Newfound- 
land. Home  again,  in  1839  he  was  gazetted  to 
an  ensigncy  in  the  62d  Foot,  but  within  a  few 
years  resigned  his  commission,  and  turned  to  litera- 
ture. Having  already  contributed  cojiiously  to  the 
United  Service  Magazine  and  the  Dublin  V nirersitij 
Magazine,  he  in  1846  published  his  first  book.  The 
Romance  of  War.  Since  then  he  supplied  his 
legion  of  leaders  with  a  long  and  close  series  of 
novels  and  histories,  illustrative  mainly  of  war,  and, 
more  particularly  the  achievements  of  Scottish 
arms  abroad.  Among  hi.s  many  works  may  be 
mentioned  Advent iires  if  a)i  Aide-dc-Ca/np ;  Advcn- 
tiirea  of  Rob  Roy  :  Frank  Hilton,  or  the  Queen's 
Own  :  Both  well,  or  the  Dark  Days  of  Queen  Mary  ; 
The  Yellou-  Frigate;  Harry  Ogilvie ;  and  Old  and 
New  Edinburgh.  Most  of  his  works  have  reappeared 
ill  German  and  Danish,  as  also  a  few  in  French. 
In  1875  Cardinal  Manning  received  him  into  the 
Koman  communion.  He  died  in  London,  5tli  May 
1887. 

Graut,  Colonel  James  Auglstis,  C.B., 
F.  K.S.,  was  a  son  of  the  Rev.  James  Grant  of  Nairn, 
where  he  was  born  in  1827.  Having  been  educated 
at  the  grammar-school  and  Marischal  College,  Aber- 
deen, he  was  in  1846  aiiiiointcd  to  the  Indian  army. 
His  services  at  the  battle  of  Gujerat,  uiuler  Lord 
(iough,  gained  him  the  medal  and  two  clasps,  and 
his  further  services  in  India,  in  the  cour-se  of  which 
he  was  wounded,  were  honoured  by  the  Mutiny 
medal  and  clasp  for  relief  of  Lucknow.  With 
Captain  Speke  he  explored  (1860-63)  the  sources 
of  the  Nile.  He  also  received  the  medal  for  ser- 
vices in  the  .\byssiniaii  Kxjiedition  of  1868.  Among 
his  publications  arc  .1  Walk  Across  Africa;  '  Sum- 
mary of  tlie  Speke  and  Grant  Expedition,'  in  the 
Jour.  Roy.  lleog.  Sue.  (1872);  Jlutany  of  the  Speke 
and  Grant  Expedition  ;  an<l  Khartoum  as  I  saw  It 
in  IStjS.  A  gold  medallist  of  the  Roval  Geographi- 
cal Society,  he  died  lOtb  Febiuary  1892. 

Grant.  Sir  J.uies  Hope,  general,  brother  to 
Sir  Francis,  was  born  at  Kilgraston,  Perthshire, 
22d  July  1808.  He  lirst  saw  service  in  the  Chinese 
war  of  1842,  and  next  distinguished  himself  at 
Sobraon,  t'liilliamvalla,  and  Gujerat  in  the  two 
Sikh  wars.  During  the  operations  of  the  Indian 
Mutiny  Grant,  wlio  hail  risen  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonel,  took  a  leading  part,  assisting  in 
the  recapture  of  Delhi  (20th  September),  in  the 
relief  of  Cawnpore,  and  in  the  retaking  of  Luck- 
now,  and  be  commanded  tlie  force  which  etlected 
the  linal  pacilication  of  India.  In  18.59  he  con 
ducted  the  war  against  China,  defeating  the  enemy 
three  times  under  the  walls  of  Pekin.  assaulting 
the  Taku  f(nts,  and  hnally  capturing  the  capital  of 


the  empire,  for  which  work  he  was  created  G.C.B. 
After  commanding  the  aniiy  of  Madras  from  1861 
to  1865,  he  returned  to  England,  and  was  made 
general  in  1872.  He  died  in  London,  7th  March 
1875.  From  his  journals  appeared  Incidents  in  the 
Sepoy  War  of  ISoI-jS  (1883)  and  Incidents  in  the 
China  War  oflSGO  ( 1875 ),  edited  by  Col.  H.  KnoUys, 
who  also  ])ublished  a  Life  of  him  (2  vols.  1894). 

Grant,  Mrs,  of  Carron,  author  of  the  popmlar 
song,  '  Roy's  Wife  of  Aldivalloch,'  was  born  near 
Aherlour,  Bantt'shire,  in  1745.  She  was  twice 
married — lirst  to  her  cousin.  Captain  James  Grant 
of  Carron,  in  Strathspey  ;  and  afterward.s  to  Dr 
Murray,  a  physician  in  Bath.  She  died  at  Bath 
in  1814. 

Grant,  Uly.sse.s  Simp.son,  eighteenth  president 
of  the  United  States,  wa.s  born  at  Point  Pleasant, 
Clermont  county,  Ohio,  April  27,  copyright  is90  m us. 
1822.  He  was  of  Scottish  an-  by  j.  b.  Lippmcutt 
cestry,  but  his  family  had  been  coiupany, 
American  in  all  its  branches  for  eight  generations. 
Ulysses  was  the  «ddest  of  six  children  born  to  Jes.se 
R.  Grant  and  his  wife  Hannah  Sim)i.son,  and 
assisted  his  father  on  the  farm  in  summer,  attend- 
ing the  village  school  during  the  winter.  In  the 
.spring  of  1839  he  was  appointed  to  a  cadetship 
in  the  United  .States  Military  Academy,  and  gradu- 
ated in  1843.  He  was  commissioned  brevet  second- 
lieutenant,  and  assigned  to  duty  at  Jeti'erson  Bar- 
racks, Missouri.  In  May  1844  he  accompanied  his 
regiment,  the  Fourth  Infantry,  to  Louisiana,  and 
in  September  1845  he  was  commissioned  second- 
lieutenant,  and  joined  the  army  of  occupation 
under  General  Zachary  Taylor.  Grant  participated 
in  the  battles  of  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma, 
and  w  as  also  present  at  the  capture  of  Monterey. 
Later  the  Fourth  Infantry  embarked  for  Vera  Cruz, 
to  join  the  army  of  (Jeneral  Wintield  Scott,  and 
(irant  took  part  in  all  the  battles  of  Scott's  success- 
ful campaign  and  in  the  Hnal  capture  of  the  city  of 
Mexico.  In  the  summer  of  1848  his  legiiueiit 
returned  to  the  United  States,  when  he  obtained 
leave  of  absence,  and  in  August  of  that  year  was 
married  to  Julia  li.  l>ent,  of  St  Louis,  by  whom  he 
had  three  smis  and  a  daughter,  the  eldest  of  whom. 
Colonel  Frederick  D.  (irant,  was  in  April  1889 
appointed  American  Minister  to  Austria.  Lieu- 
tenant Grant  served  at  \arious  posts ;  was  in  1853 
a|)pointed  to  a  captaincy ;  and  in  the  following  year 
resigned  his  commission,  and  settled  ou  a  farm  near 
St  Louis,  Missouri. 

When  the  war  began  in  Apiil  1861  (irant  was 
residing  in  (ialena,  Illinois ;  he  immediately  ottered 
his  services  to  the  government,  and  in  June  he  was 
appointed  colonel  of  the  21st  Regiment  of  Illinois 
Infantry,  with  which  he  was  sent  to  Mi.ssouii.  In 
August  he  was  advanced  to  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers,  and  assigned  to  the  command  of  a  dis- 
trict, and  in  November  he  fought  the  battle  of  Bel- 
mont. In  February  1862  he  captured  Fort  Henry, 
and  ten  days  later  Fort  Donelson,  with  14.623 
prisoners,  for  which  victories  he  w;i-s  made  major- 
general  of  volunteers.  In  April  Grant  fought  a 
two  days'  battle  at  Shiloli,  amongst  the  se\erest 
of  the  war,  in  which  (ieneral  A.  S.  Johnston, 
commanding  the  Confederate  army,  was  killed. 
After  \arious  unsuccessful  iiio\enients  against 
Vicksbuig,  which  commenced  in  the  November 
of  1862,  (irant  rros.sed  the  Mississippi,  A]iril  30, 
1863,  defeated  the  enemy  at  Port  Gibson  and  at 
Cham])ion  Hill,  and  drove  them  behind  their 
entrenchments  at  Vicksbuig.  to  which  place  he 
laid  siege.  After  many  ;ussaults,  the  stronghold 
surrendered  conditionally  on  July  4,  1863.  with 
31,600  prisonei's  and  172  cannon,  and  the  Missis- 
sip]>i  was  opened  from  its  source  to  its  mouth. 
In   October  Grant   wa.s   ordered   to   Chattanooga, 


356 


GRANT 


GRANTOWN 


where  lie  foii};lit  a  Imttle,  captiiriii;;  the  enemy's 
entire  line,  ami  driving  him  out  of  Tennessee.  In 
March  ISW  (Irani,  having'  previously  ticen  niaile  a 
major-general  in  the  rejiular  army  for  his  victory  at 
Vickshur<<,  was  iiromoteil  to  the  grade  of  lieutenant- 
general,  anil  assigneil  to  the  commanil  of  all  the 
armies  of  the  I'niteil  States,  with  his  headipiarters 
with  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  His  plan  of  cam- 
paign was  to  concentrate  all  the  national  forces 
into  several  ilistinct  armies,  which  should  operate 
simultaneously  against  the  enemy,  Sheriuan  moviu'' 
toward  Atlanta,  while  Grant  himself  accoinpanied 
the  army  of  the  Potomac  against  Kichmond.  dur- 
ing the  night  of  May  4  the  latter  crossed  the  Kapi- 
dan,  encountered  (Jeneral  U.  E.  Lee  in  the  Wilder- 
ness, anil  fonght  a  desperate  three  days'  hattle.  one 
of  the  liercest  of  moilerii  times.  (Jrant  moved  fcu'- 
wanl  on  the  7th,  and  fought  again  at  Spottsylvania 
Courthouse  (m  the  lOtli.  and  still  again  on  the 
l'2th,  on  which  occasion  he  capturetl  an  entire 
division  of  the  Confeilerate  army.  The  smoke  of 
battle  hung  over  the  mighty  hosts  for  si.\  days, 
while  the  North  remained  in  a  state  of  suspense 
bordering  upon  agony;  l)Ut  on  the  11th  (ininl  wrote 
to  Washington,  •  I  propose  to  light  it  out  on  this 
line,  if  it  takes  all  summer.'  Thus,  lighting  and 
Hanking,  ever  pursuing  the  oll'ensive.  and  daily  draw- 
ing nearer  to  Kichmcm<l,  he  at  length  drove  the 
enemy  within  the  ilefences  of  that  city,  and  there 
held  him  in  a  vice,  while  he  left  to  his  lieutenants 
— Sherman,  Sheridan,  and  Thomas — a  harvest  of 
laurels  by  active  movements  and  successful  battles. 
On  March  29,  186.">,  there  began  a  week's  hard  light- 
ing, at  the  close  of  which  Lee  surrendered  his  entire 
army  at  Appomatto.K  Courthouse,  April  9,  receiving 
from  his  victor  most  generous  terms.  The  fall  of 
Uichiuond  substantially  ended  the  war,  and  (Jrant 
returned  to  Washington  to  jirepare  his  report  of  the 
operations  of  tlie  armies  of  the  Cnited  States  from 
the  date  of  his  a|>pointment  to  command  the  same, 
and  to  muster  out  nearly  a  nnllion  of  troops  that 
the  country  no  longer  reijuirefl. 

In  July  1866  Grant  was  advanced  to  the  grade  of 
full  general,  and  in  May  IH6S  he  was  nominateil  for 
the  presidency  by  the  Kepublican  convention,  and 
in  the  following  November  wius  elected.  ( )ut  of  the 
294  electoral  votes  (Ir.ant  received  214,  ami  Horatio 
Seymour,  the  Democratic  candidate,  80.  He  was 
again  elected  to  the  presidency  in  November  1872, 
thus  filling  the  olHce  of  chief-magistrate  for  ei"lit 
years.  Among  the  most  important  events  of  liis 
administration  were  the  adoption  in  1869  of  the 
Hfteenth  amendment  to  the  constitution,  which 
guaranteed  the  right  of  suHra;,'e  without  regard  to 
race,  colimr,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude;  and 
the  peaceful  settlement  of  the  '  Alabama  Claims  ' 
(see  Al.vii.vma).  After  retiring  from  the  presi- 
dency, General  Grant  spent  two  yeai-s  in  foreign 
travel,  receiving  unusual  attentions  from  the 
rulers  of  the  various  countries  which  he  visited 
in  his  tour  round  the  world.  In  June  ISSO  his 
name  was  again  presented  to  a  Heoublican  con- 
vention, but,  chieny  owing  to  a  tra<iitional  senti- 
ment again.st  a  third  term  of  the  presidency,  the 
nomination  was  given  t<j  James  A.  (iarlield.  In 
1881  tlrant  purchased  a  house  in  New  York,  where 
he  afterwards  passed  his  wintei-s,  while  his  summers 
were  .spent  in  liis  seaside  cottage  at  Long  Branch, 
New  Jersey.  Finding  himself  unable  with  his  in- 
come to  properly  maintain  his  fanuly,  he  became  a 
partner  in  a  banking-house  in  which  one  of  his  sons 
and  others  were  interested,  lM>aring  the  name  of 
CJrant  and  Ward,  and  invested  all  his  available 
caiut,al  in  the  business,  but  taking  no  part  in  the 
affairs  of  the  firm,  which  were  left  almost  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  junior  partner.  In  May  1884 
the  house,  without  wamin™,  suspended,  and  it  was 
then  discovered  that  twooi  the  partners  had  robbed 


the  general  atnl  lii»  family  of  all  they  possessed. 
Until  this  time  Grant  had  refused  all  solicitations 
to  write  the  history  of  his  military  career  ;  but 
now,  finding  himself  bankrupt,  and  with  the  hope 
of  providing  for  his  family,  he  began  the  prepara- 
tion of  his  personal  menioii's.  Tlie  cimtract  with 
his  publishers  was  made  February  27,  188."),  and 
the  wtirk  appeared  al«>ut  a  year  later.  In  the 
summer  of  1884  he  complained  of  a  soreness  in  his 
throat,  and  an  exandnatiiui  detected  the  presence 
of  cancer  at  the  root  of  the  tongue.  Tlie  .syni- 
pathies  of  the  nation  were  now  aroused,  and  on 
Niarch  4,  188o,  congress  passed  a  bill  creating;  him 
a  general  on  tlie  retireil  li.st,  thus  restoring  him  to 
his  former  rank  in  the  army,  which  he  luul  lost  on 
accepting  the  presidency.  It  may  be  doubted  if 
since  the  world  began  any  book  has  been  written 
under  similar  conditions;  the  dying  .-oldicr,  suffer- 
ing constant  and  at  times  the  severest  agony,  yet 
struggled  on  succes.sfully,  completing  his  literary 
laboui's  only  four  days  liefore  his  death  at  Mount 
Mctiregor,  near  Saratoga,  New  '\'ork,  2.'W  July 
188.i.  His  remains  were  removed  to  New  York, 
and  on  August  8  were  interred  with  great  jioiiip 
in  Kiversiile  Park,  overlooking  the  Hudson,  ilany 
lives  of  (Jrant  have  been  written,  the  most  valu- 
able of  which  is  his  own  (2  vcds.  188.5-86),  a  work 
that  brought  his  « iilow  no  less  than  .?oOO,0(IO. 

Orailtliailli  a  market-town  of  Lincolnshire,  on 
the  left  bank  of  llie  Witliam,  2.5  miles  SSW.  of 
Lincoln,  and  105  NNW.  of  London.  It  lies  on 
the  ancient  Ermine  Street,  and  is  an  important 
junction  on  the  llreat  Northern  I'ailwav  ;  whilst  a 
canal  (179.3),  .SO  miles  long,  connect-s  it  with  the 
Trent  near  Nottingham.  High  over  the  red-tiled 
brick  houses  soars  the  indde  gray  spire  (278  feel 
high )  of  St  Wolfran's  Church,  « liicli,  in  style 
mainly  Early  English  of  the  IStli  ceiitun',  has 
been  finely  restored  by  the  late  Sir  G.  t;.  Scott 
since  1865.  An  Eleanor  cross  was  demolislicd  in 
1645,  and  a  ca.stle  luis  left  no  trace  ;  but  theiiuaiiit 
Angel  Inn  is  still  standing,  in  which  Piichard  III. 
signed  buckiiigham's  death  wanant.  (If  King 
John,  too,  (irantham  has  memories,  ami  of  (Jliver 
Cromwell,  who  here  on  l.Sth  May  l(i4;j  won  his  first 
success  ;  but  the  town's  greatest  glory  is  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  who  during  1655-56  idled,  fought,  and 
rose  to  be  head-boy  in  its  grammar-school.  A 
bronze  statue  of  him  by  Theed  was  erected  in  1858. 
The  .said  .school  Wiis  founded  by  Bislio]!  l"o.\  in 
1.528,  re-endowed  by  Edward  \  I.  in  1553,  and 
reconstituted  in  1876.  The  manufacture  of  agri- 
cultur.al  implements,  malting,  and  brick-making 
are  the  chief  imlustries.  Grantham  was  Incor- 
l>orated  by  Edward  l\'.  in  1463,  and  from  then  till 
1885  returned  two  members  to  |iarliameiit — a 
number  reduced  now  tooiie.  The  borough  boundary 
was  largely  extended  in  1879.  Pop.  ( 1851 )  10,87;i ; 
(1871)  13,2,50;  (1881)  17,:!45.  of  wfioni  16,886  were 
witliin  the  municipal  borough  :  ( 1891 )  17,170.  See 
the  local  histories  of  Turiior  (  1806),  Marral  ( ISIG), 
and  Street  ( 1857). 

Vrailt  Land,  a  North  Polar  region,  lying  north 
of  tirinnell  Land,  between  81°  and  83°  N.  lat.,  dis- 
covereil  by  Haves,  Hall,  and  Nares  in  1875,  and 
partly  exjdored  by  Nares,  who  wintered  on  its 
coasts,  in  the  most  northerly  latitude  (82'  27')  in 
which  the  winter  has  been  pa.ssed  by  any  ship. 

(■railtoil.  a  harlMHir  on  the  Firth  of  Forth,  3 
mills  NNW.  of  Edinburgh.  It  was  constracted 
by  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch  in  1835-45  at  a  cost  of 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million, 

Grailtown.  a  village  of  Elginshire,  J  mile  from 
tlieSpeys  left  bank,  and  142  miles  by  rail  N.  by  W. 
of  Edinburgh.  Founded  in  1776,  and  created  a 
police-burgh  in  1890,  it  Is  a  jrepular  holiday  resort. 
Pop.  1423. 


GRANULATIONS 


GRAPHIC  METHODS 


357 


Granulations,  the  nuiterials  of  new  texture 
as  first  formecl  in  a  woiiml  or  on  an  ulcerated 
surface.  See  Inflammation,  Cicatrisation, 
Wounds,  Ulcer. 

Granulite,  or  Leptynite,  a  schistose  but 
sometimes  massive  a^'gregate  of  quartz  and  ortlio- 
clase  with  j,'arnets.  The  garnets  are  disseminated 
irregularly,  and  are  not  infreiiueiitly  accompanied 
by  Ky.anite  (o.v.  |.  This  rock  is  classed  with  the 
crystalline  schists. 

Ciranvell<'<  Antoine  Perrenot  de.  Cardinal 
and  statesman  ( whose  name  out  of  France  was 
subsequently  spelt  Granvella),  wa.s  born  in  1517  at 
Ornans  in  Burgundy.  He  studied  law  at  Padua,  and 
theology  at  Louvain.  A  canon  for  a  short  time 
at  Besancon,  he  was  in  ]."i40  appointed  Bishop  of 
.\rras.  His  fatlier  now  chancellor  of  tlie  empire 
under  ('liarles  V.,  he  was  entrasted  with  many 
diplomatic  missions,  which  he  discharged  with 
marked  ability.  Succeeding  his  father  in  the  chan- 
cellorship in  l.wO,  he  accompanied  Charles  V.  in 
the  tliglit  from  Innsbruck,  and  framed  the  treaty 
of  Passau,  1.5.)2.  On  the  abdication  of  Charles  in 
1.5.55  lie  transferreil  his  services  to  Pliili]i  II.  In 
1.5.59  he  was  appointed  primeniinister  to  Margaret 
of  Parma  in  the  Netherlands.  In  1.560  he  was 
created  Arcliljisliop  of  ilalines,  and  next  year  was 
made  cardinal.  Such,  however,  was  the  hostility 
wluch  his  policy  of  repression  provoked  in  the  Low 
Countries  that  at  the  king's  advice  he  retired  in 
1564  to  Franche  Comtc.  After  six  years  of  com- 
parative quiet  he  in  1570  represented  Spain  at 
Rome  in  drawing  up  a  treaty  of  alliance  with 
Venice  and  the  papal  see  against  the  Turks.  For 
live  years  (1570-75)  he  successfully  held  the  office 
of  viceroy  of  Naples.     He  died  at  JIadrid  in  1586. 

Granville,  a  fortified  seaport  in  the  French 
department  of  La  Manche,  is  situated  on  a  rocky 
promontory  on  the  Knglish  Channel,  2.3  miles 
NE.  of  St  Malo.  The  15thcentury  church  and  a 
hydrographic  colle>'e  are  the  i)rincipal  institutions. 
Chief  industries,  fishing  (oysters  and  cod),  ship- 
building, manufacture  of  brandy,  chemicals,  iron- 
ware, and  tanning  ;  chief  exports,  fish  and  building- 
stone  ;  chief  imports,  salt,  manure,  corn,  and  flour. 
Pop.  (1S86)  11,513.  The  town  has  been  captured 
by  the  French  (14.50)  and  the  English  (1695),  and 
unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Venddans  (1793)  and 
the  English  ('1803). 

Granville,  Earl.     See  Carteret. 

Granville,  (icoRcE  Leveson-Gower,  second 
E.VKL,  statesman,  was  born  May  11,  1815,  beinj; 
the  eldest  son  of  the  first  earl.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and  entered  parliament  in 
1836  as  member  for  Morpeth,  exchangin;j;  that  seat 
for  Lichfield  in  1S40.  His  long  and  intimate 
acquaintance  witli  foreign  politics  began  at  this 
time,  and  he  filled  for  a  brief  jieriod  tlie  post  of 
L'nder-secretary  for  Foreign  AH'airs.  He  was  a 
consistent  Liberal  and  a  free-trader.  He  succeeded 
to  the  peerage  in  1846,  and  five  years  later  entered 
the  cabinet  of  Lord  .lolni  Knssell,  holding  the  seals 
of  the  Foreign  I  )tfioc.  From  that  lime  forward  he 
held  office  in  every  Liberal  ministry.  He  became 
President  of  the  Council  in  1S53,  and  leader  of  the 
House  of  Lords  in  1855.  He  laboured  arduou.sly  in 
connection  with  the  great  exhibitions  of  1851  and 
1862.  Lord  (Granville  was  charged  to  form  a 
ministry  in  18.59  ;  but  having  failed  to  do  so,  he 
joined  Lord  Palmerston's  secon<l  administration.  He 
retireil  with  Earl  Kns.sell  in  1866,  having  the  pre- 
ceding year  been  made  Lord  Wanlen  of  the  Cinc|ue 
Ports.  In  December  1868  he  was  appointed  Colonial 
Secretary  in  Mr  Gladstone's  first  ministry,  and  on 
the  death  of  Lord  Clareitdon  in  1870  became 
Secretary  for  Foreign  Afi'airs.  He  arranged  the 
treaty    between     England,    France,    and    Prussia 


guaranteeing  the  independence  of  Belgiun»;  and 
confirmed  with  Prince  Gortschakoff  the  agreement 
that  Afghanistan  should  form  an  intermediarj- 
zone  between  England  and  Russia.  His  lordship 
went  out  of  office  in  1S74,  took  the  temporarj- 
leadership  of  the  Liberal  party  on  Mr  Gladstone's 
retirement  in  1875,  and  for  six  years  led  the 
opjiosition  in  the  House  of  Lords  with  ability  and 
spirit.  In  1880  he  again  became  Foreign  Secretaiy 
under  Mr  (iladstone,  and  disjilayed  considerable 
diplomatic  skill  in  matters  relating  to  the  Berlin 
Treaty,  the  (occupation  of  Tunis,  and  the  revolt  of 
Arabi  Pasha  in  Egyjit.  He  issued  a  circular  note 
to  the  powers  on  Egyptian  reforms,  and  in  1884 
convened  a  conference  on  Egyptian  finance,  which 
proved  aViortive  owing  to  the  hostile  attitude  of 
France.  Troubles  in  the  Soudan,  ditticulties  with 
(iermany  in  consequence  of  Prince  Bismarck's 
colonial  schemes,  differences  with  France,  and  the 
threatened  rupture  with  Russia  over  the  demarca- 
tion of  the  Afghan  boundary  caused  Lord  Granville 
much  solicitude  during  the  closing  years  of  Mr 
Gladstone's  second  administration.  He  retired 
with  his  chief  in  1885.  liut  returned  once  more  to 
office  as  Colonial  Secretary  in  1886,  resigning  again 
witli  his  colleagues  in  August  of  the  latter  year. 
A  steady  supiiorter  of  Mr  Gladstone's  Home-rule 
policy,  he  died  31st  March  1891. 

Grape.    See  Vine. 

Grai>e-livacinth  (-l/cswc/).  a  genus  of  bulb- 
ous-rooted plants,  of  the  natural  order  Liliaceoe, 
nearly  allied  to  the  hyacinths,  but  differing  in  the 
globose  or  sulicylindrical  perianth,  contracted  at 
the  mouth,  and  6-tootbed.  The  species  are  natives 
chiefly  of  the  countries  near  the  Mediteiranean, 
and  the  warmer  temperate  parts  of  Asia.  Most 
of  them  are  now  frequent  in  our  flower- borders. 
31.  iiiosrjtatiini  has  a  smell  of  nni.sk.  M.  raccmosmn, 
popularly  named  Starch  Hyacinth,  is  a  somewhat 
doubtful  native  of  the  .south-eastern  counties — 
having,  it  is  believed,  escaped  from  gardens— of 
England.  The  flowers  of  the  grape-hyacinths  are 
mostly  normally  blue,  but  there  are  pure  white 
varieties  of  some  species. 

Grape-shot,  called  also  ticf- 
s/iof,  consists  of  small  iron  balls 
piled  round  an  iron  pin,  hold- 
ing together  a  series  of  parallel 
iron  iilates  of  the  same  diameter 
as  the  gun  from  which  they  are 
to  be  fired,  between  which  are 
the  shot,  kept  in  their  jdaces 
by  holes  in  the  plates.  On  being 
discharged  they  si)rea<l  over  a  wide 
area.  In  another  pattern  called 
ijt(i/tc(t  grape  the  shot  are  held  to- 
gether on  the  central  pin  by  can- 
vas instead  of  iron  plates.  Both 
have  now  almost  ceased  to  be  used,  their  place 
being  taken  by  rn^c-sho/,  sometimes  called  mitistci: 

Grape-sugar.    See  Sugar. 

Graphic  Methods.  Under  Composition  and 
Resolution  of  Forces  it  has  been  noticed  that  the 
point  of  a]iiilicati(Ui,  the  direction,  and  the  intensity 
of  any  force  may  be  represented  liy  the  end, 
direction,  and  length  of  a  straight  line.  Similarly, 
any  other  physical  quantity,  such  as  temperature, 
atmospheric  pressure,  or  barometric  height,  electric 
poteutial,  iVc.,  may  be  representeil  by  straight 
lines.  Such  nio<les  of  showing  the  value  of  a 
quantity  are  called  graphic  methods;  they  are 
largely  eini)loyed  in  physical  investigations  its  aids 
to  calculation,  and  for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting 
the  nature  of  the  law  acconling  to  which  ome 
phenomena  vary.  The  luincipal  use  of  this  method 
is  to  show  the  mutual  variations  of  two  quantities. 
This  we  will  illustrate  by  a  particular  example. 


Grape-shot. 


358 


GRAPHIC    METHODS 


GRAPHIC    STATICS 


Suppose  n  talile  is  ilrawii  up,  in  one  column  of 
wliicli  are  the  months  of  tlie  year,  ami  in  the  other 
the  correspomling  avera<;e  tem|ierature.s  of  the  air, 
at  some  partii-ular  place,  lUirin^j  these  months  (the 
avera;.'e  temperature  for  each  month  heinj;  the  mean 
of  the^hiily  temperatures).  Let  two  lines,  UX  and 
UV,  lie  ilrawn  from  O,  one  horizontally,  the  other 
vertically:  let  the  successive  months  of  the  year 
lie  represented  on  any  convenient  scale  alon^'OX, 
ami  let  temperature  lie  measured  alon;;  O^',  also 
on  a  convenient  scale.  Corresponding  to  each 
mnnlh  in  the  year  there  will  lie  a  length  along 
(»X,  and  to  each  toniperature  there  will  corre- 
spond a  point  on  OV.  At  the  middle  point  cor- 
responding to  each  month  draw  perpendicular  to 
l)X  a  line  representing  the  temperature  on  the 
scale  of  OY.    A  serie.s  of  lines  will  thus  he  olitained, 


«,i 

Y 

60 

-^^ 

55 

/             \ 

90 

/                            \ 

45 

/                                           Nv 

40 

/                                                      Nv 

35 

^^^^/ 

SO 

0      ,          ,          ,          .          ,          .    — ~ ^ ~ . . 

.Ian.  Feb.  Mar.  Ap.  May  Ju.  Jul.  Aug.  Sep.  Oct.  N"ov.  Doc. 

through  the  upper  ends  of  which  tliere  may  he 
drawn,  freehancl,  a  smooth  curve.  The  points  on 
the  curve  in  the  ligure  represent  the  upper  enils 
of  these  line.s.  A  general  glance  at  sucli  a  curve 
will  reveal  certain  features  regarding  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  whole  year ;  at  what  date.«  ma.\ima 
and  minima  occurred  ;  when  the  temperature  rose 
or  fell  fjuicko.st,  and  .so  on.  Such  a  curve,  re|)re- 
senting  the  gradual  change  of  daily  temperature, 
may  l>e  produced  automatically  hy  photographic 
representation  ;  a  sheet  of  sensitised  paiier  ]i;i.sses 
uniforndy,  hy  means  of  clockwork,  liehind  the 
thermometer  stem,  in  front  of  which  is  pl.aced 
a  source  of  light ;  the  paper  above  the  mercury 
column  is  blackene<l,  that  Ijelow  being  left 
unatlected  ;  the  curve  separating  the  black  and 
white  portions  represents  the  temperature  at 
diflerent  times.  The  same  principle  is  used  in  the 
thermograph,  barograph,  ami  tiile-gauge  recording 
machine. 

Insteail  of  time  and  temperature  any  other  two 
variable  quantities  may  be  taken.  When  the 
curve  obtained  by  such  graphical  metho<ls  has 
some  regular  geometrical  features  the  mathe- 
matical Taw  of  the  phenomenon  may  be  found  ; 
and  many  riualitative  and  quantitative 
results  in  physics  are  <ibtained  in  this 
way.  It  must  be  remembered  that  such 
graphical  representations  do  no  more  than 
embody  the  results  of  observation  or 
e.xperiment,  and  cannot  be  made  more 
accurate  than  the  data  themselves. 

The  graphic  method  is  so  largely  em- 
ployeil  in  physical  science,  ami  also  in 
statistics,  that  only  a  few  instances  of  its 
application  may  be  given.  Watt's  Indi- 
cator Diagram  shows  the  amount  of 
work  clone  in  a  complete  (double)  stroke  of  the 
piston  :  it  acts  on  tlie  principle  that  the  force 
applied  mnltiplieil  by  the  distance  through  which 
it  acts  is  a  measure  of  the  work  done.  Pressure 
and  olume  are  therefore  the  variables  here  involved. 
The  temperature  of  a  Inidy  at  diflerent  times  may 
be  given  by  a  curve,  from  which  may  be  foun<l  the 
rate  of  cooling  :    a  curve  may  also   represent  tlie 


temperature  at  dill'erent  points  of  a  IkmIv,  and  frmu 
it  may  lie  deduce<l,  if  its  thermal  coniluctivity  be 
known,  the  llux  of  heat  across  any  section  of  it. 
The  thermo-electric  diagram  (see  Tail's  llcul^ 
is  also  a  valuable  application  of  the  method. 
Andrew's  iliagram  of  the  volume  of  carbonic  acid 
gas  under  varying  pressure  may  be  mentioned  .as 
another  (see  Andrews  Vollcrlcii  Srirntijir  I'liprrs, 
Loud.,  Macniillan,  1889).  The  metluMl  has  also 
many  apiilications  in  electricity — e.g.  the  'arrival' 
curve  in  a  submarine  cable ;  and  in  sound,  where 
acoustic  vibrations,  beats,  iind  harmonics  may  be 
graiihically  represented. 

Graphic  Statirs.  \yhen  forces  simultane- 
ously act  on  a  jiarticle  which  remains  at  rest  they 
are  in  e(|uilibrium,  and,  if  there  be  three  of  them, 
lines  drawn  so  as  to  rejire.sent  the  respective  forces 
in  magnitude  and  direction  may  be  so  arranged  as 
together  to  form  the  well-known  Triangle  of  Korces. 
Problems  in  which  trigonometrical  methods  of  lind- 
ing  the  magnitude  and  direction  of  the  third  side  of 
such  a  triangle  (the  result.int )  are  aiiplied,  when 
those  of  the  other  two  (the  components)  are  known, 
or  of  resolving  any  given  force  in  any  given  direction 
into  two  'components' in  any  two  assigned  direc- 
tions, are  of  common  occurrence  in  text-books.  For 
practical  purposes,  however,  it  is  very  useful  actu- 
ally to  draw  to  scale  the  triangle  of  forces  ap|iro- 
priate  to  the  data  of  any  particular  c.xse  ;  two  sides 
being  thus  drawn  to  scale,  the  third  siile  can  be 
laiil  down  by  simply  joining  two  points,  and  then 
the  line  so  drawn  ran  be  measured  with  respect  to 
its  length  and  its  direction.  Similarly  the  resultant 
of  a  number  of  simultaneous  forces  can  be  usefully 
ascertained  by  drawing  the  corresponding  Polygon 
of  Forces,  and  ascertaining  the  lie  ami  the  length 
of  the  missing  side.  The  utility  of  this  grajdnc 
method  is,  however,  most  fully  seen  in  the  recent 
extensions  of  this  methoil  to  engineering  wcirk. 
Tlie  subject  of  Graphic  Statics  is  a  large  one,  ami 
we  can  tfo  little  more  here  than  refer  the  reader  to 
Cotterill's  Applied  Mechanic,  w  liich  gives,  incident- 
ally, full  references  to  the  literature  of  the  subject  : 
but  in  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  nature  of  the 
methoil  one  il- 
lustration may 
here  lie  sup- 
plied. Stijipose 
a  bridge-girder 
(we  igli  tless) 
made  up  of  two 
N  girders  in  ten  divisions  (hg.  1),  the  dia^'onals 
lieing  all  so  arranged  .as  to  be  in  tension  :  it  is  100 
feet  long,  and  a  lo.id  of  1(X)  tons  is  distributed  over 
it  so  as  to  rest  uniformly  upon  the  lower  booms. 
Find  the  stress  in  each  bar.  First  draw  the  girder 
to  scale,  and  mark  the  b.ars  .as  in  fig.  '2  :  The 
lower  boom  of  each  division  may,  so  far  .as  the 


^H 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 

girder  at  large  is  concerned,  lie  considered  a-s  hav- 
ing its  proportion  of  the  uniform  load  (10  tons) 
arranged  in  .'i-ton  loads  at  its  two  ends  ;  hence  at 
the  angle  Unween  1  .and  'H,  .ind  also  at  12-13,  there 
are  imaginar\-  loiids  of  5  tons  ;  at  hr,  dr,  fg,  &.C. , 
imagine  10-ton  loails.  The  supporting  piers  each 
!  exert  an  uiiward  pressure  of  iJO  tons.  There  is 
efiuilibrium,  and  this  equilibrium  may  be  tnaced  out 


GRAPHIC    STATICS 


GRAPHOTYPE 


359 


at  every  angle  of  the  structure.  At  the  angles 
1-22  anil  12-13  the  upward  pressure  of  the  piers  is 
partly  neutralised  by  the  local  weight  of  5  tons  ; 
the  vertical  hars  1  and  12  have  each  an  upward 
thrust  of  45  tons,  which  carries  the  girder ;  but  at 
these  angles  there  are  no  horizontal  components 


along  22  and  13,  which,  therefore,  have  no  thrust 
along  them,  and  are  neither  compressed  nor  in  ten- 
sion. If  a  vertical  line  a  t  (fig.  3)  lie  drawn,  each 
division  in  which  represents  10  tons,  the  distribution 
of  load  may  be  set  out  by  taking  a  starting-point, 
A  :  then  tliere  is  in  the  girder,  from  1  round  to  12, 
no  load  introduced  ;  between  12  and  13  tliere  is  in- 
troduced what  is  eijuivalent  to  an  upward  force  of 
45  tons  in  bar  12,  and  the  representation  of  this  l« 


16  =  16-ii  ; 
13  =  13-«  = 


prepareil  for  by  setting  off4i  divisions  dotcnu-ards : 
then  between  13  and  14  there  is  a  downward  loacl 
of   10  tons,  and  the  diagram  sets  off  one  di\ision 


upwards,  to  14  ;  so  for  each  of  the  junctions  as  far 
as  21-22,  and  then  at  22-1  tliere  is  an  upward  45 
tons  in  bar  1,  the  setting-off  for  which  brings  us  back 
to  A.  At  the  junction  12  we  have  three  bars  in 
equilibrium  ;  these  are  1,  2,  and  iib  :  the  stress  in  1 
is  45  tons  ;  drawing  a  triangle,  Aab  { fig,  3),  in  which 
the  sides  are  parallel  to  1,  2,  and  ah,  we  find  the 
relative  compressions  in  1  and  2,  and  tension  in  nh. 
At  the  ne.\t  junction,  tib-On  (tig.  2),  we  have  four 
balanced  forces,  the  tensions  in  21  and  ab,  compres- 
sion in  be,  and  a  load  of  10  tons.  From  the  extremi- 
ties of  ab  (fi"  3)  draw  22-21  representing  the  10  ton 
load  acting  downwards,  and  /;/•  a  line  parallel  to  be 
in  fig.  2;  join  21  and  the  line  br  bv  a  line  parallel 
to  the  rod  21,  the  tension  in  whicli  is  now  repre- 
sented by  the  line  21-c,  while  be  (fig.  3)  represents 
the  compression  in  be  (fig.  2).  Next  consider  the 
junction  2-3  ;  four  bars,  2,  be,  ed,  and  3  ;  2  we  kni>w 
(  =  A6,  fig.  3),  and  also  be :  we  draw  a  line  cd,  and 
a  line  parallel  to  3  whicli,  in  order  to  complete  the 
polygon,  can  only  start  from  A  ;  Af/and  eii  repie.sent 
compression  and  tension  in  3  and  ed  respectively. 
At  the  next  junction,  21-20,  we  have  21  (=  21-r), 
cd  (  =  ed),  dc  (unknown),  20  (unknown),  ami  a 
10-ton  load  ;  the  polygon  is  completed  by  20c  and 
dc  drawn  from  the  ends  of  the  broKen  line  r/c  21-20. 
Step  by  step,  by  mere  <Irawing  of  intersecting  lines, 
and  by  a  process  which,  once  the  foundation  has 
been  laid  by  setting  out  the  distribution  of 
loads,  is  far  more  expeditious  and  simple  than 
the  explanation  of  it  can  at  first  enable  it  to  appear, 
fig.  3,  tlie  measurable  diagram  of  the  girder-bar 
stresses,  is  evolved,  and  it  is  seen  that  as  we  near  the 
centre  the  tensions  on  the  diagonals  diminish,  that 
the  vertical  hax  jk  is  neither  under  compression  nor 
tension,  and  that  the  bars  6  and  7  are  under  the 
maximum  compression  (  =  \~jk ),  ami  the  baiv  1 8  and 
17  under  the  maximum  tension  ( IS-/,  17-/).  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  diagram  is  symmetrical ;  but,  if  we 
take  the  case  of  a  non  uniformly  distributed  load. 
Upper  Bar,  Co.mpress.ons :  «''^'  ;l''itrraiii  becomes  uns>-mmet- 

2=A6;  3  =  Art;  4  =  A/;  5  =  A/,;  ""^'i-'-  f>'>PI'oseano  her  100  tons 
6,  7  =  AjJr;  8  =  Am;  9  =  Ao;  10=  to  lie  laid  unitoinily  upon  the 
Ag;ll  =  A,'.  lower    booms    of    the    left  hand 

Lower  B.ots,  Tessioxs  :  half  of  the  gilder  :  now  the  piers 

22  =  22-0  =  0;  21  =  21-o;  20=  20-f ;  respectively  support  125  and  75 
19  =  19--; ;  18  =  18-i;  17=  17-;.-  tons;  the  stresses  in  bars  1  and 
'  ■'  12  are  110  and  70  tons  ;  the  dia- 
gram, built  up  on  the  same 
principles  as  in  the  preceding 
ca.se,  and  drawn  to  a  scale 
reduced  to  tiiiee  fourths,  take?- 
the  form  shown  in  fig.  4. 

See  R.  H.  Smith,  Graphics: 
or  the  Art  of  Cnleidation  bi/ 
Drem-itiej  Lines  ( 1889). 

Graphic  (<;r.  grapho.  '1 
write'),  a  genus  of  lichens, 
which  gives  its  name  to  a  trilie, 
(irapliide:i',  remarkable  for  the 
re.seniblance  whicli  the  fructifi- 
cation {apot/iceio,  or  shields) 
assumes  to  the  forms  of  the 
letters  of  oriental  alphabets,  (r. 
seripta  is  common  in  northern 
Europe,  Imt  of  the  twenty  s]iecies 
the  great  iiiajorily  are  tropical. 
Some  are  said  to  a.s.sist  in  the 
identification  of  cinchona  barks 
of  particular  species,  growing  on 
certain  kinds  and  not  on  others. 

Graitliitc.  See I'.r. ack  Leak. 

O  r  n  i>  h  o  i>  h  o  II  o.      See 

rilUN(KiK.\I'H. 

4>rnpllOt>'p<'  was  one  of  the  many  processes 
intended  to  supersede  wooil -engraving.  The  design 
was  sketched  with   silicate   on   a   prepared   chalk 


360 


GRAPPLE-PLANT 


GRASSES 


surface,  and  the  clialk  linislie<l  away  from  lietween 
the  lines.  Kioni  the  chalk  an  i-K'i-tri)t_v|ie  couKl  be 
taken.  It  hail  a  teni|iiniii y  ])artial  success,  but  lias 
been  in  turn  coni|iletely  sujierseJeil  by  the  zinco- 
type  anil  ntlier  ipriioe>ses.     See  ILLUSTKATIOX. 

<iira|»|>le-plsi»t  (  I'ncarin  proeiiinUiis),  a  pro- 
cunilient  plant  of  the  same  {jenus  with  tlie  (•anibir 
(q.v.),  a  native  of  South  Africa.  The  seed-vessel 
lia-s  nian.v  hooked  thorns,  and  clin;,'s  most  tenaciously 
to  any  animal— a  provision  for  the  distribution  of 
the  seed.  When  it  lays  hold  of  the  mouth  of  an 
ox,  Livin^'stone  says,  the  animal  stands  and  roars 
with  pain  and  a  sense  of  helplessness. 

ttra|ltolitOS,  a  ^noup  of  fossil  hydrozoa.  a|>par- 
ently  related  to  the  recent  Sertularia.  They  had 
-imple  or  braiiclu'd  polyparies,  formed  of  a  chit- 
inous  sulistance,  and  the  polyparies  were  usually 
strentrthened  by  a  horny-like  rod,  which  is  called 
the  'solid  axis.'  Professor  Xicholson  thinks  that 
the  term  'solid"  is  probably  a  misnomer,  and  that 
the  axis  wjis  most  likely  hollow  and  filled  with 
livinj;  material.  The  cellules  in  which  the  poly- 
pites  lived  were  arran>,'ed  in  a  sin;,'le  series  on  one 
side  of  the  axis,  or  in  a  ilouble  series  on  both 
sides ;  the  axis  was  i;enerally  prolonged  beyond  the 
cells  at  the  •.'rowing  end  of  the  i)olypary.  Re- 
productive buds,  or  ovarian  vesicles,  have  been 
observed  attached  to  the  nolyparv,  exhibitinj;  a 
method  of  reproduction  similar  to  that  in  the  hydro- 
zoa, but  they  dill'er  from  the  ovarian  vesicles  of 
the  modern  Sertulariaus  in  becominjj;  detached  from 
the  parent  colony.  Tlie  f,'raptolites  a|)pe;ir  to  have 
been  free-Hoatin;j;  or^;anisms.  They  are  jjenerally 
diviiled  into  Monoprionidiau  and  Diprionidian 
groups.  In  the  tirst  named  the  polypary,  whether 
single  or  branched,  had  only  one  row  of  cellules, 
or  '  hydrothec;c  ;'  in  the  second  the  polypary  wius 
furnished  with  a  row  of  cellules  on  each  side.  The 
former  groU|)  ranges  from  the  base  to  the  top  of  the 
Silurian  system,  while  the  latter  is  conlined  chieliy 
to  the  Lower  Silurian.  To  this  svstem  the  grapto- 
lites  may  be  said  to  be  conlined.  S'umerous  specie.s 
h.ave  been  described,  and  from  their  abundance  in 
the  argillaceous  shales  and  greywackes  it  is  obvious 
that  they  must  have  swarnu^d  in  the  Silurian  seas. 
There  are  several  other  Sertularian-like  fossils 
often  described  a-s  graptolites ;  such  fi.s  Dendro- 
<irnpru.i — a  rooted  plant-like  form  (Cambrian  and 
Lower  Silurian ) ;  Dicti/oncm't,  also  plant-like, 
and  probably  rooted  (Silurian);  IlctiolUci,  with 
no  solid  axis  (Silurian),  but  otlierwi.se  re.sembling 
the  graptolites. 

Cira.slitZi  a  town  of  Piohemia,  on  the  border 
of  Saxony,  142  m.  WNW.  nf  Prague  by  rail.  Musi- 
cal instruments  are  mannlactured.      Pop.  9780. 

Grasinero.  a  Westmorland  village,  4  miles 
N\V.  of  .Vmbleside.  There  are  four  hotels.  Pop. 
6S4.  It.s  antii|ue  church  is  the  church  of  the 
Excursion  :  and  in  the  churchvard,  wivshed  by  the 
Kotliav,  are  the  graves  of  Wordsworth  and  Hartley 
Coleridge.  '(Irasmere's  peaceful  lake.'  with  its 
'  one  green  island,'  lies  J,  mile  to  the  south,  between 
Loughrigg  Fell  (1 101  feet )  and  Helm  Crag  (1-299). 
Measuring  IJ  by  J  mile,  it  is  208  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  ISO  feet  deep. 

€ira.SS-clotll>  This  name  is  sometimes  given 
by  travellei-s  and  mis.sionaries  to  dilierent  kinds  of 
coarse  cloth,  maile  by  various  savage  races,  the 
tibre  of  which  is  rarely  that  of  a  gia-ss.  Cloth  is, 
or  at  least  h.os  l>een,  made  from  li.amlHio  (q.v.),  and 
!i  coarse  matting  is  made  from  Esparto  (q.v.),  both 
of  which  are  true  grasses.  A  fine  cloth  is  woven 
from  the  fibre  of  a  species  of  Biehmeria  (q.v.), 
|iopalarly  called  China-gra.«s,  but  the  jdant  is 
really  a  nettle. — To  the  nettle  order  also  belongs 
the  so-called  Queensland  Gra-ss-cloth  plant  (Pip- 
turus  argenteus),  which  yields  a  fine,  strong  fibre. 


CIra.sse,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 

.Mpcs  .Maritimes,  is  situated  on  the  southern  slo]ie 

of  the  llas.'>es-.M]ies,  lOCti  feet  above  sea-level,  and 

12  luile.s  N.  of  Cannes  by  rail.     An  ancient  place, 

the  seat  of   a   bishopric  frinn   1244  to  IHOI,  it  has 

steep,  narrow,  crooked  streets,  a  cathedral,  and  an 

I  interesting  hotel-de-ville.     (hiussc  is  second  only  to 

I  Paris  in  it-s  manufactures  of  es.scnces  and  perfumes, 

I  made   from   the  roses,   orange- llowei-s,  licdiotropes, 

mint,  \c.,  which,  thanks  to  the  mildness  of  the 

ilimate,  are  most  successfully  grown  in  the  neigh- 

I  bourliood.      It    lias  also   manufactures  of  olive-oil, 

I  silk,   &c. ,  and   is  growing  in  favour  as  a  winter 

resort.     Pop.  97S6. 

(iras.scs  form  the  order  Cramineie,  which  with 
Cypcrace.-c   (Sedge-s)   makes   up   the   second    great 
division    (IJlumacea')    of    Monocotyledons    (q.v.). 
The  first  division  ( Petaloidea- )  consists  of  mders 
I  whose  (lowers  are  of  the  liliaceous  or  orchidaceous 
I  type;    while   the   (lowers  of    (Wumaceje   are   best 
I  described   as   'gia-sy."      The   following  characters 
I  are  sullicient  to  distinguish   gras.st>s  from   sedges  : 
'i  grasses    have    generally   cylindric    or    compressed 
'  jointed   stems,   usually  with  internodes  l>econiing 
hollow  ;  leaves  alternate  with  sheath  clasping  the 
stem,  but  edijes  of  sheath  not  joined  ;  emnrvo  at 
one  side  of  the  ba.se  of  the  endosperm  (albumen). 
Sedges  have  generally  triangular,  simictinies  cylin- 
!  dric,    stems,    joinled    but    solid  ;    leaves   in    three 
vertical  rows  with  leaf-sheath  entire  and  forming 
a  ludlow  cylinder  round  the  stem  ;  embr\-o  within 
the  ba.se  of  the  endosperm.     The  term  'gia.ss'  is 
often  applied  to  any  herbaceous  pl.ant  that  helps  to 
fonii  luisture,  and  agriculturists  speak  of  natural 
and  artificial  grasses,  the  former  only  belonging  to 
( tramine;!'.     Cereals  (q.v.)  and  some  past\ire  grasses 
are  annual,  but  most  jiasture  and  woody  gras.ses  are 
perennial.     Cereals  and  p.asture  gras.ses  are  herba- 
ceous ;    b,anilK)os  are  woody  and   may  grow  to  a 
height   of    1(X)  feet    in    one    .sea.son.      There    are 
2.'>0  genera  of  gra.s.ses.  and  .S2(H)  distinct  species  ;  of 
these  41   genera  with    more   than    I0()   species  are 
natives  of  the   liritish   Isles,  and   fully  SIKJ  species 
and    varieties    within    the    limits  of    the   I  nited 
States. 

J)i.srrij>tioii.—The  leaves  are  Ion"  and  tapering, 
one  l)eing  given  oil'  at  each  noile  of  the  stem  ;  the 
leaf-sheath  is  a  modified  stalk,  and  is  often  pro- 
longed upwards  for  a  short  distance  beyoml  its 
junction  with  the  blade,  into  a  membrane  or  ring 
of  hairs  (ligule).  which  forms  a  collar  nmnd  the 
stem.  Tlie  parallel  veins  of  the  leaves  are  con- 
tinneil  downwards  into  the  stem  and  anastomose 
only  at  the  ikhIcs.  The  stem  (culm)  at  fii>t  con- 
.siste  of  .solid  ntMles  and  internodes,  but  the  inter- 
nodes, excejit  in  sugar-cane  ami  a  few  other 
tropical  gra.sses,  become  hollowed  out,  and  thus  the 


Fig.  1. 
A,  spikelet  of  wheat :  a,  glume ;  b,  aw-ii  of  outer  bract ;  c,  barren 
terminal  flower ;  d,  stamen.     B,  vertical  section  of  same  spike- 
let  :  0,  ovary  ;  >,  stigma ;  (,  inner  bract,      C  shows  position 
of  lodicules  (1, 1 )  in  relation  to  the  o>-»ry. 

stem  is  rendered  comparatively  lighter,  and  at  the 
same  time  Ijetter  able  to  resist  the  lateral  pressure 
of  the  wind  ;  because  a  cylinder  offers  more  resist- 
ance to  pressure  than  does  a  solid  rod  of  the  same 


GRASSES 


361 


weight  and  kind  of  material.  The  stems  of  grasses 
are  further  strengthened  l>y  impregnation  with 
silica.  Annual  gia-sses  have  tufted,  tibrous  roots, 
but  most  gra.sses  perennate  by  means  of  solid  under- 
ground stems  ( rhizomes ),  from  the  nodes  of  which 
roots  are  developed  ;  roots  also  grow  freely  from 
the  lower  no<les  of  the  aerial  stems  of  all  gra.sses. 
The  flovxrs  are  mostly  hermaphrodite,  a.s  in  barley 
and  oats  ;  maize  and  a  few  otiiers  are  moua?cious  ; 
and  some  of  the  fescue  tribe  have  the  lower 
hermaphrodite  and  the  upjier  male.  Each  flower 
is  enclosed  by  two  bracts  (pale;cl,  whicli  are  the 
homologues  of  the  two  spathe-like  bracts  in  the  In- 
florescences (q.v. )  of  Irifface:!-.  The  posterior  bract 
Ls  two-nerved,  indicating  its  two  fold  nature,  and 
often  clasps  the  fruit  when  mature ;  the  anterior 
( '  flowering  glume ' )  surroumls  both,  and  sometimes 
bears  an  Awn  (q.v.),  a-s  in  barley.  .K  number  of 
flowers  may  be  crowded  together  to  form  a  spikelet ; 
and,  further,  a  number  of  such  spikelets  may  be  at- 
tached by  stalks  to 
a  central  a.xis,  form- 
ing a  raceme,  as 
in  Mrlicd  nntdiis 
(tig.  2) ;  when  the 
raceme  is  loosely 
branched,  the  inflo- 
rescence becomes  a 
panicle,  as  in  Oats 
(q.v.);  orthesjnke- 
(  ifc,  ^^1  ^    '*"'*  '"'^-^   ''^  sessile 

I  ^^'  ^Vi  v        ""  ^  central   axis, 

J     ^  11  ^  I   c     forming     a      com- 

pound spike,  as  in 
rvegra.«s  (Lolium). 
The  spike  may  be 
looked  on  as  a  re 
diiced  raceme  or 
panicle,  in  which 
the  stalks  of  the 
spikelets  have  not  been  developed  ;  each  spikelet 
may  again  be  reduced  to  a  single  flower,  and  then 
a  simple  spike  like  that  of  mat-grains  ( Xm-e/iis 
strkta)  is  the  result.  IJeneath  the  lowest  llowers 
of  many  spikelets  there  are  two  liracts  (glumes) 
which  may  or  may  not  bear  barren  flowers  in  their 
axils.  There  is  no  jierianth  such  a-s  is  found  in 
most  insect-pollinated  flowers.  Grass  flowers  are 
wind-pollinated  and  generally  inconspicuous ;  in 
some,  however,  there  are  two  or  rarely  three  .scales 
(lodicules)  within  the  flower  bracts;  ami  these, 
from  their  position  ami  relation  to  the  other  parts 
of  the  flower,  may  be  regarded  as  segments  of  a 

^  mi  '&: 


Fig.  2. 
A,    MelicH    nutans;    inflorescence 
raceme    of  spikelets.     B,    Lolium 
perenia;     a    compound   spike.     C, 
yardus  stricta;    spikelets  reduce*! 
to  one  flower  each. 


Kg- 3. 

A,  floral  diagram  of  Bambusa  (for  explanation,  see  article 
Flower):  a,  stigma:  h,  ovary:  i,  stamen;  d,  lo<licule ;  e, 
inner  bract;/,  outer  bract;  <j,  stem.  B,  Avena  :  h,  glume; 
stamens  reduced  to  three.  C,  Coleanthus  :  lodicules  awant- 
ing  ;  two  stamens.     D,  Monandraira  :  one  stamen. 


rudimentary  perianth.  These  scales,  l)ecoming 
turgid  at  the  period  of  sexnal  maturity,  press  the 
anterior  bract  outwards,  and  expose  stigmas  and 
stamens  for  pollination.  Should  wet  weather  occur 
when  this  stage  is  reached  the  powdery  i>ollen  may 
become  clogged  and  kept  from  being  blown  about"; 


thus  preventing  fertilisation  and  the  opportunity 
of  producing  seed. 

t'itainens  varv  from  six  or  more  to  one  ;  in  British 
gra.sses  usually  three,  but  three  to  one  in  the 
fescue  tribe.  The  slender  filaments  are  inserted 
at  the  bases  of  the  anthei-s,  liut  the  anther  lol>es 
glow  downwards  1)elow  the  point  of  insertion,  and 
the  anthers  appear  to  be,  but  are  not,  versatile. 
The  oi'rrri/  is  one-celled  ;  there  are  three  or  two 
styles,  with  long  and  hairy,  or  short  and  feathery 
stigmas,  whicli  are  thus  enabled  to  catch  the  wind- 
bome  pollen.  The  fruit  is  one-seeded  i'oryopsis) ; 
the  sea/  is  adherent  to  tlie  pericarp.  The  ctuhri/o 
by  the  great  development  of  the  farinaceoas  endo- 
sperm is  dis- 
placed to  one 

side    at    the  /^%  i 

ba.se    of    the  /    ^L  /' 

latter,  itssur-      ""T         »  il -J.i 

face  of   con-      ,    I  ■!  A 

tact    being     "",,  _  *//        ^  \ 

c(mfmed      to         ''  "  mil       w    ^ 

that     of     a 
large  process       i..-*^' 
of     disputed      "■'  W     ^  „,. 

homology,  ^^Ofvy^^r      n.  >c:^       ~ 

the    scutel-  i -^Sr    ^^"^       \         ^^^N.      J 

luni.      A\"lien  ^f  p  ,/ 

a     grain     of  Fig.  i. 

wheat  or  A,  grain  of  wheat  in  vertical  .section:  n, 
other  *Tas.S  pericarp:  6,  endosperm  ;  r,  scutellum;  d, 
lietnnstncrpv  young  stem  and  leaves  (plumule);  t,  lirst 
oeginsio^ei-  ^^^^  (radicle).  B,  grain  of  wheat  after 
nunate,  the  gennination  has  begun :  /,  secondary 
scutellum  roots. 
acts  as  a  pla- 
cental surface  to  the  embryo,  digesting  the  sub- 
stance of  the  endosperm,  and  passing  it  on  in  a 
soluble  state  to  the  embryo,  which  soon  begins 
to  develop  roots  and  leaves.  \\'hen  all  the  endo- 
sperm has  been  used  up  the  seedling  grass  has  put 
forth  roots  eiiimgh  to  draw  a  sufficient  supply  of 
sap  from  the  soil,  and  green  leaves  to  transform 
the  sap  into  focxl  iiiHterials  for  the  tissues  of  the 
]dant.  The  srutella  of  grains  may  be  compared  to 
the  suckers  (haustoria)  of  mistletoe,  for  it  is  by 
means  of  suckers  that  ])lant  parasites  lix  upon,  anil 
draw  sap  from,  their  hosts. 

Clussijicatioii. — The  order  is  dinded  into  two 
divisions,  the  divisions  into  tribes,  genera,  and 
species.  The  genera  are  omitted  here,  and  only 
the  better-known  species  are  given  as  examjdes. 
( « )  Paxiccfi: — Spikelets  articulate  with  the  pedicels 
below  the  lowest  glume,  with  a  single  terminal  fer- 
tile flower,  while  the  lower  inferior  is  male  or  sterile. 

Tril)e.  Examples. 

I'axice-k Panicum  ;  Setaria. 

M.iVDE.t:. Job's  Tears  (Coix):  Maize  (Zca). 

11RY2E.E Rice  (Or)-za);  Cut  Grass  (Leet^ia). 

Tristd.ise.f- Arundinella. 

ZovsiE.t: Tragus. 

AsDR0i*oGONE.E. .  .Sugar-cane    (Saccharum);      Uurra    (Andro- 
l>ogon);  Mdlet  (Sorghum). 

(6)  Poaceee. — Spikelets  usually  articulated  above 
the  lowest  glume,  1-  or  many  flowered ;  male  or 
imperfect  flower  aliove  the  fertile  ones. 

Tribe.  Exauil'lc^. 

Fa.ujiRiDE.£. Reed  Canar>- Grass  (Phalaris):  Sweet  Vernal 

Crass   (Anthoxanthuni);     Fox-tail   Grass 

(.\loi>ecurus). 
AcBOSTiDEj:. Millet     Gra.ss    (Milium):     Timothy    Grass 

(Phleum);  Bent  (Agrostis). 
KvzsEM. Hair   Gra.ss  (.\ira);    Soft  Grass  (Holcus); 

Oats  (Avena). 

CHLORIDE.E. D<lg's-^K)th  Grass  (C>"nodon) :  Eleusine. 

Festuce* Beed  (Phragmites   :  Dog's-tail  Grass  (C>'no- 

sums);      Cock's-foot    Grass     ( Dactylic ) ; 

Melic    Grass   (Melica):      Quaking   Grass 

(Briza):  Poa :  Fescue;  Bn>nius. 
Horded Rye  (Secale);   Ryegrass  (Lolium):   Wheat 

(Triticum);      Barley     (Hordeum);      Mat 

Grass  (Nanlus). 
Bambcse^ Bambusa ;  Arundinaria. 


362 


GRASSHOPPER 


GRASS    OF    PARNASSUS 


mxlribulioii. — (trasses  are  almost  nniversally 
(lisli'iliiiteil  nn  laml,  and  are  fouml  at  all  elevations 
up  to  the  -.now. line,  wherever  there  is  soil.  In 
teni|ierate  rliniates  they  form  natural  jiastures, 
hilt  in  warm  rejj;ions  thev  are  more  tufteil,  anil, 
like  the  su;5ar-rane  ami  many  hanilioos,  often 
attain  a  jireat  hei^'ht.  The  speeies  of  a  sin^'le 
■jenns  have  often  wirlely  dilt'crent  hahitats— e.^-  I'n'i 
iinniiii  is  a  lowj;rowin;;  lielil-j;ni.ss,  while  a  closely 
allieil  s|M>cies,  /'.  tniiuitira,  forms  tall  reed-like 
;;ro\vths  hy  the  mar^rins  of  rivers  and  lakes.  The 
ilistrihiition  of  grasses  in  time  dates  from  the 
Upper  Eoeene  (q.v.)  ami  snhsec(uent  formations. 

I  \(A-. — The  .seeds  of  cereals  furnish  the  principal 
niateri.al  for  Iini((l  (i|.v.)  in  most  countries.  By 
the  process  of  malting',  the  starch  of  ^frains  is  con- 
verted into  sujrar,  which  is  then  allowed  to  undergo 
alcoholic  fernientatiiui  -.  lircr  or  Air  (ij.v. )  is  made 
in  this  way  from  harley,  and  from  this  liquor 
Whixkij  (f|.v.)  is  ohtaineil  hy  distillation.  Sugar 
is  also  obtained  ilirectly  from  the  juices  of  some 
^jrasses — e.;;.  .*^u^;\r  ;;rass  {Sorf//nf/n  ftnrrharat nm), 
nnrii>e  maize,  and  Sn;.'.'ir  <'ane  (i|.v.).  limn  is  the 
fermented  ami  distilled  liipior  proiluced  from  the 
sugar  of  s\igar-cane.  Some  "ra.sses  form  I'asture 
(q.v. )  .and  Fodder  (q.v.).  A  few  are  niri/iciiial,  as 
Joh"s  Tears  {Cni.r  /fie/i ri/iufi )  (q.v.);  the  reeils, 
Phritfiiiiili.'i  finiiitliiinrea,  Cnl'imnf/rostis,  and 
,1  riiiiilo  Doiin.r :  and  Couch-grass  (  Trilirum  rcjteiix ), 
the  rhizomes  of  which  form  ,a  mihl  diuretic.  Veiy 
few  have  poisonous  properties.  Darnel  (q.v.)  is 
held  liy  some  to  he  (loisimous.  Colilstream  ( (iriixscs 
of  S.  Pniijnh)  says  :  '  There  is  a  curious  fact  regard- 
ing the  nnalities  of  Smijlitim  vuhjorr  ivs  fofsl  for 
cattle  — VIZ.  that  in  a  dry  se.a.son,  Iwfore  it  (lowers, 
the  plant  is  poisonous  to  cattle.  This  poisomuis 
quality  is  also  shared  hy  its  congener,  S.  hnhiuiisr.'  , 
Some  gra.sses  are  firttfrmif  :  Sweet  Vernal  <«ra.ss  ' 
{Aiil/ioj'itiit/iKiii  or/ortiliiiii)  contains  couniarine,  a 
crystalline  aromatic  substance  which  gives  the 
sweet  scent  to  nieailow  hay.  Some  Kast  Imlian 
gr.issi*s  are  even  more  strtuigly  scented,  as  Lemtm- 
grass  {Aiii/ro/iof/i)ii  ritrntinii )  ami  othei-s  of  the  same 
geini~,  which  yield  gritss-oil.  The  woody  stems  of 
bamlioos  and  other  large  grasses  are  applied  to  a 
great  variety  of  economical  i>nriK)ses ;  and  the 
straw  of  many  of  the  smaller  gras.ses  is  used  for 
thatching,  roi)e-making,  jdaiting,  \-c.  (see  Stu.vw- 
MAMT.VCTURES).  Thus  the  tihres  of  the  Moonja 
(Siirr/ianiin  Miiiijii)  of  India,  the  Ksparto  (q.v.) 
of  Spain,  ami  a  few  others  are  made  into  ropes, 
mats,  sacks,  and  otiicr  coarse  fabrics.  I'a/xr  is 
maile  in  China  from  the  young  shoots  of  bamlxto  ; 
and  in  most  civilise<l  countries  from  the  straw  of 
es|iarto,  rye,  wheat,  harley,  .and  oats.  All  gras.ses, 
by  means  of  their  roots,  help  to  fix  the  soil,  and 
prevent  it  being  washed  away  by  rain  and  HihmIs. 

See  Panioll's  '  British  {irasses,'  and  '  Gramincx- '  in 
Enjjler's  Piinnzenfamilicu.  For  clas.silicatii>n,  see  aI.so 
Beiithaui  and  Hooker's  Uenern  Plaiiliifmn.  The  C's. 
Department  of  .\gricultare  has  jmblished  several  valu- 
able bulletins  and  inonograplis  on  American  gras.ses,  by 
Dr  George  Vasey. 

(i>ra$<!illO|>|li'l*.  a  name  given  to  numerous 
insects  forming  the  family  Locustida-,  included 
in  the  order  ( trtlioptera.  and  nearly  related  to 
Crickets  (Ciyllida^)  and  Locusts  (Acridiihe).  It  is 
unfortunately  confusing  that  'locusts'  are  not  in- 
cluded in  the  family  I,ocustid;e,  and  that  one  of  our 
commonest  grasshoppei-s  is  Lociista  viridissimti.  It 
must  be  noted  that  in  this  article  '_gras,shoppers ' 
mean  the  majority  of  Locustida'.  AVhether  grass- 
hoppers are  herbivorous  or,  as  is  oftener  the  case, 
carnivorous,  they  usually  live  among  vegetation, 
in  wowls  ami  thickets  or  in  the  open  liehl,  keejiing 
quiet  during  the  day,  but  making  the  woodsides 
merry  with  their  love  '.son"s'  in  the  summer 
evenings.     Most  of  them  feed  on  flies  and  cater- 


nillars,  in  catching  which  they  use  their  powerful 
lore-legs,  but  many  allect  plants,  and  some  comhine 
iKith  diets.  During  their  courting  season  they  ma\ 
be  seen  (lying  even  in  the  afternoon,  but  they  are 
predominantly  nocturnal  and  twilight  insects.  IJy 
their  frei|uent  green  C(dour  and  yet  subtler  mimetic 
characters  they  are  in  many  Civ«es  well  concealeil  in 
their  leafy  haunts.  The  family  is  large  and  W(hIiI- 
wide  in  distributicm,  but  l)est  represented  in 
tropical  ami  teini)erate  regions. 

In  the  grasshoiiper  family  (Lociistidn!)  the  hea<I 
is  placed  vertically  ;  the  slender  antenna-  are  longer 
than  the  Imdy  ;  there  are  hemispherical  eyes,  but 
rarely  eye-spots ;  wings  and  wing-covers  are 
gcner.ally  present.  The  right  (ami  occasionally  also 
the  left)  wing  cover  of  the  male  liears  posteriorly 


< i rasshopper,  Female  {Locitttta  viridissimn). 


a,  clear,  round  membrane  stretched  on  a  ring, 
which  produces  the  well-known  'chirp'  when  set 
in  vibration  by  the  action  of  a  serrated  ridge  on  the 
iimler  side  of  the  o]>posite  wing-cover.  The  left 
wing-cover  is  the  how,  the  right  Is  the  liddle  of  the 
male  gi-a.s.shopper's  music.  There  is  usu.ally  a  well- 
developed  anditorv  organ  at  theba-eof  the  anterior 
legs.     The  females  have  a  long  ovipositor. 

Sexually  mature  grasshoppei-s  appear  in  late 
summer  ,and  autumn.  The  eggs  are  lai<l  by  means 
of  the  ovipositor  either  in  the  earth  or  in  some  drv 
stem.  Krcun  these  in  spring  larva-  are  ilevelope<i, 
wlii<-h  are  virtually  like  the  adults,  but  moult  at 
least  six  times  before  they  become  full-grown. 

The  (treat  (trecn  (_ti'assliopper  (  A'/c(/a7//  virittis- 
sima  ),  common  in  Kurope,  and  occurring  in  Britain, 
has  a  body  over  an  inch  long.  Equally  large  is 
Drrtirus  rrmicirorus,  also  IlritLsh,  which  owes  its 
specific  title  to  the  habit  Swedish  pe.t-sants  have  of 
making  it  bite  their  warts,  which  the  secretion  of  a 
Huiil  from  the  mouth  of  the  insect  is  said  to  affect 
favourably.  \'ery  common  in  Europe  are  Thamno- 
Irizoii  riiicreiix,  P/ad/rlcin  fjriscfi,  an<l  other  species. 
Among  American  grasshopi)ers  Coiwrrp/ialiis 
oixiger,  type  of  those  with  a  conical  forehead,  is 
very  common,  as  are  also  various  .sjiecies  of 
Xiphiilium  and  ((rchelimum.  The  nearly  allied 
Katvdiils — e.g.  Cijyfonhifiiits  mnrftvus  anci  Mt'rro- 
i;  iilniin  irtiiiciri.s — will  recei\e  separate  notice  (see 
K.VTYIHD).  The  tropical  genus  Copiophora  is 
noteworthy  for  the  length  of  its  ovipositor,  which 
sometimes  attains  a  length  of  two  inches,  while 
Phyllophora  ami  I'hvlloptera  de.serve  mention  for 
the  exceetlingly  leaf-like  apiiearance  of  their  wing- 
covers.     See  CltlCKET,  K.VTvniD,  LOCf.ST. 

Grass-Ill O til  iCrnmhus),  a  genus  of  small 
moths,  allied  to  the  Clothes-moths.  The  species, 
which  are  numerous,  inhabit  pa-tuies,  where  they 
may  be  often  seen  to  ri.se  in  great  numliers  when 
disturbed,  and  soon  to  settle  again  on  the  bhades  of 
grass.  Tlieir  fonn,  when  their  wings  are  closed,  is 
hmg  anil  narrow,  pointed  at  the  head,  abruptly  cut 
otlat  the  opjiosite  end.  They  are  often  brown  and 
white,  sometimes  silvery  and  golden. 

Crass  of  Parnassus  ( Parudsxia ),  a  genus  of 

plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Saxifragacea-. 


GRASS-OIL 


GRATRY 


363 


The  popular  and  also  the  botanical  names  are 
founded  on  the  myth  that  the  liestknown  species 
(/'./)«/«■«?;■/.«)  first  appeared  on  Mount  Parnassus, 
the  abo<le  of  grace  and  lieautv.  The  plant  is  a 
native  of  l)ogs  and  moist  heaths  in  Britain  and 
throughout  northern  Europe  and  Russian  Asia, 
Viecoming  a  mountain  plant  in  southern  Europe 
and  west  central  Asia.  The  calyx  Is  ileeply 
ocleft,  the  petals  white,  .5  in  number,  and  there 
are  5  perfect  and  5  imperfect  stamens,  the  latter 
Ijearing  instead  of  anthers  a  tuft  of  10  to  12 
globular-headed  hail's.  There  are  several  other 
species  natives  of  Asia  and  North  America. 

Grass-oil,  a  name  under  which  several  volatile 
oils  derive<l  from  widely  different  plants  are 
grouped.  The  giass-oil  olitained  by  distillation 
from  the  leaves  of  Atulr<ipnr;on  warancusa  is 
used  for  rheumatism,  antl  has  the  same  stimulant 
effect  a.s  cajeput  oil.  Ginger-grass  Oil  Is  obtained 
from  -1.  uiirdxs,  a  native  of  India,  and  other 
species  of  the  same  genus.  Geranium  Oil,  derived 
from  Pi'ldrr/oniHin  radnlrt,  is  so  like  ginger- 
grass  oil  in  its  properties  that  they  are  used 
for  the  same  purposes,  and  are  bought  and  sold 
under  either  name,  mainly  a.s  an  adulterant  of  Oil 
ol  Rose.  Turkish  Gra-ss-oil  is  obtained  from  A. 
pnchnodes,  indigeno\is  to  India,  Persia,  and  Arabia. 
Lemon-grass  <  )il,  or  C'itronella  Oil,  is  derived  by  dis- 
tillation from  A.  scho;iionthi(i,  indigenous  to  India 
and  cultivated  in  Ceylon.  It  has  an  odour  resem- 
bling oil  of  citron,  and  is  largely  used  for  scenting 
soap.  Cyperus-giass  Oil  is  extracted  from  the 
tubers  of  Cypfnis  esriilentiis,  indigenous  to  southern 
Europe,  and  is  used  both  as  a  table  oil  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  soap. 

Gra.ss-tree  (Xunthorrhcm),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Liliace>-e,  natives  of  Australia, 
and  constituting  a  very  peculiar  feature  in  the 
vegetation  of  that  part  of  the  world.  They  have 
shrubby  stems,  with  tufts  of  long  wiry  foliage  at 
the  summit,  a  long  cylindrical  spike  of  denselv 
aggregated  Howei-s  shooting  up  from  the  centre  of 
the  tuft  of  leaves.  The  ba-se  of  the  inner  leaves  of 
some  species  is  eatable,  and  forms,  particularly 
when  roasted,  an  agreeable  article  of  food.  It  has 
a  balsamic  taste ;  and  all  the  species  abound  in  a 
resinous  juice,  which,  on  exposure  to  the  air, 
hardens  into  a  reddish-yellow  inoilorous  substance 
with  a  shiidng  fracture,  soluble  in  alcohol,  and 
useful  as  a  tonic  in  dysenterv,  diarrhcca,  and  other 
intestinal  maladies ;  use<I  also  by  the  natives  of 
Australia  for  uniting  the  edges  of  wounds,  and 
w  ith  an  aluminous  earth  for  caulking  their  canoes, 
and  as  a  cement  for  various  purposes.  — The  C'onnnon 
(irass-tree  ( A",  hcistilis)  Iuls  a  stem  about  f<mr  feet 
high,  but  sometimes  .a  foot  in  diameter.  It  is  of 
very  slow  growth,  and  is  sujiposed  to  be  many 
centuries  old  when  it  ha.s  reached  such  dimensions. — 
Several  species  are  found  in  eastern  .Vustralia  and 
also  in  New  Zealand,  where  their  leaves  are  used 
as  fodder  for  .all  kinds  of  cattle. 

Cirassilin.  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  a  lump 
s\im  paid  by  persons  who  take  a  le.i.se  of  landed 
propertv.  •  Kent,'  s.ays  liell,  '  is  naturally  periodi- 
cal, but  sometimes  part  is  paid  in  anticipation  in 
■grassuni.  And  so  gnussum  is,  when  analysed,  a 
proportion  taken  from  each  year's  rent,  and  paid  at 
once  by  anticipation,  either  t<i  supply  some  necessity 
for  ready  money,  or  to  disajipoint  some  future  pos- 
sessor of  the  estate."  In  England  the  words  'pre- 
mium "  in  some  cases,  and  '  fine '  in  othei-s,  mean 
the  same  thing. 

GrasSMTaok  [Zostera),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Naiades,  one  of  the  few  genera  of 
phanerogamous  plants  which  grow  anmngst  sea- 
weeds at  the  l>ottom  of  the  sea.  The  leaves  are 
narrow   and   grass-like,   and    the    Howers    consist 


merely  of  stamens  and  pistils,  without  any  peri- 
anth, inserted  on  the  central  nerve  of  one  sitle  of 
a  flat  thin  linear  .yi'idij-,  with  a  leafy  spathe.  The 
l>ollen  is  confervoid. — The  Common  GrasswTack 
(Z.  marina)  is  a  perennial  plant,  which  forms 
green  meadows  on  the  sandy  bottom  of  shallow 
parts  of  almost  all  the  Eiirojiean  seas,  and  abound^ 
in  creeks  and  .salt-water  ditches.  It  is  found  in 
great  plenty  on  the  British  shores.  It  becomes 
white  by  exposure  to  the  air.  The  njsh-like  cover 
ings  of  Italian  liijuor-llasks  are  made  of  it  :  it  is 
nmch  used  for  packing  glass  l>ottles  ;  and  it  serM-- 
well  for  thatch.  Cattle  eat  it  as  forage ;  it  is 
burned  to  obtain  soda,  and  has  been  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  paper.  It  has  been  long  nstcl 
in  Holland,  Iceland,  and  elsewhere  for  stufling 
pillows  and  niattres.ses ;  and  this  use  has  of  late 
years  verv  much  extended,  so  that  the  plant  has 
become  an  article  of  commerce,  under  the  name 
of  A/ffa  mariiiri,  or  more  commonly,  but  incfir- 
rectly,  Ada  mariiiu  ((ier.  See-gras). 
Cirate.    See  W.msmisg. 

Gratian,  a  Benedictine  monk,  who  at  Bologna 
between  1139  and  1142  compiled  the  Deartinn 
Grntiani.     See  C.\NON  Law. 

GratianilS,  AroisTrs,  Roman  emperor  from 
375  to  383,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Valentinian  I., 
and  was  Imrn  at  Sirmium  in  Panmmia  in  .3.59.  At 
nine  he  was  elevated  by  his  father  to  the  rank  of 
Augustus  at  Ambiani,  or  Amiens,  in  Gaul,  and 
next  year  accompanied  him  in  his  expedition  against 
the  Alemanni,  in  order  to  learn  the  art  of  war.  On 
the  death  of  Valentinian  the  troops  elevated  Gr.a- 
tian  to  the  throne,  giving  him  at  tiie  same  time  .as 
a  colleague  his  half-brotlier  Valentinian  II.  (Jaul, 
Spain,  and  Brit.ain  fell  fonually  to  Gratians  share, 
but  as  his  brother  was  only  four  years  old  he 
virtually  niled  also  over  the  rest  of  the  western 
empire,  fixing  his  residence  at  Treviri  (Trh-es). 
At  liret  he  showed  vigour  in  repelling  the  incur- 
sions of  the  turbulent  barbarians,  and  suiUlenly 
found  himself  in  378,  on  the  defeat  and  death  at 
Adrianople  of  his  uncle  Valens  at  the  hands  of 
the  Goths,  sovereign  also  of  the  eastern  emi>ire. 
Finding  himself  inadequate  for  the  task  of  ruling 
the  whole  empire,  he  recalled  Theodosius  from 
Spain,  and  appointed  him  his  colleague  on  the  19th 
•lanuary  379.  Gratian  possessed  some  adndrable 
virtues :  he  was  pious,  chaste,  temperate,  ami 
eloquent ;  but  his  character  w.as  too  pliant,  and  he 
was  often  led  to  commit  gross  acts  of  crueltv  ami 
tyranny.  Ilis  persecution  of  the  pagans,  and  after- 
wards of  heretic  Christians,  made  him  a  great 
fav(mrite  with  orthodox  ecclesiastics,  but  rather 
alienated  the  affections  of  his  subjects  generall.v  ; 
while  his  fondne.ss  for  frivolous  amusements  and 
unworthy  a.ssoci<ates  excited  the  contemjit  of  the 
army,  so  that  when  M.axiuuis  was  proclainieil 
emperor  by  the  legions  in  Britain  crowds  of  the 
disafl'ected  flocked  to  his  stan<lard.  (Jratian  was 
defeated  by  him  near  Paris,  and  fled  to  Lyons, 
where  he  wi\s  put  to  death  2,5th  August  .383. 

Grati'ola,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  order  Scro- 
lihularine;e.  G.  officiualis,  or  Hedge  Hy.ssop.  found 
in  most  parts  of  Europe,  is  extremely  bitter,  a  violent 
purg.ative,  diuretic,  and  emetic,  and  in  overdoses  an 
acrid  poison  ;  but  jis  a  medicine  was  formerly  called 
Gi-atia  Dei  ( '  Grace  of  God  "). 

Gratry,  Alphonse,  Catholic  theologian,  born 
.30th  .March  1805  at  Lille,  became  General-vicar  at 
Orleans,  profes.sor  at  the  Soi bonne,  and  member  of 
the  .\cadeniie.  He  wrote  a  Cours  dc  Philosnjihit.  a 
work  im  the  creed,  a  commentary  on  Matthew, 
and  La  Morale  ct  la  Loi  dc  IHistoire  (1868).  He 
confuted  the  policy  of  the  Vatican  Council,  but 
submitted  himself,  and  died  25tli  November  1871, 
leaving  Soureiiirs  dc  uia  Jeuucsse. 


364 


O  RATTAN 


4i!raltail.  IIbNRY,  one  of  the  greatest  of  Iiisb 
patriots  ami  orators,  ami,  like  Curran,  Flood,  Isaac 
liiitt,  and  I'arnell,  a  I'rote-taiit,  wits  Imm  in  Hiililin, 
•Inly  'i,  174IJ.  His  father  was  reconlcr  of  the  citv, 
and  one  of  its  nienihers  from  ITtJl  till  his  death  in 
1706;  his  mother  was  chmjiliter  of  Thomas  Marlay, 
Chief  jnstice  of  lri'lan<l,  one  of  whose  sons  lived  to 
heconie  l!isho|>  .if  Waterfurd.  At  seventeen  lie 
entered  Trinity  <'oll(';;e,  llnhlin,  and  here  ;;ave 
himself  with  ri'iiiarkalde  ea;,'erne>s  to  the  stmly  of 
classics.  Already  Henry  I'"1o<m1  had  licen  lorndng 
a  regular  party  of  opposition  in  the  Irish  House  j 
of  tommons,  ami  yonn^  (irattan  emliraced  his  i 
reforming  jirinciples  witli  snch  impolitic  ardour  i 
that  his  irate  father  disinherited  him  from  such  i 
i>roi)erty  as  lie  could  alienate.  \t  twenty-one 
he  entered  the  .Miildle  Temple,  I.oiiilon,  and  read 
law  in  a  <lesultorv  fashion,  nourishing  his  peculiar 
ambition  the  while  hy  listening  to  the  debates 
in  the  Hcmse  of  ('onimons  and  by  constantly 
ileclaiming  in  set  terms  to  imaginary  auilienees 
in  the  jirivaey  of  his  chamber.  In  177'2  he  was 
•■ailed  to  the  Irish  liar,  and  three  years  later, 
through  the  inlluence  of  the  geiii.il  and  eiiliglit 
ened  Earl  of  ( 'harleiiiiint  ami  by  the  aih  ice  of  Tlood, 
entered  the  Irish  parliament  ius  member  for  the 
borough  of  (.'harleniont.  It  was  but  two  months 
before  that  Klood  had  thrown  away  his  pojiu- 
larity  by  accepting  oHice  under  government,  and 
the  young  orator  leaped  at  one  bound  into  his 
place.  He  found  the  nation  f.ist  ilrifting  to  bank- 
ruptcy and  ruin  fioin  the  loss  of  market  that 
followed  the  war  with  .\nierica,  ami  the  odious 
restrictions  upon  Irish  trade  that  lia<l  come  down 
from  the  clays  of  William  III.  :  and  he  at  (Mice 
Hung  himself  with  all  the  vehemence  of  his  nature 
into  the  cause  of  retrenchment  and  reform. 

.Meantime,  in  the  dread  of  Krencli  inva.sioii, 
the  volunteer  movement  spread  from  Belfa-st  over 
Ireland,  and  ere  long  the  attitude  of  the  people 
in  their  demand  fm-  free  export  became  so  lor- 
mi<Iable  that  I,ord  North,  whose  own  inclina- 
tions h.id  formerly  been  thwarted  by  the  interested 
opposition  of  the  English  manufacturers,  granted 
in  1779  a  total  repeal  of  all  the  restriction  acts. 
This  gained,  (irattan  plunged  into  a  greater 
struggle  for  nothing  le^-s  than  legislative  independ- 
ence. 1)11  the  lOtli  .\pril  17)S0  he  made  perhaps 
his  greatest  speech,  ccmduding  with  a  nienior- 
able  series  of  resolutions  to  the  etiect  that  while 
the  crown  of  Ireland  was  inseparably  annexed  to 
that  of  England,  the  king  with  the  consent  of 
the  parliament  of  Indaml  w.os  alone  competent  to 
enact  laws  to  bind  Ireland.  -\fter  lifteen  lioui-s 
the  debate  was  .adjourned  indelinitely,  but  all  men 
felt  that  (irattan  had  gained  a  great  moral  victory. 
The  popular  ileniands  were  formulated  at  the  Con- 
vention of  I)uni.:annon  ( Kebruary  I.">,  1782),  and 
;isserted  by  ( Irattan  in  a  famous  speecli  (April  16), 
which  began  with  the  wonls,  '  I  am  now  to  address 
a  free  peojile. '  A  month  later  the  Hockingham 
ministry,  which  numbered  among  its  members 
( irattan  s  frieml  Eox,  surrendered  aiijiarently  un- 
conditionally, and  the  Irish  parliament  in  grati- 
tiule  voted  (irattan  a  reward  of  i.W.OtX).  Un- 
fortunately the  ijuestion  was  soon  r.aised  whether 
the  mere  repeal  of  the  I)e<daratoiy  .\ct  (6  (ieo.  I. 
chap.  .i|  wiis  sullicieiit  as  a  renunciation  of  the 
iirinciple  of  England's  right  to  legislate  for  Ire- 
land, (irattan  wished  his  countrymen  to  trust 
to  the  generous  instincts  of  English  honour,  and 
accept  the  gift  without  factious  wrangling  alMiut 
the  manner  of  its  giving,  but  Flood  iiut  himself 
at  the  lieail  of  the  malcontents,  deinamling  '  simple 
repeal '  and  renunciation  rather  than  concessions 
granted  merely  to  the  exigency  of  the  moment. 
He  carried  the  mass  of  his  countrymen  with  him, 
ind   what   wa-s   perhaps   the   historic   moment   for 


the  reconciliation  of  England  and  Ireland  was  lost. 
The  (|uarrel  between  the  two  leaileix  culminated 
in  one  ilraiiiatic  scene  on  the  lloor  of  the  house, 
when  (irattan  overi>owered  his  antagonist  with  a 
t<iriiado  of  rliet<U"ic  that  hits  perhaps  never  Iteen 
suriiiLssed  for  the  ruthless  energy  of  its  invective. 

'I  he  history  of  '(liattan's  parliament,'  as  it  has 
deserveilly  been  called,  did  not  correspond  to  the 
patriotic  ilreams  of  its  great  founder.  It  was  im- 
possible  for  a  parliament  so  little  really  represent- 
ative ami  so  iinK'li  subject  to  corruption  and  undue 
intluences  from  without  to  rise  into  the  region  of 
real  statesmansliiii.  In  his  i<lea.s  about  the  rights 
of  his  Catholic  fellow-countrymen  (irattan  was  far 
more  a<Ivaiiced  than  most  of  his  own  followers. 
Apart  altogether  from  the  fact  that  the  Homan 
Catholics,  comprising  two  thirds  of  the  whole  popu- 
lation, were  entirely  w  ithout  representation  ;  out  of  a 
house  of  .S(K)  members  no  fewer  than  two-thirds  were 
nominated  by  but  a  hundred  patrons.  The  urgent 
need  of  |)arlianientarv  reform  and  the  lenieily  of 
domestic  abuses  soon  occupied  the  minds  of  all  Irish 
patriots,  the  higli-niinded  ami  the  .self-seeking  alike. 
Once  more  at  Dnngannon  there  assembled  on  (sc|i- 
teniber  S,  1  ~s:i.  jus  many  a-s  MX)  delegates  to  formulate 
the  demands  lor  parliamentary  relorni,  which  were 
presented  to  the  house  by  Flood  and  rejected,  while 
liiattan  looked  on  in  a  kind  of  neutrality  that 
was  iierhajis  a  conseijueiice  of  the  recent  quarrel. 
He  (levoted  himself  to  a<lvocating  the  reform  of 
special  abuses,  but  his  Fla<e  and  I'eiision  Hill,  as 
well  as  his  bills  to  prevent  revenue  ollicers  from 
voting  at  elections,  and  olhces  of  state  being  given 
to  absentees,  and  for  the  commutation  of  ecclesi- 
astical tithes,  were  in  turn  lejccteil. 

Meantime  continued  commercial  depre.s.sion  had 
produced  a  strong  counter-feeling  in  Ireland  for 
protection,  which  was  yet  unable  to  prevent  the 
Secretary  Ordes  remedial  measure  for  absolute 
free  trade  from  being  carried.  This  inea.sure, 
however,  Pitt  found  liim.self  unable  to  cany  in 
the  English  Hcnise  of  Commons,  except  subject 
to  a  number  of  stipulations,  one  of  which  wiis 
that  all  English  navigation  laws  now  and  here- 
after were  to  lie  .adopted  as  such  by  the  Irish 
parliament;  and  to  this  Grattau  and  the  Irish 
]iatriots  found  themselves  unable  to  accede,  as 
an  outrage  ujion  the  freedom  of  the  Irish  jiarlia- 
iiient.  Pitt's  mortilication  at  lliLs  and  his  dis. 
plea.sure  at  the  inde|iendeiit  attitude  of  the  Irish 
parliament  in  the  regency  dispute  of  17.S9  hel|ied 
to  conlirm  his  determination  that  union  wa-s  the 
only  ellective  means  of  linal  pacihcation.  (irattan 
was  returned  for  the  city  ot  Dublin  in  17!l(l.  and 
by  this  time  he  had  dclinitelv  t.akeii  up  the  cause 
of  Catholic  emancipation,  'llie  corru]itioii  of  the 
Castle  government  and  of  a  parliament  venal  be- 
yond all  precedent :  the  persistent  reinessifui  of  the 
agitation  for  Catholic  relief,  changcii  for  a  moment 
into  hope  at  the  appointment  of  Fitzwilliain  as 
Lord-lieutenant,  only  to  be  cbisheil  to  the  ground 
again  by  his  withdrawal  ;  and  the  spirit  of  dis- 
content generated  by  the  F'rench  P.evolution  that 
was  now  everywhere  in  the  air  had  fomented 
the  movement  of  the  United  Iri-hmen,  which  was 
to  lie  extinguished  in  the  bloodshed  <if  179S.  Hope- 
less of  his  country  and  broken  by  ill  health,  (Irattan 
retired  to  his  house  at  Tinnehinidl  on  the  eve  of  the 
rebellion,  but  returned  to  take  his  >cat  for  Wick- 
low  in  the  last  .session  of  the  lii-h  parliament. 
Weak  .as  he  was  he  fought  the  bill  for  the  Union 
with  an  heroic  courage  that  wduhl  have  overcome 
everything  but  the  gold  and  the  coronets  of  Pitt, 
pouring  his  showers  of  invective  njioii  the  he.'id 
of  Corry  the  Ch.ancellor  of  the  Exche<|iier.  who 
retorted  with  a  challenge,  .ami  in  the  duel  was 
wounded  in  the  anu.  Once  more  (irattan  re- 
tired   to   private   life,    fr<Mii  which  he  emerged  in 


GRATUITOUS    DEED 


GRAVEL 


365 


180.5  as  member  for  Malton  in  Yorkshire,  and  for 
Dulilin  tlie  following  year.  His  first  .speech  in  tlie 
English  House  of  Commons  fully  sustained  his 
oratorical  reputation.  It  contained  the  well-known 
passage  about  the  Irish  parliament  :  ■  Of  that 
assembly  I  have  a  parental  recollection.  I  sat  l>v 
her  cradle  :  I  followed  her  hearse. '  The  remaining 
energies  of  hi.s  life  were  devoted  to  the  cause  of 
Catholic  emancipation,  whicli  he  reiterated  was 
the  price  of  the  uni(m,  apart  altogether  from  the 
intrinsic  justice  of  the  demand.  'A  gieat  majority 
cannot  overcome  a  great  iirincijile.  God  will  guar<l 
his  own  cause  against  rank  majorities.  In  vain 
shall  men  appeal  to  a  church  cry,  or  to  a  mock 
thunder ;  the  jiroprietor  of  the  bolt  is  on  the  side 
of  the  people.'  Instead  of  one-sided  'securities' 
he  demanded  from  his  opponents  adequate  reasons 
for  their  opposition — '  some  apology  to  after  ages 
for  indicting  on  one-fourth  of  their  fellow-sub- 
jects political  danniation  to  all  eternity.'  De.spite 
all  his  eloquence  and  the  support  of  Canning  ami 
other  statesmen,  he  was  not  to  see  tnum|)li  in  his 
lifetime.  In  Decendjer  1S19  his  healtli  began 
finally  to  give  way  ;  but  as  he  grew  weaker  his 
respousil)ility  to  tins  question  weighed  the  more 
upon  his  mind.  On  the  iOth  of  the  following  May 
he  crossed  from  Dublin,  a  dying  man,  to  speak  once 
more  for  the  cause,  and,  unable  to  liear  the  motion 
of  a  carriage,  was  carried  to  London  from  Liver- 
pool by  canal.  But  his  voice  was  never  to  lie  heard 
again.  A  day  or  two  after  his  arrival  he  sank,  a 
prayer  for  his  country  on  hLs  lips,  June  4,  1820. 
He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbej-  beside  the 
grave  of  Fox. 

(irattan's  figure  was  small  and  spare ;  his  face 
long,  thin,  and  slightly  marked  by  smallpo.x.  His 
gestures  in  speaking  were  \iolent  and  eccentric, 
and  his  voice  of  no  great  volume,  yet  he  wielded 
his  listeners  at  will  liy  his  energy  and  ]>assion,  his 
overpowering  earnestness  and  enthusiasm.  He  was 
a  consummate  master  of  epigram,  and  few  orators 
have  had  his  rajiidity  and  vigour.  His  description 
of  Flood  as  standing  'with  a  metaidior  in  his  mouth 
anil  a  brilie  in  his  iiocket'  is  but  one  among  a 
hundred  phrase^  that  will  never  be  forgotten.  His 
patriotism  was  enlighteneil  and  incorruptible,  and 
his  honour  remains  without  a  stain. 

The  best  collection  of  his  Speei'hrx  is  that  made  by  his 
son,  Henrj'  Grattan,  M.P.  (4  vols.  1822),  who  also  edited 
in  the  same  year  Ids  Mi'<cdhtncoiis  Wor/iS.  The  standard 
Life  is  also  that  by  his  son  (.">  vols.  18.'i0-4(>),  but  this 
is  far  from  being  a  satisfactory  work.  See  also  the  spn- 
pathetic  essay  in  W.  E.  H.  Lccky's  Lenders  of  Public 
Opinion  in  Ireland  (2d  ed.  1872);  Dunlop's  e.\cellcnt 
study  in  the  'Statesmen'  series  (1889);  and  Lecky's 
En'jland  in  the  Eiijltteenth  Century,  vols,  vii  and  viii. 

CiratllitOIIS  Deod.  in  the  law  of  Scotland, 
means  a  ileeil  granted  without  any  value  received. 
Such  deeds,  if  made  after  the  contracting  of  debt, 
ami  in  favour  of  a  near  relation  or  confidential 
fiiend,  are  presumeil  to  be  fraudulent  ami  so  null. 
In  England  gratuitous  deeds  are  usually  styled 
(JiitM'l-'^'-)- 

CiratZi  or  Gr.\z  (formerly  Grdtz),  the  capital  of 
Styria,  in  Austria,  141  miles  SSW.  of  Vienna  by 
rail,  is  a  picturesque  old  town  with  four  suburbs, 
built  on  both  sides  of  the  iMur,  and  encircled  by 
fine  gardens  and  pleasure-gnmnds.  Of  the  former 
fortress,  erected  on  a  hill  in  the  centre  of  the  town, 
and  dismantled  in  1809  by  the  French,  two  towers 
and  other  remains  still  e.\ist.  The  town  itself  con- 
tains several  old  buildings,  as  the  Late  Gothic 
cathedral  (1462).  two  other  Gothic  churches  (one 
built  in  l'2s;{>,  the  ancient  castle  of  the  Styrian 
dukes,  the  I.andhaus,  where  the  noliles  of  the 
duchy  held  their  meetings,  the  university,  (uiginally 
founded  in  1586  (with  I  i:U  stiidents  in  ISS.").  an<l 
a  library  containing  1'20,000  volumes),  an  armoury, 


palaces  of  the  Styrian  nobles,  and  four  monasteries 
dating  from  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  There 
are  also  national  arcliives,  a  cabinet  of  coins  and 
antiquities,  a  technical  school  (.Johanneum ),  a 
second  library  of  70,0(X»  volumes,  and  a  botanic 
garden.  The  most  important  of  its  many  in<lus- 
tries  are  the  manufacture  of  machines,  steel 
goods,  rails  and  railway  carriages,  sugar,  wine, 
perfumery,  stearine  candles,  .soap,  Ac.  Fat  capons. 
ldscuit^.  and  chocidate  figure  prondnenlly  as 
articles  of  trade.  Giatz  is  a  favourite  place  of 
residence  for  Austrian  officials  retired  frrnn  service. 
Pop.  (1.S90)  112,069,  including  a  garrison  of  .5000 
men.  The  town  i.-.  mentioned  in  the  annals  , as  early 
as  881.  In  1481  it  repulsed  tlie  Hungarians  from  its 
wall.>,  ami  in  1.532  the  Turks.  In  1797.  .and  .again 
in  1809,  it  was  occujiied  by  the  French.  In  the 
vicinity  are  several  hydropathic  establishments  and 
holiday  resorts.  See  Ilwof  and  Peters,  Geschichte 
tnid  Toporiropliif  der  Stridt  Graz  ( 1875). 

Ciraiibiiiidoii.    See  Gp.isox.s. 

(jiraildeilZ,  an  old  town  in  the  pro\iiice  of 
West  Prussia,  on  the  Vistula,  37  miles  N.  of 
Thorn.  It  carries  on  a  trade  in  corn,  wool,  and 
cattle,  and  has  iron-foundries,  breweries,  and 
tapestry  and  cigar  numufactories.  Poji.  (1875) 
14,55.3  ;'  ( 1890)  '20,.38.5.  About  a  nnle  north  of  it  on 
a  hill  (282  feet)  is  the  fortress  of  Gr.audenz,  Imilt  in 
1776,  and  successfully  defended  against  the  French 
in  1807.  It  was  maintained  as  a  fortress  till  1874, 
anil  now  serves  as  a  barrack  and  niilitar\-  prison. 
Pop.  2072. 

OraiiM'acke.    See  Grevw.vckk. 

travel,  the  name  given  to  aggregations  of 
water-worn  and  roumled  fragments  of  rocks,  vary- 
ing in  size  from  a  pea  to  a  hen's  egg.  When  the 
fragments  are  smaller,  the  de]iosit  is  sand  ;  when 
larger,  it  is  called  shingle.  Beds  of  gr.avel  occur 
in  formations  of  every  age.  While  the  materials 
have  been  a  long  time  in  being  jirepared,  and  have 
travelled  jierhaps  a  great  distance  from  the  mother- 
rock,  gravel  deposits  have  been  formed  speedily  and 
l>v  the  action  of  a  strong  current  of  water.  They 
form  very  irregular  and  limited  deposits,  occurring 
generally  as  banks  or  hummocks  in  strata  of  sand. 
Unless  ni  the  most  recent  deposits,  they  almost 
always  form  a  hard  rock  called  conglomerate  or 
puddingstone,  the  iiebldes  being  compacted  together 
by  some  infiltrated  cement,  either  calcareous, 
ferruginous,  or  siliceous  in  character.  Even  recent 
gravels  are  sometimes  formed  into  a  compact  con- 
crete, though  these  and  later  deposits  are  generally 
loose.  The  stone>  of  a  gravel  or  conglomerate  may 
be  fragments  of  almost  any  kind  of  rock  ;  but  the 
harder  species  are  the  most  common — pelibles  of 
quartz  and  quartzite  fornung  as  a  rule  the  chief 
material  in  gr.avel-beds  of  all  ages.  In  our  own 
day  gr.avel  and  sliingleare  fmnied  both  by  finviatile 
and  nmrine  action,  .and  the  same  H,-is  the  ca.-^e  in 
the  older  period,-  of  the  earth's  history.  Thus 
certain  conglomerates  mark  out  for  us  the  sites  of 
old  sea-coasts,  while  others  represent  old  river-beds. 

Gravel  varies  much  in  character  and  ajipearance 
according  to  the  formation  from  which  it  is  derived. 
In  the  making  of  roads  and  walks,  particularly  in 
gardens,  pleasure-grounds,  and  pulilic  jiiirks,  it  is 
the  last  ingredient  u>ed.  Essential  qualities  in  a 
good  gravel  are  (  1  )  that  it  should  be  binding — that 
is  to  .say,  it  should  not  shift  like  sand  under  foot : 
(2)  it  siiould  be  durable;  and  (3)  its  colour  should 
be  agreeable  to  the  eye  and  in  harmony  with 
vegetation.  It  is  rare  to  find  a  gravel  in  which 
all  these  qualities  are  combined.  The  only  .sort 
known  in  Britain  to  possess  them  all  in  itself  is 
the  famous  Koisini/toii  gravel,  which  has  long  been 
regarded  by  landscape-gardenei-s  at  home  and  on 
the  Continent  a.>  the  most  [lerfect  natural  walk  or 


366 


GRAVEL 


GRAVITATION 


rua<l-liiiiBhiiig  inati'iial  olituiimble  luiywhere.  It  is 
a  pit  yravel,  ami  alummls  in  oxiile  of  iri)ii,  t<)  wliicli 
it  owes  its  biiiiliii^  ipiality  and  also  it»  line  warm 
liaiinonious  rolour.  Many  other  pitj,'ravels  also 
posse-ss  this  cohesive  proi)erty  in  a  liigli  degree,  but 
are  defective  in  colour.  As  posscssin;^  better  bind- 
ing )iroiierties,  pit-gravels  generally  are  to  be 
preferred  to  sea  or  river  gravels  ;  but  their  ilefects 
of  colour  often  preclude  their  use  in  landscape- 
gardening.  The  Kensington  gravel  is  costly  and 
ilillicnlt  to  ))rocnre.  On  this  aci'ount,  aiul  also 
because  of  its  similarity  in  colour,  the  most  ])opular 
^Travel  of  the  ))re.sent  time  is  the  Dur.stt  I'cii  :  but 
it  is  also  one  of  the  most  shitting,  the  llinty  peb))les 
composing  it  being  rouml  ami  about  the  size  of  a 
pea.  As  the  name  implies,  this  sort  comes  from 
the  coast  of  Doi-setshire.  Krom  the  shine  of  the 
neiglibcmring  county,  Ilamnshire,  is  obtained 
another  pleasingly  coloured  llintgravel  named  the 
[.jfiniiKjtuii :  and  the  Sussex  coast  furnishes  two 
sorts  tuimed  Siixscr  J'ln  and  Siix-sfx  liniii.  The 
prevailing  form  of  the  former  is  |iea-like,  that  of  the 
latter  bean-like  ;  hence  their  res|ii'ctive  nanu's  in 
commerce.  They  are  found  commingU'd  on  the 
shore,  and  are  sep.aiated  by  sifting.  Shell-gravel 
— .so  called  because  composed  of  minute  shells 
entire  or  the  fragments  of  larger  ones — is  also  a 
favourite  gravel,  being  pleasing  in  colour  and  com- 
fortable to  walk  upon  when  not  laid  lUi  very  deep. 
It  is  found  on  various  jiarts  of  the  liritish  cojusts 
and  on  those  of  the  Channrl  Islamls.  .Musselburgh 
gravels  both  shore  and  pit  —are  jirized  in  that 
district,  being  good  in  colour,  and  the  pit  variety 
has  also  fair  binding  properties.  There  are  many 
manufactured  gravels,  such  as  granite,  whinstone, 
marble,  ipiartz,  slag,  glass,  iVc,  which  are  crushed 
in  machines,  and  afterwanls  riddled  to  the  desired 
sizi's.  These  ami  all  the  sea  and  ri\er  gravels  are 
used  in  making  asphalt  and  otiier  composite  roads 
and  paths,  some  of  them  when  skilfully  comliined 
with  cement  imjiarting  a  very  beautiful  apjiearauce 
to  the  surface. 

Oravol,  a  disease.    See  Calculi's. 

<«ravelillOS,  a  fortilied  town  in  the  French 
ilepartment  of  Nord,  is  situateil  in  a  marshy  locality 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Aa,  l.'i  miles  by  rail  KNK.  of 
Calais.  A  de.solate-looking  place  now,  with  grass- 
grown  streets,  it  hjus  an  historic  past,  its  the  scene 
of  Kgmont's  victory  over  the  Krench  (1.1.5S),  and 
the  |dace  oil'  which  the  English  disjyersed  the 
.\rmada  (1588).  It  was  taken  by  the  Krench  in 
11)44,  retaken  by  the  Austrians  after  a  ten  weeks' 
siege  in  16.52,  and  linally  recaptured  in  1658  by 
Louis  XIV.,  who  had  it  fortifieil  bv  A'auban.  Pop. 
(1872)  4391  ;  (IH'II)  412.5. 

tiravelotto,  a  village  of  Lorraine,  7  miles 
AV.  of  .Metz.  There,  mi  IStli  August  1870,  the 
French  under  Bazaine  sustaineil  a  severe  defeat  by 
the  Germans.     See  FK.vxct;,  Vol.  IV.  p.  78.3. 

<iraves.    See  Uarkow,  Buri.\l,  Churchyard, 

( 'KMETEUV,  MUXUMKNTS. 

Graves,  Kobeht  .Iamks,  j)liysician,  who  did 
nuich  to  raise  the  status  of  his  )Mofession  in  Ire- 
land, was  born  in  17!)7,  the  youngest  son  of  the 
Dean  of  Aniagli.  He  studied  medicine  at  Dublin, 
and  after  taking  his  dcgn'e  visiteil  the  mcclical 
schools  of  London,  (liitlingen,  Herlin.  ('o|ieiiliagen, 
those  of  France  and  Italy,  and  Eilinbuigh,  and  on 
his  return  home  .settled  ( 1821 )  in  his  native  city  as 
a  private  practitioner  and  a  teacher  of  medicine, 
especially  distinguishing  himself  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  improved  methods  of  clinical  study.  In 
1S27  he  was  ajijiointed  professor  of  the  Institutes 
of  Medicine  in  the  College  of  Physici.ans,  Dublin, 
of  which  college  he  wa.s  chosen  president  in  184.'5 
and  1844.  He  wa.s  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Koyal 
Society  in   1849.     Many   of   his   most   remarkable 


papers  appeared  iu  the  Dublin  Jtturmil  of  Mcdinil 
Helena:,  which  wius  founded  by  him  in  18.32.  Dr 
(iraves  died  on  20th  .March  18.Vi.  He  publishwl  .•! 
Si/xliin  iif  Vlinirul  Meiliiinc  (1843)  and  ClinUal 
Lntures  (1848).  After  his  death  his  Studies  in 
I'/ii/nio/oi/if  and  Mctlieinc  was  issued  in  186.3  by  Dr 
\V.  Stokes.     Sett  Dublin  Uniccrsitij  MiKjazine,  1842. 

4arav<'Sl'lld,  a  ])ort  and  iMirough  of  Kent,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  24  mill's  KSK.  of 
I.imdon.  It  consists  of  the  old  town,  with  narrow, 
irregular  streets,  and  of  the  handsome  new  town 
on  the  high  ground.  In  the  vicinity  are  extensive 
market-gardens ;  and  many  of  the  inhabitants 
are  einjdoved  in  lishing.  (Jravc.send  forms  the 
limit  of  tile  port  of  London  ;  anil  here  jiilots 
and  custom-house  oflicers  are  taken  on  lioard 
of  vessels  going  up  the  river.  For  centuries 
the  iiros]>erity  of  the  town  liiis  depended  on  its 
connection  with  the  metro|icdis.  The  salubrious 
air  and  beautiful  scenery  at  (iraveseiid  lender  it  .i 
favourite  wateiiiig|ilace  with  l^ondoners.  It  carries 
on  some  shipbuilding,  iron  founding,  soap  making, 
and  brewing,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  supplying 
ships'  stores.  Cravesend  was  incorporated  under 
Klizal>eth,  and  since  1867  has  returned  one  member 
to  parliament.  Poi>.  (  1861 )  24,.'j25  ;  ( 1891  )  35,492, 
of  whom  24,067  were  within  the  municipal  boundary. 
(Jravesend  was  originally  a  hi/tlie,  or  landing- 
|ilace,  and  is  mentioned  as  such  in  Domesday. 
.\rounil  this  landing  place  a  town  grew  up  soon 
after  the  ('oni|Ue>t.  Heic  the  fleets  of  early 
voyagers,  as  that  of  Sebiistian  Cabot  ill  1.">.53,  and 
of  Martin  Frobisher  in  1576,  as.sembled,  and  liere 
the  lord  mayor,  aldermen,  and  city  comi>anies  of 
London  were  wont  to  receive  all  straiigei>  of 
eminence,  and  to  conduct  them  up  the  river  in 
stute.  A  great  liri'  in  18.50  did  damage  to  the 
•amount  of  .t;i(KI,(Kt().  See  .Vrden's  History  of 
Criiir.srnd  (X^i'A). 

(■ravilia.  a  town  of  southern  Italy,  in  the 
leiitre  of  a  rich  agricultural  district,  33  miles  SW. 
of  liari.      Fop.  15,612. 

CiravillK-dofk.     See  Dock. 

<iravitatioil.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  experi- 
ence that  all  uiisupiiorted  bodies  near  the  surface 
of  the  earth  fall  to  the  ground,  the  direction  of 
their  motion  being  towards  the  earth's  centre.  The 
modern  ex|>lanatioii  of  this  ]iheni>inenon  is  that  it 
is  due  to  an  attractive  force  termed  gravitation  or 
gravity,  which  exists  between  any  such  body  and 
the  earth,  in  virtue  of  which  they  tend  to  move 
towards  one  another.  The  motion  of  the  earth 
and  other  planets  round  the  sun,  Jind  of  the 
various  .satellites  round  their  luimaries,  may  be 
exjilained  cm  the  same  ground.  The  mode  i>f 
action  of  this  force  is  given  in  the  fidlowing 
generalisation,  liist  explicitly  given  by  Newton, 
and  kni>«n  .as  the  l.iiir  of  tiriivitation :  Every 
particle  of  matter  in  the  universe  attracts  every 
other  i><article  with  a  force  whose  direction  is  that 
of  the  straight  line  joining  the  two,  and  whose 
magnitude  is  proportional  directly  as  the  product 
of  their  nuusses,  and  inver.sely  as  the  square  of  their 
mutual  distance. 

Previous  to  Newton's  investigations,  Kepler, 
by  a  truly  prodigious  amount  of  Labour,  had 
deduced  from  the  oliM-rvations  of  Tydio  IJiahc  the 
following  kinematical  laws  of  planetai-y  motion  : 
( 1 )  The  path  of  each  i)lanet  is  an  ellipse,  of  which 
the  .sun  occupies  one  focus;  (2)  the  iJidius-vector 
(i.e.  the  straight  line  which  joins  the  centre  of  the 
sun  to  that  of  the  idanet)  of  each  planet  describes 
ei|U.al  area-s  in  equal  times;  (3)  the  .sijuare  of  the 
periodic  time  (i.e.  the  time  during  which  a  ]danct 
makes  one  complete  revolution  round  the  sun)  of 
each  planet  is  proportional  to  the  cube  of  the  major 
axis  of  its  elliptic  orbit.     From  the  .second  of  the^e 


GRAVITATION 


367 


ilediictions  Newton  showed  tliat  if  the  sun  attrarts 
the  earth  or  other  planet,  tlie  direction  of  this 
attractive  force  must  be  in  the  line  joining  tlieir 
lentres ;  from  the  lirst  and  third  lie  proved  that  its 
intensity  must  be  inversely  proportional  to  the 
sijuare  of  their  mutual  distance  (so  that  at  double 
that  distance  the  intensity  of  attraction  would  be 
one-fourth  ;  at  three  times  the  distance,  one-ninth  ; 
and  so  on ).  Lastly,  the  proof  that  the  attraction  is 
pro]i(>rtional  to  the  product  of  the  masses  is  found 
in  the  fact  that  the  weiglit  of  any  body  is  under 
all  circumstances  proportional  to  its  mass.  To  test 
the  trutli  of  his  deductions,  Newton  studied  the 
motion  of  the  moon  round  the  earth,  and  found 
(hat  this  satellite  is  retained  in  its  orbit  by  an 
attraction  which  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  which 
causes  a  body  near  the  earth's  surface  to  fall  with 
an  acceleration  of  (about)  3'2'2  feet  per  second. 

It  must,  however,  be  remembered  that  Kepler's 
laws  are  themselves  only  appio-vimately  true, 
owing  to  the  attraction  of  one  planet  on  another 
interfering  with  what  might  be  termed  the  ideal 
state  of  things,  and  thus  producing  those  small 
superposed  nmtions  of  a  planet  which  astronomers 
have  termed  perturbations.  15ut  it  is  just  in  this 
that  the  confirmatory  proofs  of  the  law  of  gravita- 
tion are  found  :  for  not  only  are  all  these  perturba- 
tions completely  explained  by  its  means,  but  they 
have  also  been  discovered  and  measured  by  it. 

The  action  of  gravitation  is  independent  of  the 
nature  of  matter,  thus  dillering  from  magnetic 
attraction,  which  is  only  found  in  a  restricted 
class  of  bodies.  At  the  same  time  the  manner 
in  which  magnetic  and  also  electric  attraction 
depends  upon  distance  is  the  same  as  giavitation. 
(Gravitation  is  not  affected' by  the  presence  of  other 
matter  ;  in  other  words,  the  weight  of  a  body  is  the 
sum  of  the  weights  of  its  parts. 

The  intensity  of  gravity  at  the  earth's  surface  is 
measured  by  the  acceleration  of  a  body  falling 
freely  under  its  influence  ;  it  is  usually  denoted  by 
If.  It  is  found,  from  penilulum  experiments,  to 
vary  slightly  with  the  latitmle,  and  also  with  the 
height  above  sea-level  of  the  observing  station. 
For  any  locality  in  the  British  Islands  it  is,  how- 
ever, little  dirt'erent  from  3'2'2  feet  per  second.  The 
following  table  gives  the  value  of  g  for  several 
places  in  the  northern  hemisphere  : 

Station.                                                      Lotltnde.  .      Value  of  9 

in  feet  p«r  second. 

Equator 0"    <y  32091 

Paris -tS"  Stf  32-183 

Greeavvich 61°  29*  32191 

Berlin 52*30'  32194 

Dulilin 53°  21'  32-196 

.Manchester 53'  29"  32-196 

Bilinburgh 65°  27'  32203 

AberUeeu 57°    9'  32-206 

North  Pole 90"    0"  32-255 

From  these  figures  it  will  be  seen  that  a  body 
apparently  gains  weight  its  it  is  carried  from  the 
equator  to  higher  latitudes.  This  is  due  to  two 
causes.  First,  owing  to  the  ellipsoidal  shajie  of 
the  earth,  gravitational  attraction  at  the  jioles  is 
7^,,  greater  than  at  the  eijuator ;  (2)  owing  to 
the  '  centrifugal  force'  of  the  earth's  axial  rotation, 
bodies  at  the  eijuator  are  tv'.j  lighter  than  at  the 
poles,  where  this  cause  does  not  all'ect  their  weight. 
These  two  fractions  together  make  u|>  the  dilt'er- 
ence,  fj^,  between  ecjuatorial  and  polar  gravity. 
The  fraction  denoting  diminution  of  weight  due  to 
the  centrifugal  force  of  the  earth's  rotation,  may  be 
employed  to  find  at  what  speed  the  eartli  would 
need  to  revolve  in  order  that  gravit.\-  would  just  be 
balanced  by  'centrifugal  force.'  It  is  fimnd  that, 
to  fullil  this  condition,  the  earth  would  reijuire  to 
levolve  at  seventeen  times  its  present  speed  ;  when 
revolving  at  this  rate  bodies  would  not  have  any 
tendency  to  remain  on  the  earth's  surface,  and  witli 


I 


an  increased  speed  they  would  be  projected  into 
space.  Taking  also  into  consideration  the  diminu- 
tion of  gravity  with  increase  of  height,  the  value  of 
terrestrial  gravity  is  expressed  by  the  formula  7  = 
32-173  -  -082  cos  2  x  -  -000003  A  where  x  is  the  lati- 
tude, and  h  the  height,  in  feet,  above  sea-level.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  this  value  of  g  is  ditl'erent 
from  that  which  woulil  be  obtained  were  there  no 
axial  rotation  of  the  earth  ;  under  the  latter  eir 
cumstances,  the  value  of  gravitational  attraction 
alone  would  be  (/  =  32-.J2.'>  -   026  cos  2  >.. 

To  account  for  the  phenomenon  of  gravitational 
attraction  several  theories  have  been  advanced  : 
but  in  spite  of  the  best  etiorts  of  mathematicians 
and  physicists,  the  real  cause  remains  undiscovered. 
Nor  is  there  any  physical  reason  in  e\  idence  of  the 
trutli  of  the  several  assumptions  u]ion  « liich  these 
theoi-ies  have  been  based.  As  f'lerkMaxwell  has 
pointed  out,  their  chief  value  lies  in  their  suggestive- 
ness,  and  in  there  being  an  incentive  to  the  deeper 
and  more  prolonged  research  after  [(Ossible  causes 
foi-  gravitation.  The  earliest  speculations  on  the 
subject  were,  of  course,  almost  wholly  metaphysi- 
cal, and  tlieiefore  misleading,  if  not  absolutely 
erroneous.  To  begin  with,  the  assignment  of  an 
attraction  between  the  earth  and  sun  as  the  cause 
of  the  earths  motion  was  set  down  as  being 
impossible,  on  the  plea  that  a  body  could  not  act 
in  the  place  where  it  was  not.  Again  it  was  urged 
that  such  a  cause  w  ould  be  simply  '  action  at  a 
distance,'  and  hence  impossible.  Newton's  only 
speculation  on  the  subject  showed  that  he  looked 
to  some  intervening  medium  as  the  agent  by  means 
of  which  attraction  between  liodies  was  exerted ; 
that  if  bodies  rarefied  this  medium  round  them  at 
a  rate  le.ssening  as  the  distance  increased,  gravita- 
tional attraction  might  thus  be  accounted  for. 
Another  hypothesis,  and  one  of  an  entirely  novel 
kind,  was  put  forward  in  1818  by  Le  Sage.  He 
presupposed  that  space  contains  an  exceedingly 
large  uuiiiber  of  small  bodies  moving  lapidly  in  ail 
diiectioiis.  To  these  bodies  he  gave  the  name  of 
ultramundane  corpuscles.  They  would  imi)inge 
upon  any  single  isolated  body  in  space  in  all 
directions,  the  result  being  that  the  body  would 
not  be  moved,  the  impacts  being  etjual  on  both  its 
sides.  But  with  two  bodies  in  space,  one  would 
screen  the  other  from  a  certain  number  of  blows,  so 
that  on  their  opposed  faces  there  wonlil  lie  a  fewer 
number  than  on  their  distant  faces  ;  inconsequence 
of  this  excess  of  impacts  on  one  side  over  those  on 
the  other,  each  body  would  tend  to  mm  e  towards 
the  other.  The  attraction  between  the  two  would 
be  invei-sely  as  the  square  of  their  distance,  and 
proijortional  to  the  surface  of  the  bodies  resolved 
normall.y  to  the  line  joining  tlieir  centres.  So  that 
if  mass  be  proportional  to  surface,  there  .should  l»e 
coinciden<-e  between  the  results  of  the  hy|iotlie.sis 
and  the  observed  law.  The  chief  objection  to  this 
hypothesis  is  that  it  would  require  nut  only  that 
the  corpuscles  be  intinitely  small  compaied  with 
the  molecular  distances  in  onlinary  matter,  but 
that  they  move  at  a  speed  enormous  coinpare<i 
with  anything  we  are  acquainted  with.  Moreover 
the  amount  of  energy  required  to  maintain  the 
gravitatiimal  attraction  of  a  comparatively  small 
body  near  the  earth's  surface  would,  if  converted 
into  beat,  be  siillicient  to  raise  the  earth  to  the 
tcmperaltire  of  incandescence.  Sir  William 
Thomson  has  shown  that  gravitation  might  be 
ex|)lained  by  the  a.-isumption  of  the  existence  of  an 
incompressible  lluid  tilling  all  space,  being  either 
created  in  each  jiarticle  at  a  rate  proportional  to 
its  m;i-ss,  and  tlo«  iiig  oil'  everyw  here  to  an  infinite 
distance  ;  or  by  each  particle  absorbing  a  quantity 
pro|iortional  to  its  mass,  the  supply  coiuiu"  in  all 
directions  from  an  inhnite  distance.  .\nother 
method  of  accounting  for  gravitation  is   that   of 


368 


GRAVITY 


GRAY 


Clerk-Mawvell,  wlm  ^lioweil  that  if  in  a  medium, 
such  a-s  that  of  the  hiiiiiniferous  ether,  there  1r' 
pressure  ah>n^',  ami  tension  at  rij;ht  aiifjles  to  tlie 
lines  of  forre,  the  etl'ect  wuuhl  \>e  an  attraetiim 
such  as  that  of  jiravitation.  The  main  ohjection  to 
all  these  iimttereil  hypotheses  is  that  they  pre 
supposol  tlie  existence  of  <|Uantities  of  ener^'v  in 
the  iinivci-si>  whirli  are  alisolntely  enormous  com 
pareil  with  the  ellects  they  proiluce ;  or,  at  all 
events,  postulate  some  cause  workin;;  not  in 
accovilance  with  the  known  laws  of  enerjiy. 

<ii'a>  ily,  SpKciFic.     See  Specific  Density. 

(■ruy.  a  town  in  the  French  ilepartment  of 
HauteSaiine,  on  the  Saoiie,  which  is  here  crosseil 
liy  a  stone  bridge  of  the  13th  century,  'i.')  miles 
N\V.  of  licsanion.  It  h.is  remains  of  an  ancient 
castle  of  the  dukes  of  Bur^nindy,  some  trade  in 
corn,  Hour,  and  iron,  ami  iron-industries  and  hoat- 
huilding.     Hop.  0737. 

lira.V,  .\SA.  an  eminent  .\merican  liotaiiist,  l«irn 
at  I'arl-.  Oneida  countv,  New  York.  Novendier  IS, 
1>>1().  He  took  his  de^'rce  of  M.U.  in  IS.Sl,  but 
soon  relin<|Uislied  the  jiractice  of  medii-ine,  and 
devoted  himself  to  his  favourite  study  of  lH)tany. 
In  IS.'U  he  received  the  appointment  of  botanist 
of  the  United  States  exjiloring  exiieilition  to  the 
southeni  seas;  but.  its  a  long  delay  took  ]dace 
before  it  wjus  ready  to  sail,  he  re-signed  his  post  in 
l.S;J7.  He  Wits  afterwards  elected  iirofessor  of 
llotany  in  the  university  of  Michigan,  liut  declined 
the  appointment,  ami  in  \si'2  became  Kisher  pro. 
lessor  of  Natural  History  at  Harvard.  In  1S7.'{  be 
retired  from  the  chair,  but  still  retained  charge  of 
the  great  herbarium  he  had  presented  to  the  uni- 
vei-sity  in  IStU;  ami  in  187-t  he  succee<leil  Agassi/ 
a.s  a  regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  He 
ranks  among  the  leading  botanists  of  ilie  age. 
His  numerrms  writings  evince  equal  ability  in 
comnninicating  elementary  knowledge  and  in 
elucidating  recondite  theories.  He  came  forwanl 
at  a  time  when  the  ohl  artilicial  systenrs  of  botany 
were  giving  way  to  the  natural  system  which  liaa 
taken  their  place,  ami  he  was  the  tiivt  in  .America, 
in  conjunction  with  I)r  .John  Torrey.  to  .arrange 
tlie  heterogeneous  assemblage  of  species  uiion  the 
natural  basis  of  allinity  ;  and  he  became  an  in- 
lluential  supporter  of  the  Darwinian  theories  of 
evolution.  In  1S.3S  he  commenced,  with  I  )r  Torrey. 
the  Flniu  nf  \orth  Ameiini;  and  in  lS4S-r>0 
appeared  the  U'lKia  Flune  Ainirini  llurci/i- 
Oruiit'ili.i  Ilhisliiitii.  Among  his  remaining  works 
may  be  mentioned,  besides  memiui's  on  the  botan- 
ical results  of  several  govHrnment  exploring  expe- 
ditions, and  a  nuinlier  of  text-bi«>ks  that  have  long 
Ijeen  in  general  u.se  in  the  United  States,  ,-1  Fro: 
EMiiitiittitiou  of  Darn  ins  Treatise  ( 1861 ),  Daririiiiu 
(1876),  and  A''(/"n//  Sriciu-c  and  Rc/it/i'jii  (1S!<0). 
He  died  :vn\i  .January  18S8.  A  selection  from  his 
scientilic  jiajiers  wa-  published  in  2  vids.  in  l.SS'.t. 
He  was  a  memlier  of  the  principal  learned  societies 
of  both  America  .and  Europe,  to  whose  transactions 
and  to  periodicals  he  contributeil  much.  His 
Litters,  eilited  by  Jane  L.  Gray,  aiipeared  in  1893. 

<«ray.  Dwiri.  a  ndnor  poet,  was  born  29tli 
.lanuary  1838.  at  Duntiblae.  <m  the  south  side  of 
the  l.uggie,  aUmt  S  miles  from  (Ihisgow.  He  was 
the  eldest  of  the  eight  children  of  an  industrious 
weaver,  wlio  gave  him  as  good  an  educition  as  he 
could  at  the  Normal  School  .and  univei'sity  of 
Glasgow,  in  the  hope  of  making  him  a  Free  Church 
minister.  IJut  the  boy  began  early  to  write  verses, 
and  seems  to  have  m.ade  from  tlie  beginning  an 
enormously  exaggerated  estimate  of  his  own  pro- 
mise. In  M.ay  I.SUO  he  started  for  Lomlon  ahmg 
with  Kobert  Buchanan,  with  the  usual  lofty  hoi)es. 
and  quickly  met  the  usual  di.scour.agenient.«.  He 
made  au  appeal  to   Mouckton  Milnes,  afterwarils 


Lord  Houghton,  who  fouml  him  .some  employment, 
but  failed  to  get  his  iM)ems  printed,  ^ieantime 
consumption  seized  him,  ami  a  stay  in  Dev<msliire, 
fiH'  which  Milnes,  Sydney  Dobell.  and  other  friends 
had  lound  him  the  means,  proving  useless,  he  went 
home  to  his  parents  at  Merkland,  a  mile  from  Kirk- 
intilloch, to  die.  The  enil  came  iiuickly,  .3d  Decem- 
ber bsUl,  l>ut  the  day  before  he  had  bail  the  happi 
ness  to  hold  in  his  hand  a  specimen  page  of  tlie 
volume  of  his  poems  in  print.  The  volume  was 
entitled  y/if  J.tiijijii:  and  utlirr  I'liniis  (1862),  and 
was  prefaced  by  an  introduction  liy  K.  Monck. 
ton  Millies  and  a  iiicnioir  by  .1.  Iledderwick.  His 
latest  work  wiis  his  best,  and,  indeed,  the  sonnets 
grouped  together  here  under  the  title  '  In  the 
Shiulows'  are  stamped  with  a  .solemn  ami  touch 
iiig  beauty  of  their  own.  .\n  enlarged  editiiui, 
edited  by  Slieriirt;liUssford  Hell,  appeared  in  1874. 
See  also  H.  Buchanan's  too  high-pitehed  essay,  in 
Uaviil  Graij,  and  other  Essays  ( 1868). 

Gray.  Ki.lsii.\.  an  .-\nierican  inventor,  was  born 
at  liarnesville.  ( lliio,  2d  August  183.1,  and  studied 
at  (Iberlin  t'ollege,  meanwhile  supporting  himself 
by  working  as  a  carpenter.  He  w.ax  afterwards 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  telegraphic  apiiar- 
atus.  His  pateni-  number  al)OUt  lifty,  inclmliiig 
several  for  the  speaking  telephone,  of  which  he 
claims  the  inventimi,  and  others  for  a  multiplex 
telegraph,  by  which  he  lia-s  succeedeil  in  sending 
eight  messages  at  a  time. 

Gray.  John  Ed\v.\I!I>.  English  naturalist,  bom 
at  Walsall  in  1800,  was  educated  for  the  medical 
profession.  After  a.ssi»ting  his  father,  author  of 
Sii/i/i/i mint  tu  the  Ph({rniar(i/mia,  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  his  Satnrid  Arranijrntent  uf  liritlsh  Plants 
in  1821,  he  entered  in  1824  the  British  Museum  .as 
lussistaut  in  the  Natural  History  I)e|iartment.  and  in 
1840  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  Zocdogical  Collec- 
tions. !i  post  which  he  retained  till  1874.  A  few 
months  later,  on  7tli  March  187."),  he  died  in  Lomlon. 
To  liim  belongs  the  merit  of  having  made  the  zoo- 
logical collections  of  the  British  Museum  the  most 
complete  in  the  world.  Dr  Gray  wrote  much  on 
subjects  connecteil  with  his  department.  The 
titles  of  his  books  and  papei-s  number  more  than 
500.  Of  these  the  most  important  are  his  cata- 
logues of  the  I'.ritisb  Museum  collections,  which 
■are  not  mere  lists,  but  are  enricheil  with  synonyms 
and  ample  notes.  Next  to  these  comi'  Illnstratiuns 
of  Indian  Zimloiiii  (1830-3;))  and  The  Knunslei/ 
^[rnagerie  and  Ariary  (1846-60).  Dr  Gray  also 
.a-ssi.sted  in  the  formation  of  some  of  the  most  pros- 
]ierous  scientific  societies  of  London,  and  wa.s  a 
vice-president  of  the  Zoological  Society. — His  wife, 
M.vlil.V  E.\1.M.\.  wrote  Fiijnres  of  Molluseons  Ani- 
mals for  the  I'se  o/  Stndents  (5  vols.  1842-.")7). — 
His  brother,  Geohge  Kdiikkt  Gr.w  (1808-72),  an 
ollicer  in  the  Zoological  Department  of  the  British 
Museum  from  1831  till  his  death,  is  known  as 
author  of  The  Genera  of  Birds  (1849),  and  of 
works  on  the  birds  of  Polynesia  and  New  Ciuinea. 

Gray.  Thhm.vs.  one  of  the  greatest  of  English 
iiiMis.  ill  value  if  not  in  bulk,  was  born  in  Cornhill, 
London,  26tli  December  1716.  His  father,  Philip 
(ir.ay,  a  money  scrivener,  w.os  of  so  violent  and 
jealous  a  temper  that  his  wife  (  Dorothy  Antrobus) 
w.is  oldiged  to  separate  from  him.  ami  it  was  mainly 
through  her  own  exertions  that  the  boy  was  placed 
at  Eton,  and  afterwards  at  Cambridge,  where  two 
of  her  brothers  were  fellows  of  colleges,  and  after- 
wards tutors  at  p;ton.  Both  the  mother  and  her 
sister  Mary  loved  the  Iwiy  with  a  devotion  that 
was  rewarded  by  a  life-long  and  jiassionate  attach- 
ment. In  1727  he  w.as  sent  to  Eton,  whither  in 
the  same  year  also  came  Horace  Walpole,  son 
of  the  prime-minister.  As  a  boy  (ir.ay  was  shy 
and  studious,  and  he  carried  the  same  temper  to 


GRAY 


GRAYLING 


369 


Peterhouse,  whicli  he  entered  iu  17^.  The  pre- 
dominant mathematics  in  the  studies  of  f'ambrid;;e 
were  dlsta'^teful  to  his  mind,  and  a  hahitnal  l>iit 
pa-ssive  melancholy  early  scizeil  and  mastered  him. 
In  the  March  of  1739  he  wa-  prevailed  upon  by 
Walpole  to  accompany  him  on  the  f,Tanu  tour. 
They  spent  the  next  two  and  a  half  years  visiting 
the  towns  and  e.xplorinf;  the  picture-galleries  of 
France  and  Italy,  and  Gray's  letters  home  reveal 
not  only  an  e.xquisite  taste  in  art  and  music, 
but  also  tlie  first  touch  of  that  romantic  love  of 
nature  which  Rousseau  w;i.s  soon  to  make  so 
fashionable.  The  two  friends  quarrelled  at  Reggio 
and  parted.  Walpole  afterwards  took  the  blame 
entirely  on  himself,  and  certainly  liy  his  etforts  the 
breach  was  healed  within  three  years,  and  the 
friendship  never  again  inteiTupted.  ( Iray  reached 
Englanil  in  the  Sejitember  of  1741,  ami  seems  now 
to  have  begun  seriously  to  write  poetry,  his  0(/e  on 
Eton  C'olhfic  being  written  in  the  autumn  of  1742, 
and  the  Elcijij  at  least  begun.  In  the  winter  he 
went  Ijack  to  Peterhouse,  took  his  bacheloi-shi]i  in 
civil  law,  and  became  a  resident  there.  For  the 
next  four  or  tive  years  he  studied  Greek  literature 
profounilly.  and  busied  himself  with  abortive  pro- 
jects for  editions  of  Strabo,  Plato,  and  the  Greek 
Anthology.  This  was  perhaps  the  happiest  period 
of  his  life,  while  he  breathed  the  serene  air  of  noble 
libraries,  and  was  as  yet  untroubled  by  Itroken 
health.  He  found  his  relaxation  and  his  keenest 
pleasure  in  the  company  of  his  friends,  and  in 
writing,  when  absent  from  them,  lettei's  such  as  only 
men  at  that  time  could  write.  His  holidays  were 
spent  with  his  mother  and  aunt  at  Stoke  Poges,  with 
Walpole  at  London,  ^\'indsor,  and  Strawberry  Hill, 
or  in  travelling  in  did'erent  parts  of  the  country. 
From  Ills  lettere  we  see  that  he  had  a  quick  eye  for 
the  variety  and  colour  of  nature,  and  certainly  he 
was  almost  the  first  of  modern  Englishmen  to  see 
the  beauty  as  well  as  the  horror  in  the  Highland 
mountains — those  '  monstrous  children  of  God.' 

In  the  summer  of  1747  Dodsley  printed  Gray's 
famous  Itdc  on  u  DUtunt  Prnxiin-t  nf  Eton  Collefjr, 
and  early  next  year  reprinted  it  with  two  other 
pieces  in  his  il//«c('//«nj/.  The  death  of  (iray's  aunt. 
Mary  Antrobus,  in  the  November  of  1749aiipears 
to  have  brought  back  to  his  recollection  his  Elttpj. 
and  he  seems  about  June  1750  to  have  finished  it 
where  he  Ijegau  it  seven  years  before— at  Stoke 
Poges.  This  humane  and  stately  poem  is  perhaiis 
the  best-known  piece  of  English  vei-se,  a  master- 
piece in  the  balanceil  perfection  of  a  metre  that 
lieats  true  to  the  pulse  of  human  sympathy  in  the 
.•mlemn  alternation  of  pa.s.'iion  and  reserve,  anil 
especially  happy  in  a  subject  that  can  never  lose 
its  interest  for  mankind.  The  poem  was  sent  to 
Walpole,  w;is  handed  about  in  manuscript,  and 
soon  became  so  well  known  that  Gray  was  forceil 
to  print  it  in  the  February  of  1751.  Early  in 
March  175.S  ap[>eared  in  a  thin  folio  the  edittn 
pritici pxni  (iray's  collected  poems,  with  designs  by 
Bentley.  only  son  of  the  famous  .Master  of  Trinity. 
Gray's  mother  died  I  Itli  March  175:1,  and  w;is  burieil 
at  Stoke  Poges,  with  an  ex(|uisitely  simple  and 
atl'ecting  epitaph  from  her  son's  pen  upon  her 
tombstone. 

Walpole  said  that  tiray  was  'in  flower'  during 
the  years  1750-55,  and  during  this  period  he  com- 
menced his  most  ambiticnis  poems,  the  I'liidaric 
Oi/f.f,  the  s|dendidly  resonant  I'l-Df/rrx.i  of  Poesi/. 
perhaps  his  really  greatest  wcnk,  being  linLshed 
by  the  close  of  1754.  T/n-  JitiiW,  begun  at  the 
same  time,  wjus  not  completed  till  the  summer  of 
1757.  Gray  had  long  had  a  nervous  horror  of  lire, 
and  had  fixed  a  ropchulder  from  his  window  in 
Peterhouse  by  which  to  escape  in  emergency.  One 
night  in  February  I75G  he  was  roused  from  sleep 
by  a  pretended  alarm  of  tire,  and,  without  staving 
•232 


to  put  on  hLs  clothes,  descended  from  his  window 
into  a  tub  of  water  that  had  been  placed  under  his 
window  by  some  frolicsome  undergraduates.  Dis- 
pleased at  the  authorities  of  Peterhouse  for  not 
punLshing  this  brutal  ]iractical  joke,  the  poet 
migrated  in  175G  to  Pembroke  Hall,  where  he 
spent  the  remaining  fifteen  years  of  liLs  life  sur- 
rouniled  by  eongeidal  friends,  in  the  midst  of  hi* 
b(M>ks,  hLs  china,  his  pictures,  and  his  flowers.  HLs 
two  odes  were  printed  at  Strawberry  Hill  in 
1757,  and  were  admitted  to  have  put  their  author 
at  one  bound  at  the  head  of  living  EnglLsh  poets. 
The  laureateship  was  ofl'ered  him  in  1757  on  Colley 
Gibber's  death,  but  declined.  During  the  years. 
1760  and  1761    he  ilevoted  himself  to  early  English 

fioetry,  of  which  he  intended  to  write  a  histor>' ; 
ater  he  made  studies  in  Icelandic  and  Celtic  verse, 
which  bore  fniit  in  his  Eddaic  poems.  The  Fatal 
Sisters  and  The  Descent  of  Odin — "enuine  precursors 
of  romanticism.  In  1768  he  collected  hi<  poems 
in  the  first  general  editicm,  and  accejjted  the  pro- 
fes.sorship  of  Hi.-tory  and  Modern  Lan'tiages  at 
Cambridge,  an  office  whicli  entailed  no  duties  and 
yielded  an  income  of  £400  a  year.  Johnson  in  hLs 
perverse  life  of  Gray  niaile,  from  'a  slight  inspec- 
tion of  his  lettei-s,'  one  solitary  remark  that  showed 
insight,  that  Gray  '  was  a  man  likely  to  love  much 
where  he  loved  at  all.'  Certainly  no  silent  and 
melancholy  poet  was  ever  more  haiqiy  in  his  friend- 
ships, and  few  men  have  been  loved  with  such 
singleness  and  devotion.  His  biographer  Mason's 
att'ection  was  not  entirely  disinterested,  but  the  love 
of  friends  like  Jsicholls,  I'onstetten,  Robinson, 
Wharton,  Stonehewer,  and  Brown  proves  that 
there  must  hav  e  been  some  singular  charm  in  the 
object  on  whicli  it  was  lavished. 

Gray's  latest  journeys  were  made  to  GlamLs 
Ca-stle  and  to  the  Cumbrian  lakes,  the  beauties 
of  which  he  was  the  first  to  discover.  He  was  now 
comparatively  rich,  and  enjoyed  a  reput.ation  pecu 
liarly  dear  to  a  scholar's  heart,  and  his  life  glideil 
([uietly  on,  troubled  only  by  tits  of  dejection  and 
by  attacks  of  hereditary'  gout.  As  he  was  dining 
one  day  in  the  college  hall  at  Pembroke,  a  severe 
attack  seized  him,  and  after  a  week's  siifl'eriiig 
he  died,  .30th  July  1771.  He  was  buried  fittingly 
by  his  mother's  side  in  his  own  Country  Churchyard 
—  Stoke  Poges. 

Gray  said  of  his  own  poetr\-  that  '  the  style  he 
aimeil  at  was  extreme  conciseness  of  expression, 
yet  pure,  pei'spieuous,  and  musical.'  The  excel- 
lence he  aimed  at  he  attained,  and  in  his  lyrical 
work,  moreover,  he  reached  in  a  high  degree  the 
(Jieek  quality  of  structure,  especially  in  his  Pin- 
d'iric  Odes.  '  I  do  not  think,"  says  Edward  Fitz- 
gerald, '  that  his  scarcity  of  work  was  from  design  : 
he  had  but  a  little  to  say,  I  believe,  and  to<d<  his 
time  to  say  it.'  At  anyrate  all  his  work  boars  the 
stamp  of  dignity  an<l  distinction,  .and  it  wasperhajis 
as  much  the  fault  of  the  chilling  atmosphere  of  hi> 
age  as  of  his  own  hyper-refinement  of  taste  or  inter- 
mittency  in  the  fits  of  creative  fancy  that  its 
i|uantity  wa.;  .so  little.  Vet  this  slender  garland 
of  verse  li;is  lieen  suHicient  to  give  Gray  his  rank 
among  the  dii  ninjons  of  English  poetry. 

The  earlier  Lives  of  Gray  and  editions  of  Ids  works  by 
Mason  and  Mitford  have  been  superseded  by  the  study 
by  Edmund  V>'.  Gosse  (liSS2)  in  the  'English  Men  of 
Lett<'rs'  series,  and  by  the  same  editor's  coinplet«  edition 
of  liis  works  in  prose  and  verse,  including  as  many  as  34!) 
of  hLs  letters  ( 4  vols.  18S4).  See  also  the  essav  by  Matthew 
Arnold  in  vol.  iii.  (lS.SO)of  T.  H.  'Ward's  fwjiish  Pvftn. 

Gray's  Illll,  one  of  the  four  Inns  of  Court 
(q.v.)  in  l.(Uulon. 

Vraylillif  {Tlnjuiedhis),  a  genus  of  fresh-water 
fishes  in  tlie  sjdmon  family,  distinguished  from 
trout,  \c.  by  the  smaller  mouth  and  teeth,  and 
by  the  long  manv-rayed  dorsal  fin.     The  genus  is 


370 


GRAYSTONE 


GREAT    BRITAIN 


represented  liy  five  species,  inliiil)itin;,' clear  streams 
in  nortli  Europe,  Asia,  ami  North  America.  The 
British  (iraylinj!  (Th.  riilfiaiis)  has  a  wiile  hut 
local  ilistrihution  ;  it  prefei-s  rivers  with  rocky  or 


Grayling  ( Thymallm  vulgaris). 

<,Tavelly  hottom  ami  an  alternation  of  stream  and 
pool.  The  hack  and  siilcs  are  silvery  gray,  with 
li)nj,'itudinal  <Iusky  streaks;  the  ilor.sal  fin  is  crossed 
hy  rows  of  spots.  The  lish,  which  may  attain  a 
weight  of  4  to  .5  Hi.,  is  esteemed  for  the  tahle,  hut 
should  he  cooked  when  newly  caught,  when  it  lia-s 
an  odour  compared  to  that  of  wild  thyme.  It 
s]iawns  in  April  or  May,  and  is  in  hest  eomlitiim 
when  trout  are  out  of  season,  in  ()ctol>er  ami 
Noveniher.  Another  well-known  s])ecie.s  is  Tli. 
xiqnifer,  a  beautiful  lish  from  the  clear  attluents 
of  the  Mackenzie  Hivcr,  called  '  licwhikpowak,'  or 
'lish  with  the  winglikc  lin,'  hy  the  Kskimos,  and 
'  pois.son  hleu  '  hv  the  Canadian  voyageui's.  See 
Pritt,  The  Book  6/  the  Grayling  (188H);  Walham, 
Orayling,  and  how  to  catch  them  ( 1S9.')). 

CJraystone.  Graywacke,  &o.    See  Grey- 

.STONE,  (MiKVW.VCKK,  &C. 
Ciraz.     See  GliATZ. 

Cirazaloma.  a  town  of  Spain,  situated  in  a 
very  strong  natural  position  53  miles  E\E.  of  C'aili/. 
Its  8(XK)  inhabitants  are  princii>ally  engaged  in 
inanufaituring  cloth  and  in  smuggling. 

4>r<'asOa  a  term  of  general  application  to  all 
oily  or  fatty  matters,  but  generally  to  those  having 
some  degree  of  solidity,  as  tallow.  It  is  more 
s]iecially  apjjlied  to  fatty  malli'is  which  are  so 
deteriorated  by  dirt  or  other  impurities  as  to  be 
unlit  for  candle-making  ami  other  manufactures 
recjuiring  some  degree  of  purity  in  the  material. 
(Irease  is  largely  employed  as  a  lubricant  for 
heavy  macliinery,  and  especially  for  the  wheels  of 
carriages.  The  grease  employed  for  the  axles  of 
wagons  and  carts  consists  of  inferior  kinds  of 
grease  mixed  with  a  little  tar.  On  English  rail- 
ways grea.se  is  used  for  goods  ami  mineral  wagons; 
for  pa.ssenger  carriages  palm  oil  is  used.  See  LUB- 
hlCANTS.  —  For  a  diseiise  of  horses,  see  Weed. 

f«r4'al  Basin,  a  remai  kable  triangular  plateau 
of  North  .\mcrica,  occupying  the  western  jHution 
of  Utah  and  nearly  the  whole  of  Nevada,  as  well 
as  a  sectiim  of  Oregon  and  California,  and  extend- 
ing at  its  north-eastern  angle  into  Idaho.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  \V.  by  the  Sierra  Nevada,  ami  in\ 
the  E.  by  the  \Vah.satch  .Mountains.  The  base  of 
the  triangle,  in  the  N.,  is  some  5(K)  miles  from  east 
to  west ;  it  extends  from  N.  to  S.  for  nearly  800 
miles,  and  its  area  is  slightly  greater  than  that  of 
France.  It  is  girdled  round  on  every  si<le  by  high 
mountains,  and  traversed  throughout  by  numerous 
ranges,  freijuently  jiarallel,  yet  as  often  irregularly 
blending  or  crossing  :  the  valleys  are  usually  sinks, 
the  chief  drainage  centre  being  (Ireat  Salt  Lake 
(i|.v.),  and  the  Humboldtand  Carson  sinks,  at  about 
the  same  elevation.  It  has  been  pointed  out  by 
the  United  States  (ieological  Survey  that  the  (Jreat 
Basin's  areas  of  greatest  depression  are  to  be  found 
near  the  borders,  while  its  central  jiortion  reaches 


a  nnich  greater  elevation.  The  loftiest  range  is  the 
East  Humboldt,  near  the  middle,  which  culminates 
in  Mount  Bonplaml  ( 11,.'}'21  feet ).  Vcdcainc  masses 
form  or  conceal  the  original  rocks  of  many  of  these 
ranges.  The  tircat  liiusin  contains  many  streams 
anil  lakes,  the  latter  for  the  njosl  |iart  salt,  whose 
waters  never  reach  the  ocean,  but  are  either  taken 
up  by  evaporation  or  sink  in  the  desert  sands.  The 
mean  annual  rainfall  ranges  in  ditl'erent  localities 
from  4  to  1.")  inches.  The  j)lateau  is  nearly  desti- 
tute of  trees,  and  in  general  only  the  upper  |iarts 
of  the  valleys  are  clotheil  with  desert  shrulis, 
their  lower  portions  often  being  occupied  either 
by  bodies  of  water  or  by  a  mu<lily  bottom  covereil 
with  several  inches'  depth  of  alkaline  salts  left  by 
evaporation. 

See,  besides  reports  to  the  United  States  Gcol.  Survey, 
works  by  I.  C.  Kussell  on  Lake  Lahontan  (1S8:{  and  1885) 
and  Southern  Oregon  (1884);  and  Hague,  The  Volcanic 
Bocks  of  the  Great  liasin  (1884). 

Groat  B«'ar  Lake.    See  Be.vk  L.\ke,  Gkeat. 

Great  itritaill.  I'nder  this  head  are  noticed 
(I)  the  island  of  (!reat  Britain — its  geology  and 
geography  ;  and  (2)  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland— its  general  statistics,  \c. 

(Jre.il  Britain  was  so  called  to  distinguish  it 
from  Itritaniiia  Minor,  or  Brittany,  in  France  (see 
Bkitanni.v  ).  The  name  was  a  poetical  or  rhetorical 
expression  till  in  l()04  James  1.  styleil  himself  king 
of  Croat  Britain,  although  the  term  was  proposed 
in  l.V)il  bv  the  Scottish  Lords  of  the  Congregation. 
Lying  be'twei'ii  4!»  'u' :?()" and  .W  40'  24"  N.  hit. ,  and 
between  1  4(i'  E.  and  (j  \'X  \V.  long.,  (nc-at  Britain 
is  the  largest  islaml  of  F,uro]ie.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  .Mlantic,  on  the  E.  by  the  North 
Sea,  tm  the  S.  by  the  English  Channel,  and  on  the  \V. 
by  the  -Atlantic,  the  Irish  Sea,  and  St  Ceorge's  Chan- 
nel. The  nnist  northerly  point  is  Dunnet  Head,  in 
Caithness;  the  most  southerly.  Lizard  I'oinl,  in 
Cornwall  ;  the  most  easterly,  Lowestoft  Ness,  in 
Sutl'olk  ;  and  the  most  westerly,  .Ardnamnrchan 
I'oiiit,  in  Argyllshire.  Its  greatest  length  is  about 
G08  miles,  ami  its  greatest  breadth  (from  Land's 
End  to  the  east  coast  of  Kent )  about  325  miles ; 
while  its  surface  contains  88,226  so.  m. 

Hcology. — The  gecdogy  of  (ireal  Britain  is  of  pecu- 
liar im|iortance.  The  fossiliferons  strata  having 
been  lirst  systematically  studieil  and  c.xpoundeil 
here,  British  geologists  have  given  to  tin-  world 
the  names  whereby  most  of  the  larger  divisions 
and  subdivisions  of  these  strata  are  known.  Nearly 
all  the  recognised  'systems'  occur  in  Britain, 
although  some  of  the.se  are  more  fully  rejiresented 
elsewhere.  Indeed,  the  only  system  not  found 
in  Britain  is  the  Miocene — the  beds  formerly 
dasseil  as  of  this  age  being  now  included  in 
the  Oligocene.  British  geology  is  no  less  import- 
ant from  the  inllnence  it  ha--  liad  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country.  The  mineral  wealth,  especi- 
ally the  coal  ami  the  iron,  are  the  real  sinews 
and  muscles  of  Britain's  mighty  jiower.  No  other 
country  has  similar  advantages  in  such  an  area. 
(See  also  the  article  on  the  geology  of  El  HcirE.) 

We  shall,  in  this  sketch  of  the  distribution  of  the 
British  rocks,  follow  the  order  of  the  strata,  begin- 
ning with  the  lowest  and  <d(lest.  It  ma,v  I>e  said 
that,  in  general,  the  mountainous  regions  of  tin- 
ncuth  and  west  are  formed  of  the  (ddest  rocks,  and 
that,  as  we  move  south-eastwards,  we  gradually 
pass  over  newer  strata,  until,  in  the  east  of  Eng- 
land, we  come  to  the  ujijiermost  divi.sions  of  the 
Tertiary. 

The  lia.se  rocks  of  the  whole  series  occur  in  the 
Outer  Hebriiles,  in  Rona,  Tiree,  and  Coll,  and  along 
the  westeni  shores  of  .Sutherland  and  Ito.ss.  They 
are  assigneil  to  the  Archtean  System  ((|.v.),  and 
con.sist  cliietly  of  coarse  gneiss,  usually  homblendic, 


GREAT    BRITAIN 


371 


and  various  schists,  with  occasional  crystalline 
limestones — the  whole  series  being  veineil  more  or 
less  abunilantly  with  peyniatite.  Small  isolated 
areas  of  Arcluran  occur  also  in  England  (Charn- 
wood  Forest,  the  Wrekin,  the  Malverns).  No 
fossils  are  met  with  in  any  of  the  Archa'an 
rocks. 

The  oldest  fossiliferous  strata  in  Britain  belong 
to  the  Cambrian  System  (q.v.),  and  are  well  de- 
veloped in  Wales  and  Slnopsliire,  attaining  a  thick- 
ness of  more  than  30,000  feet.  They  consist  c.hieHy 
of  dark-red  and  purple  sandstones,  grits,  and  con- 
glomerates, with  green  slates  ,and  slaty  shales. 
The  fossils  are  not  abundant,  but  show  a  remark- 
able variety  of  f(jrms.  In  Scotland  the  Cambrian 
appears  to  be  represented  by  the  red  grits,  con- 
glomerates, and  sandstones  which  rest  directly  on 
the  Archa?an  rocks  of  the  outer  Hebrides  and  the 
north-west  Highlamls. 

The  SiltD-idii  Si/sfcjn  {(\.\.)  occupies  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  country.  The  typical 
rocks  occur  in  Wales,  extending  over  the  western 
portion  of  the  principality  from  Pembroke  to 
Denbigh,  and  including  the  northern  portions  of 
Pembroke,  Carmarthen,  and  Brecknock,  the  whole 
of  Radnor  and  Montgomery,  the  south-west  of 
Denbigh,  and  the  whole  of  the  counties  to  the  west. 
The  oldest  or  Lower  Silurian  beds  are  next  the 
coast.  The  series  consists  of  an  immense  thickness 
of  shales,  slates,  grits,  and  greywackes,  with  inter- 
calated limestones  more  or  less  pure.  Immense 
tracts  have  hitherto  proved  devoid  of  fossils  ;  in 
other  districts  the  calcareous  rocks  are  almost 
entirely  comi)0.sed  of  tlie  remains  of  marine  in- 
vertebrate animals,  while  the  shales  abound  in 
zoopliytes  and  Crustacea.  The  high  lands  in  the 
north  of  Lancashire  and  south  of  Westmorland 
are  Silurian ;  but  it  is  in  Scotland  that  these 
strata  are  most  extensively  developed.  A  line 
drawn  from  Dunbar  to  (Jirvan  forms  the  northern 
limit  of  these  beds  in  the  south  of  Scotland.  Ex- 
cept the  lower  half  of  the  valley  of  the  Tweed,  the 
whole  region  from  this  line  to  near  the  base  of  the 
Cheviots  is  Silurian.  The  rocks  are  chieHy  grey- 
wacke,  with  scattered  beds  of  impure  limestone. 
The  chief  fossils  are  graptolites,  Crustacea,  brachio- 
poda,  and  mollusca.  Tlie  lead-ndnes  of  Wanlock- 
liead  anil  Leadhills  are  in  this  district.  East  and 
.south-east  of  the  Arch;ean  and  Cambrian  rocks  of 
the  north-west  Highlands  comh'  Silurian  rocks 
which  are  more  or  less  metamorphosed.  Up  to 
recent  years  geologists  believed  with  Sir  K.  I. 
Murchi.son  that  all  the  schists,  <S:c. ,  lying  to  the 
east  of  the  Cambrian  an<l  Archa'an  areas,  and 
extending  down  to  the  borders  of  the  lowlands  in 
Strathmore,  &c.,  were  altered  Silurian  strata. 
Probably  this  is  the  fact,  but  the  work  of  the 
Geidogical  Survey  in  the  north-west  Highlands  has 
suggested  some  doubts.  .\  line  drawn  from  Stone- 
haven to  Helensburgh  marks  the  southward  range 
of  those  .schists  and  slates,  &c. 

The  Uld  Ittd  SuHilstuiie  lii/stem  (q. v.),  consisting 
of  conglomerates,  coarse  and  line  grained  sand- 
stones, and  dark-coloured  flagstones  and  shales, 
with  characteristic  fossils  of  ganoiil  and  i)lacoid 
lish,  overlies  tlie  Silurian  in  several  districts  in 
Scotlan<l.  Nearly  all  Caithness  and  the  seaward 
portions  of  Sutherland,  Ross,  Crom.arty,  Inverness, 
Nairn,  and  Elgin,  Vielong  to  these  strata.  A 
broad  band,  e\ten<ling  on  the  east  coast  between 
Stonehaven  and  St  Andrews,  stretches  across  the 
country  to  Helensburgh  and  Dumbarton  on  the 
west.  The  .same  strata  ajipear  ,-ig:iii.  in  Hadding- 
ton, Berwick,  and  Roxliurgli,  in  Lanark,  and  in 
Ayrshire.  Old  Red  Sandstone  likewise  occurs  in 
South  Wales  and  the  neighbouring  En;;lish  counties, 
extending  fnnn  the  Silurian  district  to  the  Severn 
and  the  Bristol  Channel,  and  containing  in  a  large 


basin  the  South  Wales  coalfield.  The  highly  fossil- 
iferous strata  of  north  Devon,  and  of  south  Devon 
and  Cornwall  ( Devonian  system )  are  Ijelieved  to 
be  on  the  same  geological  hoiizon  as  the  Uld  Red 
Sandstone.  They  consist  of  slates,  sandstones, 
and  limestones,  and  contain  numerous  corals  and 
shell-fish. 

The  Cui-hovifevonss  System  (q.v. )  may  be  .said  to 
occupy  a  broad  tract  extending  from  the  Bristol 
Channel  to  the  base  of  the  Cheviots.  The  strata 
are  not  ccmtinuous  between  these  limits,  but  are 
broken  up  in  some  places  by  the  appearance  on 
the  surface  of  older  strata,  while  in  others  they  are 
covered  by  newer  dejiosits.  The  various  detached 
co.illields  are  (1)  the  South  Wales,  in  Glamorgan 
and  Pembroke;  (2)  the  Bristtd,  and  (3)  the  Forest 
of  Dean,  in  Gloucester;  (4)  the  F'orest  of  Wyre,  in 
Worcester:  (5)  Shrewsbury,  ami  (6)  Coalbrook- 
dale,  in  Shropshire:  (7)  north  and  (8)  south 
Stattbrdshire ;  (9)  Warwickshire;  (10)  Leicester- 
shire: (11)  Flint  and  Denbigh;  (12)  Lancashire; 
( 13)  York  and  Derby  ;  (  U)  Cumberland  ;  and  ( 15) 
Northumlierland  and  Durham.  In  the  northern 
portion  of  this  great  tract  of  carboniferous  strata, 
where  the  millstone  grit  and  carboniferous  limestone 
are  largely  develojied,  few  seams  of  coal  of  any 
value  are  contained.  The  limestone  in  Derby  is 
rich  in  metallic  ores.  The  carboniferous  strata  of 
the  north  of  England  extend  beyond  the  Cheviots 
into  Scotland,  forming  a  narrow  band  from  the 
Solway  to  the  North  Sea,  in  the  counties  of  Dumfries, 
Roxburgh,  and  Berwick.  The  only  coalfield  in 
this  district  is  one  of  small  extent  at  Canonbie,  in 
Dumfriesshire.  The  carboniferous  strata  in  Scot- 
land, with  the  exception  just  stated,  are  confined 
to  the  immense  trough  between  the  Silurian  and 
0I<1  Red  Sandstone  systems  on  the  south  and  the 
Old  Red  Sandstcme  on  the  north,  which  is  com- 
pletely occupied  by  them,  except  where  underlying 
older  strata  rise  to  the  surface.  Consideralde 
tracts  of  sandstone  and  limestone  without  coal 
break  up  the  coal-bearing  beds  into  the  following 
coaKields  :  the  Midlothian,  the  F'ife,  the  Lanark 
and  Stirling,  the  Ayrshire,  the  Sanquhar  in  Dum- 
friesshire. Beside  coal,  the  whole  of  the  carbonifer- 
ous series  contains  immense  stores  of  argdllaceous 
carbonate  of  iron,  from  the  ore  of  which  is  produced 
the  great  bulk  of  the  iron  used  in  the  country. 
The  sandstones  of  this  period  form  beautiful  and 
durable  bnilding-stoncs,  the  limestones  are  of  great 
commercial  value,  and  many  of  the  less  indurated 
shales  are  good  fireclays. 

The  Pcniiiiiii  ,Si/sfcm  (q.v.),  consisting  of  magne- 
sian  limestone  and  .sandstone  coloured  with  oxide 
of  iron,  occu])ies  a  considerable  area  in  Durham, 
•and  bonlers  the  carboniferous  rocks  in  Dumfries, 
Cumberland,  Westmorland,  Lancashire,  Cheshire, 
Shnqishire,  Stallbrd,  Worcester,  Warwick,  Not- 
tingliam,  and  ^'ork,  and  in  (Jlamorgan.  The  sand- 
stone is  quarried  for  building. 

The  tyjiical  triple  series  of  the  Tn'asgir  S>/stcm 
(q.v. )  occurs  in  (iermany;  the  British  rejiresentatives 
consist  of  variously-cidoured  .sandstones  and  marls. 
They  occujiy  a  considerable  surface  in  Lancashire, 
Cheshire,  Shrcqishire,  and  Stallbrd,  and  extend  as  a 
rilibon  of  \  arying  breadth,  froiu  the  mouth  of  the 
Exo,  through  Devon,  Somerset,  (iloucester,  Wor- 
cester, War«  ick,  Leicester,  Nottingham,  York,  and 
Dnrh.am,  to  the  coast  at  Hartlepoid.  The  only 
dejiosits  of  rock  salt  in  Britain  occur  in  the  Triassic 
rocks  of  Cheshire  and  Worcestershire. 

The  ,/iini.fsir  Si/xtci/i  (q.v.)  is  composed  of  an 
extensive  series  of  limestones,  marls,  sandstones, 
and  shales,  which  stretch  in  a  broad  belt  from 
Yorkshire  to  Dorsetshire,  pa.ssing  throuL;h  Lincoln, 
Worcester,  Warwick.  Northamptiui,  Huntingdon, 
Bedford,  Buckingham,  Oxford,  (Iloucester,  and 
Wilts.     The   best    building  materials  in   England 


372 


GREAT    BRITAIN 


are  ol>taine<l  from  these  (strata.  .Iiirn.«sic  strata 
occur  in  Scotland  at  IJrora  ( Siillierland ),  in  Skje, 
iSrc.  In  the  IJrora  Oolite  a  seam  of  coal  3\  feet  in 
thickness  lias  been  workeil  oil'  ami  on  since  1S20. 
It  is  the  thickest  beil  of  iiure  vej;<"talile  matter 
detected  in  any  Mesozoic  formation  in  I'.i  ituin. 

The  Vntiiriuiis  Sijstttii  (q.v. ),  consi>tini,'  chielly 
of  chalk  with  underlying  sands  and  clays,  all  very 
rich  in  fossil  remains,  occn|>ies  a  broad  tract  to  the 
east  of  the  .lurassic  strata,  and  parallel  to  them. 
Beginning  a  little  north  of  Flamborongh  lli  ail,  the 
cretaceous  strata  may  be  traceil  lhrou;;li  York  and 
Lincoln,  then  across  tlie  Wash  into  Norfolk,  Sud'olk, 
Herlfiird,  Buckingham,  Oxford,  Berks,  to  llam|>' 
shire,  where  they  .separate  into  three  arms,  the  one 
extending  south-westward  through  Wilts  and  Dor- 
set to  the  .south  cojist  ;  another  taking  a  south-east 
direction  to  Be.ichy  Head  :  while  the  third  stretches 
as  a  narrow  liaml  in  an  ea.sterly  direction  through 
Surrey  and  North  Kent,  wiilening  out  .-is  it  neai-s 
the  coiist,  where  it  occupies  the  district  between 
Ramsgateand  Fcdkstone.  Thefresliwaler  Wralilm 
serlex,  with  its  abundant  remains  of  rejitiles,  (ishes, 
shells,  and  insects,  is  develoiieil  chietly  over  the 
tract  that  lies  between  the  North  ami  Soutli  Downs. 

The  Euirnc  Hi/stcin  (i|.v.),  consi^ting  of  clays, 
sands,  and  marls,  abounding  in  fossils  which  ap- 
parently indicate  a  subtroiiical  i-liniate,  occupies 
the  valley  of  the  'riiumcs,  from  llungerford  to  the 
sea,  and  from  Canterliury  ti>  Saxmundliani,  as  well 
as  a  Large  district  in  Dorset,  Hants,  and  Su.ssex, 
from  Salisbury  west  to  Dorchester,  and  east  almost 
to  Hastings. 

The  Oligoccue  System  (q.v.)  is  very  sparingly 
develojie<l  in  Britain — the  only  deposits  of  note 
occurring  in  Hampshire  and  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

'VUe  I'liocciic  Si/stdii  (i\.\.),  consisting  of  ferrugin- 
ous shelly  sand  and  marl  known  as  crag,  occurs 
chielly  in  Sullblk  and  Norfolk.  The  still  more 
recent  PlcUtuccnc  Si/slcm  (i).v. )  is  represented 
by  superlicial  accumulations  of  alluvium,  gravels, 
boulder-clay  or  till,  bediled  clays,  iSrc,  which  are 
scattered  over  wide  .areas.  To  the  same  system 
lielong  tlie  cave-deposits  with  relics  and  remains  of 
primeval  man. 

Mincriils. — In  some  respects  the  most  important 
of  British  minerals  is  coal.  The  gre.atly-increasing 
consum[>tion  of  coal  has  origanated  fears  as  to  the 
possibility  of  the  exhaustion  of  our  mineral  fuel  (see 
t'O.M, ). — Formerly,  the  only  /j";i  iiroduced  in  the 
country  w,as  obtained  from  the  greensamt  of  the 
south-east  of  England,  and  from  the  brown  hematite 
of  the  Dean  Forest.  The  ore  w.as  smelted  with 
charcoal.  Hut  the  introiluction  of  coke  and  coal 
for  smelting,  anil  tlie  dis<'overy  of  numerous  addi- 
tional and  unthouglit-of  deposits,  especially  in 
connection  with  coalliearing  strata,  immen.sely 
increased  the  pro<luction  of  iron,  and  met  the 
great ly-increa-seil  dem.inds  for  this  imnortunt  metal. 
In  17tiO,  when  charcoal  alone  was  useil  for  smelting, 
not  more  than  '2o,000  tons  of  iron  were  produced  ; 
now  .in  average  of  4,(KX),tK)0  or  5,0(JO,000  tons  are 
obtainetl  from  some  12,000,000  or  13,000,000  of 
ore.  The  most  important  ore  is  the  ferruginous 
shale,  or  impure  argillaceous  carbonate  of  iron, 
found  in  every  British  coalfield.  The  brown  and 
red  hematites,  associated  with  the  oldest  I'aheozoic 
rocks,  yield  much  metallic  iron.  —  Tin  is  ob- 
tained from  two  counties — Cornwall  and  Devon. 
— Copper  Ls  obtained  from  the  same  two  coun- 
ties, out  the  quantity  obtained  in  Britain  has 
greatly  declined  since  1860,  and  is  trilling  com- 
pared with  what  is  smelted  from  imported 
ores.  Other  cojijier  mines  are  or  were  in  Lanca- 
shire, Carmarthen,  and  .-Vnglesey  (see  CopPEli). — 
Lead  and  Sihxr  are  obtained  from  the  same  ore 
from  numerous  mines  in  Halicozoic  di>tricts.  The 
most  productive  KnglLsh  mines  are  in  Northumber- 


land. Durham,  Cumlieiland,  Shropshire,  Yorkshire, 
Derbyshire,  Cardiganshire,  (ilamorganshire,  anil 
the  (sle  of  Man.  Small  quantities  are  obtained 
in  Somerset,  Westmorland,  .Stall'ord,  and  Chester. 
All  the  Silurian  counties  of  Wales  contain  mines. 
The  Isle  of  Man  yields  much  ore.  In  Scot 
land  the  most  iiroductive  mines  arc  at  Wanlock 
head  and  J..eadnill.s. — Xim-  is  obtained  chielly  from 
Cardigan,  Denbighshire.  Carnarvon,  Flint,  Cum 
berland.  and  the  Isle  of  Man. — Siilplnir  (hrs  (iron 
pyrites)  are  raised  in  dill'erent  jiarts  of  Creal 
Britain. — The  following  minerals  are  also  raised 
—viz.  ai'senic,  manganese,  gold,  nickel,  silver- 
coiqier,  lliior-spar,  and  wolfram. — Sail  occui.~  chicHy 
in  Cheshire  and  Ulster. 

The  following  table  shows  the  minerals  rai.sed  in 
the  United  Kingdom  in  1888,  with  their  value  at 
the  mines  : 

Qa.nn.,.        ^"'J|,:U'" 

Alum  clay  ( Bauxite ) tons  9,6(iO  £4,8Ki 

Alum  sliale 1,984  248 

Autiiiioiiy  ore cwt.  7}  7 

Arsenic tonH  4,624  35,197 

Arsenical  py^ite.^ 5,325  4,240 

l)iir>te3 •J5.1B1  20,147 

Hog  iron  (ire *•  10,!»'.'7  6,4C;{ 

('laj»(excepting(inlinar)clay).   „  2.562,7nj  O5S.410 

Crtll   M  16<>,936,21«       42,971,276 

Ci.balt  anil  nickel  ore 152  746 

,C(.|iiKi  ..re ti  16,lS2.-o  60.1180 

f.,|,|»r  |,rccipitatc 418  0,.'i3!> 

llui.r-siar „  140  153 

fiolil  ore I,  3,844  27.300 

tivpsiim „  ISO.OS-J  58,098 

In.nore .■  14,590,718  3,601,317 

Iron  pyrites u  23,507  11,302 

Jet lb.  2,217  332 

Lead  ore tons  r.l.2.'iii  i:!s,:ttCi 

Lignite »7I  4:J7 

Mangnnp.'ie  ore 4.;t42  l.Ii34 

Oc-lin-,  umber,  &e 7.573  13,387 

Oil  shale 2,070,4()«  1  nn  io« 

Petroleum 36  1  ■'1».126 

Pliosjiliateof  lime ■  22,.''>00  43,312 

Salt „  2,305,509  700,829 

Slates  and  slabs ..  471,788  1,067,535 

Stone,  &c .,  8.694,097 

Sulphate  of  strontia 7.004  3,532 

Tin  ore 14,370  894,665 

Tunn.statc  of  soda 21  64 

Wolfram M  00  1,025 

Zinc  ore i  20,408  96,984 

Total  values €69,834,907 

The  total  value  of  the  coal  and  other  minerals 
raised  in  the  United  Kingdom  was  £40,.'i4r>,94.'") 
in  1866,  £74,094,638  in  1880,  and  i'69,l'2'J,(J04  in 
1895.  The  total  value  of  the  metals  obtainable  by 
sineUing  from  ores  produced  in  the  United  King 
dom  (ahiminiiiin.  antimony,  copper,  gold,  iron, 
lead,  magnesium,  silver,  .-odium,  tin.  zinc)  in  1887 
was  £12,795,993;  in  1898,  £i:{,717,5ri. 

Physiial  Gcoiiriiphij. — The  physical  features  of  a 
country  are  intimately  connected  with  its  geological 
structure.  Thus  the  Highlands  and  Southern  Up 
lands  of  Scotlaml  are  built  U])  chielly  of  crystalline 
schLsts  and  the  older  I'aheozoic  strata,  while  the 
intervening  lowlands  of  the  so-called  Central  Plain 
are  composed  mainly  of  the  younger  I'aheozoic 
rocks  and  overlying  accumulations  of  superlicial 
deposits.  The  mimntainons  tracts  of  Scotland  con 
sist  therefoie  of  more  enduring  or  less  readily  eroded 
materials  than  the  lowl.inds.  Any  wide  tract  of 
the  Highlands  (built  up  largely  of  crystalline  schisLs 
and  granitic  rocks),  when  viewed  from  a  command 
ing  position,  looks  like  a  tumbled  ocean  in  which 
the  Haves  appear  to  be  moving  in  all  directions. 
The  mountains  are  massive,  generally  round 
shouldered  and  often  even  flat-topped,  while  there 
is  no  great  dis|iarity  of  height  among  the  dominant 
lioints  of  any  individual  gioup.  This  is  the  result 
of  denudation,  guided  and  controlled  by  the  pelro 
logical  character  and  geological  structure  of  the 
rocks.  The  mountains  are  monuments  of  erosion  : 
they  are  the  wreck  of  an  old  tableland,  the  upper 


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F 


GREAT    BRITAIN 


373 


-urface  and  original  inclination  of  whioli  are  approxi- 
mately indicated  by  the  summits  of  the  various 
mountain -masses  and  the  direction  of  the  principal 
rivers.  The  Hi<rhlands  are  intersected  from  south- 
west to  north-east  hy  the  <  Ireat  Glen,  Avhich  prohaldy 
occupies  the  line  of  a  dislocation.  It  is  customary 
in  geographical  te.\t-books  to  speak  of  the  '  range 
of  the  Grampians,"  hut  the  Higfdand  mountains  do 
not  trend  in  linear  directions,  hut  rather  form  con- 
fused groups.  It  is  probably  owing  to  the  fact  that 
many  of  th^  rivers  and  streams  nin  in  certain  more 
or  loss  definite  directions  that  tlie  mountains  have 
been  ■lescribed  as  linear  ranges.  The  gieatest  height 
reached  is  44f)6  feet  in  Ben  Nevis,  which  is  the 
culminating  i)oint  of  the  Highlands  (q.v.),  less 
eminences  being  Ben  Macdhui  (4296  feet)  and  Ben 
Lawers  (39S4;  with  cairn,  4(X)4).  The  southern 
limit  of  the  Highlands  is  defined  by  a  line  drawn 
from  tlie  Firth  of  Clyde  at  Helensburgli  north-east 
to  the  sea-coast  at  Stonehaven.  North  of  tliis  line 
there  are  of  course  considerable  tracts  of  less 
elevated  ground,  especially  along  the  coast  in  Aber- 
deenshire and  the  borders  of  the  Sloiay  Firtli.  ( 'aitli- 
ness  is  another  comparatively  low-lying  and  gently 
undulating  plain.  Tlie  coa.st-line  of  the  Highlands, 
particularly  in  the  west,  is  repeatedly  broken  by 
numerous  and  large  fiords  or  sea-lochs,  in  which  the 
sea  is  usually  abnormally  deep.  And  opposite  the 
same  coasts  appear  tlie  numerous  islands  of  the  Inner 
and  Outer  Hebrides.  These  fiords  are  simply  sub- 
merged land-valleys,  while  the  islands  referred 
to  are  the  higher  i>arts  of  the  depressed  continental 
plateau.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  at  a  very 
late  geological  date  the  Scottish  coasts  extended  out- 
wards to  what  is  now  the  contour  line  of  100  fathoms. 
One  of  the  most  marked  features  of  the  Highlands 
is  the  multitude  of  fresli-water  lakes.  These  vary 
in  size  from  nieie  tarns  to  large  mountain-valley 
lakes  like  Lochs  Lomond,  Ness,  Awe,  Shin,  Maree, 
Tay,  i<;c. ,  and  most  of  them  occupy  rock-basins, 
which  are  comparalile  in  character  to  the  deep 
hollows  that  occur  in  the  sea-lochs. 

The  Central  I'lain  of  Scotland  may  l>e  descrilied 
a.s  a  broad  ilepression  of  relatively  easily  eroded 
materials  lying  between  two  tablelands  of  less 
readily  denuded  rocks.  The  princi|ial  features  of 
this  low-lying  tract  have  a  north-east  and  south- 
west treml  determined  by  geological  structure,  as  is 
seen  in  the  Sidlaw  Hills^  the  Ocliil  Hills,  the  Len- 
nox Hills,  \-c. ,  in  tlie  north,  and  in  the  I'entland 
Hills  in  tlie  south.  The  surface  of  the  lowland 
tracts  is  likewise  diversified  by  many  more  or  less 
abrupt  and  isolateil  hills,  such  as  Arthur's  Seat. 
Palmahoy  Crags,  the  '  Castle-rocks '  of  Edinburgh 
and  Stilling,  \c.  Most  of  these  heights  consist  of 
igneous  rocks  of  a  mor(>  ilurable  character  than  the 
strata  of  samlstoue,  sliale,  &c.,  which  surround 
them. 

The  Southern  I'plands  of  Scotland  form  a  broad 
lielt  of  high  giimnd  extending  from  the  .sea-coast 
of  Haddingtonshire  and  Berwickshire  south-west  to 
the  shores  of  Ayrshin>  and  ( lalloway.  Like  the 
Highlands  tlif  area  of  tin:  soutlii'ni  uplands  is  simply 
an  old  tableland,  furrowed  into  narrow  ravine  and 
wide  dale  by  the  operation  of  the  various  agents  of 
erosion.  The  general  configuration  of  this  upland 
tract  is  simiewli.at  tame  and  iiionotomras.  The 
mountains  are  liat-toi)ped  elevations  with  broad 
rounded  shouldcis  and  >mootli  .i;ras,-.y  slopes.  They 
do  not  run  in  linear  directions  but  form  irregular 
groups  and  ma.-scs.  The  rocks  that  enter  into  their 
composition  are  chiefly  Siluiiau,  greywackes,  and 
shales,  and  conscfjueiitly  there  is  less  variety  of 
contour  and  colour  than  in  the  Highlands.  The 
liills  are  not  <mly  Hatter  atop  but  are  .generally 
much  smoother  in  outline,  there  being  a  general 
absence  of  those  beetlin;;  crags  and  precipices  which 


are  so  common  in  the  Highlands.     N'ow  and  again 


pre 
S'c 


however,  the  mountains  a.ssume  a  rougher  aspect, 
more  especially  in  Carrick  and  (ialloway,  where 
the  highest  point  ( Merrick,  2764  feet )  of  the  southern 
u]ilands  is  reached.  Tlie  Silurian  strata  are  over- 
laid towards  the  south  by  younger  Paheozoic  rocks, 
consisting  principally  of  sandstone  and  igneous 
rocks  which  gave  rise  to  (liflerent  orograjdiic  feat- 
ures. Thus  we  have  the  broad  vale  of  Tweeil  and 
the  lower  reaches  of  Teviotdale  occu])ied  chietly  by 
sandstones  and  shales.  The  Cheviot  Hills,  again, 
are  liiiilt  up  in  the  northeast  chiefly  of  bedded 
igneous  rocks  which  towards  the  south-west  give 
place  to  sandstones  that  form  broad  elevated  moors 
and  serve  to  connect  the  Cheviot  Hills  with  the 
loftier  Silurian  uplands  lying  to  the  north  west.  In 
this  region  of  sandstones,  iVc,  not  a  few  of  the  hills 
are  conical  im  shape — a  form  due  to  the  presence 
of  cappings  ot'elatively  harder  igneous  rocks. 

Cros.sing  the  borders  of  Scotland  and  England 
we  find  the  high  ground  just  refeneil  to  is  con- 
tinued southwards  through  Northumberland,  Cum- 
berland, Durham,  Yorkshire,  Lancashire,  and 
Derbyshire  to  form  what  is  calleil  the  Pennine 
Chain.  This  'chain'  varies  in  height  fioin  1200 
to  .3000  feet,  reaching  its  highest  summit  in  Scafell 
I'ike,  Cumberland,  which  is  3210  feet  high.  When 
the  hills  are  composed  chiefly  of  sandstones  and 
shales,  they  show  generally  a  somewhat  rounded 
and  monotonous  outline,  but  in  the  regions  where 
thick  limestones  abound  these  usually  give  ri.se  to 
mme  or  less  boM  and  abru)jt  escarpments.  The 
Lake  district  of  Cumberland  ami  Westmorland, 
being  Imilt  up  mainly  of  Silurian  rocks,  reproduces 
the  characteristic  features  of  the  southern  uplands 
of  Scotland.  And  the  same  is  to  a  large  extent 
true  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  Wales  ( whose 
highest  point,  Snowdon,  is  3571  feet),  while  not 
a  few  of  the  features  of  the  Scottish  Highlands 
reappear  on  a  small  scale  in  Devonshire  anil  Corn- 
wall. All  these  hillier  tracts  are  composed  essenti- 
ally of  Paheozoic  ami  associated  igneous  rocks. 
The  major  portion  of  England,  however,  consists 
princijially  of  younger  strata,  and  may  lie  con- 
sidered on  the  whole  as  a  somewhat  umUilating 
plain  travei'sed  by  ridges  of  vaiying  elevation, 
which  trend  in  a  general  direction  from  north-east 
to  south-west.  Thebandof  .luiassic  strata,  extend- 
ing from  the  Yorkshire  Moors  south  and  south- 
west to  the  coast  of  Dorset,  forms  a  tortuous  belt 
of  tableland  and  escarpment,  rising  sometimes  to 
a  height  of  1.500  feet,  and  throughout  its  course  pre- 
senting usually  a  bidd  face  to  the  west  and  a  gentle 
slojie  to  the  eiLst.  This  configuration  is  the  result 
of  geological  structure— the  escarpments  corre- 
s]ioniling  to  the  outcrop  of  the  relatively  harder 
iiiembers  of  the  Jurassic  system,  which  are  under- 
laid and  overlaid  of  more  readily  eroded  strata, 
while  the  general  inclin.ation  of  the  strata  is  to  the 
east  and  south-east.  Similar  escariiments  accom- 
pany the  outcrop  of  the  chalk,  but  tliey  are  neither 
so  lofty  nor  so  bold.  They  form  the  Wolds  of 
Yorkshire  and  Lincoln,  .ind  rise  into  a  low  range 
of  hills  that  extend  from  Norfolk  to  Wilts,  the 
more  prominent  portions  of  which  are  known  as 
the  Chilteni  Hills,  the  MarllKuough  Downs,  and 
Salisbury  Plain.  On  the  north  and  south  side  of 
the  Wealdeii  anticlinal  axis,  similar  chalk  hills 
aiipear,  forming  the  North  Downs  in  Surrey  ixnd 
Kent,  and  the  South  Downs  in  Hants  and  Sussex. 
Lying  between  the  Pennine  Cliahi  in  the  west,  and 
the  Yorkshire  Mooi-s  and  Widils  and  Lincoln 
Heights  and  Widds  in  the  east,  lies  the  broad  de- 
pression traversed  by  the  Ouse  ami  Trent  which  is 
occupied  chiefly  by  Tria.ssic  strata.  In  like  manner, 
a  low  plain  separates  the  motnitain-tracts  of  W.ales 
from  tlie  Pennine  Chain,  which  is  similarly  occupied 
by  Triassic  and  younger  Paheozoic  strata.  The 
maritime  jiarts  of  Lincoln,  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Essex, 


374 


GHEAT    BRITAIN 


anil   Middlesex  are  for  the  most  part  low-lvint;, 

Iwin;;  c'inin>ose(l  of  ('lutacoous  iiml  ovcrlyiiij,'  Ter- 
tiarv  anil  l^uiitcniarv  ilt-posits.  Tims,  in  Kn^ilaml 
as  in  Scntlaiul,  the  loftier  and  iMilder  tract.'*  of 
the  conntrj'  are  met  with  in  the  re^-ions  occupied 
by  the  inilnrated  rocks  of  the  older  Paheo/.oio 
series.  It  is  in  those  regions  «  here  the  most  pie- 
turescine  and  divei-sitied  scenery  oeeurs.  A  con- 
siilerahle  nuniher  of  estuaries  penetrate  the  coast- 
lines of  Knj;land  and  Scotland,  south  of  the  High- 
land area,  hut  none  of  these  recalls  the  characteristic 
features  of  the  deep  sea-lochs  of  the  Highland  sea- 
board. The  niountain-valleys  of  soutliern  Scot- 
land, of  Kngland  and  Wales,  are  not  suhnierged  — 
the  lirths  and  estuaries  of  such  regions  lieing  simply 
the  sul)merge<l  lower  reaches  of  lowlanil  valleys. 
The  whole  surface  of  Britain,  with  the  exception  of 
the  extreme  south  of  Kngland,  ha-  hecn  more  or  less 
moditiecf  liy  glacial  action,  to  whiih  is  largely  due 
the  ronmled  contour  and  llowing  outline  of  all  hut 
the  highest  elevations.  The  .surface-features  of 
the  low-lying  tracts  have  also  lieen  greatly  modi- 
fied liy  the  enormous  morainic  and  Ihivio-glacial 
accumulations  which  were  si)read  over  the  country 
in  Pleistocene  times.  Notwithstanding  all  sudi 
modilications,  however,  the  prevailing  inlluence  of 
petrological  character  and  g'eological  structure  in 
determining  the  orographic  features  of  the  countrj' 
i.s  everywhere  conspicuous. 

The  physical  geography  of  Ireland  is  discussed 
elsewhere  (see  IliKl,.\Nli)  :  here  all  that  need  he 
said  is  that  in  its  geological  relations  it  is  intimately 
related  to  (Jreat  ISritain  its  orogiiiphic  features 
lieing  likewise  determined  hy  the  character  of  its 
various  rock-ma.sses.  Ireland,  like  its  sister  island, 
fonns  a  portion  of  the  depressed  continental  ^)lateau 
— its  highly  indented  coastline,  more  especially  in 
the  west  and  south-west,  heing  the  result  of  a  com- 
paratively recent  sulimergence.  There  can  he  no 
doulit  that  in  postglacial  times  Ireland  w;us  joined 
to  Britain  which  at  that  period  formed  a  part  of  the 
continent  of  Europe.     See  Kl'Hiil'E  ((leiildijn). 

Mili'iirii/oi/!/.  — The  climate  of  (J  reat  Britain  derives 
its  peculiar  character  from  the  insular  situation  of 
the  country,  taken  in  connection  with  the  jirevail- 
ing  direction  of  the  winds.  It  is  mild  and  eipialile 
in  a  reiuarkahle  degree,  the  winters  heing  consider- 
ahly  warmer,  and  the  summers  colder  than  at  other 
places  within  the  same  parallels  of  l.-ititiule.  l'"or  at 
least  three  months,  the  mean  monthly  temperature 
ranges  hetween  .iOO°  and  6f)0° ;  for  other  three 
months  it  continues  about  600°,  or  occa.sionally  a 
little  higher,  sidilom  moi-e  than  four  degrees  ;  and 
for  the  remaining  six  months  it  onlinarily  ranges 
between  'MiO'  and  48() .  Since  the  Keports  of  the 
Registrar-general  clearly  prove  that  the  temperature 
most  conducive  to  health  is  between  .">00  and  000', 
it  follows  that,  as  far  a.s  concerns  temperature,  the 
climate  of  Great  Britain  is  one  of  the  liealthiest  in 
the  worlil. 

As  appeal's  from  data  furnished  by  the  Keports  of 
the  English  and  Scottish  .Meteoridogical  Societies, 
the  mean  temperature  of  Eiigl:uid  is  49'."i°,  and 
of  Scotland  47  o.  The  mean  temperatures  of  the 
fidlowing  places,  arrange<l  according  to  the  lati- 
tude, have  been  deduced  from  the  same  sources  : 
(iuerii'-ey,  .5r.V  ;  ralmouth,  .■)r4  :  \'entnor.  ."il 'T  ; 
Barnstaple,  jl  4' ;  Bournemouth,  oO'S' ;  (Jiecnwich, 
oO'.'i':  Bcdfor.1,  40-9= ;  Derby,  4,S'S:  I.iverpocd,  49  :r : 
Manche>ter,  48-0  :  Isle  of  Man.  48-«-  ;  .Scarborough. 
47-8  ;  .Milne-< ;raden(  Berwick),  47-5' ;  Leitli.47'i  : 
Rothesay,  47  8' :  Greenock,  47  6' ;  Arbroath,  470' ; 
Cullmlen,  46  6  :  Tongue,  4(>'.3° :  Sandwick  ( ( trkney ), 
45-8':  and  Bress.'iy  (  Shetland),  45  0°.  There  is  thus 
a  difference  of  fully  six  degrees  between  Kalmouth, 
in  Cornwall,  and  Shetland.  This  dill'erence  is 
chieHy  attributable  to  the  iliflerence  of  their  lati- 
tudes.    It  becomes  greater  iis  the  force  of  the  sun's 


rays  increafie.s ;  «)  that,  while  the  winter  tempera- 
tures are  respectively  44 '2"  and  .19 '0,  the  summer 
temperatures  are  6()'6  and  .Vi'4  .  The  highest  sum- 
mer temperature  is  64 '2  in  Lonilon,  and  the  lowest 
r>2'2  at  North  Itist,  the  diU'erenci' being  120°.  A 
pretty  regular  decrease  of  tem|ieratnre.  with  an 
increase  of  latitude,  will  lie  cdjserved,  particularly 
if  the  places  (m  the  west  side  of  the  island  be  re- 
garded as  a  series  by  themselves.  The  temperatures 
of  places  on  the  wc-t  are  in  exce.ss  of  those  of  places 
in  the  same  latitudes,  hut  at  some  distance  from 
the  Atlantic.  In  winter,  the  dillerences  between 
the  west  and  the  other  parts  of  the  country  are  still 
greater.  Thus,  whilst  the  .lanuary  temperature  of 
Kalmouth  is  44  2  ;  (lucrnsey,  43  (V  :  Ventnor  and 
Barnstaple,  42  0°  ;  Isle  of  Man,  408' ;  Liverpool, 
40 '6°  ;  and  Greenock,  and  the  whcde  of  the  west 
coast  of  Scotland  as  far  a.s  Shetland  about  ;!9'5' — 
that  of  Greenwich  is  :isi  -.  Nottingham,  .37  2'; 
"Sork,  .•{6-7  ;  Scarborough,  :i8'3  ;  Leitli,  381°;  Aber- 
deen, ,37  ^^  and  Culloden,  37  0°. 

The  south-west  winds  are  the  most  prevalent 
Ihi'onghont  the  year,  except  in  A]>ril  and  May, 
when  they  gnve  place  in  a  considerable  degree  to 
the  northeast  wimls.  The  notoriously  ilry  and 
parching  character  of  the  latter  renders  them  very 
deleterious  to  health.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
south-west  winds,  coming  from  the  Atlantic,  are 
moist  and  genial,  and  it  is  on  their  greater  frequency 
— being,  as  coiiiiiared  with  the  north-e.ost,  in  the 
proportion  of  two  to  one— that  the  salubrity  of  the 
Ihitish  climate  in  a  great  measure  depends. 

In  those  ilistricts  of  England  where  hills  do  not 
intervene,  the  annual  rainfall  is  about  2^)  inches, 
and  in  similar  parts  of  Scotland  about  28  inches; 
but  the.se  amounts,  which  may  be  considered  lu- 
the  rainfalls  of  the  driest  districts  of  the  two 
countries,  are  vari(msly  increased  by  proximity  to 
hills  or  rising  grounds,  according  as  the  jilace  is 
situatcil  in  the  east  or  west  of  the  island.  \  iewed  in 
relation  to  the  direction  of  the  wind  which  brings 
the  rain,  ami  by  its  lying  on  the  wind  or  on  the  lee 
side  of  these  hills.  Since  it  is  the  .south-west  winds 
which  bring  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the  rain- 
fall, the  heaviest  falls  take  place  among  the  hills  in 
the  west  of  the  country  ;  and  it  may  be  here  ob-ervi-d 
that,  in  the  west,  where  there  are  no  hills  lying  to 
the  north  west,  west,  or  south-west,  the  annual  rain- 
fall is  only  about  40  inches.  Except  in  a  few  scat- 
tered and  restricted  districts,  the  amount  nowhere 
rises  aliove  40  inches;  but  over  broad  clistricts  in  the 
West  Highlands  and  Skye.  and  in  limited  areas  in 
the  Lake  cli-trict,  and  in  North  and  South  Wales, 
the  annual  rainfall  exceeds  80  inches.  At  the  head 
of  Glencroe,  Argyllshire,  it  rises  to  128.J  inches,  and 
at  the  Stye,  Cumberland,  to  186  inches.  At  the 
Ben  Nevis  Observatory  the  amount  is  127  inches. 
Overall  districts  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  large, 
or  considerably  in  excess  of  the  average,  the  greater 
proportion  falls  during  the  winter  months;  but  on 
the  other  h.'inil.  where  the  rainfall  is  small,  as  i> 
characteristic  of  all  the  great  agricultural  districts 
of  these  islands,  the  greater  proportion  falls  during 
the  summer  months,  and  there  the  f;dls  which 
accompany  thunderstorms  and  east  winds  occasion- 
ally rival  the  torrential  falls  of  eipiatorial  regions. 

Finiiiii.  The  animals  found  in  Britain  are  for 
the  most  part  the  same  as  those  inhabiting  similar 
latitudes  over  the  wlude  of  the  North  Temperate 
or  I'ahearctic  region  of  the  Old  World.  In  fact 
Wallace  says  that  the  majority  of  genera  in 
countries  so  far  removed  as  Great  Britain  and 
northern  Japan  are  identical.  As  the  British 
Islancls  were  formerly  connecte<l  with  the  Con- 
tinent, the  gener.'il  similarity  is  intelligible  enough, 
while  the  geological  changes  of  insulation  and  the 
restriction  of  are.a  are  enough  to  account  for  the 
one  great  difl'erence  that  the  British,  and  especially 


GREAT    BRITAIN 


375 


the  Irish  species,  are  much  fewer  than  those  on  tlie 
mainland.  Insulation,  however,  also  abets  the  modi- 
fication of  species,  and  thus  we  find  a  few  forms 
peculiar  to  Britain,  such  as  the  red  grouse  ( Lagopus 
scotirus),  a  shrew  (Sotrj:  mutirns),  as  well  as  some 
land-shells  ami  insects.  But  if  we  exclude  these 
few  exceptions,  and  take  account  furthermore  of 
the  extinct  forms,  the  general  conclusion  is  simply 
that  the  British  fauna  resembles  that  of  the  corre- 
spondinj;  parts  of  the  great  Pakearctic  region. 
See  worlvs  by  Wallace,  Murray,  Sclater,  Heilprin, 
&c.,  cited  at  "Geographical  Dlstributiox. 

Flora. — The  British  tiora  corresponds  in  a  general 
way  to  that  of  the  Continent,  but  appears  to  con- 
sist of  several  more  or  less  distinct  sets.  The 
general  resemblance  may  be  shown  by  the  fact 
that  out  of  117  plants  recorded  by  De  t'aiidoUe  as 
characteristic  of  more  than  a  third  of  the  earth's 
surface,  100  occur  in  Britain.  As  to  the  various 
sets,  Watson  in  his  Cijhde  BrUannira  (1847)  dis- 
tinguishes British,  English,  Scottish,  Highland, 
Germanic,  and  Atlantic  types;  while  Forbes  (Mem. 
deol.  Siji-.,  i.  .■j.'ie)  also  considered  the  vegetation  of 
Britain  a.s  composeil  of  outposts  of  several  floras — 
from  France,  tlie  Pyrenean  region,  Scandinavia, 
and  other  parts.  Watson  also  dLstinguishes  Agra- 
rian and  Arctic  zones  of  distribution  in  Britain,  each 
with  three  sulxlivLsions  marked  by  characteristic 
vegetation.  The  number  of  Phanerogams  has  been 
computed  at  1600  species,  and  there  are  probably 
at  least  twice  as  many  C'rjptogams.  Among  the 
very  rare  flowering   plants,   Oxytropis  cumpestris. 


Lychnis  alpinu.  Astragalus  alpinvs.  Saxifrage 
cernua,  Eriocaiilon  septangulare  may  be  noted. 
See  Watson  and  Forbes  as  above;  Loudon's  Catu- 
logiie  of  British  Plants  (6th  ed.  1867);  Balfour's 
Ala/uH'l  of  Botany  ( IS71 ) ;  TumbuU's  Index  of 
British  Plants  (after  the  'Loudon  Catalogue,' 
1889) ;  and  Hooker's  Student's  Flora. 

COMPAR.VTIVE  STATISTICS. 

Agriculture.— This  industry  no  longer  holds 
the  same  relative  importance  a.s  in  preWous  times 
of  our  historj-.  It  made  a  great  start  after  the  fall  of 
the  Stuarts,  and  its  golden  epoch  was  the  reign  of 
George  II.  (1727-60).  In  1750  the  agricultural 
wealth  (as  shown  below)  was  581  millions  sterling, 
or  53  per  cent,  of  the  total  wealth  of  Great  Britain, 
as  estimated  in  1770  by  Young.  In  1887  it  was 
under  24  percent,  of  the  total.  If  Young's  estimates 
be  correct,  the  numl^er  of  sheep  in  1774  was  much 
greater  than  at  present,  and  as  tor  tillage,  the  acres 
under  crops  in  1812  (according  to  Comber)  were 
only  2,000,00<J  less  than  at  present.  The  following 
table  shows  merely  the  state  of  tillage  in  the 
three  kingdoms  during  sixty-one  years  : 

Year.            Eogland.  Scottanil.  Ireland.     TTnited  Kingdom. 

1827 11,140,000  2,550,000  5.450,000       19,140,000  ac. 

1846...  13,300,000  3,390,000  5,240,000       21,930,000  .. 

1866 13,340,000  3,170,000  5,250,000       21,760,000   .. 

1876 13,920,000  3,510,000  5,210,000       22,640,000  .. 

1888....  13,350,000  3,690,000  4,140,000       21,180,000  .■ 

The  distribution  of  crops  in  1888,  according  to 
the  official  reports,  was  as  follows  : 


Wheat 

England. 

Scotland. 

Ireland, 

United  Kingdom. 

acres. 
2,610,000 
1,885,000 
2,485,000 

acres, 
70,000 
1,015,000 
255,000 

acres. 
90,000 
1,280,000 
200,000 

actes. 
2,670,000 
4,180,000 
2,940,000 

Oats 

Barley,  ic 

All  Grain 

6,880,000 

445,000 

2,385,000 

3,640,000 

1,340,000 
160,000 
500,000 

1,690,000 

1,570,000 
805,000 
435,000 

1,330,000 

9,790,000 
1,410,000 
3,320,000 
6,660,000 

Turnips.  Vetches,  &c 

All  Crops 

13,350,000 
14,590,000 

3,690,000 
1,190,000 

4,140,000 
10,920,000 

21.180,000 
26,700,000 

Pasture 

Total 

27,940,000 

4,880,000 

15,060,000 

47,880,000 

The  cultivated  area,  as  compared  with  total  ex- 
tent, is  75  per  cent,  in  England,  75  per  cent,  in 
Ireland,  and  only  25  per  cent,  in  Scotland  ;  Imt  tlie 
value  of  products  is  relatively  highest  in  Scotland, 
as  shown  below.  In  1887  England  and  Wales  pro- 
duced UOs.  per  cultivated  acre,  Ireland,  72s.,  Scot- 
land, 16.'?s.  Thus,  Scotland  has  only  10  per  cent,  of 
the  cultivated  area  of  the  United  kingdom,  while 
the  ;sross  product  of  tillage  and  pasture  reached 
40  millions  sterling,  or  16  per  cent,  of  the  total  for 
the  three  kingdoms.  Kespecting  tillage  at  past 
dates  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  works  of  Comber 
(1812),  Midilleton  (1820),  M'Culloch  (18.31),  and 
Caird,  Porter,  &c,,  for  detailed  statistics.  The 
production  of  grain  has  been  approximately  as 
follows,  in  millions  of  bushels  : 

Year  Wheat  Barley,  _  ^.  Bunbels  iirr 

1830 104  304  408  17 

1846 143  253  401  15 

1866 98  290  388  14 

1876 84  270  354  11 

1SS7 76  235  311  8 

From  the  foregoing  table  it  will  be  seen  that  we 
produce  now  only  8  bushels  of  grain  per  inhabitant, 
against  17  in  the  year  1830.  At  present  the  aver- 
age is  19  bushels  per  inhabitant  in  France,  15  in 
Germany,  42  in  Denmark,  42  in  United  States,  .14 
in  Canada,  and  IS  in  Australia. 

The    following   statistics  of   live-stock    are    for 


England  and  W.ales  down  to  1831,  and  the  United 
Kingdom  afterwards  : 


Ye;tr.                  Horses. 

Cattle. 

Slieei., 

r^n 

1088 

12,000,000 

1774 

25.600,000 

1800 

26,150,000 

1831 1,500,000 

5,220,000 

39,650,000 

4,000,000 

1867 

8,730,000 

33,820,000 

4,220,000 

1877 1,890,000 

9,730,000 

32,220.000 

3,730,000 

188S 1,WO,000 

10,270,000 

28,940,000 

3,820,000 

The  returns  for  1888  show  as 

follows  : 

England. 

Scotland. 

Irelanil, 

t'nit.  Ktu^ 

Horses 1,240,000 

190,000 

610.000 

1,940.000 

Cattle 5.060,000 

1,110,000 

4,100.000 

10,270,000 

Sheep 18,580,000 

6,730,000 

3,030,000 

28,940,000 

Pigs 2,265,000 

165,000 

1,400,000 

3,820.000 

M'Culloch  estimated  the  products  of  the  three 
kingdoms  in  1846  at  218  millions  sterling;  hi> 
table  compares  with  the  pr<Hlucts  of  1887  thus — 
all  fami  products,  in  million  pounds  sterling  : 


'i 

England 

Scotland 

1846. 

1887. 

A«rl- 
cnltural. 

Pastoral. 

ToUl, 

Agri- 
cultural, 

PastoraL  Total 

80 
19 
28 

62 
8 
20 

142 

28 
48 

92 
24 
17 

66         157 
16     1     40 
S7         54 

Cnitcd  Kingdom 

127 

91 

SIS 

133 

118     '  851 

376 


GREAT    BRITAIN 


M'C'iilli)oirs  estiiimtc  lor  lielaixl  in  1S46  Wfis 
perliaps  too  low.  'I'lie  l{«'j;istrar-geiieriil  for  Ireland 
in  UtTi'inlier  IMS'J  imlilislioil  a  report  on  the  total 
valiii.'  of  farming-  )iro<lM(.'l.s,  tliiis  : 

l»ol-6a  annual  avera)^ £71,!>00,000 

lsii6-70      M  ..      72,210.000 

1SS4-88      ..  X,       M.OIO.UUO 

This  show.s  a  national  los.s  of  i"IS,200.(HX)  per 
aniinni  to  the  Iri^li  jieople,  or  iloiilile  tlie  total 
rental  of  the  eciiinlrv.  In  >even  yeai-s,  ilown  to 
Au^'ii>t  IS.SS,  the  Land  Conrt  lia.s  re<liic-ed  ri'iit.s  on 
243,4!K)  farms  from  i;:{,.S.-)2,(HKJ  to  f.'f.lHM.fMK),  tlie 
saving:  thus  eU'eeteil  to  tenants  liein^'  ecjual  to  4  per 
eent.  of  their  loss  liy  the  fall  in  priees. 

Midilleton  estimated  the  total  value  of  farm 
proiluets  of  Kiijiland  and  Wales  in  IS20  at  127 
millions  sterling;;  .M ■('iilloeli,  in  l.S4<).  at  142 
millions.  In  1887  the  tiital  for  the  three  king- 
doms \va.s  251  million.s— viz.  : 

l^iglalitl  mill  liivnt  ItriUiili 

Wal«^.  mill  In-lniitl. 

Grain jeiil.jOO.iKX)  £41.400,000 

Ortfcn  Crops ■.>8..')<ni,0<X)  .I.',  lOO.imo 

Hay  ami  Straw 13,«».ooo  :«,ooo.ooo 

Jleat L>6,^00,(KX)  .M  ..■*O.OllO 

Dairy 12.ooo,0(h)  :ti,-.>oo,ooo 

Egga  and  Poultry 1,«00.(K)0  10,100,000 

Poals 8,000,000  U.oOO.uOO 

Hiiks,  Wool,  iie 4,300,000  14,000.000 

Timber 1,800,000  l.JDO.OOO 

Vegetables  ami  Fruit 10,000,000 

Total £141,700,000       £251,000,000 

The  value  of  farm  produets  in  the  three  kin;;donis 
in  1841)  was  218  millions  sterling,  e<|ual  to  4.">  [ler 
cent,  of  the  then  estimated  eainings  of  the  whole 
people.  In  1887  it  was  2.51  millions,  or  only  20  per 
cent.  The  ahove  ligures  merely  express  tlie  gross 
prmluet,  utterly  apart  from  prolils. 

The  following  tahle  of  agricultural  capital  does 
not  include  Ireland  liefore  1814.  Lan<l  is  capital- 
ised at  thirty  times  the  rental. 


Million  ixiunds  sterling. 

Ywr. 

LuiJ. 

CUUe. 

HuuJrlrs. 

Tutal. 

1750 

498 

25 

58 

581 

1814 

1470 

74 

17-.' 

1716 

1843 

1677 

94 

197 

1968 

18S8 

19-.'5 

170 

233 

2328 

1880 

■JOSS 

■J09 

255 

2550 

1SS7 

1873 

1S5 

22'l 

2287 

In  the  precetling  table  an  allowance  of  10  per 
cent,  is  included  as  '  sundries,'  hut  ("liaptal  and 
other  I'Vench  economists  allow  14  jier  cent.  It  will 
he  not(^d  that  tlie  agrii'iiltur.al  capital  of  the  I'nited 
Kingdom  Ills  only  risen  ."Jd  per  cent,  since  1S14, 
while  tlie  wealth  of  tlie  nation  (since  Colcniliinin's 
estimate  in  1811)  hits  ri.sen  370  per  cent.  Agricul- 
ture, in  fact,  is  hy  no  means  so  jirosperons  a-s  it  wa-s 
one  hunrlred  years  ago,  nor  is  the  gross  product 
so  high  relatively  as  elsewhere.  The  agricultural 
capital  of  the  I'uited  Stat<'s  is  only  .Vi  ]>er  cent, 
higher  than  in  the  I  iiitnl  Kiiigdom  ( the  value  of 
land  lieing  in  the  Inited  States  so  muili  less) :  the 
gross  product  is  200  per  cent,  greater.  ( Jermaiiy  has 
the  same  agricultural  capital  as  the  I'nited  King- 
dom, while  her  lu-oilnct  is  (Mi  per  cent,  over  ours. 

The  agricultural  capital  and  jiroduet  of  various 
nations  are  approximately  as    lidlows,  in 
pounds  sterling  : 

('.^pitAl. 

United  King>]oin 2287 

United  States 3896 

Canada »I3 

Australia 413 

France 3229 

Cerinany 2336 

Russia 2090 

Arfentine  Republic 191 


million 


■>«i  ProJuct 
jc»rly. 

lUUn 

2.'il 

10-9 

7T« 

21-0 

65 

19-0 

62 

150 

440 

13-7 

415 

17-8 

523 

2*1) 

44 

231 

Finances. — The  revenue  of  the  British  govem- 
nicnt  has  been  a.s  follows  : 

1>&U.                                                           KclKti.  AojOQbt. 

1080 William  I.  l-l.S20,000 

1120 Henry  I.  990.000 

1250 Il.nrv  III.  264,000 

1480 K.l\vnr.l  I V.  162.000 

1540 Henry  VIII.  1,;)00,000 

1640 Charles  I.  fliiO.OOO 

1700 William  ill.  4,135,000 

1728 (iecrge  II.  9,030,000 

1810 (ieorije  III.  .VS.SIO.OOO 

IS30 William  IV.  .•.9,41)0.000 

ISUO Victoria.  71 ,100,000 

1888 ..  8».»00,000 

In  the  earlier  reigns  of  the  alnive  table  the  nomi- 
nal amount  was  only  one-third  of  the  above  sums; 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  groat  (4  pi-nce) 
contained  lus  much  silver  as  our  shilling  of  to-day. 
Hence  the  above  represents  the  exact  value  in 
silver.  The  ]iurch:isiiig  power  was  three  liine.s 
greater  down  to  l.")40  (Henry  VIII.),  and  twice  a.s 
great  from  that  time  till  tin-  death  of  (ieorge  II. 
than  what  our  present  mimey  can  buy. 

Hevenue  and  expenditure  since  1842  -how  as 
fcdlows,  in  milliiiii  pounds  sterling  : 

IVriml,  lU'vciiuc,  Kxi^-iidlture. 

1842-51 567  .M9 

1852-61 678  709 

IS<i2-71 711  ««2 

1S72-81 799  794 

1882-88 616  619 

47  yeai-s 3371  :a63 

The  revenue  was  made  u|)  jv*  follows,  in  million 
pounds  sterling  : 

PerioO.  Ciut^uu.    Eiclw.    StAlll|».    '"^^'''    „^^'    Siuiilrlr..       Total. 

1842-51 226  161  71  55  18  46  567 

1852-61 237  181  78  102  30  .10  CHS 

1862-71 221  204  94  78  45  6ft  711 

1872-81 199  268  110  71  74  77  799 

1882-88 139  184  83  90  68  62  616 

47  yeai-<..1022         988         436        396         23S         294  3371 

The  exjienditure  was  as  follows,  in  million 
pounds  sterling : 

'■"'"■>               ""iX"'  -""n/v;!"'  n„v.n,m„..  T..U1. 

1842-51  287  160                    102  549 

1852-Bl  ass  288                    136  T09 

1862-71  285  263                     164  l»2 

1872-81 281  280                    233  794 

1882-88 196  218                   20S  619 

47  years 1314  1200  840  3363 

National  expenditure,  not  including  local  taxe.s, 
comiiares  with  the  estimated  cajiitiil  wealth  of  the 
nation  as  fidlows,  in  million  pounds  sterling  : 

V     ,.                                            Nntluiml  Public  RaHo  of 

""'■                                         »c«ltli.  Kiiiendltun.  Eirtaditair. 

1640 250  1  0-4 

ITOO 490  4  0-8 

1810 2190  56  2-6 

1840 4100  6S  1-3 

18«0 6660  71  IS 

1888 9400  90  10 

If  we  include  local  taxation,  and  compare  the 
gross  i»iblic  bur<len  with  the  estiimited  earnings 
of  the  liritish  and  Iri.sli  iieojde,  we  linil  thus,  in 
million  pounds  sterling  ; 

..  ,\1)  I'ulillc  K'tniliicM  RAtio  ij( 

"•'"  Expciidltuiv.         ulPeuplc.  Bunltii. 

1840 63  .540  11  0  lier  cent 

1850 68  «20  U-O 

1860 86  760  US 

1870 107  980  10-8 

1880 143  1170  12-2 

1888 157  1->S0  12-3 

In  1899  the  actual  revenue  was  £108,3.36,193,  in 
addition  to  about  i9,.500,0iXi  paid  to  local  taxation 
iu  accordance  with  acts  passed  between   1888  and 


GREAT    BRITAIN 


377 


1896.  The  National  Deljt,  which  in  1702  \va.s 
£12,767,22.5,  was  in  1802  £537,653,008  :  in  1857  il 
was  £837,144,597,  and  in  1899  £627.. 562,585,  or 
ahont  £15,    13.s.   2<J.   per  liead  of  tlie  population, 


the  annual  cliai"e  being  about  12,s.  oil.  per  head. 
See  National  Debt. 

Commerce. — Official    records    of    Britisli    trade 
(including  Irish  from  1820)  show  as  follows  : 


Tear.                                                                        Reign.  Iiui>ji-ta. 

13S5         Edward  III.  £120,000 

1573 Elizabeth.  2,100,000 

1687 James  II.  4,200,000 

1720  George  I.  6,700,000 

1770  Georgelll.  13,400,000 

1800 24,100,000 

1820  George  IV.  29,700,000 

1840 Victoria.  51,600,000 

1850 "  1)9,000,000 

1800 210,500,000 

1870 1  303,300,000 

1880 411,200,000 

1887 •>  362,200,000 

18S8 387,635,743 

Tlie  Board  of  Tra<le  returns  were  as  follows  for  imports  : 


Exporta. 

£290,000 

1,880,000 

4,080,000 

7,700,000 

16,000,000 

43,200,000 

44,200,000 

62,000,000 

70,000,000 

164,300,000 

244,100,000 

286,400,000 

280,800,000 

297,885,236 


I8». 

Grain  (including  rice  and  potatoes) £-22.800,000 

Raw  Cotton 20.200,000 

Manufactures 4,100,000 

Meat  (including  Uve  cattle). 3,800,000 

Wool S.iiOO.OOO 

Kugar    10,800.000 

Dairy  Produce 3,100,000 

Tea  and  Coffee 7,200,000 

Timber 11,500,000 

Minerals 3,100,000 

Wines  (including  spirits) 6,400,000 

Flax  and  Jute 5,800,000 

Ilaw  Silk 6,400,000 

Sundries 40,700,000 


Total £152,400,000 


1870. 
£36,700,000 
.=.3,500,000 
26.600,000 

7,700,000 
15,800,000 
17,600,000 
11,900.000 
15,400,000 
13,200,000 

8.900,000 

S,000,000 
10,400,000 

8,200,000 
69,500,000 

£303,300,000 


ToUI. 

£410,000 

3,980,000 

8,2iiO,O0O 

14,400,000 

29,400,000 

67,300.000 

73,a00,000 

113,600,000 

169,000,000 

375,000,000 

547,400,000 

697,600,000 

643,000,000 

685,520.979 


1887. 

£51,200,000 

40,200,000 

35,400,000 

22,800,000 

24,500,000 

16,500,000 

16,400,000 

15,000,000 

12,100,000 

13,900,000 

7,700,000 

8,600,000 

2,100,000 

96,800,000 


P«r  Inhabitia;. 
£0    2  10 

0  15    0 

1  10  2 
1  18  0 
3  6 
6     8 

3  10 

4  4 
G    4 

12  17 

17  7 
JO  5 
17 

18  C 


RrtAinetl  fur  con- 

gumption  in  18?7. 

£49,800,000 

*4,500,000 

35,400,000 

22,400,000 

10,700.000 

15,900,000 

16,400.000 

10,600,000 

12,100,000 

13,900,000 

6,600,000 

8,600,000 

2,100.000 


£362,200,000 


The  principal  exports  of  British  and  Irish  products  were  as  follows  •. 

1654.  1870. 

Cotton  goods £31,700,000  £71,400,000 

WooUen  goods 10,700,000  26,600,000 

Linen  and  Jute  goods 5,100,000  10,400.000 

Silken  goods 1,200,000  2,600,000 

All  TextUes £48,700,000 

Iron 11,700,000 

Other  metals 3,800,000 

Cutlery 4,100,000 

Machinery 2,200,000 

Coal 2,100,000 

Sundries 24,600.000 


1SS7. 

£71,000,000> 

24,600,000 

8,700.000 

2.800,000 


Total £97,200,000 


£111,000,000 
26,500,000 
4,700,000 
6,400,000 
5,300,000 
5,600,000 
40,100,000 

£199,600,000 


£107,100,000 
25,800.000 
4,300,000  ' 
3,100,000 
12,800,000 
10,200,000 
.18,100,000 


£221,400,000 


3^  o  :- 


=  31? 


The  a""regate  trade  in  merchandise  only,  ex- 
clusive of  bullion,  for  seven  yeai-s  ending  December 
1887  showed  thus,  in  million  pounds  sterling  : 


United  States 

France 

UoUand  

Oennany  

Imports 
from. 

Exports 
to. 

Grow 
Tnule. 
7  yeant. 

Ratio. 

627 
264 
174 
171 
1-20 
102 
76 
71 
33 
22 
36 
69 
61 
37 
14 
19 
21 
22 
135 

254 
ISO 
111 
202 
53 
97 
35 
31 
48 
54 
17 
57 
22 
46 
46 
15 
17 
13 
121 

881 
444 
285 
373 
173 
199 
111 
102 
81 
76 
53 
126 
83 
83 
60 
34 
38 
35 
256 

18-6 
9-4 
60 
7-9 
3-6 
4-2 
23 
2"2 
1-7 
1-6 
1-1 
2-7 
1-8 
1-8 
1-2 
0-7 
0-8 
0-7 
5-3 

Sweden  and  Norway 

Spain  

Turkey 

Italy 

China  and  Japan.... 

Egypt 

Brazil 

River  Plate 

Chili 

Portugal 

Java 

Other  Countries 

Foreign  Countries . . 

India 

•074 

1419 

3493 

73-6 

241 
173 
75 
32 
38 
77 

•223 
ISl 
66 
22 
39 
75 

4« 
354 
141 
54 

77 
152 

9-8 
7-5 
30 
1-2 
1-6 
3-3 

West  Indies 

South  Africa 

Other  Colonies 

British  Colonies 

Grand  Total 

636 

606 

1242 

26-4 

■2710 

2025 

4735 

100  0 

Shippintj. — The  merchant  shipping  of  the  British 
empire,  colonies  indudeil,  showed  as  follows  : 


1 

Tons  per 

Sulon. 

Kei«n. 

• 

Ship. 

Sailor. 

1588 

470 

37,400 

80 

Elizabeth. 

1610 

910 

83,000 

90 

James  I. 

1666 

1,320 

120,000 

90 

Charles  II. 

1  1688 

2,620 

210,000 

80 

James  11. 

1  1702 

3,260 

261,000 

80 

1  1760 

5.730 

487.000 

SS 

George  III. 

1800 

17,410 

1.856,000 

140,000 

106 

i4 

1810 

23,703 

2,426,000 

162,000 

102 

15 

,. 

1820 

25,374 

2,654.000 

175,000 

105 

16 

George  IV. 

,  1830 

23,721 

2.533,000 

155,000 

107 

16 

William  IV. 

1  1840 

28,962 

3,311,000 

201,000 

114 

17 

Victoria. 

1  1850 

34,288 

4,233,000 

239,000 

124 

18 

1S60 

29,469 

5,713,000 

230,000 

193 

25 

„ 

1870 

32,920 

7,150,000 

201,000 

216 

27 

„ 

1881 

30,531 

8,535,000 

270,000 

2S0 

31 

188V 

28,212 

8,936,000 

280,000 

320 

32 

1' 

The  shipping  of  the  I'nited  Kingdom,  excluding 
colonial,  has  been  as  follows  : 


Y(u. 

VeaseU. 

Tona 

S«aiaeQ. 

Ton*  per 

Vessel.        Seaman. 

1810 
1830 
l.^SO 
1870 
1881 
1887 

20,253 
19,174 
25,984 
26,367 
24,830 
22.136 

2,211,000 
2,202,000 
3,56.1,000 
5,691,000 
6,490,000 
7,340.000 

145,000 
131.000 
148,000 
196,000 
193.000 
203,000 

103 
114 
138 
215 
260 
334 

15 

17 
24 
29 
33 
36 

37S 


GREAT    BRITAIN 


The  folliiwiii;,'   tiiMi'  .«lu)ws  the  mtio  of  Hriti.-'h 
ami  Colonial  tonnage  in  the  worlds  .sliippini,' : 


Vf«r. 

Brltifli  aoa 
C'ulunUI. 

All  otiirr 
flKp.. 

The  Wotl.l. 

BritUli  Ratio 

Ton.. 

T..U.. 

Tow. 

1»20.. 

..2,664,000 

3,900.00(1 

0.554,000 

40  per  CPIit. 

1842.. 

..3,311,000 

6,200.00<l 

9.611.000 

85         ,. 

1800.. 

.5,713,000 

7,973.000 

13.«S«.0flO 

4-J 

IjTO.. 

7,150,000 

8,42«,0IKI 

16,570.000 

46 

1881.. 

,8,535.000 

I-.Mll.oflO 

■J0.040,00<1 

41 

18»7. 

.8,930,000 

l-.'.lHki.ooo 

■Jl.'.KK.OuO 

42 

In    the    foregoing;    tallies    no   ilistinction   is   made 
between  steam  and  sailin;;  tonnage.     A  steamer, 


however,  is  found  to  make  three  ooean  voyages  or 
si.\  short  trips  in  the  same  time  that  a  siiilin^ 
vessel  takes  for  one;  we  must  therefore  multiply 
steam  timnage  at  least  liy  four,  to  arrive  at  tin- 
carrying-power.  Tlie  following  tiihle  makes  this 
allowanee,  and  uiiiler  the  head  of  Klleetive  Carry- 
ingpower  it  will  he  ohserved  tlml  the  shipping  of 
the  IJritish  empire  Iuls  iiiiiltipliivl  six  ami  a  half 
times  since  1S4(I.  Kefereiue  to  .\mericiiii  slatistirs 
shows  that  in  the  same  interval  the  .seagoing 
shipping  of  the  I'nited  States  increa-scd  in  nominal 
tonnage  only  200,000  tons,  or  '2o  per  cent. 


Ve»r. 

Stfani  (nominal  t'liinage). 

Sailing  (nominal  tonnage). 

Effective  (^rrj-ing-power. 

Brltl.h. 

Other  Find.. 

Briiuh. 

other  Fl««i. 

BrltUh. 

other  Flit«B. 

1    1840 

1880 

1860 

1870 

1»S1 

1887 

95,000 

188,000 

502,000 

1,203,000 

3,105,000 

4.355,000 

21,000 

204,000 

318,000 

715,000 

2,539,000 

3,877,000 

3,216,000 
4,046,000 
5.211,000 

.S947.000 
5,430.000 
4,581.000 

6,180,000 
6,800,000 
7,055,000 
7,711,000 
9.67J.OOO 
9,089.000 

3,596,000 
4,797,000 
7,219,000 
10,769,000 
17,850,000 
22,005,000 

6,204,000 
7,616,000 
8,927,000 
10,571,000 
19,728,000 
24,615,000 

The  cariTingpower  of  the  British  merchant  navy 
(in.duiling  colonial)  in  ISS"  was  22,(JO(),0(H)  tons,  oV 
considerahlv  more  than  the  total  carrvingpower  of 
the  worhl  '(21,300,000   tons)  in   1870"  since  which 


year  the  British  merchant  shipping  has  doubled. 
It  is  now  almost  c(|ual  to  the  total  ellective  tonnage 
of  all  other  nations  in  the  a-'gregate.  The  above 
table  gives  the  following  resiiit : 


Carrying-power. 

Ratio. 

1 

IMO. 

ISW. 

1S87. 

IM(l. 

1««0. 

18S7. 

Britisli 

:    Otiier  flngii. 

Toiw. 
3,596,000 
6,264,000 

Toii». 
7,219.000 
8,927,000 

Toll". 
22,005,000 
24,515.000 

36-5 
63-5 

44 'G 
55-4 

47  3 
52-7 

1    Tlie  world 

9,8(50,000 

10,146,000 

46,520.000 

lUOO 

1000 

100-0 

In  the  above  table  British  includes  colonial 
shipping.  If  we  compare  the  merchant  shipping 
of  the  i'nited  Kingdom  only  with  that  of  other 
flags  we  timl  : 

V—  laa-  Nominal  Carrying-power.       „  ., 

Uiiite<l  Kingtloin 7,.'?40,000  19,690,000  420 

United  States 4,130.000  8,800,000  178 

tVennany 1,285,000  2.640,000  57 

N'lrway 1,624,000  1,860,000  40 

Canad.i 1,078,000  1,310,000  2-8 

Russia 1,026,000  1,395,000  3-0 

France 993,000  2,495,000  5-4 

Italy 946,000  1,380,000  30 

Spain 594.000  1,640.000  3-.'. 

Swrtlen .517,000  890,000  19 

Australia 34».0(XI  770,000  lU 

Holland 286.000  610.000  13 

rienniar); 273,000  liSO.OOO  12 

Austria 262,000  530.000  12 

Greece 262,000  370.000  OS 

S.iiith  America 263.000  4li().000  1  -0 

Other  Countries 785,000  1,720,000  3s 

Tlie  world 21,902,000  46,520.000         1000 

Wk.vi.TII.— Comp.aring  Porter's  table  for  1840 
with  the  estimates  for  IStiO  and  1SH7,  we  find  as 
follows,  in  million  pounds  sterling  : 

1840.  ISfltl.  1987. 

Railways 21  348  831 

Houses 770  1164  2640 

Furniture 885  682  1320 

IJinds 1680  1748  1.560 

Cattle,  &c 280  360  414 

Shipping 23  44  130 

Merchandise ...    70  190  321 

Bullion ...                              .61  108  143 

Sundries                             ...  810  827  1869 

T.ital 411XP  6358  9228 

In  the  above  table  hind  in  1SS7  is  put  down  at 
l.")t)0  millions,  whereas  the  ollieial  valuation  at 
thirty  years'  |iurchase,  as  already  shown  under  the 
item  agiicultuie,  is  1873  millions  :  but  it  is  gener- 
ally admitted  that  the  oflicial  valuation  is  twenty 
per  cent,  over  the  real  value. 

The    increase    of    wealtli    from    1840    to    1887 


was   124    per  cent.,   or  three  times  greater  than 

that  of  population.  The  annual  accumulation 
aver.aged  (II  iiiilliiiiis  sterling  lietweeii  1840  and 
bstio,  and  U:i  millions  between  the  latter  year 
and  1S.S7.  W'il.soii  estimated  the  aciumiilation  in 
1840  4.')  at  til)  millions  yearly  :  Cilien,  in  1.S80,  at 
IfjO  millions.  Hoiise.i  constitute  the  largest  item 
of  ]iublic  wealth — viz.  2li4()  millions  sterling, 
the  value  being  taken  at  twenty  times  the  asses.sed 
annual  rental.  In  this  item  alone  we  see  an  in- 
crease of  1870  niiilioiis  siiie^'  1840,  the  number  of 
new  houses  Imilt  between  that  year  and  I8S0  being 
2.218,000  -say  Sj.lMtO  yearly.  It  is  ].i()bable  that 
new  houses  repre.seiit  only  one  third  of  the  increase 
of  value,  as  the  old  ones  (4,4.'W),(K»0)  have  likewise 
risen.  Allowing  for  houses  built  since  1880,  the 
number  and  value  would  be  appro.\iniately  thus  : 


Built  before  1840 4.400.000 

Since  1840 2,700,000 


V.ilue. 

Per  hi-u»r. 

million  £s. 

f. 

1730 

393 

910 

340 

Total  ill  1889 7,100,000 


372 


The  value  of  house  property  per  inhabitant  varies 
in  the  three  kingdoms  : 


Ca.  per  iDhab. 


England 77 

Scotland 62 

Ireland 12 

United  Kingtloin 71 


London 156 

Liverp<K»l 114 

Glasgow 100 

Dulilin 44 


The  value  of  honse-projierty  for  the  whole  I'nited 
Kingdom  in  1840  was  only  .t.'iO  per  inhabitant. 

Furniture,  according  to  insurance  agents,  aver 
ages  half  the  value  of  houses ;  this  item  includes, 
moreover,  pictures,  clothing,  jewelry,  and  carriages. 

Lands. —  riie  value  nmler  this  heail  has  been 
explained  already  under  Agricultural  .Statistics. 

I!aitiirii/s  are  the  fourth  item  of  national  wealth, 
the  above  statement  of  capital  employed  being 
from  official  returns.  Since  l.HIiO  nearly  20  millions 
yearly  have  been  thus  invested  in  the  three  king- 
doms, of  course  excluding  similar  investments 
abro.ad,  which  are  comprised  under  Sundries. 


GREAT    BRITAIN 


379 


Shipping. — The  Uniterl  Kin^'dom  lias  22,'2f)0 
vessels,  aggregate  7,400,000  tons,  whieli,  at  the 
me<lium  valuation  of  £17,  10s.  j)ei-  ton,  makes  130 
millions  sterling.  Over  .3  millions  yearly  go  into 
new  merchant-vessels  built  in  the  three  kingdoms. 

Mrrchandisc. — We  a-ssume  six  months'  imports 
and  e.xpoits  to  represent  at  each  of  the  above  dates 
the  value  of  merchandise  on  hand.  It  is  probablj" 
under  the  reality. 

SamlHes  were  estimated  in  1887  as  follows  : 

Million  £9. 

Canals,  docks,  rlockyards,  and  navy 115 

Gas,  water- work.s,  telegraplis 178 

Colonial  loans  and  railways 432 

Australian  mortgages 330 

Foreign  stocks 314 

Total 1869 

The  amount  of  British  caidtiil  in  foreign  stocks  is 
variouslv  estimated. 


Bullion. — This  is  not  properly  wealth,  but  a 
token  of  it.  However,  in  deference  to  vulgar 
prejudice,  we  include  the  estimated  amount  of 
gold  and  silver  at  dirterent  dates. 

According  to  the  Probate  returns  for  l.Ssl-8.5 
the  wealth  lield  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  United 
Kingdom  would  then  have  been  only  8200  millions 
sterling.  It  must,  however,  be  observed  that 
estates  under  £100  escape  the  Probate  (.'ourt,  ami 
many  large  estates  are  undervalued  in  proving 
succession  ;  also,  that  the  royal  navy,  dockyards, 
prisons,  lighthou.ses,  high-roads,  &.c.  have  to  be 
added  to  the  Probate  estimates,  which  will  bring 
us  up  to  the  total  of  9228,  as  lirst  stated. 

Religion. — The  census  takes  no  note  of  religion 
except  in  Ireland,  but  the  ratios  of  marriages  in 
the  dift'erent  churches  enable  us  to  form  a  close 
estimate  of  the  adherents  to  the  various  creeds  in 
England  and  Scotland.  On  the  ba.sis  of  the  census 
of  1881  the  figures  woiiM  >tiuiil  thus  : 


■ 

Xuinbers. 

Percentage. 

£Di;l:iIi(l. 

ScotUlid. 

Irelaod. 

Englaud. 

Scot  laud. 

IreUiid. 

I'lilt.  Kingdom. 

Church  of  Ensland.... 
Roman  Catholic 

18,798,000 

1,066,000 

114,000 

5,990,000 

99,000 

318.000 

2,9n7,OlX) 

281,000 

636,000 

3,952,000 

486,000 

48,000 

72-3 

4-1 
0-4 
23-2 

2-7 

8  0 

810 

7'7 

12-3 

77-4 

9-4 

0-9 

66-8 
15-2 
103 

lS-7 

Methodist,  &c 

Total 

25,963,000 

3,695,000 

5,122,000 

loo-o 

1000 

100  0 

1000 

The  Established  Church,  before  the  disestablish- 
ment in  Ireland  in  1869,  comprised  the  following 
livings  : 

Nominated  by  England.  Ireland.  Total. 

Crown 952  131  1,0»3 

Noblemen 5,096  340  6.438 

Bishops,   &c   4,094  924  5,61s 

Total 10,742  1395  1-2,137 

A  report,  published  in  1880,  on  the  income  of  the 
Established  Chuicli  in  England  and  Wales,  was  as 
follows  : 

Tithes £4,054,000 

Committee  grants 776,000 

Other  sonrces 973,000 

Total £5,803,000 

The  above,  however,  included  £962,000  of  tithes 
that  go  to  laymen,  the  real  Church  income  being 
£4,8-41,000,  ilistributed  thus  : 

Clertjy.                                                   No.  Incnine.  Prr  he.iil. 

Bishops 33  £168,000  £.1100 

Canons 166  240.000  1440 

Rectors 11,780  3,830,000  330 

Curates 5,0IJ0  603.000  120 

Total 17,020  4,S41,00O 

The  above  cloes  not  incliule  the  'ofl'ertoiy,'  which 
has  been  found  to  range  from  £100  to  £240  per 
annum  in  e.ach  church,  ami  is  estimated  to  siim 
up  £2,200,000  yearly,  at  £120  per  church.  The 
Ecclesiastical  Report  for  1880  shows  that  in  forty 
years  the  commissioneis  have  expended  22i 
millions  in  creating  new  endowments  to  an  annu.al 
value  of  £746,Of)0  in  aid  of  47IK)  distressed  parishes 
— say  £100  each.  The  commissioners  distribute 
about  £700, (H)0  a  year  in  creating  new  benefices, 
to  an  average  amount  of  £23,000  per  annum. 
Balance  still  in  hand,  £8,200,000.  The  above 
tables  do  not  include  collegi.ate  endowments,  worth 
£.5oO,(MM)  a  year.  Total  clergv  of  Chuicli  of  Eng- 
l.and  19,000,^  including  2000  schoolmasters.  The 
Church  of  England  has,  moreover,  2.'!2  clergymen 
in  Scotland,  820  in  Ireland,  and  270(»  in  colonies 
and  foreign  countries,  making  a  grand  total  of 
22,7.'>2. 

The  number  of  churches  of  all  persu.asions  in 
England  and  Wales  in  1883  was  as  follows  : 


Church  of  England 14.573 

Methodist 11,514 

Independent 2,603 

Baptist  2,243 

Calvinist 895 

Roman  Catholic 824 

Quaker 375 

Presbyterian 201 

Jewish 60 

Various 2,628 


Total 35,910 

In  the  above  are  not  included  364  Roman  Catholic 
chapels  attacheil  to  religious  houses,  pos.sessing  no 
marriage  license. 

The  condition  of  the  Anglican  Church  in  Ireland 
in  1880  was  a-s  follows  : 

Number  of  clergy 820 

Number  of  laity! 635.10(J 

Endowment £130,000 

Donations 118,000 

Total  income 248,000 

Endowed  capital 3,260,000 

There  are  twelve  bishops,  who  receive  £41,500 
per  annum — average  £3600  each.  In  November 
1880  the  residue  of  property  formerly  belonging  to 
the  Anglican  Church  in  Ireland  w.-is  valued  at  12 
millions,  producing  a  revenue  of  £.">74,000,  to  be 
devoted  to  jiurposes  of  general  utility  or  benefi- 
cence. 

The  condition  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
the  British  empii-e  in  1882  was  as  follows  : 


Eisliocs. 

rriests. 

Churches. 

Laity. 

England 

...   15 

2112 

118S 

1,066,000 

Scotlancl 

...     6 

30O 

295 

318,000 

Ireland 

...   28 

3290 

2760 

3,952,000 

Canada  

...24 

1210 

1050 

2.150,000 

Australia 

...   16 

370 

787 

584,000 

India 

o-> 

1179 

700 

1,318,000 

Other  colonies.. 

...  20 

315 

240 

466,000 

Total.. 

...131 

87SS 

7020 

9,854.000 

The  average  income  in  the  United  Kingdom  is 
£400  for  a  bishop,  and  £80  for  a  priest.  In  India 
it  is  £260  ]ier  bishop,  ami  t,'!6  jier  priest.  In 
Canada  and  .Australia  it  is  higher  than  in  England. 

There  are  51,000  Jews  in  the  I'nited  Kingdom. 

M-VNlF-VCTritES.— M'Pherson's  table  of  British 
manuf.actures  in  1782  comjiares  with  the  estimates 
for  1882  ( I'nited  Kingdom)  .as  follows  ; 


380 


GREAT    BRITAIN 


BaUg. 

i:«!. 

lee. 

Ciittoii  go<«la  . . 

ITS). 

lee. 

i:9«0,000 

£95,200.000 

1-7 

ll« 

W'KiUcn    M     . . 

16,800,000 

«.400,000 

29  5 

5-5 

Linon       •■ 

1,750,000 

,      11,770,000 

3  1 

1-4 

!jilk           M      .. 

3,350,000 

'        7,230,000 

f.(> 

09 

Leather  

10.500.000 

34,030.000 

18-4 

4-2 

Iron  and  stet- 1.. 

1L>,100,000 

127.000,000 

21-4  1    16-4 

.Sundries 

Total 

11,200,000 

4()«,«70,000 

200  ;   010 

£50,600,000 

£818,300,000 

llOO-O  1 100-0  1 

The  growth  of  the  principal  manufactures  is 
shown  as  follows — value  in  million  jiouncls  sterling  : 

ISM.         1850.  1>«0.  XO  IWl. 

I'ottoiis 31  43  78  (M  95 

Woollens 23  -'9  38  55  4<! 

Linen,  &c 9  17  17  28  21 

Milks 8  10  18  16  7 

Similries 7  10  17  22  26 

Textiles 78        109  168  215  195 

Hardware 31  42  65  82  127 

Textilesaiid  Hard\l-Bre..l09         151  233  297  322 

The  i)ieceilin<;  tahles  were  prepared  by  Mr  Miil- 
hall  from  the  iiiati'iials  of  Iiis  Dir/ionari/  <•/' 
aiatislirs  (enlargeil  e.lition,  1891). 

One  rather  unsatisfactory  ivspeet  of  IJritisli  n)anu- 
facture  in  recent  years  has  lieen  the  extent  to  which 
(Jernian  goods  have  superseiled,  hotli  in  llie  Tnitoil 
Kingdom  .iiid  ahroati,  tliose  of  Hritish  make.  The 
facts  are  thus  summed  uji  in  E.  Ct.  Williams's 
Made  ill  (Icniiiiiiii  (  1S96).  Wliile  in  twenty-three 
yeais  our  population  has  increaseil  hy  over  7, '100,000, 
the  di'claieii  vahie  of  our  exports  has  fallen  hy  over 
.t.SO,000,000  a  year.  In  l.SS;i-93,  while  IJiitish  ex- 
ports were  ileclining,  the  value  of  German  manu- 
factured goods  imported  into  this  touutry  incre,i.sed 
hy  C">,000,(K)0  a  year.  In  the  same  years,  l,SS.3-93, 
our  imports  of  manufactured  goods  increased  hy 
i;:W,0OO,0<M),  whih;  the  total  value  of  our  exports 
decdined  hy  e2--',<X)0,UOO.  In  iron  and  steel  and  in 
textiles,  (;ennan  goods  are  superseding  Hritish 
goods  in  the  United  States,  some  IJritish  colonies, 
and  nniny  markets  where  liritish  commerce  was 
formerly  supreme. 

I'OPUL.VTioN.— The  following  table  shows  the 
population  of  the  I'nited  Kingdom  at  various 
dates  since  the  first  censns-that  of  ISol,  in  which 
Wales  is  given  along  with  England.  The  counties, 
with  their  aieius  (in  acres)  ami  i)oi)ulalions,  are 
•;iven  for  each  of  the  main  divisions  of  the  empire 
under  Ent.l.anb,  Scotl.\nu,  Ii:el.\XD,  and  under 
their  own  heads. 

'^■*^"        1801.  iw.  lan. 

England 50,823  8,892,536     l.".,002,443  27,4»3,490 

Wales 7,303  911,705  l,.il9,035 

Scotl.and 29,820  1,608.420      2,020, IS4  4,025,027 

Irclnild S2,.')31  5,395,490      8,196,6!I7  4,704,7.W 

IsloofMan 220  47,;i76  .5;i,(J0S 

Channel  Islands 7S  70,005  92,234 

Anny,  Navy,  Ac 202,954  224,211 

ToUl,  Unit.  Kingd..  120,832  27,057,923    38,104,175 

At  the  census  of  ISSI  theiioimlatiou  wa.s,^'i,241.482: 
in  189o  it  was  calculated  at  39,i:H.166.  In  1S<H)^91 
(not  to  mention  tho.se  in  the  odonies,  &c. )  there 
were  3,122,911  natives  of  the  United  Kingdom  in 
the  United  States,  .S'.MiST  in  France,  and  r.i,.534  in 
Germany.  In  1891  there  were  in  Engl.and  and 
Wales  2.82,271  natives  of  Scotland  (2.53,528  in  1881 ), 
458,31.")  n.itives  of  Ireland  (.562,374  in  1881  ),  and 
198,113  natives  of  foreign  states,  i5l),.599  (as  against 
37,301  in  1881)  being  Germans,  20,797  (as  against 
14, .596)  French,  and  19,740  (as  against  17,767) 
American  citizens. 

C0LONIE.S. — The  British  colonial  empire  com- 
prises .some   fifty   distinct  governments,   and,   in- 


cluding India,  extends  over  nearly  10  millions  of 
square  mile.s — more  than  eighty  times  the  area  of 
the  mother-country,  or  one-sixth  of  the  habitable 
land  surface  of  the  globe.  The  colonies  and  dcpen- 
ilencies  have  a  population  of  near  2.50^.  millions 
as  compared  willi  the  40  millions  in  the  mother- 
cmintry.  Of  this,  nearly  10,<KW,0(M)  square  miles 
hidong  to  the  nine  self  governing  colonies,  with  a 
populalioTL  1)1  over  10,(K)0,IK»II. 

The  following  table  shows  the  area  ami  popula- 
tion of  the  colonies  and  depenilencies  of  the  empire. 
The  ])opul.-itions  are  givi-n  according  to  the  census 
of  1891  or  later  oflicial  estimates  : 


Iiulia(Uhtisli) 

SI  raits  Seltlenieiits.    

Ait*  111  Ml. 
■iillrl. 

888,314 

1,472 

Pupiilntloo. 

221,172,952 
512,342 

C(!vlon 

25,305 

S,00»,46« 

713 

371.  us:, 

Labiian  aiul  British  Borneo 

30,000 

175,853 

30-6 

221,441 

.Australia 

I'asinan  ia 

2,944,628 

26,215 

2.or.i,oo:; 

14«.««7 

New  Zealand 

Fiji                   

104,458 

7,740 

02li,65S 
121. IsO 

Falkland  Isles 

Natal 

6,500 

18,760 

I,7h9 
r.43,9IS 

<  'ape  or  Goo<l  Hoi>e 

213,917 

47 

1, 527,2-24 
4,110 

l-^'Jios 

Cold  Coa.sl 

l.OOII 

29,401 

3,000 

100,000 

i.47:;.sS2 

K-O.OUO 

Gambia. 

Canada 

Ni'wroundland 

09 

3,406,542 

42,000 

19 

14,'2Wi 

4,S!ll,-2«4 

202,040 

1R,.M9 

6,400 

;!1,371 

4,460 

47,685 

.      ..              169 

4,745 

.laniaica 

4,193 

784 

039,491 
140.777 

805 

1-27,723 

1,754 

•.'3S,038 

Hrilisli  Guiana        

109,000 

278,295 

li 

■2«,050 

Malta 

liritish  New  Guinea 

119 

90,000 

168,105 
3.-.0,000 

The  aljove  fisiues  ilo  not  include  the  feud- 
atory >tate8  of  Inilia  {.">!».'), KiT  niiU»s  :  [lop.  (1891) 
(it(j(.")0,-»79),  Ni^'eiia,  the  'I'laiisvaal  aiuI  Oiaii^'e 
lliver  (_'oIoiiies,  or  K^ynt  ami  the  K^wiilian  Soudan. 
Innumerable  otlier  suojects  hearing,'  on  the  re- 
sources, history,  administration,  »S:e.  of  the  United 
Kingdom  will  be  found  under  such  heads  a^  : 


A^ricuUure. 
A  liny. 
Ilankii. 

Canals. 

( 'liancerv. 

Coat. 

Colony. 

Conuiion  I^w. 

Colloii. 

^'ouuty. 

Criminal  Ijiw. 

Dialect. 

l>ocks. 

I'Mucnlioii. 

Kini^ratioii. 

England. 


En^laml,  Clinrcli  of. 
English  I^nguagi*. 
i>       Litcratnre. 
Eqnit^. 
Fisheries. 
Friendly  Societies. 
( iaelic. 
Harbour. 
Ininiigralion. 
Ireland. 
Iron. 
l^nd. 

Lighthouse. 
Local  Governnietit. 
National  Debt. 
Navy. 
Ordnance  Survey. 


Farisli. 

Parliament. 

I'olice. 

Poor  I-a\v>. 

Post-ofllcf. 

Itailways. 

Hellglou. 

Savings- baitks, 

Srotland. 

Shipbuilding. 

Tax. 

Telegraph. 

Trade  Unions. 

Universities. 

Volunteers, 

Wales. 

W.jol. 


For  the  arms  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  see  Flag, 
HKRALniiY.  The  history  is  dealt  with  under  ENf:L,vNL>, 
S4.oTi.AND,  Ikelaud,  and  Wales.  See  the  works  tliere 
cited  :  also : 


Allen,  national  wealth,  1$40. 
Anderson, history  of  com.,  1T04. 
Anderson,  machinery,  1S73. 
a-iilly,  linancea,  1S37. 
Haines,  cott^m  industry,  1835. 
Baxter,  wealth  &  taxation,  180'J. 
Beeke,  national  wealth,  ISOO. 
Bertram,  lisheries,  1882. 
Bc;vans,  manufactures,  18S0. 
Brabrook,  friend.societies,187.'i. 
BrysoHjiiimlical  .statistics,  1S53. 
Bullion  Report.  1810. 
Burdett,  medical  .stAtist.,  18S1. 
Cairrl,  agriculture,  1S52HJS. 


Campbell,  nat.  resources,  1774. 
Capi>er,  agriculture,  Ac,  ISOl. 
CarlisIe,fturveyofU.King.,lSl3. 
Chadwick,  sanitary,  1847-80. 
Child,  woollen  industry.  ltM'3. 
Cobden  Club  essays,  187ii. 
Culqulioini,  natl.  wealth,  IbOG. 
Comber,  u  m        Is22. 

Cooke,  Briti.sh  products,  1828. 
Craik,  hist,  of  commerce,  1844. 
Danson,  iiisinancc,  1873. 
Davenant,  natl.  wealth,  1701. 
Doubleday,  linancral  hist.,  1847. 
Eden,  hisbjry  of  labour,  1797. 


GREAT    BRITAIN 


GREAT    CIRCLE 


381 


Ellison,  cotton  trade,  1858. 
Evelyn,  navigation,  &c.,  1674. 
Factorit'3  Hep.,  pari,  blue-book. 
Fair,  vital  statistics,  lS:i7-78. 
Fenn,fun(ls&  finances,  1838-84. 
Fleetwood,  prices ^S:  wages,  174.'j. 
Fordyce,  coal  an<i  iron,  1860. 
Fossick,  iron  and  stoel,  1883. 
Fry,  local  taxes,  1846. 
Gitlen,  llnancial  essavs,  1880.86. 
Gilbart,  banking,  IsiiO. 
Glaisher,  meteorology.  1859. 
Glover,  .shipping,  1880. 
Graont,  vital  statistics,  1759. 
Guy,  ..  ..  1867. 

Haines,  Brit,  mannfac,  1715. 
Hancock,  Irish      ,•  1879. 

Hawkins,  medical  stati.s.,  1829. 
Heron,  statist,  of  Ireland,  1862. 
Herschel,  meteorology.  1351. 
Hull,  Prof.,  coalfields,  1881. 
Humphreys,  vital  statist.,  1883. 
Hunt,  mining  industries,  1882. 
Jeans,  iron  and  steel,  18S8. 
.Jeula,  shipping,  1874. 
Jevons,  prices,  &c.,  186.5. 
Jones,  national  wealth,  1844. 


Lavergne,  Brit,  agricult.,  1863. 
Lawes,  m  i.  1880. 

Levi,  commerce,  1870. 
Lowe,  agriculture,  1822. 
Mabsoii,  indust.  charts,  1882. 
M'CuUoch,  Brit,  empire,  1837. 
diet,  of  com.,  1869. 
M'Phei-son,  hist,  of  com.,  1805. 
M'Queen,  British  empire,  1850. 
Mann,  cotton  trade,  1860. 
-Marshall,  digest  of  stat,  1833. 
Martin,  colonies,  1839. 
Moreau,  commerce,  1828. 
Mulhall,  diet,  of  statist..  1886. 
Xewmareh  &  Tooke.prices,  1857. 
Ogle,  vital  statistics,  1882. 
Palgrave,  local  taxes,  1871. 
Parnell,  finances,  1827. 
Poller,  progre.ss  of  nation,  1850. 
Redgrave,  factories,  1876. 
Rogers,  Thorold,  agricu].,  1888. 
Seeley,  geography.  1889. 
Statesman's  Year- book, 1864,&c. 
Val]jy,  commerce,  18.')3. 
Williams,  railways,  1879. 
Yeats,  commerce,  1872. 
Young,  agriculture,  1780-1808. 


Cireat   C'ii'cle  or    Tangent   Sailing.     In 

order  to  have  a  clear  iilea  of  the  advantages  of  <neat 
circle  sailing  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  the 
shortest  distance  between  two  places  on  the  earth's 
surface  i.s  along  an  arc  of  a  great  circle  (see 
Sphere);  for  instance,  the  shortest  distance  be- 
tween two  jilaces  in  the  same  latitude  is  not  along 
the  iiarallel  of  latitude,  Imt  along  an  arc  of  a  circle 
whose  2)lane  would  pass  througli  the  two  places  and 
the  centre  of  the  earth.  The  object,  then,  of  great 
circle  sailing  is  to  determine  what  the  course  of  a 
ship  must  be  in  order  that  it  may  coincide  with  a 
great  eircle  of  the  earth,  an<l  thus  render  the  dis- 
tance saih^l  over  the  least  possible.  This  prolilem 
may  be  solved  in  vaiioiis  ways.  The  handiest 
practical  solution  is  to  stretch  a  string  cner  a 
terrestrial  globe  ijuite  tight  between  the  ports 
of  departure  and  arrival.  The  string  will  lie 
on  the  great  circle  required.  A  few  spots  on 
the  track  of  the  stiing  should  be  transferred  to 
the  ordinary  navigating  (i.e.  Mercator's)  chart, 
a  free  curve  should  be  dtawn  through  these 
transferred  spots,  and  the  ship  shoidd  be  kept  as 
close  to  that  curve  as  possible.  The  solution  by 
computation  is  sim]dy  tne  calculation  of  sides  and 
angles  in  a  spherical  triangle.  The  method  by 
computation  will  be  understood  from  the  accom- 
panying diagram,  where  iis  are  the  poles   of  the 


earth,  luc  tlie  equator  :  nwse  represents  a  meridian 
which  passes  througli  the  jilace  p,  iixm  another 
meridian  through  the  place  .c,  and  pxm  a  portion  of 
a  great  circle  ;  let  ji  be  the  place  sailed  fiuni,  and 
X  the  place  sailed  la,  then  px  is  the  great  circle 
track,  and  it  is  required  to  determine  the  length  of 
px  (called  the  distance),  and  the  angles  npx,  nxp. 


which  are  equal  to  the  first  and  last  true  course.'^. 
To  determine  these  we  have  three  things  given  : 
nx,  the  co-latitute  of  x  :  nn,  the  co- latitude  of  p  ; 
and  the  angle  xnp,  whii-h,  measured  along  ve, 
gives  the  ditt'erence  of  longituile.  The  probleni 
tliu.s  becomes  a  simple  case  of  spherical  trigo- 
nometry, the  way  of  solving  which  will  be  found 
in  any  of  the  ordinary  treatises  on  the  subject  of 
Spherical  Trigonometry. 

Next,  several  longitudes  on  the  route,  say  at  5 
intervals,  are  chosen,  and  the  co-latitudes  of  the 
S])Ots  on  the  gieat  circle  which  correspond  to  these 
a.ssumed  longitudes  are  calculated.  The  latitude 
and  longitude  of  these  spots  on  the  great  circle 
being  now  obtained,  the  coui.ses  and  distances  from 
one  to  the  other  in  succession  can  be  found  by  the 
ordinary  processes  of  navigation.  The  work  is 
somewhat  shortened  by  hiiding  that  particular 
spot  on  the  entire  great  circle  which  lies  farthe.st 
from  the  equator.  It  is  called  the  vertex,  and  Ls 
easily  found  by  the  pro])erty  that  the  meridian 
rtinning  through  it  Ls  at  right  angles  to  the  great 
circle  at  that  spot.  To  avoid  these,  or  some  of 
these  somewhat  troublesome  calculations,  chart- 
have  been  constructed  on  inojccticms  different 
from  that  of  Mercator.  On  one  of  these,  called 
the  Gnomonic  Projection,  all  the  great  circles 
are  straight  lines ;  on  another,  all  the  great 
circles  are  true  circles.  It  lia.s  also  been  suggested 
that  the  ports  of  (lejiarture  and  arrival  being 
given,  and  the  vertex  (descrilied  aliove)  having 
been  found,  and  all  three  having  been  marked  on 
a  Mercator's  chart,  a  true  circle  drawn  through 
these  three  spots  will  be  near  enough  to  the  great 
circle  for  practical  purposes.  A  modification  of 
this  appro.ximate  method  is  useful  in  the  run 
between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Australia,  on 
which  the  great  circle  route  goes  too  far  into  the 
southern  ice-region.  If  a  spot  of  highest  safe  south 
latitude  be  here  substituted  for  the  latitude  of 
the  vertex,  a  circle  drawn  through  the  places  of 
departure,  of  arrival,  and  of  the  substituted  safe 
vertex  will  give  what  is  called  a  composite  great 
circle. 

From  the  theory  of  great  circle  sailing  the  follow- 
ing most  prominent  features  are  at  once  ileduced  : 
.-I  s/ii'p  sailitifi  on  a  great  cire/e  ina/.es  direct  for 
lur  port,  uiiil  crossc-t  the  meriilidnx  itt  (in  angle 
ii-liim  in  alvdi/s  vctri/ing.  whereas,  by  other  sail- 
ings, t/ie  ship  crosses  all  meridians  at  the  same 
angle,  or,  in  nautical  phrase,  her  head  is  kept 
on  the  same  point  of  the  compass,  and  she 
never  steers  for  the  port  direct  till  it  is  in 
sight,  except  in  the  tiro  cases  trhere  the  ordinary 
track  lies  (\)  on  a  meridian,  or  (2)  on  the  etpiator. 
As  Mercator's  Chart  (see  Map)  is  the  one 
used  by  navigators,  and  on  it  the  course  by  the  ordi- 
nary sailings  is  laid  down  a.s  a  straight  line,  it 
follows,  from  the  previous  observations,  that  the 
great  circle  track  must  be  represented  by  a  curve, 
and  a  little  con.>*ideration  will  show  that  the  latter 
must  always  lie  in  a  higher  latitude  than  the 
former.  If  the  track  is  in  the  northern  hemisphere 
it  trends  towards  the  north  pole  :  if  in  the  southern 
hemisphere  it  trends  towatds  the  south  pole.  Thi.s 
explains  how  a  curve-line  on  the  Mercator's  chart 
represents  a  shorter  track  between  twi)  idaces  than 
a  straight  line  does  ;  for  the  difference  of  latitude  is 
the  same  for  both  tracks,  and  the  great  circle  has 
the  advantage  of  the  shorter  degrees  of  longitude 
nu'iisured  on  the  higher  circles  of  latitude-  <^on- 
secpiently,  the  higher  the  latitude  is  the  njore  do 
the  tracks  differ,  especially  if  the  two  places  are 
nearly  on  the  same  parallel.  The  pnint  nf  maxi- 
mum sejMiratiou,  as  it  ma,\'  be  called,  is  that 
point  in  the  great  circle  which  is  farthest  from  the 
rhumb-line  on  Mercator's  chart.  Since  the  errors 
of   dead-reckoning,    or    even    of    dea«l-reckoning 


382 


GREAT    EASTERN 


GREAT    SALT    LAKE 


sn|iiileiiieiitoil  by  iislrDiioniiciil  ob»ervntii>n,  prevent 
a  >hiy  from  l)eiii^,'  ke])t  for  any  leiijilli  of  time  with 
certainty  on  a  prcsorineil  track,  and  tlius  may  neces- 
sitate tlie  calculation  from  time  to  time  of  a  new 
path,  in  |>ractice  the  accurate  projection  of  a  p-eat 
circle  track  on  the  chart  would  he  a  witste  of  time. 
Some  i;,'iiorantly  object  to  great  circle  sailing  on 
the  ground  that,  on  account  of  constant  change  of 
the  course  steered,  a  ship  cannot  be  kept  with 
absolute  precision  on  the  correct  great  circle  track. 
Hut,  in  tact,  all  that  is  required  of  a  navigator 
is  to  sail  as  near  to  his  great  circle  track  a.s  con- 
venient :  and  each  separate  course  will  l)e  appro.xi- 
niately  a  tangent  to  his  track,  ami  the  shorter  tlie.se 
tangents  are  made  the  more  will  the  length  of  a 
voyage  be  diminished. 

Gresit  En.stern.  This  great  ship,  the  largest 
piece  of  iiiariiic  architecture  ever  put  together, 
was  plaiineil  (1852)  by  Brunei  and  Scott  Kussell 
at  the  instance  of  the  Ea-stern  Steam-navigation 
t'onijiaiiy,  a  ves.sel  being  wanteil  for  the  route  to 
Australia  round  the  Cape  which  couhl  carry  enough 
coal  for  the  voyage  out  and  lioine,  and  have  besiiles 
si>ace  for  a  large  number  of  pa-ssengers  and  cargo. 
The  scheme  wa-s  for  a  ship  that  would  acconimo<late 
1000  passengers,  ,1000  tons  of  goiuls,  and  15,000  tons 
of  coal.  As  at  fii"st  arranged  for,  the  mea.surements 
were:  length,  6S0  feet  between  perpendiculars,  or 
69'2  feet  upi)er  deck;  breadth,  H'.i  feet,  or  118  over 
paddle-boxes  ;  height  of  hull,  60  feet,  or  70  to  top 
of  bulwarks.  Ten  partitions  of  ))late  crosswise  of 
the  ship  diviiled  tlie  interior  into  1 1  watertight 
compartments,  further  subdivide<l  by  longitudinal 
jiartitions.  The  propelling  power  coiniirised  both 
]>ad«lle  and  screw.  The  4  paddle-engines  had  4 
lioilers  ;  tlie  4  screw-engines  had  6  b(>ilei"s.  The 
smoke  from  the  furnaces  ascended  5  funnels,  100 
feet  high  l)y  6  in  diameter.  Setting  asiile  the 
nominal  power,  all  the  8  engines  at  full  force 
were  estimated  to  work  up  to  11,000  horsepower. 
There  were  6  iiia.sts,  5  of  tlieiii  ir<in.  The  vast 
wall-sided  compartments  of  the  ship  had  facilities 
for  convei"sion  into  cabins  for  800  saloon  ]i,assengers, 
•2000  second-cla-ss,  1200  third-cla-ss,  and  400  otiicers 
and  crew  ;  or  5000  might  have  been  accommodated 
in  all  if  emigrants  or  troops.  The  height  of  the 
'tween  decks  was  l."?  feet.  Such  were  the  plans  for 
the  mighty  shi]),  which  were  never  fully  carried 
out  in  all  their  details,  owing  to  numerous  altera- 
tions and  relittings. 

During  1S.>4  57  the  operations  proceeded  at 
Millwall,  in  .spite  of  fref|uent  and  heavy  financial 
dithculties.  IJy  November  18.57  the  shiii  had 
advanced  to  the  launchin<;  condition  ;  but  it 
required  various  attempts,  between  November  .3. 
1857,  and  .January  31,  18.)8,  and  an  expenditure  of 
iGO.OOO,  to  eflect  the  launching.  During  1858  and 
1859  the  works  continued  as  f.ist  as  the  comiiany 
could  supply  money  ;  and  altogether  the  vessel  wa.s 
estimated  to  have  cost  £732,000.  I'licertaiii  how 
far  the  original  intention  of  a  trade  to  ami  from 
.\ustralia  could  be  realised,  the  directors  determined 
on  a  trial  trip  across  the  Atlantic.  It  wa-s  a  disaster. 
The  ship  left  the  Thames,  Septemlier  8,  18."i9 ;  an 
explosion  of  steam-]>ipes  took  place  ofT  Hastings ; 
seven  persons  wen;  killed  and  several  wounded  ; 
and  the  voyage  abrujitlv  came  to  an  end  at  Port- 
land. The  ship  started  again  on  June  17,  1.H60, 
from  Southampton,  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  eleven 
days,  and  readied  New  York  on  the  28tli.  During 
the  remainder  of  186(J  and  the  greater  part  of  1861 
she  made  many  voyages  to  and  fro,  including  the 
conveyance  of  Foot  (Juards  to  Canaila,  losing  money 
by  the  insufliciency  of  the  receipts  to  meet  the 
current  expenses,  and  constantly  requiring  repaii-s. 
For  the  arrangement  and  services  of  the  ship  in 
1865  and  1866  in  paying  out  the  Atlantic  cable, 
see   Atl.\xtic    Tki.ecjr.m'h.      In    1867    she    was 


chartered  to  brin;^  pius.sengers  from  New  York  to 

Havre  in  connection  with  the  I'aris  International 

Exhibition,    but    the    scheme    ]iroved    a    failure. 

From  1869  onwards  the  (Ireat  Eii.slern  successfully 

laid  some  of  the  most  important  ti'lcgiaph  cables — 

iu-ross  the  .Vtlantic,  in  the  Mediterianean,  Hcd  Sea, 

iVc.      After  acting  as  a  coal-hulk  at  Gibraltar  in 

*  1884,  the  gigantic  ve.s-sel  was  sold  in   London  by 

I  auction  for  i26,200.      Finally,  after   having  been 

i  Used  for  a  time  as  a  'show'  ship,  she  was  sohl  by 

auction   at   Liverpool   in   November    1888,   to    lie 

broken  up,  the  live  days'  aucti(m  fetching  £58,000. 

drcat  Fish  River.  (  l )  in  Cane  Cidony,  ri-sea  in 
the  Sneeuwberg  Mountains,  and,  after  a  gener- 
allv  south-easterly  course  of  2.'M)  miles,  enters  the 
Indian  Ocean  in  33°  25'  S.  hit.  and  27°  E.  long.  The 
Midland  Kailway  which  connects  Port  Elizabeth 
and  I'ort  Alfred  with  Kimberley  skirts  ])art  of  the 
river  ;  there  is  an  iron  bridge  at  Cradock,  and  Fish 
Kiver  Station  is  207  miles  from  I'ort  Elizabeth. — 
(2)  (ireat  Fish  Kiver,  or  Hack's  Hiver,  in  North 
America,  entei's  an  inlet  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  95' 
W.  long.,  after  piussing  through  Lake  Felly.  Sir 
(Jeorge  Hack  (q.v.)  traced  its  course  to  the  ocean. 

Ciroat  Ciriiiisby.    See  Orim.sbv. 

Great  Kaiiawiia  (pronounced  Kiiimn'va),a.\\ 
allliu'iit  of  the  Ohio  Itiver,  is  called  New  Kiver 
in  the  u]>per  part  of  its  coui-se,  and  ri.ses  in  the  Blue 
Kidge  of  North  Carolina.  It  ha-s  a  coui-se  of  450 
miles,  and  Ls  navigable  to  a  fall  30  miles  above 
Charleston,  and  alxiut  100  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Great  Marlow.    See  M.vm.ow. 

Gr«'atrakes,  V-\lentine  (sometimes  called 
(Iroiturcj.  anil  lindtiirirk),  the  'touch  doctor,'  was 
iKirn  at  AH'ane,  near  Lismore,  in  County  Water- 
ford,  14th  February  1629.  During  the  troubles 
of  the  Kebellion  his  mother  lied  in  1641  to  Eng 
land,  and  .settled  in  Dev<mshiie.  From  1(>49  till 
16.56  he  served  as  an  ollicer  in  the  Parliament- 
ary army,  and  from  16.56  till  the  Kestoration  he 
acted  a-s  a  magistrate  in  his  native  place.  About 
1661  he  began  'touching'  for  the  king's  evil,  in 
obedience,  he  said,  to  a  divine  impul.se,  and  ere 
long  he  touched  or  'stroked'  for  agoie  and  for  all 
manner  of  disease.  He  was  summoned  to  the  king 
at  Whitehall  ;  multitudes  flocked  to  him,  and  his 
cures  were  witnes.sed  and  attested  by  men  so  emi- 
nent as  Kobert  Boyle,  Kalph  Cudworth,  and  Henry 
More.  This  predecessor  of  Mesmer  diil  not  profess 
to  be  always  successful  ;  but  his  claims  provoked 
much  controversy,  and  in  1666  he  published  in  his 
own  defence  his  Brief  Arruitiit  of  liimself  and  his 
cures.     He  died  at  .-Ulane,  2Stli  November  1683. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  in  Utah,  stretches  along  the 
western  base  of  the  W'ahsatcli  Mountains,  about 
4'200  feet  above  the  sea,  forming  a  principal  drain- 
age centre  of  the  tireat  Bivsin  (<|.v.).  Well-marked 
siiore-lines  on  the  mountains  around,  reaching  lOOfJ 
feet  higher  than  the  i>re.sent  level,  show  that  the 
lake  had  formerly  a  va-stly  greater  extent ;  this 
prehistoric  sea  lia-s  been  named  Lake  Bonneville, 
(ireat  Salt  Lake  is  over  80  miles  hmg  and  from 
"20  to  32  broail,  but  for  the  most  part  exceedingly 
shallow.  It  contains  several  islands,  the  largest, 
.\ntelope  Island,  alxmt  18  miles  long.  Its  tribu- 
taries are  the  Bear,  (_»gdeii,  .Jordan,  and  Weber,  the 
.Jordan  bringing  the  fresh  watere  of  Lake  Utah  : 
but  (ireat  Salt  Lake  has  no  outlet  save  evai>oration, 
and  its  clear  water  consequently  holds  at  all  times 
a  considerable  quantity  of  saline  matter  in  solution  ; 
in  1850  the  proportion  was  '22  4  per  cent.,  in  1869 
it  was  only  14  8.  Between  these  dates  the  annual 
tribute  exceeded  the  evai>oration,  and  the  area  of 
tlie  lake  increased  from  1700  to  2360  sq.  in.  ;  more 
recently,  it  has  again  lieen  slowly  receding. 
Several  species  of  insects  and  a  brine-shrimp  have 
been  found  in  its  waters,  but  no  fishes  ;  large  flocks 


GREAT    SEAL 


GREECE 


383 


of  water-fowls  frenuent  the  sliores.  The  first  men- 
tion of  Great  Salt  Lake  was  by  the  Franciscan 
friar  Escalante  in  1776,  but  it  \va.s  first  exiiloreil  and 
"lescribed  in  1843  by  Fremont  ;  for  tlie  value  of 
Baron  La  Hontan's  fables,  see  H.  H.  lianeroft's 
Utah  (San  Francisco,  1889).  A  thorough  survey 
was  made  in  1849-50  by  Captain  Howard  Stans- 
bury,  U.S.A.     See  S.\LT  Lake  City,  and  Utah. 

Great  Seal  of  England.    See  Seal. 

Great  Slave  Lake  lies  in  the  Canadian  North- 
west Territory  (G'2'  N.  hit. ).  Its  j,'reatest  length  is 
about  300  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  50  miles. 
By  tlie  Slave  River  it  receives  the  surplus  waters 
of  Lake  Athabasca ;  and  it  discharges  by  the 
Mackenzie  Kiver  into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  See 
Athabasca. 

Great  Wall  of  China.     See  China,  Vol. 

in.  p.  18.5. 

Greaves.    See  Armour. 

Grebe  (Podiceos),  a  genus  of  diving  birds 
(Pygopodes),  usually  frequenting  rivers  and  fresh- 
water lakes,  and  visiting  the  sea  only  when 
migrating  or  in  winter.  The  foot  of  the  grebe  is 
liroad  and  flattened  :  the  toes  lobed  ami  bearing 
separate  membranes  united  only  at  the  l)ase ;  the 
wings  are  short  and  rounded  ;  and  there  is  virtually 
no  tail.  The  legs  are  placed  so  far  back  that  the 
bird  stands  erect  like  the  penguin.s.  Its  move- 
ments on  land  are  ungainly  in  the  extreme,  but  it 
swims  gracefully,  and  is  the  most  expert  of  divers, 
not  using  its  wings,  but  proi)elling  itself  on  its 
downward  career  solely  l>y  the  aid  of  its  jiaddle- 
like  feet.  The  grebe  seldom  leaves  the  water,  and 
can  even  swim  under  the  surface  for  a  considerable 
distance,  threading  its  way  with  wonderful  e.vpert- 
ness  among  the  stalks  anil  leaves  of  aquatic  plants. 
A  floating  nest  is  built  of  leaves  and  twigs  and 
moored  to  reeds  or  grasses.  The  eggs  are  covered 
with  a  chalky  incrustation,  and  are  so  wide  in  the 
middle  as  to  look  almost  biconical.  The  mother- 
bird,  before  leaving  the  nest,  scratches  the  weeds 
over  them  with  her  feet,  so  that  the  wiude  looks 
like  a  tangled  mass  of  rubbish.  She  is  careful  of 
her  young,  carrying  them  on  her  back,  and  even 
diving  with  one  under  her  wing.  The  grebe  feeds 
chieliy  on  crustaceans,  frogs,  and  small  fishes, 
])artly,  however,  on  vegetable  food.  The  plumage 
varies  at  different  seasons. 

The  Great  Crested  Grebe  (/'.  cristatus)  is  found 


Great  Crested  Grebe  ( Podicej>s  cristatus)  and  Nest. 

all  the  year  round  on  inland  lakes  in  England 
and  Ireland,  more  rarely  in  Scotland,  and  at  the 
sea-coast  in  winter  when  driven  by  frost  from 
the  lakes.  The  adult  male  is  ii  inches  in  length, 
and  is  very  conspicuous  in  Hying  because  of  the 
glossy   whiteness  of  the  plumage  on   the   ventral 


surface ;  the  female  is  smaller  and  lia.s  a  less 
developed  crest.  The  best -known  British  species 
is  the  Little  Grebe  or  Dabchick  (P.  fltn-intilis), 
one  of  our  most  beautiful  river-birds,  which  is 
widely  distributed  throughout  England  and  Ire- 
land, and  is  also  found  in  Scotland,  where  it  breeds 
at  an  elevation  of  ■2(XX)  feet.  In  summer  the  head, 
neck,  and  upper  parts  are  dark  luown,  the  under 
parts  giayish-white ;  in  winter  the  coloui's  are 
paler.  Gould  describes  the  young  dal)chicks  as 
having  '  delicate  rose-coloured  bills,  harlequin-like 
markings,  and  rosy- white  aprons.'  The  adult  bird 
only  reaches  a  lengtli  of  9  to  10  inches.  The  lied- 
necked  Grebe  (P.  (/n'scif/c/m)  and  the  Slavonian  or 
Horned  tirebe  {!'.  aiirltii.s)  visit  our  shores  in 
autumn  and  winter,  and  the  Black-necked  or  Eared 
Grebe  (P.  nirjrir.oUis)  in  sjiring  and  summer.  An 
allied  genus,  Podilymlms,  comprising  two  species, 
is  confined  to  North  and  South  America.  The 
grebes  are  much  sought  after  for  their  jdumage, 
but  their  shyness  and  their  great  agility  m  diving 
anil  swimming  underwater  render  them  extremely 
dirticult  to  shoot.  So  ea-sily  alarmed  are  they  that 
Mr  Ruskin,  in  his  somewhat  revolutionary  treat- 
ment of  ornithological  nomenclature,  proposed  to 
rename  the  genus  Trepida.  The  >-kin  of  the  grebes 
is  made  into  mufis  or  cut  into  strijis  for  trimmings, 
the  lieautiful,  satiny  idumage  on  the  lower  iiart.sof 
the  body  of  the  Great  Crested  llrebe  being  in  par- 
ticular request  for  these  purposes.  See  Howard 
Saunders,  Manual  of  British  Birch:  and  Ruskin, 
Love's  3Icinie. 

Grecian  Areliiteeture.   See  Greek  Akchi 

TECTfEE. 

Greece  is  the  easternmost  of  the  three  penin- 
sulas projected  .southwards  by  Europe  into  the 
Mediterranean  ;  and  being  for  the  most  i>art  lime- 
stone, is  a  continuation  of  the  great  mountain- 
system  which  stretches  from  Sjiain  to  Syria, 
encloses  the  basin  of  the  Jlediteiranean  with  pre- 
cipitous edges,  and  shuts  of!  the  three  peiiinsula.s 
from  the  continent.  In  no  other  country  has  the 
geography  more  influenceil  the  history  than  in 
Greece  ;  and  the  tendencies  of  this  influence  are 
expressed  on  the  one  hand  in  Wordsworth's  lines  : 

Two  Voices  are  there  ;  one  is  of  the  Sea, 
One  of  the  Mountains  ;  each  a  mighty  Voice  ; 
In  both  from  age  to  age  thou  didst  rejt)ice, 
Tliey  were  tliychoseu  music.  Liberty  I 

and  on  the  other  in  Hegel's  dictum  :  '  Mountains 
alone  divide,  seas  unite.  Thus,  as  the  west  coast 
of  Greece  is  mountainous  and  liarbourless,  whilst 
the  east  is  full  of  bavs,  gulfs,  and  havens,  (Greece 
turned  her  back  on  Italy,  and  was  brought  into 
intimate  comnninication  with  Asia  Minor.  The 
easternmost  of  the  three  basins  into  which  the 
.Mediterranean  is  divided  becanu"  a  (ireek  lake. 
The  greatest  factor  in  (heek  unity  was  the  .Egean 
Sea,  for  it  united  the  Greeks  of  the  mother  country 
with  the  (Greeks  of  the  isles  and  of  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor.  At  the  same  time,  as  the  cojist  is  the  tii-st 
part  of  a  new  country  to  become  civilised,  ami 
Greece  ha.s  relatively  a  longer  coa.st-line  than  any 
other  country  in  Europe,  just  as  Europe  has  more 
coast  than  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe,  the 
history  of  European  civilisation  begins  with  Greece. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  .snirit  of  liberty,  which 
nerved  the  (ireeks  to  resist  the  I'ei'sians,  and  so  save 
the  civilisation  of  the  world,  was  <lue  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Greece  ;  but  the  divisions  between  the 
Greeks  themselves  were  also  due  to  the  nnuintains, 
which  divided  the  land  into  cantons  incapable  of 
etVectual  combination  against  the  Macedonian 
invader  who  cim(|uered  them  all. 

Let  us  then  begin  witii  the  mountains,  and,  so 
to  speak,  articulate  the  skeleton  of  (ireece.  The 
range  which  in  the  north  cuts  ott'  the  i>eninsula  from 


384 


GREECE 


the  conliiifiit  of  Kurope  is  an  extension  of  the  Bui- 
kans.  From  it  run  chains  from  north  to  south,  or 
rather  from  nortli  north-west  to  south  south  eiust, 
which  form  tlie  skch-ton  of  llreece.  The  most  im- 
portant of  tliose  is  the  ranf^c  whidi  forms  thi'  hiick- 
l>one  of  the  country,  se|iaratinf;  first  Illyria  on  the 
west  from  .Macedonia  lui  the  east,  ami  then  Kpirus 
on  tlie  west  from  Tlicssaly  on  the  east.  Thus  the 
western  houmlarv  of  Thes>.saly  is  fornieil  hy  I'imhis 
(7111  feet),  the'  main  ollshoot  of  the  lialkaiis. 
The  eastern  houndary  is  also  markoil  not  only 
liy  the  sea,  Imt  l>y  im|)ortant  mountains  ileriveil 
from  the  ISalkan  .system.  These  are  ()lvm|>ns  (!»7r>0 
feet),  0.s.sa,  Mavrovnni,  ami  I'elion.  itelviniinj;  to 
Finilus,  we  lind  that  its  tendency  to  the  eiu<t  hceomes 
now  more  pronounced,  and  a  branch  of  it,  umler 
the  name  of  Othrys,  starting'  from  the  mi^dity 
Tymidirestus  (mod.  Vcliirhi,  7tK)G  feel),  foinis  the 
south  lioumlary  of  Tliessaly.  It  then  is  continued 
in  the  celel>rate4l  mountains  Parnassus  (.SO.'W  feet) 
and  Helicon,  forms  the  land  of  .Vttica,  and  rea|>|iears 
a.M  the  islands  of  Ceos,  t'ytlinos,  Seri|>hos,  and  Si|ih- 
uos.  The  suhse<|Uent  course  of  that  branch  of  the 
Balkans  which  we  have  mentioneil  a.s  marking'  in 
part  the  eastern  boundary  of  Thes.saly  is  e(|ually 
interesting.;,  for  it  forms  first  the  island  of  Kuluca, 
and  then  the  isles  of  .\ndnis,  Tenos,  Myconus, 
Na.xos,  and  .\mor;;os.  The  Feloponne.se,  'the 
islanil  of  I'elops,'  or  by  its  nuMlern  name  the  Morea, 
i.s  connecteil  with  northern  (ireece  merely  by  the 
narrow  isthmus  of  Curinth,  and  is  separated  from  it 
by  the  Ion;;  if  narrow  tiulf  of  Corinth  on  the  west 
and  the  Saronic  tJulf  on  the  east.  The  commercial 
su])remacv  of  ancient  Corinth,  standinj;  as  it  did  cm 
'two  bri;iht  havens,'  and  on  the  roail  fn>m  I'elopon- 
nese  to  the  niainlaml.  was  due  to  its  positi<m  ;  ami 
we  need  only  .add,  in  further  e.xplanation,  that  all 
the  K'eat  trade  routes  from  the  I'ral  Mountains, 
the  Black  .Sea,  and  ,\sia  Minor  to  Sicily,  Marseilles, 
and  the  West  conver;;cd  at  Corinth. 

The  I'eloponnese  has  a  mountain-systcni  which 
Ls  derived,  like  the  others  of  (Jreece,  from  the 
Balkans,  runs  jiarallcl  to  and  west  of  I'indus,  and 
shows  itself  in  the  .\croceraunian  Mountains  and 
in  Araeyntlius.  From  the  central  ;;roup  of 
mountains  which  surrounil  .\rcadia,  and  are 
highest  on  it.s  north  frontiers  between  .Vrcadi.i  .and 
Acli;ea — e.g.  Cyllcne  (Z/;/</(,  .\roania  (C/n/mas, 
nH  feet),  and  Krymantlms  {O/iniiis)— ran  two 
imiiortant  chains,  in  the  same  north-nortli-we.st 
to  south-south-ea-st  direction  which  we  observed 
in  the  I'indus.  (M  the.se,  the  westernmost  is  the 
Tayget us  (//«</(>«  y;7(V/.v,  7901  feet),  the  highest 
peak  in  the  I'eloponnese,  which,  after  ilividing 
Laconia  on  tlic  e.ust  from  Messcni.a  on  the  west, 
ends  in  the  promontory  of  T:enarum  :  while 
the  eji-stern  one  separates  Arcadia  from  Arj;i>lis, 
runs  down  Lacmiia  under  the  name  of  I'arnon 
{Miilcro),  anil  makes  it«  last  appearance  ;is  the 
island  of  Cytliera.  And  here  we  m.ay  complete  our 
account  of  the  isles  of  (ireece  by  adding  that  the 
Ionian  Isles,  Corcyra,  Cephallcnia.  l,euc:us,  and 
Zacvntlius,  oil'  the  west  co,ast,  fullow  the  same 
north-north-west  to  south-south-ca.-t  direction  .'is 
the  mountain-chains  of  the  Feloponnese  .and  the 
mainland. 

The  riccrg  of  (Ireece  are  unimportant.  They  tlow 
gener.ally,  both  in  the  I'eloponnese  and  the  main- 
land, south  or  west.  In  the  latter  the  four  iiiinci- 
pal  rivers  have  their  source  on  Mount  I.akmon, 
the  starting-point  of  I'indus,  and  tlow,  the  Aoos 
(  Ki'o.yrt )  into  the  .\(lriati<',  the  .\clielons  {A.y/ni/irj- 
tamos)  to  the  Culf  of  I'.atne,  the  I'eneus  (Siilfim- 
brias)  and  Ilaliacmon  into  the  Thermaic  tiulf. 
The  principal  rivers  of  the  Peloponne.se  rise  near 
the  north  of  Taygetus  :  the  AlpheiLs  (llujihin) 
tlows  west,  the  Eurotas  south. 

People. — The    ancient    Greeks    were    a    branch 


of  that  family  which  includes  most  Euro|>ean 
peoples,  and  also  the  Persians  an<l  the  Hindus,  and 
Is  variously  calleil  Indo  (icrmanic,  Imlo-Kuropean, 
and  .\ryan.  The  Indo-Knropcan  family  is  not  an 
ethnological  division  of  the  human  race,  but  a 
I  linguistic  :  the  languages  spoken  by  the  varioiLs 
Inilo-Kuropeans  are  descended  from  one  ami  the 
same  original  language  (now  lost),  but  the  pi'oples- 
who  speak  it,  imleed  the  people  who  spoke  the 
i  original  language,  need  not  mci'ssarily.  though 
they  may  (piite  possibly,  bi-  all  of  the  same 
ilescent,  fi'r  one  nation  mav,  ilircctly  or  indirectly, 
I'ompel  another  to  adopt  its  language.  Whether 
the  original  Indo-Knrojicaii  home  was  in  Europe  or 
in  Asia  Ls  a  matter  still  in  <li.spntc.  What  is  less 
oiien  to  doubt  is  that  it  wa-  from  the  north  that  the 
(.reeks  entered  (ireece,  ami  that  they  were  nomad 
tribes  ilcpending  for  subsistence  mainly  on  their 
Hocks,  though  tliey  knew  how  in  c.vtremity  to  culti 
vate  the  ground  in  a  primitive  f.a.shi(m.  Metals 
they  were  hardly  acijuainted  with;  they  were  .still 
ill  the  Stone  Age.  As  they  moved  southwards  in 
separate  tribes,  the  foremost  trilM-s  were  impelletl 
forward  by  the  pressure  of  those  behiml  ;  and  even 
when  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  hail  been  for  some 
time  lilleil  ami  fully  occupied,  a  fresh  wave  of  im- 
migrant.s  might  wash  over  the  whole  country, 
disturbing  everything.  Such  a  wave  w.xs  the 
'  Keturn  of  the  Heracliche,'  or  the  'Dorian  In- 
v.asion.'  The  result  was  to  drive  emigrants  on  to 
and  over  the  isles  of  (Ireece  to  plant  (ireek  cities 
and  (ireek  culture  on  the  coasts  of  .Asia  Minor.  At 
later  times  Sicily,  the  Black  Sea,  l.iby.i,  \c.  were 
dotted  with  (Ireek  colonies:  and  wherever  (irecks 
were,  there,  to  the  (ireek  mind,  was  Hellas,  which 
is  thus  an  ethnological  rather  than  a  territorial 
term.  As  for  the  name  of  the  (Irecks,  they  called 
themselves  llcllents,  a  designation  the  origin  of 
which  is  still  unknown;  the  inhabitants  of  Italy 
called  them  (rV«c/;the  Orientals,  JiDiiniis  ;  while 
in  Homer  they  arc  called  Diiikiiiiis  .ami  Ai/i/rnn.s. 

The  modern  (Irecks  are  by  no  means  purebred 
descendants  of  the  .ancient  (Ireeks.  Imleeil,  it  li.x-- 
lieen  maintained  by  Fallmerayer  that  from  the  7tli 
century  A.l).  there  have  been  no  pure  (Ireeks  in  the 
country,  but  only  Slavs.  It  is.  however,  |irett.v 
certain  that  the  U  million  of  modern  inhabitants 
.ire  descendants  of  the  three  racesth.it  occupied  the 
-soil  at  the  time  of  the  Hoiiian  Conquest — viz. 
Greeks,  Thracians  (mod.  Wallacliians),  and  Illy- 
riaiis  (Albanians). 

Laiii/iiaffi: — The  Indo-European  family  of  ,s|jeecli 
includes,  in  addition  to  Greek,  the  following 
br.anches  ;  Hindu  Persian,  Armeni.an,  Albanian, 
Italian,  Celtic.  Teutonic,  and  Slavo  I'.altii-.  Of 
these  that  with  which  Greek  was  supposed  to 
have  the  most  athnities  wjis  the  other  cl.ossical 
language,  Latin  ;  and  the  two  peoples  were  accord- 
ingly siiiiposeil  to  have  dwelt  together  after  leaving 
the  original  home,  and  to  have  jointly  gone  through 
a  Graco  Italian  period.  This  \iew,  however,  is 
exposed  to  many  dilliculties  :  the  inllcctiuiis  of  the 
I.atin  verb  are  more  closely  connected  with  Celtic  ; 
the  syntax  of  Greek  bears  more  resemblance  to  that 
of  S.anskrit  ;  and  while  the  vocabulary  of  Latin  is 
more  closely  Imunil  up  with  that  of  the  Teutonic 
languages, "  the  Greek  coincides  more  fiequentl.v 
with  tlie  Hindu-Persian.  The  dialects  into  which 
the  ancient  langu.age  was  divided  may  be  grouped 
;us  fidlows  :  (1)  Ionic  and  .\ttic  ;  ("2)  I iorian  (cover- 
ing the  Peloponne.se  ami  its  colonies)  ;  (3)  the 
Nortli -western  dialects  (those  of  Phocis,  Locris, 
.Etolia,  Acarnania,  and  Epiriis)  ;  (4)  MoVian 
(Lesbos,  North  Tlies,sjily,  Bootia);  (5)  Elis ;  (6) 
Arcadian  and  Cyprian  :  (7)  P.imphylian. 

The  ancient  dialects  continued  to  be  .spoken  at 
•anvrate  till  the  time  of  Tatian  {adv.  Grmc.  171) — 
i.e!   the  end  of  the  2d  centut>-  A.D.     By  263  A.D., 


I   &    ! 


K<k^   m 


.d 

5 

?i 

»=        i 

GREECE 


385 


however,  as  appears  from  a  letter  of  the  Emperor 
Julian,  and  an  anecdote  told  a  few  years  later  of 
Clirysostom,  the  coniiiion  jieojilu  were  lii-^'innini^  to 
have  a  difficulty  in  understandiii;,'  ancient  Greek. 
Intlections  tlien  began  to  disajipear,  foreijjn  words 
to  debase  the  vocaljulaiy,  the  (juantity  of  syllables 
to  be  disregarded,  (Ircek  words  to  be  mutilated  in 
form  and  changed  in  iiieaiiing.  Nime  of  these 
tendencies  were  new  :  they  niav  be  detected  from 
the  beginning  of  the  life  of  tlie  language,  even  in 
Homer.  Nor  are  tliey  peculiar  to  Greek,  liut  the 
conditions  were  favouralile  to  tlieir  ilevelopment  as 
they  never  had  been  before,  and  rarely  have  been 
elsewhere.  Foremost  amongst  these  developing 
conditions  ninst  be  placed  tlie  fact  that  for  cen- 
turies the  language  was  not  a  nation's  organ  of 
speech,  nor  the  e.xpression  of  a  national  life.  At- 
tempts are  being  made  at  the  present  day  to  revert 
to  the  Use  of  ancieut  (Jreek,  'correct'  (Jreek  (^ 
Ka&afnOooaa  4>r  feoeWtjviKrj  or  i\\t]viKri),  Utr  literary 
purposes ;  but  the  spoken  language  ( 3riij.jj5ris  or 
Xi'5a;a)  is  too  far  decomposed  to  admit  of  a  success- 
ful inlnsioii  of  ancient  forms,  and  not  sufficiently 
advanced  to  throw  off  all  connection  with  the 
ancient  tongue. 

Ancient  Jleliijiim. — That  the  Greeks  woi-shipped 
many  gods,  and  those  made  in  the  image  of  man, 
needs  not  to  lie  demonstrated.  Let  it  be  granted  also 
for  the  purposes  of  this  article  that  religion  is  not  the 
same  thing  as  Mvsteries  (i[.v.),  or  Mythology  (q.v. 
also),  and  that  tlie  reader  may  be  referred  to  the 
special  articles  on  the  various  Greek  gods  for  their 
respective  attributes  and  legends.  The  (juestion  at 
once  arises  :  In  what  sense  of  the  word  could  the 
Greeks  have  a  religion ':  Their  mythology  taught 
them  that  the  go<ls  were  deceitful  and  approved  of 
deceit  (Athene),  were  cowanlly,  even  the  go<l  of 
war  (Ares),  were  guilty  of  cannibalistic  infanticide 
( Cronos ),  incest  ( Cronos  and  Khea,  Zeus  ami  Hera ), 
bestial  aniours  (Zeus),  and  what  was  tantamount 
amcuigst  immortals  to  jiarricide  ( Uranos,  Cronos,  and 
Zeus).  And  though  (ireeks  ilid  not  spend  all  their 
days  listening  to  these  repulsive  stories,  they  did 
every  day  perform  a  number  of  rites  and  ceremonies 
which  were  puerile,  unmeaning,  and  absurd  :  while 
'hey  sboweil  the  o]iinii)n  they  held  of  their  gods  by 
the  faith  which  tln'V  Ijad  that  they  could  buy  their 
favour  or  buy  off  their  disfavour  by  offerings.  Nor 
can  it  be  alleged  that  this  is  our  way,  not  theirs,  of 
regarding  their  myths  and  cults.  From  the  time 
of  Xenophanes  to  that  of  Euripiiles  philosophers 
and  poets  did  not  weary  of  denouncing  the  immor- 
ality and  bestiality  of  these  myths.  I'lato  pro- 
tested that  the  current  theory  of  offerings  and 
sacrilicc  made  religion  a  variety  of  higgling  in  the 
celestial  market,  a  sort  of  political  economy  of  the 
spiritual  world.  Aristophanes  and  the  comi'dians 
of  the  old  school  could  place  a  god  in  pruiiriii  /icr- 
siDia  upon  the  stage  to  be  derided  for  his  cowardice, 
braggadocio,  and  gluttony.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, then,  what  sort  of  religion  was  it  that  the 
Greeks  could  have  ? 

In  the  lii'st  place,  whether  it  w.os  that  Zeus  con- 
trolled the  other  gods,  or  that  he  as  well  as  they 
was  guided  l)y  fate  or  destiny  or  necessity,  the 
universe  was,  the  Greeks  believed  as  Avell  ;vs  we, 
ruled  for  some  "ood  eml.  In  other  words,  they  lia<l 
faith ;  and— which  enlists  our  .sympatliies— that 
faith  was  tried.  They  were  not  slow  to  observe 
that,  though  the  good  do  often  prosper  and  the 
wicked  suffer  in  tins  world,  the  rule  is  far  from 
absolute;  aiul  we  lind,  e.g.  in  Theognis  an<l  Solon, 
that  they  could  not  reconcile  this  with  their  faith, 
but  for  all  that  they  did  not  cease  to  believe. 
Again,  whatever  faith  they  )mt  in  the  efficacy  of 
sacrihce  and  rites  and  ceremonies,  they  also  l)e- 
lieved  that  a  good  life  was  that  winch  was  most 
acceptable  in  the  sight  of  the  gods.  Thev  certaiidy 
233 


believed  that  wrong-doing  jirovoked  the  displeasure 
of  heaven,  and  .Kschylus  was  led  to  discover  that 
the  sins  of  the  father  were  visited  on  the  children, 
while  to  Herodotus  and  the  Greeks  generally  tlieir 
gods  seemed  jealous  gods.  If  it  be  asked  how  all 
this  could  be  reconciled  with  a  belief  in  their 
revolting  myths,  there  are  various  answers  :  what 
was  right  for  the  go<ls  might  be  not  right  for  men, 
just  as  the  schoolboy  has  no  doubt  that  it  is  right 
for  his  father  but  not  right  for  himself  to  smoke, 
sit  up  late,  or  the  like;  or  the  myths  might  be 
the  invention  of  misguiding  or  misguided  poets,  or 
might  mean  something  and  were  not  to  be  inter- 
preted literally. 

Ne.Kt,  as  to  their  conception  of  a  future  world. 
In  the  earliest  (  Homeric )  times  it  could  scarcely  have 
been  a  potent  religions  factor;  it  is  almost  purely 
mythological.  If  a  wrong-doer  like  Sisyphus  or 
Tantalus  is  punished  in  Hades,  merit  <an  hardly 
be  said  to  be  rewarded  :  the  ghost  of  Orion  con- 
tinues, like  the  Ked  man's  sjiirit,  to  go  hunting, 
but  Achilles  thinks  the  meanest  life  <m  earth  pre- 
ferable to  being  king  of  the  shades  belo^\  But  in 
course  of  time,  when  it  became  imjiossible  to  be- 
lieve that  the  good  were  always  rewarded  and  the 
bad  punished  in  this  world,  and  when  even  the 
theory  that  the  sins  of  the  f;ither  are  visited  on  the 
children  was  found  an  inadequate  explanation  of 
the  sutierings  of  the  innocent,  the  belief  in  a. system 
of  future  yiunishments  and  rewards  grew  in  strength, 
and  in  Plato  s  time  {J!'j,,  330  D.  and  .363)  was 
tirmly  held  by  the  average  respectable  Greek. 
On  tiie  whole  then  it  seems  jirobable  that  in  Greece 
myth  did  not  kill  religion,  and  that  it  was  not 
myth  but  religion  which  dominated  the  morality  of 
Greece,  as  it  also  dominated  tireek  art,  especially 
sculpture. 

The  Greeks,  therefore,  were  not  without  religion. 
Ho«-  then  did  it  cliffer  from  modem  systems  ?  The 
more  educated  Greeks  wcic,  in  many  cases,  inono- 
theists,  Zeus  lieing  supreme,  and  the  other  gods  his 
angels  ;  and  the  conception  of  the  paternal  love  of 
God  wa.s  not  strange  to  them.  The  essential  differ- 
ence is  that  the  Greeks  were  not  taught  their 
religion  by  authoritv,  ^^llether  of  revelation,  the 
state,  or  a  priesthood.  They  had  no  rexealed  book 
(  H(Uiier  and  Hesiod  li.xed  the  theogony  indeed,  but 
not  the  religion  ) ;  they  had  no  priests  having  author- 
ity, and  as  long  as  a  Greek  performed  the  rites 
prescribed  by  the  state  he  might  interpret  them  as 
he  pleased.  Thus,  though  on  the  one  hand  there 
Wiis  nothing  to  ]>revent  a  man  becoming  a  practical 
monotheist,  on  the  other,  for  want  of  organisation 
and  authority,  the  many  elements  of  good  there 
were  in  the  religion  of  the  CJreeks  donlplle.ss  acted 
le.ss  iiotently  than  they  might  have  acted.  Let  us 
remember,  however,  that  had  anv  dogmas  been 
enforced,  they  might  have  been  tlie  wrong  ones. 
Finally,  it  is  in  harmony  with  the  Greek  character 
generally  that  in  (ireece  there  was  no  devil. 

In  modern  Greece  the  church  is  the  Orthodox 
Greek  Church,  which  is  •emlowed"  in  that  bishops 
and  archbishops  are  jiaid  by  the  state  (the  inferior 
clergy,  however,  by  voluntary  fees),  and  is  'estab- 
lished' in  that  the  aichbishoiis  and  bishops  are 
niHiiinated  by  the  king,  as  is  the  Synod  of  Five 
which  is  sujueme  in  the  church  ;  and  that,  except 
in  piiiely  spiritual  matters,  the  .-ym.d  is  ilependent 
on  the  government. 

Hi.slori/. — The  earliest  fact  in  the  history  of 
(Jreece  of  which  we  can  feel  certain  is  the  Porian 
invasion,  or  ju*  the  mythical  vei'sion  of  this  nn- 
iloubtedly  historic  fact  terms  it,  'the  return  of  the 
Heniclid;e. '  Its  date  can  of  course  only  be  aj)- 
proximately  cmijectured,  but  we  may  take  it  that 
the  changes  in  tlie  ethnological  map  occa-^ioned  by 
the  Dorian  inv.ision  tonk  about  a  couide  of  cen- 
turies to  etiect,  and  were  completed  about  1000  B.C. 


386 


GrtEECK 


The  Homeric  poems  relate  events  wliicli  the  author 
or  authors  sii|)|«)si'il  to  lip  ])rior  to  the  Doriiin  in- 
vasion ;  liut  til"  su|i|>iisimI  facts  liolon;;  iprolialiiy  to 
the  iloinain  <il  iiivlli,  anil  the  ]>oenis  th«Mnsrlves 
were  certainly  coni|)osc<l  after  the  Dorian  inva-sion. 
Whether  the  remains  discovered  hy  Schliciiianii  at 
Troy,  Myceiia',  and  Tiryiis  date  from  liefore  or 
after  the  invasion  is  still  a  moot  iioiiit.  The 
halance  of  oiiinion  is  in  favour  of  the  earlier  iicriod, 
on  the  ground  that  nutliiii^'  hut  sui'h  a  |>iililical 
cataclysm  ius  the  invitsion  could  sweep  away  so 
completely  the  very  meiiiory  of  the  dyiiitsties  which 
erected  the  marvellous  monuments  that  remain  to 
us.  IJut  even  if  the  earlier  date  he  a.ssif;iied  to 
these  remains  we  are  still  in  complete  i^rnoiance  a-s 
to  tiie  name  ami  even  the  race  of  which  they  arc 
the  s(de  memorials.  It  was  once  the  l;t-liion  to 
call  everythiii^r  dalinj;  from  licfore  the  Dorian 
inva.sion  l'ehus;;ic,  and  ima;;ine  that  therehy  all  Wius 
e.xplaincd.  The  I'ehus^'i  were  a  mysterious  people 
ahout  w  hom  nothiu};  was  known,  and  conjectures 
were  most  diverfjent.  \'ery  frei|uently  they  were 
identified  with  the  common  ancestors  of  the  (irceU- 
and  Italians,  lint  a  (Jr.rcoltalian  iieriod  ami 
people  are  now  on  the  way  to  liein^'  discrcditcil  : 
and  the  l'cl;Ls;.'i,  if  wc  conline  oiirsi'lves  to  fiU'ts. 
were  an  iiisi;,'nilicaiil  trilie  of  lireeks.  l-'inally,  we 
may  dismiss  the  period  antecedent  to  the  Dorian 
invasion  hy  notinj;  that  in  it  the  I'lio'iiicians  were 
helieved  to  have  larjjelv  inlluenccil  (Iieek  culture  ; 
hut  the  extent  of  their  inlluence  is  now  universally 
admitted  to  have  heeii  e.xagjjerateil,  and  it  is  a 
question  whether  it  must  not  he  referred  wholly 
to  a  later  jieriod. 

Of  the  Dorian  invasion  itself,  wliat  we  know  is 
that  the  trihe  which  hail  occupied  Kpirus  moved 
into  the  valley  of  the  I'eneus,  ami  were  henceforth 
known  as  Thessalians :  that  prohahly  in  con- 
sequence of  this  the  -Armians,  who  had  occiiided 
Tlies.saly,  were  forced  forward  into  the  lia-in  of  the 
Copais,  where  they  are  known  to  history  a.s  the 
Bo'otians;  while  from  Doris  hanils  of  warriors 
kept  crossiuf;  the  Corinthian  (iulf,  lindin-;  their 
way  across  Arcadia  to  the  soutli  and  east  of  the 
Pelo|)onnese,  and  there  forniin;,'  Dorian  settlements. 
Possilily  to  the  same  ]ieriod  we  may  !Lssif;n  the 
occu|)alion  of  Ells  liy  the  .Ktolians.  Attica  lvin;r 
out  of  the  direct  line  of  impact,  which  was  trom 
north  to  sonlli,  was  unalleeted  hy  these  movements, 
except  that  fuj;itive  families,  especially  of  the  same 
Ionic  race  as  the  inhahiiants  of  Attica,  took  refuse 
there.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  this  movement 
that  the  Dorian  state,  Sparta,  which  was  to  he  the 
},'reat  and  victorious  rival  of  .Athens,  owed  its 
oiijrin,  ami  indeed  we  may  s.ay  its  siihsenuent  peat- 
ne.ss.  The  constitution  ami  the  peculiar  institutions 
which  made  the  Spartans  a  nation  of  soldiers  iire 
indee<l  referred,  rather  hy  myth  than  tradition, 
to  a  j,'ieat  legislator,  Lycurjjns.  lint  they  are  in 
fiutli  partly  Imlo-Kuropean  customs  preserved 
more  faitlifully  hy  Sparta  than  hy  other  Creeks, 
and  still  more  the  outcome  of  the  perpetual  strujitrle 
for  existence  which  for  generations  w.as  wageil  hy 
the  handful  of  Spartans  against  the  large  nnmhers 
of  the  native  inhahitants.  The  Dorians  settled  in 
Sparta  were  indeed  hut  a  garrison  in  the  liegbining  ; 
and,  to  the  end,  their  national  life  was  that  of  the 
camj).  Amongst  the  other  conseciuences  of  the 
Dorian  inva.-ion  that  which  most  calls  for  notice  is 
that  in  the  various  district-s  affected  hy  it  the 
original  inh.ihitaiits  were  reduce<l  to  slaveiT  ;  some 
being  like  the  Helots  in  Sparta,  .serfs  att.iched  to 
the  soil  an<l  helonging  to  the  stiite  rather  than  to 
any  individual  owner,  others  like  the  Perio'ci,  in 
Sparta,  enjoying  ])ers<mal  freetlom,  local  self- 
government  though  not  political  rights;  ami  hot h 
being  very  dillerent  from  the  hought  slaves  (fre- 
quently or  mostly  foreign)  who  formed  the  founda- 


tion oil  wliicli  Athenian  civilisation,  for  instance, 

was  l)ased. 

The  cllccts  of  the  ])orian  invasion,  however,  were 
not  conline<l  to  Greece  proper;  amongst  them  must 
he  incluiled  the  expansion  of  Hellas  in  the  wider 
sen.se  of  the  wonl,  and  the  colonisation  of  the 
coiusts  of  Asia  Minor.  Not  all  the  original  in- 
habitants of  the  ilislricts  invaded  remainecl  to  lie 
enslaved  ;  many  Ih'd  over  se.'is,  the  .Kidians  to 
founil  the  .Kolian  cities,  the  loiiians  to  plant  the 
Ionic  colonies  south  of  the  .Kiilian,  while  the 
D<uians  found  their  way  by  Crete  to  the  shores 
south  of  the  Ionic  cohmies.  Of  the  law  tliat 
colonies  arc  more  ra]iid  in  their  development  than 
the  mother-country,  the  m<»t  conspicuous  exani]de 
is  atlonlcd  by  the  (iieck  cidonies  in  .\>-ia  Minor. 
The  seeds  of  literature,  ait,  and  philosophy  were 
all  .sown  and  liist  niutuicd  in  the  colonies,  though 
to  come  to  maturitv  it  was  in  many  cases  nccess.ary 
that  they  should  he  trans]>laiited  to  the  inolher- 
eountry.  In  jiolitical  life  and  constitutional  his- 
tory the  stages  through  which  (Jreece  pnqier  went 
were  anticipated  in  the  cohmies;  the  change  by 
which  iiioiiiirchy  was  set  aside  by  :iiistociac\  did 
inileed  pi'ihaps  take  place  about  the  same  time  at 
home  am!  in  the  colonies — we  have  little  evidence 
how  it  t<iok  id:ice  anywhere — hut  the  change  by 
which  aristocratical  government  was  overthrown 
and  democracy  established  was  inc<uiipaiahly  more 
raiiid  ill  the  colonies.  A  colony  is  not  the  jilace  in 
which  privilege  llourishes  ;  tradition  is  less  potent 
and  indiviilual  energy  more  certain  of  its  reward 
than  at  home.  It  was  in  the  odonies.  the  western 
not  the  eastern,  that  the  custom  which  preceded 
law  was  liist  reduced  to  writing,  and  the  side  right 
of  expounding  it  withdrawn  liom  the  privileged 
elas.ses.  It  was  in  the  colonies  also  that  lyiaiiny 
wa-s  lii-st  invented.  A  tireek  tyrant  was  usually 
an  aristocrat  w  ho,  under  the  jiretence  of  relieving 
the  misery  of  the  people.  aii|iiireil  a  pow  ei  w  hiih  he 
used  for  crushing  his  ow  n  class  and  the  peo]ile  alike 
beneath  his  own  illegal,  personal,  and  violent  sw.ay. 
As  he  .iciinired  his  power  by  force,  so  )iy  force  he 
maintained  it,  and  so  bv  force  he  lost  it,  generally 
in  a  very  brief  lime;  tiioiigh  we  must  not  forget 
that  Synicuse  under  the  tyrant  (Jelo  defeated  the 
Carthagiiiiaii  power,  and  under  his  successor,  the 
magnilicent  Hieio.  almost  made  Sicily  one  slate. 

The  rapid,  indeed  the  ]iieniature,  development  of 
the  (iicek  cities  in  Asia  Minor  is  teslilied  to  hy 
nothing  more  clearly  than  by  the  large  number  of 
colonies  which  they,  themselves  colonies,  founded. 
The  settlements  on  the  IJlack  Sea — e.g.  Sinope, 
Trape/us,  Cy/iciis— were  their  creation,  .is  were 
tho.se  in  the  remotest  west — e.g.  Marseilles.  Many 
colonies,  however,  were  founded  direct  from  home  : 
the  coasts  of  Macedonia  and  Thrace  were  colonised 
from  Eubo'a.  and  it  was  the  <  halcidians  of  Euba-a 
who  led  the  way  in  the  colonisation  of  the  west — 
e.g.  in  Italy,  Cyme  and  liheginm  ;  in  Sicily, 
Naxos.  A  notable  mother  of  cidonies  too  was 
Corinth  :  Corcyia,  Leucas,  Anactoiium,  Amhraei.i, 
Apollonia,  and  Syracuse  were  all  sprung  from  Cor- 
inth, and  themselves  in  their  turn  sent  out  cidonies. 
Thus  all  three  of  the  ba.sins  of  which  the  Mediter- 
ranean consists  )ias.seil  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
I'ho'iiicians,  who  had  hitherto  moinqiolised  them, 
into  the  hands  of  the  lireeKs.  as  a  rule  with- 
out bloiMlshed,  for  the  I'honicians  were  tiaders 
and  loved  not  lighting.  I!ut  eventually  the  Car- 
thaginians maile  a  stand,  and  in  532  i;.(.'.,  in 
alliance  with  the  Etiii.scans,  defeated  the  (Jreeks 
otr  Corsica,  and  secured  the  safety  of  their  jios- 
se.ssions  in  Africa  and  of  the  lew  towns  left 
them  in  Sicily.  Creat.  however,  ;is  was  the  ex- 
jiansion  of  Hellas  junl  her  colonies,  no  (Jreek  state 
ever  possiNssed  a  colonial  empire ;  the  colonics 
could  not  and  would  not  be  governed  from   home. 


GREKCE 


387 


Tlie  (litliculties  of  coininunieation  and  tlie  Greek 
love  of  autonomy  secured  tlie  Independence  of  the 
colonies  as  far  as  the  niotlierstates  were  concerned, 
Imt  not  as  against  neighhouiiug  and  foreign  jiowers. 
Tims,  the  Asiatic  t;  reeks  fell  an  easy  prey,  first 
to  the  Lyilian  monarch  Cnesus  (yOO),  and  then  to 
the  Persian  Cyrus,  tiie  coni|neror  of  Crtesus  (o4fi). 
And  thus  the  Persian  empire  was  lirouj;ht  into  the 
necessity  of  absorbing  or  endeavouring  to  absorb 
(Ireeee  in  the  same  way  as  the  Roman  empire 
was  compelled  to  annex  Britain  ;  in  the  oue  case 
Britain,  in  tlie  other  (heece,  otlereil  a  refuge  and  a 
jioint  d'ap/jiii  to  fugitives  and  instigators  to  revolt. 
In  tlie  one  case  Gaul,  in  the  other  the  Asiatic 
colonies,  would  never  cease  struggling  for  inde- 
pendence as  long  as  tlieir  kinsfolk  across  the  sea 
were  free.  What  the  course  of  events  was  which 
raised  up  in  Greece  a  ]io\ver  coiu]jetent  to  repel  the 
flood  of  barbarism  which  threatened  to  extinguish 
the  art,  literature,  and  philosophy  of  Greece,  and 
therefore  of  the  world,  we  must  now  briefly  state. 

The  weakness  of  Greece  in  the  face  of  an  invader 
was  that  althmigli  the  Greeks  were  no  longer 
nomads  but  bad  reached  the  stage  of  city  life,  and 
although  the  bond  of  blood  and  kinship  was  being 
displaced  by  the  tie  of  neiglibourliood  and  ter- 
ritorial organisation,  the  numerous  communities 
were  subject  to  no  central  government.  The  state 
of  things  in  Greece  may  be  compared — reasonably, 
for  it  had  its  origin  in  similar  circumstances — with 
that  in  England  at  the  time  of  the  so-called  He]i- 
tarcliy,  except  that  there  were  many  more  than  seven 
independent  states  in  Greece,  and  scarcely  any  of 
them  were  as  large  as  even  a  small  English  shire. 
Most  of  them  were  cities  with  but  three  or  four 
miles  of  territory  ;  only  two  succee(le<l  in  reaching 
the  size  of  an  English  county.  Tliose  two  were 
the  greatest  names  in  Greece,  Attica  and  Sjiarta. 
By  what  process  of  coalescence  (or  sijiKiikisiiwa,  as 
it  is  called)  the  variinis  villageeomniunitie.s  of 
Attica  became  uniteil  with  Athens  for  the  seat 
of  governiuent  we  know  not.  Xor  can  we  do  more 
here  than  say  that  before  the  Persian  wars  Attica 
had  pa.ssed  through  several  social  and  jiolitical  an<l 
politico-economical  crises  ;  Solon's  reforms  remedied 
the  latter,  but  his  political  measures  did  not  pre- 
vent the  institution  of  a  tyranny,  that  of  I'isi- 
stratus  and  his  sons.  The  tyrants,  however,  were 
expelled,  and  the  democracy  of  Athens  placed  on 
the  iiatli  which  it  was  to  follow  by  Clisthenes. 

Meanwhile  in  the  Peloponnese  Sparta  was  obtain- 
ing that  jiosition  of  supremacy  which  subsequently 
en.-ililed  the  (Jreeks  to  offer  resistance  to  the  Persians 
with  some  show  of  unity.  Not  (Uily  did  Laconia 
stand  to  Sjiarta  somewhat  in  the  same  relation  as 
Attica  to  Athens,  but  Sparta  conquered  the  neigh- 
Iiouring  territory  of  Mes.seiiia  (after  two  desperate 
wars),  and  deprived  Argos,  hitherto  the  leading 
state  in  the  Pelo])onnese,  of  the  district  between 
Parnon  and  the  sea,  and  of  Cythera.  Here,  how- 
ever, Sparta's  career  of  conquest  and  annexation 
was  arrested  by  the  sturdy  and  successful  resistance 
of  the  small  city  of  Tegea ;  and  henceforth  Sparta's 
jiolicy  was  confederation,  not  annexation.  The 
league  of  states  which  had  followed  -Argos  was 
broken  uj) ;  Epidaurus.  Phlius,  Tro'zene,  Herniione, 
and  even  .Egina  went  over  to  Sparta.  Elis  had 
become  1pouu<1  by  comnmnily  of  interest  to  Sjiarta  in 
the  Messenian  wars  ;  and  Tegea  and  .\rc.-idia  having 
resisted  annexation,  submitted  to  confederation. 
Thus,  in  the  Peloponnese  at  least,  Sparta  was 
the  undoubted  leader  of  the  Greeks  :  and.  luitside 
the  Peloponnese,  Athens  promptly  set  the  example 
of  acknowledging  Sjiarta  to  be  the  proper  lea<ler  of 
all  (ireece  against  the  Persians,  lint  in  4!I0  B.C., 
when  Datis  and  Artaphernes,  at  the  command  of 
Darius,  led  the  first  Persian  expedition  against 
Greece,  it  was  Athens  alone  that  withstood  them, 


and  single-handed  won  tlie  glorious  victory  of 
Marathon,  thanks  to  the  genius  of  Miltiades  and 
the  valour  of  her  sons.  For  a  time  the  danger  of 
invasion  was  averted,  but  only  for  a  time.  If, 
however,  Xerxes,  the  successor  of  Darius,  availed 
himself  of  the  interval  for  enormous  preparations, 
Athens,  also  under  the  l^een-sighted  guidance  of  a 
great  statesman,  Themistocles,  was  also  preparing 
that  navy  which  was  to  deal  the  final,  fatal  blow  at 
Xerxes.  The  number  of  that  monarch's  troops  we 
have  no  means  of  estimating  ;  we  may  safely  say  it 
was  the  greatest  army  tliat  ever  took  the  field. 
The  Greeks'  lirst  line  of  defence — the  pjuss  of  Teiupe 
— was  given  u]i  because  it  could  be  turned.  The 
second — Thermopyl;e  and  Artemisium — was  turned, 
anil  the  famous  band  of  Sjiartans  were  sacrificed  by 
the  hesitation  and  inocrastiiiation  of  the  Spartan 
government.  Then  the  Persians  ravaged  Attica 
and  destroyed  Athens,  but  not  the  Atln'oians.  They 
had  fled  to  the  neighbouring  islaml  of  Salamis,  and 
there  they  defeated,  thanks  to  Themistocles,  the 
Persian  fleet,  and  sent  the  Persian  monarch  home  in 
tlight  (4S0  li.c. ).  Then,  indeed,  the  Spartans  made 
up  their  minds  to  join  the  Athenians  in  attacking 
the  Persian  commander  who  had  been  left  behind 
in  Greece  with  a  large  force.  With  his  defeat  at 
Plata'a  (479  B.C.)  and  the  victorious  attack  made 
by  the  Greek  fleet  on  the  enemy  in  his  own 
waters  at  Mycale  (479  li.c.)  the  Persian  wars  came 
to  an  enil,  and  the  seeds  of  a  far  more  fatal 
struggle,  because  internecine,  were  sown.  That 
struggle  was  between  Athens  and  Sparta. 

The  positi<m  of  undisputed  leadership  which 
Sparta  hail  enjoyed  at  the  beginning  of  the  Persian 
wars  she  had  lost  before  the  end  of  them.  For  this 
the  main  reason  must  be  admitted  to  be  that 
Sparta  acted  with  disgraceful  seltishness,  Athens 
with  glorious  .self-sacrifice,  throughout.  When, 
therefore,  the  Greeks  of  the  islands  formed  a  league 
— the  Confederation  of  Delos — for  defence  against 
the  Persians,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  foremost 
jilace  in  it  was  accorded  to  Athens.  In  course  of 
time  many  members  of  the  league  preferred  to  pay 
monetary  C(mtril)uti(uis  rather  than  supply  ships 
and  men  ;  Athens  on  the  contrary  was  ever  eager 
to  proviile  both  men  and  ships.  Thus  Atliens  came 
to  lla^■e  the  jiower  of  the  sword — and  therefore  of 
the  purse — in  the  confederation,  which  now  was 
practically  constituted  not  of  allies  but  subjects. 
Not  content  with  the  command  of  the  sea  she  thus 
acquired,  Athens  Viy  a  series  of  victories  and  umler 
the  guidance  of  Pericles  attained  a  position  of 
commanding  influence  in  continental  Greece, 
which,  however,  only  endureil  from  450  to  44,").  In 
spite,  however,  of  the  lo.ss  of  inlluence  occasioned 
to  Athens  by  her  defeat  at  Coronea  (447),  and  in 
spite  of  the  thirty  Years'  Truce  concluded  in  445 
between  Athens  and  S]>arta,  in  432  Athens  and 
Sparta,  making  a  ijuarrel  between  Corinth  and 
Corcyra  their  pretext,  began  their  great  duel,  the 
Peloponnesian  war.  Sjiarta  was  by  its  con- 
stitution a  predatory.  Athens  an  industrial  state. 
The  Spartans  were  farmers,  the  Athenians  mer- 
chants. Sparta's  strength  was  on  land,  Athens' 
on  sea.  Sjiarta  prided  herself  im  the  ignorance  of 
her  sons,  Athens  on  being  hentelf  the  instructress 
of  Greece.  Sjiarta  rejuesentcd  and  received  the 
sujijuirt  of  oligarchy  :  Athens,  ilemocracy.  For 
thrice  nine  years,  as  the  oracles  juophesied,  the 
war  lasted.  Its  varied  and  tragic  fortunes  cannot 
here  be  traced.  Sullice  it  to  say  that  there  were 
three  tilings  which  brought  about  the  defeat  of 
Athens  :  the  early  death  of  her  greatest  statesman, 
Pericles  :  lier  attemjit,  magnilicent  and  tragic,  to 
conquer  Sicily  ;  and  the  Pei'sian  gold  which  Sjiarta 
was  base  eiiongh  to  accejit  and  use. 

Thus  the  sujiremacy  of  Sjiarta  (404-S79)  was 
established.      But  it  wa-s  no  sooner  established  than 


388 


GUEECE 


:i  reaction  set  in  against  it.  Sparta  liad  jiriiclainieil 
ill  the  t'elojionnesiaii  war  that  her  imhcy  wai  to 
restore  to  tlie  (!reuks  tiie  freeihmi  whiih  the 
Atlienians  liail  roMieil  them  of.  I'rue  it  ix  that 
.Sparta  l)roki'  up  the  eonfi-ih-raev  of  Uehis  ;  Inil  !-he 
iliil  not -{ive  freeih>iii  to  Athens  hite  suhject-allies. 
.She  merely  ilisiilaced  ih'iiiocratii-  hy  oli^'ari'liic 
ijoveriiiiients,  ami  ph»ce<l  in  each  town  a  Spartan 
liarmost  or  ;,'overiior,  whose  excesses  ami  violence 
made  Sparta  loathed.  At  the  same  time  it  was  not 
the  interest  of  the  I'ei-sian  kinj;  to  allow  .Athens  to 
be  entirely  criislied,  or  any  sinjjie  state  to  have 
prepomleratin;;  power  in  Greece.  Thus  an  anti- 
Spartan  coalition  was  formed  ;  and  in  spite  of  the 
peace  of  .Vntaleidas  ( .'tHT  I.  the  terms  of  which  were 
desiuneil  to  prevent  the  formation  of  any  more 
such  confeder.it ions  as  that  of  Delos,  in  .'iTS  Athens 
was  enabled  to  form  a  new  coiifederacv,  and  to 
cany  on  hostilities  with  Snarta.  Tlie.se  liostilities 
were  not  ilecisive,  hut  tliey  allowed  Thebes  to 
unite  all  Bo'otia  into  a  siii',de  state,  and  by  tile 
j;enins  of  I'elopiilas  and  Epaminondas,  so  to  con- 
soliihite  its  ]io\ver  as  to  defeat  Sparta  at  Leuctra 
(37<M.  and  estaldish  a  Theban  supremacy.  Sparta 
had  to  withdnnv  her  harmosts  from  all  cities;  ami 
everywhere  the  democrat.s  in  consequenoe  came 
into  power,  .\rcailia  was  made  into  one  state  with 
a  new  city,  Me;,'alopolis,  at  its  head  ;  and  Mes.senia 
was  made  independent  of  Sparta.  Hut  Thebes 
was  wholly  unei|ual  to  the  imsition  which  she 
a.s]iiied  to  occupy:  .\tbeMs  uuilicl  willi  Sparta  in 
resisting  her,  a  f;ieat  anti  Thib.ui  coalition  Wius 
formed,  and  when  Pelopidas  fell  at  t'yiioscephahe 
(.■}().■{)  and  E|iaminoiidas  at  Mantinea  (.S(i'2)  'I  liebe.s 
h)sl  the  only  two  men  of  genius  she  possessed,  and 
with  iheni  all  hope  of  maintaining  the  position  she 
hail  attaineil. 

Thus  the  village-communities  with  which  Greek, 
like  English  history,  begins  had  become  city-states  ; 
but  the  lireeks  travelled  no  further  along  the  jiath 
of  jiolilical  coalescence  or  xi/noilixmos.  If  the 
English  did  travel  further  tjirough  heptarchy  to 
liual  unity,  it  was  because  in  England  '  war  begat 
the  king,  whereas  in  Greece  moiiiin'hy  ( if  indeed 
it  ever  existcil )  passed  away  before  histmy  begins  ; 
and  the  spirit  of  autonomy,  begotten  of  reimblicaii 
rule,  WiUs  centrifugal  in  tendency.  Meanwhile  in 
Maceilonia,  whose  inhabitants,  if  not  of  (Jreck 
blooil,  were  not  distantly  akin  to  (Jreeks,  a  kingdom 
was  forming  which  was  destined  to  impose  on 
Greece,  from  without,  the  only  unity  it  wjus  capable 
of  receiving.  The  steps  by  which  l'liili|>  of 
Macedon  made  himself  master  of  Greece  were 
well  marked  and  rapid.  The  Hrst  jdaces  to  l>e 
absorbed  by  the  expansion  of  .Macedonia  were  the 
Greek  colonies  on  th<!  coasts  of  Thrace  and 
Macedonia,  in  ."J.'iT  Amphipidis  and  Pydna,  in  S5G 
Panga-um,  in  .S.").T  Ilali>nuesos,  Abdera,  Maroneia, 
Methone;  and  in  .'{4.S  the  fall  of  Ulynthiis  and  its 
thirty-two  confederate  towns  gave  the  whole  co.ist 
a.s  far  as  the  Hellespont  into  the  hands  of  Philip. 
The  next  step  to  take  was  to  obtain  a  footing  in  the 
internal  ati'airs  of  Greece,  and  this  he  succeeded  in 
getting,  as  far  as  northern  lireece  wa.s  concerned, 
in  the  Sacred  War  (Aw).  Thebes  having  in  vain 
endeavoured  to  impose  its  supremacy  on  F'hocis. 
abiiseil  its  inlliieni'e  over  the  Ami)hictyonic  Council 
to  declare  a  sacred  war  against  itie  Phociaiis.  The 
latter  found  a.ssistauee  at  the  hands  of  the  tyrants 
of  Phera»  in  The.ssaly,  and  the  aristocracy  of 
Tlie.s.saly  conseipiently  placed  themselves  under  the 
protection  of  Macedonia.  Meanwhile,  eveji  .Athens 
had  at  last  given  ear  to  Demosthenes'  denunciations 
of  Philip,  and  opened  her  eyes  to  the  danger  which 
threatened  her.  when  her  own  cohmies  were 
capturivl  by  Philip  ;  and  war  had  been  declared, 
though  not  immediately  wa;.'ed,  against  I'hilip  by 
Athens.     But   the  Sacred  War  ended  (.S4(j)  in  the 


ilestruction  of  the  Pliucians,  and  Atheni> — having 
ruined  herself  by  ^lrocrastination— conchuled  a 
peace  with  Philip  which  conliniii'il  all  his  gains  and 
lalilieil  all  her  losses.  As  yet  Philip  had  found  no 
■  •xciise  for  interfering  with  the  allaii-s  of  the 
Peloponnese  :  but  this  was  allbrded  him  in  ."{44  by 
an  ill-timed  revival  of  Sparta's  pretensions,  wliicli 
ilrove  Messene,  .-Xigos,  and  Me;;alop<dis  into  the 
arms  of  Philip,  in  spite  of  Demosthenes'  piopngamla 
'  in  the  liist  two  places.  In  :{4(l  .Athens,  having 
foriiie<l  extensive  alliances,  fi-il  strong  enough  to 
openly  declare  war  against  Philip.  In  ;WJ  she 
saved  Hyzaiitiiim  from  his  attacks,  and  thereby 
kept  oiieii  the  route  by  which  her  own  corn  came 
from  the  Hlaek  Sen.  In  ."iS.s  she  at  length  (and 
too  late)  consented  t<i  Demosthenes'  proposal  to 
convert  the  moneys  hitherto  devoted  to  public 
amusement  to  military  imrjioses.  I!ut  the  fatal 
field  of  t'lueronea  was  followed  by  the  peace  of 
Deim'ides.  I'hilip  was  acknowledged  master  of 
Greece,  and  elected  general  of  the  Hellenic  forces 
against  Persia:  but  before  he  could  commence  his 
invasion  of  that  country  he  w.-vs  a-ssassinated  by  a 
private  enemy  (.'WG).  A  general  rising  against  the 
Macedonian  power  was  promptly  iiippeil  in  the  bud 
by  Philip's  son  and  successor,  the  world-famous 
Alexander.  His  first  act  was  to  siiiiincss  the 
attempted  revolt  by  utterly  destroying  'I  liebes.  In 
334  111'  comnienced  his  invasion  of  Pei>ia.  AVe  can 
but  eiiiimci  ale  bis  chief  vicloi  ies  ;  in  334  his  victory 
at  tii.inicM-  j;ave  him  .Asia  Minor,  on  this  side  of 
Mount  Taurus;  in  333  he  dcl'eated  Darius  in  the 
battle  of  Issus  ;  in  .'i.'t'J  he  stormeil  Tyre  and  (Jaza 
and  founileil  .Alexandria:  in  331  he  linally  over- 
threw the  Persian  empire  in  the  battle  of  Aihela; 
in  32(i  he  crossed  the  Indus,  but  farther  his  tioo|)s 
I  refused  to  follow  him.  He  then  sailed  down  that 
river  to  the  Indian  llcean,  and  thence  mai'clicd  to 
Babylon,  where,  while  piei>ariiig  to  invade  Arabia, 
he  fell  ill  and  died  (3'J3).  .Alexander  not  merely 
con(|uereil  .Asia  Minor — he  ])lanted  Greek  colonies 
in  it,  and  these  centres  of  culture  di.scliarged 
functions  of  the  highest  importance  in  the  history 
of  the  world.  They  gave  toCJieek  culture,  Greek 
literature,  thought,  and  art,  even  to  the  (ireek 
language  itself,  a  career  independent  of  and 
I  unallected  by  the  fate  or  decay  of  Hellas  itself. 
They  made  Greek  the  language  of  the  civilised 
world,  though  it  is  true  that  it  wjus  not  pure  Attic, 
but  the  'common'  dialect,  Hellenistic  Greek — yet 
the  language  of  the  New  Testament.  In  Alexanitria 
were  sown  seeds  for  the  fruits  of  which  we  refer  to 
i  the  section  on  the  liteialnre.  Filially  it  was  from  ' 
I  these  colonies  that  the  Mi>li.immedans  made  their 
'  acquaintance  with  (ireek  learning  :  so  that  in  the 
time  of  darkness,  when  the  very  tiadilion  of  (Ireek 
learning  had  perished  from  out  of  western  Euro]ie, 
the  Mohairimeilans  were  bu.sy  annotating  Aristotle 
1  even  in  Timbiutoo. 

I      'I'lie   death   of   .Alexander  wa.s   the   sign.al  for  a 
'  fresh    struggle     for    inileijendence ;    but    this,    the 
Lami.an,    war   ended   with    the    battle  of  L'rannon 
'  (322)   in   the   victory  of   the   Macedonian  general 
Antipater  and  the  extinction  of   political    liberty 
'  in  (Jreece.     In  the  struggles  between  the  Diadochi 
I  ('the    succes.soi s ' )    for   empire,    Greece    was    the 
I  liattlelield.      Even  when  the  various  generals  had 
j  made  themselves  nionarchs  of  the   kingdoms  into 
which   Alex.aniler's  emiiire  split,  and  tireece    wjus 
I  left    unapiiropriated,    the   etl'orts   of    a    statesman 
j  such  as  J)emocharcs  to  obtain  a  position  of  inde- 
pendence for  Athens  by  ]ilayiiig  otV  one   monarch 
against    another    were    fniitle.ss.       All    that    lends 
j  interest  to  the  next  period — that  of  the  Epigoni — 
I  is  that  a  new  form  ot  political  coalescence — federa- 
tion— was   tried,    and   with  some  .success,  by  the 
.Etolian  and  .Ach.T-an  leagties.     But  the  centrifugal 
tendency  in  (Jreek  politics  was  manifest  in  Sparta's 


GREECE 


389 


refusal  to  join  the  latter  lea.irue,  which  thereon 
invoked  the  assistance  of  Maceilonia.  Macedonia's 
interference  between  Rome  and  Carthage  led  to 
the  defeat  of  Philip  V.  at  Pydiia,  I6S  li.C. ;  and 
in  146  Corinth  was  destroyed  hy  Muinmius,  and 
Greece  Ijecame  in  fact,  if  not  at  once  in  form,  a 
province  of  tlie  Itoraan  eni])ire.  As  such  there  is 
nothing  liere  to  say  of  it.  Xor  at  a  later  time  has 
Greece  a  history  separate  from  that  of  the  Byzantine 
empire  (<|.v. ).  In  330  a.d.  Constantine  was  con- 
verted to  Christianity,  and  founded  a  '  new  Rome ' 
in  Constantinople.  In  395  (Greece  was  ravaged 
by  the  Gotlis  under  Alaric.  In  747  a  gi-eat 
(lestilence  depopulated  large  parts  of  the  country, 
into  whicli  Slavonic  tribes  immigrated.  In  I01(< 
the  Bulgarians  laid  the  country  waste,  but  were 
finally  defeated  by  Basil  II.  The  final  separation 
>f  the  eastern  and  western  churches  took  place  in 
1053. 

In  the  year  1453  Mohammed  II.  made  himself 
master  of  Constantino|ile  and,  amongst  other  por- 
tions of  the  empire  of  the  East,  of  Greece  proper. 
Cyprus  and  Crete  (  which  had  been  in  the  jjossession 
of  the  Venetians)  and  the  other  (ireek  islands 
gradually  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks, 
Crete  coming  into  their  power  in  1G69.  Twenty 
years  after,  tlie  Venetians  again  l)egan  war  in  the 
hope  of  regaining  their  (ireek  ]iosse.ssions,  and 
succeeded  in  winning  back  the  Peloponnese  only 
to  lose  it  ,again  in  1715.  Under  Turkish  rule  the 
Greeks  were  allowed  to  become  comparatively 
wealthy,  as  in  the  Turkish  eini>ire  the  function  of 
the  subject  races  Is  to  proviile  for  tlie  sustenance 
of  the  niling  Turks.  With  wealth  came  the  spread 
of  education  and  culture,  and  a  revived  conscious- 
ness in  the  Greeks  of  what  mighty  ilead  they  were 
the  descendants.  Thus  the  soil  w.is  gradiially  ami 
naturally  prepared  for  the  seeils  sown  by  the  French 
Revolution  ;  and  in  1821  the  war  of  independence 
broke  out.  In  less  than  a  year  the  Turks  were 
turned  out,  and  Greek  liberty  recovered.  But 
civil  Avar  ensued  :  nor  was  this  unnatural.  The 
leaders  of  the  revolution  were  men  «ho  had 
acr£uired  what  capacity  they  had  for  leading  in  the 
service  of  the  Turks,  and  had  acquired  it  therefore 
in  a  bad  school.  The  cold  suspicion  with  which 
the  struggle  for  liberty  had  at  lirst  been  watched 
by  Europe  was  eventually  exchanged  for  warm 
.sympathy  and  pity,  owing  to  the  horrible  cnielties 
perpetrated  by  the  Turks;  so  that  when  in  LS24 
the  latter,  by  the  aiil  of  troops  from  Egypt, 
sacceedeil  in  regaining  possession  of  (!reece,  there 
were  not  wanting  volunteers  from  England  and 
elsewhere  to  lead  and  tight  amongst  the  Greek 
forces.  In  18'27  the  Turkish  fleet  was  destroyed  at 
Navarino  by  the  fleets  of  Engl.md,  France,  and 
Russia;  by  French  aid  the  Turks  were  driven  out 
of  Greece,  and  in  l.S'2S  the  Greeks  had  (mce  more 
regained  their  liberty.  In  18.32  Utho  of  Bavaria 
was  maile  king ;  but  he  ruled  despotically,  and  in 
18B2  had  to  le.ave  (Jreece  in  consequence.  A  son 
of  the  king  of  Denmark,  born  in  1845,  w.is  then  made 
king  under  the  title  of  George  I.,  when  the  Ionian 
Islands  iq.v. )  were  given  back  to  Greece.  He  lost 
popularity  by  his  unwillingness  to  be  f<uced  by  the 
popular  will  into  war  with  Turkey.  The  Berlin 
Treaty  added  a  large  area  in  Epirus  aiul  Tlicssaly 
to  Greece  (see  Tt'KKEV)  ;  and  under  George  the 
country,  in  spite  of  ndsmanageil  and  embarra.ssed 
finances  and  frequent  ministerial  crises,  was  fairly 
prosperous  till  the  disastrous  war  with  Turkey  in 
ISOG.  During  the  troubles  in  Crete  the  Greeks 
sent  an  expedition  thither  (in  February);  early  in 
April  15(J(J  irregular  Greek  tioops  crossed  the 
Macedonian  frontier ;  and  the  Sultan  declared  war 
on  18th  April  The  Turks  not  merely  drove  the 
invaders  out  of  Macedcuiia  and  Kpirus,  but  after 
a  brief  series  of  engagements,  disastrous   for  the 


Greeks,  occupied  Larissa  and  other  main  points  in 
Tliessaly.  The  war  came  to  an  end  about  the 
middle  of  JIay.  and  peace  was  ultimately  arranged, 
with  a  slight  rectilication  of  the  frontier  in  Turkey's 
favour,  and  the  payment  of  a  war  indemnity  of 
£4,000,0(Xi,  guaranteed  by  the  Powers— the  Greek 
customs  meanwhile  to  be  controlled  by  an  inter- 
national commission. 

Modern  Greece. — The  legislative  power  is  vested 
ill  a  single  chamber,  which  consists  of  at  least  150 
paid  representatives,  elected  under  the  ballot  by 
universal  siift'iage  for  a  period  of  four  years.  Greece 
is  divided  into  sixteen  noniHichics  cu'  departments, 
which  are  again  subdivided  into  eparchies  and 
deniarcliies.  The  Greek  tirthodox  Church  is  est.-ib- 
lislied  by  law,  and  to  it  the  gieat  mass  of  the 
people  belong  (see  Greei^  Church);  but  there  are 
some  25,000  Mohammedans  in  The.ssaly  and  Eiiirus. 
There  are  some  160  monasteries  and  nunneries,  with 
2601)  monks  and  .JOO  nuns.  Elementary  education 
is  compulsory  for  children  between  five  and  twelve  ; 
but  the  law  is  not  enforced  outside  the  towns.  Of 
the  army  recruits  30  per  cent,  are  illiterate,  and 
only  15  per  cent,  can  read.  The  revenue  is  between 
£3,000,000  and  £4,000,000  ;  but  usually  the  actual 
expenditure  has  greatly  exceeded  the  revenue. 
The  total  debt  amounts  to  £33,(KJO,00O,  with- 
out the  last  war  indenmity.  Fully  a  third  of 
the  expenditure  is  absorbed  by  the  interest  on 
the  debt,  and  a  fifth  by  the  ministries  of  war  and 
marine.  The  nomin.al  strength  of  the  army  on  a 
peace  footing  is  25,000 — which  in  war  is  raised  to 
100,000;  all  able-bodied  males  are  liable  to  service. 
The  navy  consists  of  four  small  inmclads,  sixteen 
gunboats,  twenty-one  torpedo  boats  and  launches, 
with  nearly  3000  otlicers  and  men. 

In  1879  the  area  of  Greece  was  19,809  sq.  m.,  with 
a  population  of  1,679,775  (1,4.57,894  in  1870);  the 
Thessalo-Epirot  districts  incorporated  with  the 
kingdom  in  1881  (as  an  outcome  of  the  Berlin 
Treaty)  added  to  this  a  territory  of  5161  sq.  m., 
with  a  population  of  299,677  ;  total,  24,970  sq.  m. 
( le.ss  than  half  the  area  of  England),  with  1,979.452 
inhabitants.  At  the  census  of  1889  the  population 
was  2,187.208.  Besides  the  Greeks  of  the  kingdom, 
the  Greeks  in  various  parts  of  the  Ottoman  empire 
—notably  in  Constantinople,  Macedonia,  the 
western  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  Crete,  Cyprus,  and 
the  smaller  islands — number  above  6,000,()()0.  Most 
of  the  Albanians  who  have  migrated  into  Greece  have 
been  completely  Hellenised  ;  the  non-Hellenised  Al- 
banians in  Greece  number  about  100,000.  In  Greece 
there  is  an  excess  of  males  over  females  in  the  pro- 
portion of  107 '6  to  100.  Athens,  the  capital,  has  a 
population  of  IIO.OIJO ;  the  towns  next  in  size  lieing 
Patras,  Piia-us,  Hermnpolis,  and  Corfu,  all  above 
20,000 ;  and  there  are  four  others  between  20,0(X)  and 
10,000.  Greece,  although  one-half  of  its  area  is  piis- 
ture-land  or  waste,  is  mainly  an  agriculturalcountry ; 
but  the  land  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  pea.«ant  pro- 
jirietni-s;  agricultural  machinery  is  unknown  in  many 
districts,  and  the  implements  of  husb,andry  are  of  the 
most  primitive  tyjie.  Besides  cereals,  fruits,  sugar, 
tobacco,  cotton,  and  dyestutrs  are  raised.  The  chief 
articles  of  exjiort  are  currants  (about  half  of  the 
total,  though  depression  in  this  trade  h;vs  of  late 
years  causeil  great  distress),  lead  and  other  ores, 
olive-oil,  wine,  honey,  sponges,  v^-c.  The  principal 
imports  are  cereals  and  textile  goo<ls.  The  ex- 
ports have  an  .annual  value  of  about  £3,000,OiiO; 
the  imports  are  valued  at  £4,400,000  a  year. 
Nearly  a  third  of  the  total  trade  is  with  Britain, 
and  about  one-seventh  each  with  Russia  jind 
France.  The  herding  of  sheep  (3.465,000)  occtipies 
about  9  jier  cent,  of  the  peoiile ;  the  sponge  and 
coral  fisheries  em]doy  more  tiian  900  boats.  The 
minerals  of  Greece  include  lignite,  argentiferous 
lead,  zinc,  magnetic  iron,  and   marble.      In    1S95 


390 


GREECE 


tliere  were  smiie  12(X)  lloiir-niills  worked  li.v  water 
anil  wind,  and  less  than  100  liy  steain  :  oyer  2(K) 
di-*tillcrii's:  iiinl  nuiiuTiius  ilyc-works,  tanneries, and 
iiianufartiires  i>l  niacliinery,  ccitton  and  !*ilk  ;.'iM>d.-. 
&c.  rt't)  miles  of  railway  were  open,  and  HOO  in 
coarse  of  construction  ;  and  there  were  neaily  4900 
miles  of  tele^frapli  lines.  Km-  the  canal  across  the 
isthmus  of  Corinth,  see  CoKINTII. 

Lilniiliire. — The  distinguishing'  characteristic  of 
cliussical  (Jreek  literature  and  the  clue  to  its 
development  is  the  fad  that  it  wils  oral,  that  it 
wjis  in  all  cases  composed  not  to  he  I'cad  with  the 
eyes,  hut  to  he  delivered  hy  the  lips  and  lie.ird  hy 
tlie  ears.  It  is  the  distinguishing'  cliaraoteristie. 
because  when  Greek  literature  n-ased  to  he  oral  il 
ceased  to  be  chussiral  ;  and  it  alt'ords  the  clue  to 
the  evolution  of  classical  (Ircek  literature,  because 
that  literature  went  through  a  series  of  forms — 
epic,  lyric,  and  dramatic,  historical,  oratorical,  and 
pliilosophic.al — which  forms  were  impri'sscil  on  il 
by  the  clianging  nature  of  the  circumstances  under 
whi<'h  the  composer  adihessed  his  audience.  These 
circumstances  v.iried  not  capriciously  hut  directly 
with  tlie  change  of  soiial  and  political  conditions. 
Thus,  in  ancient  (ireece  the  form  of  literature  pre 
vailing  at  any  given  period  was  the  expre.s.sion  and 
outcome  of  the  form  of  .society  existing  at  that 
time  ;  and  hence  the  history  of  the  literature  is  but 
one  a.sj)ect  of  the  history  of  the  ]ieople.  That  the 
place  and  occa.sion  on  which  an  audience  is  gathered 
together  determines  ihe  form  of  thai  whiili  is 
addressed  to  it  is  pl.iin  enougli  in  the  case  of  a 
sermon  and  a  play.  That  it  wa.s  not  the  author 
wlio  determini'd  whether  ,"v  play  or  an  oration 
shouhl  be  most  popular  is  exjdained  by  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  great  public  which  it  is  most  artists' 
amliition  to  jde.ise;  and  it  was  circumstances  which 
decided  that  the  grejU  |'ul)lic  in  .Vthi'ns  .-hould  he 
found  at  one  period  in  tin'  law-courts  rather  than 
in  the  theatre,  at  another  in  the  tlieatre  rather 
than  in  the  law-courts.  When  politicalliherty  was 
extinguished  in  (ireece  there  ce;i.sed  to  be  a  great 
public,  works  wore  coinjiosed  for  the  approval  ol 
learned  and  n.arrow  cli<iue.s,  and  cla-ssical  (Jreek 
literature  w;is  at  an  end.  Without  a  great  public, 
no  great  artist. 

\Ve  now  propose  to  trace  the  successive  forms 
through  which  chi-ssical  (Jreek  literature  went,  and 
to  show  to  what  social  and  giolitical  causes  these 
were  due.  For  iletails  as  to  the  lives  and  works, 
and  for  criticism  on  Ihe  genius,  of  individual 
antliiM's,  we  must  refer  to  Ihe  articles  in  mIiIcIi 
they  receive  individual  attention.  In  the  litera- 
ture of  (ireece,  iis  of  other  countries,  vei'se  preceded 
prose,  jiartly  because  the  pleasure  verse  gives  to 
tlie  ear  is  much  more  pronounced  and  more  easily 
pnuluced,  .iml  partly  l)ecause  verse  is  so  much  more 
elt'ectually  retained  in  the  memory — a  point  ot 
caiilinal  iiiiportain'e  when  writing  is  as  yet  un- 
known. (Jt  poetry,  the  lirst  form  to  ap|)ear  in 
lireece  was  epic.  .-Vn  epic  poem  is  a  narrative 
poem  ;  and  the  ejiics  of  Ilonier — the  imly  epics  that 
liave  come  down  to  us,  though  by  no  means  the 
onlv  epics  composed — are  of  considerable  length. 
This  fact,  wliicli  has  been  regarded  since  Wolf  as 
indicating  that  the  poems  could  not  have  existeil 
at  such  length  when  writing  was  either  unknown 
or  not  used  for  literary  |)iirposes,  is  really  tlie  bc>st 
proof  tliat  they  lielong  to  the  most  ancient  period 
of  (Ireek  literature.  That  poems  as  long  a-s  those 
of  Homer  may  he  handed  down  by  memory  is 
beyond  doubt.  The  i|uestion  is  when  and  where 
could  a  public  have  existed  for  whom  we  may 
sujipose  tliem  to  have  been  composed ':  They  can- 
not indeed  have  been  reciteil  at  a  single  sitting  : 
therefore  they  cannot  have  been  composed  for 
audiences  such  as  those  at  the  great  tireek  festi- 
vals.    They  must  have  been  composed  for  an  amli- 


eiice  small  enough  to  be  gathered  together  night 
alter  night  until  the  whole  had  been  recited. 
Further,  the  audience  iimst  have  been  such  as  it 
wa.s  a  pride  for  the  artisi  to  address.  The  only 
aiiiliciice  which  satislies  all  these  coinlitions  is  that 
which  is  occasional Iv  described  in  the  Homeric 
poems  (hemselves,  that  galhered  in  ihe  hall  of  the 
chieftain  ol  the  villagi' cipmimiiiily.  which  was  the 
earlii'st  form  of  liieek  as  ol  Knglish  society.  At 
no  other  period  in  (ireek  histcuy  was  there  an 
audieiii'e  for  whom  we  can  I'onceive  a  poet  compos- 
ing such  poems  as  those  of  Homer. 

When  in  the  natural  course  of  development  the 
village-community  expamlecl  into  the  city  state, 
the  \illage  chieftain's  hall  ceased  to  be  the  centre 
of  society.  'Society'  now  <'onsi-teil  of  the  mem- 
bei-s  of  the  aristocratic  <u'  oligjiichic  families.  They 
cared  not  to  hear  of  the  past  glories  of  the  henuc 
ancestors  of  those  chieftains  whom  they  may  them- 
selves have  Indped  to  turn  out  of  power.  Sor  was 
the  same  audience  gathered  together  night  after 
night  in  any  great  house :  .ii/iii/i<i\iii,  or  drink- 
ing parlies,  were  indeed  given  fiec|uently,  but 
the  guests  weie  not  the  same  on  each  occasion. 
Song  again  was  as  much  in  rei|uest  as  wine  at 
these  drinking-parties,  but  the  songs  were  from  the 
nature  of  the  case  shiut,  their  subjects  draw ii  from 
the  present,  not  from  the  past,  and  their  most 
fie(|uent  themes,  love,  wine,  and  politics.  In  a 
word,  the  second  form  assumed  bv  (ireek  lileratiire 
was  that  of  lyric  poi-hy-  the  lyrics  of  Sappho, 
Alc:eiis,  .Vnacreoii,  .\rchiloclius,  Ibycils,  Theci;;nis. 
There  was  imleed  another  form  of  lyric,  which  was 
choral  and  religious  ;  and  it  needs  special  mention, 
not  because  its  genesis  dili'ered  essentially  from 
that  of  other  lyric  poetry,  f<u'  it  also  was  composed 
for  a  s]iecial  occasi<in,  witli  reference  to  the  ]iii'sent 
anil  under  circMMisi.-iMie-  which  prccludecl  leii;;|li  of 
treatment,  bul  because  from  it  was  developed  the 
third  form  of  (ireek  verse  liter.ature — the  drama. 
Choral  lyric  might  celeluate  the  victmy  of  some 
athlete  at  the  national  games,  or  the  mighty  works 
of  the  god  at  whose  festival  the  poem  was  desigiieil 
to  be  performed.  The  oib's  of  I'indar  which  ha\  e 
come  down  tn  us  bebuig  to  the  former  class.  To 
the  latter  cla-ss  belong  the  odes  achliessed  to 
Dionysus  ( (J. v.),  the  god  of  wine,  from  which  the 
drama  was  evolved.  I'nfortunalely  of  these  oiles, 
dithyrambs,  we  have  not  a  specimen.  Siiiionides  of 
Ccos,  Arion,  ami  .\lcniaii  were  the  great  composers 
of  tliis  cla.ss  of  lyiic. 

Tlial  an  ode  relating  the  adventures  of  a  god 
should  lirst  1)e  accompanied  by  syni]iatlietic  gesture 
j  and  action,  and  should  then  come  to  be  really  acted, 
is  readily  comprehended.  And  that  the  gestures 
shoulil  be  especially  realistic  at  the  festivals  of  the 
god  of  wine  is  not  hard  to  believe.  IJiit  it  is  not 
|)r(d)able  tliat  literary  form  would  have  been  given 
either  to  the  more  or  to  the  less  solemn  side  of  this 
piece  of  ritual  had  it  not  been  that  present  on 
these  occasions  w;is  a  |>ublic  greater  than  any  that 
a  poet  had  hitherto  been  .able  to  address — i.e.  the 
whide  of  the  community  gathered  together  for  an 
act  of  public  worship.  The  development  of  the 
drama  was  the  work  of  democracy.  .\  greater 
audience  w;us  |u'ovided  at  the  public  le>ii\als  of  a 
democratic  state  than  could  be  found  in  thi-  liouse 
of  ,iiiy  (digarch  ;  and  genius  at  once  deserted  the 
form  of  literature  .adapteil  to  the  symposium  for 
that  by  which  it  could  reach  the  ears  of  the  people 
at  large.  At  the  same  time  the  drama,  though  it 
rec|uired  other  jiowers  as  well,  allonled  scope  for 
the  i;xhii)ition  of  both  epic  ami  lyric  jiower.  The 
chorus,  out  of  which  the  ilrama  grew,  was  still 
ielaine<l  in  the  ilrama:  .and  thus  lyrics  were  an 
essential  ]>art  of  the  play.  ( >n  the  other  band, 
much  of  a  (Jreek  play  consists  in  the  narrative  of 
wh.at  h.as  occurred  ofi'  the  stage.     The  number  of 


I 


GREECE 


391 


dramatic  poets  produceil  l)y  Greece  was  very  j^reat : 
for  us  the  tragedies  of  ^Escliylus,  Hopliocles,  and 
Euripides — The  Three — and  tlie  comedies  of  Aris- 
tojihaues,  are  tlie  Greek  drama. 

i'.ut  the  drama  is  not  tlie  oidy  form  of  Greek 
litciature  for  which  we  liave  to  thank  Greek 
democracy.  To  it  we  owe  all  three  forms  of  prose 
literature — history,  oratory,  and  philosophy.  For 
miw  at  len^'th,  after  comjiosition  in  verse  had  been 
practised  for  some  four  centuries,  composition  in 
prose  was  attenii>ted,  which — seeing  that  the  (irecks 
had  spoken  prose  all  the  time,  even  as  M.  .lour- 
daiii — seems  strange.  In  fact,  however,  a  really 
original  idea,  indeed  even  a  moderate  departure 
from  what  '  is  always  done  '  on  a  given  occasion,  is 
not  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  history  of  the 
world.  The  mere  conception  that  it  was  possible 
to  compose  otherwise  than  in  verse  seems  not  to 
have  occurred  to  any  one.  Then,  to  put  on  paper 
a  series  of  connected  ideas,  when  one  has  them,  is 
not  a  matter  of  absolute  ease  and  sinqilicity.  It  is 
ipiite  conceivable  that  it  may  have  been  easier  to 
write  in  verse  than  in  prose ;  the  earliest  philo- 
sophers— Xenophanes,  Parnienides,  Emiiedodes — 
ajiparently  found  it  so.  When,  however,  the  iilea 
of  jirose  compositi(m  had  been  (mce  struck  out,  it 
was.  thanks  to  the  encouragement  allonlcd  liy  the 
great  ))ulilic,  raiddly  worked  out  in  various  direc- 
tions. So  rapidly  indeed  that  it  is  ditlicult  to  say 
whether  oratory,  though  distinctly  posterior  to 
history,  is  or  is  not  to  be  ranked  as  earlier  than 
phih)siiphy.  As,  however,  the  style  of  the  greatest 
writer  of  philo.sophy,  Plato,  would  certainly  not 
have  attained  the  perfection  it  dis]ilays  had  not 
scnne  of  the  orators  previously  demonstrated  what 
could  l)e  done  with  the  lan;;uage  in  certain  direc- 
tions, we  may  consider  philosophy  to  be  the  latest 
of  the  tliree  forms  of  tlreek  prose  literature,  and 
to  correspond  to  the  latest  of  the  three  forms  of 
Greek  verse  literature,  the  drama,  in  that  each 
resumes  in  itself  the  two  forms  which  precede  it. 
Narrative  and  argument  both  lind  their  jdace  in 
philosophy,  as  lyric  and  epic  in  <lrama.  Oratory, 
like  lyric,  is  the  e.Kpression  of  the  individual  man 
dealing  with  tlie  present.  Prose  begins  with  narra- 
tive in  the  form  of  history,  as  verse  begins  with 
narrative  in  the  form  of  epic. 

.\gain,  it  is  somewhat  difficult  for  us  to  realise 
that  history  could  have  been  composed  for  oral 
delivery.  Hut  tlie  fact  remains  that,  though  in  the 
time  of  Xenojihon,  the  most  recent  of  the  three 
historians  whose  works  have  survived,  there  was  a 
trade  in  liooks,  at  the  time  when  his  predeces.sors 
Thucydides  and  Herodotus  composed  their  works 
there  was  no  reading  public  for  whom  they  conid 
li.'ivc  intcndeil  their  histories.  Herodotus,  the 
'fatlicr  of  history,' probably  recited  bis  at  the  great 
national  festival  of  the  Olympian  games.  Thucy- 
dides as  much  as  states  that  he  wrote  for  posterity, 
and  implies  that  in  so  doing  his  design  was 
singular. 

In  the  case  of  oratory,  the  essentially  oral  nature 
of  this  form  of  literature  is  patent.  That  it  sliimld 
have  been  developed  us  a  form  of  literature  when 
it  was  is  due  on  the  one  hand  to  the  cultivated 
taste  of  the  democratic  dicKsfs  or  jurors,  who' 
demanded  literary  merit  in  the  speeches  addres.sed 
to  them,  and  on  the  other  to  the  fre(|uent  access 
to  the  great  public  atlbrded  by  the  law-courts  to 
aspiring  genius.  Tlie  acciilent  that  .it  .\tbcns  a 
suitor  was  compelled  himself  to  sjicak  on  bis  own 
behalf,  .and  therefore  evaded  the  intention  of  the 
law  by  getting  a  professional  speech-writer  to  coni- 
jiosc  a  speech  for  him  to  learn  and  deliver  as  his 
own,  dill  much  to  ojien  the  law-courts  to  literary 
genius  and  to  develop  eloijuence.  Of  the  orators 
we  are  fortunate  enough  to  have  considerable  re- 
mains— of  Antiphon,  Andocides,  Lysias,  Isocrates, 


Isajus,  .lischines,  Hyperides,  and,  greatest  of  all, 
Demosthenes. 

Finally,  the  third  form  of  Greek  prose  literature, 
philosophy,  was  essentially  oral.  Socrates,  who 
gave  to  iihilosophy  the  direction  it  has  followed  to 
this  day,  never  wrote  a  word.  I'lato  and  Aristotle 
lectured,  and  if  they  also  wrote,  it  was  that  their 
written  teaching  might  be  read  aloud  in  the  schools 
they  founiled,  after  they  were  gone. 

In  nothing  is  the  po.st-classical  period  of  Greek 
literature  more  remarkably  distinguished  from  the 
classical  than  in  the  fact  that  we  no  longer  lind 
one  form  of  literature  cultivated  at  a  time,  but  all 
kinds  simultaneously.  If  the  term  'post-classical' 
is  sometimes  em]doyed,  and  sometimes  justly  re- 
sented as  being  almost  a  term  of  reproach,  it  must 
be  admitted  on  the  one  hand  that  Theoplirastus, 
Theocritus,  ^Nlenander,  Plutiuch,  Lncian,  are  names 
that  would  adorn  even  a  'classical'  period,  and  on 
the  other  that,  notwithstanding  these  great  names, 
the  post-cla.ssical  period  created  no  new  form  of 
literature,  that,  viewed  as  a  whole,  it  can  point 
to  no  progress  made  in  any  of  the  forms  already 
createtl,  and  that  .all  its  activity,  which  was  enor- 
mous, was  in  the  direction  of  deterioration.  When 
we  pass  from  the  classical  )ieriod  to  the  post-classi- 
cal we  have  as  our  guiding  iirincijde  not  develop- 
ment but  decay.  In  the  Alexandrine  period  {33'2- 
146  B.C.)  this  is  less  notable  than  in  the  ages  which 
succeeded  it  up  to  the  fall  of  IJyzaiitium  ( 145.3  .v.i). ), 
though  it  is  unmistakable.  The  Alexandrine  period 
is  so  called  because  Alexandria,  the  colony  founded 
by  and  named  after  Alexander,  became,  thanks  to 
the  learned  liberality  of  the  first  three  Ptolemies, 
the  seat  of  two  great  libraries,  and  the  greatest 
centre  of  literary  culture.  But  though  the  greatest 
it  was  by  no  means  the  only  such  centre  of  culture 
in  the  age  to  which  it  gives  its  name.  Egypt  was 
not  the  only  one  of  the  kingdoms  that  ro.se  from 
the  ruins  of  Alexander's  empire  which  could  boast 
of  a  literary  cajiital  supported  liy  the  liberality 
of  its  kings.  Antiochia,  Pella,  and,  above  all, 
Pergaraum,  vied  with  Alexandria ;  and  the  rivalry 
of  Pergamnm  was  only  e.xtinguished  when  Antony 
sent  its  magnihcent  lilirary  of  •200,000  volumes  as 
a  present  to  Cleopatra.  But  before  this  Perga- 
mnm bad  had  time  by  its  cultivation  of  rhetoric  to 
aU'ect  Koine  and  lioman  or.-itorv  in  no  small  degree. 
Nor  were  the  true  tireek  aboiles  of  literature  at 
once  ileserted  by  the  Pluses  during  this  the  first 
period  of  decline.  In  Athens  the  new  comedy, 
with  Menaiider  for  its  great  representative,  and 
philosophy,  with  Tlieoiihrastus  as  its  chief,  still 
tlourished.  In  Syracuse  there  was  develo]ied,  not 
indeed  a  new  form  of  literature,  but  a  new  mixture 
of  ancient  forms — bucolic  pocfrv.  which  is  a  mix- 
ture of  the  narrative  and  the  dramatic  foniis.  while, 
although  the  (usual)  employment  of  the  hexameter 
might  approximate  it  to  epic,  the  recurrence  of  a 
refrain  gives  it  a  lyrical  air.  History  can  be  said 
to  exhibit,  at  the  most,  incipient  decay  in  a  period 
which  can  point  to  Polybius,  to  say  nothing  of 
Berosus  ami  Manetlio  ;  and  epigrammatists  were 
numerous.  Aratos  indeed,  the  greatest  of  Alex- 
andrine didactic  poets,  and  Apollonins,  the  greatest 
epic  poet  of  tliis  period,  have  done  nothing  that 
they  should  be  compared  with  '  cla.ssical '  writei-s 
of  hexameters.  But  it  is  not  on  its  poetry  that 
-\lexandria  can  biise  its  claims  to  our  L'latitude : 
it  is  on  all  that  the  librarians  of  Alexandria  did  to 
preserve  the  stores  of  (dassical  literature. 

Succeeding  ages  jiroduceil  several  respectable 
prose-writer.s — Pausanias  the  archa'ologist,  Arrian 
'the  second  Xenophon,'  .losephus  the  historian — 
and  two  great  prose-writers,  Plutarch  and  Lucian  ; 
but  in  poetry  they  were  yet  more  barren  than  the 
Alexandrine  period.  Again,  a  string  of  lexico- 
graphers and   grammarians — Jtilins   Pollux,   Hesy- 


392 


GREECE 


GREEK    ARCHITECTURE 


chilis  Suiilas,  Pliotiiis — did  valiiaUle  work  on 
the  classics.  In  fwic,  the  jiost  classical  pericMl  was 
critical,  not  creative;  it  cared  more  for  matter  than 
for  form,  its  poetry  was  based  on  classical  models, 
an<l  W.1S  i;enerally  fri),;id  and  pedantic,  lus  its  learn- 
in;;,  thon;,'h  spi'nt  upon  the  classics,  was  not  untre- 
quently  peilaiitic  and  puerile  ;  in  two  words,  its 
chief  features  are  imitation  and  annotation. 

Composiiions  in  modern  (Jreek  have  heen  fonml 
dating  from  liefore  the  fall  of  Ccmstantinople,  hut 
modern  (Ireek  literature  is  counteil  to  have  iM'^im 
after  'the  conijuest.'  For  the  lirst  three  centuries, 
liowever,  we  do  not  find  prose  works  writlvn  in  the 
modern  lan;,'ua;;e.  We  lind  poetical  versions  of 
Western  romances,  and  we  liml  the  famous  Klephtic 
son;,'s,  the  son;.'s  of  the  tJreeks  who,  rather  than 
suhniit  to  Turkish  rule,  took  to  the  mountains  ami 
liveil  a  life  of  liberty,  if  of  bri^'anda;;e.  Ihit  the 
prose  works  of  this  period  are  written  in  ancient 
Greek.  If  the  rule  of  the  Turk  pri«luced  the  sonp* 
of  the  Klephts,  the  ilominion  of  Venire  alloweil  of 
the  proilurilon  of  poems  which  ])ossessed  more 
literary  form  tlion^'h  less  jioetical  merit  than  the 
Klephtic  chants.  Such  were  the  Krutoeritus  of 
Cornaro,  an  epic,  or  rather  a  pastoral  poem,  rather 
lacking;  in  interest,  and  only  occasionally  relieved 
by  a  touch  of  ima^'ination,  ami  the  Eriiphilf  of 
Cliortakis.  a  tragedy  defective  in  form,  thou;;li  con- 
taining lyrics  of  some  value.  In  the  IHth  centur.v 
poetry  declineil  to  a  still  lower  level  ;  and  the 
honour  of  literature  w.os  chietly  maintained  by  the 
eruilitiim  of  ecclesiastics,  such  iis  Lucaris,  .Mini.itis. 
Meletios,  Theotokis,  Bnl;,'aris.  With  the  l!Hh 
century,  however,  be^'an  a  new  era  in  tlie  history 
of  moilern  (Jreek  literature,  and  this  was  mainly 
the  work  of  Corais  (i|.v.  i,  himself  the  jj;rcatest 
name  in  the  era  which  he  iiiauj;urated.  Since 
his  time  the  number  of  .authoi-s  tJreece  Ilv*  pro- 
duced is  strikin^dy  lar^e,  some  writin;;  in  modern, 
others  in  "correct'  Greek.  Of  them  we  mav  men- 
tion I'an.a^iotis  Sontsos,  whose  best  work  is  con- 
tained in  his  ilramas;  .\lexander  Simtsos,  the 
satirist;  lii;.'as,  the  author  of  the  son^' translated 
by  Loril  liyron,  '  Sons  of  the  Gn-eks,  arise,'  and  of 
other  poems  which  were  the  clarion  whose  notes 
still  echoeil  in  I8'21  ami  lii-st  roused  Greece  from  her 
slumbiTS  ;  Villara,  the  lyric  poet ;  Christopoulos, 
the  .-Vnacreon  of  modern  Greek ;  Neroulos,  the 
tragedian,  ilistinjjuished  for  the  fire  of  his  ima^'ina 
tion  and  the  force  and  viij;our  of  his  diction  ;  and 
last,  the  ;^reat  scholar  and  still  greater  poet,  A.  K. 
Ran^abe. 

Un  the  land  of  Greece,  see  W.  M.  Leake,  Travels  in 
NorthtrnUrecce ;  Wordsworth,  G" recce ;  Tozer,  Oanjraphii 
of  Oreece ;  Lolling,  HeUenUchc  Liindcskmidf  und  Tupo- 
(irttpliie  ;  Hcnt,  C'l/ct'tdex  ;  Fret-man,  Studies  of  JVare/  in 
(>'r<fce  atid  Jttil/i :  Jebb,  Mii<lirii  fireice.  On  the  hi.s- 
torj',  works  by  Mitfiud,  'i'liirlwall,  Grote,  Curtiu.'*.  Holm, 
C'o.t,  Smith,  Evelyn  Abbott,  Duruy,  Finlay  ( from  the 
Koiiian  Con(|Uest),  and  Trikoupes  (the  War  of  Indeiiend- 
encc,  in  Itomaic);  J GVf*n^,  Athenian  J hmocynrn.  On  the 
literature,  books  by  Miilkr.  Col.  .Mun-,  .Mahafly.  Sittl, 
W.  Christ,  Suseinihl,  and  the  present  author ;  and  for 
modern  Greek  literature  Kangabe,  l)Ooks  by  Miss  Gamctt 
(on  folk  songs)  and  Miss  .Vl'Phers-on  (poetrj').  For  old 
Greek  life.  Becker's  Charicles,  and  tlirte  works  liy  Mahaify. 
For  the  jwople  of  modern  Greece.  Keniiell  Kodd's  Customs 
and  Lore  <if  Modern  Clreeee,  Miss  Blunt's  People  of 
Turkey.     See  also  the  articles 

Music  I  Philosoptiy. 


AIplial>et. 
Aiitliology, 
Art. 
Atiiens. 


i  Corinth. 
Drama. 
Govcnimrnt- 
Inscriptiuiis. 


Mysteries. 

M>-tholopy. 

Paiiitinf;. 


Portrj-. 
Seiilprtire 

Theatre. 


iinM'k  .IrrllittTtlire.  The  origin  of  what 
is  popularly  called  Greek  architecture  is,  like  the 
origin  of  every  art  and  science  in  that  co^lntr^■, 
mixed  up  with  mythical  and  fabulous  history,  ^t 
is  divided  into  three  styles,  and  e.icli  of  these  has  its 
mythical  origin.     Thus,  the  Doric  is  said  to  have 


been  copied  from  the  early  wixHlen  huts  of  the 
aborigines;  the  Ionic,  which  sprung  up  among  the 
Greek  colonists  in  Asia  .Minor,  to  have  lieen 
modelled  on  the  graceful  proportions  of  the  female 
figure,  as  the  Iloric  hail  lieen  on  the  more  robust 
form  of  a  man — the  volutes  representing  the  curls 
of  the  hair,  the  lluting  the  f(dils  of  the  drapery,  iVc. 
The  story  of  the  origin  of  the  ('orinthi,aii  style  is 
very  pretty  :  a  nurse  had  deposited  in  a  hitsket  on 
the  grave  of  a  ileiiarteil  child  the  toys  she  had 
amused  herself  with  when  alive.  The  basket  w.xs 
placed  accidentally  on  the  root  of  an  acanthus,  and 
in  spring,  when  the  leaves  grew,  they  curled  grace- 
fully round  the  basket,  anduinler  a  Hat  stone  which 
was  laid  on  the  top  of  it.  Callimachus.  the  si-ulji- 
tor,  seeing  it,  caught  the  idea,  ami  worked  out  at 
Corinth  the  lieautiftil  cn]>ilal  since  called  after  that 
city. 

Almlern  disci>veries.  have,  liowever,  shown  that 
Greece  owed  much  to  the  earlier  civilisation  of  the 
countries  which  ]ireceded  it  in  histiuy.  To  the 
architecture  of  ime  or  other  of  these,  almost  evi-ry 
feature  of  (Ireek  architecture  can  be  traced.  Ihit 
it  is  for  the  lirst  idea  only  that  the  Greeks  are 
indebteil  to  Kgypt  and  .\ssyria :  whatever  forms 
they  adopted,  they  so  nioililicd  and  iniproved  as  to 
transform  them  into  a  new  style.  'Flie  socalleil 
Cyclopean  or  I'elasgian  (i|.v. )  architecture  was 
w'licdl.v  unconnectcMl  with  the  evolution  of  any  style 
of  Greek  architecture  subseijnently  ileveloped.  Its 
remains  consist  mainly  ot  tombs  w  'treasure- 
honses  ' — underground  chambers,  vaulted  with  over- 
lapping stones,  anil  approached  by  a  nan  nv  |i:i.ssage 
descending  to  the  entrance-doorway.  The  interior 
W.1S  sometimes  ornamented  with  plates  of  bronze 
attached  to  the  m.isoiiry.  The  entrance  doorway 
was  of  a  conical  form,  the  upper  )iortion  being  some 
times  tilled  with  sciili>tiire,  as  in  the  well-known  \ 
(Jate  of  the  Lions  at  Myceiue.  The  ancient  cities  I 
and  tombs  of  Greece  have  in  recent  years  proved  a. 
rich  lield  of  research.  Schliemann's  excavations  at 
Mycena'  and  Tiiyns  have  brought  to  light  a  great 
niiiiiber  of  specimens  of  very  ancient  ,irt  in  the  toiiii 
of  terracotta  work,  gohl  ami  silver  smiths'  work, 
.iiid  carved  stonework.  Whether  native  or  iin- 
]iorted,  these  show  a  strong  allinity  with  Assyrian 
and  other  E.-ustern  designs.  The  later  (Jreek  art 
took  its  rise  under  the  Itorians,  after  the  return  of 
the  Ileracliihe  about  IKK)  It.C. 

Greek  architecture  jiroper  is  divided  into  three 
styles— the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  (see 
CoLfMN",  figs.  4,  h.  6).  Of  these  the  Doric  is  the 
oldest.     The  earliest  examjile  which  remains  is  the 


Fi-.  1- 

temple  at  Corinth,  which  was  built  about  U.IO  R.c. 
The  remains  of  this  temple  show  the  various  mem- 
bers of  the  style  fully  developed,  but  they  are  all  of 
a  massive  and  heavy  description,  strongly  resem- 
bling in  this  respect  their  jirototype  the  architec- 
ture of  Egvpt.  There  Is  now  no  doubt,  although 
the  intenncfliate  steps  are  lost,  that  the  Doric  style 


GREEK    ARCHITECTURE 


393 


took  its  origin  fiom  the  lock-cut  tombs  of  Beni- 
Hassan  (q.v.)in  Egypt,  of  whicli  fi".  1  is  an  exLsting 
example.  Tlie  jiillars  of  tliis  tomo  appear  at  (irst 
sight  to  be  Doric  ;  it  is  only  on  close  inspection 
that  we  finfl  tliat  the  echinus  (see  Motldisg)  is 
wanting  under  the  capital.  The  echinus  was,  how- 
ever, used  by  the  Egj-ptians.  We  here  lind  our- 
selves in  tlie  cradle  of  Greek  art  :  here  we  must 
seek  for  the  i)rimitive  elements  of  the  style,  not 
in  Greece,  where  tlie  earliest  example  is  alreatly 
complete  in  all  its  parts.  There,  tlie  earlier  the 
example,  the  more  massive  is  the  form.  This  com- 
pletely disproves  the  theory  that  the  pillars  were 
copies  of  stems  of  trees  used  as  posts.  In  Assyrian 
and  Hindu  architecture  evidence  is  pre.served  in  the 
forms  of  the  bracket  capitals  of  the  wooden  origin 
of  the  pillars  and  beams,  but  in  Greek  architecture 
there  are  no  such  indications.  It  seems  more  likely 
that  the  first  pillars  in  Egypt  were  square  piers  of 
rubble  or  brickwork,  witli  a  Hat  stone  or  tile  laM 
on  the  top  to  form  a  good  bed  for  the  beams  to  rest 
on.  The  lintels  or  architraves  are  short  and  mas- 
sive, and  the  pillars  are  ]>laoeil  close  together,  as 
would  naturally  be  the  arrangement  in  stone  con- 
structiim.  It  ha.s  been  supposed  that  the  triglyphs 
represent  the  ends  of  wooden  cross-beams  resting 
on  the  architrave.  But  when  the  principles  of 
Greek  construction  are  analysed  it  becomes  apparent 
that  the  triglyphs  have  been  emplnyeil  as  stone 
supports  set  upon  the  architraves  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  the  cornice,  the  mutules  or  spaces  be- 
tween the  triglyjihs  being  sometimes  left  open, 
although  generally  filled  with  sculptured  slabs.  It 
is  also  to  be  observed  that  the  triglyphs  are  usetl  on 
the  ends  as  well  as  the  sides  of  the  temple,  where 
they  couhl  not  represent  the  ends  of  ciDss-beams. 
The  raftei-s  were  certainly  of  wood,  and  gave  their 
sloping  form  to  the  pediment.  It  .seems  also  likely 
that  the  ends  of  the  raftei's  and  projecting  roof- 
tiles  at  the  eaves  may  have  suggested  the  detailed 
features  of  the  cornice  with  its  modillions.  It  will, 
however,  be  observed  that  although  the  mode  in 
which  stone  is  employed  in  Greek  architecture  is 
quite  appropriate  for  that  material  when  the  space 
to  be  spanned  is  small,  still  the  principle  involved 
Ls  the  trabeate  one,  or  that  of  beam  constniction, 
which  is  more  ai)plicable  to  wooden  framing  than 
to  stonework,  for  which  the  arch  is  the  proper 
medium  lioth  of  construction  and  expression.  The 
square  form  of  the  pier  may  have  been  afterwards 
mollified  by  cutting  off  the  cornei-s,  and  again 
cutting  oir  the  lemainiug  corners,  until  the  polygon 
suggested  the  tinted  shaft.  The  same  process  was 
afterwarils  gone  through  l)y  the  medieval  architects 
in  developing  the  piers  of  Gothic  .architecture.  Be 
this  as  it  may,  the  circular  and  lluteil  form  of  the 
column  had  been  developed  before  it  wius  ailopted 
in  Greece. 

After  the  temple  at  Corinth,  the  next  remaining 
example  is  the  temple  at  -Egiiia  (q.v. ),  built  about 
a  century  later,  or  5.">0  B.C.  There  may  have  been 
many  temples  of  the  same  date,  but  none  now 
exist;  they  were  probably  destroyed  during  the 
Persian  war,  or  removed  to  make  way  for  finer 
edifices  during  the  great  building  epoch  of  Greece 
which  succeeded  that  war,  and  when  she  was  at 
the  zenith  of  her  power.  Of  this  epoch  we  have 
many  remains.  The  temple  of  Theseus  and  the 
Parthenon  at  Athens  (438  li.c),  those  of  Zeus  at 
Olympia  (440  li.r. ),  Apollo  Epicurius  at  Bassoe, 
Minerva  at  Suniuiii,  and  all  the  liest  examples  of 
the  Doric  style  of  (!reece  are  of  the  age  of  Pericles. 
Be.sides  the  Peloponnesus,  there  are  the  ccmntries 
colonised  by  the  (ireeks  to  which  we  can  look  lor 
remains  of  (ireek  architecture.  The  Dorian  colon- 
ists of  Sicily  and  Magna  Gr.ecia  carried  with  them 
the  architecture  of  their  native  country,  and  fur- 
nish us  with  m.any  fine  examples.     In  .Selinus  there 


are  six  temples,  the  oldest  being  about  the  .same 
age  as  that  at  Corinth.  At  Agrigentnm  there 
are  three  Doric  temples,  one  of  them  founded  by 
Theron  (480  B.C.);  this  is  the  largest  Grecian 
temple  of  the  iieriod.  being  360  feet  long  by  173 
feet  broad.  At  .Syracuse,  .Egesta,  and  Pa-stum 
there  still  remain  valuable  examples. 

As  the  Doric  art  progressetl,  the  early  massive 
forms  gave  place  to  more  elegant  and  slender  pro- 
portions. In  the  temple  at  Corinth  the  column  is 
only  4'47  diameters  in  height  ;  in  the  Parthenon 
( fig.  2 ),  which  is  universally  recognised  as  the  finest 


Fig.  2. 

example  of  the  style,  the  column  is  OOS.^  in  height; 
and  in  later  examples  it  becomes  still  taller  and 
thinner,  until  it  runs  into  the  opposite  extreme 
from  which  it  started,  and  becomes  so  meagre  and 
attenuated  as  to  lose  entirely  the  boldness  and 
vigour  of  design  which  are  the  chief  characteristics 
of  the  style. 

One  thing  to  be  particularly  admired  in  the 
Doric  style  is  the  beauty  of  the  sculpture  with 
which  it  is  adorned,  and  the  appropriate  manner 
in  which  the  sculpture  is  placed  in  the  building, 
and  the  building  suited  for  the  scnlpture.  Mr 
Penrose  has  endeavoured  to  juove  by  ehaborate 
measurements  and  drawings  that  every  line  was 
the  subject  of  the  deepest  study  on  the  part  of 
the  architect,  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  and 
allowing  for  all  optical  aberrations.  The  result  is 
that  there  is  hardly  a  single  straight  line  in  the 
Imilding;  all  the  lines  which  fi/i/i,iir  to  be  perfectly 
straight  are  drawn  with  accurately  calculated  cunes, 
so  as  to  produce  the  smoothest  and  most  pleasing 
effect  to  the  eye.  Evepi'  harsh  angle  is  softened, 
and  everj"  disagreeable  combin.ation  of  lines  avoided. 
For  example,  the  c(dumns  instead  of  straight 
sides  have  an  entasis  or  slight  swelling  formed  by 
a  hyperbolic  curve :  the  architrave  of  the  front  is 
curved  upwards,  so  as  to  correct  the  optical  illusion 
caused  by  the  slo])ing  lines  of  the  pediment,  and 
the  columns  are  slojied  slightly  inwards  so  as  to 
give  greater  appearance  of  soliilitv.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  stated  that  in  the  i>art  of  "Dunn's  Hrnirlhiirh 
ilrr  AiThllertiir  ( 1881  I  which  treats  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture, this  e.xtraordinaiy  refinement  of  details  is 
to  a  great  extent  denied.  The  Parthenon  is  built 
entirely  of  white  marble,  and  the  whole  of  the 
masonry  in  this,  as  in  other  Doric  works  of  import- 
ance, is  put  together  with  the  most  perfect  work- 
manship. There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  this  and 
other  (Jreek  temples  were  adorned  externally  with 
colour.  To  what  extent  this  decoration  was  carried 
is  not  clearly  a.scertained  ;  but  it  is  jirobable  that 
the  exterior  walls  were  covered  with  histcuical 
pictures,  which  were  sheltered  from  the  ellects  of 
the  weather  by  the  portico  surrounding  the  temple. 
This  colouring  also  served  .as  ,a  backgrouml  ag.ainst 
which  the  white-Huted  pillai-s  would  stand  well 
'  out.  The  sculpture  w<as  probably  also  relieve<l  by 
I  a  flat  c<dour  on  the  backgroun<l,  and  the  mouldings 
I  decoratcil  with  painted  or  gilded  ornaments. 
j  Ionic. — This  style  took  its  rise  about  500  B.C., 
'  and  as  we  have  seen  that  the  earlier  Doric  was 


394 


GREEK    ARCHITECTURE 


iiii|>i>i'teil  Iroiii  E^'vpt,  so  the  Ionic  seeniR  to  liave 
oriKiniitcil  fmiii  the  iiilliiL-iiee  of  Assyiiiui  art. 
Till-  iliscoverii's  ot"  Liiymil  uiul  others  have  shown 
thai  many  ot  the  characteristic  orininients  of  the 
style  were  in  common  use  in  Assyrian  architcctnre. 
Till'  vohites  of  the  capitals  are  particuhuly  in- 
dicativi'  of  an  eiLstern  ori^'in,  the  .-iii>ll  liiinn  an 
ornamcMt  of  very  frci|nenl  occurrence  in  all  eiLstern 
art.  The  linest  examples  of  the  lonicstyle  remain 
in;;  ill  Ccreece  are  tiie  temples  of  \Vin;;le.ss  Victory 
(AV/.c  Aptfm.s)  anil  the  Ereehtheum  at  Athens, 
iinilt  ahont  4.'iO-4'20  li.c.  In  the  Ionian  ami  other 
colonies  of  .Vsia  Minor  also  many  line  specimens  of 
this  style  were  erecteil.  The  ceiel)raleil  Temph'  of 
Uiana  at  Kphesns  was  of  the  Ionic  onli'r.  It  was 
the  hir;,'est  temple  wo  know  of  up  to  its  time, 
beinjr  4'i.')  feet  Ion;;  l>y  '220  feet  wide.  The  site 
was  iliscovereil  ami  excavated  liy  .Mr  Wooil  in  1H(>!I 
74.  The  Ionic  is  a  ;;raceful  and  ele;;ant  style,  1ml 
not  so  pure  and  severe  as  the  IJoric.  The  latter 
is  distini;uislied  l>y  sim|de  and  heautiful  ontline, 
enriched  with  the  most  perfect  siMilptiire;  the 
former  trnsts  rather  to  ornamental  carving;  for  it.s 

elt'ect.     This  love  of  ela- 

liorate  ornament  is  an 
indication  of  the  eastern 
inlluenceunderwhich  the 
style  ori;;inated,  and  the 
mouldin;;s  and  many  of 
the  ornaiiienls  are  fonnd 
tit  he  borrowed  fiom  t  liosc 
of  Assyrian  architecture, 
only  relined  and  simplilied  liy  the  (ireek.s.  The 
honeysuidile  ornament  (11;;,  ,3),  so  coinmonly  nsed 
both  in  -Vssyrian  and  Ionic  architecture,  is  a  ;;ood 
example  of  the  improvement  ell'ecled  hy  the  (ireeks 
on  th"'  i>ri;;inal  type.  In  tin-  Ionic  a.s  well  as 
in  the  Doric,  we  lind  the  most  i>erfect  execution 
and  workinauship,  the  spirals,  entasis,  I'ic.  hein;; 
all  drawn  and  cut  with  the  greatest  possible 
exactness. 

Cuniit/titiii.  —This  style  was  the  latest  intro- 
duced, and  combines  to  some  extent  the  eliarac. 
teristics  of  lioth  the  ]ireccdin;;.  It  unites  and  blends 
to;;etlier  the  K;j;yi)tian  and  .Assyrian  elements,  the 
ca])  l)cin;;  proljably  derive<l  from  the  bell-shaiied 
capitals  of  the  former  country,  ornamented  with 
the  carved  leaves  and  spirals  of  the  Kiust.  This 
order  was  first  used  al)out  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  (Ireat,  the  earliest  example  extant  bein;;  thi' 
Chora;;ie  .Mcmnmi'iit  of  Lysicrates  {Xir>  li.C. ). 
Thi're  are  also  the  TeMi])le  of  the  Winds  and 
that  of  Zeus  Olympios  at  .Vtlieus,  the  latter  beiiij; 
one  of  the  lar;;est  and  (inest  exain]des  of  the  style. 
The  Corinthian  is  the  most  lloriil  of  the  Greek 
styles,  and  althou;;h  invented  by  the  Greeks,  it 
was  not  brou;;lil  into  use  till  after  the  power  of 
the  repulpjics,  to  which  we  owe  the  linest  works  of 
Cireek  art,  had  be;;nn  to  wane.  This  style,  from 
its  richness  and  .splemlour,  liec.-ime  afterwards  the 
greatest  favourite  with  the  liomans,  in  whose 
hands  Greek  art  spread  over  tin?  wliide  empire, 

Canjutidis. — liesides    the    above    styles,    which 
constitute  the,  Greek  unlers  of  classi(;  writers,  the 
(Jreeks   also   nsed    Cftrifttfif/r.t  (q.v.),  or 
^^^^^    female   li;;urcs,   in    ]dace  of  columns,  as 
I  I    ill  the    Ereclitheuin:    and    Tclrimoius  or 

I  I    ;;iants,  as  at    .\;;ri;;entuin.     These  were 

^^  ^M  pnd).ably  derived  from  the  figures  n.sed 
^^  ^1  by  the  Egyptians  in  their  architecture, 
■  •  •  ■  ''"''  ^''^  latter  never  used  them  a.s 
columns ;  they  alw.ays  placed  them  as 
statues  in  front  of  the  columns. 

Greek  temples  are  technically  cla.s.sed 
and  designated  by  the  moile  in  which  the  columns 
of  the  porticoes  are  arraii;;ed.  The  rrll,  or  temple 
jiioper,  is  a  square  chamber  contained  within  four 
wall>  ;  the  siniple-st  form  of  portico  is  called  disti/Ze 


Fig.  4, 


ill  aiilis  (lig,  4),  the  two  side-walls  being  con- 
tinned  past  the  end-wall,  and  terminateil  with 
antii',  or  pihustei's,  with  two  columns  between. 
When  the  portico  has  four  columns  between  the 
anUe,  it  is  calletl  tetrastyle.  The  temples  have 
generally  the  same  arrangeiiiciit  at  both  ends. 
In  front  of  both  ends  of  the  plan  ilisli/lc  in  iiiilin 
(lig.  .")),  there  is  iic(|uciitly  pl.oed  a 
range  of  six  columns,  and  Imni  the  |j" 
Hank  columns  a  row  is  continued 
along  both  sides,  thus  forming  a  con- 
tinuous portico  all  loniid  the  edilice. 
Such  an  arrangement  is  calleil  jirii/i 
Icriil,  and  the  temple  is  desigiiatcil 
hexastyle  and  peripteral.  This  was  a 
common  arrangi'ment.  The  rarlhe- 
non  is  an  exception  to  the  general 
rule  :  it  has  a  hexastyle  portico  ,at 
each  end  of  the  cell,  in  front  of  w  hich 
is  placed  an  octiustyle  portico,  and 
seventeen  columns  at  eacli  side.  The  >''''' 
great    temple     at     .Agrigentniii    had  I  i;;.  ."r. 

seven  columns  at  e.ach  end,  and  four- 
teen at  each  siile,  ami  was  peculiar  in  having  the 
.space  between  the  columns  all  round  liUcd  up  with 
a  wall.  The  rejuson  iirobably  was  that  the  space 
between  the  columns  wa-s  too  great  to  be  spanned 
by  architraves  in  single  stones.  Tlie  wall  was 
pierceil  with  windows. 

Considerable  doubt  has  existed  as  to  the  mode 
adopleil  l>y  the  Gii-eks  for  lighting  the  interior  of 
their  temples ;  that  snggesteil  by  Mr  Kergussoii 
.seems  the  most  probable,  as  being  similar  to  the 
plan  useil  by  (he  Egyptians  aii<l  As.syrians.  The 
interior  had  generally  a  double  row  of  cidumiis, 
one  over  the  other,  (lividing  the  width  into  three 
s]ians.  This  arraiigeiiieiit  still  exists  in  the  Ti'm]ile 
of  Neptune  at  l':r-stum.  l''eigiissoii  supposes  that 
the  light  was  introduced  by  countersinking  a  |)art 
of  the  roof,  so  as  to  admit  the  light  between  the 
pillars  of  the  u|iper  range,  thus  forming  a  kind  of 
clerestory,  as  shown  <iii  the  .-mnexed  section  of  the 


Fig,  C. 

Parthenon  (lig.  6).  Windows,  however,  were  also 
nsed,  .as  in  the  teiii]de  at  Agri;;entuni  ami  in  the 
Ereehtheum, 

The  theatres  of  the  Greeks  form<'d  another  very 
important  cl.'uss  of  works  ;  they  consisted  of  semi- 
circular rows  of  scats  cut  in  the  rock,  or  partly 
built  (see  Atiikx.s).  Remains  of  these  structures 
are  found  in  all  the  countries  inhabited  by  the 
(ireeks,  and  were  freiiuently  of  great  si/e — that  at 
Draiuyssus  being  44.'?  feet  across.  The  ]>roscenia 
were  the  parts  on  which  architectural  design  was 
chielly  displayed  ;  but  tlie.se  have  unfortunately  all 
perished. 

None  of  the  pal.aces  or  domestic  edifices  of  the 
Greeks  remain  to  us  ;  we  are  thus  totally  deprived 
of  a  very  interesting  cha|)ler  in  the  history  of 
domestic  architecture,  for  it  is  highly  ]iidlj:i)ile  that 
the   houses  of  Greece,   although   not  so  splendid 


k 


GREEK    ARCHITECTURE 


GREEK    CHURCH 


395 


anil  enduiing  as  the  temples,  were  more  varied  in 
style,  ami  exliil)ited  many  picturosniie  and  beauti- 
ful forms,  which  are  now  entirely  lost.  15ut  from 
what  is  known  of  the  jealous  feelinj;s  which  ]ier- 
vaded  the  republics  of  (Ireecc,  and  from  the  aspect 
of  the  houses  in  the  streets  of  I'ompcii,  we  may 
conclude  that  the  exterior  ajiiiearance  of  the  town- 
houses  would  be  quite  plain  and  unpretending, 
any  ricliuess  or  decoration  being  reserveil  for  the 
interior. 

The  attempt  was  made  in  the  early  part  of  the 
lOtli  century  to  revive  (treek  architeclure,  and  some 
ingenious  niodilications  and  adaptations  of  it  have 
been  carried  out.  But  it  was  fouml  tliat  this  style, 
so  beautiful  anil  appro|)riate  in  the  warm  and 
genial  climate  of  Greece,  was  ([uite  uiisuilcd  for 
our  northern  latitudes.  The  ])ortieoes  are  usele.ss  in 
a  climate  wliere  external  painting  cannot  last,  and 
where  the  sunshine  is  courted  rather  than  excluded ; 
the  [litch  of  the  roof  is  not  high  enough  to  throw 
oil'  our  snows  :  and  windows  of  sullicient  size  for 
our  dark  skies  are  not  adndssililc.  (irecian  archi- 
tecture has  therefore  been  abandone<l  ;  and  its 
place  is  now  taken  by  a  style  more  a]>]iropriate  to 
a  northern  climate,  and  more  suited  to  the  feelings 
of  the  peonle.  See  Fergu.sson's  HUt(jr)/  of  Arehi- 
tertiire  ami  other  general  works  on  tiie  subject  ; 
Aiitiqiillk.s  of  Ionia  (Dil.  Soc.  4  vols.  1769-1881); 
At/iciiitiii  Arc/iiterture  (Dil.  Soc.  1851  ;  new  ed. 
1.SS9). 

Greek  <'liurell.  The  (styled  'orthodox'  by 
reason  of  its  vindications  of  dogma,  an<l  'Eastern' 
from  its  geographical  distriluUion  ),  is  the  church  of 
those  Christians  who  follow  the  ancient  rite  of  the 
East  and  accept  the  iirst  seven  councils,  but  do 
not  admit  papal  supremacy,  and  reject  those  in- 
novations on  the  dogmas  and  the  ]iractice  of  the 
early  cluirch  which  were  introduced  by  subseiiuent 
councils  in  the  West.  She  is  'the  aged  tree  beneath, 
whose  shade  the  rest  of  Christendom  has  sprung 
np  : '  anil  'it  is  her  privilege  to  claim  direct  con- 
tinuity of  speech  with  the  earliest  times,  to  boast 
of  reading  the  whole  code  of  Scripture,  old  as  well 
as  new,  in  the  language  in  which  it  \\as  read  and 
s))okcn  by  the  Apostles'  (Stanley,  Enst.  Cli.). 
The  dogmas  of  ('hristianity  were  lii-st  expounded 
by  the  Greek  fathers :  the  earliest  forms  of  Chris- 
tian worship  were  composed  by  (ireeks  in  Greek, 
and  during  the  Iirst  live  centuries  the  Eastern 
Church  may  fairly  be  said  to  have  comprised  the 
whole  body  of  Christianity. 

Hisfuri/. — The  tendency  and  desire,  natural  to 
the  Eastern  mind,  to  endeavour  to  estimate  and 
deline  in  the  abstract  the  attributes  of  Deity,  pushed 
to  extremes  during  a  time  of  absorbing  theological 
controversies,  brought  about,  in  the  earlier  period 
of  the  church,  the  formation  of  sects  to  which  we 
>hall  hereinafter  advert.  I5ut  the  great  Schism  be- 
tween the  eastern  and  western  portions  of  ('hristcn- 
dom,  an  event  which  has  exercised  aliiding  inlluence 
on  the  whole  course  of  subsenuent  European  his- 
tory, was  due  to  two  primary  causes — the  inherent 
dillerence  in  the  spirit  and  the  traditions  of  East 
and  West,  and  the  transfer  of  the  seat  of  empire 
from  Home  to  Constant inciide. 

As  the  Christian  faith  became  predominant 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  necessarily  coincided  with 
civil  government,  so  that,  when  the  Council  of 
Nica'a  declared  Rome,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch 
to  be  patriarchal  sees,  it  but  recognised  the 
political  importance  of  those  three  centres  of 
Christianity.  As  such,  Rome  was  then  the  lea.st 
important  of  the  three.  Indeeil  the  early  Roman 
Church  was  ,a  colony  of  (Ireid;  Christians  and 
Grecised  .lews;  the  Iirst  pojies  themselves  were 
(ireeks,  not  Italians,  and  tiie  very  name  of  'pope' 
is  not  a  Latin  name,  but  the  Greek  designation 
(papas)  of  every  pastor  of  the   Eastern  Church. 


When,  however,  the  seat  of  emi)ire  was  tran.-^feried 
to  Constantinople  (330  A.I>.  ),  although  Rome  was 
thus  dejirived  of  its  sovereignty  and  it.-i  courtly 
splendour,  a  signal  o])])ortunity  for  increase  of  power 
and  self-assertion  was  given  to  the  Human  pontills. 
l'"avoureil  by  the  al>senee  in  their  diocese  of  theo- 
logical contioversies,  such  as  distracted  the  Ea.st, 
and  endowed  for  the  most  i)art  with  rare  ability 
and  worldly  astuteness,  they  were  not  slow  to  seize 
ni>on  and  gradually  appropriate  the  prerogatives 
and  the  civil  authority  of  the  absent  emperors,  and 
they  soon  arrogated  to  themselves  even  their  pagan 
titles  and  nulitary  prestige.  Constantino])le,  on 
the  other  hand,  now  rose  ra])idly  to  pre-eminence, 
not  in  the  same  .sense  of  an  ambitious  ecdesia.stical 
despotism,  but  as  the  otticial  centre  of  a  church 
already  venerable,  which  had  just  received  into 
its  fidd  the  lir.st  Christian  emperor.  A  generation 
had  hardly  pa.s.sed  when  Gregory  Xazianzen  (.SGO) 
spoke  of  the  city  a.s  a  '  bond  of  union  between  East 
and  West  to  which  the  most  distant  extremes  from 
all  sides  come  together,  and  to  wliich  they  look  up 
as  the  common  centre  and  em]iorium  of  the  faith.' 
It  is  true  that,  on  the  "round  that  '  Constantinojile 
is  the  new  Rome,'  the  second  general  council 
(.381)  assigned  to  it   'precedence  of  honour"  next 

I  after  Rome.  But  this  declaration,  and  the  subse- 
quent decree  of  the  fourth  Council  of  Chalcedon 
(451),  establish  that  these  ecclesiasticid  honours 
were  grounded  upon  the  political  distinction  onlv  to 
which  both  cities  had  successively  risen.  Jerusalem 
itself,  in  spite  of  its  unrivalled  as.sociations,  wa.s 
included  amongst  the  patriarchates — which  thus 
reached  the  number  of  live — only  at  this  latter 
council.  Yet  the  initial  advantages  which  the 
(ireek  Church  already  possessed  never  disapi)earcd  ; 
they  still  subsist,  'a  perpetual  witness  that  she  is 
the  mother  and  Rome  the  daughter'  (Stanley). 

But  otiierand  irresistible  inward  causes  militated 
against  the  maintenance  of  even  outward  unity. 
Rome  wa-s  destined  soon  to  detach  herself  from  the 
sisterhood  of  jiatriarchates,  and  renounce  even  that 
venerated  title.  According  as  the  imlitical  ties 
between  the  eastern  and  western  halves  of  the 
empire  grew  weaker,  antagonistic  ideas  seemed  to 
guide  the  two  rival  sectiims  of  the  church.  In  each 
the  divergent  genius  of  their  pagan  forerunners, 
no  less  than  opposed  local  temperaments,  reapjieared 
with  fresh  vigour,  and  intluenced  both  thought 
and  action.  The  Greeks  were  still  swayed,  how- 
ever unconsciously,  by  the  liberal  tradition  of  demo- 
cratic Hellas  ;  wliile  the  autocratic  and  centralising 
tendency  of  Rome  never  cea.scd  to  pervade  the  Latin 
l)ontiticate.  The  fathers  of  the  (ireek  Church  in- 
herited and  christianised  the  ]diiloso]diy  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle  :  the  Latin  Church  modelled  its 
Christianity  after  Roman  law.  '  The  East  enacted 
creeds:  the  West  discipline'  (Milnian).  The  one 
w,as  controlled  by  a  calm  i'i)nscr\"atisni,  the  other 
was  imjielled  by  a  restless  desire  for  change.  The 
one  church  remained  ancient  and  catholic  in  spirit  : 
the  other  was  transformed  into  a  medieval  and 
Latin  institution. 

These  contrasts.  ap|iarently  superficial,  were 
more  deeply  rooted  and  were  fraught  with 
weightier  consequences  than  the  outward  theo- 
logical iliH'erences  which  now  mark  the  distinc- 
tions between  other  Christian  churches.  They 
were  such  as  to  lead  to  open  rupture.  Home 
furthermore  seemed  again  possessed  by  its  tradi- 
tional feeling  of  mingled  jealousy  and  disdain  for 
the  (Jreeks,  who  were  gradually  becoming  supreme 
at  Constantinople,  and  who  tinally  transformed  the 
Roman  enqiire  into  a  tireek  monarchy.  There- 
fore, in  the  disputes  which  followed  in  quick 
succession,  political  considerations  weighed  more 
in  jnoportion  ai;  the  tem|ioral  power  of  the  popes 

I  found    sustenance   in   the  gradual    growth   of    an 


396 


OKKKK    CHURCH 


indepciiileiit    confederation    amongst    the    lltilian 

states. 

The  lirst  notes  of  disunion  were  soumled  in 
Rome,  liy  such  innovations  as  the  enforcement  of 
clcriral  rplil>acv  (.'W."}),  f(ilh)wed  liy  ninre  or  less 
|ierein|)tory  dcniamls  for  the  recofjnition,  lirst  of 
llie  hii'rarchir.il,  and  hiler  of  the  ilortrinal  supre- 
nmcy  of  the  Honian  i)ontill'.  which  was  ultimately 
to  l>e  ailmitted  as  '  l>y  divine  rifiht.'  Minor 
chanfjes  were  ffradually  introdnced  into  the 
Western  Church,  such  as  denying  to  priests  power 
to  a<lminister  conlirmatiim,  anil  the  use  of  un- 
leaveneil  hread  in  the  eucharist.  These  innova- 
tions the  Greeks  rejiarded  as  expressly  (lcsii;iied 
to  force  upon  them  either  a  complete  rii]iture  or 
an  unconilitional  sulimission  to  papal  authority. 
IJut  the  chief  and  most  ahidin;;  point  of  ilogmatic 
dill'erence  consisted  in  the  doctrine  of  the  two- 
ft>lil  ])rocessi(m  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  inter- 
pidalion  in  the  ancient  creed  of  the  church  of 
the  worils  Filioqiir  ( '  anil  from  the  Son  ' ).  With- 
out enterinj;  into  the  ihaails  of  this  interininahle, 
hopeless,  and  hitter  controversy,  it  may  he  safely 
saiil  that  the  com|dcte  al)sence  of  such  a  doctrine 
from  the  ileliheratiims  of  the  early  councils  is  not 
ilenied  liy  the  Latins;  that  popes,  such  a.s  Leo  III. 
and  .loliii  VIII.,  admitted  that  its  surreptitious 
insertion  into  the  Creeil  was  repreliensilile  ;  iinil 
linally.  that  the  (Jrecks  liivse  their  unc<>m]iromisinj,' 
reprohation  of  it  (m  the  explicit  word  of  Christ  : 
'The  spirit  of  truth  which  proceedeth  from  the 
Father    (.lohn,  xv.  -US). 

Such  liein^'  the  ahundant  sources  of  an  estrange- 
ment which  steadily  incre.'used,  the  i)ope  wa.s  not 
at  a  loss  for  jnetexts  in  hurliuf;  his  lirst  excom- 
munication against  the  emperor  anil  the  patriarchs 
of  Coustantiniiple  and  .\lexanilria  in  4S4.  Thus 
the  I'',a-<t  and  \\'est  were  <lc  furtu  separated  for  a 
|)eriod  of  nearly  forty  veal's.  KH'orts  at  concilia- 
tion followed,  and  .successive  excommunications 
were  withdrawn  to  he  renewed  from  hotli  sides 
with  intensilied  animus.  Hut  while  the  pope  suli- 
ordinated  do^'matic  ditl'erences  to  the  reco^'nition 
of  his  supremacy,  the  title  of  '  ircumenical,'  which 
the   emperor   conferred   on    the   iialriarch   of   Con- 

•        •  ■        ■      ■  ^ -he 

•A 
natriarch  I'hotius  and  the  pi)]>es  .Adrian  I.  and 
S'icholas  I.  was  one  of  the  most  nicnnir.ahle  |)erioils 
of  that  Ion?,' and  eventful  struKK''"'  and  althoujih  the 
.so  called  '  i'hotian  Schism  '  was  a^ain  compromised, 
the  reconcili.itiim  proved  neither  cordial  nor  lasting. 
The  same  causes  of  dillerence,  with  otliei"s  of  a 
disciplinary  nature,  reappeared  in  the  1  Itli  century  : 
and  in  l<).>4  Po|)e  Leo  l.\.  i.ssued  a  formal  excom- 
munication ajiainst  the  patriarch  Michael  Ceru- 
larius.  Since  that  time  the  separation  has  suh- 
sisted  rigidly  :  for  although  more  than  one  attempt 
was  made  hv  either  siile  to  restore  inteniiiiMjimiion 
hetween  the  two  churches,  every  ellort  failed  liefore 
the  nn.alterahle  demand  for  suhmission  to  ]>arial 
sui>reinacv  and  jurisdiction.  I'ope  (iregory  I.\. 
conceded  even  tiie  omission  of  r'i/ior/nr  hy  the 
(ireeks,  provided  they  hurned  pulilicly  all  books 
inimical  to  the  Human  see ;  and  the  desire  of 
many  <  ireeks  for  reconciliation  wa-s  so  sincere  that 
some  sort  of  reunion  might  have  heen  ellected  at  a 
later  time,  if  the  old  antipathies  of  Kiist  .ind  West 
had  not  heen  rendered  even  more  intense  and  irre- 
meilialile  through  the  conijucst  of  Constantinople 
hy  the  Latins  in  the  fourth  crusade  (I2()4).  'llie 
atrocities  of  this  unprovoked  and  fanatical  on- 
slaught, which  was  instigated  hy  the  paiial  see, 
the  outr.ageims  desecrations  of  tlreek  churclies,  the 
horrors  of  the  s.ack  'of  a  rehned  and  civilised 
capital  hy  a  horde  of  comparative  harharians ' 
(Stanley),  and  the  cruel  tyranny  hy  which  the 
Franks    maintained    their    power,    rendered     the 


the  emperor  conferred  on  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinopli'.  proved  a  fresh  stumhling-hlock.  The 
contest  which  followed  (H(i'2)  hetween  the  learned 


existing  breach  irreparahle.  The  Frank  invasion, 
hy  disorganising  ami  weakening  the  tireek  emidre, 
opened  the  gates  of  Europe  to  the  inroads  of  the 
'lurks,  whose  rising  power  had  carried  hefore  it 
everything  in  Asia.  So  that  on  his  restoration  to 
the  throne  of  Constantinople  (I'itil)  the  emperor 
Michael  I'aheologos.  pres.seil  hy  dangers,  was  com- 
liclled,  on  a  promise  of  material  assistance  from 
the  West,  to  suhniil  to  the  dictates  of  Kmiie  at  the 
I 'onncil  of  Lyons  in  1'274.  When,  however,  he 
endeavoured,  at  a  .syno<l  held  at  Ccmstantinojde, 
to  ohtain  ratilication  of  that  union,  he  failed  to 
gain  the  a.s«ent  of  the  hi>ily  of  hishops  to  what 
i  \va.s  a  one-sided  measure,  resulting  from  ]iolitical 
necessity.  In  the  succeeding  reign  the  hreacli  was 
even  more  seriously  widened  hy  the  councils  held 
at  Constantinople  in  I'iX.S  and  l'2H,">.  The  last 
attemiit  at  union  was  the  one  made  hy  the  Kmperor 
.lohn  I'alaologos,  who,  to  save  Constantinople,  and 
with  it  the  West,  from  the  invasion  of  the  Turks, 
ajiiieared  (14."{7)  with  the  |iatriarch  .loseph  and 
several  Greek  hishops  at  the  Council  of  I'crrara, 
hetter  known  from  tlie  place  of  its  close  as  that  of 
Florence.  Protracted  discussions  took  place  on  all 
the  point.s  at  issue  ;  hut  while  received  with  marks 
of  distinction  and  outward  show  of  friendship,  the 
(ireeks  were,  as  on  former  occjusions,  deceived,  out- 
reached,  and  entra|ipeil  into  signing  misleading 
and  fraudulent  dociinienls,  witli  the  iiie\italile 
result  that,  even  hefore  their  return  to  Constantin- 
ople, they  renounced  and  repudiated  the  proceed- 
ings of  what  they  characterised  as  one  of  the  most 
.scand.alous  of  lioman  conclaves.  The  capture  of 
Constantinoide  hy  the  Turks  followed  in  M.'i.'i,  anil 
the  fall  of  the  Greek  empire  removed  the  political 
considerations  which  alone  had  dictated  these  latter 
attempts  at  leconciliatinn.  Thus  ilie  (ireek  Church 
may  he  said  to  have  died  iiolitically,  hut  it  has 
never  surrenilciccl  its  religious  heritage. 

Doctrines. — As  already  stated,  the  tireek  Church 
receives  the  lirst  seven  (ccnnienical  councils  and 
the  canons  of  the  Trullan  Council  ( from  TpoOWos,  the 
domed  chaniher  of  the  imperial  iialace  at  Constan- 
tinople, where  it  was  held).  Tliey  ado]it  as  their 
rule  of  faith  not  only  the  ISihle,  hut  also  the 
traditions  of  the  church  '  maiiilnimd  timuri  ii/ilrd 
tlinmgh  the  intluence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  hy  the 
testimony  of  the  Fathers,'  amongst  whom  Urusil 
the  tireat,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  St  .lohn  Chry- 
.sostom  are  held  in  special  veneration  iis  '  the  three 
hieiarchs.'  The  (ireek  Church  admits  seven  sacra- 
meiit.s — viz.  haptism,  contirniation,  jienance,  eucha- 
rist, matrimony,  unction  of  the  sick,  and  holy 
orders;  hut  hoth  in  the  acceptation  and  the  u.se  of 
them  it  ditl'crs  widely  from  the  ("hurch  of  liome. 
Bajititm  is  .administered  hy  a  triple  immersion,  in 
accord.ance  hoth  with  the  meaning  of  the  tenn  itself 
and  with  the  indispiitahle  ]iractice  of  the  early 
church.  Cittifinnntiitii  {'^ivpov  or  Xpiir/ia)  follows 
inimedi.ately  upon  and  in  connection  with  haptism, 
even  in  the  case  of  infants — again  in  ohedience  to 
.apostolic  precept.  In  the  .sacrament  of  I'muwc  the 
church  requires  («j  admission  hefore  God  of  one's 
own  sins,  (4)  faith  in  His  mercy,  (r)  resolve  of 
selfamendnieiit :  this  coiifes.sion  to  l>e  made  hefore 
a  iiriest,  (I)  that  he  m.ay  oHer  spiritual  guidance 
and  .admonition  :  ('2)  that  he  may  announce  to  the 
penitent,  in  the  name  of  Christ  ('May  the  Lord 
ahsolve  thee),  ahsolution  and  iiope  of  salvation; 
(.T)  th.at  he  may  recommend  penitential  work. 
'  Therefore  the  scandals,  the  inllueiice,  the  terrors 
of  the  eonfes.sional  are  alike  unknown  in  the  East' 
(Stanley).  .\s  to  the  ICiirlmri^l .  the  (ireeks  .admit 
the  propitiatory  sacrifice,  the  re.al  ]>re.senceof  Christ, 
and  transuhstantiation,  which,  'if  used  at  all  as 
a.  theological  term,  is  merely  one  .amongst  many 
to  express  the  reverential  awe  with  which  the 
eucharist  is  approached'   (.Stanley).     They  dill'er 


GREEK    CHURCH 


397 


from  the  Latins  in  the  use  of  Iea\ened  breiul 
and  in  the  administration  of  communion  in 
botli  kinds  to  all,  even  to  children — this  a<;ain 
in  strict  obedience  to  evanj^elical  precept  (John, 
vi.).  MaiTitiiic  is  hchl  to  be  dissoluble  in  case 
of  adultery,  but  not  till  a  iirobatioiiarv  jieriod  has 
elapsed  durinj;  which  a  bishop  or  ])riest  medi;ites 
with  a  view  to  reconciliatiim.  A  fourth  marriage 
is  regardeil  as  unlawful.  Unclion  is  administered 
not  iti.  c.ifremis,  as  in  the  Latin  Church,  but  in 
ordinary  sickness,  as  laid  down  by  St  James 
(v.  14,  Id),  aud  is  therefore  called  oil  of  prayer 
(Evx^'S.aioi').  The  sacrament  of  //"/,'/  Orders  is 
celebrated  by  the  observance  of  rites  which  have 
remained  unchanged  since  the  earliest  times.  With 
the  exception  of  this  last,  all  tlie  sacraments  may 
he  administered  by  priests.  The  Greek  Church  not 
only  reprobates  clerical  celibacy,  but,  althoui^'h  it 
has  at  all  times  favoured  monastic  orders,  it  re- 
quires that  the  parochial  clerf^y  should  be  married, 
so  that  they  may  not  be  cut  off  from  the  domes- 
ticity of  the  life  of  their  Hocks.  Priests  cannot 
marry  after  ordination,  and  consef|Uently  cannot 
contract  a  .second  marriage,  nor  nuiy  they  wed  a 
widow  ;  but  they  must  be  married  before  ordina- 
tion. Bishops  are  selected  from  the  monastic  orders, 
and  are  therefore  single. 

Mundstic  life  originated  in  the  East,  and  in 
countries  of  the  Greek  rite  numerous  convents  of 
both  se.xes  are  established,  most  of  which  follow 
the  rule  of  St  IJasil.  The  rule  of  St  Anthony  (the 
Egyjitian  hermit  who  first  instituted  Christian  mon- 
asticism )  prevails  at  Mount  Sinai  ( established  527  |. 
This  monastery,  Jenisalem,  and  Mount  Athos 
form  the  tliree  great  centres  to  which  convents 
throughout  the  East  are  attiliated.  According  to 
their  mode  of  life,  monks  are  distinguished  as  {a) 
'AffKijTai,  if  leading  the  a-scetic  existence  of  her- 
mits: (li)  '  AvaxoipTjTal,  when  living  in  retirement  and 
in  separate  ch)istei-s  ;  and  (r,)  Koiro^ia^oi,  when  as- 
sembled in  a  convent  under  an  'hyoi'pLffoi  or  abbot. 
If  several  convents  are  subject  to  one  abbot  he  is 
called  'AfJX'nai'OfiiTTit,  arcliiniandi  ite  :  but  bisbo]is 
often  hold  the  post  of  abbot.  Nuns  must  either 
be  virgins  or  widows,  ami  they  follow  the  rule  of 
St  liasil  under  an  'H7oi';u^i'7;.  abbess.  With  both 
monks  and  nuns  the  duty  of  manual  labimr  is  a 
leading  oliservance  ;  the  nuns,  like  their  western 
sisters,  a|)ply  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  sick 
and  to  the  education  of  girls,  lint  the  chief  glory 
of  the  Greek  monastic  institutions  is  that  in  them 
Greek  learning  and  (Jreek  nationality  found  refuge, 
protection,  and  succour  during  the  long  night  of 
Turkish  tyranny  and  Alohammedan  per.secution. 

]Vors/ii/i  mid  Litiirf/i/. — Fasts  in  the  Greek 
Church  are  many  and  rigorous.  Jiesides  four 
yearly  fasts— the  forty  days  of  Lent,  from  Pente- 
cost to  the  I'east  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul,  the 
fifteen  days  befoic.  the  festival  of  the  Sleep  of  the 
Theotokos  (August  1.3).  and  the  six  weeks  before 
Christmas  —  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  through- 
out the  year  should  be  observed.  Indulgences 
are  not  recognised  ;  and  although  jnayers  for  the 
deail  are  practised  they  give  rise  to  no  ecclesi- 
astical abuse.  '  .-V  general  exjiei'tation  ]irevails 
that,  by  some  unknown  process,  the  souls  of  the 
sinful  will  lie  purilied  before  they  ]iass  into  the 
Divine  pre.'^ence  :  but  this  has  never  been  considi- 
dateil  into  a  doctrine  »if  purgatory  '  (Stanley).  The 
Mother  of  our  Lord  is  venerated,  and  homage 
( iVepSocXeio  )  is  paid  to  her.  but  such  homage  has 
never  been  transformed  into  a  dogma  of  immacu- 
late conception:  ami  the  (ireek  Chun-h  sjieaks  of 
'the  sleep'  ( Koifxijaa )  not  the  'assumption'  of  the 
Virgin.  Ileverence  (SovXia  as  distinguished  from 
dXrjtfii'i)  Xarpeio,  actual  worship)  is  paid  to  saints, 
and  their  icons  freely  adoiii  the  churches  :  but, 
witii  the  exception  of  the  crucifix,  no  graven  image 


is  permitted.  Instrumental  music  is  forbidden  in 
churches,  but  siii"ing  is  universally  in  use.  In 
public  prayer  the  kneeling  posture  Ls  used  only  at 
Pentecost;  at  ordinary  times  they  stand,  the  body 
being  turned  towards  the  east,  and  the  sign  of 
the  cross  is  frei|uently  made  during  juayers.  The 
ceremonial  of  the  Eastern  ritual  is  not  inferior  in 
splendour  to  that  of  the  Western,  but  it  is  more 
solemn  and  archaic;  though  'organs  and  musical 
in.struments  are  as  odious  to  a  Greek  or  Russian 
as  to  a  Scottish  Presbyterian'  (Stanley).  Origin- 
ally several  liturgies  were  use<l  in  the  East ;  Imt 
tlie  liturgy  of  St  James  pre\ailed  in  the  Greek 
Church.  In  its  shorter  form,  as  defined  by  St 
Chrysostom,  it  is  read  in  cliuiches  throughout 
the  year,  with  the  exception  of  two  or  three 
festivals,  when  the  longer  version,  attributed  to  St 
liasil,  is  said.  This  versicm  is  invariably  used  in 
convents.  The  Scriptures  are  in  the  hands  of  all 
believers,  who  are  encouragcil  to  study  them  in  the 
vernacular,  and  although  the  idioms  of  some  of  the 
eastern  (diurches  into  which  the  Bible  as  well  a.s 
the  liturgy  were  originally  translated  are  now 
antir|unted,  'the  actual  diil'erence  may  be  about 
that  lietween  Chaucer's  English  and  our  own.' 

Ilicrarr/ii/  in  the  Eastern  Church  is  thus  defined 
in  the  catechism  of  Philaretus,  which  is  in  universal 
use  in  Kussia  :  '  The  f(mr  ]iatriarchs,  of  ei|ual 
dignity,  have  the  highest  rank  among  the  bishops, 
and  the  bishops  united  in  a  general  council  repre- 
sent the  church,  and  infallibly  decide  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Holy  (ibost  all  matters  of  faith 
and  ecclesiastical  life.'  Thus  the  authority  of  the 
church  is  not  despotic,  centralised,  or  vested  in  one 
.  jierson.  Each  patriarch  is  independent  in  the  exer- 
cise of  his  canonical  autliority,  within  his  own 
diocese ;  but  he  is  amenable  to  an  cecumenical 
synod.  The  tireek  clergy  levy  no  tithes,  claim  no 
civil  power  over  their  tlocks,  ami  hardly  possess  any 
organisation  as  a  sejiarate  body.  '  The  Eastern 
Church  has  ne\er  ruled  that  religious  light  and 
instruction  are  confined  to  the  clergy."  And  its 
strength  "reposes  not  .so  mucli  on  the  jiower  and 
intluence  of  its  clergy,  but  on  the  independent 
knowledge  and  manly  zeal  of  its  laity'  (Stanley). 
The  Eastern  Church  has  become  inactive  since  itis 
subjection  to  Turkish  rule.  It  is  not  a  missionary 
I  church,  and  it  abstains  from  proselytism.  Un  the 
i  other  haml,  it  never  was  intolerant,  and  its  history 
j  has  not  been  di.sgraced  by  persecutions,  inciuisition, 
(jr  a  St  Bartholomew's  massacre. 

Itelatioiis  irith  the  liefiinind  Cliiirehcs. — Owing 
to  these  reasons  the  early  reformers  turned  their 
eyes  to  the  Eastern  Church  in  hope  of  support  and 
eventual  union.  Melancbthon  was  the  first  to 
address  a  letter  to  the  p.-itriarch  Joseph  of  Con- 
stantinople, through  a  (ireek  deacon,  Demetrius 
.Mysus,  who  visited  Germany  in  looS.  Another 
Lutheran  embassy,  of  a  moie  f(U-mal  character, 
headed  by  the  well-known  Tubingen  divines  Jacob 
Andre:e  and  ^lartin  Crusius,  visited  Constantin- 
ople during  the  patriarchate  of  Jeremias  ( I.'iTO- 
81).  Both  missions  were  ei|uallv  devoiil  of  im 
mediate  (wactical  results.  But  m  the  following 
century  the  celebrated  Cyril  Lucaris,  a  mitive  of 
<  rete,  wa.s  educated  in  tiermany,  and  was  there 
imbued  with  the  tenets  of  the  Iteformers.  On 
as.suniing  the  p.-itriarchate  of  Alexandria  first  ( ICO'2) 
and  then  of  Constantinople  ( 1G'21 )  he  opened  nego- 
tiations with  the  Calvinists  with  a  view  to  union 
and  the  reform  of  the  (Jreek  Church :  he  corre- 
sponded with  the  English  Archbishop  .Vbbot  and 
with  Laud,  and  he  ]ire.sentecl  the  .Mexandrian  Codex 
(ipv.)  to  Charles  I.  :  and  in  lG'2'.t  be  issued  a  cmi- 
fession  of  faith  of  a  decidedly  Calvinistic  tendency. 
But  his  ert'orts  were  bitterly  opposed  by  the 
intrigues  of  the  Jesuits,  who  brought  about  his 
depositi(Ui    five   times    after   successive   reinstate- 


398 


GREEK    CHURCH 


menu  in  the  piitiiarfliiil  I'liair,  ami  are  RUiipoKeil 
finally  t<i  have  iiistijiHtvil  lii>*  niiinlor  liy  the  Tnrks. 
The  iniiiivatiiiMM  C(iiiteiii|>late(l  liy  Lucaris  rallt'il 
fciitli  a  doctrinal  doclaration  si;;ii<Ml  liy  the  patri- 
archs of  ('iin^taiitinopU>,  Alexainlria,  aii<l  Antioch. 
anil  defining' I  hi'  dillercnces  hetwceii  the  ( ireeks  ami 
the  Hi'foriiiers.  This  exposition  «a.s  later  (1(17'.' I 
ailopteil  at  a  synod  held  at  >lerii>alciii.  lint  wilhiii 
onr  time  the  conciliatory  spirit  which  animates 
these  two  hranelies  of  Clnistianity  liius  found  ex- 

1)ression  in  practical  measures  of  closer  intercourse, 
n  Kc-hruary  1S7'2  the  (Jreek  hishop  of  I'atrius  wils 
jiresent  ami  chOivereil  his  henediction  at  the  layin;; 
of  the  foundalionstone  of  an  An^;lican  chure^i  in 
that  town.  And  when  later  l..ycurxus,  the  learned 
Archhishopof  Syraand  Tinos,  and  the  Archhishops 
of  Corfu  and  of  Cyprus,  vi.sited  Knuland,  they  each 
attended  .Anglican  services,  and  ilclivereil  their 
benediction  in  Aniilican  churches.  But  the  most 
notable  advance  towards  'intercommunion'  wa.s 
ma<Ie  in  1,S.")9,  ami  a^rain  in  1874,  when  the  House  of 
Convocation  appointi'd  a  committee  'to  estalilish 
such  relations  hetwi-en  the  two  communions  as 
shall  enable  the  laity  and  cler;.'y  of  cither  to  join 
in  the  sacraments  ami  ollices  of  the  other  without 
forfeiting;  the  communion  of  their  own  eliurch.' 
As  a  lirst  step  towards  this  end  the  patriarch  of 
Constanlinople  issued  an  encyclical  enjoinin;;  his 
cler;;y  to  bury  deceased  members  of  the  .\nj;lican 
Church  in  orthodox  burial-j^roiimls,  and  to  cele- 
brate their  funeral  riles  with  ]ir:iyers  taken  from 
the  funeral  otiice  of  the  orthodox  church. 

Sects. — The  early  theolo^'ical  controversies  within 
the  Greek  Church  it.self,  resulting;  in  sectarianism, 
dirt'er  in  this  respect  from  the  secessions  from  the 
Roman  Church — that  in  the  West  the  protest  was 
directed  mainly  a;,'ainst  abuse  and  ultraniontanism. 
whereiis  in  the  East  idiji-ctions  have  always  been 
raised  a;;ainst  what  wius  deemed  innovation. 

All  the  branches  of  the  loa-storn  Chureh  receive 
the  first  two  c<uincils,  tho.se  of  Nicea  and  Con- 
stantinople. Hut  these  two  only  are  admitted  by 
the  C/iii/i/itiii.s,  the  earliest  of  Kaslern  separatists, 
whosedispule  related  to  the  meanin^of  ifavffpwTrriais 
('incarnation').  This  doctrine  ^'ave  rise  to  two 
distinct  and  o))posed  theories.  The  one  accepted 
complete  union  of  the  hum.an  and  the  divine 
nature  of  Christ,  and  formed  the  belief  of  the  Mono- 
]>/ii/xilrii.  The  other  niainlained  a  separation  of 
the  two  natures,  so  as  to  deny  their  coexistence 
in  one  person,  and  rejecteil  the  term  Tlientohus  as 
aji]died  to  the  \ir-in  .Mary.  Such  were  the  tenet-s 
of  Xestorius,  whom  the  third  Council  of  Kphesus 
(4HI)  condenmed,  and  after  whom  the  Chaldeans 
are  also  called  Ncstoriuits,  This  .sect  spread 
rapidly  throu^rhout  the  interior  of  Asia,  and 
became  .active  in  missions,  not  only  to  the  neif^h- 
bouriuK  Persians  and  Indians,  but  to  the  Bactrians 
and  Huns,  as  far  north  .as  the  Cxsjiian,  to  Samar- 
kand and  the  very  conlines  of  China,  and  to  Soco- 
tra,  Ceylon,  and  the  Malabar  eojtst  in  the  .south. 
In  this  l;ust  locality  a  remnant  of  the  former 
ftrowth  and  power  of  this  ehureli  still  exists.  They 
are  the  Cliri.slians  nf  St  TJmitia.s,  so  called  either 
from  the  ajiostle,  or  more  probably  friun  a  Nes- 
torian  missionary  of  that  name.  Slu.ssulman  i>er- 
secution,  however,  and  the  inroa<ls  of  e.istern  bar- 
barians have  weakened,  and  at  one  time  h.-ul  .al- 
most annihilated,  the  Nestorians,  who  are  now  found 
principally  in  Kurdist.-in,  .and  who  believe  them- 
selves to  be  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel.  Their  sacred 
city  is  Kdessa.  the  reputeil  birthplace  of  Abraham, 
and  their  'c.atholikos'  or  primate  a.ssnmes  the  title 
of  'Patriarch  of  ISabylon,'  his  scat  having'  been 
succe.ssively  removed  thence  to  li.a^'dad,  Mosul, 
and  Jnlamerk  (or  tiiuliamerk),  wliere  he  now 
resides.  The  Xestorian  patriarch  is  tlie  only 
Eastern  prelate  who  may  marry. 


th. 

n< 


The  tenets  of  the  Muiioji/i i/sitfs  were  condemned 
by  the  fourth  o'cumenical  conncil  of  Chalcedon 
(4ol),  which  established  that  Christ  is  to  be 
acknowleilfjed  in  two  natures,  'imlivisibly  and  un- 
chan;;eably.'  On  this  the  larjjer  portion  of  Syrian 
and  K^ryptian  Christians,  who  had  accepted  the 
three  former  councils,  secedeil  from  the  churcli, 
and  soon  broke  up  into  three  minor  communities, 
lar<;ely  throu^'h  the  inlluenee  of  nationality. 

In  Syria  the  Monophysites  were  calleil  Jiiroliitcx, 
from  .lames  the  .Vpostle  as  they  prelenil,  but  more 
pr<diably  from  .lacobus  liaraileus,  the  Syrian  heresi- 
areh,  since  the  name  is  e(|Ually  applied  to  the  other 
churches  of  the  sect.  The  ]>atriari'h  of  the  .Syrian 
.Jacobites  bears  in  succession  always  the  hallowed 
n.ame  of  I;.'iiatius,  and  resides  at  Diarbekir  (the 
ancient  .1  ;/((>/(/ ),  on  the  ri;,'ht  bank  of  the  Tigris. 
The  country  beyond  was  originally  under  the 
charjj;e  of  the  '  Maphrian  ("fruit-bearer")  of  the 
Eiust,'  so  called  ficim  the  fact  that  liis  was  jninci- 
pally  a  missionary  .see — it  is  now  established  at 
Niosul.  This  churcli,  like  the  Xestorian,  was 
formerly  widcspreiul  and  llourishiiif;,  exlendiii";  to 
more  than  a  hunilreil  bishoprics,  of  which  but  live 
now  survive. 

The  .lacobites  of  Kjrypt  are  better  known  under 
their  national  desij;nation  of  tV/y;Av  (q.v. ),  and  form 
'  e  ^'leat  majority  of  the  Christian  population  of 

rlhern  Africa,  as  well  as  the  most  civilised  of  its 
native  races.  They  have  iiiteicommunion  with  the 
.lacobites  of  .Syria.  'I'lieir  jiatriaich.  who  taki's  his 
title  from  Alexainlria,  but  resides  at  Cairo,  claims 
jurisdiction  over  Jerusalem,  E};ypt,  Nubia,  Abys- 
sinia, and  the  Pentapolis.  He  is  elected  by  tlie  body 
of  bishops  from  candi<l.ates  nomin.ated  by  the  four 
convents  which  pos.sess  this  right.  He  alone  li.as 
power  of  oiilin.ation.  which  is  ciuiferred.  not  by 
im)iositi<>ii  of  hands,  but  by  the  act  of  breathing. 

A  tliiril  branch  of  the  gieal  .I.icobile  commnnion 
is  the  Klliiiijiiiiii  Cbiiiili  in  Abyssinia,  where 
Christianity  was  lirst  introduced  in  the  4tli  century 
by  missionaries  from  Alex.andria.  The  'abouna' 
or  metropolitan  is,  under  the  nominal  snpremaey 
of  the  Coptic  patriarch  at  Cairo,  primate  of  the 
Abys.siiiian  Church,  which  presents  an  extraoicli- 
nary  combination  of  Christian  and  .Jewish  observ- 
ances. IJolh  baptism  and  circumcision  are  deemed 
neees.saiy ;  both  the  Sabbath  ami  Sumlay  are 
oUserved  ;  polygamy  is  permitted,  though  not  com- 
mon ;  and  the  ilesh  of  swine  is  fcubiddeiu  The  old 
controveryies  as  to  the  nature  of  Christ  still  con- 
tinue in  Aby.ssinia;  and  Pilate,  because  he  washed 
his  hands  of  the  blood  of  Christ,  is  canonised  by 
the  Kthiojuan  Church. 

The  Arineiiiuii  C/niir/i,  which  is  often  considered 
Jacfdiite,  lieeause  it  also  receives  only  the  lirst  three 
councils,  is,  in  all  essential  points,  much  more  akin 
to  the  Church  of  Const-antiiiople  ;  and,  indeed,  the 
non-united  section  of  the  ccmiinnnion  call  them- 
selves 'Orthodox.'  The  absence  of  the  Armenian 
dele''ates  from  the  Couneil  of  Ch.alcedon  wjis  ihie 
to  tlie  internal  disorders  of  their  country,  but 
they  were  delinitelv  separ.ated  from  the  (ireek 
Church  in  552.  Tlie  Armenhans  were  converted 
to  Christianity  by  Gregory  the  Illuminator, 
and  are  therefore  often  called  Hrriinridn.s  (.see 
AbmkNI.v).  They,  of  all  Christian  churches,  in- 
clude as  canonical  Old  Test.ament  books  the  '  His- 
tory of  .Joseph  and  Asenath,'  .-md  the  'Testaineut 
of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs  : '  and  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment the  'Epistle  of  tlie  Corinthians  to  St  Paul,' 
and  'Third  Epistle  of  St  Paul  to  the  Corinthians.' 

The  decisions  of  the  sixth  ociimenical  council 
held  at  Constantinople  ((jHO)  resulted  in  the  seces- 
sion of  the  Muiiutliiiite.t,  whose  tenets  as  to  the  one 
will  of  Christ  that  council  condemned.  They 
incluileil  the  Christian  population  of  the  Lebanon, 
who  have  since  been   l>ettcr  known  as  Maronitcs, 


GREEK    CHURCH 


399 


from  St  Maio,  as  tliey  alle>j;e,  tlie  Syrian  anchorite 
of  the  5th  century,  after  wlioni  the  famous  con- 
vent near  Cyrus  is  nameil,  but  more  credibly  from 
John  Moro,  their  lirst  patriarch  in  701.  Their 
primate  is  the  patriarcli  of  Kanobin.  In  tlie  l'2th 
century,  liowever,  liy  the  inlluence  of  tlie  Cnisailcrs, 
the  Maronites  subniitteil  (11S2)  to  the  lionian 
Church,  of  which  they  now  form  an  inte^'ral  i)art. 

It  is  essential  to  observe  that  in  each  of  the  sects 
and  churches  so  described  there  are,  almost  with- 
out exception,  three  divisions,  resultiu]!,'  from  the 
influence  respectively  of  old  tra<litions,  national- 
istic proclivities,  aiid  the  .lesuit  Propa;,'anda,  In 
each  of  these  Eastern  communions  one  should  there- 
fore distinguish  (  1 )  the  '  Orthodox  '  section,  with 
decided  leanin<;s  towards  the  church  of  Constantin- 
ople ;  (2)  the  'National  '  section,  which  maintains 
the  independence  of  each  particular  heresy  ;  and  (.'J  i 
the  '  L'nited  '  or  '  Catholic  '  section,  which  acknow- 
ledges the  supremacy  of  the  pope. 

Uni/ifi  or  Uiiiliil  Oirr/.:s: — This  la.st  category 
forms  an  important  fraction  of  the  (Jreek  (.'hurch 
itself.  Tlie  fall  of  liie  empire  facilitated  tlic  in- 
trigues of  the  Roman  Propaganda,  which,  especially 
ufter  the  Keformation,  endeavoured  actively  to 
.secure  the  submission  to  Home  of  isolated  (Jreek 
communities  in  the  East ;  while,  in  the  West,  the 
influence  of  Catholic  governments  was  brought 
to  bear,  to  the  same  end,  on  the  .scattered  (Jreek 
colonies,  and  on  the  outlying  portions  of  the 
(ireek  Church.  Thus,  the  numerous  Greek  and 
Albanian  refugees  from  Epirus,  who  had  settled 
in  Sicily  and  southern  Italy,  were  soon  com- 
pelled to  succumb  :  as  also  the  indigenous  ortho- 
dox ijopulations  in  Austria  and  Poland — i.e. 
the  Roumanians  in  Transylvania  and  eastern 
Hungary,  and  the  Ruthenians  in  Calicia  and 
Little  Russia.  The  Polish  Creeks,  however,  who 
ha<l  become  'I'niats'  in  l.")!)0,  reverted,  for  the 
most  part,  to  the  Russiiin  Church  in  1839.  It  is 
ditlicult  to  state  exactly  to  what  degree  union 
has  thus  been  att.ained.  The  primary,  and  in 
most  cases,  the  only  conilition,  was  submission  to 
jiapal  supremacy  ;  all  else — clerical  matrimony, 
communion  in  both  kinds,  church  discipline,  rites, 
and  liturgy — being  allowed  to  remain  Creek.  Hut 
when  circumstances  were  favourable,  more  strin- 
gent conditions  were  graduall.v  imposed.  And 
therefore  the  '  Cnia,'  as  the  pact  is  st,vled,  is 
not  uniform  in  .aught  else  but  the  unremitting 
efl'orts  of  the  Propaganda  to  ellace  the  individu- 
ality of  these  dismemberetl  churches. 

17ic  Four  P(itri(irrliii)is. — The  iloliammedan  in- 
vasicm  submerged  and  curtailed  the  area,  especially 
in  Asia  and  .Vfrica,  over  which  the  Eastern  Church 
had  spread  ;  and  the  other  vicisMtudes  to  which 
reference  has  been  made  modified  from  time  to 
time  the  extent  of  that  area.  Still,  the  four 
patriarchates  claim  jurisdiction  within  their 
original  boundaries,  with  the  exception  of  the 
iiide|)endent  states  which  were  suece.ssively  emanci- 
pated from  Turkish  rule. 

The  patriarchate  of  Constantinople  incdmles 
the  whole  of  European  'I'urkey,  Asia  .Minor  and 
Pontus  (Trebizond),  ami  all  the  islands.  The  patri- 
arcliate  of  Antioch  incdudcs  Syria,  Phoenicia, 
I.sauria,  and  Cilieia.  This  ]iatriarchate,  which  at 
one  time  extended  its  intluence  to  India  and  as  far 
as  China,  has  suilered  most  from  the  s])read  of 
Mohammedanism.  The  patriarch.ate  of  Jerusalem 
includes  the  whole  of  Palestine,  and,  prior  to  the 
Saracenic  conquest,  was  one  of  the  most  nourishing, 
although  the  one  established  last  (4.')1).  The 
patriarchate  of  Alexandria,  once  the  most  power- 
ful and  important,  has  shrunk,  since  the  Alussul- 
nian  occupation  of  Egypt,  into  the  narrow  limits  of 
the  see  of  that  particular  city. 

The  archiepiscopal  .see  of  Cyprus,  whiidi  formed 


part  of  the  ]iatriarchate  of  Antioch,  was  raisid  to 
an  indejiendent  position  by  the  Council  of  Epliesus 
(4.31  ),  and  its  primate,  though  inferior  in  rank  to 
the  patriarchs,  has  precedence  o\er  all  other  arch- 
bishops. He  enjoys  the  exceptional  privilege  of 
aliixing  his  signature  in  red  ink. 

The  church  of  Constantinople  is  known  as  '  the 
Creat  Church  '  (  Me^dX?;  'EM,\7;irfo ),  from  its  ancient 
pre-eminence  as  the  see  of  Ihu  oTiuiieitic'i/  patriarch 
— a  title  conferred  by  the  emperor  on  .John  the 
Easter  (587)  against  the  remonstrances  of  Gregory 
I.  The  Church  of  Antioch  claims  to  liave  been 
founded  by  St  Peter,  and  that  the  similar  ]ire- 
tensions  of  Home  are  at  once  more  recent  and 
less  certain.  The  name  of  Christians  was  tir.st 
given  to  the  believers  in  Antioch,  and  to  its  chief 
pastor  alone  the  title  of  patriarch  lielongs  by  right. 
The  patriarch  of  Alexandria  is  the  Hrst  Cinistian 
primate  who  was  styled  'po])e.'  His  other  title  of 
'  uicumenical  judge  'arises  from  the  right  which  the 
early  Alexandrian  Church  po.ssesseil  of  fi.xing  the 
period  of  Easter. 

Niiti(i)iat  C/iiiir/ics. — The  authority  which  the 
Byzantine  emperors  exercise<l  over  the  government 
of  the  Greek  Church  passed,  with  Constantinople, 
to  the  sultans.  After  the  massacre  which  followed 
the  capture  of  the  city,  and  in  which  the  iiatriarch 
had  fidlen  with  the  emjieror,  Mohannued  II.  in- 
stalloil  as  patiiarch  George  (iennadius,  a  tJreek 
monk,  renowned  for  his  \net\  no  less  than  for  his 
scholarship,  for  which  he  w.as  surnanied  Scholarius. 
The  courage  and  i)ersuasi\eness  with  which  he  e.\- 
pounded  before  the  sultan  the  tenets  of  Christi- 
anity induced  ilohammed  to  confer  certain  privi- 
leges on  the  patriarchate,  enabling  it  to  exercise  a 
measure  of  authority  over  the  (Uthodox  church 
within  Turkish  dominions.  This  first  concessicm 
constitutes  to  this  da.y  the  charter  regulating  the 
relations  of  the  church  to  the  Porte.  The  patriarch 
is  elected  bv  a  synod  of  bishops,  but  the  candidate 
must  be  approved  of  by  the  Porte,  which  also 
issues  firmans  enabling  the  bishops  to  act  within 
their  dioceses.  This  gives  to  Turkish  authority  so 
efl'ectual  a  control  over  the  church,  that  its  having 
survived  at  all  is  a  proof  of  extraordinary  vitality. 
Hut  tlie  abuse  and  scaiulal  consei|uent  u]ion  tlie 
exercise  of  that  authority  was  such  as  to  make  it 
the  interest,  both  of  the  i>atriarchate  and  of  the 
independent  states  Avhich  recognised  its  s|iiritual 
guidance,  not  to  continue  under  a  jurisdiction  sub- 
jected to  the  sultan's  will.  Eortunately  the  consti- 
tution of  the  Eastern  Church  favoured  the  cre.ation 
of  autoce]ilialous  churches,  which,  while  enjoying 
a  separate  internal  administratiim,  could  remain 
bimnd  to  the  Church  of  ("(mst.antinople  and  to  each 
other  by  the  unity  of  faith  and  dogma. 

The  Chitrrh  nf  Hiisxiii,  which  ahuie  of  eastern 
churches  presents  histoiical  continuity,  was  estab- 
lished when  in  988  Anne,  sister  of  the  Emperor  Hasil, 
was  wedded  to  Prince  Aliiilimir,  who  was  thus  con- 
verted, ami  who  .at  the  same  time  ordered  all  his 
people  at  Kieff  to  be  baptised  in  the  Dnieper  by  the 
Greek  clergy.  From  that  time  the  Christian  civili- 
sation of  Russia  was  Greek,  from  the  alphabet 
which  the  (Greeks  .adajited  to  tlie  Slavonic  language 
to  the  baiitismal  names  of  eniprrors  and  jieasants 
alike  ;  and  Russia  recognised  this  ilclit  of  gratitmle 
l>y  the  powerful  protection  she  has  extended  to  the 
eastern  Christians,  amongst  whom  she  is  lonse- 
nuently  known  .as  'Holy  Russia.'  The  metro- 
politan, residing  first  .at  KietV  and  later  (13'20)  in 
aIo.scow,  was  subject  to  the  jiatri.arch  of  Constant- 
inople. In  15S2,  however,  with  the  concurrence  of 
the  whole  church,  the  patriarch  .leremiah  II.  raised 
the  Hussi.an  see  to  a  patriarch.ate,  still  depeiulent 
on  C(mst.antinople.  This  dependency  continued 
till  the  time  of  Peter  the  Gre.at,  who  in  1700,  again 
with   the  sanction  of   the  whole  body  of   eastern 


400 


fJRKEK    CHURCH 


pill  rial  I'lis,  .sll|l|>^e^^>ell  the  piitriiircliate  of  Moscow 
ami  coiitideil  ilie  ;,'ovt'iiniieiit  of  llie  C'liuicli  of 
Kussiii  Ui  a  syiioil  composed  of  live  or  six  bisliops 
anil  a  iiimilier  of  lav  ili^'iiilaries,  all  appointcil  bv 
tlie  czar,  »lio  ruiiiaim-il  supremo  licail  of  the  vliureli. 
Ill  Russia  there  are  several  ilisseiitin;,'  seeta. 

The  C/iiircU  (//  (n'm-i/in  (ancient  llieria)  dates 
from  the  time  of  CoiistaiitiMc,  when  Nina,  a  Chris- 
tian slave,  converted  llie  Uiii;;  and  his  people.  It 
first  formed  i)art  of  the  patriarchate  of  Antioch, 
and  was  siibseipientlv  transferred  to  that  of  Con- 
stantinople. IJul  since  the  annexation  of  (ieorj^ia 
to  the  Russian  empire  the  arclihishop  of  Tillis  has 
lieen  a  memlier  of  the  Russian  svuckI. 

The  Miiiiti)ii'(/i-in!i,  who  never  acknowledfjed  the 
suzerainty  of  the  sultan,  liid  not  admit  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Constantinopolitan  iiatriarch.  Tliey 
were  j;overned,  sini'e  111!)",  when  tliev  formally  pro 
claimeil  their  independence,  liy  a  '  Vladika  or 
prince-hishop  of  their  own,  ehosi-n  from  the  family 
of  IVtrovic,  and  who  exercised  liotli  spiritual 
and  temporal  |M>wer.  In  Oclolier  Is.'il,  however, 
Danilo  I.,  on  succei'iliu;;  his  uncle,  the  last  \'ladika. 
ahandiined  his  ecclesiastical  functions,  and  assumeil 
the  temporal  title  of  hospodar  or  prince.  The 
bishops  of  .Montenejjro  have  .since  been  con.secrated 
by  the  Russian  synod. 

In  Aiisliolliiiiiitirii  there  are  over  three  ndllions 
of  orthodox  Christians,  principally  of  the  Scrvi.in 
and  Roumanian  nationality,  liesidcs  four  luilliou 
Iniats.  Of  the  former,  wlio  are  there  known  as 
liy/.antine  Greeks,  about  hall  a  milliim  are  scattered 
ihrou^rh  the  Austrian  dominions,  ami  the  rest  are 
in  llun;;arv,  with  two  .archbishops  (Carlowitz  ami 
liermamistad )  and  i-i^ht  i)ishops,  six  in  Huni^ary 
proper,  and  two  in  Croatia.  The  archbishops  exer- 
cise their  jurisdiction  uiidiT  .\nstria. 

In  Kiif//iiii</  a  (Ireck  Church  has  existed  since 
the  middle  of  the  ITtli  century.  The  periodical 
emijirations  of  Cireeks  to  the  west,  con.sequeut 
upon  each  fresh  recrudescence  of  Turkish  tyranny, 
resulted  in  the  formation  of  a  (Ircek  colony  in 
London,  which  must  have  been  consiilerable  both 
in  numbers  .and  position  ;  for  we  liiid  th.it  many 
youn;4  tJreeks  were  sent  to  Oxfonl,  as  a  rule  lo 
St  .lohii  the  liaptist  (Gloucester)  Hall,  where  they 
replaced  the  Irish,  who,  after  the  establishment  of 
Trinity  Colle;,'e,  remained  in  Dublin.  .\  certain 
Nathanael  Conopius,  however,  wits  at  li.illiol, 
where  lie  lirst  taiif^ht  the  (Jximians  to  make  cotlee, 
and  whence  he  was  expelled  by  the  I'liritans  in 
Iti-tS.  When  the  Archliishop  of  Samos,  .loasaph 
Georj^inos  <«•  (leorjjiiencs,  hail  to  llee  from  his  dm 
ce.se,  and  arrived  in  Kn^laml  about  IGOO,  he  found 
anion^t  his  co-relijjionists  in  Londiui  Daniel 
Bulgaris  as  priest,  but  there  was  no  chinch.  He 
therefore  applied  to  the  then  Hishoji  of  London, 
Henry  Compton,  who  befriended  him,  and  who 
with  other  hM;,'li>h  bishops  coUcm-umI  a  small  fund, 
lo  which  even  Kiiij,'  t'harles  II.  is  said  to  have 
contributed,  for  the  erection  of  a  Greek  church  on 
a  piece  of  land  in  Crown  Street,  .Soho  I'iehls, 
given  by  the  parish  of  St  Marliii-in-the-I''ields. 
( See  A  DeJiPriptioii  tif  tfir  /'trscnt  ,Stfitt'  <if  S(t/no.\\ 
Xinaid,  I'litiiios,  null  Muiiiit  Al/io.i.  by  .Joseph 
Geoi;;ireiies,  Archbishop  of  Samos:  Loud.  IfiTS. ) 
This  church,  which  wa-s  dedicated  to  St  -Mary 
the  Virjiiii's  Sleep,  is  still  extant,  and  a  marble 
tablet  over  the  west  door  bears  an  inscription  in 
Greek  recording  the.se  facts,  as  well  lus  the  names 
then  ;,'iveii  to  Greek  Street  ami  Compton  Street 
in  the  same  nei;L;hbimrliood  commemorate  those 
events.  The  church,  which  is  the  one  repre- 
sented in  Ho^'arth's  well-known  ])icture  of  'Noon,' 
soon  i)a-s.sed  to  the  Krencli  Protestant  refugees  ;  it 
wa-s  subsecjuently  lilteil  up  as  a  meeting-house  for 
the  Rev.  John  Rees,  and  in  1850  it  w.-us  recon- 
secrated as  an  Anglican  church,  to  St   Marv  the 


\'iigiii  ( A'cc/fjd'o/o;//*/,  xi.  \'M).  A  copy  ( made 
about  1700)  of  the  original  register,  which  seems 
to  have  perished,  of  that  lii'st  Greek  community 
exists  in  the  cha]Hd  of  the  Russian  emba-ssy  in 
Lonilon  ( Welbeck  Street),  an<l  records  the  fact 
that  when  the  .\rchimandrite  (lennadius  was 
])riest  in  Lomlon.  Iioth  the  church  and  the  coni- 
miiiiily  had  become  '  ( HiccoRussian.'  .Alter  tlii' 
death  of  Gennadiiis  (  Kebniary  '.i,  IT.'IT),  who  was 
buried  in  St  I'ancriLs'  Churchyard,  the  entries  in 
the  register  reconl  iiime  and  more  frei)iieiit  mar- 
riages between  Knglish  and  Greeks,  who  thus 
appear  to  have  been  absorbed  by  the  indigenous 
element,  their  aiigliciseil  name-  whiih  are  still  to 
be  met  with  (  Roilos,  ramphylos,  Lesbos,  >Vc. )  con- 
lirming  the  tact,  lint  in  the  beginning  of  the  lUtli 
century  another  Greek  communily  sprung  up  in 
L<uidon  by  the  arrival  in  ISIS  from  Ihe  islanil  of 
Chios  <if  three  out  of  the  live  brothei-s  Ralli,  who 
founded  the  great  iirni  of  that  name,  and  who 
were  .soon  followed  by  others  of  their  country- 
men. They  at  liist  met  .at  a  chaiiel  in  one  of 
the  JKUises  in  Kinsbury  Circus,  and  in  IS47  built 
a  cliurch  in  London  Wall.  As  the  community 
increa.sed  in  riches  ami  in  numbers,  this  modest 
building  wius  renlaceil  in  187U  by  a  magnilicent 
Ryzantine  church  in  Moscow  Ro.a<l,  liayswater, 
built  after  Ihe  model  and  bearing  the  halloweil 
name  of  '  lla^jia  Sophia.'  I'loiirishing  (ireek 
churches  exist  also  in  Liverpool  and  in  .Manchester. 

Ill  the  Uiiilal  Sliilvx  there  are  a  Greek  church 
in  New  t  )rleans  and  a  Russian  in  San  I'lancisco. 

The  CIiiiitIi  uf  (iimrc  oilers  a  strong  instance  of 
the  causes  which  militate  against  dependence  upon 
a  jurisdiction  subject  to  the  will  of  the  sultan. 
The  (iieek  struggle  for  freedom,  which  carried  with 
it  the  active  .sympathy  of  the  wh(de  (neck  nation, 
was,  at  the  (lictate  of  the  sullaii.  put  under  the 
ban  b.v  the  iiatriarch  Gregorius,  who,  nevertheless, 
was  soon  afterwards  hanged  for  complicity  in  the 
national  cause.  In  the  .second  year  of  the  war  the 
.Assembly  of  the  (ireeks  at  Kpiilauros  proclaimed 
(1S2"2)  tlie  orthodox  church  as  chiiicli  of  the  new- 
state,  and  the  Royal  Decree  of  1.")  '27111  .Inly  ISSS 
organised  the  church  on  a  plan  similar  to  that  of 
Russia,  with  a  synod  of  live  bisho|)s,  presided  over 
by  the  .Aiclibisho|i  of  Attica.  A  lay  government 
commissioner  .attends  the  deliberations,  but  may 
not  vote.  The  synod  is  the  suiueme  ecclesiastical 
tribunal,  and  elects  bishoiis  uiuler  the  ciinlirmation 
of  the  crown.  The  clergy  are  excluded  from  all 
participatiiiii  in  jiolitics,  and  are  not  cligilile  to  sit 
in  the  legislature.  In  LSoO  the  patriarchate  of  Con 
stautinople  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the 
Church  of  Greece,  which  has  already  rendered  to 
the  other  Greek-speaking  churches  great  services  in 
the  education  and  training  of  |iriests.  Of  the  large 
number  of  convents  whicli  existed  in  Greece,  many 
were  destroyed  during  the  war  of  independence, 
and  others  have  been  iitili-sed  for  educational  pur- 
poses. Of  those  still  extant  the  Meteora  in  Tlies 
saly  and  Mega  Spileon  in  the  Helojionnesus  are  the 
most  notable  for  extent  and  historical  interest. 

The  Church  of  Hcrriti  existed,  under  the  early 
Servian  kings,  as  an  independent  church,  with  a 
patriarch  at  IJelgrade  (l.'ilHM.  The  riiikish  lon- 
(|uesl  disorganised  that  church,  and,  in  1079,  .■i7,000 
Servian  f.amilies  emigrated  to  Hungary  under 
-Ai-senius  C/ernowitz,  and  established  the  .see  of 
Carlowitz.  In  I70.'>  the  .Servian  ]iatriaichate  was 
suppressed  by  the  Turks,  and  the  Servian  Church 
placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  patriarch  of 
Constantinople.  \Vlieii  the  semi-independence  of 
Servia  was  achieved  under  Kara  (ieorge  (see 
CZEHNV),  in  1810,  thegovernnieiit  of  the  church  waa 
.again  transferred  to  the  metropolitan  of  Carlowitz. 
Finally,  in  XH'M),  Servia  declared  her  church  auto- 
cephalous  under  the  Bishop  of  Belgrade. 


i 


GREEK    CHURCH 


GREEK-FIRE 


401 


Tlie  C/iiirch  of  Eoumania  is  the  outcome  of  more 
violi'iit  <ainl  untilial  proceedings.  Tlie  ecclesiastical 
ailiiiiiiistration  of  tfie  two  Danuliian  jirincipalities 
of  Molilavia  and  Wallacliia  was  on<^nally  vested  in 
the  metropolitans  of  Jassy  and  Bucharest  respec- 
tively, actinj;  umler  the  patriarch  of  (.'onstantinople. 
The  clerj;y  in  both  princiiialities  were  almost  exchi- 
sively  (Jreek,  few  Koumanians  having  at  that 
time  either  education  or  vocation  for  clerical  life. 
The  numerous  conventual  institutions  in  which 
they  were  assembled  i)ossessed  immense  landed 
estates,  the  bequests  of  (Ireek  merchants  and  bene- 
factors, who,  through  many  generations  adojjted 
tills  as  the  only  .safe  mode  of  endowing  philan- 
thropic anil  educational  institutions  within  the 
reach  of  Turkish  rule.  Those  estates,  as  "ell  as 
others  of  an  even  greater  e.\tent  and  value  in 
Russian  Bessarabia  (the  revenues  from  which  were 
sequestrated  in  1873),  furnished  to  the  patriarch- 
ates of  Constantinople  and  Jerusalem  almost  the 
only  means  of  maintaining  schools  and  hospitals 
throughout  Turkey.  When,  however,  the  Moldo- 
Wallachiaus  awoke  to  a  -sense  of  independent 
nationality  and  jiroclaimed  the  union  of  the  two 
principalities  under  Alexander  Couza  (December 
23,  1801),  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  new  Rou- 
manian go\ernment  was  to  sequestrate  the  Greek 
monastic  property  and  declare  the  Roumanian 
Church  autocephalous.  It  is  now  governed  by  the 
primate  of  Roumania,  whose  see  is  at  Bucharest, 
with  an  archbishop  of  Moldavia  at  Jassj-,  and  si.v 
bishops. 

The  Biilr/nriroi.^,  even  before  their  political  inde- 
peniience,  had  organised,  for  political  purposes,  a 
church  of  their  own  under  an  exarch.  The  Turkish 
government,  anxious  to  foment  disunion  between 
its  Christian  snlijects,  encouraged  the  forcible 
ajipnipriation  by  the  Bulgarians  of  Greek  churches 
and  schools,  and  s.auctioneil  tlieir  ecclesiastical 
policy.  As,  however,  canon  law  does  not  admit  of 
the  co-existence  within  the  same  diocese  of  two 
separate  churches  of  the  same  faith,  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople  signified  his  readiness  to  acknow- 
ledge the  indeiiendence  of  the  Bulgarian  exarchate, 
if  its  territiirial  limits  were  clearly  dehned,  and  if 
the  exarch  ilesignated  bis  see  within  those  limits. 
This  the  Bulgarians  refused  to  do,  their  avowed 
object  being  to  extend  their  political  intluence 
through  the  exarchate,  not  only  in  mixed  Gr^co- 
Bulgarian  ilistricts,  but  even  over  i)nrely  Greek 
dioceses.  A  general  synod  of  the  four  patriarchs 
was  therefore  convened  (1873)  at  Constantinople, 
and  the  excommunication  of  the  exarchate  followed. 
The  I'usso  Turkish  war  resulted  in  1878  in  the 
constitution  of  an  independent  Bulgarian  state  ; 
but  its  ecclesia-stical  head,  the  Bulgarian  exarch, 
continues  to  reside  at  Constantinople  and  to  claim 
jurisdiction  over  the  Bulgarians  in  Thrace  and 
northern  .Macedonia  also.  He  does  not  concede, 
however,  to  the  iiatriarch  of  Constantinople  a 
similar  right  over  the  Greeks  in  Bulgaria.  The 
e.xcornnninication  of  1873  is  still  maintained. 

The  total  number  of  adherents  of  the  Greek 
Church  it  is  impos.sible  to  state  precisely ;  the 
following  are  the  only  available  reliable  figures  : 


Orthodox  Greeks. 

Rilssin 61,940,000 

(Of  these  about  11 
miUioii  are  dis- 
.senters.) 

Austria 493,000 

Hunjjary 2,4S4,000 

Greece 2,200,000 

Boumauia.  ...(alwut)  5,2.^0,000 

Buljjaria 2,007,000 

Ea.Hteni  Rouiuelia. . .  .734,000 

Scnia 1,039,000 

Mciitene^ro 23-2,000 

TiMkisti  Etiipire 

(.ipproxiuiately)  7,000,000 
•234 


Uniats. 

Russia 55,000 

Austria 2,536,000 

Huiiwiry 1,500,000 

Turkish  Euipire 

(approximately)  1,000,000 

Sects. 

Nestorians 2.'>0,000 

Jacobites 350.000 

Maronites 250,000 

Amieiiiaus  - 

In  Kiirojiean  Turkey.. 380,000 

In  Asi.itie  Turkey 760,000 

Abyssiniaus.  .(about)  l,25u,000 


LlTER.\TURE. — The  first  portion  of  this  article  is  founded 
on  Uean  .Stanley's  admirable  Lectures  oil  the  Hist^jrij  of 
the  Eastern  Vhurrh,  which  have  served  as  a  basis  to  later 
treatises  on  the  same  subject.  But  the  fullo%vins  author- 
ities may  also  be  consulted. — (1)  History:  Gibbon; 
Robertson;  Gieseler's  Krcltsiastical  Hislori/ ;  J.  M.  Neale, 
Sistori/  of  the  Hoty  Eastern  Church. — (2)  Controrersies  : 
Dorner,  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ 
(in  Clark's  translations);  .Swainson,  The  Apostle!?  and 
NU-ene  Creed ;  Walcli,  Historia  Controrcrsire  de  processu 
Spiritus  Sancti;  J.  H.  Newman,  The  Arians  of  the 
Fourth  Century ;  "W.  Palmer,  Dissertations  on  Subjects 
relating  to  the  Orthodox  Communion.—  (3)  Councils  and 
Common  Law  :  Hefele,  History  of  the  Councils  (Clark's 
translations);  Photius,  iVomocanon  (Paris,  101.5) ;  G.  A. 
Ralli  and  M.  PotUs,  ^I'Vrayfxa  ruv  Qeiuiv  Kai  tuv  lepHv 
Kavbvuiv  (Athens,  18.52-56). — (4 )  Liturijy,  Ceremonies,  ilr.  : 
E  Kenandot,  Litui-ffiarum  Oricntalium  Collectio  (Paris, 
171.5-16);  J.  Goar,  Eucholoijium  sire  Rituale  Greecnm 
( 1647  ) ;  H.  A.  Daniel,  Codtj:  Lituniiriis  Erelesi(e  Orien- 
talis  (185:3);  J.  M.  Neale  and  R.  F.  Littledale,  The 
Lilurijies  (trans.  18G9);  H.  A.  Daniel,  Thesaurus 
Hyninoloiiicus  (Leip.  1841-56) ;  J.  M.  Neale,  Hymns 
of  the  Eastern  Church  (trans.  1868);  Kimniel,  LiOri 
Symbolici  Ecc.  Orientalis  (Jena,  1843);  J.  Covell, 
Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Greek  Church  (1722) ;  H.  C. 
Komanoff,  Rites  and  Customs  of  the  Greco-Russian  Ch  urch 
(1868);  Les  Rctiyions  Anciennes  ct  Modernes  des  ^[os- 
coiites  (Cologne,  1698);  M>;>'oX>/'io>'  and  Zvva^apiaTris, 
for  lives  of  saints. — (5)  Genius  and  Condition  of  the 
Church  :  D.  Stourza,  Considerations  sur  la  doctrine  et 
('esprit  de  I'^yl.  Orthod.  (trans,  from  the  Greek;  Jena, 
1816) ;  A.  N.  Mouravieff,  Question  retif/ieuse  de  VOricnt 
et  de  VOccident  (Moscow,  1856)  and  Littre  a  un  ami  sur 
VOffice  Diiin  (St  Petersburg,  1850) ;  Angeli  (Ch.)  t;ra;ci, 
De  Statu  hodiernorum  Grcecorum  ( Leip.  1671 ) ;  Th. 
Smith,  De  Gr.  Eccl.  hodierno  Statu  (1698);  P.  Iticaut, 
Histoirc  de  CEtat  present  de  VEyl.  Grecqae  et  de  I'Egl. 
Armrnienne  (1692) ;  Heliadius  (Alex.)  Griecus,  De  Statu 
jfresente  Eccl.  Gr.  (1714);  T.  Ellsner,  Beschreihung  der 
Gr.  Christen  in  der  Turkei  (1737). — (6)  Hierarchy 
and  Dioceses:  M.  le  Quien,  Oriens  Christianvs  (an 
account  of  the  Eastern  dioceses  and  their  occupants  from 
their  foundation  to  1732);  Rhilippi  Cyprii  Prot^jnotiirii 
Con.-*tantinopofitani,  Chronica  Eccf.  Gr.  (1679);  H. 
Hodius,  De  Greeds  illustrihus  (1742);  F.  Comchus, 
Creta  Sacra,  sire  de  Episcopis  in  insula  Creta  ( 'X'enet, 
1755). — (71  Relations  with  the  Heformeis  :  G.  Williams, 
7'he  Orthodox  Church  and  the  Nonjurors  {\SGS) ;  Eastern 
Church  Association  Papers  (1866-76). — (8)  Uniatu:  P. 
P.  Kodota,  DM  Origine  et  Stato  presente  del  Rito  Gr.  in 
Italia  (Home,  1758).  — (9)  Sects,  d-c.  :  Bibliotheca  Orien- 
t<ilis  (Rome,  1719-28),  by  J.  Simon  Assemanni,  a 
Maronite  ( contains  list  of  M.S.  and  writers  of  Syria, 
Arabia,  Kgj'pt,  and  Ethio]iia);  Simon,  Histoire  criiitfue 
de  la  Crtaiice  et  des  Covtumes  des  Nations  du  Levant 
( 16,84 :  trans,  in  En-,  by  Lovell,  1685 ) ;  G.  H.  Badger, 
The  Ntstoriuns  and  their  Ritual  (1852);  J.  Wortabit, 
Researches  into  the  Religions  of  Syria  (1860);  J.  AV. 
Etheridge,  The  Syrian  Churches  (1846);  J.  il.  Vausleb 
{Dominicain),  Hist,  de  I'Egl.  d'Al-xandrie  que  nous 
apixtons  cellc  du  JaeoOites  Copies  (1677);  JI.  La  Croze, 
Hist,  du  Christianisme  d'Ethiopie  ct  de  VArmenie  ( 1739) ; 
Harris,  Highlands  of  Ethiopia  (1844):  Th.  Wright, 
Early  Christianity  in  Arabia  (1855);  J.  G.  Miillern. 
Disputatio  de  Eccl.  Maronitarum  (Jena,  1668);  E. 
Dulaurier,  Histoire,  Dogmes,  Traditions,  et  Liturgie  de 
V£gl.  Armenienne  Oiitntd/f  (Paris,  1855 1 ;  S.  C.  Malau, 
Short  History  of  the  Gtorgian  Church  (1866). 

Greek-lire,  a  composition  supi>osed  to  have 
been  of  pounded  resin  or  bitumen,  sulnhur,  naph- 
tha (the  principal  ingredient),  ami  probaiily 
nitre,  with  which,  from  about  673  .\.  I),  onwarils, 
the  (ireeks  of  the  Byzantine  empire  were  wont 
to  defend  themselves  against  their  Saiacen  adver- 
saries. The  accounts  of  its  effects  are  so  mingleil 
with  ohviims  fable  that  it  is  dilticult  to  arrive  at 
any  just  conclusion  as  to  its  power :  but  the  mix- 
ture appears  to  have  been  highly  inliammahle,  ami 
to  have  been  dillicult  to  extinguish  ;  tlnmgh  the 
actual  destructicm  caused  by  it  was  hardly  ]irii|>or- 
tionate  to  the  terror  it  created.  It  was  poured  i>ut, 
burning,  fnnn  ladles  on  besiegers,  projected  out  of 
tubes  to  a  distance,  or  shot  trom  balista',  burning 


402 


GREELEY 


GREEN 


on  tow  tied  to  arrows.  Tlio  invention  of  this 
material  lias  usually  lieen  ascribeil  to  Callinicus  of 
lli-licipojis,  ami  to  the  year  tiGS  a.H.  At  Const  an  tin - 
ii|ih>  the  proeess  of  niakinj^  Greek  lire  was  ke|)t  a 
iirofouml  secret  for  several  centuries.  The  know- 
leil^e,  however,  of  its  cunipositiun  ni'i'l<"i".v 
spreail  ;  ami  the  use  of  it  spread  to  tlie  West. 
Sulisistin;,'  for  snine  time  concurrently  with  );un- 
powder,  it  ;,'radually  dieil  out  hefore  the  advances 
of  thai  still  more  ellective  competitor,  t'omhust- 
ililes  with  a  similar  aim  were  used  at  the  sie^te  of 
(.'harlestim  in  186.'},  composed  of  sulnhur,  nitre, 
an<l  lampblack  ;  and  naphtha  in  shells  was  also 
tried.  The  petroleum  homhs  of  the  Paris  Com- 
mune of  IS71  corresponded  more  nearly  to  Greek- 
lire  th.an  docs  ;;un  powder. 

<«rt'Olfy,  Iloit.vCE,  American  journalist,  de- 
scrilied  liy  Whittier  as  'our  later  Franklin,'  was 
horn  at  Andierst,  New  Hampshire,  KeUruary  3, 
ISll.  His  father  was  a  small  farmer,  always  poor; 
and  Horace,  the  thinl  of  seven  children,  after 
aci|uirln;,' the  rudiments  of  education  at  a  common 
school,  entered  a  printing;  ollicc  ;is  an  apprentice 
(1S2G),  at  Eitst  rotiltney,  Vermont,  ami  rose  so  far 
as  to  assist  in  eililorial  work  on  the  Xort/tcni 
S/jccliitor.  Iteleascd  from  his  apprenticeship  in 
1S30  by  the  suspension  of  this  p.iper,  he  workeil 
for  some  time  as  a  journeyman  printer  in  various 
country  oltiees,  and  in  .Vu|,'ust  18:fl  maile  his  way 
to  New  York  with  ten  dollars  in  his  ]iocket, 
and  his  stick  and  bumlle  over  his  shoulder.  He 
had  dilliculty  in  obtaining  work  at  lirsl  owinj;  to 
the  odility  of  his  a|iiiearance.  Kor  fourteen  months 
he  workeil  Jis  a  journeyman  printer,  when  he 
started  business  alon<^  with  a  fellow-workman,  and 
in  IS.'U  commenced  the  A'tic  Voi/.xr,  a  literary 
weekly  [laper,  for  which  he  wrote  essays,  poetry, 
and  other  articles.  His  lirst  marked  success,  how- 
ever, was  the  f.iii/  Viiliin,  a  Wlii^  campaij,'n  jiaper 
which  conliibuted  largely  to  brin;^  aliout  the  elec- 
tion of  tieneral  \V.  II.  Harrison  to  the  presiilency 
in  IS40,  ami  which  was  afterwards  continueil  for 
some  months.  On  .Viiril  10,  Isll,  he  publisheil  the 
lirst  number  of  the  Ate  York  'J'lihiiiie,  of  which  he 
was  the  leading'  editor  till  his  death.  In  the  .same 
year  he  mer;,'ed  his  weekly  tiapers,  the  /."»/  ( 'nhln  and 
the  AVw  Vui/ar,  in  the  Ho:/:/;/  Tii/jiiiir.  which  rose 
to  have  a  large  circulation  in  the  rural  ilistricts. 
The  TiibiiHC  liius  been  an  earnest  advocate  of 
temperance,  cooperation,  international  copyright, 
a  protective  tarill',  the  abolition  of  slavery  and 
capital  punishment,  and  other  reforms  ;  was  at  first 
Whig,  then  anti-slavery  Whig,  and  was  finally 
recogni.seil  !is  the  organ  of  the  extreme  or  radical 
Uepubliean  jiarty.  (Jreelev  advocated  and  adopted 
to  some  extent  the  social  theories  of  Fourier. 
Among  the  contributors  whom  he  gathered  arovind 
him  were  such  well-known  writers  lus  G.  W.  Curtis, 
W.  H.  Fry,  C.  A.  Uana,  Margaret  Fuller,  and 
Hayard  Taylor ;  while  he  was  amongst  the  fii'st 
.Vrnerican  journalists  to  recognise  the  genius  of 
DickiMis,  liret  Harte,  and  Swinburne.  His  Imsiness 
faculty  was  indill'erent,  ami  he  w.us  civsily  imposed 
upon  liy  im|>ecunious  people  and  adventurers. 

In  1848  Greeley  w'as  elected  to  congress  by 
one  of  the  districts  of  New  York,  to  fill  a 
vacancy,  but  failed  in  his  cfmgressional  career  by 
agitating  an  unwelcome  refcnni  in  the  mileage 
p.ayments  to  members.  In  l.S.">l  he  visited  Kurojie, 
and  was  chairman  of  one  of  the  committees  of  the 
tireat  Exhibition.  He  was  again  in  Europe  in 
IS.").!.  His  aspirations  to  political  i)Osition  were 
•lefeated  by  the  more  conservative  jiarty  leaders, 
and  he,  in  turn,  is  supposed  to  have  helped  the 
nomination  of  Lincoln  instead  of  Seward  m  1S6(I. 
On  the  secessicm  of  the  southern  states  from  the 
union,  Greeley  at  first  advocated  their  right  to 
secede,  a*  being  in  accorilance  with  the  principle*  of 


the  Declaration  of  Inde|iendence  ;  but  when  the  war 
began  he  became  one  of  its  most  zealous  advoe.'ites, 
rival  newsjiapers  alleging  that  he  caused  the  pre- 
mature advance  thai  resulted  in  the  <leleat  of 
the  government  troops  at  liull  Itun,  July  21,  IHUl. 
He  published  an  imi)res.sive  anti-slavery  appeal 
in  the  Tril/imr,  entitled  'The  I'rayer  of  Twenty 
Millions,'  which,  besides  making  a  profound  im- 
pression, ilrew  from  Lincoln  a  reniarKable  letter; 
and  within  a  month  thereafter  the  emancipalion 
i>roclaniation  was  issued.  After  Lees  s\inencler 
lie  warmly  advocated  a  nnivei'sal  amnesty  ;  ami  his 
going  to  lUchmond  and  signing  the  bail  bond  of 
Jellerson  Davis  awakened  a  storm  of  public  imlig- 
nation.  In  s|)ite  of  oratorical  defects  (neeley  was 
a  good  and  ]io]iular  speaker.  In  religious  faith  he 
was  a  l'nivers;ilist.  In  IsT'J  he  was  an  unsuc- 
cessful canilidate  for  the  presidentship,  receiving 
2,834, OT'.t  of  the  jiopnlar  vole,  as  against  ;i,o!l7.O70 
for  General  Grant  ;  the  strain  jnovcil  too  great 
for  him,  and  he  died  '29tli  November  of  the  same 
year. — A  town  in  nmthern  Colorado,  which  he 
helped  to  colonise,  was  named  Greeley.  Greeley's 
works  include  'J'/ic  Ameritini  Coiijtirt  (2  vols. 
1804-66):  l!<m//icli„i,s  of  a  litinij  Lift.  (IN(J8): 
Essai/s  on  I'olilini/  /•'roimm;/  ( I87*l) ;  il'/i'it  I  I.iidw 
of  l-ormiiii/  (1871).  There  ere  Lives  by  I'arton, 
Ueavis,  and  Ingei'soll,  and  a  memorial  volume 
(187.'?). 

Greely,  AdoU'IUs  W.xsiiinoton,  Arctic  ex- 
plorer, was  tiorn  at  Newbuiyport,  Ma.ssacliusctl.s, 
27lh  March  1844.  He  served  as  a  volunteer 
through  the  war  of  1861-65,  and  shortly  after  its 
conclusion  entered  the  regular  iirmy  as  li<Mitenant, 
and  in  1868  was  placed  on  the  signal  service.  In 
1881  he  was  .seleett'd  to  conduct  the  American 
expedition  to  the  head  of  Smith  Sound,  fur  the 
purpose  of  carrying  on  observations  in  |iuisuanc(' 
of  the  international  scheme  arranged  at  Hamburg 
in  187n.  He  and  the  survivors  of  his  party  were 
rescued  in  June  188S,  when  at  the  point  of  perishing 
from  starvation,  after  spending  tbiee  winters  in 
the  Arctic  north.  Their  suH'erings  were  so 
extreme  that  some  of  the  party  ha<l  e\en  been 
reiluced  to  eating  the  bodies  of  the  dead.  Lieu- 
tenant Lockwood  of  this  ex|iedition  travelled  to 
within  396  miles  of  the  geographical  pole,  the 
farthest  point  north  hitherto  reached.  In  I.S87 
(ireely  Wius  apiiointeil  chief  of  the  signal  service, 
at  the  same  time  being  gazetted  biigadier-gencial. 
In  18S6  he  published  T/irce  Years  oj  Antic  A/ w/rc. 
See  also  W.  S.  Schley,  T/tc  licsciic  ofGrcilij  (1S8J). 

Ciroi'II,  .loilN  Ulcil.Mtl),  historian,  was  born  at 
O.xford  ill  December  1837.  and  had  his  education 
at  Magdalen  College  School  and  at  Jesus  College 
there.  The  atmosphere  of  his  native  city  liiul 
filled  him,  while  still  a  boy,  with  sympathetic 
interest  in  the  past,  but  the  reailing  of  Gibbon  at 
sixteen  shajied  liim  into  a  historian.  His  earliest 
writing  was  a  striking  series  of  jiapers  in  the 
Orfunl  V/tnt»ii:/e  on  'Oxford  in  the  last  Cenluiy.' 
He  took  orders,  and  was  in  succession  curate 
and  vicar  of  two  East-eml  Lomlon  jiarishes,  where 
he  gave  himself  with  characteristic  nnselfisbness 
and  enthusiasm  to  the  pressing  social  problems 
around  him.  Yet  he  snatched  time  from  his  busv 
life  to  pursue  his  studies  and  to  contribute  histori- 
cal articles  to  the  Siitiir(/iiii  Ji'cricn:  In  1S68  he 
becaiiie  librarian  at  Lambeth,  and  next  yen  he 
was  struck  down  with  an  attack  of  consumption,  a 
(lisea.se  which  darkened  all  his  remaining  years,  and 
made  any  kind  of  active  work  hereafter  im])Ossible 
to  him.  Vet  he  toile<l  on  with  noble  and  uncom- 
plaining heroism,  ami  at  last  the  instant  iioimbirilv 
of  his  S/iorl  Ilisti,r>i  c,f  /hi:  Etiij/isli  fn,/,/,-  (  1874) 
justified  the  patience  anil  endurance  with  which  bo 
'  had  laboured  to  bring  his  work  up  to  his  own  ideal. 


GREEN 


GREENBACKS 


403 


It  was  tlie  first  complete  history  of  Enj^land  from  the 
social  side,  and  showed  at  once  marvellous  grasp  of 
the  real  sigiiKicance  of  great  histoiic  movements, 
fine  sense  of  liistorical  perspective  and  proportion, 
and  startling  dramatic  force  in  the  realisation  of 
men  and  motives ;  while  its  style  was  tluent  and 
nnforced,  yet  ever  vigorous  and  effective.  His 
vast  yet  intimate  topographical  and  antiquarian 
knowledge  of  England  added  life  anil  truth  to  the 
narrative  to  a  degree  hitherto  unexamiiled  among 
Knglish  historians.  The  work  attained  an  un]>ar- 
alleled  success,  as  many  as  150,0(X)  copies  having 
lieen  sold  witliin  fifteen  years.  He  issued  also  a 
larger  and  independent  edition  of  the  work  as  A 
Hiatori/  of  the  Enr/lish  People  (i  vols.  1877-80); 
Sinn/  Studies  from  England  and  Italy  (1876),  the 
fruit  of  his  winters  in  Capri  ;  and  a  Short  (!eo- 
graphy  of  the  British  Islands  (1879),  written  in 
conjunction  with  his  wife,  and  lightened  up  by  his 
genius  for  topogiaphy.  In  1879  he  received  the 
degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 
He  brought  out  in  1880  a  selection  of  essays  of 
Adilison,  with  an  introduction.  He  also  prepared 
for  .Macmillan's  educational  series  a  selection  of 
reailings  from  English  history,  in  three  parts,  and 
was  general  editor  of  their  well-known  series  of 
historical  and  literary  primers.  In  1881  his  feeble 
health  finally  gave  way,  yet  he  continued  to  the 
last  Ills  heroic  stniggle  against  hopele.ss  disease, 
jjublisliing  in  1882  hLs  Maki/i;/  of  England,  anil 
leaving  The  Conquest  of  England  to  be  edited  by 
the  |iio\is  care  of  his  widow.  His  death  took  place 
in  ilarch  1883.  HLs  last  two  books  are  fragments 
of  a  projected  history  of  England  to  the  Conquest. 
See  the  admirable  memoir  prefixed  to  the  1888 
edition  of  the  Short  History,  by  his  wife  (  born  1849), 
who  with  Miss  Xorgate  edited  a  riclilv  illustrated 
edition  of  tlie  Short  Historg  [3  \oh.  1892-93).  Mrs 
(ireen  is  the  author  of  Henry  II.  (1888)  and  of 
Town  Life  in  the  loth  Century  (1894). 

Green.  M.\ry  Anse  Everett,  nee  Wood,  was 
born  in  1818  at  Slietlield.  She  received  an  excellent 
education,  and  her  culture  was  promoted  by  James 
Montgomery,  the  'Bard  of  Slietlield.'  In  1841  .she 
removed  with  her  parents  to  London,  where  in  1845 
she  niariied  Mr  G.  P.  Green,  artist.  Having  free 
acce.ss  to  libraries  and  MS.  collections,  she  edited 
Letters  of  Royal  and  Illustrious  Ladies  (1846); 
The  Diary  of  John  Rous  (Camden  Soc.  1856); 
Letters  of  Queen  Henrietta  Maria  (1857).  By  ap- 
l»)intment  of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls  she  calendared 
the  pajiei-s  of  the  reign  of  James  I.  (1857-59),  anil 
those  of  Charles  II.  ( 1860-68 ).  She  next  completed 
the  calendar  of  the  state  papers  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
with  addenda  from  Edward  VI.  to  James  I.  (6  vols. 
1869-74),  and  edited  the  papers  of  the  Common- 
wealth (12  vols.  1875-88),  besides  contributing  to 
jicriodical    literature.       She    died    1st    November 

18'J.J. 

Oreeil.  Thom.\.s  Hill,  idiilosophcr,  was  bom 
at  Birkin  in  the  West  lUding  of  Yorkslure,  where 
liis  father  was  rector,  April  7,  1836.  At  fourteen 
he  was  sent  to  Rugby,  then  under  Goulburns 
Mi:tslership,  and  in  October  1855  he  entered  Balliol 
f'ollege.  (Jxford,  where  he  was  profoundly  in- 
Ihienced  by  Jowett,  Conington,  and  C.  Parker. 
In  18.59  he  took  a  first-class  in  the  school  of  littera- 
huinaniores,  later  a  third  in  law  anil  modern  his- 
tory, and  in  November  1860  was  elected  to  a  fellow- 
ship in  his  college,  and  re-elected  in  1S72,  becoming 
alsci  its  first  Lay  tutor  in  1866.  He  married  a  sister 
of.lohn  .Vddington  Symonds  in  1871,  was  appointed 
in  1877  to  be  Whyte's  professor  of  Moral  Philo- 
sophy, and  died  after  an  illness  of  but  eleven 
days,  March  26,  IS82.  By  his  will  he  left  flOOO 
to  the  university  for  a  prize  essav  in  the  depart- 
ment of  moral  philosophy,  £1000  to  found  a  scholar- 


^  ship  at  the  Oxford  High  School  for  boys,  and  £.'?500 
to  Balliol  College  for  the  promotion  of  higher  edu- 
cation in  large  towns.  Green's  singularly  noble 
character,  contagious  enthusiasm,  and  rare  union 
at  once  of  profundity  and  subtlety  in  pliilosi>i)hical 
speculation  with  strong  interest  in  practical  life 
and  in  social  questions,  drew  around  him  a  school 
of  disciples  that  included  many  of  the  best  men  of 
his  time  at  Oxford.  His  philosophy  grew  out  of 
Hegelianism,  but  was  strikingly  orif'inal  and  vital 
in  its  form,  no  less  than  in  its  applications  to  the 
duties  of  everyday  life.  Thus,  popular  education 
and  the  spread  of  temperance  were  two  objects 
that  lay  near  his  heart,  and  he  gave  himself  with 
earnestness  to  the  business  of  the  Schools  Eniiuir\- 
Commission  of  186-1-66,  and  of  tlie  O.xford  Scliool- 
board  (1874),  and  helped  to  force  on  the  Briberj' 
Commission  at  Oxford  to  purge  the  political  con- 
science of  its  citizens ;  because  the  natural  conclu- 
sion of  his  philosophy  Avas  towards  an  a.ssociation 
of  individuals  as  homogeneous  co-factors  in  the 
eternal  spirit ;  the  supreme  and  comprehensive  rule 
of  life  being  the  law  of  love  A\hich  liinds  men  at 
once  to  human  society  and  to  God,  society  itself 
the  necessary  condition  for  the  develojinient  of 
personality,  and  religaon  but  the  highest  form  of 
citizenship.  He  had  written  but  little  before  he 
contributed  in  1874  his  masterly  introiluction  to 
the  Clarendon  Press  edition  of  Hume's  Treatise 
on  Human  Kature.  His  Prolegomena  to  Ethirs, 
left  incomplete  at  his  death,  was  eilited  by  A.  C. 
Bradley  ( 1883 ),  and  two  unusually  pregnant  'lay- 
sermons'  by  Arnold  Toynbee  in  the  same  year. 
His  scattered  essays  in  Mind  and  elsewhere  were 
collected  and  published  as  the  U'or/.s,  by  R.  L. 
Nettleship  (3  vols.  1885-88;  2  vols,  philosophical; 
3d,  miscellanies  and  a  memoir).  His  lectures  on 
The  Prineiples  of  Politieal  Obliqation  appeared 
in  1895.  See  Faiibrother,  The  PhUosophy  of  T.  11. 
Green  (1896). 

Greenbacks.        During    the     civil     war    in 

j  America,  from  1861  to  1865,  the  immen.se  expendi- 

I  ture  of  the  United  States  government  led  to  the 
printing  of  an   unprecedented   numlier    of    bank- 

I  notes,  bonds,  and  cuiTency  papei-s  of  various  kinds. 
These  documents,   from  "the  colour   presented  by 

I  them,  or  some  of  them,  obtained  the  name  of 
grecnbaeks,  a  designation  which  came  to  be  loosely 
used  for  all  United  States  bank-notes.  The  fii-s"t 
'demand  notes'  were  issued  in  August  1861  :  the 
fii-st  greenbacks  proper  were  of  date   March    10, 

[  1862.  Soon  forged  notes  and  bonds  were  in  cir- 
culation ;  but  by  degrees  a  large  establishment 
wa>i  organised  at  Washington,  under  the  imme- 
diate control  of  the  Secretary  to  the  Treasury,  and 
the  precautions  used  were  such  as  almost"  com- 
pletely to  baffle  forgers.  The  paper  currency, 
whose  value  had  fluctuated  greatly,  was  declareil 
convertible  into  coin  on  1st  January!  879,  and  specie 
payments  completely  resumed.  For  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  notes  "from   first  to  last,   see   B.\XK- 

NOTES. 

Tlie  great  inflation  of  the  currency  during  the 
war,  along  with  the  heavy  demand  fo"r  all  sorts  of 
farm-produce,  brought  a"  period  of  prosperity  to 
the  we.stern  farmei-s,  which  ended  with  tlie"  war 
itself.  In  1867-68  the  '  tUiio  idea,'  as  the  demand 
for  an  irredeemable  paper  currency  was  called, 
found  much  favour  witli  the  Democrats,  esjieciallv 
in  the  West  ;  and  in  1874  an  independent  Green- 
back party  held  a  convention  at  Indianapolis  and 
formulated  its  demands.  In  1876  tlie  party  nomin- 
ated Peter  Cooper  (q.v.)  for  the  presideiicy  ;  he 
received  97  [ler  cent,  of  the  popular  \ote.  In  1880 
the  Greenback  candidate  w:us  James  B.  Weaver, 
who  polled  3-33  per  cent.  ;  and  in  1884  i;eneial 
B.  F.  Butler  was  ]mt  forward,  and  received  1  33  per 
cent,  of  the  popular  vote.     None  of  the  caiididaies 


404 


GRKKX    BAY 


fiUEEN    EARTH 


ever  recei»'e<I  electoral  votes.  In  1888  there  was 
no  Ci'ccnliai-k  oniuliiliilf  ;  and  iif  Inli'  llic  l\v<i  Mi> 
on  (lie  I'linencv  i|ni'>tion  h:\\v  la-on  i'liiuii|iii>ne<l  liy 
Biy.in    ii-v.  )  ami  McKinley  (€|.v.). 

<»rc»'ll  lliiy,  ••.•ii>il«l  of  Brown  county.  Wis- 
ciiM-iri,  i>  at  the  lieati  of  (Ireen  Hay,  in  Lako  Mirlii- 
gan,  and  al  llie  inonlli  of  I'ox  Itiver,  iio  niili.s  NN  K. 
of  Konil  lUi  I.ac.  It  f,\|>oits  lunilier  ami  f;iain, 
anil  Inks  a  liandsonie  Konian  L'atiiolic  cathedral. 
Pop.  (  189(1)  'MMJ'X 

4iir<'('llblish,a  town  in  New  York  State,  on  the 
otliir  side  of  the  Hudson  from  .-Vlhany  (qv.),  so 
that  it  is  sometimes  called  East  .Alhanv.  l\>]>. 
(IhttO)  7287. 

tiroOII  Cloth.  I!<>Al:i>  OF,  a  comndttce  of  the 
royal  lioii>eiiidd  of  KM;;land,  atlaclieil  to  the  ilc- 
paitnieiit  of  llie  loril  >lf«aid  (see  Stkw.M!!)),  who 
presides  over  its  deliherations.  Its  duties  are  to 
exanuiie  and  pass  iill  the  aeoount."!  of  the  honschoM, 
and  to  correct  all  ollenilers  within  the  verjj;e  or 
inrisdii-tion  of  the  palace,  which  extenils  to  two 
liunilred  yards  heyond  the  fjates. 

GrtM'lH'.  NAriiANAKl,,  a  famous  .\merican 
fjeneral.  was  horn  (illi  .Jnne  I74'2.  at  Warwick, 
IJlmde  Island.  His  father  was  a  leiidinj;  pre.acher 
amon^  the  l^nakers,  and  cilucited  his  .son  very 
simply,  training  him  from  ehildliood  to  work  on 
his  farm,  and  at  his  for^'e  ,uiil  ^'rist-mill.  liy  his 
own  iiei-severance,  however,  Natliana(d  the  y<mnj;er 
a((|uireil  considerahle  knowledj;e  of  ancient  ami 
Eii;rlisli  history,  tteometry,  law,  and  moral  and 
political  science;  he  was  also  fond  of  re.idin^'  hooks 
upon  war.  In  1770  he  was  chosen  a  memher  of  the 
Kliode  Island  .\s.seml>ly,  and,  to  the  great  scandal 
of  his  fellow  t^nakers,  wjus  among  the  first  to 
eng.ajie  in  the  nnlitary  exercises  preparatory  to 
resisting  the  mother-country.  In  1774  he  enlisted 
as  a  iirivate,  and  in  177">  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  IMkhIc  Island  contingent  to  the 
army  aronml  IJoston,  with  the  rank  of  hrigadicr- 
general.  Promoted  to  be  majorgener.tl,  lie  dis. 
tingiiished  himself  at  the  engagements  of  Tn^nton 
and  Princeton.  ,Vt  the  battle  of  the  ISrainlywine 
he  commanded  a  division,  and  by  his  skilful  move- 
ments saveil  the  American  army  from  utter  destruc- 
tion ;  and  at  (Jermantown  he  commandeil  the  left 
wing,  anil  skilfully  covered  the  retreat.  In  I77S 
he  accepted  the  otlice  of  quartermaster-general, 
retaining  the  right  to  command  in  the  held.  In 
1778  he  fought  at  .Moinnouth  Court-house;  in 
1780  he  f<iiled  Clinton  at  the  Habway  bridges, 
Wiis  president  of  the  board  that  condemned  Andre, 
and,  having  resigneii  the  <|uarterma.ster-general- 
ship  owing  to  the  delays  of  congress  in  providing 
supplies,  wa-s.  appointed  to  Arnohl's  post  at  West 
I'oint. 

In  Decemlier  1780  he  succeedeil  dates  (i|.v.)  in 
the  commaiiil  of  the  .army  of  the  south,  tlates  had 
just  been  completely  defeated  by  Cornwallis.  and 
Greene  found  the  army  in  a  wretched  stale,  with- 
out discipline,  clothing,  arms,  or  spirit,  liy  dint 
of  gre.at  activity  he  got  his  army  into  better  condi- 
tion, and  in  Jjinuaiy  17H1,  one  of  his  lieutenants 
having  nearly  annlhihitcd  an  English  det<acliment, 
and  this  having  drawn  upon  (Jreene  the  wlicde 
army  of  Cornw.-illis,  much  his  superior  in  numbers, 
he  made  a  ina-sterly  and  successful  retreat.  On 
l.jth  -March,  having  iliawn  Cornwallis  more  than 
2110  miles  from  his  b,-use.  he  forced  on  him  .i  b,attle 
at  (iuilford  Courthouse,  which  resulted  in  a 
victory  for  the  liritish,  but  one  so  costly  that 
Greene  wa.s  allowed  to  |),a.s.s  unmolested  into  South 
Carolin.i.  The  inland  ])ortions  of  this  state  and 
Georgia  were  rapidly  reconquered,  and  fort  after  fort 
reduced,  until,  at  the  battle  of  Eutaw  .Springs,  the 
war  in  the  .south  was  practically  ended  in  what  wa.- 
virtuallv  a  victor\-  for  the  .Vmericans.      Congress 


presenteil  (ireene  with  a  gold  medal  in  honour 
of  this  battle,  and  the  CaridiiiiiH  and  (leorgia 
made  him  valuable  grants  of  land.  When  peace 
wius  restored  in   17s;t  he  returned  to  Khoile  IslamI, 

where   he   received    numerous    test! iiials    of    the 

l^iiiblic  admiration,  lii  178.5  he  retireil  with  hi.s 
tamily  to  his  estate  at  Mulberry  Grove,  (ieorgia, 
where  he  died  of  sunstroke,  litth  June  17.S6. 
Greene  wa-s  one  of  the  very  l>cst  generals  of  the 
war  of  independence,  8econ<l,  peibaps,  only  to 
\\'ashington.  whose  chvse  friend  he  \\a.'*.  See  the 
Life  by  his  grandson,  Profes.^or  (J.  W.  Greene  Ci 
vol.s.  1  .st>7-7 1  ),  and  that  \ty  Capt.  P.  \.  G recne  ( 1 89:1 ). 

(>r*'<'ll4',  KoliERT,  an  English  poet  and  <lrama- 
tist,  was  born  at  N'mwicli  alnuit  l.">tiO.  He  was 
nlaceil  at  St  'lolin's  <'ollege,  Cambridge,  and  took 
Ills  ilegrec  of  A.B.  there  in  1578.  He  afterwards 
travelled  in  Spain  and  Italy.  On  his  return  he  re- 
enteieil  the  univei>ity,  and  look  his  degree  of  .\.M. 
at  Clare  Hall  in  158.'i.  He  wsis  incorporated  at 
t)xford  ill  l.').SS.  On  leaving  Cambridge  he  jno- 
ceeded  to  London,  where  he  sujiported  liimseu  by 
writing  plays  ami  romances.  He  led  a  very  irreg- 
ular life,  but  his  literary  .ictivlty  wa-s  ceJLseless. 
'  Glatl  was  that  ]uinter,' s.ays  NiLshe,  'that  might 
be  so  blest  to  \>i\\  bim  ile.are  for  the  very  iliegs  of 
his  wit.'  Ills  romances,  many  of  which  are  written 
in  1-yly's  manner,  are  freipiently  tedious  and  in- 
sijiid  ;  but  they  ;ibouiiil  ill  beautiful  jioetiy.  One 
ol  them.  I'liiidtisln :  The  'I'riiiinjili  tif '] iiiir,  sup|died 
Sliakesjieare  with  hints  for  the  plot  of  Tin  W'liitrr's 
Tali:  The  most  jwipnlar  of  his  plays  was  Friar 
Baron  ami  Friar  ISiiiifiaii,  w  Inch  has  an  interesting 
story,  and  (in  spite  of  occjision.al  lajises  into  boiii- 
bivst  I  is  attraelively  written.  .As  Greene  helped  to 
lay  the  foundations  of  the  English  drama,  even  his 
worst  plays  are  valuable  in  the  eyes  of  students  ; 
but  his  literary  fame  rests  on  the  poetry  which  he 
scattered  through  bis  romances — some  of  bis  pastcual 
.songs  being  niisurp,-i.s.sed  for  tenderness  and  natural 
grace.  Though  his  life  in.ay  have  In-en  dis.solute, 
his  works  are  singularly  free  fnuii  giossne.s.s.  He 
died  of  the  consequences  of  a  <lebauch.  ,'itl  Septem- 
ber l.iil'2,  ami  w.as  bnrieil  next  ilay  in  the  New 
Churchyard,  near  Beillam.  On  his  <leath  bed  be 
sent  a  most  pathetic  letter  to  his  wile,  whom  he 
had  deserted.  After  his  death  appeared  the  singu- 
lar ]>am|>hlet  entitled  The  liejieulanic  of  linlierl, 
Greene,  Master  of  Arts,  in  which  he  lays  bare  the 
wickedness  of  his  former  life.  His  Uront's  Worth 
of  Wit  bottffhl  iritlt  a  Mtlliftn  of  lirjirtttaher  con- 
tains one  of  the  few  authentic  contemporary  allu- 
sions to  Shakespeare.  C'luittle,  in  A'inilJ/art.i 
Ureame,  descrilies  him  as  '  of  face  aniible,  of  body 
well  iiroporlioneil.  his  attire  after  the  b.abite  of  a 
scholler  like  gentleman,  onely  his  liaire  wa-s  some- 
what long.'  tMcencs  pl.ays  and  jioems  were  edited 
by  .-\lexamler  Dyce  ;  his  complete  W(uks  ( 1.5  vols. ), 
with  a  biography  from  the  Kus.'-ian  of  .Storojenko, 
are  included  in  the  Hiith  library  of  IJr  liiosart, 
■who  also  edited  a  selection.  Green  Pastures  (  1894). 

lirt'OII  Earth,  a  mineral  of  a  green  colour  and 
earthy  character,  often  found  tilling  or  lining  the 
vesicular  cavities  of  crystalline  igneims  rocks, 
sometiine.s  also  di.s.seminated  tbnuigh  highly  de- 
compo.sed  ba-sic  eniptive  rocks,  in  which  it  is 
eviilently  a  jiroduct  of  the  alteration  of  such 
minerals  a.s  pyroxene,  .ainphibole,  biotite,  \c.  It 
omsists  iirincip.ally  of  silica,  .ilumin.'i,  magnesia, 
and  protoxide  of  iron,  the  silica  constituting  about 
one-half.  There  are  probably  several  miiier,al8 
incluiled  under  the  'green  earth'  of  such  igneous 
rock.s.  Some  of  these  closely  resemble  Serpentine 
(q.v.)  and  others  Chlorite  (q.v.),  in  their  general 
,a]»pearance.  —  Glanronite  is  the  n.ame  given  to  the 
green  ejirtli  which  is  not  infrequently  met  with  in 
sedimentary  rocks,  such  as  some  of  the  s.andstones 


GREENFINCH 


GREENLAND 


405 


in  the  Cretaceous  system.  In  such  rocks  glau- 
couite  occurs  in  the  form  of  grains,  which  in  many 
cases  are  casts  of  minute  shells.  The  same  mate- 
rial has  heen  met  with  in  tlie  sliells  of  recent 
rhi/.opods  anil  in  fragments  of  coral  dreilged  up  in 
deep  water.  There  is  also  a  green  earth  used  as  a 
pigment  liy  ])ainters  in  water-colours,  who  know  it 
liy  the  name  of  Mijiudain  Grcoi.  For  their  use  it 
Ls  mostly  brought  from  Monte  Uoldo,  near  Verona, 
and  from  Cyprus. 

lireeiifiiicli*  or  Green  Linnet  [Liijurinus 
chloria),  a  hird  of  the  finch  family  (  Fringiliida"),  a 
common  resident  in  most  [)arts  of  Ihitain,  fre- 
quenting gardens  and  copses  and  cultivated  dis- 
tricts generally.  It  occurs  in  many  jiarts  of 
Europe,  and  extends  its  range  into  Asia,  also 
visiting  in  winter  such  regions  as  North  Africa, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Palestine.  The  hill  is  much 
thicker  than  that  of  the  true  linnets,  to  wliich, 
however,  it  Ls  nearly  allied.  A  prevailing  green 
tint,  mingling  witli  gray  and  hrown,  cliaracterises 
the  jdumage,  and  "ives  the  hinl  its  name.  The 
female  is  much  less  hiilliant  and  somewhat  smaller 
than  the  male,  which  measures  about  6  inclies  in 
length.  The  nest,  usually  placed  in  shruljs,  is 
somewhat  loosely  huilt  of  fibres,  moss,  hair,  and 
the  like  :  the  eggs  (four  to  si.\)  are  greenish- white, 
with  brownish  or  gray  spots  ;  two  broods  are  often 
reared  in  a  season.  The  food  consists  of  insects, 
seeils,  and  berries.  The  proper  song  of  the  green- 
fincli  is  not  very  sweet,  but  in  eonlinement  it 
readily  imitates  the  song  of  other  birds,  and  in 
conseriuence  of  this  and  of  its  very  ea.sy  domestica- 
tion it  is  rather  a  favourite  cage-bird.  See  Howard 
Saunders,  Manual  of  Britisli  Birds. 

ClreeilSHSC  a  variety  of  plum,  of  a  green  or 
yellow  colour  and  roundish  shape,  the  Heine 
Claude  of  the  French,  generally  esteemed  as  one 
of  the  finest  varieties  in  cultivation,  if  not  certainly 
superior  to  all  others.  It  is  not  of  the  largest 
size,  but  in  <lelic;icy  and  richness  of  liavour  it  is 
unsurpassed.  Some  reckon  it  a  variety  of  Pruntis 
innititia,  othere  as  a  distinct  species,  P.  italica. 

ftJreeillieavt.  or  Bebeeru  (Xeetandra  Rodiei), 
a  tree  of  the  order  Laurace;e,  a  native  of  Guiana, 
of  great  value  as  a  timber-tree,  and  also  yielding  a 
valuable  medicinal  bark.  The  timber  is  commonly 
called  Oieeiilieart ;  the  hark  is  better  known  as 
Beheeru  (Bibiri,  iSrc,  or  Sipiri),  and  its  alkaloid 
as  Bihiiiiie  or  Bebcerine  (q.v. ).  The  wood  is  ex- 
tremely strong  and  hard,  resembling  lignumvitu'. 
It  takes  a  high  polish.  It  is  so  heavy  as  to  sink 
in  water.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  durability,  and 
for  being  almost  exempt  from  the  attacks  of  the 
white  ants  on  land  and  of  the  teredo  in  water. 
It  is  much  valueil  by  harliour  engineers,  and  is 
admirably  adapted  for  all  jiurpo.ses  which  demand 
exceptional  strength  and  durability.  Its  costliness, 
however,  largely  restricts  its  use,  save  for  turning. 
Other  species  yield  valuable  timber,  notably  A". 
eiiiieiniKi,  the  '  Laurier  marbre '  of  Martinicpie. 
The  seeds  of  N.  Biir/tiiei/  are  used  as  a  digestive 
tonic,  and  in  diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  especially 
in  Ihazil ;  they  are  known  as  Pichurim  Beans 
{Faba  jiie/iiirim  of  pharmacy). 

Greeiilioii.se.    See  PLVNT-HorsE. 

Cireeillnild.  an  extensive  region,  stretching,  so 
far  as  we  know,  from  59°  4.5'  to  S'iV  N.   lat.   and  I 
from    17°   to   ~T    \V.   long.,    its   north-ea.stern  ex-  ] 
tremity,  however,  being  not  yet  accurately  delineil. 
It  may  be  taken  for  proved  that  it  constitutes  an 
island   engirt  by  smaller  islands,  but  an  island  of 
almost  continental   size.     Even   its   southern   end 
has  a  thoroughly  arctic  character.    It  wa-s  discovereil  j 
by  the  earliest  Scandinavian  settlers  in   Iceland. 
After   having   been   sighted   by   (iunbjiirn,   it   wjis 
visited  by  Erik  the  Red,  who,  after  having  explored  I 


it,  founded  there  in  the  year  98G  two  colonies,  the 
<  )sterbygd  and  Westerbygd  (Eastern  and  Western 
Settlements).  The  colonies  afterwards  came  under 
the  dominion  of  Norway,  but  were  neglected  and 
suffered  from  disaster  and  privation.  Pinally.  the 
Westerbygd  was  attacked  and  destroyed  by  Eskirjio 
intruders  from  the  north  some  years  after  l^itO. 
Sub.sequently  the  connection  with  Europe  grailually 
grew  less  and  less,  until,  according  to  obsoire 
accounts,  it  wholly  cea.sed  after  1448,  and  Green- 
land almost  pa.s.sed  into  oblivion.  When  it  was 
rediscovered  by  John  Davis  in  1.585  the  Eskimo 
were  the  only  inhabitants.  In  1721  the  modem 
Danish  settlement.s  on  the  west  coast  were  foumled 
by  Egede  (q.v.)  as  missionary  stations.  During 
the  three  centuries  since  Davis's  discoveries  the 
question  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  colonies,  ami  the 
possibility  of  remnants  of  a  Scandinavian  popula- 
tion being  found  somewhere,  have  been  the  subject 
of  much  discussion ;  they  have  even  gi\en  rise  to 
several  expeditions.  Kemarkable  ruins  of  un- 
doubted Scandinavian  origin  were  early  discovered 
on  two  points  of  the  «  est  coast,  one  in  the  present 
district  of  .Inlianshaab  between  GO'  and  61°  N.  lat., 
the  other  in  Godthaab  between  64°  and  65°.  In  each 
case  the  ruins  lie  scattereil  over  an  area  of  some 
hundretl  square  miles,  occupying  small  fiat  and 
fertile  spots  around  the  heads  of  the  fjords.  The 
southern  group  contains  about  one  hun<lrcd  such 
spots,  eacii  with  ruins  of  from  two  or  three  U|i  to 
thirty  houses  (possibly  the  old  Usterbygd);  the 
northern  group  is  smaller.  In  1885  it  was  jiroved 
c(mclusively  that  no  ruins  of  a  similar  description 
exist  on  the  east  coast.  The  part  of  the  Greenland 
coast  still  unknown  is  that  between  Ca])e  liisnjarck 
in  76i°  N.  lat.  and  Independence  Bay  in  81°  :17', 
discovered  in  1S91  by  Peary,  about  half  a  degree 
south  of  the  NE.  corner  of  (Ireenland,  wliich  he  was 
the  first  to  reach,  and  which  he  visite<l  again  in 
189.5.  In  1898  he  planned  an  expedition  to  the 
North  Pole  to  start  from  this  corner  of  Gieenlaml. 

The  whole  coast-line  of  (Mcenland  may  be  roughly 
estimated  at  3600  miles,  or  19'2,0O0,  following  every 
island,  fjord,  and  peninsula.  The  area  again  may 
be  variously  estimated  at  512,000  antl  320,000  sq. 
m.,  according  as  one  includes  or  omits  the  islands 
and  fjords  running  inland,  which  are  60  miles 
long  on  an  average.  The  interior  of  (ireenland  i.s 
of  great  interest  with  regard  to  piiysical  geography 
in  general.  Owing  to  its  size  and  continental 
character,  it  is  the  only  known  home  on  the 
northern  hemisphere  of  real  icebergs.  Nearly  half 
of  the  su]iposed  circumference  of  the  interior  has 
recently  been  explored  by  a  series  of  expeditions, 
whose  results  explain  adequately  how  the  ice- 
bergs are  produced.  It  has  been  proved  that  a 
liu"e  ice-sheet  covers  the  whole  of  the  interior  like 
a  deluge.  The  surface  of  this  enormous  glacier, 
only  occa-sionally  interrupted  by  protrmliiig  moun- 
tain-tops, rises  slightly  towanls  the  intcri<jr. 
Several  travellers  have  tried  to  penetrate  into  this 
unknown  region,  crossing  the  ice  till  they  re.iclied 
heights  of  7tKKJ  feet  ;  but  it  was  not  until  1888  that 
(ireenland  was  crossed  from  east  to  west  (by  Nan- 
sen),  when  the  'divide'  was  found  to  attain  siuiie 
10.0(K)  feet  above  the  sea.  On  account  of  this  ice- 
cap (Ireenland  has  no  rivei's  corrcs^ionding  to  its 
magnitude ;  instead  of  its  being  drained  by  rivers, 
the  inland  ice  at  certain  points  of  the  coast  is 
thrust  into  the  .sea  by  forces  which  have  their  origin 
in  extensive  lateral  glaciera  in  the  interior.  These 
points  are  represented  by  the  .so-called  ice-fjords, 
of  which  six  or  eight  of  first-rate  magnitude  are 
found  in  Dani.sh  Greenlanil  (between  67°  N.  lat, 
on  the  east  coast  ami  75°  on  the  west  coiist).  Five 
of  these  have  been  narrowly  explored,  and  it 
has  been  a.sceitained  that  the  inlaml  ice,  which 
produces  the  bergs,  and  whose  thickness  may  be 


40G 


GREENLAND 


GREENLET    ISLAND 


cstiiiiatvil  at  UHK)  feet,  is  pushed  on  an  average  «itli 
a  velocity  of  50  feet  in  twenty-four  hours  into  the 
sea,  where  it  breaks  into  fra;,'nients— the  herm. 
The  mass  thus  annually  ileliveretl  into  one  of  tlie 
larj;est  ela-ss  of  ice-fjords  would  be  equal  in  size 
to  a  mountain  more  than  1000  feet  high  and 
covering  4  si|.  m.      , 

The  oo;Lst  margin  that  snrroumls  the  ice-covered 
inland  is  hy  no  means  devoid  of  perpetual  ice 
itself,  but  its  glaciers  are  more  or  less  isolateil. 
It  is  very  mountainous;  bold  headlaiids,  SOtHJ  to 
SIMM)  feet  high,  are  common  in  the  north  a.s 
well  as  in  the  south,  and  some  mountains  even 
rise  to  a  height  of  (ifMM)  to  TOtM)  feet.  Low  Hat 
land  is  fiiuiid  only  in  small  patches,  especially 
round  the  lu^ads  of  some  of  the  fjords.  These 
inlets  generally  take  the  form  of  narrow  channels, 
frei|uently  more  than  1000  feet  deep.  During  the 
summer  the  whole  east  coast,  and  the  west  coast 
up  to  lU'  N.  hit.,  are  more  or  less  encumbered 
with  drift  ice  from  the  Spitzbergen  sea. 

The  climate  of  (irceiiland,  when  contr.asted  with 
the  climate  of  thi^  e.'ustern  coiusts  of  the  Atlantic  in 
the  same  latituile,  shows  a  surprising  dill'erence. 
The  soul  hern  ])oint  of  Greenland  has  a  mean 
temper.ature  like  tli.at  of  the  most  northern  shores 
of  Iceland  ami  N'orway.  I!ul  the  dillerence  con- 
sists more  in  the  want  of  .summer  than  in  the 
severity  of  the  winter.  The  following  ligures  give 
the  ai)proximate  mean  temperature  in  Kahrenheit 
respectively  of  the  summer,  the  winter,  and  the 
year  for  three  stations  on  the  west  coast  :  l.ichtenau 
(()0.<,°  N.  lat.),  44°,  22',  .and  33';  Upernivik  (73" 
N.  lat.),  3H-2',  -0-6%  and  13-3";  Ken.selaer  Har- 
bour (-.nr  N.  lat.),  .S3-4',  -  28-6',  and  -  2-5°.  The 
minimum  observed  in  the  north  wa-s  -0(i'd°;  the 
miximum  in  the  south  CH  .  On  the  ea-st  coa.st, 
in  TtV'  N.  lat.,  the  summer  heat  wa.s  about  40', 
the  winter  -  10  ;  the  maximum  was  5.")'G',  the 
minimum  -  404'.  The  mean  temperature  of  the 
winter  months  on  the  west  coast  is  very  variable 
from  one  vear  to  another,  owing  especially  to  a 
warm  wind  from  south  e;ust  and  ea.st. 

The  mountains  of  (Jreenland  consist  cliiefly  of 
granitic  and  gneissose  rocks.  On  the  west  coast, 
between  0!)'  15'  and  71'  20'  X.  lat.,  they  are  inter- 
rupted by  high  tablel.ands,  consisting  of  trap  and 
basalt,  accompanied  by  sandstone  ami  slate,  with 
beds  of  coal.  The  fossil  flora  discovered  in  con- 
nection with  the  latter  e.xhibit.s  613  species, 
partly  Cretaceous,  with  subtropical  forms,  partly 
Tertiary,  indicating  a  climate  like  that  of  southern 
t^uropc.  .Metallic  ores  have  hitherto  proved  rather 
scarce.  Uesiiles  coal,  ditlerent  varieties  of  grajdiite 
have  been  discovered,  but  the  only  mineral  of 
real  economical  value  hitherto  m.ade  u.se  of  is 
cryolite,  which  is  cxporte<l  for  the  manufacture  of 
.soda  and  a  very  jinre  alum.  The  mine  is  situated 
at  Ivigtut  ((;r  10'  X.  lat.).  It  is  worked  liy  foreign 
labourers,  and  the  exiiort  is  about  10,0(M)  tons 
annually.  A  remarkai)le  collection  of  dill'erent 
minerals  occurs  in  close  connection  with  the  cry- 
olite, comprising  le.id  and  tin  ore,  but  cmly  in 
small  ipLantities.  .Another  peculiar  group  of  min- 
erals occur  in  connection  with  endialyte  some- 
what farther  south  ;  this  mineral  also  lias  become 
an  object  of  commercial  speculation.  A  mineral- 
ogical  rarity  is  linally  the  native  iron,  of  which 
a  ma-ss  found  on  Disco  Island  was  estimated  to 
weigh  46,200  nounds. 

In  sheltered  slopes  and  valleys  around  the  fjords 
south  of  6.)°  N.  lat.  copse-wooils  are  f(mnd,  con- 
sisting of  alder,  white  rjirch,  more  rarely  rowan- 
trees,  which  grow  to  G  or  8  feet  high.  The  highest 
birch  di.scovered  mea-sured  about  14  feet,  lierries 
are  abundant,  especially  crowberries  and  whortle- 
berries. An  attem|)t  to  grow  potatoes  at  the  south- 
most    settlement     failed.       The    Greenland    flora 


comprises  Jii)."}  siiecies  iif  phanerogams  and  higher 
cryiitogams,  and  3.S0  sjiecies  of  mosses. 
]  'I  he  fauini  numbers  33  species  cif  nmmnialia, 
'  124  of  birds,  7il  of  fishes.  It  is  from  the  animal 
kingilom,  esjiecially  frr>m  the  seals  and  whales, 
that  the  natives  ilerive  almost  their  whole  sub. 
.sistence.  The  number  of  thi^se  nninuils  annually 
kille4l  in  the  Danish  trading  districts  on  the 
west  con-st  is  estinuited  as  follows  :  I'lmcd  Jutiitft, 
51,000;  I'/ioca  ritiiliiin,  KMMI ;  I'huca  gneulundira, 
.33,000;  I'lwca  linrljrifa,  lOtM) ;  bliuldernoso  seals, 
30tX);  walrus,  2(K)  ;  white  whales,  (iCO ;  narwhals, 
UK);  humpback  whales,  1  or  2.  Ifeindeer,  of  which 
25,(MH)  were  shot  annually  in  the  years  1S45  4!), 
are  now  rather  scaice.  Of  hsh  sharks  <udy  have 
any  commercial  value,  but  .several  othei-  kinds  all'ord 
food  for  the  inhabitants.  American  ships  have  for 
some  years  tried  lialibut-lislierv  on  the  banks  olf 
the  west  coast.  The  dogs  used  for  draught  are  of 
great  importance  in  the  north.  A  few  goats  and 
horned  cattle  have  been  kept  bj-  the  Euroiicans, 
but  more  .as  a  curiosity. 

The  inhabitants  of  (iieenland  (see  Eskimo)  are 
of  the  Kskimo  r.ace,  more  or  less  mixed  with  Euro- 
pean blood.  The  iixlividuals  of  the  niixeil  race 
liardly  dill'er  <as  to  language  and  habits  from  the 
genuine  Eskimo.  IJesides  the  natives,  about  2.'i0 
Europeans  usually  reside  in  the  country,  thirty 
to  forty  of  whom  have  married  native  women. 
i  The  number  of  natives,  including  the  mixed  lace, 
was,  in  Danish  West  (Ireenland,  !)li4.S  in  the  vear 
1S.J5,  90M3  in  ISSO:  in  Danish  East  (Jreenl.and, 
548  in  1SS4  ;  the  Smith  Sound  tribe  mav  number 
150  ;  anil  lastly  some  few  must  be  added  for  the 
imperfectly  known  north-eastern  co,a.st,  where 
natives  li.ave  been  mot  with.  The  whole  pojiula- 
tion  in  this  way  may  amount  to  11,0(M). 

Since  1774  the  trade  of  Greenland  h.os  been  a 
royal  monoimly  ;  the  service  employs  2  inspector.s, 
30  agents  and  clerks,  and  180  liandicraftsmen, 
boatswains,  .and  labimrers,  most  of  the  latter  being 
natives.  There  arc  12  chief  stations  for  trading 
and  the  Danish  Mission  ;  the  southernmost  is 
Julianeh.aab  (00'  42'  N.  lat.),  the  northernmost 
Upernivik  (72'  4S'  \.  lat.).  At  Godthaab  there  is 
a  seminary  for  training  native  cittechists  :  of  late, 
too,  natives  have  been  appointed  pastors.  The 
Moravi.an  Mission  lias  four  chief  stations.  Since 
1863  a  municipal  system  hits  been  tried,  for  which 
native  representatives  are  elected  by  their  country- 
men. During  the  twenty  years  from  1.S53  to  1S72 
the  annual  export  bv  the  royal  trade  was  WS'y  tuns 
of  oil  <and  4(J,0(M)  .skins,  besides  some  eidcr-ilown, 
featliers,  I'src.  In  1890-95  the  exports  and  iiiijiorts 
were  each  a  value  of  between  £25,000  and  i:iO,000 
a  year. 

Further  information  will  be  found  in  Danish  Green- 
lau'l,  by  the  pres-eiit  writer  (Loml.  1877),  and  the  scries 
Mtddtlrher  um  ariiuhinul  (Copenhagen,  IS"!'  95),  which 
give  the  results  of  investig.atioiis  since  1)<7C.  As  regards 
the  rest  of  Greenland,  our  princijial  sources  are,  for  the 
east,  the  works  of  Scoresby,  Clavering,  and  the  second 
German  north  jiolar  expedition  ;  iiifoniiation  about  the 
north-western  part  is  scattered  over  the  reports  of  several 
well-known  Arctic  expeditions,  especially  those  by  Kane, 
Hall,  Nares,  and  Greely.  See  also  Xordeiiskiiild's  record 
of  his  cxjdoration  on  the  cast  coast  and  the  interior 
(German,  18St)),  and  Nansen's  account  of  his  expedition 
across  the  interior  of  southern  Greenland  in  1888. 

Greenlaw,  a  sm.all  town  of  lierwickshire  (rpv.), 
on  the  niackadder,  .38  miles  ESE.  of  Edinburgh 
(by  rail  .'"5).  Its  cimrt-liouse  (1S34)  is  a  large 
Grecian  pile.     Pop.  744. 

Creeillof  Island,  a  small  island  in  the  Strait 
of  l!elle  Isle,  in  51-  34'  N.  lat.  and  .50'  36'  W. 
long.,  the  proposed  lamling-place  of  a  Canadi.an 
-Atlantic  cable,  to  extend  from  near  Clew  liay,  in 
Ireland. 


GREEN    MOUNTAINS 


GREEN    PIGMENTS 


407 


Green  Monntains,  a  portinn  of  the  Ajtpala- 
cliiau  Range.     See  Appalachians. 

Creenoek,  an  important  seaport  of  Renfrew- 
shire, the  seventh  hirgest  town  in  Scotland,  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  3J  miles  hy 
water  S.  of  Helenshurgli,  and  22^  hy  rail  WNW.  of 
(ilasgow.  For  more  than  four  mile.s  it  stretches 
along  the  level  strip  of  ancient  sea-niargiu,  or 
climlis  up  the  slopes  of  the  hills,  which  rise  rapidly 
hchinil  it  to  a  heiglit  of  81.3  feet,  and  which  com- 
mand splendid  views  of  the  opposite  ci>asts  of  Argyll 
ami  Dumharton  shires,  fringed  with  white  gleaming 
villages,  of  Highland  mountains,  ami  of  the  lirth 
itself,  stretcliing  away  into  narrow  sea-lochs,  and 
dotted  with  every  variety  of  craft.  Greenock  has 
a  reputation  of  Ijeing  always  wet,  and  the  yearly 
rainfall  does  exceed  60  inches  ;  but  as  the  ])revalent 
winds  are  from  the  south  and  west,  they  are  gener- 
ally milil.  The  west  end  of  the  town,  with  its 
elegant  and  commodious  villas  of  every  .style  of 
arcliitecture,  its  beautiful  esplanade  H  mile  long, 
its  wide  and  well-i)aved  streets,  i)lanted  with  tree.s, 
is  particularly  attractive.  The  public  ImihUngsare 
many  of  them  \erv  handsome.  The  chief  among 
these  is  the  town-hall  and  municipal  buildings 
(ISS(J),  Renaissance  in  style,  with  a  tower  245 
feet  high  ;  then  come  the  county  buihlings  (18G7), 
the  customhouse  (1818),  the  poorhouse  and  lunatic 
asylum  (1876),  Wood's  Manuel's'  Asylum  (1851), 
the  temperance  institute  (1870),  the  Y.M.C.A. 
Institute  (1887),  and  the  Watt  Institution  (1837), 
containing  a  marble  statue  of  Watt  by  Cliantrey. 
There  are  se\eral  handsome  churches.  To  Sir 
Michael  Sliaw-Stewart  the  town  is  largely  in- 
debted for  the  Well  Park  (1851),  the  Welling- 
ton Park  (1872),  and  the  Lyle  Road  (1880).  The 
new  cemetery,  90  acres  in  extent,  with  its  Watt 
cairn,  and  the  magnificent  water-works  (1827-8.3) 
also  deserve  mention.  The  harbour-works  date 
from  1707,  and  have  cost  upwards  of  1.^  million 
pounds.  Accessible  at  all  states  of  the  tide,  they 
include  Victoria  Harbour  (1850),  the  Albert  Har- 
bour (1866),  and  the  James  Watt  Dock  (1886). 
The  tonnage  of  vessels  belonging  to  (Jrcenock  ro.se 
from  20,0.34  in  1825  to  103,919  in  1867,  ami  229,912 
in  1888  (besides  306  fishing-boats);  whilst  the 
tonnage  of  vessels  entering  the  port  ranges  be- 
tween 1  and  li  million  per  annum.  Shipbuild- 
ing has  been  carried  on  since  1760;  and  during 
the  twelve  years  1876-87,  the  tonnage  of  vessels 
built  here  (mostly  iron  or  steel  steamers)  varied 
from  14,500  in  1877  to  52,744  in  1882.  Sug.-vr- 
refining,  commenced  in  1765,  in  sjiite  of  bad  recent 
years  has  still  its  chief  seat  at  Greenock  ;  and  there 
are  also  manufactures  of  steam-engines,  anchors 
and  chain-cables,  ropes,  sailcloth,  paper,  wool  and 
worsteil,  &c.  Since  1832  Greenock  has  returned  a 
member  to  parliament.  Pop.  (1696)  1328;  (1801) 
17,190;  (1851)  36,689;  (1881)  66,704;  (1891)63,423. 
Created  a  liurgh  of  barony  in  1635,  (Jreenock  owes 
its  growth  from  a  mere  fishing-village  to  the  Shaw 
family  and  to  the  Treaty  of  Unicm  ( 1707 ),  by  which 
free  commerce  was  opened  uji  with  America  and 
the  West  Indies.  Besides  being  the  birthplace  of 
Watt,  of  Spence  the  mathematician,  ,vnd  of  Prin- 
cipal Caird,  it  has  memories  of  Rob  Roy,  John 
A\  ilson,  and  O.alt,  and  contains  the  grave  of  Burns"s 
'  Highland  .Mary.'  See  Provost  Dugald  Campbell's 
Uistui-iccil  a/.ctchcs  of  the  Town  and  Harbours  of 
Greenock  (2  vols.  1879-81 ). 

GreeilOIIsll.  Horatio,  an  American  .sculptor, 
w.as  born  in  lioston,  6th  September  1805,  studied 
for  two  years  at  Harvard,  and  from  1825  spent  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  in  Italy.  His  princijial 
work,  and  one  remarkable  both  for  accuracy  ,an<l  for 
lofty  conception,  is  the  colossal  statue  of  Washing- 
ton,  which   now  stands  in  front  of  the   national 


capitol  building.  Other  important  .sculptures  are 
his  'Medora,'  '  Venus  Victii.x,'  and  a  group  of  four 
figures,  '  The  Rescue,'  for  the  purpose  of  placintj 
which  he  returned  to  America  in  1851.  He  died 
suddenly  at  Sonierville,  Mas.sachusetts,  ISth 
December  1852. 

Green  Pigments.  These  are  numerous  and 
some  are  very  important.  Several  of  tlieni  are 
mechanical  mixtures  of  blue  and  yellow  ;  a  larger 
numljer  are  chemical  com])ounds  which  are  natur- 
ally green ;  but  of  either  kind  only  a  few  are 
extensively  used.  All  those  which  are  serviceable 
or  have  any  special  interest  are  noticed  in  \vliat 
follows. 

Saj>  green  is  the  only  one  of  vegetable  origin  that 
need  be  mentioned.  It  is  prepared  from  the  gummy 
juice  of  the  lierries  of  a  species  of  buckthorn 
{lihamnus  cat/iarticus),  and  is  a  fine  transparent 
yellowish -green.  It  Ls  unfortunately  fugitive, 
but  is  occa.sionally  employed  in  water-colour 
painting. 

Terra  verte  is  a  kind  of  ochre.  This  pigment  is 
much  used  by  artists  for  painting  in  oil,  being  one 
of  the  most  permanent  greens.  It  has  not  much 
body,  but  can  be  mixed  with  other  colours  without 
injurious  results. 

Oxide  of  chromium,  like  the  la.st,  is  found  native, 
but  for  use  as  a  colour  it  is  always  artificially  pre- 
pared. It  is  a  sober,  pern;anent  {rreen  much  liked 
by  some  landscape-painters.  Viriaian  and  Veronese 
green  are  also  oxides  of  chromium,  but  the  latter  is 
often  adulterated  with  arsenic. 

Emerald  green  (cupric  aceto-arsenite). — This 
very  bright  (but  poisonous)  green,  also  called 
Sctiicei)ifurt  green  and  Paris  green,  is  enijiloyed  to 
a  limited  extent  by  artists  and  decorators,  and  is 
use<l  as  an  insecticide. 

Scheele's  green  (cupric  arsenite)  is  another  bright 
green,  although  not  so  vivid  in  colour  as  the  last, 
which  it  resembles  in  stability  and  in  other  pro- 
perties. This  is  a  dangerous  pigment,  and  is  unfor- 
tunately a  good  deal  employed  for  colouring  paper- 
hangings,  artificial  leaves,  and  toys. 

Briinsuick  Green. — Several  distinct  iiigments  are 
known  by  this  name.  One  of  the  kir.ds  employed 
by  the  house-painter  Is  a  basic  carlionate  of  coj)per, 
mixed  with  gypsum  or  other  bodies.  It  is  fairly 
permanent.  Mountain  green,  mineral  gieen,  and 
malachite  green  are  also  carbonates  of  co]>per.  In 
chemical  books  Brunswick  green  is  usually  said 
to  lie  the  oxychloride  of  copjier.  Chrome  green, 
noticed  below,  is  likewise  called  Brunswick  gieen. 

Ritunan's  green,  known  also  as  zinc  green  and 
cobalt  green,  consists  of  SS  per  cent,  of  oxide  of 
zinc  and  12  per  cent,  of  protoxide  of  cobalt.  This 
colour  is  permanent,  and  is  not  afl'ected  by  strong 
heat. 

Chrome  green  is  a  mixture  of  chromate  of  le.ad 
and  Prussian  blue.  It  is  a  bright,  strong  colour, 
and  is  suitable  for  ordinary  mechanical  painting. 
It  is,  however,  not  permanent  :  a  more  durable 
green,  but  one  of  less  ]>o\\er,  being  formed  with 
French  ultramarine  and  chiome  yellow. 

Hooker's  green  is  a  mixture  of  Prussian  blue  and 
gamboge,  and  possesses  some  permanence  as  a 
water-colour.  Prussian  green  is  formed  in  the 
same  way,  but  contains  more  blue. 

(ireens  which  are  compounds  of  co])])er  are  all 
more  or  less  poisonous  even  when  they  do  not 
also  contain  ai'senie. 

Artists  generally  prefer  to  make  up  the  shade  of 
green  they  require  by  mixin"  blue  and  yellow  pig- 
ments for  briglit  shades,  and  blue  and  brown  colours 
for  dull  shades.  As  a  rule  the  green  portions  of 
pictures  have  stood  the  eft'ects  of  time  worse  than 
other  colours. 

For  the  materials  used  in  dyeing  textile  fabrics 
green,  see  DvElNO  and  Calico-printinc  ;  and  for 


408 


GREEN    RIVER 


GREENSTONE 


<rreen  colours  used  in  painting  or  printing  pottery, 

see  l'i>TTKHY. 

<>r4M'll  Rivor  ( 1 )  rises  in  Western  Wyoming, 
Mows  SK.  into  Colorado,  and  then  S\V.  and  S. 
throiii,'li  I'tali,  joining  tlie  Grand  lUver,  a  branch 
of  tlie  Colorado,  after  a  conrse  of  750  miles. — (2) 
Green  Kiver,  Kentucky,  rises  near  the  centre  of  the 
state.  Hows  west  and  north-west,  passing  near  the 
Mammoth  Cave,  and  crosses  the  northern  hound- 
arv.  entering  the  Ohio  tl  miles  above  Kvansville, 
Indiana.  It  is  about  350  miles  in  length,  and  is 
navigalde  for  small  steamers  for  1.50  miles :  its 
lower  coui-se  is  through  the  coalliehls  of  Western 
Ki'iiliii'ky. 

4ar«'<'lirooill,  a  room  near  the  stage  in  a 
theatre,  so  called  because  originally  i)ainted  green, 
where,  during  a  perforiiiivnce,  the  acto|-s  wail  while 
oil'  the  stage. 

Orcons,  the  common  name  of  all  those  varieties 
of  kale  or  cabbage  (  Brassica  o/erarca )  which  do  not 
IhiII,  and  of  which  the  leaves  are  used  for  the  table 
,xs  boiled  vegetables  ;  some  of  which  .are  also  called 
colewort,  t.'ic.,  whilst  others,  particularly  those  with 
curled  leaves,  as  German  greens,  have  no  other 
name  tli.an  greens  or  kale.  Young  unbidled  cab- 
b.ages,  and  shoots  from  tlie  stocks  of  cabbjrges,  are 
often  also  called  greens,  as  well  .as  turni]i  to]is,  and 
other  leaves  of  plants  useil  in  the  same  manner. — 
The  leaves  of  (ierman  greens  are  very  much  waved 
or  curleil.  This  herb  is  one  of  the  best  kinds  of 
o/>rii  greens.  It  is  either  sown  in  spring  and 
planted  out  soon  after,  or  it  is  sown  in  autumn  and 
planted  out  in  spring. 

(■roriisillld.  the  name  given  to  two  divisions  of 
the  Cn'taii'iMis  System  (q.v.).  They  are  so  called 
from  the  occin  leiicc  in  some  of  the  strata  of  luinier- 
ous  sm.ill  grien  specks  of  glauconite  (a  hydrous 
silicate  of  iron,  alumina,  and  potash;  see  GREEN 
E.VKTH),  sometimes  so  abumlanl  as  to  give  a  green 
colour  to  them.  The  term  is,  however,  far  from 
being  descriptive  of  the  various  included  strata  ;  it 
must  be  considered  simply  as  a  name.  In  some 
ilistricts,  especially  on  the  Continent,  the  green 
particles  are  entirely  absent  from  the  strat.a.  The 
petrograpliic.al  character  of  the  Cpper  (ireensand 
IS  so  like  that  of  the  Lower,  that  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  separate  them  when  the  intermediate 
(lault  is  absent,  e.\cept  by  their  organic  remains, 
which  are  very  distinct  ;  so  much  so,  indeed,  a-s  to 
have  caused  the  placing  of  the  <me  series  in  the 
Lower  Cretaceous  group,  and  the  other  in  the 
fpper. 

The  Vpiier  Greeiisand  consists  of  beds  of  sand 
and  sanilstone,  generally  of  a  green  colour,  with 
beils  ami  concretionary  ma.sses  of  calcareous  grit, 
called  lirestone,  ami  chert.  In  the  Wealden  ilistrict 
the  .aver.age  thickness  of  the  formation  is  about  60 
feet.  It  isi>nly  doubtfully  present  north  of  Folke- 
st<uie  :  in  Sussex  it  reaches  20  feet,  and  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight  100  feet  in  thickness.  This  formation  is 
supposed  to  have  been  .a  littoral  or  shore  deposit 
of  the  cretaceous  sea.  While  the  chalk  was  being 
deposited  out  at  sea  these  sands  were  lieing 
laiil  down  along  the  shore  contemporaneously 
with  the  chalk,  although  they  appear  inferior  to  it. 
Their  position  woulil  necessarily  result  from  the 
cret.aceous  sea  widening  its  are.a :  ,as  the  shore  w.as 
submerged  the  grcensand  Iwcame  covered  with  the 
chalk,  and  thus  appears  .as  an  older  and  under- 
lying cleposit.  The  beds  of  this  series  are  rich 
in  fossils,  .abounding  especially  in  the  remains  of 
sponges,  mollusca,  and  echinodermata. 

The  I.iiii-ci-  Grcensand  consists  chietiv  of  yellow, 
gray,  white,  and  green  sands,  Ijut  includes  also  beds 
and  banils  of  clay,  limestone,  and  ironstone.  It 
att.ains  a  thickness  of  .500  or  so  feet.  The  sands 
preponderate  in  the  upper,  and  the  clays  in  the 


lower  iiortiim  of  the  formation.  In  Surrey,  Kent, 
Sussex,  &c.  it  is  sulxlivided  lus  follows  : 

A.  Fo!k*'Htonc  \wi\i. 

S.  San.ifratp  Im^O!). 

i.  Ilythe  l..^l«. 

I  Atliirll.l.l  cl.i)-. 

Some  beils  of  clay  of  considerable  thickness,  occa- 
sionally lut  much  as  IK)  feet,  are  nsi'd  as  fuller's  earth. 
The  calcarcmis  stone  is  a  highly  fossiliferous  band 

'  of  limestime,  locally  called  Kentish  rag,  much  used 
for  building  in  Kent  and  Sn.s-sex.     The  formation 

'  was  formerly  known  as  the  iron  sand,  because  of  the 
sands  iM'ing  cenu-nteil  together  by  an  abundance 
of  oxide  of  iron  :  this  gives  them  a  redilish  colour. 
The  Lower  ( Ireensand  contains  numerous  fossil  mid- 
lu.sca  and  other  remains.  It  is  a  marine  deposit, 
and  rests  on  the  freshwater  Wealden  strata,  show- 
ing that  while  it  was  being  accumulateil  the  sea 
m.ade  considerable  encroachments  on  the  laml.      In 

;  the  Isle  of  Wight  the  strata  are  well  ilevelopeil, 
reaching  a  thickness  of  some  H0(J  feet.  In  the 
.Midlaml  counties  the  same  beds  are  recogni-i'd  and 
have  .a.ssumed  various  names,  such  as  '  Kariii;.'don 
beds,'  'Shotover  sands,' '  Widiurn  sands  and  Wicken 

,  beds.'  The  Tealby  series  is  the  name  given  to  the 
Lower  (ireensand  l>eds  of  Lincolnshire.  Near  Klam- 
liorongh  Head  the  Lower  (ireensjind  and  Wealden 
beds  are  re])resented  by  the  Specton  clay. 

(•rot'Ilsllilllk   (Tolinnis   caiicsrrns),   a   bird    of 
the  snipe  family  (Scolopacidie),  in  the  same  geniis 

I  as  the  redshank  and  some  of  the  sandpipers.  It  is 
about  the  size  of  a  woodcock  ( 14  inches  in  length). 


Grecnsliank  ( Totanut  caneKent). 

but  li.os  m<icli  longer  legs ;  the  general  colours  of 
the  plumage  are  brown  and  gray,  the  latter  pre- 
vailing in  winter,  when  the  under  surface  is  pure 
white;  the  bill  is  about  2  inches  long;  the  tail  is 
short.  The  greeushank  nests  on  the  ground.  whi(  h 
the  eggs  (four)  more  or  less  resemble  in  colour; 
when  disturbed  the  bird  behaves  and  cries  very 
much  like  a  lapwing.  The  foo<l  ciuisists  of  small 
animals  of  all  sort.s.  In  spring  and  autunui  small 
tlocks  occur  on  the  Hritish  coasts  or  by  inl.ind 
lakes  ;  in  Ireland  it  often  winters,  ami  in  the  north 
of  .Scotland  may  even  breed.  Its  geneial  range  is 
virtually  co  extensive  with  the  eastern  hemispheie. 
See  Howard  Saunders,  Manual  of  Biitiuli  Birds. 

Green  Siekiiess.    See  Chi.oi!()si.s. 

Greenstone,  a  rock  term  (now  disu.sed)  for 
any  dark  green  basic  crystalline  'trap-rock.'  The 
greenish  tint  which  snch  igneous  rocks  so  frequently 
show  is  now  recognised  as  being  in  most  co-ses  due 
to  the  presence  of  serjientine.  chlorite,  or  other  pro- 
ducts of  decomposition.      Most  greenstones  ,are  tliuf 


GREENVILLE 


GREENWICH 


409 


referable  to  the  Basalts  (q.v. )  and  the  Diorites 
(see  Igneous  Rocks). 

tJreenville,  capital  of  flreenville  county,  South 
Carolina,  on  Reeily  I'iver,  95  miles  (143  hy  rail) 
N\V.  of  Cohinihia,  with  a  cotton-factory,  and 
nianufacturesof  oil.  flour,  furniture,  and  machinery. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  Haptist  university  ( IS.Tl )  and  of 
a  Baptist  ladie.s'  college.     Top.  ( 1890)  8607. 

Greeiiweed,  a  name  given  to  certain  half- 
shiulil)y  species  of  Genista.  See  Genist.\,  and 
Dyer's  Broom  ( G.  tiiirton'a )  under  Bkoom.  Hairy 
Greenweed  {G.  pi/osa)  is  sometimes  grown  in 
France  on  light  soils  as  fodder  for  slieep. 

Cireeiiwell,  Dor.\,  religious  poet,  was  born 
6tli  Decemlper  18'21  near  Laiudiester  in  Durham, 
and  after  1848  lived  in  Durham.  She  died  •29th 
March  1882.  Amongst  her  works,  all  marked  by  a 
lofty  strain  of  patience.  Christian  hope,  holy  con- 
fidence, and  withal  of  deep-seated  melancholy, 
are  a  volume  of  poems  in  1848,  and  another  in 
18(31  ;  several  short  prose  works,  including  7'he 
Patience  of  Hope,  'Tiro  Friends,  and  a  sequel, 
Collfjquia  C'nicis ;  a  Life  of  Lacordaire  ( 1868),  and 
Carmina  Cruets  (1869).  See  the  Memoirs  by 
William  Dorling  ( 1885). 

Greenwich  (A.S.  Green-wic,  'green  creek  or 
bay  '),  a  parliamentary  borough  of  Kent,  is  situated 
.T  miles  ESE.  of  London  Bridge,  on  the  south  bank 
of  the  Tlianies,  here  crossed  by  a  steamsliip  ferry, 
on  the  Ami'rican  system,  wliicli  was  opened  in  1888. 
The  town  is  chietly  memorable  on  account  of  its 
gre.at  national  instituticms.  First  amongst  these 
comes  Greenwich  Hospital,  which  occupies  tlie  site 
of  an  old  royal  pal.ace,  in  whioli  Henry  VIII.  and 
Ids  ilaughters  Mary  and  Elizabeth  were  born,  and 
wliere  Eilward  VI.  died.  Tlie  first  Idea  of  its 
foundation  is  said  to  have  originated  in  1692 
after  the  great  naval  victory  of  La  Hogue ;  it 
was  then  pro]iosed  to  raise  a  suitable  monument 
as  a  mark  of  the  gratitude  which  Englaml  felt 
towards  her  brave  sailors.  According  to  the 
Latin  inscription  which  runs  round  tlie  frieze  of 
the  hall,  '  The  pious  r<'gard  of  Queen  Mary  dedi- 
cated this  Palace  of  (Jreenwicli  for  the  relief  and 
maintenance,  at  the  public  expense,  of  those  sea- 
men who  have  protected  the  public  .safety  in  the 
reign  of  William  and  Mary,  1694.'  The  hospital 
consists  of  fcmr  distinct  i>ilcs  of  buildings,  all 
of  which  are  quadrangular  and  named  according 
to  tlie  respective  sovereign.s  in  wliose  reigns  they 
were  successively  built.  King  Cliarles's  building, 
to  the  west,  was  erected  in  1664,  from  the  original 
design  by  Inigo  Jones.  On  the  otlier  side  of  the 
square  towards  the  east  is  t^ueen  Anne's  building  ; 
to  tlie  southward  of  these  are  King  William's 
Imilding,  containing  the  Great  Hall,  and  (^ueen 
Mary's  building,  containing  the  chapel.  Tlie  last 
tlirei'  were  from  designs  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 
Tlie  (ire.at  Hall  is  lemark.ible  for  its  painted  ceil- 
ing, a  work  carriecl  out  by  Sir  James  Thornhill  in 
1707-27.  It  contains  several  valuable  pictures  of 
great  nav.al  battles  and  of  the  heroes  who  fought 
in  them  ;  there  is  still  preserved  the  coat  which 
Nelson  wore  when  he  was  shot  at  Trafalgar.  The 
cli.a]iel  is  a  line  specimen  of  Greek  architecture; 
it  was  restored  in  1789  from  designs  by  James 
Stuart.  A  statue  of  George  II.  by  Kysbrach 
adorns  the  central  square. 

Till!  first  pensioners  were  received  in  the  hospital 
in  1705;  these  numbered  100;  in  1814  the  nia.xi- 
muiii  number  was  reached — viz.  2710.  In  176.'?  imt- 
pensions  were  granted  from  the  funds;  in  1849  the 
nuiiilier  of  in-pensioners  began  to  decrease,  until 
in  ISCi.")  they  only  numbered  UtK).  For  some  time 
the  ill-pensioners  h.ail  been  discontenteil  with  their 
manner  of  living  at  the  hospital,  and  in  1869,  when 
tliey  had  the  option  of  receiving  a  grant  of  money 


in  lieu  of  their  board  and  lodging,  a  very  large 
majority  preferred  to  take  the  money  and  go  to 
their  friends.  A  few  old  or  bedriilden  men  were 
transferred  to  the  various  naval  hospitals  and  the 
Seamen's  Hospital  Society,  to  be  maintaineil  at  the 
expense  of  Greenwich  Hospital  Fund.  Greenwich 
Hosjiital  was  thus  rlisestablished  by  the  votes  of 
the  very  men  for  whose  benefit  it  was  originally 
foundecl.  The  revenues  of  the  ho.sjiital  are  derived 
from  ditl'erent  sources,  the  principal  of  which  are 
gifts  by  King  William  and  the  original  commis- 
sioners, the  rental  of  the  forfeited  estates  of  the 
Earl  of  Derwentwater,  contributions  of  the  sea- 
men and  marines  of  Her  Majesty's  fleet,  as  well  as 
from  those  w  ho  served  in  the  mercantile  marine  ; 
large  sums  have  been  acquired  from  unclaimed 
prize-money  and  fines.  The  annual  income  of  the 
liospital  is  £167,2.59.  From  this  sum  numerous 
pensions  are  ]iaid  ;  1000  boys,  the  sons  of  sea- 
men and  marines,  are  maintained  and  educated  at 
fireenwich  Hospital  Schools  at  an  average  cost  of 
£23,000  a  year ;  gratuities  are  granted  to  w  idows 
of  .seamen  and  marines  ;  and  50  children  of  otlicers 
who  have  died  receive  grants  for  their  education. 
It  is  estimated  that  9000  persons,  exclusive  of  the 
children  mentioned,  derive  benefit  from  the  funds. 
In  1873  Greenwich  Hosjiital  became  the  college 
for  the  Royal  Navy,  and  all  naval  otlicers  belong- 
ing to  the  combatant  branch  are  now  compelled  to 
take  their  degree  at  Greenwich.  Having  reached  a 
certain  .seniority  as  midshipmen,  they  are  entered 
at  the  college,  and,  after  having  passed  through  a 
coui'se  of  instruction,  they  are  examined  and  clas.si- 
fied  according  to  merit.  Executive  officers  of 
difl'erent  ranks  have  the  privilege  of  studying  and 
earning  extra  distinctions  by  passing  mcritorimis 
examinations.  A  certain  number  of  the  engineer 
oliicers  also  go  through  a  course  of  study  at  the 
Royal  Naval  College. 

The  Naval  Museum  contains  many  objects  of 
interest  connected  with  the  navy,  such  as  models 
of  ships  both  ancient  and  modern,  specimens  of 
guns,  torpedoes,  and  ammunition,  plans  of  British 
dockyards,  relics  of  Sir  John  Franklin's  expedition, 
and,  last  but  not  least,  the  famous  original  Chatham 
chest — established  at  Chatham  by  Queen  Elizabeth 
in  1588  for  tlie  relief  of  woumled  and  decayed  sea- 
men, and  removed  hither  in  1803. 

The  Royal  Hospital  School  wa-s  first  established 
in  1712  for  the  purpose  of  clothing  and  educating 
the  sons  of  the  pensioners.  C)ne  thousand  boys 
enjoy  its  benefits,  besides  one  hundred  day- 
scholai-s  noniinate<l  under  the  Borenian  Trust. 
Entries  are  ni.ade  at  1 1  years  of  age,  ami.  if  the  boys 
prove  fit  for  service  in  the  navy,  they  are  retained 
till  they  reach  the  age  of  15J  yeaiv.  The  school 
is  es.sentially  a  training  place  for  the  Royal  Navy, 
the  boys  being  passed  thence  to  training-sliips  at 
Portsmouth  and  Devonport.  The  'Queen's  House' 
in  the  centre  of  the  scliool  buildings  was  a  favourite 
residence  of  t^ueen  Henrietta  Maria.  The  school 
posses.ses  a  spacious  gymnasium,  a  large  swim- 
ming-bath, several  good  model  rooms  for  seaman- 
ship instruction,  and  a  very  fine  dining-hall.  The 
admissions  are  limited  to  tlie  sons  of  seamen  of  the 
Royal  Navy,  the  Royal  Marines,  ami  the  Royal 
Naval  Reserve,  with  a  few  from  the  mercantile 
marine. 

Another  national  institution  at  Greenwich,  not 
le.ss  import.ant  than  these  naval  establishments,  is 
the  Royal  Observatory,  which  crowns  the  hill  that 
rises  in  the  park  behind  the  hospital  (see  ObseI!V.\- 
TORV).  It  was  built  by  Charles  II.  in  1675,  the 
first  astronomer- royal  being  Flanisteed.  From 
here  the  correct  time  is  Hashed  every  day  by  the 
electric  telegraiih  to  the  principal  towns  of  the 
kingdom.  From  Greenwich,  too.  geograidiers  and 
seamen  reckon  longitude.     The  park  is  a  favourite 


410 


GREG 


GR^GOIRE 


resort  of  Londoners  on  Sundays  and  li(didn\s. 
Tlio  AVIiitt'liiiit  (q.v. )  Dinner,  a  liannuct  held  l)y 
till"  caliini't ministers  to  celebrate  llie  tormina 
tion  <it  a  iiarlianientarv  session,  is  held  at  lireen- 
wich.  which  is  famous  for  the  lisli  from  which  the 
dinner  is  named.  (Jreenwich  is  well  sujiplied  with 
charitaUli'  institutions,  chief  nmonn  wliich  may 
1m,'  mentioned  the  .Jululee  Almshouses,  Norfolk  or 
Trinity  Colle^re,  Hoan's  Charity,  the  (Jreen-coat 
and  liliu'CDat  Schi«)ls.  The  manufacturing.'  eslah- 
lishnients  of  th(!  town  include  en^rineerin;;,  tele- 
i;raiih  works,  chemical  works,  \c.  It  returned  two 
Micmliers  to  ]>arliainent  down  to  18X5,  when  the 
new  parliamentary  horoujihs  of  iJeptford  and  \Vo(d- 
wicli  were  forme<l  out  of  its  houmlarics,  and  it  was 
restricteil  to  one  niemher.  Pop.  (I8S1)  G."),41l; 
I  Ksni )  78,131.  See  the  Uev.  A.  t;.  L'Estraufje.  The 
Palace  a ivl  the  Hosju'ttil :  C7iro»ic/cA'  of  Gin  ii inch 
(2  vols.  1886). 

CroK.  Wii.r.iAM  1!  vTiinoNE,  author  of  several 
works  in  literature  ami  jiolitics.  was  horn  in  .Man- 
chester in  1S09,  became  a  Commissioner  of  Customs 
in  IHoti,  and  acted  a-s  Controller  of  Her  M.ijesty's 
Stationery  Ollice  from  1804  to  1877,  when  he 
resi^'ued.  He  died  November  15,  1881.  He  was  a 
man  of  profoundl.v  earnest  character,  had  a  con- 
spicuous power  of  incisive  wriiinn,  and  wa.s  in- 
terested in  many  jiliilanthropic  mco-sures.  In  his 
UiirKs  Ahcti'l  he  took  a  hi)_'hly  pessimistic  view  of 
the  future  of  Englauil,  and  re^'arded  .some  present 
tendencies  as  pregnant  with  danger,  anticipating 
with  foreboding  the  political  supremacy  of  the 
lower  classes,  the  approaching  industrial  uecline  of 
England,  and  the  divorce  of  the  intellifjencc  of  the 
country  from  its  religion.  His  works  include  The 
Creed  iif  Christcmloiii  ( 18dl ) ;  Ensai/s  on  Political 
anil  Social  Science  (1854);  I.ileiaii/  and  Social 
Jwlipnents  (1869);  Political  Prub'lcms  (1870); 
Enii/iiiiis  of  Life  (1872;  IStli  ed.  with  memoir  by 
his  willow,  1891 ) ;  llochs  Ahead,  or  the  W'arninris 
of  Cassandra  (1874) ;  Mistaken  Aims  (187G)  ;  Mis- 
cellaneous Essai/s  (2d  series,  1884). 

Crosarinula.  i>r  Stokozo.a,  a  cla.ss  of  iiaiasitic 
single-celle<|  animals  or  I'rotozoa.  As  adults  they 
are  entirely  destitute  of  cilia  or  other  locomotor 
structures,  and  emidiasise  in  their  history  the 
encysteil  ph:use  of  cell-life.  They  are  found  in 
almost  .all  kinds  of  animals,  inside  the  cells,  or 
loose  in  the  alimentary  canal,  body-cavity,  and 
other  spaces.  The  food  con.sists  of  the  dill'usilde 
albiiminoiils  of  the  host,  absorbed  by  the  general 
surface  of  the  'mouthless'  unit.  The  tiregarine 
is  wholly  surrounileil  by  a  rind,  ami  sometimes 
shows  libril-like,  probably  contractile,  structures; 
there  is  a  large  spherical  nucleus,  but  no  cimtiactile 
vesicle.  They  vary  greatly  in  size,  from  minute 
forms  which  live  within  blood  corpuscles  to  others 
visilde  to  the  unaiileil  eye.  and  mea-suring  some- 
times ,',,th  of  an  inch.  .\  typical  life  history  is  indi- 
cateil  in  the  iliagram,  the  important  iioints  being 
■•is  follows:  in  early  life  the  Cregarine  usually 
lives  inside  a  cell,  whether  it  keep  this  habitat 
or  not  ;  the  young  forms  not  unfrei|uently  divide  ; 
Gregarines  are  fmid  of  associating  in  cou]>les  (or 
even  in  trios),  but  this  union  does  not  seem  to 
be  usually  followed  b.y  fusion  ;  at  a  certain  stage 
the  unit,  or  sometimes  the  p.air,  becomes  en- 
cysted ami  divides  into  numerous  clothed  siiores  : 
each  of  these,  when  liberated  b.y  the  Imrsting  of 
the  cyst,  gives  origin  to  a  young  Gregarine,  or 
nsually  to  several :  these  are  at  first  flagellate  or 
.anucboiil,  or  .at  least  more  active  than  the  adults, 
but  with  nutrition  and  giowth  the  juvenile  activity 
is  soon  lost. 

Among  the  most  important  Siwirozoa  are  the 
following  :  Monocystis.  re]iresente<l  by  at  least  two 
species    in    the    male    organs   of    the   earthworm  ; 


Gregarina,  a  type  of  those  with  the  l>ody  divided 
by  a  partition,  ami  furiiisheil  with  a  curious,  an- 
terior, proboscis  like  append.ige,  found  in  the  ali- 
mentary canal  of  crustaceans  and  insects  -e.g. 
lobster  anil  cockroach  ;  Ivlossia,  in  molluscs,  espe- 
cially cuttle-lish  ;  Drepaniilium,  in  frog's  blood,  a 


Life-history  of  Gregarine  : 

a,  common  adult  tyjM?,  showing  riiul,  iiucli-us,  nixl  protoplasm; 
h,  two  iiidivitliials  within  a  cyst;  <•,  the  foinintion  of  s|>ori'9, 
lisnally  several  within  eacli  little  case;  (/.  the  escape  of  the 
spore-ca.ses  by  nipturc  of  cyst;  f.  an  enlanied  spore-ease, 
showing  two  enclose*!  spores;  /  a  voiinK  imlivitltial  or  spore, 
escajting  from  its  8i)ore-ca.se ;  .fl,  two  Gregarines  uniteil  end  to 
end  ;  h,  an  adult,  sliowinK  attaching  anterior  jiorlion  and  the 
sli^dit  jiartition  diviilin^'  the  cell ;  i,  two  younn  Gre>.'arine« 
emerging  from  the  cells  in  w  hich  they  have  spent  their  early  life. 


type  of  many  with  a  similar  habitat  in  birds  and 
re])tiles.  Very  imperfectly  known  are  the  Myxo 
sporiili.'i  found  in  (ishes — .apparently  very  ]irimi- 
tive  forms— and  the  Sarcosporidia  in  the  miisde- 
fibres  of  mammals,  of  which  Sarcocystis  ( 'Miescher's 
vesicles  '  or  '  Hainey's  corpuscles ')  is  common,  but 
api)arently  harmless  in  butcher-meat.  Coriiilium 
orif'orine  is  definitely  known  as  a  (iregarine  para- 
sitic in  man. 
,  See  Cell,  P.\b.\sitis>i,  Protozo.v  ;  also  Biitschli, 
*  Protozoa'  in  Bronn's  TUicrreich  ;  Balbiaiii.  Lceoim  fiir 
Its  Sixtrfizoaire.i  (Paris,  1884);  Leuckart,  /'iirasitin  of 
Man  (Kdin.  188t»);  Lankcster,  art.  'Protozoa.'  Kncitel. 
Urit,  :  Hclincider,  Tabk-tt'S  Zoul'itniiues  (l-SStJ,  Ac); 
Hatchett  Jackson's  cd.  of  lioUcstun's  Forms  of  Animal 
Life  (0.\ford,  1SS8). 

CIr«'goire,  Henri,  the  most  remarkable  among 
the  so-called  constitutional  bishops  of  France,  was 
born  of  poor  parents  at  A'eho,  near  Luniville, 
l)eccml)er  4,  1750.  Educated  by  Jesuits  at  Nancy, 
he  took  orders,  and  lectured  for  some  time 
at  the  Jesuit  College  of  I'ont-;i-Mou.s.s(m.  His 
Essai  siir  la  lierjenfrution  dcs  Juifi  (  1778)  breathed 
the  toleiatiim  that  was  in  the  air,  and  became 
widel.y  ]>oi)ular.  Becoming  cure  of  Embernicnil,  he 
wiis  sent  to  the  States  general  of  1789  as  one  of  the 
deputies  of  the  clergy.  He  was  an  ardent  democrat 
in  all  his  views,  and.  attaching  himself  from  the 
lirst  to  the  Tiers-ctat  party,  aete<l  a  |ironiinent  part 
thnmgliout  the  grand  drama  of  the  Kevolution. 
One  of  the  secretaries  of  the  National  Assembly, 
he  supported  eiithusia.stically  the  abcdition  of  the 
privileges  of  the  nobles  ami  clergy  alike,  ami  the 
civil  constitution  of  the  clergy.  He  was  the  liiT-t 
of  his  (Uiler  to  take  the  oaths,  and  wjus  elected  the 
first  'constitutional  bishop'  of  the  ilepartment  of 
Loir-et-Cher,  which  he  accepted,  althongli  the  olil 
and  legitimate  bishop,  Monseigneur  de  Theiiiiiies, 
was  still  alive.  CJregoiie  carried  into  every  depart- 
ment the  stern  democracy  to  which  he  was  devoted, 
and  which  he  identified  with  the  Christian  brother- 
hood of  the  gospel  ;  and  u]jon  the  fundamental 
doctrine  of  the  I'evolution — the  rights  of  man— he 
sought  to  ingraft  his  own  early  advocacy  of  the 
Jews  and  of  the  negroes,  and  esj)eciiilly  the  doctrine 
of  the  duties  of  m,an.  At  the  blasphemous  Kea-st 
of  I'eason,  the  weak  Gobel,  constitutional  Itishop 
of  I'aris,  publicly  renounced  Christianity  :  but 
Gr6goire  faceil  the  infuriated  rabble  with  all  the 
courage  of  the  |)rimitive  martyis,  and  refused  to 
deny  his  Master.  After  the  18th  liniiu.iiie  he 
became  a  memlier  of  the  Corps  Lcgislatil.      His 


GREGORIAN 


GREGORY 


411 


extronie  republicanism  was  lii;,'lily  distasteful  to 
Bonaiiarte,  and  it  was  only  after  a  third  attempt 
that  he  was  ajijiointed  member  of  the  senate.  On 
the  concdusion  of  the  concordat  between  Pius  VII. 
and  lioiiaparte  he  ceased  to  exercise  ecclesiastical 
functions,  being  unable  conscientiously  to  y^ive  the 
retractations  required  by  the  clturch,  and  he  died 
withoiit  reconciliation  at  Auteuil,  near  Paris,  iSth 
May  18.'51.  His  Miinoircs  were  edited  by  H. 
Carnot,  with  a  life  ( 18.31 ).  Of  his  numerous  writ- 
ings may  be  named  Histoire  des  Secfcs  lieligicuses 
( 1H14) ;  Essai  historique  sur  Ics  Libertis  de  lUglise 
Gnlliranc  (1818).  See  the  studies  by  Kriiger 
(Leip.  18.S8)  and  r.iiliringer  (Basel,  1878). 

Ciresorian  <'alendar.    See  Calendar. 

diH'gorian  Tones.    See  Pl.vix  so\g. 

Gregoroviiis,  Ferdix.vnd,  a  distinguished 
German  historian,  born  in  East  Prussia,  19tli 
January  1821.  He  studied  theology  at  KiJnigs- 
berg,  but  soon  devoted  himself  to  poetry  and  litera- 
ture. In  18.52  he  settled  in  Rome,  where  he  died 
1st  May  1891.  His  great  work  is  the  Ilntoii/ of  the 
City  of  ni/mc  in  the  Middle  Ages  (8  vols.  1859-72; 
translated  from  the  4th  German  edition,  vols.  i.  ami 
ii.  189.5).  He  wrote  also  on  Italian  geography  and 
history,  on  Corsica  (1854),  Capri,  and  Corfu,  on  the 
graves  of  the  Popes  ( 1857  ;  2d  ed.  1881 ),  on  Lucrezia 
Borgia  (1874),  on  Urban  VIII.  (1879),  on  Athens 
(1889),  and  on  the  Byzantine  empress,  Athenais 
(.3d  ed.  1891 ) ;  also  a  tragedyon  the  .leatli  of  Tibeiius 
(1851),  and  an  epic,  Euphorioii  ^6tll  ed.  1891). 

Gregory,  the  name  of  sixteen  popes,  of  whont 
five  were  specially  noteworthy. 

Gregory  I.,  the  Great, *a  father  and  saint  of 
the  Koman  Catholic  Church,  was  born  in  the  city 
of  Rome  about  the  middle  of  the  Gth  century.  His 
father  (Jordianus  was  a  senator  of  the  same  family 
as  that  to  which  Pope  Felix  III.  had  belonged,  and 
his  mother  Sylvia  was  famed  for  her  surjiassing 
virtues.  At  a  comparati\ely  early  age  Gregory 
was  appointed  by  the  Emperor  Justin  II.  to  the 
i[iilJortant  charge  of  pra-tor  of  Rome;  but  he 
voluntarily  relinquished  this  otiice,  and  withdrew 
altogether  from  the  world  into  a  monastery  at 
Rome,  one  of  seven  he  had  founded.  '  He  lavished 
on  tlie  poor  all  his  costly  robes,  his  silk,  his  gold, 
his  jewels,  his  furniture,  and  not  even  assuming 
to  himself  the  abbacy  of  his  convent,  but  begin- 
ning with  the  lowest  mona-stic  duties,  he  devoted 
himself  altogether  to  God.'  This  was  probably 
about  575.  It  was  while  here  that  he  saw  one  day 
some  fair-haired  Anglo-Saxon  youths  in  the  slave- 
market — '  non  Aiigli  sed  aiigcli' — and  wa.s  seized 
with  a  longing  to  devote  himself  to  the  conversion 
of  their  country  to  Christ.  He  set  forth  on  his 
journey,  but  the  clamour  of  the  Romans  at  his 
loss  led  the  pope  Benedict  to  compel  his  return, 
an<l  eventually  to  enrol  liim  in  the  secular  ministry 
by  ordaining  him  one  <if  the  seven  Hegionary 
Deacons  of  Rome.  Benedicts  succe.ssor,  Pelagius 
II.,  sent  (Gregory  as  nuncio  to  Constantinoi)le,  to 
implore  the  emperors  aid  against  the  Lombards. 
He  resideil  three  years  in  Constantinople,  during 
which  time  he  commenced,  and  perhaps  completed, 
his  Mnridi'i,  an  exposition  of  Job.  On  his  return 
to  Rome  lie  resumed  his  place  as  abbot  of  his 
monastery,  and  on  the  death  of  Pelagius,  in  a 
plague  which  laid  waste  the  city,  was  unani- 
mously called  by  the  clergy,  the  senate,  and  the 
people  to  succeeil  him.  He  used  every  means  to 
evaile  the  dignity,  even  jietitioning  the  Emperor 
Maurice  to  withhold  his  consent,  but  was  forced  to 
yield,  and  was  consecrated  September  ;i,  590. 

Few  pimtiffs  have  equalled,  hardly  one  ha.s  sur- 
passeil,  Gregory  I.  as  the  administrator  of  the  mul- 
tiplied concerns  of  the  vast  charge  thus  assigned 
to  him.      '  Nothing,'  says  Dean  Milman,  '  seems  too 


great,  nothing  too  insignificant,  for  his  earnest 
personal  solicitude  ;  from  the  most  minute  point  in 
the  ritual,  or  regulations  about  the  papal  farms  in 
Sicily,  he  pa.sses  to  the  conversion  of  Britain,  the 
extirpation  of  simony  among  the  clergy  of  Caul, 
negotiations  with  the  armed  conquerore  of  Italy, 
and  the  revolutions  of  the  Ea,steni  Em|>ire.' 
There  is  no  department  of  ecclesiastical  admin- 
Lstration  in  which  he  has  not  left  marks  of  his 
energv'  and  his  gieatness.  To  him  the  Roman 
Church  is  indebted  for  the  complete  and  consistent 
organisation  of  her  public  services  and  the  details 
of  her  ritual,  foi-  the  regulation  and  systematisa- 
tion  of  her  .sacred  chants.  The  mission  to  England, 
which  he  was  not  permitted  to  undertake  in  person, 
was  entrusted  by  him,  with  all  the  zeal  of  a  per- 
sonal obligation,  to  Augustine ;  and,  under  his 
auspices,  Britain  wa-s  brought  within  the  ]iale  of 
Christendom.  Under  him  also  the  Gothic  king- 
dom of  Spain,  long  Arian,  was  reconciled  with 
the  church.  Nor  was  his  zeal  for  the  reformation 
of  the  clergy,  and  the  jiurifying  of  the  morality 
of  the  church,  inferior  to  his  ardour  for  its  dili'u- 
sion.  His  letters,  which  are  numerous  and  most 
interesting,  are  full  of  evidences  of  the  univer- 
sality of  his  vigilance.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
threatened  invasion  of  Rome  by  the  Lombards 
he  showed  himself  in  act  and  in  influence,  if  not 
as  yet  in  avowed  authority,  a  temporal  soi'ereign. 
Against  the  memory  of  his  administration  of 
Rome  a  charge  was  formerly  made,  that  in  his 
zeal  against  paganism  he  destroyed  the  ancient 
temples  and  other  buildings  of  the  pagan  city. 
But  Gibbon  confesses  that  the  evidence  is  '  recent 
and  uncertain;'  and,  indeed,  the  only  authority 
to  which  Gibbon  himself  refers,  Platina,  sin)]ily 
mentions  the  charge  in  order  to  repudiate  it. 
Though  Gregory  had  a  contemjit  for  mere  letters, 
and  thought  the  oracles  of  God  were  above  the 
rules  of  grammar,  it  is  not  true  that  he  burned 
the  Palatine  Library  in  his  hatred  of  pagan  litera- 
ture. As  regards  the  general  government  of  the 
church,  Gregoiy  reprobated  very  strongly  the 
assumption  by  John,  patriarch  of  Constantino|de, 
of  the  title  of  Ecumenical  or  Universal  Bishop, 
the  more  especially  as  the  object  of  John  in 
a.ssnminij  this  title  was  to  justify  an  exercise  of 
jurisdiction  outside  of  the  limits  of  his  own  patri- 
archate. In  his  writings,  too,  the  details  of  the 
whole  dojjmatical  svstem  of  the  modern  church 
are  very  lully  develoi)ed.  His  Letters,  and,  still 
more,  his  Dialogues  abound  with  miraculous  and 
legendary  narratives,  which,  however  uncritical  in 
their  character,  are  most  interesting  as  illustrating 
the  manners  and  habits  of  Ihouglit  of  that  age. 
With  all  his  zeal  for  the  difl'usion  of  Christianity, 
Gregoiy  was  most  gentle  in  his  treatment  of 
heathens  and  Jews,  and  he  used  all  his  ell'orts  to 
repress  slave-dealing  and  to  mitigate  the  severity 
of  slavery.  He  ilied  March  12,  G04.  Besides  his 
Mondia  he  left  homilies  on  Ezekiel  and  on  the 
Gospels,  the  Begnla  (or  Ciirit  I'listoralis),  ami  the 
Saeramcntarinm  and  Antij/hotiariKm.  In  exegesis 
he  is  a  fearless  allegorist.  The  best  editions  of  his 
works  are  the  Benedictine  (4  vols,  folio,  1705)  and 
that  in  'Sligne's  Patiologia  (vols.  Ixxv.-lxxix.). 

See  the  studies  by  Lau  (1845)  and  Pfahler  (bS.'ii); 
Rev.  J.  Barniliy'.'i  little  book  in  the  '  Fathers  for  English 
Readers  '  ( 18"9 ) ;  Kcllett,  Ontiorij  the  Great  ( 1889 ) :  the 
monograpii  by  Abbot  Snow,  O.S.  B.  ( 1S92) ;  and  ZopS'el's 
article  in  Herzog-Plitt's  Benl-Enci/klopUdie. 

Gregory  II.,  by  birth  a  Roman,  was  elected 
pope  in  715.  His  pontilicate  is  specially  notice- 
al)ie  a.s  forming  an  epoch  in  tlie  progress  of 
the  territorial  pre-eminence  of  the  Roman  see 
in  Italy.  The  eastern  emi)erors  having  almost 
entirely  abandoned  the  government  and,  still 
more,   the   defence   of   Italy,  and   the  aggressions 


11-2 


GREGORY 


of  tlio  LoMibarila  liecoiiiinjj;  every  year  more 
fortiii<l.itile,  tlio  iinpcrial  mitliority  in  tlie  West 
Slink  into  little  iikmi-  tliiiii  ;i  iiiiiiie  ;  anil  tlie  tyran- 
iiii'iil  anil  harliiiKiMs  nieasurcs  liy  xvliioli  the  Km- 
(HTor  Leo  the  Isaiiriaii  attenijiteil  to  enforce  his 
decrees  a^'airist  iina^e  worship  weakened  still  more 
till-  tie  which  hound  Italy  to  the  eastern  enipcroi^. 
The  natural  result  of  the  elimination  of  the  imperial 
atitliorily  in  Italy  w;is  the  ;,'rowth  cif  that  of  the 
iHipc.  Ill  whom  the  desert«'<l  Italian  provinces 
liioki'd.  partly  ivs  their  spiritual  c<iuMsellor  and 
head,  partly  as  their  mediator  with  the  liarharous 
enemy,  partly  as  the  centre  of  the  political  federa- 
tion for  self-defence  which  their  very  isolation 
necessitateil.  (irejiory  conveneil  a  council  in  Home 
on  the  snhject  of  the  honour  due  to  images,  and 
addressed  a  very  enerj;etic  letter  to  the  emperor, 
protestin;;  ajj;ainst  the  sacrile;;ious  outra^'es  of 
wliicdi  he  hail  heen  guilty,  e.\]daiuinj;anil  ilefendinj; 
the  Catholic  doctrine  on  imaj;e  worship,  and  warn- 
ing the  emperor  that  the  feelings  of  his  suhjects 
were  so  completely  alienated  hy  his  condnct  that 
it  was  only  the  pope's  inlluence  which  prevented 
them  from  throwing  oil'  all  allc;;iance.  (Iregory 
has  heen  accused  of  himself  fomenting  this  dis- 
all'ectioM.  The  contrary,  however,  is  attested,  not 
only  liy  his  own  leltci-s,  hut  also  hy  Paul  the 
Deacon,  in  his  /lislnri/  vf  the  I.omhnrih  (hook  vi. 
chap,  .'ill);  and  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  circum- 
stances themselves,  and  the  well-known  character 
of  the  emperor,  would  sulHciently  cxjdain  any 
degree  of  discontent  in  Italy.  .\t  all  events,  the 
re.sult  of  the  contest  was  a  most  notalde  aggrand- 
i.sement  of  the  political  authority  and  inlluence  of 
the  iiopes  in  Italy.  Ciregory  II.  was  distinguished 
liy  'lis  zeal  for  the  evangelisation  of  heathen 
lands  :  it  was  under  his  .auspices  tli.at  the  famous 
Winfried  or  lioniface  entered  on  his  missionary 
woik  in  (iermany.      He  died  in  "SI. 

liltKiJORY  III.,  a  native  of  Syria,  succeeded 
(Jregory  II.  in  731.  In  the  same  year  he  hurled 
the  anathema  of  excommunication  against  the 
Iconoclasts,  aiul  the  retaliations  of  Leo  the  Isaur- 
ian  did  much  to  weaken  the  ancient  tie  hetwcen 
the  iiopedom  and  the  eiuiiire.  The  encro.ichments 
of  ttie  Lomhards  in  Italy  during  his  pontilicate 
liecame  so  formid.'ilile  that,  as  the  eastern  em- 
perors still  remained  powerless  or  indill'erent  to 
the  protection  of  the  Italian  |irovinces,  the  Komans 
charged  (iregory  to  send  a  deputation  to  (.'liarles 
Martcl,  soliciting  his  succour  .against  the  enemy, 
and  proposing  upon  that  condition  to  recognise 
him  as  their  pmieclor,  and  to  confer  on  hiiu  the 
title  of  consul  and  patrician  of  Koine.  This  otter 
w.-is  made  hy  the  pope  '  in  virtue  of  a  decree  of  the 
lioman  primus,'  and  is  of  great  historical  ini- 
])ortance  in  the  consideiution  of  the  nature  and 
origin  of  the  papal  power  in  Italy.  The  eml)a.s.sy 
failed,  owing  to  the  pressure  of  his  war  with  the 
Saracens,  to  enlist  the  aid  of  Charles;  hut  it  w.os 
a  step  tow.ards  the  consummation  of  the  independ- 
ence of  the  West,     liregory  III.  died  in  741. 

GliKcoRY  \'II.,  |)re-eminently  the  historical 
repre.sentative  of  the  temporal  claims  of  the 
medieval  papacy,  w.as  horn,  ahont  l(l'2(),  at  Soana, 
.a  village  in  the  southern  lionler  of  Tuscany. 
Whether  his  family  helonged  to  the  Imrgher  or 
the  nohle  class  is  disiiuteil  hy  his  liiographei-s. 
His  familv  name,  Ihldehrand,  would  imply  a 
Teutonic  descent ;  but  by  birth  and  education  at 
le.a.st  he  w,a.s  Italian.  His  youth  wa-s  pa-ssed  at 
Itome.  in  the  monastery  of  ,St  Maria,  on  the  Aven- 
tine,  of  which  his  uncle,  Laurentius  (afterwards 
IJishop  of  .\malli),  w.as  abbot.  Krom  Home  he 
ii.asseil  into  France,  where  he  entereil  the  cele- 
lirated  monastery  at  Clngny.  in  the  schools  of 
which  he  completed  his  e.lncation  ;  and  from  the 
strict  ascetic  observances  there   iiractise<l  bv  liini 


he  aciinired  those  liabit.s  of  austerity  which  dis- 
tinguisheil  his  whole  life.  He  visited  the  court 
of  Henry  III.,  and  obtained  by  his  preaching  the 
leimtation  of  great  elo(|nence.  (In  his  return  to 
Konie  he  became  the  chaplain  of  (Jregory  VI.  ; 
but  after  the  death  of  that  pontill'  he  again  with- 
drew to  his  former  retreat  at  Clngny,  from  which 
he  was  only  recalled  by  the  earnest  appeal  of  I  he 
new  and  zealous  jiope.  Leo  l.\.,  whom  lie  aenim- 
paiiied  to  Koine  in  Ki-lil.  Iniler  this  active  and 
devoted  pontill  llildebiand  exercised  great  inllu- 
ence. He  now  for  the  lirst  time  received  holy 
oriiers,  and  was  eventually  created  cardinal.  He- 
sides  the  res])oiisible  domestic  employments  which 
were  a-ssigned  to  him,  he  was  sent  as  legate  to  the 
important  Council  of  Toms,  in  which  llie  cause  of 
Hercngarius  was  examined,  ruder  all  the  short 
but  important  iiontilicates  of  the  successors  of  Leo 
IX.,  who  are  known  in  history  as  the  (German 
popes — Victor  II.,  Stephen  IX.,  Ilenedict  X.,  and 
.Mexaniler  II. — Hildebrand  continued  to  exercise 
the  same  inlluence.  and  by  inspiring  into  their 
government  of  the  church  the  great  principles  to 
which  his  life  was  devoted  he  prepared  the  way  for 
the  full  development  of  his  theorv  of  the  |iapacy. 

He  was  unanimously  elected  at  Home,  with- 
out awiiiting  the  imperial  authorisation,  three 
d.ays  after  the  death  of  Alexander  II.  The 
(iernian  bi.shops,  who  feared  the  elVect  of  those 
refoiins  of  wliich  his  name  was  a  guar.antce, 
endeavoured  to  prevent  the  Emperor  Henry  IV. 
from  ,'i.ssenting  to  the  election  ;  but  Henry  gave  his 
ap|iroval.  and  the  new  pone  was  crowned,  .Inly  10, 
1073.  I'rom  the  date  of  his  election  the  pontili- 
cate of  (iregory  was  one  life-long  struggle  for  the 
jissertion  of  the  principles  with  which  hi'  believed 
the  welfare  of  the  church  ,anil  the  regeneialion  of 
society  itself  to  be  insep.arably  bnund  U|i.  Ke;.'.uil- 
ing  as  the  great  evil  of  his  time  the  thoiouglily 
secularised  condition  of  the  church  in  a  great  jiart 
of  Kurope.  and  esjieeially  in  Cermany  and  northern 
Italy,  he  directed  against  this  all  his  efl'oi  ts.  The 
position  occu|iied  by  the  higher  clergy  as  feudal 
|iro]irietors,  the  right  cl.iimed  by  the  crown  of 
investiture  with  the  temporalities  of  benelices, 
the  consequent  deiienilence  of  the  clergy  ujion  the 
sovereign,  and  the  tempt.ation  to  simony  wliich 
it  involved  were,  in  the  mind  of  Cregory.  the 
cause  of  all  the  evils  under  which  Kurojie  was 
groaning;  and  of  all  these  he  regarded  Investiture 
(q.v.)  as  the  fountain  and  the  source.  While, 
therefore,  he  laboured  by  every  species  of  enact- 
ment, by  visitations,  by  encyclical  letters,  and 
by  |iersonal  exhortations,  precepts,  and  censures, 
to  enforce  the  observance  ot  ,all  the  details  of  dis- 
ci])line — celibacy,  the  residence  of  the  clergy,  the 
instruction  of  the  pecqile — and  to  repress  simony 
and  pluralism,  it  was  against  the  fundamental 
abu.se  of  investiture  that  his  main  etloits  were 
directed.  In  the  year  after  bis  election  he  ]iro- 
hibiteil  this  pr.actice,  under  jiain  of  cxcommiini- 
catioii  both  for  the  investor  and  the  invested,  and 
in  the  following  year  he  actually  issued  that 
sentence  against  several  bishops  and  councillors 
of  the  eniiiire.  The  Kmperor  Henry  I\'.  dis- 
regarding tliese  menaces  and  taking  the  unend- 
ing bishops  under  his  juotcction,  Cregory  cited 
him  to  Koine  to  answer  for  his  conduct.  Henry's 
sole  reply  was  a  haughty  dehance  ;  ;inil  in  a  diet 
at  Worms  in  l()7ti  he  formally  declared  (Jiegory 
deposed  from  the  pontilicate.  The  jiontill'  was 
not  slow  to  retaliate  by  a  sentence  of  exeomniuni- 
cation  ;  and  in  this  sentence,  unless  revoked  or 
removed  by  absolution  in  twelve  months,  by  the 
law  of  the  empire  at  the  time,  was  involved  the 
forfeiture  of  all  civil  rights,  and  deposition  from 
every  civil  and  political  otfico.  Henry's  Saxon 
subjects  .appealing   to  this   law   against   him,    he 


GREGORY 


413 


was  coiiiiielleil  to  yield,  anil  by  a  humiliating 
peniincft,  to  which  he  .submitted  at  Canossa  (q.v.) 
in  .lanuary  1077,  he  obtained  absolution  from  the 
iiopu  in  i)erson.  This  submission,  however,  was 
but  fi'i<;iied  ;  and  on  his  subseijuent  triumph  over 
his  rival,  Kudolf  of  Swabia,  Heniy  resumed  hostil- 
ities witl\  the  pope,  and  in  lOiSO  a^'ain  declared  him 
deposed,  and  caused  to  be  ap|Miinted  in  liis  place 
the  antipope  Guibert,  Archbishop  ot  Kavenna, 
under  the  name  of  Clement  III.  After  a  pro- 
tracted siege  of  three  years,  Henry,  in  the  year 
10«4,  took  posseiision  of  Rome.  Gregory  shut 
hiiiiself  up  in  the  castle  of  St  Angelo.  Just, 
however,  as  he  was  on  the  i)oint  of  falling  into 
his  enemy's  hands,  Uobert  (iuiscard,  the  Norman 
Duke  of  Apulia,  entered  the  city,  set  Gregory 
free,  and  compelled  Henry  to  return  to  (iermany; 
but  the  wretched  condition  to  which  Home  was 
reduced  obliged  Gregory  to  withdraw  lirst  to 
Monte  Cassino  and  ultimately  to  Salerno,  where 
he  died.  May  2.5,  108.5.  His  dying  words  are  a 
deeply  ali'ecting  l)ut  stern  ami  unltcnding  profession 
of  the  faith  of  his  whole  life,  and  of  the  jirofound 
conv  iciions  under  which  even  his  enemies  acknow- 
ledge him  to  have  acted — '  I  have  loved  justice 
an<l  hated  iniquity;  therefore  I  die  an  exile.' 

The  character  of  Gregory  VII.  and  the  theory 
of  church-]iolity  which  he  represents  are  ditl'er- 
ently  judged  by  the  dili'erent  religious  schools; 
but  his  theory  is  confessed  by  all,  even  those  who 
nii>st  strongly  reprobate  it  as  an  excess,  to  have 
be(,'n  grand  in  its  conception  ami  unselfish  in  its 
object.  '  The  theory  of  Augustine's  city  of  tiod,' 
s;iys  Milman,  '  no  doubt  swam  before  Ids  mind, 
on  which  a  new  Rome  was  to  lise  and  rule  the 
world  by  religion.'  In  his  conceptiim  of  the  con- 
stitution of  Christian  society  the  sjiiritual  power 
w.as  lh(^  lirst  ami  highest  element.  It  was  to 
direct,  to  command  the  temporal,  and,  in  a  certain 
sense,  to  compel  its  obedience  ;  but,  as  the  theory 
is  explained  by  Fenelon,  by  (Josselin,  ami  other 
modern  ('atbolics,  the  arms  which  it  was  author- 
ised to  use  for  the  purpose  of  coercion  were  the 
arms  of  the  spirit  only.  It  could  compel  by 
pen.ilties,  but  these  penalties  were  only  the  cen- 
sures of  tlie  church;  and  if  in  certain  circumstances 
temiioral  forfeitures  ( as  in  the  case  of  Henry  IV.) 
were  annexed  to  these  censures,  this,  it  is  argued, 
was  the  result  of  the  civil  legislation  of  the  par- 
ticular country,  not  of  any  general  ecclesiastical 
law.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  Henry,  the  iiii|ierial 
crown  was  forfeited,  according  to  the  Swaliian 
code,  by  the  mere  fact  of  the  emperor's  remaining 
for  twelve  months  under  exconnnunication  without 
obtaining  absolution  from  the  sentence.  More- 
over, whiitever  may  be  said  of  the  power  in  itself, 
or  of  the  lengths  to  which  it  has  at  times  extended, 
the  occasion  and  the  oliject  of  its  exercise  in  the 
hands  of  Gregory  were  always  such  as  to  command 
the  sym[iathy  ot  the  philosophical  stmlent  of  the 
history  of  the  middle  ages.  l>y  his  lirm  and  un- 
bending ell'orts  to  suppress  the  unchrislian  vices 
wddch  ileformed  society,  and  to  restrain  the  tyranny 
which  opiire.ssed  the  subject  as  nnich  as  it  en- 
slaved the  church,  he  taught  his  age  'that  there 
was  a  being  on  earth  whose  special  duty  it  w.as  to 
defcml  tin?  defenceless,  to  succour  the  snccourless, 
to  all'ord  a  refuse  to  the  widow  and  or|>lian,  and 
to  111'  the  guarclian  of  the  poor.'  Dean  Milman 
sums  up  his  history  of  Gregory  VII.  as  of  ime  who 
is  to  be  contemplated  not  merely  with  awe,  but  in 
some  respects,  and  with  some  great  draw  backs,  as  a 
benefactor  of  mankind. 

Sec  ."^lilman's  Latin  ChfiHtianiti/  {vol.  iii.l  ;  Oiese- 
brecht,  ihncltichte  dtr  Dcutsrh,  Knherzvif  {vol.  iii.); 
Bow.lcn,  Life  of  (Iregonj  VII.  {bS4());  Voigt,  Hihle- 
hyaiitl  ah  I'ap.-it  ("Jd  ed.  1S4G) ;  Gfriircr,  Pap^t  (wi-cinr 
VII.  ( 7  vols.  1859-Cl ) ;  W.  K.  W.  Stephens,  Hildebrand 


and  Ids  Times  (188«);  and  the  studies  by  Siiltl  (1847), 
Villemain  {1872;  Eng.  tran.s.  187.i).  Laiijjeron  (1874),  anJ 
Meltzer  (1876).  His  whole  literary  remains  aie  included 
within  .seven  books  or  lieyisters  of  letters,  which  liave 
been  often  printed. 

CJREGORY  XIII.,  I'OO  IJVONCOMPAONO,  wa.S 
born  at  Bologna,  January  7,  1.502.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  his  native  city,  where  \\f  filled  the  chair 
of  Law  for  several  years.  Having  settled  at  Home 
in  1539,  he  was  distinguished  by  several  impiu'tant 
employments,  and  was  one  of  the  theologians  of 
the  Council  of  Trent ;  on  his  return  thence  he  was 
created  cardinal  in  1565,  and  sent  as  legate  to 
Spain.  On  the  death  of  Tins  \.  (iregoiy  was 
elected  pope  in  1572.  Not  one  among  the  post- 
Keformation  pontitis  has  surpassed  Gregory  \11I. 
in  zeal  for  tlie  promotion  ami  improvement  <if 
education  ;  a  large  proportion  of  the  colleges  in 
Rome  were  wholly  or  in  part  endowed  by  him  ; 
and  his  expenditure  for  educational  iiur]ioses  is 
said  to  have  exceeded  2,000,000  Roman  crowns. 
The  most  interesting  event  of  bis  pontilicate.  in  a 
scientilic  point  of  view,  is  the  correction  of  the 
Calendar  (q.v.),  which  wa.s  the  result  of  long 
conshleration,  and  was  finally  niiide  public  in  1582. 
Under  his  care  was  published  also  a  valuable  edition 
of  the  Dccreium  Gi-nlia>ii  with  learned  notes.  Ho 
w,as  a  zealous  patron  of  the  Jesuits,  and  supjiiirted 
the  League  in  France  ag.ainst  the  Huguenots  ;  and 
ib  was  he  who  ordcreil  a  Tc  Drum  in  Home  on 
occasion  of  the  massacre  of  St  Hartholoniew,  and 
had  a  medal  struck  in  hononr  of  the  occasion.  He 
strongly  supported  Philip  II.  of  Spain  in  his  designs 
against  England;  and  be  left  the  nuirk  of  his 
energy  on  almost  every  department  of  church  life 
and  work.  He  died  in  1585,  in  the  eighty-third 
3'ear  of  his  age. 

Gregory,  St,  suvnanied  Illuminator  (Ar- 
menian Lusavoritch,  Gr.  Phutlstes),  was  of  the 
royal  Parthian  race  of  the  Arsacidic,  and  son  of 
Anak,  murderer  of  C'hosrov  I.,  king  of  .Armenia. 
For  this  crime  his  whole  family  was  slain  save 
himself.  He  owed  his  escape  to  a  Chiistian  nurse, 
who  secretly  conveyed  him,  when  he  was  two  years 
old,  to  Ca-sarea,  in  Capjiadocia,  her  native  town. 
He  there  married  a  Christian,  who  liore  him  two 
sons,  and  soon  afterwards  became  a  nun.  (irogory 
proceeded  to  Home,  and  enleied  the  service  of 
Terdat,  Chosrov's  son.  After  Terdat  (Tiridates 
III.)  had,  with  the  hel]>  of  the  Romans,  recovered 
his  father's  kingdom  ( 28(i ),  Gregory,  for  his  refusal  to 
crown  with  garlands  the  statue  of  Anahit.  tutelary 
goddess  of  Armenia,  was  thrown  by  Terdat  into  a 
<leep  pit,  where  a  jiious  widow  nourished  him  for 
fourteen  years.  About  the  end  of  that  lime  Terdat 
was  visited  with  the  pimisliment  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Healed  and  baptised  by  Gregory,  he  be- 
came a  zealous  Christian,  and  established  Chris- 
tianity by  force  throughout  his  dominions,  (iregory 
was  consecrated  bishop  and  head  of  the  Armenian 
Church  by  Leontins.  .Vrchbishop  of  Ca'sarea,  and 
erected  a  great  number  of  churches,  monasteries, 
hos|)itals,  and  schools  in  which  the  sons  of  heathen 
priests  were  trained  for  the  Christian  priesthood, 
whereby  a  strongly  national  stamp  was  given  to 
the  church  in  Armeni;i.  Having  resigned  the  jiatri- 
archate  in  favour  of  his  second  son  Arislaces, 
(Jregory  in  S.'il  retiied  to  a  cave  at  the  foot  of  iSIonnt 
Sebnh  in  I'pper  Armenia,  where  he  died  in  a  few 
years.  The  patriarchate  was  held  for  many  yeare 
by  his  descendants. 

The  sources  for  the  histoiy  of  Gregory,  which  is  ]iartly 
legendary,  are  two  early  Aniieniaii  histories  written  by 
Agathangelos  and  by  Simeon  Metajihrastes.  A  Frencli 
translation  of  the  former  by  "N'ictor  Langlois  appears  in 
vol.  i.  of  the  Hislorii'ii.i  dc  r.-lrnK'nie  (18(17) ;  the  latter 
(evidently  drawn  from  tiie  former)  is  given  in  vol.  cxv. 
of   Migne's    Patrul.   Grac.     The  former  was    known   to 


4U 


GREGORY 


Moses  of  KUorcnc,  the  Herodotus  of  Armenia,  who 
floiirislied  in  the  5th  century.  'I'ho  best  edition  of  his 
work  WHS  printed  nt  Venice  in  lt*<>5 :  a  Latin  translation 
by  the  brotliers  Whistiin  nppeared  at  I»nJiin  in  171(0  ;  a 
Kri'nch  bv  LevaiUant  <le  I'iorival  at  Paris  in  bS41.  See 
S.  i.'.  .Miilan's  ICn^'.  translation  (ISliS)  of  tlie  hfe  of 
Gre^^ory,  from  the  Armenian  work  of  the  ^'artabed 
Matthew  (published  at  Venice,  1749). 

Uroeory  >'n7.iniizrn  was,  by  hiso\vn  nccount, 

born  al"iiU  .'i.'tii,  .U  .\iiaiiziis,  a  \illa^'0  near  Nazi- 
an/iis,  ill  CapiKiiluria,  not  far  Iroiii  Ca'siiren.  His 
father,  whose  name  .ilso  wn-s  (.ireffory,  ami  who  hail 
ori^'inally  belonged  to  the  heathen  sect  of  llypsis- 
tarians,  worshippers  of  tlie  Most  Hij;li,  but  also 
of  the  lire,  like  the  l'crsian.s,  and  keepers  of  the 
■lewisli  Sabbath  and  tlie  law  of  the  purity  of  meats, 
liail,  childly  tlirou;,di  the  inlluence  of  his  pious  wife 
Noiina,  become  a  convert  to  L'hnstianity  about  the 
time  of  the  great  Nicene  Council  (3'2.")),  and  f(mr 
years  later  was  r.aised  to  the  ilignity  of  liishop  of 
Nazianzus.  Formeil  to  piety  by  domestic  example, 
(liegory  wa.s  at  an  early  age  sent  to  Ciesarea  in 
I'alestine,  where  the  study  of  elo<|Heuce  then 
nourished.  He  next  attended  the  schools  of  Alex- 
andria, and  sulise(|Uontly  (about  .'US  to  ;j."i8)  of 
.Athens,  wheie  he  met  Hjusil  the  tlreat,  tlien  also 
a  youiij;  stuilent,  ami  became  his  most  intimate 
friend.  .\t  the  same  time  there  studieil  at  Athens 
Julian,  later  euqieror  and  apostate,  .and  there  is 
no  doubt  that  the  three  often  met  and  had  friendly 
discussions  on  the  subjects  of  their  common  studies  : 
although  Gregory,  even  at  that  time,  .augured 
no  good  for  .lulian,  who  exliibited  signs  of  'an 
unsettled  and  arrogant  mind.'  CJregory,  having 
maile  brilliant  jirogress  in  eloquence,  pliilo.sophy, 
and  sacred  literature,  returned  to  Nazianzus,  and 
in  .'IGO  received  baptism  at  the  bands  of  his  own 
father,  consecrating  to  (IikI,  at  the  same  time,  all 
'  his  gooils,  his  glory,  his  health,  his  tongue,  and 
his  talents:'  and,  in  order  to  be  still  more  able  to 
pursue  a  life  of  austere  devotion,  he  took  up  his 
aliode  with  Hiusil  in  the  desert  near  the  river  Iris, 
in  I'ontus.  Kecalleil  by  his  f.ather,  (oegory  was 
ordained  priest,  but  afterwards  tied,  lieing  recalled 
a  second  time,  he  returned  to  Nazianzus,  .-ussisted 
his  father  in  the  ministry,  and  preached  to  the 
iieople.  In  ;{7l  or  .37'J  St  liasil,  who  in  llii'  meantime 
liad  become  liislio|>  of  Ciesarea,  jirevailed  upon  him 
to  .accept  the  see  of  Sasima,  a  .small  town  in  t'appa- 
docia.  liut  he  had  .scarcely  taken  ])ossession  of  liis 
new  dignity,  when,  overcome  again  by  hi>  innate  re- 
pugnance to  public  life,  he  retired,  aliisbop  without 
a  bishopric,  to  Nazianzus,  when'  he  stayed  until  the 
death  of  bis  lather  in  ;i74.  He  then  went  into  a 
monastery  at  Seleucia,  which,  however,  after  the 
death  of  the  Kmi)eior  Valens  (378),  he  was  induced 
to  leave,  in  order  to  undertake  the  charge  of  a  small 
Nicene  congregation  in  Constantinople,  where 
uiilil  then  Arianism  li.ad  held  undisiiuted  sway. 
Ciegory  w.os  after  a  short  time,  when  liis  erudition 
and  elo(|uence  became  conspicuous,  elected  arch- 
bishop, upon  which  the  Allans  became  so  ex.oj'licr- 
atcd  that  his  very  life  was  in  danger.  Gregory, 
although  upheld  by  Pope  Dainasus  and  the 
Emperor  Theodosius,  preferred  resigning  his  see 
voluntarily,  '  in  order  to  lay  the  storm,  like  another 
.Jonah,  althiiugh  he  h.ail  not  excited  it.'  He  went 
balk  to  Nazi.inzus,  and  took  up  his  solit.ary  abode 
near  .Vriaiizus,  where,  after  some  yeare  of  a  most 
ascetic  life,  lie  died  in  389.  His  ashes  were  con- 
veyed to  Constantinojile,  and  thence,  during  the 
Crusades,  to  Home.  His  day  is,  with  the  Latins, 
the  9th  of  >ray.  His  character  and  temper,  ardent 
.and  enthusi.xstic.  but  at  the  same  time  ifreaniy  and 
melancholy,  bard,  but  also  tender,  ambitious  and 
yet  humlile,  .and  all  his  instability  and  vacillation 
between  a  life  of  contemplation  and  of  action,  are 
vividly  depicted    in    his    writings.       These   mostly 


serve  the  great  aim  of  his  life— to  uplndd  the 
integritv  of  Nicene  orthodoxy  against  the  heresies 
of  the  .\riaiis  and  .\pollinarists.  The  merits  of 
his  writings  are  very  unenual,  sometimes  rising  to 
sublime  nights  of  poetical  genius,  and  displaving 
cliussical  elegance  and  lelinenient.  at  other  timea 
redundant,  pedantic,  and  heavy  with  far-fctihed 
similes.  Vet  (iregory  may  fairly  be  pronounced 
one  of  the  first  oratoi's  and  most  .accompli-hed 
and  thoughtful  writers  of  all  times.  His  suiviv- 
ing  works  consist  chielly  of  about  4.)  sermons, 
'243  lettei's,  and  407  poems   (dogmatic  and   miual 


poems,  iir.ayers  and  hymns,  autobiographic  and 
liistorical  poems,  enitaphs,  and  epigrams).  The 
poems  were  separately  printed  in  a  beautiful  .Mdine 
edition  at  \'enice  in  l.'>(>4.  The  lii-st  edition  of  his 
complete  works  appeared  at  Hiusel  in  l.').")0,  folio. 
.\ll  the  earlier  editions  were  set  .a-side  by  the  great 
and  long-delayed  edition  that  appeiired  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Benedictines,  in  '2  vols.  (  Paris,  1778- 
184'2).  The  lirst  volume  was  linallv  edited  by 
I  Clemencet ;  the  second  by  Caillou.  His  separate 
j  works  have  frequently  been  edited,  and  partly 
translated  into  dill'i'ient  tongues. 

See  monographs  by  I'Umann  ( l>*li5  ;  Eng.  trans.  18.51 ; 
2d  ed.  Gotha,  18r.7)  and  by  A._  Hcnoit  (Paris,  187C); 
and  Montaut's  Hcrnr  rritiQite  11S78). 

Gregory  of  \jssa.  tbc  younger  brother  of 
IJiVsil  the  Great.  .Alter  being  eilucated  by  liasil,  he 
showed  an  inclin.ation  to  become  a  teacher  of  elo- 
quence, but  by  the  inlluence  of  (Jregory  N.izi.inzen 
was  prevailed  upon  to  devote  himself  to  the  church. 
Though  married,  he  w.os  in  371  or  37'2  consicr.ated 
by  Basil  bishop  of  the  little  town  of  Ny.ssa,  in  Cap- 
padocia.  During  the  persecution  of  tlie  adherents 
of  the  Nicene  Creed  in  the  reign  of  Valens.  Gregory 
w.as,  at  the  instigation  of  the  governor  of  I'mitiiR, 
deposed  by  a  synod  held  in  Galatia,  on  the  pretext 
that  he  had  wiusted  the  church's  goods.  He  ni.ade 
his  e.scajie,  and  after  the  death  of  Valens  was  joy- 
fully welcomed  back  by  his  Hock  (.'{78).  He  was 
present  at  the  Council  of  Constantinoide  in  .S8I,  and 
(along  with  two  other  bishojis)  wa.s  ap|»iinted  to 
the  general  oversight  of  the  dioce.se  of  I'ontus  both 
by  the  council  and  by  a  decree  of  his  friend  Theo- 
dosius, by  whom  he  had  been  called  '  the  common 
pillar  of  the  church.'  He  travelled  to  Ar.ibia  and 
.Jerusalem  to  .set  in  order  the  churches  there,  and 
was  again  at  a  svnml  in  Constantinople  in  .'194. 
He  must  have  died  soon  afterward.s.  Of  the  three 
Cappadocians  (Iregory  wa-s  the  gre.atcst  speculative 
theologian,  the  most  faithful  to  Origenisiic  views, 
and  not  the  least  zealous  defender  of  Nicene 
doctrine.  He  w.as  a  less  able  ruler  tli.an  Basil,  who 
sometimes  lamented  his  untimely  'good  nature' 
and  'simplicity.'  His  chief  dogmatic  work  is  his 
Twelve  Bool.s  aijttiiixt  Eiiiiomiits  (the  so-called  13tli 
book  is  an  independent  work).  Among  his  other 
works  are  treatise.s  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
including  Anlinhctk-im  (against  Apolliiiaiis)  and 
an  appeal  To  the  Greeks,  from  '  eniiiiiiini  not  ions' 
(axioms),  an  attempt  to  establish  the  doctrine  on 
grounds  of  abstract  reason  ;  a  treatise  On  De.itiiiy 
(against  p.agan  fatalism);  On  the  Soul  ami  Itesiir- 
reclion  (cd.  Kr.abinger,  Leiji.  1837),  in  the  form  of 
a  dialogue  with  his  sister  .Makrina  on  her  death- 
bed ;  several  a.scetic  treatises,  many  sermons,  and 
'23  eiiistles.  In  his  great  Culeelietirnl  iJi.sniinse 
(ed.  Krabinger,  .Munich,  1838),  which  w.-is  written  to 
convince  educated  heathens  and  .Jews,  ho  argues 
that  the  incarnation  is  the  best  possible  form  of 
redemption,  as  m.anifesting  the  four  chief  attributes 
I  of  (lod — his  omnipotence,  mercy,  wi.sdom,  and 
justice.  (!oil  alone  is,  and  all  turning  away  from 
(Jixl  to  the  things  of  sense  (things  without  being) 
is  death.  Christ  did  not  a-ssume  .a  single  human 
nature,  but  human  n.ature  itself  in  its  entirety. 
'  His  return  from  death  is  for  the  mortal  race  the 


GREGORY 


415 


befiinniiif,'  of  their  return  to  eternal  life.'  His  in- 
carnation is  of  cosmical  .signilicance,  ami  extends 
to  the  whole  spiritual  creation,  brinj,'ing  the  whole 
universe  into  harmony.  '  Not  only  among  men 
Is  he  born  man,  but  (with  absolute  consLstency) 
coming  ai>o  into  being  among  angels  he  brings  him- 
self down  to  their  nature'  (Dinmiir.ii:  on  t/ie  Ascen- 
sion 'it'  I'lirist).  '  I>y  this,'  says  Harnack,  'the 
incarnation  is  resolved  into  a  necessary  eosniical 
process ;  it  becomes  a  special  case  of  the  omni- 
presence of  the  Deity  in  his  creation.  Alienation 
from  Goil  is  as  mucli  included  in  the  plan  of  the 
Kosmos  as  is  restitution  to  him.  Gregory  helped 
to  band  on  to  later  times  the  ]iantlieistic  thought 
nbi.-b  he  never  himself  conceived  clearly  and  apart 
from  the  historical.  There  is  a  real  kinship  between 
him  and  the  pantheistic  Monopliysites,  the  Areo- 
pagite,  Scotus  Erigena,  and  even  the  modern 
"liberal"  theologians  of  Hegelian  dye.' 

His  works  were  Kilited  by  Fronton  du  Due  (Paris, 
IGl.");  rejiriMted  l(i3S),  and  more  completely  in  Sligne's 
PatrnJntiia  (series  Gneca,  vols,  xliv.-.xlvi.).  A  beginning 
w;ts  iiKule  towards  a  good  critical  edition  by  G.  H.  Forbes 
{Burntisland,  18.5.5)  and  Fr.  Oehler  (Halle,  18G5).  The 
latter  has  published  a  selection  with  a  German  transla- 
tion (4  vols.  I^ip.  18.t8-5'J).  See  J.  Kupp's  monograph 
on  Gregory  (18:54)  ;  H.  Weis.",  Die  drei  ijrosscn  Ciipjuido- 
cier(  1872);  and  Harnack,  />..i(/m<?n»/&(c/(ic/i(f,  vol.  ii.  (1888). 

Grogory  of  Tours,  the  '  father  of  Frankish 
history,"  was  born  aljout  .540  at  Arverna  (now  Cler- 
mont ),  the  chief  town  of  Auvergne,  and  belonged 
to  one  of  the  most  ilistinguished  Roman  families  of 
Gaul.  Originally  called  Georgins  Florentius,  he 
assumed  the  name  Gregory  out  of  respect  for  his 
nujlher's  grandfather,  Gregory,  liisliop  of  Langres. 
He  was  educated  by  his  uncle,  Gallus,  Bisho])  of 
Clermont,  and  after  his  death  by  Avitns,  a  priest  of 
his  native  town.  His  recovery  from  a  severe  sick- 
ness, through  a  |)ilgrimage  to  the  grave  of  St 
Martin  of  Tours,  led  Circgory  to  devote  himself  to 
the  service  of  the  church,  and  by  the  choice  of  the 
clergy  and  people  and  favour  of  Sigbert,  king  of 
Austrasia,  to  whom  Auvergne  had  fallen  on  the  death 
of  Clothar  I.  in  .561,  he  became  IJishop  of  Tom's  in 
573.  He  gave  himself  zealously  to  his  sacred  oIKce 
and  the  public  good.  In  the  stniggles  between 
Sigbert  and  his  wife  IJrunhilda  on  the  one  side 
against  Chil]ieric  and  his  wife  Fredegond  on  the 
other  he  took  the  side  of  the  former,  and  in  the 
vicissitudi's  of  a  conllict  in  which  T<mis  freipiently 
changed  masters  bad  to  sutler  many  persecutions. 
After  the  deatli  of  Cbilperic,  whom  Gregory  calls 
'the  Nero  and  Herod  of  our  time,'  he  enjoyed 
gieat  inlluence  over  his  successors,  tJuntram  and 
Childebcrt  II.  He  died  17tli  November  594.  The 
faine  of  Gregory  rests  on  his  Hiatoriii;  sire  Aiiii'i/iiim 
Frit/ir(irii/ii  liliri  .r.,  the  chief  authority  for  the  his- 
tory of  Gaul  in  the  Gth  century.  It  begins  with  a 
suiiimary  of  univei-sal  history,  but  by  the  end  of 
book  i.  reaches  the  Frankish  conquest  and  the 
deatli  of  St  Martin.  From  this  point  onwards  the 
narrative  is  written  with  much  greater  fullness,  the 
liist  .seven  years  (.58.5-i)l )  e.xteniling  to  four  books. 
Gregory  himself  laments  his  unskilfulness  in  writing 
— his  wrong  genders  and  cases,  and  misused  pre- 
positions. His  ten  books  are  the  artless  memoranda 
of  a  contemporary,  hearing  on  their  face  the  clear 
stamp  of  truth.  It  is  entirely  to  him  that  we  owe 
our  exact  knowledge  of  the  dark  and  stormy  times 
of  the  Merovingian  kings. 

Besides  Ids  Histnrii,  he  wrote  Miraculorum  h'bri  rii.,  a 
hagio^rapliical  compdatioii,  including  four  books  on  the 
innumerable  miiacles  of  St  Jlartin.  A  critical  edition  of 
his  works  was  published  by  Kuinart  in  l(i;>9  (1  vol.  folio), 
and  in  ilignc's  collection  (vol.  Ix.vi.l.  Of  the  History 
the  best  editions  are  by  Guadet  and  Turanne  (183ti-;^), 
and  that  in  the  Moniimeiita  (ifrtnania-  HiMorica  (1884- 
85).  French  translations  arc  by  H.  L.  Kordier  ("2  vols. 
1859  f>l )  and  that  edited  by  Jacobs  ( 2  vols.  18G1 ) ;  there  is 


a  German  translation  by  W.  Giesebreclit  (1851;  9th 
ed.  1873).  The  historical  material  supplied  by  Gregory 
is  reproduced  in  Thieny's  Itccit  des  Teinj/s  Meroiimjiens 
(Paris,  1840).  A  French  translation  of  the  Buolis  of 
Miracles  and  lesser  writings  was  published  by  H.  1,.  Bor- 
dier  (4  vols.  1857-64).  See  Lijbell,  Graior  von  Tours 
und  seine  Zcit  (1839;  2d  ed.  18G9);  G.  Monod,  itndcs 
critiques  sur  Ics  sources  de  VHistoire  M<rorinijienne  ( Paris, 
1872) ;  and  vol.  I  of  Mark  Pattison's  Essays  (1889). 

Gregory  TiiailllintnrSIIS  ('wonder- 
worker'), a  celebrated  disciple  of  Origen,  and  the 
apostle  of  the  Christian  church  in  I'ontus.  He 
was  born  about  'ilO,  of  wealthy  heathen  parents  at 
Neoca-sarea,  in  Pontns,  and  was  originally  named 
Theodorus.  His  early  education  wa.s  for  the  prac- 
tice of  law,  but,  coming  under  the  inlluence  of 
Origen  at  Ca-sarea  in  Palestine,  lie  was  his  disciple 
for  about  eight  years,  with  an  interruoticm  caused 
by  the  persecution  under  Ma.\imin  tlie  Tliracian, 
during  which  he  probably  studied  at  Alexandria. 
Origen,  in  a  letter  to  him,  expressed  the  wish  that 
he  would  'spoil  the  Egyptians'  by  jdacing  the 
intellectual  trea-sures  he  gathered  from  the  Greeks 
in  the  lioly  service  of  Christian  philosophy.  After 
this  he  produced  his  Pancijyricus  on  Origen,  and, 
returning  to  liLs  native  country,  wa-s  consecrated 
Bislioj)  of  Neocasarea  by  Phadimus,  liisho))  of 
Ama-sea.  The  inlluence  of  Gregory  in  Asia  !Minor 
continued  from  the  middle  of  tlie  3d  century  to  far 
down  into  the  4tb,  and  its  extent  may  be  inferred 
from  the  numerous  legemls  of  his  miracles,  and  the 
traditicm  that  at  his  death  (about  270)  there  were 
only  as  many  pagans  in  Xeocjesarea  as  there  had 
been  Chiistians  in  it  at  his  consecration — viz.  seven- 
teen. His  celebrated  Ekthesis,  or  Confession  of 
Faith,  said  to  have  been  derived  by  revelation  from 
the  Virgin  Mary  and  the  apostle  J<din,  is  a  sum- 
mary of  the  theology  of  Origen,  and  was  used  a.s 
the  basis  of  the  instruction  given  to  catechumens  at 
Neocasarea.  It  is  of  the  greatest  value  :is  a  record 
of  the  state  of  the  theology  at  the  middle  of  the  3d 
century.  '  There  is  scarcely  a  sentence  in  it,'  says 
Harnack,  '  that  recalls  to  us  the  Uible  ;  it  is  a  com- 
)iendium  of  the  sublimest  speculation,  only  in  the 
words  "  Father,"  "Son,"  and  "Spirit"  reminding 
us  of  the  gospel.'  Its  genuineness  is  disputed,  but 
is  ably  defended  by  Ciuspari.  Gregory  is  said  to 
have  contended  against  Sabellianism,  yet  in  his 
lost  Arr/nmcnt  u-ith  yElian  Ba.sil  tells  us  there 
stood  this  sentence  :  '  the  Father  and  the  Son  are 
two  in  idea,  but  one  in  essence.'  I!ut  a-s  Basil  also 
testifies  that  he  spoke  of  the  Son  as  a  '  creature ' 
and  a  'work,'  the  above  sentence  Ls  |irobal)ly  no 
more  than  an  Origenistic  assertion  of  the  substan- 
tial unity  of  the  Deity  in  opposition  to  tritheistic 
views.  The  genuineness  of  two  other  treatises 
attributed  to  him,  one  addressed  to  Philagrius,  on 
the  co-essentiality  of  the  pei-sons  in  the  Godhead, 
and  the  other,  a  dialogue  wilhTlieopompus,  on  the 
question  whether  the  Deity  is  capable  or  iucai)able 
of  sutl'ering,  is  undecided.  Gregory's  works  are 
printed  in  vol.  iii.  of  Clalland's  Bibliothcm  Peit- 
ritni,  and  in  Migne's  collection,  vol.  x.  His  Pane- 
ijijricn.s  ( which  contains  .an  autobii)graphy  of  its 
writer)  is  printed  among  the  works  of  Origen.  A 
special  edition  was  published  by  J.  A.  Beugel  in 
172-2. 

See  Ryssel,  O'rcyorius  Tliaumaluri/us  :  sein  Lelen  und 
seine  Schriften  (Leip.  1880);  and  Harnack,  Dogmcn- 
ijeschichte,  vol.  L  (Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  1888). 

Gregory,  the  name  of  a  Scottish  family 
distinguished,  like  that  of  the  Bennmillis,  in 
the  history  of  science.— .I.^ME.s  Gni;ool!Y  was  born 
at  Aberdeen  in  November  16.38,  and  studied  at 
Marischal  Cidlcge  there.  Before  completing  his 
twentyfourlh  year  he  invented  the  retlecting 
telescope  known  by  his  name,  and  described  it 
in   a  work  entitled   Ojiticei  Promota.     In   1665  he 


416 


GREGORY 


GRENADINES 


went  to  tlie  iiiiiver!-ity  of  I'luliia,  wlierc  in  IGUT 
lie  prodiiieil  I'rrti  CiitiiIi  ct  Jli/fJCrOolif  (Jiidi/ni- 
turn,  followoil  in  IGIW  l>y  Ucomclriie  I'ars  I'lii- 
rermili.i  iuiil  ExercUadones  Oeometrine.  Sliorlly 
nftor  lii-i  return  lionie  he  o)>tnineil  (  KHi!))  tlii"  pro- 
fi'ssiii-slilp  of  Miitlii-niatics  at  St  Amlrows,  a  i-liair 
wliirli  111-  lilk'il  until  liis  removal  to  a  similar  one 
at  IMiiiliur^'li  in  1074.  lleilieU  in  that  eitv  in  the 
following  year.  To  him  i.s  also  attrilmted  a  .satiri- 
cal tract,  llrent  and  Xcw  Art  uf  irciijhinij  \'iiiiiti/ 
(I(i7'2).  For  an  account  of  his  works  ami  dis- 
coveries, .see  Hutton'.s  P/ii/onop/n'rtt/  mid  Mtdhr- 
tiintii-fd  DirlioiKiri/. — D.WII)  (iliWioltV,  nelihew  of 
the  aliove,  wius  horn  at  Aherdeen  in  1(1(11,  .'incl  there 
re(  eivi'il  tlie  early  |>art  of  his  ednealiini,  h  hich  was 
compleleil  at  Kilini>ur;;li.  In  his  twenty  thinl  year 
he  w.is  apiiointeil  professor  of  Mathematies  in  the 
university  of  the  latter  city.  In  1(191.  throu;;li  the 
frien<lship  of  Newton  ami  I'laiiisteeil,  he  ohtainrd 
the  Savilian  professorship  of  Astronomy  at  Oxford. 
Ill'  clied  at  Maiileidiead  in  I70S.  Amon-;  his 
works  may  lie  mentioned  Ejcrrddtio  (Iniiin  Irirn 
dt'  iJi'im'ti.'iion*'  t'ifjnrnrmn  (I(iS4):  Cttfiijifri'i'fr  ft 
IHii/ilrird-  Sphteriroj  tCleineidu  (Iti9.">):  Astnmomiir 
I'/ii/.iirw  et  Ginmetricir  ICIcmciitii  (1702),  an  illus- 
tration and  defence  of  Newton's  .system:  and  an 
edition  of  Knelid  in  Greek  ami  Latin  (1703).  lie 
also  wrote  ii  tre:iti-e  on  Prwticnl  deitmrlrij  (174">) 
and  many  memoirs  in  the  /'/(//.  Trans.,  vols,  xvili.- 
.\xv. — liiUN  (!HKi;iii!V.  jjramlson  of  James,  wa-s 
linni  at  .Mierdeen,  .'{d  .June  1724.  where  lie  received 
his  early  i-clueation  ;  afterwards  he  studied  medi- 
cine at  I>linl)nr;;h  ami  Leyden.  After  lillin;;  the 
chair  of  Medii-ine  at  Aherdeen  from  17.>"i,  he 
was  a]iiiointeil  in  1706  professor  of  the  Pr.-ictii'C  of 
Mediiine  in  IMinl>inj,'li,  where  he  died,  9th  Kehru- 
ary  1773.  .-\monj,'  his  works  are  Klfimnts  uf  tin- 
Priirtirc  of  I'/ii/.sic  (1772)  and  .-1  t''/iii/>iiridirr 
)'iiif  uf  the  Stiiir  and  luiridtics  of  Man  irit/i  l/iose 
of  the  Animal  U '</;•/(/(  170.')).  In  17SS  his  works 
were  collected  in  four  vols,  hy  Tytler  (Lord  AVimhI- 
liouselee).  who  prefaeeil  them  hy  .a  life  of  the 
author.  —  His  son,  .J.wics  (iRF.iior.Y,  horn  at  .-Mier- 
deen in  17."i.'t,  lieeanie  in  1770  professor  of  the 
Practice  of  .Medicine  at  Eilinliiiit;li.  and  eveMtu.-iliy 
a  leadinj;  man  in  his  profession.  He  died  2d 
Ajiril  1821.  He  was  the  author  of  Conspectus 
.Vedirina'  Theorelicw.  and  of  two  vols,  of  rhilo- 
so/ihira/  and  Literary  E.f.ifii/s  ( 1792).— This  .Iaiiies"s 
son.  Wii.Ll.VM  Gregory,  Ihuu  2.jtli  Decemlier 
1X03.  professiir  of  Clieiiiistrv  at  Ghts^ow  (I.S37), 
in  Kiii-s  ('olle;;e.  Aherdeen'  (IS.39),  ami  at  Kdin- 
liui^ili  liiiversity  ( 1844),  is  noticeahle  for  his  advo- 
cacy of  Lielii^''s  views  in  Great  IJritain.  He  died 
24tli  .Xpril  I8o8.  He  wrote  Outlines  of  C/iemistri/ 
(1845),  ami  translated  (18.w)  Liehi^''s  Principles 
of  Aiirienltnral  C/icmistri/. — The  stomachic  and 
aperient  known  as  Grejpiry's  mixture  wils  com- 
pounded hy  I*r  .lames  (Jregory,  and  consists  of 
rhuliarli,  m.a;,'nesia,  and  ginger. 

Oregory.  OI.INTIII'.S,  mathematiii.an  and  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  was  horn  at  Yaxley,  Hunting- 
don, 29tli  .lanuary  1774,  and  l)ecaiiie  a  newspaper 
eilitor  and  then  a,  teacher  of  mathematies  succes- 
sively at  Cambridge  and  Woolwich.  At  Woolwich 
he  died  2d  Keliruary  1S41.  He  wrote  several  works 
on  niathematics,  superintemled  almanacs,  edited 
gentlemen's  diaries,  and  published  lives  of  l{ol>ert 
Hall  and  .NLtson  Good. 

lircifl'lllHTJI.  a  t<iwn  of  Prussia,  in  the  ])ro- 
vinee  of  I'oMierania,  dating  from  1202.  is  situated 
.V>  miles  liy  r.iil  NK.  of  Stettin.      Po)!.  .")030. 

(xreircilllilgrn.  an  agricultural  town  of 
Prussia,  on  the  Oder,  13  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of 
Stettin.      Pop.  0603. 

(■rcirsWilld,  a  town  of  Pnissia,  in  the  ]irovinee 
of  I'onierania,  is  situated  2J  miles  from  the  mouth 


of  the  Kyck  and  2,5  miles  by  rail  SK.  of  Stralsund. 
The  iiniveisity  (loiindeil  in  I4.50)  has  83  professors 
ami  7.'>0  student.<<,  of  whom  one  half  are  medii'als. 
The  univei-sity  i»  well  equipped  with  medical 
museums,  laboratories,  &c.  :  the  library  contains 
aliout  l.'t.'i.OOO  volumes.  There  is  a  consider- 
able shipping  tiiule.  The  chief  industries  in- 
clude the  making  of  machinerv,  chains,  ami  rail- 
way Wiigons,  the  curing  of  (lerriiigs,  and  iion- 
fou'uding.  Pop.  (187.5)  18,010;  (1885)  20..3.33. 
Shortly  after  being  made  a  town  ( 1250)  Greil'swald 
joined  the  Ilanseatic  League.  At  the  peace  of 
Westph.alia  (1048)  it  came  into  the  pos.session  of 
.Sweden  ;  but,  together  with  the  whole  of  Swedish 
Pomer.inia,  was  ceded  to  Prussi.a  in  181,5.  See 
Pyl's  Crsrhirhtc  drrifsivalds  (  1879). 

(•r<'is4>ll,  a  rock  composed  es.sentiallv  of  quartz 
and  mica,  but  which  almost  invariably  contains 
top.a/.  It  is  met  with  in  regions  where  tin  ores 
alioiind,  and  is  believed  to  lie  a  granite  which 
h;i.s  been  nietamorjihosed  in  connection  with  ex- 
halations of  tluoric  acid. 

C!roiZ<  capital  of  the  German  ]iriiicipality  of 
Heuss-Greiz,  and  seat  of  the  sovereign  jirince, 
is  situated  on  the  White  Elster,  47  miles  SSW.  of 
Leipzig.  It  contains  three  castles  and  a  13tli  cen- 
tury church,  and  m.anufactuies  cotton  and  woollen 
gooils,  also  cashmere  and  shawls,  and  pos.se.s.ses  dye- 
works  and  linen  printing  estalilishnients.  Pop. 
(1875)  12,057;  (1890)  20,141.  The  town  was 
severely  ravaged  by  fire  in  1494,  and  again  in  18(V2. 

^■rciiaila.  an  island  of  volcanic  origin  in  the 
Briti>h  Wist  Indies,  lying  N.  by  W.  from  Tritiid.ul, 
mount.'iiniius  and  |iieturesi|ue,  with  an  area  of  1.33 
s(|.  111.  Some  of  the  cr.iters  in  the  ceiitr.il  ridge  of 
mountains,  rising  to  .StKK)  feet,  have  been  trans- 
formed into  large  lakes.  Streams  and  mineral 
springs  ,'iboiind.  There  are  several  goinl  natiir.al 
harbours,  that  of  St  George  (pop.  40(J(l).  the  capital 
of  the  isl.and  .and  the  headquarters  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  AVindward  Islamls,  being  accounted 
one  of  the  best  in  the  West  Imlies,  lliough  it  is  not 
now  much  used.  The  inhabitants,  42.403  in  1881, 
and  54.002  in  1891  (mostly  negroes,  with  21 18  coolies), 
cultivate  cocoa,  cntfee,  ami  oranges.  Further,  a 
little  rum  is  manufactured,  and  spices  ami  fruits 
are  grown.  Exports,  £2.S(i,iK»0  a  year;  imports, 
£170,000.  Grenada  has  been  a  crown  colony  since 
1885:  previous  to  that  date  it  had  a  constitu- 
tion.al  government.  Columbus  was  the  discoverer 
of  the  island  in  1498.  In  the  words  of  .Mr  Fronde, 
(Jrenada  wiis  'the  home  for  centuries  of  man-eating 
Caribs,  French  for  a  century  and  a  half,  and 
finally,  after  many  desperate  struggles  for  it,  was 
ceded"  to  England  at  the  treaty  of  Versailles' 
(1783). 

GrcilSldo.  a  small  shell  e.xploiled  by  atime-fuse, 
about  3  inelics  in  diameter,  of  iron  or  aniiealeJ 
glass,  lilleil  with  powder,  and  thrown  from  the 
hand.  They  are  t-liielly  used  against  the  ilen.se 
ma-sses  of  troops  as.sembled  in  the  ditch  of  a  forlre.s,s 
during  an  a.s.sault,  and  then  are  often  rolleil  over 
the  parajiet  through  wooden  troughs  instead  of 
Ijeing  thrown  by  hand. 

(•rciiudiert  originally  a  soldier  who  was  eni- 
ployecl  in  throwing  hand-grenades,  ami  then  a 
nieinlier  of  the  lirst  comiiany  of  every  b;ittalioii  of 
foot,  in  which  the  tallest  ami  linest  men  were 
pl.aceil.  This  company  used  to  be  distinguished  hy 
tall  bearskin  caps,  and  held  the  place  of  honour — 
viz.  the  ri^ht  wlien  in  line,  ami  the  front  when  in 
column.  In  the  British  army  the  name  is  now 
only  used  as  the  title  of  the  lii-st  three  battalions 
of  the  foot-guards. 

(ircnadilirs,  a  chain  of  islets  in  the  West 
Imlies,  extending  between  Grenada,  on  which  they 


GREXELLE 


GRENVILLE 


417 


are  cliietly  depemlent,  ami  Si  Vuicent,  with  a  total 
area  of  13  sq.  in.,  and  aliout  7300iiilial)itants.  Tlie 
larjrest  is  Carriacou,  witli  nearly  11  .sq.  ni.  ;  pop. 
6CKJ0. 

trt'licllo.  a  soHth-westerii  suburb  of  Pari?-. 

<il'<'lloble  (Lat.  Gmtianopo/is),  since  18.39  a 
liist-elass  fortified  city  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Isere,  is  finely  situated  in  a  beau- 
tiful valley  59  miles  SE.  of  Lyons.  It  is  divided 
by  the  Isere  into  two  unequal  portions,  connected 
by  three  bridiies.  The  loth-century  cathedral  of 
Xijtre  Dame,  St  Laurent,  St  Andre  (with  Bayanrs 
moniiment,  transferred  hither  in  18"22),  and  the 
(lothic  pataia-ile-jitstke  are  the  inost  interesting 
buildings.  The  town  has  a  university  of  three 
faculties,  with  about  "27.)  students,  and  numerous 
other  educational  establishments,  including  an 
industrial  school  and  a  school  of  forestry.  The 
library  contains  170,000  volumes  and  7500  MSS. 
The  staple  industry  is  tlie  manufacture  of  kid 
gloves  (employing  22,000  persons  in  115  factories). 
Besides  this,  there  are  manufactures  of  liqueurs 
(Chartreuse),  hats,  cement,  and  hardware,  an<l  an 
active  trade  in  liemp,  corn,  timber,  wine,  and 
cheese.  Pop.  (1872)  35,280;  (18S6)  49,338. 
(Jrenoble,  ori'dnally  a  city  of  the  Allobroges,  was 
fortified  by  tTie  Romans.  It  was  Burgundian  in 
the  5th  century,  and  in  the  Ilth  belonged  to  the 
eniiiire.  Later  on  it  became  the  capital  of 
Daupliine,  along  with  which  it  passed  to  France 
in  1349.  The  town  has  been  frequently  inundate<l, 
the  Hood  of  1778  being  the  most  memorable.  See 
Pilot's  Histoirc  de  Grinoble  (2  vols.  1843-46). 

Grenvillo,  George,  the  English  statesman 
wlio  passed  the  Stamp  Act  which  first  drove  the 
American  colonies  to  resistance,  was  born  on  14th 
October  1712.  He  was  younger  brother  to  Richard 
tJrenville,  Earl  Temple  (q.v. ),  and  brother-in-law 
of  the  Earl  of  Chatham.  He  entered  parliament 
in  1741,  and  from  1744  to  1762  filled  several  govern- 
ment offices.  In  1757  he  introduced  a  bill  for  the 
regulation  of  the  paj-ment  of  the  navy.  In  1762 
he  liucame  Secretary  of  State,  and  then  First  Lord 
of  the  Admiralty;  and  in  the  following  year  he 
succeedeil  Lorcl  Bute  as  prime-minister,  uniting  in 
himself  the  offices  of  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
anil  Fir>t  Lord  of  the  Treasury.  The  most  promi- 
nent f.u-ts  of  his  administration  were  the  prosecu- 
tion of  Wilkes  and  the  passing  of  the  American 
Stamp  Act.  He  resigned  the  premiership  in  1765, 
and  died  13th  Noveml)er  1770.  Although  an  honest 
and  honourable  man,  his  overlea]iing  ambition, 
want  of  tact,  and  imperious  nature  made  him  a 
liighlv  unpopular  minister.  See  the  Greni-Hlc 
I'lipa-s,  edited  liy  \V.  J.  Smith  (4  vols.  1S52-.53). 

Orenville.  Sir  Richard,  one  of  England's  un- 
forgotten  worthies,  sprang  from  an  ancient  Cornish 
family,  and  early  distinguished  himself  under 
Elizabeth  by  his  courage  both  on  land  and  sea.  He 
was  knighted  about  1577.  and  in  1.585  commanded 
the  seven  ships  which  carried  out  Raleigh's  first 
colony  to  Virginia,  the  ill-success  of  which,  accord- 
ing to  Ralph  Lane,  its  leader,  was  mainly  due  to 
the  commander's  tyranny.  Linschotpn  speaks  of 
the  fierceness  of  his  temper,  and  how  at  table  he 
woulil  crush  the  glasses  between  his  teeth  till  the 
blood  ran  out  of  his  mouth,  (irenville  fought  and 
spoiled  the  Spaniards  like  other  heroes  of  his  time, 
and  while  preparing  another  fleet  for  Virginia  was 
stayed  by  the  queen  at  Bideford  to  take  his  share 
in  the  glory  of  the  .Vrmada  fight.  In  August  1.591  ' 
he  comm.anded  the  Urrcnr/e  in  Lord  Thomas 
Howard's  squadron  of  six  vessels,  when  they  fell  in 
with  a  Spanish  fleet  of  fifty-three  sail  ort"  Flores, 
in  the  Azores.  Grenville  took  olT  his  ninety  sick 
men  from  the  island,  and,  wliile  the  ailndral  made 
good  his  escape,  refuseil  with  splendid  disobedi- 
2.35 


ence  '  to  turn  from  the  enemy,  alleging  that  he 
would  rather  choose  to  die  than  to  dishonour  him- 
self, his  country,  and  her  majesty's  ship.'  The 
great  Sun  I'hiliji,  of  1500  tons,  towering  in  height 
above  the  III  rrtu/e,  soon  took  the  wind  fiom  her, 
and  now  she  fimnd  herself  in  the  midst  of  a  ring  of 
enemies,  and  a  battle  almost  uneiiualled  in  the 
history  of  the  world  began.  F'rom  three  in  the 
afternoon,  and  all  through  the  night  till  morning 
the  battle  raged,  the  stars  above  blotted  out  by 
the  suljjhurous  cano])y  of  smoke,  while  as  many  as 
fifteen  several  Spanish  ships  were  beaten  of!  in 
turns,  and  no  less  than  800  shot  of  great  artillery 
endured.  Two  ships  were  sunk  by  her  side,  two 
more  so  disabled  that  they  soon  foundered,  while 
a.s  many  as  2(XK)  men  were  slain  or  ilrowned.  l!ut 
the  Hciriir/e  wa.s  by  this  time  a  helpless  wreck,  all 
her  powder  spent,  the  pikes  broken,  forty  of  her  100 
sound  men  slain,  and  the  most  part  of  the  rest  hurt, 
the  vice-admiral  himself  sore  wounded,  both  in  the 
body  and  in  the  head.  Sir  Rieliar<l  would  have 
had  the  master-gtmner  to  blow  up  the  ship,  but 
was  overborne  by  his  surviving  men,  and  carried  on 
Iward  one  of  the  Spanish  ships,  where  he  died  of  his 
wounds  the  second  or  third  day  after,  with  the 
words  on  his  lips,  according  to  Linschoten's  account  : 
'  Here  die  I,  Richard  Grenville,  with  a  joyful  and 
quiet  mind  :  for  that  I  have  ended  my  life  as  a 
true  soldier  ought  to  do,  that  hath  fought  for 
his  country,  queen,  religion,  and  honour.  Whereby 
my  soul  most  joyfully  de])arteth  out  of  this  body, 
and  shall  always  leave  behind  it  an  everlasting 
fame  of  a  valiant  and  trae  soldier,  that  hath  done 
his  duty  as  he  was  bound  to  do.'  'What  became 
of  his  body,'  .says  Raleigh,  '  whether  it  were  buried 
in  the  sea  or  on  the  laml  we  know  not  :  the  comfort 
that  remaineth  to  his  fiiends  is,  that  he  hath  endeil 
his  life  honourably  in  respect  of  the  reputation  won 
to  his  nation  and  country,  and  of  the  fame  to  his 
posterity  ;  and  that,  being  dead,  he  hath  not  otit- 
lived  his  own  honour.'  A  few  ilays  after  the  fight 
a  great  storm  arose  from  the  west  and  north-west, 
in  which  fourteen  Spanish  ships,  together  with  the 
Eeiriir/c  and  in  her  200  S]ianiards,  were  cast  away 
upon  the  Isle  of  St  Michaels,  besides  fifteen  or  six- 
teen more  ujion  the  other  islands.  '  So  it  pleased 
them  to  honour  the  liurial  of  that  renowned  ship 
the  Revenge,  not  sutt'ering  her  to  perish  alone,  for 
the  great  honour  she  achieved  in  her  lifetime.' 
'  Hardly,'  says  Froude,  '  a.s  it  seems  to  us,  if  the 
most  glorious  actions  which  are  set  like  jewels  in 
the  history  of  mankiml  are  weighed  one  .igainst  the 
other  in  the  balance,  hardly  w  ill  tlio.se  30()  Spartans 
who  in  the  summer  morning  sat  combing  their  long 
hair  for  death  in  the  passes  of  Thermoi>yhe  have 
earned  a  more  lofty  estimate  for  them.selves  than 
this  one  crew  of  modern  Englishmen.' 

Tliis  great  exploit  was  told  in  noble  English  by  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  in  A  Rfiiort  of  the  Truth  of  llie  Fiijht'dhitut 
the  Jles  of  A:orc.*,  this  last  .^ommer  ( 1591 ) ;  in  good  verse 
by  Gervase  Markliani,  in  The  Most  HonoraUe  Trnpedie  of 
Sir  Rkhurd  Oriniiiie,  Knii/ht  (1595);  by  Jan  Huygen 
van  Linschotcn,  in  his  dian,'  (Dutch,  1590;  Eng.  1598), 
the  three  reprinted  together  l)y  Arber  1 1871 );  by  Fronde, 
in  'England's  Forgotten  Worthies,'  in  the  M't-^tminsler 
Rerieic  for  July  1852,  since  included  in  the  first  vohinie 
of  his  Short  Studies  on  Great  Suhjtets :  and  by  Tennyson 
in  The  Btrenne,  the  noblest  heroic  ballad  in  the  English 
tongue — set  not  miworthily  to  niiisic  in  Villiers  Stan- 
ford's cantata  product  d  at  Leeds  in  1886. 

Sir  Riihard  Grenville  was  grandfather  of  the 
English  Bayard.  Sir  Bevill  Grenville  (born  1.5961. 
the  hero  of  Hawker's  spiriteil  ball.ail,  who  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Lansdown,  near  Bath,  5th  July 
164.3. 

Greiivillo.  Wii.i.i.vm  Wvniih.\m.  Lord  Gren- 
ville, third  son  of  (Jeorgc  (Mcnville.  wa-s  born  25th 
October  1759.    After  studying  at  Eton  and  (Oxford, 


U8 


GltKNVILLK-MURRAY 


GREUZE 


lie  licciviiie  ill  17S'2  a  nioiiilier  of  tlic  Hcmso  of  t'oin- 
iiions  ami  secictarv  to  lii^  oldest  lirotlier,  Karl 
'I\miiiiIi'  (aftiTwanls  Manniis  of  l!uckiii^;lmiii ),  just 
apiioiiiti'il  I.oidlii'iiteiiaiit  of  liclaiid.  Soon  after 
lie  l)ecaiiio  I'avMiastci  {.'eiienil  of  the  Aiiiiy,  ami  in 
ITK'J  w'ius  elioseii  Speaker  of  the  House  of  (.'oiiiiiions. 
Hut  ill  IT!'",  oil  Ills  a|i|>oi]itiiu'iit  lus  Seeretaiv  of 
Stale  for  tlio  Iloiiie  Heiiarlniciil,  lie  was  raised  to 
tlie  |ieera;;e  « itii  llie  title  of  liaroii  (Iremille.  lie 
liecaine  l''orei;,'M  Si'oix'taiv  in  the  oiisuiiij,' year,  lie 
resifiiii'd  oltiee,  alon^'  with  I'ilt,  in  ISDl,  on  the 
refusal  of  IJeorxe  111.  to  ;rive  liis  assent  to  the 
Calliolle  Enianoipation  IJill,  of  the  aims  of  which 
( iremille  was  one  of  the  priiieipal  sii|iporlers.  In 
ISDii  he  formeil  theijoverniiieiit  of  '  All  the  Talents,' 
whii'li,  liefore  its  ilissoliillon  in  llie  followinjr  year, 

iiassed  the  act  for  the  aholiiioii  of  tin-  slave-trade, 
•'roiii  ISdil  to  1S1.">  he  acted  aloii^'  willi  Karl  (!rey, 
and  he  ;;eiierally  suppoiieil  Caiininf;.  Lord  (Iren- 
ville  Wius  an  alile  speaker  ami  an  excellent  scholar, 
.and,  tliouj;h  he  was  not  of  lirstrate  aliilities,  his 
eonscientiousness,  industry,  and  knowledge  of 
allairs  ^'ave  liiiii  iiiuch  iiillnence  ainoiif;  the  peers 
and  as  a  statcsiiiaii.  lie  died  at  DropliKUe,  liuck- 
in;;hanisliire.  I'.'th  .January  18;i4. 

Ciirt'iivillo-llnrraj.    Sec  ^rl  liRw. 

(■rcsliaill,  Sii;  'I'liKM A<:,  founder  of  the  Hoyal 
Kxchanj;e,  was  horn  in  l.'il'.l,  the  only  son  of  Sir 
Kicliai'd  (Ireshaiii,  an  o|iulent  ini'iihant  of  Norfolk 
ancestry,  who  in  LIST  was  electcil  Lord  Mayor  of 
London.  Ajiprentiveil  awhile  to  liis uncle,  Sir.lfilin 
(Ireshani,  a  wealthy  London  mercer,  and  then  sent 
to  study  at  (Join  iile  Hall,  ( 'amlirid;,'e,  in  104.1  he 
wa-s  adniitteil  a  meniher  of  the  Mercers'  (.'onipany, 
and  in  I.'mI  wa-s  employed  as  '  kinjr's  merchant  '  at 
AntwiM]).  In  two  years  he  jiaid  oil'  a  heaiy  loan, 
entirely  restored  the  kin;,''s  credit,  and  introduci'il 
a  new  system  of  linance.  As  a  I'rotestant,  he  ^'ot 
his  dismissal  from  l^iieen  Mary,  hut,  on  inesentin;,' 
a  iiiemiuial  of  his  ]),ist  .services,  was  .soon  reinstated. 
liy  IJueen  Klizaheth  he  w;vs  in  lo-'iO  kni;,'lited  and 
apiiointed  for  a  short  time  En;;lish  amha-ssadm-  at 
the  court  of  the  re),'enl  at  I'.russels.  The  tronhles 
ill  the  Netherlands  compclli'd  him,  in  l.MJT,  to  with- 
draw linally  froiii  Antwerp,  to  which  city  he  had 
made  more  than  forty  jonnievs  '>ii  slate  service  ;  in 
one,  in  l.'itiO,  he  wa.s  thrown  from  his  horse  and 
lamed  for  life.  In  l.'iOll,  hy  his  advice,  the  state  wa-s 
induced  to  horrow  money  from  Lonilon  merchants, 
instead  of  from  forei;.'ners,  to  the  ;;reat  a<lvantaj;e 
of  the  mercantile  hody.  Having'  in  l.'ilH  lost  his 
only  son,  Uiehard,  in  l."il)G-7l  he  devoteil  a  ]Mirtion 
of  his  j;reat  wealth  to  the  orei^tion  of  an  Exeliaiif^e 
((|.v.),  in  imitation  of  that  of  Antwerp,  for  the 
Lonilon  nu^rcliants,  who  were  wont  to  meet  in  the 
oiien  air.  lienowned  for  his  hosjiitality  and  liher- 
ality,  he  frei|uently  entertained  lorei^n  pei>onaj;es 
of  ilislinction,  and  erected  a  nia^'iiilicenl  mansion  at 
tislerly  I'ark,  near  llieiitford,  where  he  was  visited 
hy  (Jueen  Eli/alieth.  I'Or  the  endowment  of  a 
collej;e  in  London  he  directed  hy  his  w  ill  that  his 
town-mansion  in  Iiishops;,'ate  Street  shoulil  he  eon- 
verted  into  a  residence  and  lecture-rooms  for  seven 
professors,  to  he  salaried  out  of  the  Hoyal  Exchan;;e 
revenues.  Gresham  Colle^'o  ;rave  place  to  the 
Excise  Dtficeiii  ITUS,  and  the  lectures  were  delivered 
in  a  room  in  the  Exeli.an^e  till  184.'?,  when  the  lec- 
ture-hall in  liasinjjhall  Street  was  huilt  out  of  the 
accumulated  funil.  The  suhjects  of  lectures  (.all  of 
which  since  1S7G  .are  delivered  in  Enj;lish  only,  not 
Latin)  are  divinity,  physic,  astronomy,  geometry, 
law,  rlietorii'  and  iiiusie.  Giesham  also  provideil 
for  the  erection  .and  support  of  eight  alnisliouscs, 
and  made  many  other  eliaritalile  lie(|ucsts.  Ilcdied 
-udilenly,  21st  Novemlier  1.579.  See  his  Life  hy 
Dean   liiirgon  (2  vols.  1839).     For  Gresham's  Law, 

see  lilMKTAl.LISM. 


<ar«'llia  <>l'<'«'ll,  a  villa<,^c  of  Dumfriesshire, 
near  the  head  of  the  ISolway  Eirtli,  10  miles  NN\V. 
of  Carlisle.  After  the  aliolition  of  Elect  marriages 
liy  Loril  llarilwicke's  Ait  (17iJ4),  English  persons 
wishing  to  niarrv  clandestinely  had  lo  gel  out  of 
England,  to  which  alone  that  act  had  reference. 
Thus  the  practice  aro.se  of  crossing  the  liordcr  into 
Scotland,  where  Gretna  Green,  or  SiningrMld,  as 
the  lirsl  village,  had  hy  1771  hecome,  in  rennant's 
words,  '  ihe  resort  of  all  amorous  couples  whose 
union  the  priuleiice  of  parents  or  guaidians  pro- 
hihits.'  The  '  priest '  or  '  lilaeksiiiith  '  might  he  any 
one — ferryman,  toll  keeper,  or  landlord;  his  fee 
might  he  anything  from  half  a  guinea  to  flliO;  and 
'church'  was  commonly  the  tollhouse  till  IH'Jti, 
and  afterwards  (Jretna  Hall.  At  tin'  toll  house 
nearly  200  couples  were  sometimes  uiiilcd  in  a 
twelvemonth.  Coldstream  and  Lamherton,  in 
Iterwicksliire,  were  chapels  of  e«.se  to  Gretna  for  Ihe 
eastern  liordcr,  iLs  also  till  IS2(J  was  rortpalrick, 
in  Wigtownshire,  foi  Iielaiid.  t>iie  of  the  earliest 
Scottish  runaway  malcdies  on  record  is  Uiehard 
Lovell  ICdgeworth's  ( 17ti.'!) ;  aniongsl  his  successors 
were  Lords  Ihoughani,  Dundon.'ild,  Eldon,  and 
Erskine,  hesides  numerous  scions  of  the  iiolile 
f.amilies  of  Villiers,  Fane,  Hcauelere,  Coventry, 
Paget,  &c.  In  18.")0  all  irregular  marriages  were 
K'lidered  invalid  nnli'ss  one  of  the  jiarties  liad  heen 
residing  in  Scotland  for  three  weeks  previously;. 
this  proviso  ohserved,  .a  (iretna  Green  marriage  in 
still  jpossilile.  .See  V.  O.  Hulcliinson'.s  C/iioiiiclcn 
o/Untiiii  O'lrcii  (2  vols.  1844). 

<in''tr>'.  AxDKE  Eknkst  MonKSTK,  eomjio.ser, 
was  horn  at  Liige,  8th  I'ehruary  1741,  slinlicd  at 
liome,  and  settled  at  I'aris,  where  lie  became 
famous  a.s  author  of  more  than  forty  comic  operas, 
of  which  I.c  Jliiroii  (171)8)  and  Liirilc  (I7t)9)  were 
the  earliest,  and  J!iii»il  .and  llirhard  Cciii  ■</(•■  J. iuii 
among  the  liest  known.  He  w.as  m.adc  ins)ieclor  of 
the  Conservatoire,  and  a  memher  of  the  Institute; 
later  a  pension  fioni  Naiioleon  enahhd  him  to 
retire  to  Ermeiionville,  where,  in  Kousseau's  old 
house,  he  died,  24lh  Seplemher  1813.  His  o|iera.H 
are  noted  for  their  rich  and  hright  melody,  and  did 
nmcli  to  form  the  musical  taste  of  the  time.  He 
also  wrote  jIM/jkiVcs  ( 4  vols,  Paris,  17(Mi).  Seethe 
Lives  hy  Gregoir  (1883)  and  Broiiet  ( 1884  ). 

<>roiI/C.  .Jkan  Baptisti!,  genre-  and  portrait- 
painter,  was  hoin  .at  Tournus,  near  M.'icon,  on 
21st  August  172."i.  He  received  instruclion  in 
art  from  (iromdon,  a  painter  of  Lyons,  who  took 
him  to  Palis,  where  lie  studied  in  the  life-school  of 
the  .Academy,  .and  produced  a  sulijec(-)iicture  of 
such  excellence — 'A  Eatlier  exidaining  the  ISilile  to 
his  Children '  —  that  much  doulit  was  exjiressed  as 
to  its  heing  the  work  of  .so  young  an  artist.  His 
skill,  however,  w.as  amply  prov<>d  hy  productions 
which  followed,  and  his  '  Itliiid  Man  Cheated'  pro- 
cured his  admission  as  an  .\ssociate  of  the  .Academy 
in  17.5').  In  that  ye.ar  he  visited  Italy  with  the 
.Ahhe  Gougenol,  and  on  his  return  cxhihited  in 
17o7  several  Italian  suhjects,  hut  having  failed  to 
comply  with  the  regulations  of  the  Academy  he 
was  inteiilicled  from  conlrihuting  to  the  salon. 
Having  painted  in  17<i!t  his  '  Severus  reiuoaeliing 
('.ar.ac.alla,'  now  in  the  Louvre,  hi'  was  readmitted 
as  a  genre-jiainter,  instead  of  to  the  higher  class  of 
historical  painters,  ami  upon  this  he  indignantly 
withdrew.  He  wa.'s  the  fiieiid  of  Diderot,  who 
prai.«eil  his  productions  in  his  criticisms  of  the 
s.alon  ;  Imt  in  the  d.ays  of  the  Directorate  and  the 
cl.a.ssic.al  revival  of  David  his  works  were  little 
esteemed  :  and  he  died  in  poverty  in  P.aris,  21st 
March  ISO.").  His  art  possesses  chariiiiiig  ijiialities 
of  delicacy  and  gr.ace,  hut  is  marred  hy  its  triviality, 
by  the  insincerity  of  its  sentiment,  and  hy  its 
pui-suit  of  mere  luettiiie.ss.     He  is  seen  at  his  hest 


GREVILLE 


GREY 


419 


in  liis  ilomestic  interiors  with  (ignres,  and  especially 
in  such  fancy  studies  of  yirls  as  '  The  Broken 
Pitcher '  in  the  Lotivre,  the  '  Innocence' and  '  Girl 
with  Doves'  in  Sir  Kichard  Wallace's  collection, 
and  'Girl  with  Dead  Canary'  in  Scottish  National 
Gallery.     See  monograiih  by  Norniand  (1S92). 

iirevillo,  Chahlks  Cavendish  I'LI.ki:,  writer 
of  Mii'iiiriirs  of  Ids  time,  the  eldest  son  of  Cjiarles 
(uvville  liy  his  wife,  Lady  Charlotte  Cavendish 
Hentinck,  was  horn  in  1704.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  at  Christ  Church,  O.xford.  IJefore  he 
was  twenty  he  was  appointed  private  secretaiy  to 
Earl  Kathurst.  In  1821  he  became  Clerk  of  the 
Council  in  Ordinary,  an  olhce  wliich  he  ili.schar},'ed 
until  ISIiO.  During  the  last  twenty  years  of  his 
life  he  occupied  a  suite  of  rooms  in  the  house  of 
Earl  Granville,  in  Bruton  Street,  and  thcie  he 
died,  ISth  January  186.5.  In  advocacy  of  the  com- 
pletion of  the  measure  of  relief  to  the  Catholics  by 
the  i>ayment  of  their  clergy  he  wrote  Piist.  and 
I'lrnciit  Pulicji  of  Einjlaitd  tuir/irdu  Ircl((>id  ( 184.)). 
His  jiosition  as  Clerk  of  the  I'rivy-council  brought 
him  into  intimate  relations  witli  the  leaders  of 
botli  jiolitical  parties,  and  gave  him  ]]eculiar  facili- 
ties for  studying  court  life  from  within — advantages 
which  the  shrewd  intelligence  and  cultured  ver- 
satility of  Greville  turned  to  the  best  account  by 
penning  miscellaneous  memoirs  dealing  alike  with 
public  and  private  allairs,  and  containing  many 
lively,  immediate  sketches  of  the  distinguished 
jpersonages  of  his  time,  jiolitical,  .social,  and  literary. 
The  lirst  jiart  of  the  Memoirs,  covering  the  reigns  of 
George  IV.  and  William  IV.,  edited  by  Mr  Reeve, 
appeared  in  1875.  The  second  part,  emliracing  the 
period  1837-51,  was  published  in  1885;  aiul  the 
third,  1852-60,  in  1887. 

Greville,  Sir  Fulkic,  poet  and  friend  of  much 
greater  jioets  than  himself,  was  born  of  a  good 
Warwickshire  family  in  1.554.  He  studied  at  Cam- 
briilge,  travelled  abroad,  made  a  lignre  at  court, 
was  knighted  in  1597,  and  created  Lord  I'.rooke  in 
1G20.  lie  was  murdered  in  an  altercation  with  his 
serving-ijian,  30tli  September  1628.  Several  didactic 
poems,  more  than  a  hundied  sonnets,  and  two 
tragedies  were  printed  in  1633 ;  his  Life  of  Sir 
I'hilip  Sidney  in  16.52.  Grosnrt  edited  his  works 
(4  vols.  187U),  and  published  a  selection  (T/ic  Friend 
of  Sir  Pliilip  Sidiieij)  in  1895. 

Cireville.  Hexrv,  the  pseudonym  of  Madame 
Alice  Durand  {iK'r  Fleurv),  who  was  born  at  I'aris, 
12th  October  1842,  accompanied  her  father  when 
he  was  called  to  a  cliair  at  St  Petersburg  in  1857, 
and  there  married  Emile  Durand,  a  French  pro- 
fessor of  law,  with  whom  she  returned  to  Franco 
in  1872.  Already  at  St  Petersburg  she  had  con- 
tributed romances  to  the  journals  ;  when  at  Paris 
she  began  to  issue  with  almost  too  great  rajiiditv 
a  series  of  novels,  often  bright,  vigorous,  ainl 
original  in  their  pictures  of  Russian  society,  but 
une(|ual,  occasionally  feeble,  and  sometimes  even 
not  tree  from  the  one  fatal  fault  of  ilnllness.  Dosia 
(1870)  received  from  the  Academy  the  Montyon 
prize,  and  was  followeil  by  La  rriiiressc  Oijlifruff' 
(\?,~i'i),  Les  Koinniassiiic  (1877),  Sit-ri>nic  K'lirmis 
(1877),  Ln  Maisoii  Maiin^zr  (]S7~),  Lrs  fyrciires 
dr  Riiissa  [IS"),  L'Ainie  {\S7H),  Cii  Violmi  Hiisse 
(1879),  Lucie  Hndie  (1879),  L.e  Moiditi  Frappier 
(1880),  La  Cite  M(nard  (1880),  Perdue  (1881), 
Madame  de  Dreiix  (1881),  Prixe  Po:ier  (1882).  I'n 
Crime  (1884),  Louis  Breidl  (1883),  /rV/w  ( 1 885 ), 
and  (Inipi'dre  (1886). 

Ol'evy,  FiiAxtois  Pat-l  Jii.e.s,  President  of 
the  French  Repuldic,  was  born  ,at  Mont-sous- 
Vaudrey,  in  the  dura,  August  15,  1807.  He 
studied  law  in  Paris,  and  was  admitted  an  ad- 
vocate, accjuiring  distinction  as  the  defender  of 
republican  political  prisoners.     After  the  Revolu- 


tion of  1848  he  was  commissary  of  the  provisional 
government  in  liLs  native  department,  for  which 
also  he  was  returned  to  the  Constituent  A.s.-;embly. 
Wldle  jire.serving  an  independent  attitude,  lie 
usually  voted  with  the  Left,  ami  his  ability  as  a 
speaker  soon  brought  him  into  ])rominence.  He 
became  Vice-presiilcnt  of  the  Asscndily,  and  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  constitutional  deliates.  He 
opjjosed  the  government  of  Louis  Napoleon,  and 
condemned  the  expedition  to  Rome.  After  the 
roup  d'etat  he  retired  from  ]iolitics  and  confined 
himself  to  the  bar,  but  in  1869  he  was  again 
returned  as  deputy  for  the  Jura.  He  denounced 
the  Second  Empire  during  its  clo.sing  days,  and 
in  February  1871  was  elected  President 'of  the 
National  Assembly,  lieiiig  re.electe<l  in  1876,  1877, 
and  1879.  The  Monarchists  were  triumiihant  from 
1873  to  1876,  but  their  schemes  were  tienchantly 
attacked  by  Grevy,  who  likewise  published  ajiam- 
])hlet  entitled  The  Neressari/  Goreriniicnt.  l"]ion 
the  resignation  of  Marshal  MacMahon  in  1879 
Grevy  was  elected  President  of  the  Reimblic  for 
seven  years,  securing  563  votes  out  of  a  total  of 
713.  Although  his  presidency  was  not  brilliant,  it 
was  freijuently  marked  by  nnich  tact,  as  on  the 
occasion  of  the  hostile  demonstratiim  against  the 
king  of  Sjiain,  on  his  visit  to  Paris  in  188.3.  The 
republic  was  consolidated  and  strengthened  at 
home,  but  the  foreign  policy  of  France  was  in- 
glorious, and  in  March  1885  President  Grevy 
clo-sed  the  Tonkin  difficulty  by  concluding  jicace 
with  China  upon  his  own  initiative.  In  December 
1885  Gr(^vy  was  elected  president  for  a  further 
period  of  seven  years,  but,  hamiiered  by  ministerial 
ditliculties,  resigned  in  December  18S7.  He  died  at 
Mont-sous- Vauilrey,  9tii  September  1891. 

Cirewia.  a  genus  of  Tiliaceons  trees  yielding 
good  bast  for  ropemaking,  >.*i:c.  in  the  East  Indies. 
Siune  yield  timber,  and  others  their  leaves  as 
fodder. 

Grey.  Charles,  Earl,  statesnmn,  w,as  born  at 
Falloden,  Northumbcrlaml,  15tli  March  1764,  and 
educateil  at  Eton  and  Candiridgo.  On  attain- 
ing his  majority  he  was  returned  to  Jiarliament 
as  member  for  Northumberland  in  the  Whig 
interest,  and  ultimately  succeeded  to  the  leailer- 
ship  of  the  jiarty.  He  wa,s  one  of  the  managers 
of  the  imiieachment  of  Warren  Hastings,  and  in 
1792  bellied  to  f(mnd  the  Society  of  the  Friends  of 
the  People,  who.se  object  was  the  ref(U'ni  of  the 
representative  systenu  Taking  adv;ui(,ige  of  the 
alarm  caused  by  the  French  Revolution,  Pitt  sup- 
Iiressed  the  society,  and  at  a  later  period  (Irey 
cxpre.s.se3  regret  for  his  share  in  the  movement. 
Grey  introduced  the  futile  motion  for  the  imiieach- 
ment of  Pitt,  and  took  a  iironiineiit  jiart  in  the 
temporary  '  secession '  of  the  Whigs  from  a  parlia- 
ment which  was  hostile  to  reform,  and  which  he  and 
his  friends  maintained  did  not  represent  the  nation. 
He  also  strongly  denounced  the  union  between 
England  and  Ireland.  On  the  advent  of  the  Fox- 
Grenville  administration  in  180(;,  Grey,  now  Lord 
Howick,  was  appointed  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty, 
and  on  the  death  of  Fox  he  became  Foreign  Sec- 
retary and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Grey 
was  compelled  by  circumstances  to  continue  the 
war  ]iolicy  of  Pitt.  To  his  honour  he  canicd 
through  parliament  the  act  abolishing  the  African 
slave-trade  introduced  by  Wilberforce  in  1,807. 
The  king  quarrelled  with  his  ministers  on  the 
Catholic  relief  ciuestion,  and  as  Grey  declined 
to  give  a  promise  not  to  press  forward  a  measure 
for  absolving  Roman  Catli(dics  in  the  army  and 
navy  from  the  oath,  the  government  was  broken 
up. 

In  1S07  he  succeeded  his  father  as  second   Earl 
Grey.     He  ably  led  the  Opposition  for  a  jieriod  of 


420 


GREY 


ei;;liteeii  years  after  the  death  of  Perceval.  He 
opposed  tlie  renewal  of  the  war  in  1815; 
ileiioniiceil  the  I'oeroivo  iiiea.siiros  of  tlie  ;;oveni- 
input  a^ain^t  the  ^>eople  ;  eonilenined  the  hill 
of  pains  ami  penalties  a;,'ainst  C^ueeii  Caroline ; 
(lefenileil   the  ri>;ht  of   pnhlie    meeting;   ami   sup- 

Iiortcil  the  enlightened  oomniereial  poliev  of  Ilns- 
;isson.  lie  ileelined  to  lend  any  aid  to  Cannin;; 
in  1827.  Two  years  later  he  had  the  ;,'ralihi-ation 
of  seeing  the  Catholic  Kniiineipation  .\ct  cairicd. 
On  the  fall  of  tlio  Wellin^'lon  ailMiinistralioM  in 
IS.IO,  (irey  aceejited  the  coniiiiands  of  William  IV. 
to  form  a  ;j;overnment  in  wliirh  he  hec.amc  prime- 
minister  and  Kii-st  Lord  of  the  Tre:usury.  It  \va.s 
understood  that  i)arlianu'ntary  reform  was  to  he 
treated  as  a  eahinet  question,  .uul  tin-  new  premier 
announced  in  the  House  of  Lonls  that  tlie  poli<'y 
of  his  administration  would  he  one  of  peace,  re- 
trenchment, and  reform.  The  lii-st  reforni  hill  was 
produced  in  March  IS.'tl,  hut  its  defeat  led  to  a 
dissolution  anil  the  return  of  a  House  of  Commons 
still  more  thoroughly  ilevoted  to  the  cause  of 
reform.  A  seeonil  hill  was  carried,  which  the 
Lords  threw  out  in  Octidier,  and  riots  ensued  in 
various  parts  of  tin!  country.  Karly  in  the  session 
of  ls:i2  a  third  l>ill  was  carried  in  tlie  Commons  hy 
an  enormous  majority,  anil  it  weatliere<l  the  second 
readin;;  in  the  Upper  House;  hut  when  a  motion 
by  Lonl  Lyndhurst  to  postpone  the  disfranchising 
clauses  until  the  enfranclnsinj;  clauses  had  heen 
discussed  was  adopted,  ministers  resigned.  The 
Duke  of  Wellington  was  chaigeil  to  form  an  ad- 
niiiiistralion,  Imt  iijion  his  failure  (liey  retunii'd  to 
ollice  with  power  to  create  a  sullicii'iit  numlier  of 
peers  to  carry  the  measure.  Wellington  now  with- 
drew his  o|ipo>ition,  and  on  the  4tli  of  .lune  the 
Ueforni  Hill  j).assed  the  House  of  Lords.  Grey 
w.os  the  cliiet  of  a  powerful  parly  in  the  lirst 
reformed  parliament,  hut  he  was  not  destined  long 
to  remain  at  the  head  of  atlaiis.  One  other  great 
ineasuii'.  the  act  foi-  the  abolition  of  slavery  in 
the  colonies,  he  carried,  as  well  as  a  nnniher  of 
minor  reforms  ;  hut  ilissensions  sprang  up  in  the 
cabinet,  .ami  in  conseriuence  of  his  Irish  dilliculties 
Grey  resigned  otHce  in  .luly  IH'U.  He  now  ceivsed 
to  take  .any  active  part  in  politics,  and  spent  his 
closing  ye.irs  cliielly  at  Howick,  where  he  died,  17th 
July  1H4.").  Grey  was  .a  chivalrous,  .able,  and  high- 
minded  man.  While  not  in  the  lirst  rank  of  parlia- 
mcnt.uy  orators,  his  s|)eeches  on  those  siibji-cis  in 
which  ho  was  deeply  interested  frei|iiently  attained 
to  real  eloiiuence.  Though  he  was  the  leader  of 
the  aristocratic  Whigs,  his  greatest  claim  to  re- 
membrance! in  history  is  the  fact  that  he  opened 
the  portals  of  the  Constitution  to  the  people.  See 
George  Grey,  Li/e  and  Opinions  of  the  second  Earl 
Gre;/  ( I86I ). 

His  .son  Hkxrv  GliEV,  third  Earl,  w.a.s  born 
December  is,  ls(hj.  He  wiis  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambriilgo,  and  in  l.S'2(),  as  Lord  Howick, 
w.as  returned  to  the  House  of  Cominons  fur  Win- 
chelsea.  He  next  sat  for  a  brief  period  for  Iligh.im 
Ferrers,  and  after  the  p.assing  of  llie  Ki'form  Mill  of 
1832  was  elected  for  S'ortli  Northumberland.  He 
w.as  appointed  L'nder-.secret.ary  for  the  Colonies  in 
his  fatlier's  minLstry,  but  retired  in  1  S.SS  because  the 
cabinet  would  not  support  the  immediate  emanci- 
pation of  the  slaves.  He  subsei|uently  held  for  a 
short  time  the  post  of  I'nder  secretary  in  the 
Home  Department,  and  in  Melbourne's  ndminis- 
tration  of  183.5  became  Secretary  for  War,  In 
1841  he  w.os  rejected  for  Northumherlaiid,  but 
returned  for  Sunderland,  ami  now  onposeel  I'eel's 
policy.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  tlie  peerage  in 
IH4.>,  and  in  the  following  year  entered  Lord  .lohn 
llussell's  cabinet  as  Secretary  for  the  Colonies. 
-After  the  resignation  of  the  government  in  18.52, 
he  published  his  Defence  of  the  Colonial  Puliri/  of 


Lord  llussell'»  Administration.  He  now  t<iok  his 
seal  on  the  cross-benches,  and  never  afterwards 
held  ollice.  He  opposed  the  Crimean  war.  and  at 
a  later  period  condemned  the  eastern  policy  of 
Lord  Iteacolislicld.  He  also  frei|ueiitly  .uloiited 
a  hostile  attitude  towanls  .Mr  <  JIadstone,  to  wlioiii 
he  wa.s  espechilly  oppused  at  the  general  election 
of  1880.  For  many  yeai-s  pa.st  Lord  (!iey  rarely 
spoke  in  the  Mouse  of  Lords,  but  from  his 
retiienient  he  wrote  trenchant  letleis  to  ihe 
Tiinis  upon  public  .allairs,  and  notably  on  colonial 
(|iieslions.  In  18.58  he  issued  his  Essai/  on  I'mlia- 
menfaril  Govirnniint  as  to  Hiform  :  in  18(!7  he 
|>uhlished  his  father's  Vorrcupondcncc  vilh  William 
IV.  :  and  on  various  occasions  he  has  ]iriiited 
speeches  ami  lettei's  of  his  own,  inchnling  those 
to  the  'I'inus  on  '  Free  Trade  with  France,'  which 
appeared  in  1881.      He  died  9th  October  |S!I4. 

<ir«'.V.  Sii!  (iKoliiii-:,  Haroiiet,  Kngllsh  states- 
man, was  the  son  of  the  lirst  baronet,  and  nephew 
of  the  great  Kcforni  leader,  Karl  Grey.  Horn  at 
(Jibraltar,  May  11,  I7!»i),  he  wa-s  educated  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxfonl,  where  he  took  a  fii'stcl.ass  in 
classics.  He  wa.s  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  in  1826,  but  iclini|uished  the  Law  after  succeed- 
ing to  the  baronc'lcy  in  1.S2.S.  In  ls:i2  hi>  w.as 
returned  to  the  House  of  Commons  for  Devonport, 
which  he  continued  to  ie]neseiit  for  lifteen  years. 
He  was  appointed  I'nder  secretary  for  the  Culunies 
in  18:U,  having  already  m.ade  his  mark  in  parlia- 
ment, and  Lord  Melbourne  reappointed  him  to  the 
same  oflice  in  18,3").  For  some  years  his  chief 
speeches  were  ilelivered  in  connection  wilh  Cana- 
ilian  allairs  and  the  constittilioiial  dilliculties  in 
.lainaica.  When  Lord  dohii  Hussill  brought  in  a 
bill  for  the  teiiipiuarv  suspeiisioii  of  the  Lower  <  aiia- 
diaii  ciuistitution,  (irey  alily  defended  the  measure 
against  Mr  Roebuck,  who  h.ad  been  lieanl  at  the 
bar  in  opposition  to  the  bill.  In  1830  (Jrey  became 
.Iiidge-advocate,  an  ollice  wliidi  he  exchanged  in 
1841  for  that  of  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lan- 
caster, but  the  same  year  he  wi-iil  out  of  nllicc  with 
his  colleagues.  When  i>oi<l  .lohn  liussell  becaiiie 
premier  in  1840,  (Jrey  accepted  the  onerous  post  of 
Home  Secretary.  During  the  time  of  the  Chartist 
disturbances  he  discharged  the  dilliciilt  duties  of  his 
otlice  with  vigour  and  discrimination,  this  being 
the  culminating  point  of  his  career  a.s  .a  pi.actical 
•and  adiiiini-liative  statesman.  He  carried  in  the 
teeth  of  much  opposition  the  Crown  .and  (Mivcrii- 
nieiit  Security  Hill,  a  measure  ])idvidiiig  fcu'  the 
more  ell'ectual  repression  of  .seditious  and  treason- 
able proceedings.  The  Alien  Hill  was  also  under 
his  charge.  Owing  to  Grey's  measures  in  view  of 
the  Chartist  demonstration  in  Loiiilon  in  1.S48, 
when  1.5(1. (MM)  special  constables  wer(!  sworn  in,  a 
threatened  iiopular  rising  was  averted.  In  con.se- 
quence  of  tlie  conilition  of  Ireland,  Grey  earned  a 
iiiea-siire  in  184!J  for  the  further  suspension  of  the 
Habeius  Coqms  Act.  Three  years  later  the  liussell 
ministry  wa-s  wrecked  on  the  Militia  Hill.  At 
the  general  election  in  August  1847  (irey  was 
returned  for  North  N<irtliuiiibcrland,  but,  being 
defeated  at  the  election  in  July  18.52,  he  was 
electeil  for  Morpeth  in  the  following  Janiiary.  In 
June  18.54  he  Jiccejited  the  seals  of  the  (Colonial 
Ollice,  anil  on  the  fiirmation  of  Lord  I'almiMston's 
lirst  administration  in  18.5.5  tocik  his  old  jiost 
of  Home  Secretary.  He  carried  an  important 
nie,a.sure  on  the  subject  of  seciuidary  punishments, 
in  which  the  ticket-of-leave  .system  w.a-s  remodelled. 
On  the  return  of  Lord  Palmeistdn  to  oHice  in  1859, 
after  his  ilefeat  in  the  previous  year  on  the  Con- 
spiracy Bill,  (irey  was  appointed  Chancellor  of  the 
Duchy  of  Lancaster;  but  in  18fll  he  once  more 
returned  to  the  Home  Otlice.  He  intifxluccd  and 
carried  through  several  useful  me,a.sures,  including 
the    rii>r)n    Ministers   Bill.       After    the    death    of 


GREY 


GREYHOUND 


421 


Palnierston  he  continued  in  office  umler  Earl 
Russell,  carrying  measures  for  stanipin;^  out  the 
cattle  ])layue,  for  amending  the  Parliamentary 
Oaths  Act,  and  for  suspending  the  Haheas  Corpus 
Act  in  Ireland  at  the  time  of  the  Fenian  activity. 
On  the  defeat  of  the  Russell-Gladst<me  ministry 
in  1S66  upon  the  reform  question,  (Irey's  ollicial 
career  closed  :  hut  he  continued  to  sit  in  parliament 
until  1874,  when  he  finally  retired  from  [luUic  life. 
He  (lied  at  his  seat  of  Falloden,  near  .\linvick,  Sep 
tenilier  9,  1S82. — His  grandson  and  -successor,  SiK 
Edward  Guey  (born  1862),  studied  at  O.xford, 
hecame  Kadical  M.P.  for  part  of  Northumberland  in 
188."),  and  in  1892-95  was  Foreign  Under-Secretary. 

Grey,  Sir  Geouge,  K.C.B. ,  governor  and  com- 
mander-in-chief of  New  Zealand,  «as  horn  at  Lis- 
bon, in  Portugal,  in  1812.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Koyiil  Military  College  at  Sandhurst,  and  on  attain- 
ing his  cai)taincy  undertook  in  1837  the  explora- 
tion of  the  interior  of  Australia.  In  September 
1838  he  organised  another  exi)edition  to  exjilore 
the  Swan  Kiver  district.  He  returned  to  England 
in  1840,  and  published  his  Journals  of  Two  Expe- 
ditions in  yorthirestein  ami  Western  Australia. 
His  enterprise  and  ability  obtained  for  him,  nn- 
a-sked,  in  1841,  froiu  Lord  J.  Russell,  then  Colonial 
Secretary,  the  post  of  governor  of  South  .Australia. 
In  184G  he  was  made  governor  of  New  Zealand. 
IJoth  here  and  in  Australia  his  hrst  task  wa.s  to 
acquire  the  language  of  the  natives,  with  whom 
he  became  more  popular  than  any  preceding 
governor.  His  government  ajijieareil  to  the 
authorities  at  home  to  be  so  wise  and  concilia- 
tory that  in  1848  he  wa.<  made  K.C.P..  (civil),  and 
in  18.54  was  appointed  governor  and  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  task  of 
allaying  the  a.sperities  and  irritation  left  by  the 
Katlir  war  demanded  high  powei-s  of  .statesnian- 
.ship  ;  tJrey  was,  however,  equal  to  the  occa.sion. 
Industry  revived,  and  brigliter  days  began  to  dawn 
U)ion  the  colony.  In  18.58,  however,  the  Cohmial 
Otiice  interfered  n  ith  measures  which  he  considereil 
necessary,  ami  he  threw  up  his  post  and  came  to 
England.  Public  opinion  at  the  Cape  was  so 
strongly  manifested  in  his  favour  that  he  was 
requested  by  the  government  to  resume  his 
governorship.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Indian 
nmtiny  Grey  sent  every  soldier  he  could  spare  to 
the  as.sistance  of  the  Indian  government,  and 
received  the  acknowledgments  of  the  ISritish 
government  and  parliament  for  his  [jromjititude 
and  energy.  In  1861  he  was  again  apiminted 
governor  of  New  Zealand,  in  the  hope  that  he 
wouhl  bring  the  war  then  raging  in  the  colony  to 
a  .satisfactory  conclusion.  The  natives  received 
him  «ith  joy  and  veneration,  and  he  succee<led  in 
bringing  about  pacilic  relations  with  the  Maoris. 
H<'  resigned  his  otiice  and  came  to  England  in 
18(i7,  but  afterwards  returned  to  the  colonies. 
(Jrey  accepted  the  office  of  Superintendent  of 
Auckland  in  1875,  with  a  seat  in  the  Legislature, 
and  he  strongly  but  fruitlessly  opposed  the  Aboli- 
ti<m  of  the  Provinces  Act.  After  its  pas.sing  his 
office  of  superintendent  ceased  ;  but  in  1877  he 
became  premier  of  New  Zealand,  and  carrieil 
various  acts  of  great  practical  nlility.  (Jrey  had 
uhnost  unbounded  inlluence  with  the  Maori  chiefs, 
which  he  used  in  cultivating  friendly  relations 
between  the  natives  and  the  while  po|iulation. 
He  resigned  in  1884,  but  lived  till  llUli  Septem- 
ber 1898.  He  published  Journals  iif  Discorrrji  in 
A  Hstrulia  (  1841 ),  Puhjtnsian  Mi/l/iulaf/i/  (  1855 ),  and 
Prorerhial  Sai/iiif/s  of  the  Ancestors  of  the  Sew 
Zealand  Jlace  (1858).  See  Lives  by  Kees  (3d  ed. 
lS9.i)  and  Milne  (1899). 

<»r«'y.  L-VDY  Jane,  the  'nine  days'  queen,'  was 
liiirn  at  Bradgate,  Leicesteishire.  in  October  1537. 


She  was  the  eldest  daughter  of  Henn,-  Grey,  Mar- 
quis of  Dorset,  who  in  1551  became  Duke  of  Suli'olk, 
and  of  Lady  Frances  Brandon.  The  latter  was  the 
daughter  of  Charles  Brandon,  Duke  of  Suffolk,  by 
Mary,  younger  sister  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  widow 
of  Louis  XII.  of  F'rance.  Lady  Jane  was  brought 
up  rigorously  by  her  parents,  e\ery  petty  fault 
punished  with  'pinches,  nips,  and  bobs;'  but 
.Aylnier  (q.v. ).  her  tutor,  afterwanls  Bishop  of 
London,  endeared  himself  to  her  by  his  gentleness, 
and  under  him  she  made  extraonlinary  progiess, 
especially  in  languages — Latin,  Greek,  French, 
Italian,  and  Hebrew.  Roger  Ascliam  tells  how 
in  December  1550  he  fouml  her  reading  Plato's 
Phcedo  in  the  original,  w  liile  the  rest  of  the  family 
were  hunting.  She  also  sang  and  i>]ayed  well,  and 
was  versed  in  other  feminine  acc<»mplishments. 
In  1553,  after  Somerset's  fall,  the  Duke  of  North- 
umberland, foreseeing  the  speedy  death  of  the  boj-- 
king  Edward  VI.,  determined  to  change  the  suc- 
cession and  secure  it  to  his  own  family.  Lady 
Jane,  not  sixteen  years  old,  was  therefore  married, 
strongly  against  her  wish,  to  Lord  Guildford 
Dudley,  Northumberland's  fourth  son,  on  21st 
May  1.553 ;  and  on  9th  July,  three  days  after 
Edward's  death,  the  council  informed  her  that  his 
'  plan '  had  named  her  as  his  successor,  tin  the 
I9th,  the  brief  usurpation  over,  she  found  herself 
a  prisoner  in  the  Tower ;  and  four  months  later, 
jileading  guilty  of  high-treason,  she  w.os  sentenced 
to  death.  She  spurne<l  the  idea  of  forsaking  Pro- 
testantism for  love  of  life,  and  bitterly  condemned 
Northundierland's  recantation  :  '  Woe  worth  him  I 
he  hath  brought  me  and  our  stock  in  most  miser- 
able calamity  by  his  e.xceeding  ambition.'  t^ueen 
Mary  might  have  been  merciful ;  but  Sufi'olk's 
participation  in  Wyatt's  rebellion  sealed  the  doom 
of  his  (laughter,  who  on  12tli  February  1.5.54  was 
beheaded  (m  Tower  Hill.  She  was  'nothing  at  all 
aba.shed,  neither  with  fear  of  her  ow  u  death,  which 
then  ajiproached,  neither  with  the  sight  of  the 
dead  carca.ss  of  her  liusliand,  when  it  w;is  brought 
into  the  chapel — a  sight  to  her  no  less  than  death.' 
From  the  scaffold  she  made  a  sjieech  :  '  The  fact, 
indeed,  against  the  queen's  highness  was  unlawful, 
and  the  consenting  thereto  by  me :  but  touching 
the  procurement  and  desire  thereof  by  me  or  on  my 
behalf.  I  do  wash  my  hands  thereof  in  innoceney. 
.  .  .  I  die  a  true  Clnistian  woman.'  AVith  Lord 
Guildford  she  is  buried  in  the  Tower  church  of  St 
Peter  ad  Vincula. 
See  the  articles 
Edward  VI.  and 
Mary  ;  also  The 
Chronicle  of 
Q  n  cc  n  J  a  n  c, 
edited  by  J.  ti. 
Nichols  for  the 
Camden  Society 
(1850). 

Oreyboarils 

are  big-bellied, 
narrow-necked 
stcmeware  jugs 
or  bottles,  made 
in  Flanders  alxjut 
the  beginning  of 
the  17tli  century, 
and  so  called 
from  generally 
having  a  gro- 
tesque   head,     with 


Greybeard. 


a  large,  square-cut  beard, 
modelled  on  the  short  neck.  The  face  was  a  Pro- 
testant burlesque  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine'.s. 

Croy  Friars.    See  Friar,  Franciscax. 

(■roylioillld.  a  breed  of  great  antiquity,  the 
onlv  breed  (jf  (big  which  Inis   retained  its  original 


422 


GREYHOUND 


GHEYWETHERS 


shape ;  tiiany  KK.vptian  niniiiiniotitH  are  decorated 
witli  liijiiros  i)f  iln;,'s  closely  rcseiiibliiif;  the  siiioiitli 
Eii^'lisli  ^.'rrvliiniMil.  Tlie  ^■reylMimid  lia-s  lii-en 
known  ill  Kii;,'laiul  since  the  lime  of  Kin;,'  t'ainite, 
who  conliiieil  its  use  to  the  iiohility  hy  statute. 
I'lilil  coinparatively  modern  times  only  land- 
owners were  |porniitted  to  use  the  greyhound. 
When  the  ^ame  laws  were  relaxed,  coiirsiii};  lie- 
came  open  to  all,  until  now  ii|iwaiils  of  live  thou- 
sand ^'ley hounds  are  Ue|it  lor  jmhlie  Couixinf;  (o.v.). 
Chilis  wure  formed  (tit  the  eneoura;;emeui  of  the 
sport,  and  a  scale  of  |>oints  hy  which  eoiii|ieliii;,' 
preyhoHuils  could  he  tested  was  arran;,'ed.  Whin 
It  is  desireil  to  test  two  rival  i;reyhoiinds,  they  are 
])laeeil  in  the  hands  of  the  'slipiM'r,'  towards'  whom 
the  hares  aie  ilriveii.  After  j;<-ltinK  the  do;;s  in  a 
stiai;.'ht  line  hehiiid  the  hare,  he  lilierates  them  hy 
means  of  a  mechanical  coiitriv.ance,  allowing'  the 
hare  from  50  to  SU  yards  start.  The  'jud^e,' 
who  follows  on  horseiiack,  then  notes  the  |)oints 
scored  hy  either  j;i'eyhoiiiiil,  j;iviii;;  his  decision, 
from  which  there  is  no  aiipeal,  at  the  end  of  each 
coui-sc.  The  scale  of  points  adopted  is  as  follows  : 
'the  ran  up.'  lirst  reaching'  the  liare,  one  to  three 
points,  accordinj;  to  lead  gained  ;  "  the  turn,'  causing.' 
the  hare  to  turn  at  an  acute  aii^de,  two  points  ;  '  the 
wrench,'  tiirnin;,'  ;it  an  ohtuse  aiij;le,  one  |ioiiit ;  '  the 
fio-hy,'  starting  heliinil  a  coni|petitor  ami  jiassin;,' 
him,  two  points ;  '  the  tii|i,'  knockinj;  the  hare 
over  hut  not  killing',  one  point ;  '  the  kill,'  not  more 
than  two  points,  sometimes  none,  aceordiii;;  to 
merit.  .M.iny  ^'reyhoumls,  after  they  have  heen 
rep<'aledly  coiirseil,  'run  cunniiif;'  or  'lurch' — i.e. 
allow  their  opponent  to  do  all  the  work,  only 
waiting;  for  an  opportunity  to  kill;  this  vice  is 
hereditary,  ami  must  he  guarded  against  in  hreed- 
ing.  The  greyhound  is  a  large  and  graceful  doj^, 
conveying    an   imi>ression   of    great    speed.       His 


Greyhound. 

head  should  be  long  ami  narrow,  with  iiowerful 
jaws;  slumlilers,  sloping  hack,  allowing  tree  play 
for  the  fore-legs;  forelegs,  strong  and  muscular  ; 
chest,  dei'|i  and  narrow  ;  hind-legs,  very  long  froiu 
hiji  to  hock,  and  'well  hent.'  The  iioints  of  the 
greyhound  are  neatly  summed  up  in  the  loth- 
ceutury  rhyme  : 

Tlie  head  of  a  snake, 
The  neck  of  a  dnike, 
A  liack  like  a  l^nni, 
A  »i'lr  like  a  bream, 
The  foot  Ufa  cat. 
An<i  the  tail  of  a  rat, 

which  is  still  a  fairly  accurate  description.  The 
j^reyhouiiil  is  rarely  kept  as  a  companion,  its 
intelligence  not  heiiig  of  a  high  order.  '1  he  Itiissian 
and  Circassian  greyhounils  are  i<lentical  in  shape 
with  the  Knglish  grevhoiind,  Ijut  much  rougher  in 
coat,  and  slower.     The   Italian  and  Turki.-h  grey-  I 


honiuls  are  shaped  very  much  the  same  way,  hut 
on  a  very  reduced  scale;  they  are  u.sed  entirely  as 
pets,  heiiig  too  delicate  for  any  active  work.  Sec 
H.  |)al/iel,  'J7ic  dicijliuund :  its  llUloiy,  PuitiU, 
anil  lU-niliiiij  (  ISSli). 

iil'«'.VIIIOIItll,  a  rising  ]>ort  of  Xi-w  Zealaml,  on 
the  west  coast  of  South  Islanil,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Krev  Hiver,  190  miles  SSW.  of  Nelson.  Ex- 
tensive harhoiir-works,  including  two  lueakwaters 
and  the  addilioii  of  liOO  feet  of  wharf,  have  heen 
erected  since  1SS.">,  and  railwavs  to  Ni-lson  and 
Chrislchurch  were  idmiuenced  in  l.ssT.  'I'he 
entire  ilislriet  is  auriferous,  and  .">.">,0:{(i  ounces  of 
gold  (value  £'2*20,  ."lO:})  were  exported  during 
ISST-SS.  (Ireyminith,  however,  is  famous  chiellv 
for  its  coal,  of  which  over  1SO,000  tons,  of  the  hest 
(piality  in  Australasia,  were  raised  iu  1887  in  the 
neighhoiiiliood.     I'op.  ( 1891 )  3787. 

<ilr«'Vst<ni«',  a  rock-term  (now  disused)  for 
certain  light  gray  lavas  intermediate  in  character 
hetween  Iraehylic  and  liasallic  lavas.  The  grey- 
stones  are  i>rohahly  all  varieties  of  Trachyte  (ij.v.), 
Iiut  perhaps  to  some  extent  of  lijiaiite  and  even  of 
ha.salt. 

<ir«'ylOMIl  (.S'<f«  Jiiiin  del  Norte),  the  only 
Nicai.ignaii  port  on  the  Cariljiean  Sea,  is  cm  the 
northern  delta  of  the  San  diiaii  Kiver,  which  tiiitil 
1889  was  nearly  choked  with  sanil.  In  lh;it  year 
lahourers  were  desiiatched  from  the  I'liitcd  Slates 
to  commence  work  on  the  inleroccani<'  canal,  of 
which  CreytoHii  is  the  proposed  terminus  on  the 
Atlantic  side,  and  to  construct  a  breakwater  here. 
Greytown  was  neutralised  under  the  Clayton- 
Buhver  treaty,  and  has  been  a  free  port  of  Nicar- 
agua since  1800.     I'op.  loOO. 

OroywackC  (Cer.  dnnnrarke),  a  jiarlially 
tran^.ated  (  o'rni.in  word,  u.sed  as  Ihe  name  of  an 
indiiiati'il  sedimentary  rock,  which  occurs  exten- 
sively among  the  rahcozoic  .systems,  where  it  is 
a.ssociated  with  similarly  induralcd  shah's  anil  con- 
glomerates. It  is  an  aggregate  of  rounded  sub- 
angular  and  angular  grains  and  siilinteis  of  i|uartz, 
fels]par,  and  slate,  sometimes  with  mica  and  grains 
of  other  minerals  and  rocks,  emhedilcd  in  a  hard 
paste  or  matrix',  which  may  consist  of  siliceous, 
calcareous,  argillaceous,  or  felspalhie  matter.  The 
rock  is  generally  harder  than  most  sandstones,  and 
is  usually  gray  or  dark  blue  in  cidour,  but  green, 
red,  brown,  yellow,  and  even  bl.aek  varieties  are 
met  with.  It  varies  in  texture  from  nne-grained 
and  comp.iet  up  to  conglomeratic  and  brecciiform, 
and  occurs  in  thick  massive  beds  like  liver  rock 
(see  S.\NI>SToNE),  and  in  thinner  beds  and  layers 
like  ordinary  sandstones  and  Ihigstones.  It 
represents  the  muddy  sediments  of  tlie  I'aheozoic 
seas,  an<l  often  retains  rijiple-niarks,  siin-craeks, 
worm  burrows  and  castings,  and  other  suiierlicial 
markings. 

CirevwoUu'rs,  the  name  given  to  large  blocks 
of  hard  sanilstone,  which  are  .scattered  spoi.adi- 
eally  over  the  southern  and  south  eastern  ]iarls  of 
Knglanil.  The  name  has  jnobably  been  suggested 
by  their  resemblance  in  the  land.scape  to  sheep 
lying  about.  Other  names  by  which  they  are 
known  are  Sar.srlen  Stniie.i,  Druid  SImirs.  They 
are  as  a  rule  roughly  oblong,  and  are  of  all  sizes  up 
to  10  or  15  feet  in  length,  and  2  or  4  feet  in 
thickness;  and  are  believed  to  be  the  relies  of 
beds  of  Eocene  age  which  formerly  extended  over 
all  the  region  where  they  occur.  'I'liese  beds 
probably  cimsisted  chielly  of  loose  sand,  d^c.,  the 
greywelhei's  representing  concretionary  portions 
hardened  by  siliceous  cement,  which  have  thus 
withstood  the  denuilation  that  has  swcjit  away  the 
incoherent  deposits  of  which  they  once  formed  «. 
part.  The  outer  ring  of  monoliths  at  Stonehenge 
is  formed  of  grey  wethers. 


GRIEG 


GRIGORIOPOL 


423 


Grieg,  Edvard,  a  Norwegian  composer,  bom 
at  Berj;eii,  l.^Jtli  June  1S4;5.  He  was  of  Scotch 
descent,  liis  ancestors,  (Jreigs,  liavin;^  emigrated 
from  Fraserburgh  during  tlie  .lacobite  troubles. 
Grieg  received  instruction  in  nuisic  from  his  mother, 
till  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  on  the  recommendation  of 
Ole  ISull,  lie  was  sent  to  the  Conservatorium  at 
Leiiizig.  Thence,  in  1863,  after  a  severe  illness, 
he  went  to  Copenhagen,  and  afterwards  to  Christi- 
ania,  when;  he  was  settled  as  a  teacher  for  about 
eight  years,  and  enjoyed  the  intimate  friendship 
of  lijiirnson  and  Ibsen.  He  visited  Liszt  in  Kome 
in  181)9.  For  awhile  a  wanderer,  he  occupied  for 
some  years  a  romantic  hut  on  the  Hardangerfjord, 
and  subsei|nently  settled  near  Dergen.  The  Nor- 
wegian jiarliament  conferred  a  pension  on  him  to 
enable  him  to  devote  himself  to  composition.  His 
works  are  mainly  for  the  pianoforte,  and  in  small 
forms,  but  eml]race  a  sonata  and  a  concerto  for 
pianoforte,  three  violin  and  pianoforte  sonatas, 
nnmeroits  songs,  and  a  few  orchestral  and  small 
choral  pieces.  Be5'ond  that  of  any  other  com- 
poser, liis  m\isic  is  cliaracterised  l>y  the  strongest 
national  peculiaiities,  extreme  gloom  and  brilliance 
alternating  like  the  Norwegian  summer  and  winter; 
its  merriment  is  often  wihlly  ellish  in  its  freaks, 
and  its  pathos  .sometimes  has  a  ghostly  w<'irdue.ss. 
He  is  as  far  removed  fnnn  the  commonplace  as 
Chopin.  He  is  of  course  immensely  popular  with 
his  countrymen,  and  the  great  and  growing  fa\our 
with  whicli  he  is  regarded  in  England  was  strongly 
e.vpressed  on  his  visits  in  1888,  1889,  and  1897. 

CJrier.soil,  Sir  Robert,  of  Lag,  persecutor  of 
the  Covenanters,  was  born  about  165.5,  ami 
succeeded  his  cousin  in  the  family  estates  in  1669. 
He  acted  for  some  years  as  steward  of  Kirkcud- 
bright, and  carried  out  the  infanmus  work  of 
harrying  the  peasantry  with  such  zest  and  vigour 
as  to  leave  his  name  after  two  hundred  years  a 
byword  in  (Jalloway  for  ferocious  cruelty.  And 
his  brutal  speech  to  Kennmre  about  a  martyr'.s 
body  wliicli  he  had  denied  the  decency  of  burial  ; 
'Take  him,  if  you  will,  ami  salt  him  in  your 
beef-barrel,'  shows  tlie  popular  tradition  to  be  in 
liarmony  with  fact.  He  was  lirother-in-law  to  the 
Duke  of  Queensberry,  and  through  his  inlluence 
was  made  a  Nova  Scotia  baronet  in  1685,  and 
awarded  a  pension  of  £"2U0.  He  was  one  of  the 
judges  of  tlie  Wigtown  martyrs,  and  his  name 
survives  in  infamy  ujion  their  tombstone.  After 
the  llevolutiun  he  was  heavily  lined  and  imiuisoned 
for  his  obstinate  opposition,  and  later  was  charged 
with  coining  false  money  when  expeiiments  in 
stamping  linen  alone  were  in  question  !  He  died 
31st  December  1733.  A  rough  but  really  vigorous 
piece  of  verse,  Lay's  Elci/i/,  was  current  in  Duni- 
iriessliire  soon  after  bis  time,  .ami  was  aduured  in 
the  next  century  by  Carlyle.  The  pojiular  imagina- 
tion wove  many  a  gloomy  and  awful  fancy  around 
Lag's  memory,  and  all  tlie  most  ell'ectivo  of  these 
Scott  workeil  with  marvellous  art  into  '  Wandering 
Willie's  Tale ' — a  magnilicent  phantasy  of  genius. 
Old  Itedgauntlet,  with  the  horseshoe  frown  upon 
his  brow,  and  bis  pre-eminence  among  the  damned 
in  hell,  is  hut  a  creative  realisation  of  the  Laird 
of  Lag  traditional  in  Galloway.  See  Colonel 
Fergusson's  book,  The  Laird  of  Lag:  a  Life  Sketch 
(1886). 

<>ri4'sl»ai'll.  JoHANN  .jAKon,  author  of  the 
first  critical  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  was 
born  at  liutzbach,  in  Hesse-Darmstadt,  .lanuary  4, 
1745.  He  stuilied  theology  at  'I'liliingen  ;  at  Halle, 
where  Semler  intlucnced  his  whole  after-life  ;  and 
at  Leipzig,  where  ho  became  acquainted  with 
Ernesti.  He  cinnmenced  lecturing  as /<(V>((^-(/(/cc;i? 
in  Halle,  and  in  ITT.'i  was  m.ide  extr.a-ordinary 
professor:   but   in    1776   he   was  called  as  onlin.uy 


jjrofessor  to  Jena,  where  he  continued  to  teach  with 

great  success  till  his  death  on  24th  March  1812. 
The  great  wiu'k  with  which  his  name  Is  associated 
is  his  critical  revision  of  the  New  Testament  text. 
Amongst  his  notable  works  are  the  Si/iiopxis 
Ei'uiKjcliuriiiii  (2  vols.  1774-75;  3d  ed.  1809);  his 
edition  of  the  whole  New  Testament  ( 1775  ;  new 
ed.  1796-18()(;)  ;  rujiuUiic  Dofjimdil:  ( 1779  ;  4tli  ed. 
1789);  CtjiiiiiieiilariHs  Criticus  in  Tcxtiiiii  X.  Ti:st. 
(1798-1811);  and  the  Oj/iiscit/a  Academica  (1825). 
The  grand  feature  of  Griesbach's  critical  system  is 
his  threefold  division  or  classification  of  the  New 
Testament  MSS.  :  (1)  The  Ale.xandiine  recension  ; 
(2)  the  Latin  or  Western  recension;  (3)  the 
Byzantine  or  Eastern  recension.  See  Bible  ;  and 
tlie  Lives  by  Kothe  (1812),  Augusti  (1812),  and 
Eichstiidt  (1815). 

Ciriffill  ( Lat.  r/ri/p/iiis  ;  Gr.  firyps),  a  chimerical 
creature,  liist  mentioned  by  Aiisteas  about  .5(10  B.C. 
The  gritlin  is  variously  described  and  represented, 
but  the  shape  in  which  it  most  frequently  ajipeans 
is  that  of  a  cross  between  a  lion  and  an  eagle, 
having  the  body  and  legs  of  the  former,  with  the 
beak  and  wings  of  the  latter,  ami  the  aildition  of 
pointed  ears.  Sometimes  the  four  legs  are  all  like 
those  of  an  eagle,  and  the  head  is  that  of  a  cock. 
The  figure  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  E.-ist,  a.s 
it  is  found  in  ancient  Persian  sculptures.  Amongst 
the  (ireeks  it  appears  on  antique  coins,  and  as  an 
ornament  in  classical  architcclure.  Grillins  abound 
in  the  legendary  tales  of  the  Teutonic 
nations,  and  the  name  (Ger.  grcif, 
Dan.  grif  Ac.)  has  passed  into  most 
Teutonic  dialects.  In  the  bestiaries 
of  the  middle  ages  the  ajiijearance  and 
habits  of  the  griflin  were  discussed 
with  much  particularity  ;  it  was  the 
emblem  of  vigilance,  and  was  under- 
stood to  guaid  hidden  treasures  in 
Bactria ;  and  the  grittin  ( or  gry- 
phon )  is  still  familiarly  known  to 
heraldry.  As  such  it  apjiears  in  the  arms  of  the 
city  of  London,  grilHns  being  the  supporters  :  and 
on  the  removal  of  Tenijile  Bar  a  scnlptured  grifhn 
was  erected  on  the  site  (November  1880).  For  the 
Grittin  Vulture,  see  ViLTfRE. — Grittin  is  a  name 
jocularly  given  in  India  to  a  newcomer  from  Eng- 
land, a  greenhorn. 

iiriilill,  < ;  EK.VLD,  novelist,  was  born  at  Limerick, 
12th  December  1803,  and  early  began  to  write  for 
the  jiapers  ,and  magazines.  He  came  to  London 
in  1823,  resolved  to  'revolutionise  the  ilramatic 
taste.'  t)f  course  he  failed  to  get  his  tragedies 
acteil,  but  he  was  more  successful  with  novels — 
Hullatid  Tiilc  ( 1827 ),  Talcs  of  the  Minister  Fcniirals 
(IS'27),  and  The  Collcgiam  (1828),  on  which  the 
drama  of  the  Cul/ccti  Batrn  is  founded.  These 
were  followed  by  some  dozen  more  novels  and 
many  minor  tales.  Gritlin  joined  the  Society  of 
Christian  Brothers,  and  died  in  the  North  Monas- 
tery, Cork,  12tli  June  1840. 

(■I'itlitll's  Valuation,  the  main  authority  for 
the  adjustment  of  rents  under  the  Irish  Laml  Act, 
was  calculated  bv  Mr  (afterwards  Sir)  Bichard 
Grittitli,  ap|iointed  commissioner  to  carry  out  the 
scheme  resohed  on  by  the  government  in  1S25. 
The  res\ilts  were  first  published  in  1850.  and  ha\e 
been  much  discussed  in  recent  years ;  but  the 
valuation  may  be  regarded  as  a  most  minute  ami 
exact  b.a.-is  for  equitable  taxation  and  the  fixing 
of  fair  rents. 

(■riS.  or  Glut  (AnguilJa  latirostris),  a  widely- 
ilistributed  species  of  eel,  found  on  Ifritish  and 
European,  Chinese,  West  Indian,  and  other  coasts. 
See  Eel. 

(■l*iu;orio|lol.  a  town  of  Kherson,  South  Russia, 
on  the  left   bank  of  the  Dniester,  82  miles  NW.  of 


1J4 


(MULLK 


GRIMM 


Odessa.     lu    791H  iulialiitants  cultivate  tobacco, 
wine,  and  fruit,  ami  iiianufnctme  leather. 

Grille  a  lattice,  or  jiratin;;,  or  screen,  or  open 
work  of  metal,  soiiiotiiiie.s  also  of  wood,  j;enerally 
used  to  enclose  or  protect  a  wimlow,  or  some 
slirine,  or  tomi),  or  s.acred  spot.  A  ■;rille  sliotilil  he 
all  hammered  anil  imnched,  without  lilin;:.  The 
snuill  screen  of  cros.se<l  irim  hai-s  inserted  in  the 
door  of  a  monastery  or  prison,  for  lioldiii;.;  crm- 
vei-sation  and  reconnoitring;  through,  is  also  called 
a  frrille. 

Crlllparzer.  Fraxz,  an  .Austrian  dramatic 
poet,  lor  some  time  i)opularly  rej;arded  as  the 
{greatest  poet  of  his  nation,  was  liorn  at  Vienna. 
l.'>th  January  IT'.H,  and  lalKinred  in  the  imperial 
civil  service  fr<un  IS13  to  1S.')C.  He  died  21st 
.January  lS72at  Vienna.  (Jrillparzer  first  attracted 
notice  in  ISKj  liy  a  'fate'  tr.t^'edy,  Jlir  A/iiifnni. 
His  next  traj^edies.  S,ij,j,/io  ( ISiyjand  JJns  i/nltUiii- 
I'/icji  (18-21),  the  latter  a  trilojry,  arc  beautiful 
pieces  of  work,  modern  in  .sentiment,  classic  in 
style.  And  the  same  features,  with  that  of  lyric 
force  added,  characterise  the  dramxs  />c,v  Mccrcs 
iiiul  tier  I.icl>i:  W'tllrn  (1810)  and  Ihr  Triiiim  ein 
I.dicn  ( 1840 ).  IJesides  these  lie  wrote  the  hisKnical 
l)lays  Koiiitj  Ottohar's  G/iic/:  inul  Ktidr  ( 182.5)  and 
Ein  Irciicr  Ih'ein;-  xrhu-.i  Ilcrrii  (  18;i(l),  with  others. 
In  lyric  poetry  he  likewise  produced  a  i-mA  deal  of 
meritorious  work  ;  .and  he  wrote  one  good  prose 
novel,  Jhr  Sjiiehniiiiii.  A  collected  edition  of  his 
works,  includiiif;  an  autohiographv,  was  published 
in  10  vols,  at  Stuttgart  in  1872,"  ami  another  of 
Hi  v.ds.  in  1889.  See  Lives  by  Faulhammer  ( 1883) 
ami  Laube  (1884),  and  works  by  \olkcIt  (1889) 
and  A.  iMirinelli  ( 189.">). 

f>rilso.    See  Salmon. 

<>I'illi:il<li.     See  .Mo.NACO. 
Grilllilltli.  .iKSKfn.  the  ty 

of    'the    genuine    clroll,    the 

irresistible  clown  '  of  the  English  pantomime,  wa.- 
born  in  Lonilon  on  I8th  December  1779,  the  year 
in  which  (larrick  dieil.  He  lirst  appeared  on"  the 
boards  of  Drury  I.ane  when  one  month  short  of 
two  years  cdd,  an<l  in  his  third  year  he  had  his  (irsl 
engagement  at  Sadler's  Wells  Theatre,  where  lie 
regularly  performed  (except  for  one  sea.son)down 
to  the  date  of  his  retirement  fr<nn  the  stage,  pre- 
maturely worn  out  by  sheer  hard  work,  in  18'28. 
He  used  regularly  for  some  months  every  year  to 
jierform  nightly  at  two  tlieatres,  and"o"nce  he 
aeliieved  the  feat  of  acting  at  three  dlirerent 
tlieatres  on  the  .same  night.  He  died  in  London, 
31st  .May  18:{7.  See  Mi  inoim  of  Joseph  Grimaldi, 
edited  by  Charles  Dickens  (1838). 
triiiic's  I>yk<-.  See  .Axtonixi-.'s'  Wall. 
_  <>riiiiiii,  I'KiKiiuriii  Melchiok,  HAitos,  aclever 
(lerman  critic,  who  knew  every  one  wortli  know- 
ing at  I'aris  in  the  later  half  of  the  l8tli  century. 
He  wa-s  born  at  Katisbon,  2oth  December  17'23,  aiid 
after  completing  his  studies  at  Leipzig,  and  making 
an  egregious  failure  with  a  tragedy,  acconijianieil 
the  young  Count  de  Schonberg  to  i'aris,  and  .soon 
after  became  reader  to  the  Crown  luince  of  Saxe- 
Cotlia.  He  W.1.S  still  in  very  straitened  circuni. 
stances  when  he  liecanie  acquainted  with  I{ous,seau 
in  174!).  ami  w.vs  by  him  introduced  to  Diilerot, 
Itaron  Holbach.  and  Madame  <rKi>iii,ay.  The  in- 
tiniaeyof  his  relations  with  this  lady  cost  him  later 
the  friendship  of  the  je.Uous  rionsseau.  (Irinim 
■(uickly  became  a  general  favourite,  and  his  con- 
nection with  the  Kncyclopedistes,  added  to  his 
own  niultilarious  ac(|uireiiients  and  vei-satilitv  of 
mind,  <i|iened  up  to  him  a  biilliant  career.  "  He 
became  secretary  to  Count  Fiiesen,  next  to  the 
Duke  of  Orleans,  and  now  began  to  write  for 
several  (Jeriuan  princes  those  famous  literary 
bulletins  which  cover  about   fortv  veal's,  anil   con 


pical  representative 
.•rimacing,    lilching. 


tain  the  nioBt  trenchant  criticism  of  all  the  most 

important   of  current   I'lench   IxHiks.     In    I77ti   he 

was  laiseil   by  the  Duke  of  (Jotlia  to  the  rank  of 

I  banui,   ami    appointed   minister  plenipotentiary   at 

the   Kiench   court.     On    the    breaking   out    of    the 

I  lievolution,  he  withdrew  to  (iotlia,  ami  afterwards 

to   the   court   of   Catharine   II.    at    St    IVtersburg 

whence  he  wa.s  .sent  in  \1'X>  a»  minister  of  Kussia 

to  Hamburg.     He  died  at  (iotlia,   littli  December 

1807.     lit!*  (.'urie.sjiijiii/iiiirc  Lit/i'iiiiir,  /'/ii/osd/i/iK/itc 

ct    Cri/ii/iii\    extending    from    \~Xi    to    17!MI,    wius 

I  published    in    three   divisions    (Hi    vols.    1812   13); 

,  a  supplementary  volume  in    1814.      Later  editions 

are  those   by  Taschcreau  (15  v<ds.    I8'jy  31  ),  and 

'ronrneux  ( i(j  v(d,s.  1878-82).     T\ii.-  Curnwiifim/inirc 

hUilite  (Ic  Un'iiiin  ct  iJii/erut  was  publishecl  in  I8'2!). 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  fyudes  siir  Grimm  (1854);  and 

Edmoiid  Schercr's  Mihhiur  Grimm  (I'aris,  1887). 

Grillini.  •IakiHI  Lidwh;  Kahl,  the  founder  of 
scientilic  tlerman  philology,  ami  one  of  the  noblest 
I  of  ancient  or  iiioderu  scholars,  was  Uirn  .lamiaiy  4, 
I  178.),   at    Haiiau,    in    He.ssc-Ca.ssel.       He   studied 
,  law  at  Marburg,  and  learnt  scientilic  method  from 
\  Savigiiy,  at  whose  invitation  he  spent  the  gieater 
jiart  of  the  year  180'>  in  study  at   I'aris.     On  liLs 
return  he  was  apjMiiiited  to  a  clerkslii|i  in  the  war- 
ollice,    and    in    1808,    iin\ate    libiaiian    to   .lenuiie 
lionaparte,    king   of    Westphalia,   who   also   maile 
him  auditor  to  the  council   of  state.      His   brother 
Wilhelni   ha<l   also  by  this  time  settled  at  Cassel. 
The  lii>t  fruit  of  his  studies  was  the  treatise  Vchcr 
(/ill  A/fi/iiilsi/icii  Miistcrr/esaiiif  (\>il\),  which  was 
followed   in   1812  by  the  lirst  vidunie  of  the  famous 
Kiiiilrr-    mill    lliiiismiirchcn,   collected   by   the    two 
brothers— a   work    which    h.as   carried    their    name 
over  the  civilised  world  in  the  happiest  and  most 
endiirinj;   kind  of   immortality,  and    has  formed  a 
foundation   for    the    new  .science    fif    comparative 
Folklore  (i|.v.).     Nor  li.-is  a  contribution  to  stori- 
ology  since  been  made  equ.al  in  imiiort.ince  to  the 
earliest.       The   second    volume   followed    in    1814  ; 
the  third,  containing  the  notes,  in  18'22.     In   1813 
Crimiii   was  .secretary   to   the  ambiLs.sador  of  the 
Elector  of  Hesse,  whom  he  attended  at  I'aris,  and 
at  the  Congiess  of  Viennji.     In  1815  he  w.xs  sent  to 
I'aris  to  claim  the  books  carried  ofl'  by  the  French. 
His  brother  Wilhelni  had  already  received  a  ]post 
in   the  Cassel   library,  ami   in    ISIG  .lakob  became 
second   librarian   under  Volkel,  on  whose  death  in 
18'28,  the  two  brothers  being  disappointi'd   of  the 
fii-st    and   second    jplaces    in    the    library,    removed 
to  tiiittingen,  where  Jakob  became  professor  and 
librarian,  ami  Wilhelni  nnder-librarian.     Here  for 
.seven  years  he  studied  the  language,  ancient  laws, 
history,  and  literature  of  tJermany,  but  never  niaile 
an  etlcctive  lecturer.     He  was  one  of  the  famous 
seven  professors  who  protested  in  1837  iigaiiist  the 
abolition  of  the  constitution  by  the  king  of  Han- 
over, for  which  act  he  w.-i-s  dismissed,  together  with 
his  biotkcr,   and   obliged  to  retire   to  Cassel.      In 
1840  they  were  both  invited  to  lierlin,  where  they 
received  ]irofessoi-ships.  and  were  elected  iiienibers 
of  the   .\cailemy   of  Sciences.     Here   .lakob  con- 
tinueil    his   studies   with    the   most    single  minded 
devotion.  ]iroducing  a  series  of  works  still   uiisiir- 
jiassed   f<ir  their   stupendous   erudition.      \Vorkiiig 
up  to  the  last  with  a  devotion  undivided  by  wife  or 
children,  lie  died  '2fltli  September  I8(;3. 

His  Deiilschc  GrnmiiKitil:  (181!);  2d  cd.  entirely 
recast,  Giitt.  1822-40)  is  perhaps  the  greatest  ]diil()- 
logical  work  of  the  age,  and  may  be  said  to  have 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  lii.sturiinl  investigatiim 
of  language.  It  traces  the  Cerniaii  langn.ige  his- 
torically through  all  it.s  dialects.  His  Dciitsclie 
Uei-his-Alterlhiimcr  (1828;  2d  e<I.  1854)  and 
Diiitmhe  Miillmlnriic  (1835;  3d  ed.  1854;  4th  e.l. 
by  Meyer,  i87.'>-78;  Eng.  trans,  by  J.  S.  Stally- 
brass.   4   vols.    1S79-SS)   are   works   of    exhaustive 


GRIM.M 


GRIMMELSHAL'SEN 


425 


enitlition  upon  the  society  of  tlie  niidille  ages  in 
centiiil  Europe,  and  the  lelijoous  trailitions  and 
superstitions  of  the  Teutonic  races  from  tlie  earliest 
times.  Only  less  important  is  his  dcsckichte  der 
DciiUchen  .^pracke  (1S4S;  3d  ed.  1868),  and  his 
Ecinhart  Fiic/ts  (1834).  In  company  with  his 
hrother  Wilhelm  he  published  many  editions  of  old 
German  classics,  Dciitsclte  Sageit  (lSlG-18;  2d  ed. 
1865-60);  and  projected  and  commenced  the  great 
and  still  unfinished  Dciitsc/ics  ]\'<irtcrburli  (vol.  i. 
1854;  threefourlhs  finished  li}'  1897,  with  the  col- 
lahoration  of  Heyne,  Hildehrand,  Lexer,  and 
Wcigand).  The  first  volume  of  Grimm's  Klcliicre 
Scliri'fti:ii  (8  v(ds.  1867-86)  contains  an  autohio- 
^rraphy  whicli  reveals  a  character  entirel}'  free  from 
jealousy  or  envy,  full  of  warm  human  sympathy, 
;ind  combining  in  an  almost  unexampled  degree 
a  noble  simplicity  of  life  with  lofty  elevation  of 
purpose.  Many  collections  of  his  letters  have  been 
])rinteil.  See  the  studies  by  Scherer  (2il  ed.  1884), 
I'erndt  ( 1884),  ami  those  devoted  to  the  two  brothers 
by  A.  Duncker  ( 1884)  and  Schonbach  ( 1885). 

(iRr.MM's  L.wv  is  the  name  "iven  to  the  rule 
which  regulates  the  I.autverschicbuxg,  or  permuta- 
tion of  certain  primitive  consonants,  which  takes 
place  in  the  Teutonic  languages.  The  law,  as 
finally  formulated  by  Jakob  Grimm,  is  that  if  tlie 
same  roots  or  words  exist  in  Sanskrit,  Greek, 
and  generally  in  Latin,  Celtic,  Lettic,  and  Sla- 
vonic, and  also  in  Gothic,  English,  Dutch,  and 
other  Low  German  dialects  on  the  one  hand,  aiul 
in  (Mil  High  German  on  the  other,  the  following 
correspondences  are  to  be  expected  :  ( 1 )  Gothic 
has  a  soft  mute,  and  High  German  a  hard  mute, 
in  ])lace  of  the  corresponding  aspirate  in  Sanskrit 
an(l  Greek  ;  (2)  Gothic  has  a  hard  mute,  and  Higli 
German  an  aspirate,  in  place  of  the  corresponding 
soft  mute  in  Sanskrit  and  Greek;  (3)  Gothic  has 
an  aspirate,  and  Higli  (ierman  a  soft  mute,  in  place 
of  the  correspotiiling  hard  mute  in  Sanskrit  and 
(Ireek.  Thus,  a  jirimitive  tU  becomes  tl  in  Low 
(Jerman,  and  t  in  High  German,  as  in  the  words 
</(Ugatcr,  (daughter,  /ochter.  A  jirinutive  (/  becomes 
/  in  Low  German,  and  z  in  High  German,  as  in 
(/uo,  two,  z\\e'\  ;  or  f/ens,  /ooth,  rahn  ;  or  </ecem, 
<en,  zehn.  A  primitive  t  becomes  th  in  Low  Ger- 
man, and  d  in  lligh  German,  as  in  /res,  l/ivee,  drei  ; 
or  til,  t/ii»\,  d\i :  or  tenuis,  Min,  (/iinn.  Similar 
changes  atlect  the  labials  and  gutturals,  as  in 
jiecus,  fee,  rich  ;  /later, /ather,  rater  ;  yiigus,  Jeech, 
^(uocha  ;  and  in  oculus,  ey/ie  ('eye'),  am/e  ;  rjidn, 
ic/io.  Iter;  or  />7(ortos,  //arden,  /.orto.  The  normal 
changes  are  set  forth  in  the  following  table  : 

Lnhlnls. 

Greek,  &c p        b    ph 

Gothic,  xc f        p    b 

Old  UighGernian. ..  b(v)f    p 

The  credit  of  the  discovery  of  the  La ut rersr/i ic- 
hiiiiff  is  not  wholly  due  to  Jakob  Grimm.  Hue 
and  lta.sk  had  discovered,  as  early  a-s  1818,  the  law 
of  the  transmutation  of  consonants  in  Greek  and 
(lotliic,  while  Grimm,  in  the  second  edition  of  his 
Ihiilsflic  GiriiiiiiKiti/:,  which  ajipeared  in  IS22, 
added  the  corresponding  changes  in  OI<l  High 
German,  and  formMl.itcil  the  Law  ;is  it  now  stands. 

(liimm's  Law  may  be  interfered  with  by  the 
action  of  other  laws,  especially  by  the  position  of 
the  accent,  a.s  formulated  in  Verner's  Law  (q.v. ). 
Thus  /niter  is  accented  on  the  Ihst  syllalde  and 
jiKtir  on  the  sec<md,  consequently,  though  we  h.ave 
lirtilluT  and  fntlirr  in  English,  we  tind  linidcr  ami 
r((ter  in  High  (ierman.  The  .iccent  in  jmtcr  has 
interfered  with  the  regular  action  of  the  Laiitvcr- 
s'-/iicljii/ir/,  and  prevented  the  normal  change  of  t 
to  (/  from  taking  place. 

Thus  Grimm's  Law  may  be  defined  as  the  state- 
ment of  certain  idionetic  facts  which  liapjien  in- 
variablv  unless  thev  are  interfered   with  I'V  other 


DciitnK  Outtui^Is. 

t     il    th  k        g    kh 

th    t    d  (h)    k    g 

d     z    t  g(li)  cb  k 


facts.  The  great  use  of  Giimm's  Law,  in  addition 
to  the  identification  of  words  in  different  languages, 
is  in  the  detection  of  loan  words.  Any  etyniologj- 
which  violates  Grimm's  Law,  as  qualified  by  other 
])honetic  laws,  must  be  rejected  unless  it  can  be 
e.xidained  as  a  loan  word. 

The  causes  which  lirought  about  the  changes 
formulated  in  Grimm's  Law  are  obscure.  They  are 
probably  due  to  the  settlement  of  Low  German 
conquerors  in  central  and  southern  Germany. 

See  Douse's  (rrimm^s  Laic:  a  Sludi/  of  Lautrevitckie- 
lung  (187C);  Max  Miiller's  Lectures  on  the  Stiidi/  of 
Lrriu/uafie,  2d  series,  lectiure  v.  (1864);  Morris'  Histori- 
cul  Uuiliius  of  EiLijlish  Accidence,  cliap.  ii.  (1872). 

Cirimni,  AVilhelm  Kael,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Hanau,  February  24,  1780. 
Great  part  of  his  life  has  already  been  told  in  that 
of  his  brother.  He  was  his  companion  in  study  at 
the  Lyceum  of  C'a.ssel,  the  university  of  Maiburg, 
and  again  at  Gottingen,  where  in  1S30  he  wa-s 
appointed  under-librarian  and  suiiernumerary  pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy.  He  joined  his  brother  in  the 
jirote.st  against  the  kin"  of  Hanover,  shared  his 
exile,  and  also  his  call  to  Berlin.  There  they 
laboured  together,  and  were  commonly  known  as 
the  IJrothers  (!nmm.  Under  that  name  also  they 
have  a  certain  immortality  in  the  all'ections  of  the 
children  of  the  civilised  world.  Wilhelm  died  Kith 
December  1859.  His  earliest  independent  work 
was  a  German  translation  of  the  Danish  Kiniijic- 
Viser  (1811-13).  He  edited  many  old  tierman 
texts,  and  collaborated  with  his  brother  Jakob  in 
several  of  his  works.  His  own  most  im]iortant 
book  is  Die  dcutsrhe  Hchloixafjc  (1829:  2d  ed. 
1867).  His  Kleiiicrc  ScItn'Jtcn,  ed.  by  Hinrichs, 
fill  4  vols.  ( 1S81-86),  and  contain  an  autobiography. 

Cirilllllia.  a  town  of  Saxony,  on  the  JIuIde,  19 
miles  SE.  of  Leijizig  by  rail.  It  has  a  town-hall 
( 1442),  a  former  royal  ca-stle  (  now  a  court-house),  a 
celebrated  schocd  (15,50,  the  '  Moldanum  Illustre'l, 
and  8992  inhabitants,  who  support  themselves  by 
manufactures  and  agriculture.     See  IJOR.v,  K.  VOX. 

driiuiiiel^liaiiseii,  Johann  Jacob  Chui.stof 
VON,  a  German  novelist  of  the  17th  century.    There 


place 
liorn 


his  birth,  liut  in  all  probal)ility  he  was  liorn  at 
(Jelidiauseii  in  He.sse-t'asscl  about  the  year  1025. 
In  early  boyhood  he  was  carrieil  oil  by  ;i  troop  of 
soldiers,  and  became  a  soldier  himself,  serving  on 
the  imperial  side  in  the  Thirty  Veais'  War  \\\>  to 
its  close.  For  several  years  after  the  end  of  the 
war  he  seems  to  have  led  a  wandeiing  life,  but 
ultimately  settled  down  at  Itenchen,  near  Kehl, 
where  he  held  the  post  of  bailitl'  for  the  Bishop  of 
Strasburg,  ami  jiassed  the  renuiinder  of  his  days  in 
jieace  and  prosperity,  dying  .Amtmann  of  the  town 
in  1676.  In  the  leisure  of  his  later  life  he  ]iro<lnced 
a  series  of  remarkable  novels,  all  the  more  remark- 
able for  a]ipearing  in  the  sterile  period  that  suc- 
ceeded the  riiirty  Years'  War.  liis  first  attempt 
was  an  imitation  of  Cyrano  de  Bergerac.  or  perhajis 
of  Godwin's  I'oi/aoe  of  Doinhirio  Uunsalca  to  the 
Moon,  but  his  best  works  are  on  the  model  of  the 
Spanish  ]'ic.iro,  or  rogue  and  vagabond  romances, 
and  deal  with  the  abundant  materials  furnished  by 
his  own  life.  The  form  was  all  that  he  borrowed  ; 
the  rich  humour,  dramatic  ]iower,  and  local  colour 
of  his  tales  are  all  his  own.  The  suH'crings  of  the 
(.Ierman  peasantry  at  the  hands  of  the  lawless 
troopei's  who  overran  the  country  have  never  been 
more  powerfully  pictured  than  in  the  opening 
chapters  of  Suiijilieinsiiiiiis  (first  printed  in  1669), 
which  is  evidently  autobiograi)hical  to  a  great 
extent.  It  wa-s  followed  in  1670  by  Trutz  Siiujilex, 
the  story  of  an  adventuress  of  the  same  sort  as  the 
Picara  Jnstiiin  of  Andres  Perez,  and  Spriiifiiiisfcld. 
the   history   of    a   soldier  of   fortune,    which    was 


4:!G 


CUilMOIUK 


(iH  INSTEAD 


siiceceileil  in  ICT'i  l>y  tlie  M'oiuhrful  liiriTs  nest,  a 
fiiiictfiil  |>i<)<liietii>M  .soiiiewlial  liUu  (!nuvani's /V/k- 
Ixilu  Ciijiie/c.  lJi"-iiU"s  llicse  (irinmiflsliiitisen  wrote 
tlie  Ei'ste  ISttre)ihi'nti:i\  tlie  iiitltji  nnminiitiin^  Sim- 
plicisaiinitji's  Enrittstitnj  Ctt/cttt/ar,  ami  tlirfe  or 
four  otlu'r  tales  or  tracts.  His  \vritiiij;s,  cspL'c-ially 
iiii/ij'/in.stii/iiix,  sei'iii  to  have  liei'ii  M'rv  |io|iular  in 
his  own  time,  luit  to  liavc  fallen  into  neylt'i-t  in  the 
last  century.  Their  merits,  however,  have  heen 
recogniseil  of  late  veal's,  ami  the  liest  of  them  have 
heen  reprinted  with  iiitroiluitions  ami  notes— e.^'. 
ill  the  edition  of  \'on  Keller  (4  vols.  Stiitt.  lS54-(i2), 
that  of  Ileinritdi  Km/.  (4  vols.  Leip.  lS(i3),  and  of 
Julius  Tittman  (4  vols.  Leip.  1874-77). 

Gl'illioirc     (whence    the     Kii;,'lisli     r/miitari/r, 

'  iiia;,'ic  ' ),  the  I'leni'li  term  lor  the  I k  <if  formulas 

which  smcerers  used  for  invoking  demons  ;  hence 
also    ''ihberish.       The    older    forms   of    the   word 


(ijriiiiiiiire,  ijniniinr)  approximate  to  the  Low  Latin 
ffiiiiiioKi,  'a  letter;'  tJie  origin  of  the  word  bein}; 
olivious. 

<>rillisby,  or  (Sukat  tlni.Msnv,  a  parliamentary, 
inuijiclpal,  and  county  borough  and  seaport  of 
Linci'liisliiie,  is  situated  on  the  light  bank  of  the 
Humbcr,  •20  miles  KSK.  of  Hull  and  -11  Ni:.  of  Lin 
coin.  It  consists  of  two  portions  :  the  older,  com- 
[nising  a  number  of  streets  irregularly  laid  out,  is  at 
the  head  of  the  harbour;  and  the  newer  jiai  t,  called 
the  '.Marsh,'  extending  ahuig  the  east  side  of  the 
harliour,  is  regular  and  spacious.  The  parish  church, 
a  good  cruciform  cdilice  in  the  Early  English  style. 
Wits  restored  in  l.S."iO.  A  statue  of  the  I'rincc 
Consort  was  unveiled  in  1870,  and  a  i>iililic  park 
of  '2~  acres  opencil  in  1SS3.  In  the  time  of  Eilward 
111.  (Irimsby  was  a  jiort  of  considerable  importance, 
which,  however,  it  grailually  lost  iis  its  harbour 
beeaine  silted  up.  The  town  is  famous  as  the 
largest  lishing  port  in  the  kingdom,  its  trawlers 
and  smacks  being  mostly  engaged  in  the  cod, 
herring,  and  whelk  lisheries.  Its  importance  as  a 
place  for  the  landing  of  lish  dates  from  IS-lO-oS, 
when  ilocks  began  to  be  constructed  under  the 
auspices  of  the  .Manchester,  Shellield,  and  Lincoln- 
shire Kailway,  which  carries  the  lish  to  the  principal 
industrial  centres  of  the  northern  Midlands,  'riie 
docks  cover  alt<)gether  an  area  of  about  .'!.")()  acres. 
The  industries  of  the  place  include  shipbuilding, 
tanning,  brewing,  cordage-making,  anil  llax-drcss- 
ing.  About  IJ.j(JO  ves.scls,  with  an  average  burden 
of  ti7.">,(X)0  tons,  enter  every  year,  and  the  uuiiiher 
and  burden  of  tho.se  clearing  annually  are  about 
the  same.  The  imports  of  the  port  reach  the 
annual  value  of  4.^  millions  sterling,  and  theex]i<n'ts 
7.}  millions,  (irimsby  since  IS.'i'i  has  returned  only 
one  member  to  )iarliaiiient.  I'o)).  ( 1S.")1  )  l'2,2U;i  ; 
( 1871  )  -is,.-*:}  ;  ( 1891 )  ,J8,603,  of  whom  51,876  were 
within  the  muniiip.il  boundaiy.  See  works  by 
Oliver  ( I8'25)  and  Davenport  ( I8'ti6). 

<irilldiil,  EuMrsi),  Ardibishop  of  Canterbury, 
w.is  born  near  St  Bees  in  1.')I9,  and  eilucated  at 
Cambridge,  where  he  was  in  turn  scholar,  fellow, 
and  miuster  of  I'einbroke  Hall.  Already  a  ]>re- 
bendary  of  Westminster  nniler  Edward  VI.,  he 
lived  abroad  duviiig  Mary's  reign,  and  tliere 
imbibed  the  spirit  of  tleneva,  retuniing  to  Eng- 
land on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth.  On  ISonner's 
ileprivation  in  1.5.i9  he  was  made  Itishop  of  Lon- 
don, in  1570  .\rehbishop  of  York,  and  in  l.")7,5 
he  succeeded  I'arker  in  the  see  of  Canterbury. 
His  I'uritanistic  symp.athies  soon  estranged  him 
from  the  court,  and  his  resolute  refusal  to  put 
down  against  his  own  conscience  'jiroiihesyings  or 
private  meetings  of  the  clergy  for  mutual  help 
in  the  interpretation  of  Scripture,  led  to  his 
being  .sequestered  from  his  functions  by  the  im- 
perious queen  in  l.'>77.  Not  for  five  .vears  was  he 
restored,  and  a  year  later  he  died  at  Croydon,  July 


(i,  1583.  '  IJeing  really  blind,"  says  Fuller,  'more 
with  grief  than  age,  he  was  willing  to  put  oil'  his 
clothes  before  he  went  to  bed.  aiicl  in  his  lifetime 
to  resign  his  place  to  Doctor  \\hilgift,  wlio  refuseil 

such    acceptance    thereof.       And    the    i|Ueeii,  c - 

miserating  his  condition,  was  graciously  pleaseil  to 
.say  that,  iis  she  had  maile  him,  so  he  should  die 
an  archliLshop.'  His  few  writings,  with  a  Life  by 
the  Kev.  William  Nicholson,  were  printed  by  the 
I'arker  Society  in  1853. 

<>riiul4'hval4l,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
valle>s  (:i4(is  feel)  of  the  Mernese  Obcrlaiul  in 
Switzeiland.  about  1'2A  miles  long  ami  4  binad, 
forms  the  appi'o.'ich  to  the  two  Crimlelwalil  glaciers. 
The  chief  hotel  and  part  of  the  \illage  (piq).  3089) 
were  destroyed  by  lire  on  18tli  August  1892. 

OrilldillK.     See  ClTl.KllV. 

l.rillltoiM",  or  CiKiM^imti:,  I'ikimsk,  a  favourite 
French  jioel  under  Louis  NIL  and  I'laiuis  1.,  was 
horn,  perhajis  at  Caen,  between  1475  and  148(1,  and 
early  became  known  as  a  writer  of  moral  and 
alh'gorical  poems,  next  of  .satirical  farces  aboumling 
in  allusions  to  the  social  and  jioliiical  circumstances 
of  the  tinii'.  For  the  liist  twenty  years  of  the  lOth 
cenluiy  he  iilayed  the  most  important  roles  in  the 
theatrical  society  of  '  Enfants  sans  ,Souci,'  liist  as 
Mi'ie-Sotte,  ne.xt  as  Prince  des  Sots  ;  and  a.s  such 
wa-s  active  in  the  ]>roducth)n  un<l  lepresenta- 
tUiii  of  pantomimic  satirical  farces.  He  is  an  iin- 
porlant  liguie  in  literary  history  as  one  of  the 
cieati>rsof  the  Eieneh  iiolitical  comeily.  He  abused 
the  enemies  of  Louis  Nil.,  and  thus  found  cover  for 
his  freedoms  against  the  vices  of  the  nobility,  the 
clergy,  and  even  the  sacred  pei'soii  of  the  iiope 
himself.  In  later  life  lie  entered  the  service  of  the 
Duke  of  Lorraine  a-s  a  herald,  and  conlined  his 
mu.se  to  religious  poetry  alone.  He  died  in  1544. 
The  most  important  among'  his  |iieces  are  Lc  Jiii  t/ii 
Prime  (leu  A//.V  ( l."il  1 ),  directed  esjiecially  against 
Pope  Julius  II.  ;  I.'s  fi/l/es  Juiterjuhes,  a  series  of 
half  allegorical  monologues  aimeil  at  the  chief 
existing  grievanci'S  in  church  and  state  ;  I.es  En- 
irejn'isdc  ]\'nini%  and  La  Chussc  da  Cerf  (lex  Cerfs^ 
both  political,  the  title  even  of  the  latter  lieing  but 
a  dimly-veiled  allusion  to  Pope  Julius  (Servns 
scrcvnim  Dei)  ;  and  the  famous  Mi/.tliic  tie  Mon- 
xeiijiieur  S((liil  I.ni/x,  written  about  1524.  (!rin- 
gore's  works  have  been  edited  by  Hciicault,  Mon- 
taiglon,  and  Hothschild  (4  vols.  1858  77).  He  Is 
the  chief  liguie  in  a  comedy  of  Dam  ille's,  but  his  de- 
scriptiim  in  Hugo's  \otre  Ihiiiic  must  not  be  taken 
as  liisloiical.  See  Picot,  Pierre  (Jriuijoire  (  Paris, 
1878),  and  another  work  by  li.ailel  (Nancy,  1893). 

(•I'illlK'll  Land,  a  b.'irren,  iiioiinlainous  Polar 
tract  on  the  west  vjilc  of  Kinncdy  Channel  (the 
northern  continuation  of  Smilh's  Sound),  wliiih 
separates  it  from  tlreenland.  It  w;is  discovered  by 
Dr  Hayes  of  Kane's  expedition  in  I8.")4,  and  named 
after  Henry  (iriiiiiell  ( 18(10-74),  of  New  'i'mk,  who 
had  titled  out  the  ex]>edilion.  tJrecly  in  1882 
thoroughly  exjilored  it.  North  and  south  it  is 
covercil  with  lee-caps;  between  them  lie  valleys 
that  get  cjiiit  of  their  snow  in  summer,  and  support 
herds  of  musk  oxen  and  the  usual  Arctic  faun.i. 
In  the  interior  he  discovered  Lake  Hazen,  00  iiiilis 
long,  and  two  ranges  of  mountains,  one  containing 
a  {jcak  (Mount  Arthur)  5(K)0  feet  high.— Another 
(Jnnnell  Land,  discovered  by  De  Haven  in  1850, 
lies  further  to  the  south-west,  oil'  the  north-west 
extremity  of  North  Devon  Islainl. 

lirillstCSld.  E.\ST,  an  cddfashioned  town  of 
Sus.sex.  3(i  miles  S.  by  E.  of  London  by  rail,  wliiidi 
till  18.32  returned  two  members  to  parliament. 
Here  is  Sackville  College,  of  which  I)r  Neale  was 
w.arden,  .anil  the  convent  of  the  sisterhood  of  St 
Margaret,  with  Home  and  Orphanage.  Pop.  5.390. 
—West  (;i:insti;.m)  is  18  miles  to  the  south-west. 


GRIPING 


GUISI 


41'; 


(•ripins:.  or  Gripes,  a  popular  name  for  all 
liaiiifiil  allct'tions  of  tlie  bowels,  whether  attended 
with  Ciiiistipatiim  (q.v.)or  Uiarrliiea  (fpv.).  When 
pains  of  this  kind  are  .spasmodic,  they  are  ternie<l 
Colic  ((|. v.).  Tile  action  of  pnigalive  medicine  is 
often  attended  by  more  or  less  of  gripin;,'  pain, 
•which  may  be  a\'erted  in  certain  cases  by  tlie 
(careful  ciioice  of  the  meilicine,  or  by  ct)inl)ination  of 
it  with  Carniinatives  (q.v.),  lu'  witli  a  little  opium. 

<<i'HiiinIniid    West    and    East    are     two 

IJritish  ilistricts  of  South  Africa,  one  a  part  of 
C'ape  Colony  (q.v.),  the  other  a  dependency  of  it, 
and  named  from  the  (iriciuas  or  Bastaards,  who 
are  a  mixed  race  sprung  from  Dutch  settlers  and 
native  women. — (irhiiirddiid  Wrsl  lies  to  the  north- 
east of  Cape  Colony,  is  bounded  on  the  S.  by  the 
Orange  River,  on  the  N.  by  liechuana  territory, 
on  the  R.  by  Orange  Free  .State,  f)n  the  W.  by  the 
Kalaliari  country.  Porti(ms  of  the  country  are 
suitable  for  slieep-farming  ami  .agriculture,  but  the 
chief  source  of  we.alth  is  the  diamond-fields.  Tlie 
first  diaiiionil  was  discovered  in  l.S(i7,  and  from  that 
time  a  steady  stream  of  immigration  set  in  ;  settle- 
ments were  formed,  all  nationalities  being  repre- 
sented, and  digging  was  vigorously  prosecuted. 
Diamonds  to  the  value  of  above  £12,000,01)0  were 
found  there  between  1871  ami  l.SSO,  and  of  about 
£l,j,000,000  between  1SS3  and  1SS7.  The  territory 
of  the  diamond-liclds  luul  been  secured  to  W.ater- 
boer,  a  native  chief,  but  disputes  arising  as  to  bis 
boiimlaries,  (iric|ualand  West  was  annexed  in  1.S71, 
and  incor|ioratcd  with  Cape  Colony  in  ISSO.  Kim- 
berlcy,  wiiicli  has  had  railway  connection  with  the 
Cape  since  l.S.S.>,  is  the  chief  centre  of  the  diamond 
industry,  and  is  the  seat  of  government.  The  chief 
towns  are  De  Beers,  Du  Toit's  I'an,  Bultfontein, 
BarUlv,  and  (iriipi.a  Town.  The  area  of  Cri'|ua- 
land  \Vest  is  l.j,197  sq.  m.,  and  the  pop.  (ISO!) 
83,H75,  of  whom  20,670  were  whites. — Griijiia- 
laiid  J'Jaxt  is  that  part  of  No-Man 's-Land  wbich 
lies  between  the  Kallir  border  and  soutliern  Natal. 
It  is  allotted  to  the  Griqua  chief,  Adam  Kok, 
who  had  lemoved  thither  with  1.5,000  Griquiis,  anil 
to  the  Basutos,  who  had  pre\iously  migrated  to 
that  countiy.  This  territory  was  annexed  to  the 
Cajie  ill  1S7."',  .and  is  now  under  colonial  rule, 
having  one  chief  magistrate  and  nine  subordinates. 
Chief  village^  Kokstadt.  The  area  is  given  at  7594 
sip  m.  ;  pop.  ( ISOI  )  1.32,(;i8  ;  of  whites,  41o0.  See 
also  Ti:.\.NsKKi  Teuiutorv. 

<>ris('ldiu  or  Gi'jsELDis,  the  heroine  of  one  of 
the  most  famous  medieval  tales,  wliich  the  genius 
of  Boccaccio,  I'etrarch,  and  Chaucer  has  made  a 
])ermanent  literary  possession  of  the  world.  She  was 
the  (laughter  of  a  poor  I'iedmontese  ]ieasant,  and 
for  her  lieauty  was  taken  to  wife  by  the  .Marc|uis 
Walter  of  Saluzzo.  To  prove  her  truth'  and  humility, 
lie  put  her  to  several  cruel  tests — tore  lioth  her 
childien  in  succession  from  her,  ami  at  last  com- 
manded her  to  return  to  her  humble  hut,  as  he  was 
about  to  take  to  himself  another  wil'e.  To  all  her 
husliand's  harsh  commands  she  submitteil  with 
such  unquestioning  submissiveness  and  humility  as 
to  make  herself  for  all  time  'the  Hour  of  w'ylly 
pacience.'  The  marc|uis,  overjoyed  to  sec  her  coni- 
plete  devotcdness  ami  self-renunciation,  took  her 
again  to  his  arms,  gave  her  back  the  <-liildren  she 
had  seen  carried  olf  to  death,  and  lienceforth  they 
lived  together  in  uninterrupted  li.appiiiess. 

The  llrst  literary  version  of  the  story  occurs  as 
the  last  tale  of  Boccaccio's  l>cr,niirn>i{  -On'  tenth 
tale  of  the  tenth  day,  written  doubtless  about  l.'?4S. 
Petrarch  wrote  a  Latin  version  of  it,  D<-  Ohiiliriifiit 
et  Fide  K.roria  m>/l/io/o;/i(i,  written  aiqiarently  about 
1.37.'!.  Tt  is  accompanied  by  a  letter  to  Boccaccio, 
in  which  Petrarch  says  that  the  story  had  ahv.ays 
pleased   him  when   he  heard  it  nianv  years  before. 


The  stuff  of  tlie  story  is  undoubtedly  much  older 
than  Boccaccio,  .ami  certainly  we  soon  tind  it  widely 
difluseil  .and  highly  po]iular.  Keinhold  Kiihler 
enumerates  as  many  as  si.xteen  Volksbucb  versions 
in  German  from  the  eml  of  the  l.jth  to  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century,  all  based  upon  Ileiniicli  .Stein- 
hiiwers  translation  of  Petrarch  (  1471 ).  As  a  chaji- 
book  the  story  was  almost  as  common  in  France  in 
the  version  La  Miruir  i/c  JJames,  ou  la  Palicnce  de 
Griscidi.f,  <(•'■.,  to  be  found  in  Ch.  Nisard's  Histoire 
de  Linr-i  J'njiidiiiirs  (2d  ed.  1SC4).  In  England 
editions  of  such  were  entered  on  the  Stationers' 
Registers  in  the  years  I.iOo  and  1.5G8,  and  another 
of  1619  is  still  extant,  under  the  title,  T/ie  aiuunit, 
true,  r.t)id  (idminibte  llisfori/  of  Patient  (J  rise!,  \'c. , 
reprinted  for  the  Percy  Society  in  1842.  Sub- 
stantially the  same  story  also  ajipears  in  Danish, 
Russian,  and  Icelandic  folk-tale.s. 

Tlie  chief  poetical  version  of  the  story  of  patient 
Griselda  is  tliat  in  Chaucer's  Cler/.cx  Talc,  one  of 
the  noblest  poems  in  its  series,  and  recited  by 
perhaps  the  most  attractive  figure  in  the  group  of 
pilgrims.  Chaucer  makes  the  Clerk  say  that  he 
had  learneil  the  tale  at  Padua  from  the  lips  of 
Petrarch  himself,  and  in  all  probability  he  identifies 
himself  here  with  the  Clerk,  and  speaks  out  his 
own  personal  experience,  as  he  was  <ab.sent  in  Italy 
on  the  king's  business  from  the  December  of  I:i72 
to  the  November  of  1373.  The  poem  is  distinctly 
founded  on  Petrarch's  moralised  Latin  version,  but 
the  jioetical  treatment  of  the  story  is  so  indi\  idiial 
that  it  all  comes  afresh  from  the  mind  of  Chaucer. 
We  have  a  ball.ad  of  '  Pacyent  (Irissel'  in  Bishop 
Percy's  Fuliu  MS.  (vol.  iii.'lSG8);  and  we  lind  her 
jiainted  among  the  celebrated  lovers  on  the  walls  of 
the  temjile  in  Lydgate's  poem,  Tlic  Temple  of  Glass. 
Indeed  the  beauty  of  the  story,  and  its  allegorical 
value  as  a  lesson  teaching  the  duty  of  submission 
to  the  will  of  God,  quickly  touched  the  popular 
im.agination,  and  the  patience  of  Griselda  jiasscd 
into  a  ijioverb,  as  we  .see  in  Shakespeare  and  lliidi- 
Ijiris.  Perraiilt's  poem  of  9.32  irregular  rhymed 
verses  is  the  chief  poetic  elaboration  of  the  t"lieme 
in  French. 

The  earliest  ilraniatic  representation  was  an 
old  French  Mystery  on  the  subject,  composed 
about  139.5.  Of  more  modern  plays,  it  is  enough 
to  mention  Dekker,  Chettle,  and  Haughton's 
Plcasaid.  Cianedii  iif  Patient  Gri.iscl  (1.599;  ed. 
by  J.  P.  Collier  for  the  .Shakespeare  Society, 
1841 ) ;  AY  e.eeniptu  de  Casittlas  ij  [trucra  de  la 
Pacicncia,  by  Lope  de  N'ega  ;  Hitns'  Sachs'  Gcdidti;/ 
iind  gehorsam  Miu-l.ijrajin  Griselda  (1540);  Gol- 
doni's  La  Griselda;  and  Fricdrich  Halm's  Griscldis 
(1834). 

!?ee  Eeinhokl  Kiihler's  article  in  Ersch  and  Grubcr's 
Enci/klopiitie,  and  Dr  Kriuilrich  von  Westeiiliolz,  Die 
Griseldis-Suije  in  der  Literntnriicsrhichtc  ( HcidcUierg, 
1S8S).  Petrarch's  Latin  talc  of  (.'riwhli.i,  with  Boccaccio's 
tale  from  which  it  was  retold,  is  reprinted  in  the  Chaucer 
Society's  Ori;iiiiuls  ami  Analaijiies  of  Chaucer's  Canter- 
bury  Talis,  part  ii.  (1S75). 

Grisi,  ClIl.I.V,  a  celebrated  singer,  was  born  at 
Milan  in  181 1,  and  made  her  liist  aiqiearance  in 
1828,  at  Itologna,  in  Rossini's  Zehitira.  Her  fame 
spread  rapidly  over  Europe  ;  in  1832  she  aiipeared 
in  Paris  in  Semiramis,  w  here  the  purity,  melodious- 
ness, and  volume  of  her  voice,  as  well  as  her 
classical  beauty  of  features  (  Heine  wrote  of  her  as 
'the  singing  llower  of  beauty'),  secured  general 
.admir.ation.  B(dliiii's  Piiriffdii  and  other  ojieias 
were  written  for  her,  but  Norm.a  always  remained 
her  greatest  (lart.  Lomlon  w.as  the  .scene  of  her 
grandest  ami  most  successful  ]ierfornianccs ;  and 
here  she  married  in  18;!ti  the  Marquis  de  >lelcy, 
after  whose  death  she  became  in  18.56  the  wife  of 
the  tenor,  Mario,  with  whom  she  sang  in  America. 
She  died  in  Berlin,  'JStli  November  1SU9. 


■128 


GRIS-NEZ; 


GROLIEIl 


<aris-ll«'Z.  Cape,  a  lieailhuKl  (104  feet  lii^'h) 
ill  the  I'leiicli  <lo|iiiitiiieiit  of  I'lUs-dc-Calais,  ojipo- 
site  Diiver,  is  the  iiciiiit  of  laiul  nearest  to  tlie 
Kii^'li>h  slime,  the  ilistanee  bein^'  haielv  20  miles. 
AliiMit  i'c|iNilly  ili^taiit  ti'oiii  Calais  iin  the  iidiiIi- 
east  ami  I5ciiilnj;iie  nii  the  south,  the  ea])C  marks 
the  iliviiliii^  lino  between  the  North  Sea  and  the 
Kii;,'lisli  Cliaiiiiel.      It  lias  a  lighthouse. 

<>risoil  (also  oalleil  /liiroii),  a  South  .Xiiiericaii 
weasel  (Ciilii-tiH  rilt(ita),  is  somewhat  largei-  than 
the  I'.iiropean  weasel. 

liTisoils  (tier.  Graubiindcn),  the  laifrcst  and 
the  most  thinly  ]>eo|p|ed  of  the  Swiss  eantons,  is 
lioiiiiileil  E.  Ipy  Tvi'ol  and  S.  hv  l.iiiiiliaidv.  Area. 
'277.'{  s(|.  111.  {\m\>.  (ISSS)  W.sio.  Neail.v  hall  are 
(ieniians;  next  comes  the  eharaclerislic  Koiiianseh 
(([.v.)  element  (37,000),  with  lit, 000  Italians.  iSIoie 
than  half  of  the  whole  numlier  are  I'rotestauts. 
The  whole  eaiiton  is  an  a.sseiiihlaj;c  of  mountains 
intei'sected  hy  narrow  valleys.  These  la."*!  form 
three  },'r(iups,  of  which  the  lirsl  and  most  im- 
jiortant  lies  aloii;;  the  course  of  the  liliine.  and 
stretches  norlhwaid,  occn|iying  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  western  portioii  of  the  canton;  the  second, 
forniin;,'  the  Kiigailine  (ri.v.),  extends  north-east 
alon;,'  the  course  of  the  Inn  ;  and  the  thirtl  com- 
prises sever.al  .^mailer  valleys,  whose  streams  run 
southward,  l)eloni,'in;;  to  the  hasins  of  the  Ticino 
ami  the  .-Vdige.  Pastures  and  forests  occupy  a 
larjte  portion  of  the  canton;  cattle  and  timher 
are  the  principal  exports.  Numerous  mineral 
springs  iiie  fouml  witiiin  the  Ciinton ;  also  the 
health-resorts  of  Davos,  the  I  piier  Enga<line, 
Seewis,  itc.  Iron,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  and  silver 
occur.  Within  the  (Jrisons  too  are  several  passes 
leading  to  Italy,  such  a.s  the  Sjiliigen,  St 
Mernardino,  liernina.  The  canton  is  democratic  in 
eoii.-titiition  (.see  S\vnZKi!i..\Nl)).  The  cantonal 
cajiital  is  Cliur  or  t'oire  (f|.v.). 

riie  country  wa.s  anciently  inhabited  by  the 
liha'tii,  who  are  suiiposed  to  have  been  of  Ktriisciin 
race  (see  ETltll!l.\ ).  It  was  con(|uered  liv  the 
Uomans  under  .\uguslus,  and  added  by  Cliarle- 
iiiagiie  to  his  enipii'i"  in  fS07.  Dining  the  middle 
■ages  the  Bishop  of  Chiir  was  the  most  powerful  of 
the  nnnierons  noliles  who  .sought  to  oppress  the 
people,  till  they  in  self-defence  formed  themselves 
into  leagues.  Due  of  tlie.se  leagues,  formed  in  14'24, 
Wiis  called  the  .'/"'.'/  league  (tier,  ilcr  (jraiie,  biiiiil), 
from  the  gray  homespun  worn  by  the  unionists,  and 
hence  the  (German  and  I'rench  names  of  the  ejinton 
— (iiaiibiiiiileii  and  (Prisons.  In  1471  these  separali' 
unions  entered  into  a  general  feileiation,  whii'h 
then  {14'.I7  its)  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Swiss 
cantons.  See  works  in  Cicrman  by  Jeekliii  ((3  vols. 
Coire,  1874-80). 

<>l'is>voI<l.  Kl'KfS  Wii.MoT,  American  editor, 
w,i.s  l"irn  ill  \'eriiiont,  loth  l-'ebriiary  1815.  .After 
extensive  travels  at  home  and  in  Kiinipe,  he  learned 
printing  and  newspaper  work,  next  became  liaptist 
preacher,  tli<'ii  journalist  and  eoiii]iiler  of  books  in 
turn  at  riiilailelphia.  lioston,  :uid  New  \'oik.  The 
most  important  paper  which  he  edited  during  his 
career,  tlie  Iidciiiuliuiial  i[ag(i:iiic,  was  afterwards 
amalgamated  >vitli  Jlm/icrs  Miignzine.  Griswold 
died  in  New  York,  27th  .\iigiist  18.')7.  His  books 
are  nnincrous ;  but,  despite  his  industrv.  lie  was  but 
a  poor  literary  critic.  Here  the  following  only  can 
he  named:  I'm  Is  iitii/  I'ortri/  of  Aiiieriiii  (IS42); 
I'ucf.i  (tiid  I'ljclifi  iif  Eiigltind  in  tlv  I'JIh  t'tiilmtj 
(1845);  Prose  Writers  of  America  (1840);  Frnmle 
Poets  of  America  (1848);  and  The  Ixcmililicat) 
Court,  or  American  Socictt/  in  the  I)ai/s  of  Washing- 
ton (1854).  Me  was  one  of  I'oe's  e.xecutors,  and 
the  Life  which  he  furnished  to  the  e<lition  of  his 
works  (3  vols.  1850)  liiis  occasioned  much  hostile 
c-ritieisin. 


Cirit,   a  coai-se-grnined   arenaceous   rock.      See 

SaMisTONK,  C.VICIlllNIFEltOfS  SYSTEM. 

<>l'iz/.l.V.     See  l!i:Alt. 

<«r«al('*hl  I,ow  (k-rinan  grutc,  meaning  (/;•<•«/). 
a  name  given  in  the  middle  ages  to  all  thick  coins, 
as  distinguished  from  the  ■  brm-teales '  or  thin  coins 
of  silver  or  goM-leaf  stamped  so  as  to  be  hollow  on 
one  side  and  laiscd  on  the  other.  The  silver  groat 
enrrent  in  England  (introduced  by  Edward  III.) 
was  eijual  to  four  pence.  The  coin  not  the  name 
— was  revived  (1830-50)  in  the  niodern  foiirpeiiny- 
]>iece.  (iroschen,  the  German  ei|iiivnlent  of  groats, 
were  till  1873  70  current  in  the  north  of  (iermany, 
and  eipial  in  value  to  .,'„tli  of  a  thaler,  worth  IJd. 
or  21  cents  liiiled  Stales  currency. 

<il'0('.VII,  Wll.MAM,  the  lii-st  who  )uibliely 
taught  (iieek  at  Uxlord,  was  born  at  Coleriie, 
Wilts,  about  1440,  and  educateil  at  Winchester 
and  New  College,  U.xfoid.  He  piiisiied  bis  studies 
afterwards  in  Italy,  ac(|uiiiiig  a  knowledge  of 
Greek  from  the  Greek  exile  Chalkomlylas  ;  anil 
.settled  again  in  14(11  al  Oxford,  wlicie  Sir  Thoniius 
More  was  among  his  pupils.  When  Er.xsiniis 
visited  O.xford  he  liveil  in  tlrocyn's  house,  and  he 
speaks  of  him  as  his  '  palronus  et  pi:eceptor. '  In 
1500  he  became  master  of  Allhallows  College, 
near  .Maidsduie,  and  here  he  died  in  1519. 

4ill*ud('k.  a  town  of  Austrian  (ialicia,  20  miles 
SSW.  of  Eeiiiberg,  in  the  centre  of  a  llax -growing 
region.      I'op.  10,742,  nearly  one-third  .lews. 

4>ro<lllO.  a  (own  of  Russia,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Nii'iiien.  U8  miles  by  rail  N  K,  of  Warsaw. 
It  has  a  medical  academy  and  maniifacliires  in 
cloth  and  tobacco.  The  new  palace,  erected  by 
Augustus  III.  of  I'oland,  is  a  handsome  edilice. 
At  first  a  Russian  town,  Grodno  fell  to  Eitluiania 
in  1241.  Here  Slc]dien  Uatbori  died  in  1580; 
j  here  in  1703  the  I'olish  diet  latilied  the  second 
partition  of  Toland  ;  and  here,  too,  Stanislaus 
Augustus,  the  last  king  of  I'oland.  abdicated  (  1705). 
I'op.  (1805)  50,500.  In  the  neigliboui hood  are  the 
iiiincr.al  springs  of  Drusskeiiik.  -  The  province  of 
(Jrodno  (area,  14,031  sq.  m.  ;  po])ulalion,  1,550,442) 
is  an  extensive  jilain,  largely  covered  with  pine 
forests,  and  in  jiarts  swampy.  I>ul  it  is  crossed  by 
the  ridge  that  forms  the  watershed  between  the 
Haltie  aii<l  r.la(d<  Sea  basins.  Its  largest  livers  are 
the  I!ug.  N.arew,  and  Niemi'Ii.  I!ye,  wheat,  oats, 
potatoes,  and  tobacco  are  grown  on  tlie  fertile  soil. 
I'lie  ]iioviiice  is  a  scat  of  the  woollen  industry. 
Trade  (in  timber,  grain,  flax,  hemp,  wool,  \c.)  is 
exclusively  in  the  hands  of  Jews. 

4>l*OS.  sjiirits  and  cold  water,  without  sugar. 
The  rpiaint  name  of  grog  is  said  to  be  deriveil  from 
a  nickname  of  Ailmiral  Vernon,  who  in  l745ordereil 
his  sailors  to  dilute  their  spirits  with  water,  lie 
w.is  known  to  his  men  as  '  ( )ld  Grog'  from  liis 
wealing  grograni  breeches. 

laroiiiiiii;*    See  Gothic  AiiciiiTECTtiiK. 

Cil'Olioi*.  Jean,  a  famous  I'rench  bibliophile, 
was  born  in  1470  at  Lyons.  He  was  attacbcil  lo 
the  court  ol  Eiaiicis  I.,  went  to  Italy  as  inteiidant- 
general  of  the  army,  and  was  long  employed  in 
di)domacy  at  Milan  and  at  Home.  After  his 
return  to  Erance  he  became  Trtsorier  general,  and 
ilied  at  Paris  in  October  1505.  It  is  his  lilnaiy 
that  has  made  Orolier  famous.  He  ac(|uiied 
choice  copies  of  the  best  works  then  existing,  and 
had  them  magnilicently  and  tastefully  bound,  with 
the  generous  inscription,  lo.  (Irolicrii et  Amieoriim. 
He  had  no  less  than  .'{(MX)  books,  and  of  these  about 
.3,50  have  come  to  light,  bound  eleg.antly  in  brown 
calf,  both  sides  ornamented  with  llonil  aiabesfjues. 
The  library  w.as  dispersed  in  1075.  and  Oioliers  are 
now  |irecious  ]iri/es  to  the  bibliiipliile,  their  jiriees 
at  auctions  varviiig  from  IjOO  to  1200  francs.     See 


GRONINGEN 


GROSS 


429 


tlie    stu<ly    by    Le    Roux    tie   Liney   (1806),   and 
Clement  de  Ris,  Les  Amateurs  cV Autrefois  (1876). 

C»l*Ollilli(Cll  (ancient  Cruoniiifja),  tlie  nortli- 
easlL'iii  [iioviiice  of  Holland,  bounded  N.  by  the 
North  Sea  and  E.  by  Hanover,  with  an  area  of  887 
sq.  m.  Tlie  surface  lies  low  ;  the  soil  is  fertile, 
jiarticularly  in  the  north  ;  in  tlie  south-cast  there 
are  several  marshes,  though  tliey  are  beiii^'  rapidly 
drained  and  cultivated  (as  the  Bourtanj;er). 
Farming  and  grazing  are  the  chief  pursuits  of  the 
iieople.  Shipbuilding  is  extensively  followed ;  much 
t>utter  is  exported,  and  some  woollen  hosiery, 
cloth,  linen,  paper,  jiottery,  and  potato  meal  are 
manufactured.  The  peojile,  285,780  in  1894,  are 
almost  entirely  of  the  Frisian  race,  and  belong 
chielly  to  the  Reformed  Church. 

(al'Ollillgeil,  the  capital  of  tlie  above  province, 
2,")  milrs  by  rail  SW.  of  Delfzihl,  on  Dollart  I'.ay, 
anil  .'W  E.  of  Leeuwarden.  The  uni\ersity,  founded 
in  101-i,  with  new  buildings  of  18.50,  and  some  360 
students,  possesses  a  library,  a  liotanit^  garden,  an 
observatory,  a  collection  of  Teutonic  anti(|uities,  a 
hospital,  and  a  museum  of  natural  history.  A 
celebrated  deaf  and  dumb  institution  was  founded 
by  Guyot  in  1790.  The  chief  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  linen  and  woollen  goods,  tidiacco, 
brushes,  Dutch  tiles,  and  Ijoatbuilding.  Groningen, 
already  an  important  place  in  the  9th  century, 
joined  the  Hanseatic  League  in  1282.  From  the 
lltli  century  it  fouglit  hard  to  maiulaiii  its  in- 
dependence against  the  Inshops  of  Utrecht,  nor  did 
it  submit  until  1493,  and  then  only  to  e.'^cape  being 
handed  over  liy  the  emperor  to  the  Duke  of  Saxony. 
During  the  16th  century  it  had  a  very  stormy 
history,  being  linally  won  for  the  Fnited  Netlier- 
lands  by  Maurice  of  Nassau  in  1594.  Pop.  (1876) 
40,165:  (1S93)  57,967. 

Ciroiiovilis,  the  Latinised  form  of  Gronov,  the 
name  of  a  family  of  scholars  of  (ierman  extraction, 
settled  ill  Holland,  the  principal  members  of  which 
were  :  Jcdin  Frederic  Gronovius,  born  at  Hamburg 
in  1611,  studied  at  Leipzig,  Jena,  and  Altdorf, 
became  in  1643  profes.sor  at  Deventer,  and  in  1658 
at  Leyden,  where  he  died  in  1671.  He  edited 
Livy,  Statins,  Tacitus,  Plia'drus,  Seneca,  Sallust, 
IMiiiy,  and  Plaiitiis,  and  published  many  works 
showing  a  profound  knowledge  of  Roman  anticpii- 
lies,  among  them  his  Observntioncs  ct  Cummoit- 
ttriiis  (le  Sestertiis. — James  Gronovius,  son  of  the 
jirecediiig,  born  at  Deventer  in  1645,  studied  partly 
there  and  partly  at  Leyden,  occupied  for  two  years 
a  chair  at  Pisa,  was  appointed  in  1679  to  his 
father's  chair,  which  he  held  till  his  death  in 
1716.  His  works  were  his  Thesaurus  Anti(iiiita- 
iuiii  (rrwrorum  (15  vols.  1697-1702),  and  editions 
of  Polyliius,  Herodotus,  Cicero,  and  Ammianus 
Marcellinus. — Abraham  Gronovius,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Leyden  in  1694,  Ijecame  librarian 
to  the  university,  and  died  there  in  1775.  He 
sliowed  him.self  worthy  of  the  traditions  of  his 
house  by  his  excellent  editions  of  Justinus  Pom- 
ponius  Mel.a  and  Tacitus. — .John  Frederick,  an 
eiiiinent  botanist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
liorn  at  Leyden  in  1690,  and  died  there  in  1760. 
His  works  were  Flora  V'injinica  (1743)  and  Floni 
Orientiilis  (1765). — Laurence  T'heodore  (ironovius, 
son  of  the  preceiling,  born  1730,  died  at  Leyden, 
1778,  author  of  .V((.v('h;»  ichtltiiolorileitm  (1754  .56); 
Zoniiliijlarhttii  Grouoriannin  (1763-81);  and  Biltli- 
ol/iira  reijiii  tiuiinalis  ( 1760). 

Ciroot^  Gerh.vrd  (1340-84),  founder  of  the 
'  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life.'     See  Brother- 

1I()1)1).S. 

tirooto  Eylaildt  (Dutch,  'great  island'), 
an  uiiiiihabiteil  island  on  the  west  siile  of  the 
liulf  of  Carpentaria,  in  North  Australia.  It  is 
surrounded  by  reefs,  and  its  interior  is  hilly.     In 


extreme  length  and  breadth  it  measures  about  40 
miles  each  way. 

ftlros,  Antoixe  Je.vx,  Barox,  a  French  his- 
torical painter,  was  born  at  Paris  on  16th  Maich 
1771,  studied  in  the  school  of  David,  and  first 
acquired  celebrity  by  his  picture  of  '  lionajiarte  on 
the  Bridge  of  Arcole.'  His  (irst  great  achievement, 
however,  was  '  Napoleon  visiting  the  Plague- 
sinitten  at  Jaffa'  in  1804;  and  .scarcely  less  suc- 
cessful were  the  'Battle  of  Aboukir'  (1806)  and 
the  'Battle  of  Eyiau '  (1808).  Gros  also  painted 
.several  other  historical  pictures  illustrating  tlie 
achievements  of  Napoleon;  the  'Meeting  of 
Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.'  in  1812;  in  18n-'24 
an  immense  work  for  the  cupola  of  tlie  church 
of  Saint  Genevieve ;  the  '  Departure  of  Louis 
XVIII.  for  Ghent'  (1815);  and  the  'Embarka- 
tion of  the  Duchess  of  Angouleme'  (1815).  In 
his  later  years  lie  returned  to  the  traditionary 
classic  style  of  painting,  and  in  chagrin  at  his 
want  of  success  is  lielieved  to  have  committed 
.suicide.  At  all  events,  his  body  was  drawn  out 
of  the  Seine  near  Mendon,  27th  June  1835.  Gros's 
]iaintings  are  marked  by  powerful  expression  and 
dramatic  movement,  but  are  delicient  in  delicacy 
and  sentiment.  See  his  Life  by  Delestre  (1867) 
and  Tripier  le  Franc  ( 1878). 

Grosbeak,  a  name  applied  to  not  a  few 
highly-specialised  linelies  (Fringillida'),  with  thick, 
heavy,  seed-crushing  bills,  'so  high  that  their  upper 
contours  almost  form  one  continuous  curve  with 
that  of  the  head.'  The  European  Hawfinch  (ij.v. ) 
(  Coceothraustes  vulgaris]  and  the  American  Evening 
Grosbeak  (Hesjjeriphona  vespertina)  are  good  ex- 
amples. But  the  name  is  applied  to  many  other 
birds — e.g.  to  the  Cardinal  Cirosbeaks  (Cardinalis) 
and  the  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak  (llcibia  hnhrici- 
ana ). 

Grosclien.    See  Groat. 

tirosc.  Francis,  a  famous  English  antiiiuary, 
born  at  Greenford,  Middlesex,  in  1731,  son  of  a 
rich  Swiss  jeweller  settled  in  England.  In  the 
College  of  Heralds  in  1755-63,  ho  next  became 
adjutant  of  the  Hanijishire  and  then  of  the 
Surrey  militia,  ami,  when  his  ea.sy  habits  had 
luought  him  to  the  end  of  his  fortune,  liegan 
to  put  to  profit  the  favourite  studies  of  his 
youth  and  his  excellent  dranghtmanship.  His 
Antiijuitics  of  Exfiland  and  ]i'(tles  (6  vols.  1773- 
87)  proved  a  success,  and  in  1789  lie  set  out  on  an 
antiiiuarian  tour  through  Scotland.  His  splendid 
social  qualities,  his  rich  humour  and  good  nature, 
which  fitted  well  with  his  Falslafl'-like  bulk,  made 
him  friends  everywhere.  Burns  made  his  acquaint- 
ance, and  has  hit  him  oil'  admiralily  in  his  poem, 
'Hear,  Land  o'  Cakes,  and  blither  Scots.'  The 
lines  'a  chield's  among  you  takin'  notes,  and  faith 
he'll  |irent  it,'  are  often  quoted  by  persons  ignorant 
of  their  (uiginal  application,  (irose  crossed  over  to 
Ireland  to  continue  the  same  iiujuiries,  but  died 
suddenly  in  an  apoplectic  lit  at  Dublin,  12th  May 
1791.  Ciro-se's  work  on  the  antiquities  of  Scotland 
appeared  1789-91  ;  that  of  Ireland  in  1791.  A\'orks 
of  exceptional  value  are  A  l'l(issi(<(l  Dirtiuiianj  of 
the  \'ulf/ar  Tongue  (1785;  new  ed.  with  Memoir 
by  Pierce  Egan,  1823),  and  -4  Proriiiciat  Glossori/ 
(1787).  CUher  works  are  his  Tntifise  on  Ancient 
Armour  and  ]l'ea/)ons  ( 1785-89);  Military  Antiijui- 
ties  (1786-88):  The  (h-unihler  (1791),  a  collection 
of  amusing  essays;  and  The  (///«( 1793),  a  strange 
hotch-potch  of  jests,  verse,  and  prose  essays. 

Gross,  Sami'EL  David,  American  surgeon,  was 
born  near  Easton,  Pennsyhania,  8th  July  1805, 
graduated  at  Jetl'erson  Meilical  College,  in  Phila<lel- 
pliia,  in  1828,  and  in  1835  became  prolessm-  of 
I'athological  Anatomy  at  Cincinnati.  He  was 
afterwards   professor  of  Surgery  in  the  uni\ersities 


430 


GROSSENHAIN 


GROTE 


of  Louisville  ami  New  York,  ami  from  IS.Mi  to 
1S8'2  ill  .Jell'ersoii  College.  He  ilieil  in  I'liiUulel|iliia, 
Gtli  Mav  1HS4.  His  jniMisheil  works  are  nuineroiis 
ami  valiialile,  ami  inchnle  a  Si/sirm  oj  Siirgi'rij 
(2  vols.  1S.V,I;  (ilh  ed.  1SS2).  J)r  t^oss  w;V.s  "a 
memlier  of  many  meilieal  ami  surgical  societies, 
liotli  ill  America  and  in  Europe,  was  presiileiit  of 
the  Iiiteriiatioiial  Meilieal  Congress  at  I'liiladeljiliia 
in  ISTti,  ami  received  the  degree  of  !).(.'. L.  troiii 
Oxford  in  1872,  and  of  LL. D.  from  Edinburgh  in 
1S84. 

Grossonliaill.  a  im'^y  town  of  Saxony,  21  miles 
liy  rail  N  N  W  .  of  Dresden.  It  has  manufactures 
of  clotli,  linckskiii,  hosiery,  nets,  inaehinerv,  and 
cigars.      Pop.  ( 1875)  10,6.SC  ;( 1S90)  1 1,938. 

C«r«sset«'st<*.  Kokki'.t,  Hishop  of  Lincoln,  wa.s 
horn  ahout  ll7oat  Stradliroke  in  Sullolk,  of  peas- 
ant parentage  — (fVovvf/CA^c  (the  French  for  'great- 
head  ;'  Lat.  ra/>ito)  being  a  mere  '  to-nanie.'  Edn- 
cateil  at  I^incoln,  Oxford,  ami  Paris,  he  had  for 
some  yejii-s  been  the  liist  ti-acher  of  the<dogy  in  tlu^ 
rraiiciscan  scliool  at  Oxford,  and  had  held  eight 
archdeaconries  and  other  iireferinents,  w  hen  in  12."{.") 
he  was  elected  Uisliop  ot  Lincoln.  He  forthwith 
undertook  in  the  most  vigorous  fa.sliioii  the  refor- 
mation of  abuses,  embroiling  himself  thereby  lirst 
with  his  own  ch.apter  and  next  with  Pope  Inno- 
cent I\'.,  whom  he  twiie  visited  at  Lvons,  in 
1241  4G  and  1249  .jO.  The  jiope  granted'  Englisli 
benefices  to  '  nt-seal  Koinans,  who  drew  indeed  the 
revenues  of  their  oflice,  but  never  perh.aps  showed 
face  in  the  country.  This  was  intolerable  to  a 
man  like  Grosseteste,  and  he  set  himself  strongly 
ag.iinst  it,  incurring  by  his  boldness  a  temiioiiiry 
suspension  from  the  exercise  of  his  eiiiscopal  fciiic- 
tions,  ami  a  continual  menace  of  excommunication. 
In  ihe  last  year  of  Orossoteste's  life,  Innocent  wrote 
to  him  ordering  his  nephew,  a  young  Italian,  to  lie 
promoted  to  the  first  canoni-y  that  shoiilil  fall  vacant 
,at  Linc(dn,  and  accompanying  his  injunction  with 
threats.  The  bishop  w;vs  filleil  witli  indignation, 
and  at  once  wrote  a  letter  declaring  that  he  would 
not  obey  such  precepts  even  though  they  slioiiM 
issue  from  '  the  iiighest  onler  of  angels,'  ami  liken- 
ing the  popes  neipotisiii  to  the  sin  of  Lucifer  and 
Antichrist.  Innocent,  transported  with  fury,  ex- 
couiTnunieated  him  ;  but  Gro.sseteste  quietly  ap- 
pe.iled  to  Christ's  own  throne,  ,aiid  troubled  him- 
self no  more  al>out  the  matter.  The  feeling  of 
the  English  nation  sustaineil  him  ;  his  clergx-  went 
(HI  obeying  him  a-s  if  nothing  had  happened; 
ami  on  his  death  at  Buckden,  near  Huntingilon, 
9th  October  I2.")3,  .\rclibishop  Boniface  himself 
ollii-iateil  at  his  funeral  in  Lincoln  Cathedral. 
Such  is  the  current  account,  against  «  hich  Lingard 
olijects  that  the  niamlate  came  not  from  the  pope 
but  the  nuncio  ;  that  Innocent,  on  receiving  Oros-se- 
teste's  reply,  not  only  rescinded  the  order,  but 
adopted  me.-isnres  for  the  reform  of  the.se  abuses  ; 
and  that  the  story  of  Grosseteste's  dying  under 
sentence  of  excommunication  rests  on  veiy  ques- 
tionable authority. 

Grosseteste  often  is  claimed  as  a  pre  Reformation 
reformer ;  but  his  reforms  were  in  the  ilirection 
not  of  doctrine,  but  discipline.  In  politics  he  was 
a  constitiition.alist,  a  fiiend  of  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort.  His  le.aming  was  prodignons  ;  Latin,  Greek, 
Hebrew,  French,  mathematics,  medicine,  .-istron- 
omy,  mechanics,  .and  music  were  among  his  attain- 
ments ;  whilst  his  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  was 
profound.  Pegge's  catalogue  of  his  works,  of  which 
only  a  few  have  been  jjulilished.  tills  25  closely- 
printed  quarto  pages,  and  exliibits  'treatises  on 
.sounil.  motion,  lieat,  colour,  fomi,  angles,  .atmo- 
spheric pressure,  poison,  the  rainlxiw,  comets,  light, 
as  well  a.s  on  the  a.strolabe,  necromancy,  and 
witchcraft.'     See  Brewer's  ^VonHnic»^«  FraNciscaiia 


(185S);  Luard's  e<Utioii  of  C;ros.seteste'8  Latin 
letters  (  Uecoril  Soc.,  18G2);  and  Perry's  Li/e  and 
Tnii>'.s  i,f  CiMsctcsU  ( S.  P. C.  K. ,  1 87 1 ). 

Cirosseto*  a  little  Tuscan  town  on  the  Ombrone, 
near  its  mouth,  10<)  miles  SE.  of  Leghorn  by  rail, 
with  a  line  cathedral  and  ohl  fortilications.  Pop. 
.'t9(i2.  .Mui'h  niai^^h  laml  in  the  .Maremiiia  has  lieeD 
drained  ami  lemlcred  healthy  and  fertile. 

GrossultK'klier,  the  highest  peak,  l.'?,4.-)8  feet, 
of  the  eastern  .\lps  and  the  centre  of  the  range 
Hohe  Taiierii,  is  situate<l  near  the  meeting  point  of 
the  frontiers  of  Tynd,  Cariiilhia,  and  Salzburg. 

tiro.ssiilnria<'o:i'.  or  I![ni;.si.\ci:.t:,  a  sub-order 
of  Saxifragacea-,  including  about  100  species, 
mostly  nil  jiala-aictic  or  nearctic.  Sec  Clltlt.vXT 
and  (ioosi;i!i;!;nY. 

Carosswardoill  (Magyar  Nrifftj-Vararl),  one 
of  the  oldest  towns  of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of 
Bihar,  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  plain,  on  the  Sabea 
(Rapid)  Kiiriis,  1.52  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Pesth. 
Formerly  a  fortress,  it  is  now  the  seat  of  si  Hmiian 
Catholic  and  of  a  Greek  lushop,  has  nineteen 
churches,  and  manufactures  spirits,  oil,  vineg.ar, 
tiles,  matches,  potterv,  and  wine.  Pop.  (1870) 
28,098;  (ISOl)  ."18,219."  In  the  neighbourhood  is 
the  Bishop's  Bath,  with  alkaline  sulphur  springs 
(104  KHi'  F. ).  At  Grosswardein  peace  was  con- 
cluilcd  between  Fenliiiaml  I.  of  Austria  ami  John 
Zaiiolya  of  Transylvania  in  I.'kIS.  It  w.as  taken 
and  jiillaged  by  the  Turks  in  KiOO,  and  remained  in 
their  hands  until  its  recajiture  by  the  Aiisirians  in 
169'2. 

Groto.  Gr;oROE,  historian  and  politician,  was 
born  at  Clay  Hill,  Beckenham,  Kent,  November  17, 
1794.  He  was  educated  at  the  Cliarti-rhniise,  iiml 
in  1810  became  a  clerk  in  the  bank  founded  by  his 
grandfather  (a  native  of  Bremen),  Mr  George  Pres- 
cott,  in  Threadnecdle  Street.  He  remained  in  the 
bank  for  thirty-two  years,  devoting  all  his  leisure 
to  literature  and  ])olitical  stmlies.  He  w.-is  an 
ailvanced  Liberal  in  jiolitics,  and  his  first  literary 
iiroductir>ii  was  ,a  reply  to  an  article  by  Sir  James 
Nlackintosh  in  The  ICiliiiliunjIi  Hei'inr  on  ]>arlia- 
mentary  reform.  This  was  succeeiled  by  a  small 
work  on  The  Essentials  nf  I'arliameiitarji  Iteform. 
lieeoming  acquainted  with  James  Mill,  Grote  ulti- 
mately acce]ited  his  views  on  demoer.ilie  govern- 
ment anil  church  establishments  ;  and  many  years 
before  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  I8:i2  he 
laboured  with  a  band  of  other  ardent  reformeis  in 
promulgating  the  views  of  .Mill  and  Bentham  and 
opposing  both  the  Whig's  and  Tories.  He  further 
studied  James  Mill's  system  of  [lolitical  eioijoiMy, 
and  was  not  a  little  inlluenced  in  philosophy  by  the 
views  of  Conite.  In  lX'20  he  married  Harriet, 
daughter  of  Thomas  Lewin,  of  Bexley,  a  lady  of 
consiilerable  literary  gifts,  and  their  house  in 
Thre.'Klneedle  Street  became  a  distinguished  centre 
of  ])olitiial  and  philosiqdiical  thoU'dit.  Encouraged 
by  his  fiienils  the  two  Mills,  .John  Austin,  and 
Charles  Buller,  and  strongly  urged  also  by  his  wife, 
he  conceived  in  18'2r!  the  idea  for  his  History  of 
(heere.  .Mitford's  history  he  mercilessly  dissected 
.at  this  time  in  the  Westiiiinxter  Herieir,  firote 
beciime  head  of  the  bank  in  IS.IO,  and  his  position 
in  the  city,  combined  with  his  well-known  talents, 
naturally  pointed  him  out  a.s  a  fitting  representa- 
tive of  the  Metropolis  in  parliament.  In  the 
election  of  18.^2,  consequent  upon  the  passing  of 
the  Refcuin  Bill,  he  stood  for  the  City,  and  w.as 
retiirneil  .at  the  heajl  of  the  ]ioll.  During  his  first 
session  in  ]iarliament  he  l)rought  forward  a  motion 
for  the  adoption  of  the  vote  by  ballot,  his  speech 
being  remark.ably  able  and  incisive.  The  motion 
was  lost  by  211  to  106  votes,  but  Grote  renewed  it 
in  the  following  session,  and  cimtiniied  to  .-idvocate 
the    measure    until    his    abandonment    of    parlia- 


GROTEFEND 


GROTIUS 


431 


mentiiry  life  in  1841.  He  sat  for  the  City  of  Lon- 
don in  tliree  successive  nailianicnts,  but  on  each 
occa-sion  by  a  iliniinLsliett  majority  ;  an<l  when  lie 
relinquished  his  seat  tlie  party  of  I'liilosoiihical 
Kailicals  with  which  he  was  associated  hail  lost 
Mnich  of  its  influence. 

(_!ri)te  retired  from  the  banking-house  in  1843,  and 
now  devoted  himself  e-xclusi\  ely  to  literature,  tlie 
Historfi  of  Greece  becoming  the  main  object  of  his 
life.  I'lie  first  two  volumes  of  the  work  aiipeared 
in  IS  16,  and  met  witli  the  general  favour  of  all 
iiarties.  The  twelftli  volume  was  issued  in  1856, 
bringing  down  the  subject  to  the  end  of  the  genera- 
tion contemporary  witli  Alexander,  tlie  period  orig- 
inally designed  by  the  author.  The  history  wa.s 
translated  into  German  and  French,  and  was  con- 
fe.ssedly  deserving  of  the  high  position  to  which  it 
attained  in  literature.  AVhile  it  throws  new  light 
upon  (;reek  history,  and  lucidly  traces  the  progress 
of  Hellenic  thought,  its  martial  passages  are  not- 
able for  their  vigour,  and  its  geographical  details 
for  their  accuracy.  Grote  was  appointed  a  tru.stee 
of  the  liritish  Museum,  an<l  in  1864  foreign  .a-ssociate 
of  the  French  Academy.  He  was  elected  president 
of  University  College,  and  vice-chancellor  of  Lon- 
don University,  which  olfices  he  liehl  until  his 
death.  In  tlie  latter  cajjacity  he  rendered  signal 
services  to  the  university.  In  186.5  he  concluded 
an  elaborate  work  on  Plcito  and  the  other  Com- 
piinious  of  Socrates,  which,  with  his  Aristotle, 
was  supplementary  to  the  History  of  Greece.  The 
latter  work,  notwithstanding  its  lack  of  imagina- 
tion, still  remains  unsuper.seded  for  its  graver 
qualities  and  for  its  completeness  as  an  historical 
picture.  In  dealing  with  Plato  he  was  less  succe.ss- 
fiil,  failing  to  grasp  the  lofty  i<lealisiii  of  the  Greek 
philosopher  ;  and  his  study  of  Aristotle,  wliich  gave 
promise  of  a  closer  appreciation,  unfortunately 
remains  unfinished.  A  sketch  of  Swiss  history 
<luring  the  war  of  the  Sonderbund  possesses  special 
interest  from  its  comparisons  between  the  small 
republics  of  Switzerland  and  the  city  states  of 
ancient  Hellas.  Grote,  who  declined  a  jieerage 
otlered  him  by  Mr  (Uadstime,  died  June  18,  1S71,  anil 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Alibey,  where  a  bust  by 
Bacon  commemorates  him.  His  minor  works  were 
]mblished  by  Professor  Bain  in  1873,  with  critical 
remarks  on  his  intellectual  character,  writings,  and 
speeches  -,  and  Fraipnciits  on  Ethical  Suljjccfs,  being 
a  selection  from  his  posthumous  papers,  in  1876. 
— Mrs  Grote  (1792-1878)  was  the  authoress  of  a 
Memoir  of  Anj  Schcffer  ( 1860),  Collected  rapcis  in 
Prose  and  Verse  (1862),  and  The  Personal  Life  of 
Gcon/c  Grote  ( 1873 ).  See,  too,  3Irs  Grote :  a  Sketch, 
by  Lady  Eastlake  (1880). 

tirotefoud,  Geokg  Friedrich,  the  first  who 
found  a  key  to  tlie  decipherment  of  the  cuiieifonu 
inscriptions,  was  born  at  .Miinden  in  Hanover,  June 
it,  177"),  and  had  his  education  at  the  university  of 
(iiitliiigen.  He  filled  scholastic  appointments  at 
Giiltingen,  l"rankfort-on-the-Main,  and  Hanover, 
.and  died  loth  December  185.3.  He  wrote  learned 
books  and  papers  on  Latin,  L'mbrian,  and  Oscan 
philology,  coins  of  Bactria,  &c.,  but  made  for  him- 
self an  enduring  fame  by  deciphering  the  cunei- 
form alphabet — .an  intuition  of  genius — first  given 
forth  in  1802.  Later  works  on  this  subject  were 
AVhc  Deitriige  znr  Erliintcriing  dcr  Persepolitan- 
ischen  Keilschrift  (1837),  and  Neiie  Bcitrage  znr 
Erliinlerunrf  der  Bahylonischcn  Keilschrift  (1840). 
See  CrxEiFORM  Is,s'criptios.s.  — His  son,  K.\rl 
Lrnwir,  (Irotefend,  .an  eminent  .antii|iiary  aiul 
historian,  was  born  at  Frankfort  on  tllc^laill,  22d 
l>ecember  1809,  studied  at  Giittingen  University, 
and  filled  from  1,8.53  a  post  in  the  lloval  Archives 
at  Hanover.  He  died  27th  October  1874.  HLs 
works  are  of  the  greatest  value  for  numism.atics 
and  Roman  eingraphy,  the  chief  being  Die  Miuizcn 


der  Griechischen,  Parthischcn,  vnd  Induslnjthischen 
Kijnige  von  Baktricn  (18,39),  linperium  liomunnm 
trihntim  Descrijitnm  (186.3),  and  Chronologische 
Anordiinng  der  Athenischen  Silbcrmiinzcn  (1872). 
His  historical  papci-s  are  mostly  contained  in  the 
Zeitschrift  des  historischcn  Vereins  fiir  Niedersarh- 
sen  (1850-74).— F'RiEnRiCH  AforsT  Gkotefend, 
nephew  of  the  gre.at  firotefend,  was  born  at  llfeld, 
12th  December  1798,  studied  at  Gottingen  Univer- 
sity, and  afterwards  became  a  professor  there.  He 
died  28tli  February  1836.  His  writings  are  mostly 
solid  contributions  to  Latin  philologj-. 

Grotesque,  a  style  of  clas.sical  ornament,  so 

called,  in  the  1.3th  century,  from  its  having  been 
discovered  amongst  the  iiainted  decorations  fimnil 
in  the  e.xcavations  made  in  the  baths  of  Titus  and 
other  ancient  Roman  buildings,  the  Italian  word 
grotto  applying  to  any  subterr.anean  chamber. 
This  light,  fantastic  style  wa.s  much  in  favour 
during  the  Renaissance. 

Grotll,  IvL-^ts,  a  modern  writer  of  Low  Ger- 
man, was  bom  at  Heide  in  Holstein,  24tli  A]iril 
1819.  Aiter  teaching  for  some  time  in  his  native 
vlll.age,  he  spent  si.x  years  (1847-53)  of  literary 
activity  in  the  isl.and  of  Femern.  It  w.as  at  this 
time  tli.at  he  composed  his  masterpiece,  QidrLljorn 
( 18.52,  loth  ed.  1885),  a  collection  of  ]iocms  written 
in  the  Ditmarsh  dialect,  and  dealing  with  life  and 
nature  in  Ditmarsh,  poems  as  fresh  and  simple  as 
the  subjects  that  inspired  them.  A  continuation 
was  published  in  1871.  Both  in  Qidchljorn  and  in 
the  prose  village  tales  ]'trl(lln  (18.5.5-.59)  Groth 
used  Low  Gerui.an  with  great  skill  and  ea.se,  and 
with  a  fine  feeling  for  it*artistic  capabilities.  His 
other  works  in  the  same  dialect  are  liolligctcr, 
Meistcr  Lamp  nn  sin  iJochdcr  {}HC>'2),  an  idvll  ;  Voer 
de  Gocrn  ( 1858),  children's  rhymes  ;  Ut  mm  Jioigs- 
parccdies  (1876),  three  stories;  and  Drei  Piatt- 
dcntsche  Erzohh/ngcn  ( 1881 ).  He  h.as  also  written 
jioenis  in  High  German,  Ilundcrt  Itlidlcr  (1854), 
which  are  not  adjudged  so  successful  as  his  Low- 
German  eflbrts.  A  warm  lover  of  his  native  tongue, 
he  claims  for  it  a  co-ordinate  place  with  High 
German  in  the  polity  of  languages,  and  has  urged 
his  views  in  Bricfc  iibcr  Jlochdrntsrh  and  J'ltdt- 
dcntsch  (1858)  and  in  jMnialartcn  and  Miindartige 
Dichtung  (1873).  After  five  years'  wandering  in 
Germany  and  Switzerland,  Groth  began  to  teach 
German  langn.age  and  literature  at  Kiel  in  1S58, 
.and  in  1866  was  nominated  professor  of  the  same 
siibjects  at  the  univei'sity  there.  See  Eggers, 
Klaus  Groth  itnd  die plattdcutsche  Dichtung  ( 1885). 

Grotius,  Hugo,  or  Hiic  v.\n  C.root,  Dutch 
jurist,  was  born  at  Delft,  lOtli  A|Mil  1.583.  An 
e.xtr.aordinaiily  precocious  boy,  (Irotius  entered  the 
university  of  Leyden  in  his  eleventh  year,  and 
there  he  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  studying  under 
Jo.se]ih  Scaliger.  When  only  fifteen  years  old  he 
entered  public  life,  accompanying  Olden  Barne- 
veldt,  the  grand-pensionary,  on  an  emb.assy  to 
Fr.ance,  where,  notwithstanding  his  extreme  youth, 
his  talents  and  conduct  gained  him  the  favour  of 
Henry  IV.  On  his  return  next  year  he  began  to 
practise  as  a  lawyer  in  the  Hague  ;  in  1607  he  was 
appointed  <a  jirovincial  fiscal  general,  and  in  1613 
pensionary  of  Rotterdam.  But  the  religious  dis- 
putes between  the  Remonstrauls  and  tluir  oppo- 
nents were  now  at  their  height  in  Holland  ;  (>i(len 
Barneveldt  w.as  the  protector  of  the  former,  and 
Grotius  supported  them  by  his  writings  and  influ- 
ence. These  theological  strifes  had,  however,  a 
liolitical  significance  also.  In  1618  Barneveldt 
.and  Grotius  were  arrested,  tried,  and  condemned 
by  the  dominant  party  under  Prince  Maurice  (see 
B.VRNEVEi.nT),  Barneveldt  to  death,  and  Grotius 
to  imprisonment  for  life  in  the  castle  of  Lovenstein. 
He  escaped,   however,   by  the  contrivance  of  liLs 


432 


GROTTA  DEL  CANE 


GROUND-NUT 


wifi',  who  nmnaneil  to  have  liiiii  cairieil  out  of  the 
CiistU'  in  n  fhest  used  for  the  conveyance  of  books 
and  linon,  while  she  renuiined  in  prison  in  his 
steail.  t^iotiiis  lounil  refn^'e  at  I'aiis  in  Iti'il. 
ami  I.iiuis  XIII.  bc-towed  upon  |]ini  a  pension  of 
.'WKKI  livies.  Itut  ten  yeai-s  later  this  pension  was 
withdrawn  from  him.  From  his  youth  ujiwanls 
(Jrotius  had  been  a  ilili^'ent  stuilent  of  jurispru- 
dence; in  l(j(t4  he  wrote  a  work  entitleil  flc  Jiiie 
I'nidir,  which,  liowever,  lie  did  not  publish,  but 
wliieli  he  seems  to  have  steadily  Improveil  year 
after  year,  until  finally  he  issued  it  as  his  master- 
piece, IJe  Jure  Belli  et  Furis,  in  U>'2o.  This  work, 
a  piece  of  most  excellent  seholai'ship.  at  once 
establisheil  its  place  as  a  standard  authority  on 
international  law,  and  such  it  remained  for  several 
},'enerations  (see  International  Law).  In  1034 
().\enstierna  and  t^ueen  Christina  iniluoeil  llrotius 
to  enter  the  Swedish  .service  a-s  ambassador  at  the 
French  court,  a  post  which  he  held  until  HU.').  On 
his  retirement  he  proceeiled  to  Stockholm  ;  but, 
lindiiig  the  court  as  uncongenial  as  the  climate, 
he  was  returninj;  home  lo  Hollaml  when  he  was 
shipwrecked,  and  died  at  Rostock,  on  the  29th 
Au;,'ust  l()4o. 

To  the  talents  of  an  able  statesman  Grotius 
uniieil   deep   and   extensive   learning'.     He  wa.s  a 

firofdund  theolii^^ian — perhaps  the  best  exej;ete  of 
lis  day — a  distinjfuished  scholar,  an  acute  [iliilo- 
sopher,  a  judicious  histori.an,  and  a  splendid  jurist. 
He  was  one  of  the  best  modern  writers  of  Latin 
verse,  ami  likewise  conijioseil  poems  in  the  Dutch 
lan^'uaf;e.  His  best  histoiical  work  is  Atitm/cx 
ft  lli.stiiiife  lie  Fehiix  Ikliii'-is  (Ifi.lT).  written  in  a 
style  that  recalls  Tacitus  H|-  its  concise  and  pointed 
power.  His  theolojrical  productions  bear  the  titles 
Aiitiotatioiies  in  Veins  J'eslamentiim  (1644);  An- 
notationes  in  Xonnn  Testinncntum  (1641-46);  and 
Dc  Veritate  Ilcliijionis  Christiana:  (16'27),  trans- 
lated even  into  several  oriental  lanj;uaf;es,  and  re- 
markalib'  li>r  its  clear  arrangement,  vigorous  logic, 
ariil  graceful  style.  It  is  an  elegant  treatise  on 
Christian  apologetics.  Leliniann's  Hiif/onis  Crotii 
Mimes  Vinilirali  (1727)  contains  .a  good  life  and 
a  complete  hibliograpliy  of  his  works.  See  also 
Helv,  (itiifle  snr  Ic  Droit  fie  la  Guerre  et  dc  ki 
I'ai'r  ,1c  Grofins  (1875),  and  Butler's  Life  (1827). 
The  l)c  Jure  Belli  was  translated  into  English  by 
Whewell  in  18.->.3. 

tirottn  Av\  Cane  ('Grotto  of  the  Dog'), 
a  small  cave  near  Naples,  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake 
Agnano  ami  of  I'uzzuoli,  contains  carbonic  acid 
gas  with  77  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid.  This  cave 
w.as  known  to  the  ancients,  and  is  descril>ed  by 
Pliny.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  practice  of 
introduiiiig  into  it  small  dogs,  which  are  soon 
almost  ili'prived  of  life  by  the  gas  that  owing  to 
its  den.sity  clings  to  the  Boor  of  the  cave ;  but 
they  soon  recover  upon  being  restored  to  the  open 
air. 

tirottaKlifi  '-^  town  in  the  Italian  province  of 
Lccce,  12  miles  EXE.  of  Taranto,  with  8880  inhab- 
itants, who  carry  on  wine-giowing,  bee-keeping, 
and  silk  and  cotton  weaving. 

<»rottO,  Le,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province 
of  (lirgenti.  Pop.  877.5,  mostly  eniployea  in  the 
sulphur  works  of  the  district. 

tiroiifliy,  E.M.MANiKL,  Marquis  de,  French 
general,  born  at  Paris,  2;J<1  October  1766.  Enter- 
ing the  armv  at  fourteen,  he  threw  in  his  lot  with 
the  Hevoliition,  and  had  his  first  t.aste  of  serious 
work  in  liel|iing  to  suppress  the  Vendean  revolt. 
After  being  nominated  secon<l  to  Hoclie  for  the 
abortive  expeilition  to  Ireland,  though  Grouchy 
did  enter  Ilantrv  Hay,  he  proceeded  to  join  .loubert 
in  Italy  in  1798.  Inder  Moreau.  he  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  Piedmont,  and  at  Xovi  was 


taken  prisoner,  but  subsei|nently  exi-hangeil  (  I70il). 

I  Later  he  fought  with  conspicuous  gallantry  at 
Hiihenlimlen,  E>lau,  I'rieillanil,  \Vagiam,  and  in 
the   Kiis;.iaii    campaign    of    IspJ,    being    appoiiilcil 

:  during  the  memorable  retreat  leader  of  the  'sacred' 
bodyjjuard  of  Napoleon.     After  thedisastrous  battle 

I  of  Leipzig,  (Jroucliy  covereil  the  retreat  of  the  French 

j  on  the  west  side  of  the  Hhiiie.  Amongst  the  first 
to  welcome  Napoleon  after  his  e.scape  from   Elba, 

]  (iroiu'hy  destroyed  the  Bourbon  opposilion  in  the 
south  of  France,  and  then,  hiistcning  imiih,  routed 

I  IJliicher  at  Ligiiy.  .Alter  the  ilefcat  at  Waterloo 
and    the   second  alnlication  of  Napoleon,  (!r<iuchy, 

!  appointed    by    the    provi>ional    govi'inment    com- 

I  inamlerinchief  of  the  broken  armies  of  France, 
led  them  skilfully  back  towards  the  capital  ;  then, 
resigning,  he  betook  himself  to  the  Iniled  Stales. 
He  returned  from  exile  in  181'J,  ami  wa-s  reinstated 
iLs  marshal  in  !8:!1.  His  death  occurred  at  St- 
Etiennc  on  2!tth  M.iy  1847.  See  his  Mfmoires, 
edited  by  his  giamlsoii  (o  vols.  l87.'t-74). 

droillld-aillllial,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  an 
annual  payimiil,  .-sometimes  called  a  rent  charge, 
niaile  for  laml.  It  may  be  regarded  a.s  a  substitute 
for  feu-duty,  and  is  little  known  where  the  law 
allows  the  constitution  of  a  feu  iluty.  Thus,  when 
a  vendor  sells  his  land,  ami  instead  of  taking  a 
lump  sum  for  the  price,  prefers  a  sum  bv  way  of  a 
per|>etiial  annuily  or  rent,  he  conveys  the  laml  in 
tee  to  the  disponee  or  purchaser,  subject  t<i  ibis 
grounil  annual,  which  is  a  bunlcn  on  the  lands 
transferable  and  extiiiguishable  like  other  real 
burdens.  The  vcmlor  is  then  called  the  giound- 
annualer,  ami  if  the  ground-annual  is  not  paid  he 
is  entitled  as  a  remedy  to  poind  the  ground— i.e. 
.seize  ,all  the  goods,  whether  of  the  owner  or  his 
tenants,  which  are  found  on  the  lands,  and  |iay 
himself,  and  raise  action  of  inaills  ami  duties 
against  the  tenant,  or  he  may  sue  the  debtor. 

tiroiiiHl-uaiiie.    See  CJa.me  i.aw.s. 
Ciroiiiid-ico.    See  Anchor-ice. 

C»rouiul-ivy  (Glrrhijina  lufleracea,  united  with 
the  genus  Nipeta  l)y  scuiie  botanists  as  A'.  Gleelidma), 
a  ]>lant  of  the  natural  oriler  Labiata-,  a  eoinnion 
native  of  Itritain  and  other  parts  of  Euio|)e,  grow- 
ing in  wa.ste  places,  plantations,  hedges,  iV'c,  in  ,a 
dr)'  soil.  It  lia-s  a  creeping  stem,  kidney -shajied 
crenate  leaves,  and  axillary  blue  flowers  growing  in 
threes.  .-V  tea  prepared  from  the  leaves  is  in  great 
repute  among  the  ]ioi)r  in  many  places,  and  the 
plant  is  siipposeil  to  be  stimulant,  .aromatic,  and 
of  use  in  pectoral  complaints.  The  leaves  were 
foniierly  uscil  in  England  for  clarifying  and  llavimr- 
iiig  ale,  which  w.a-s  then  called  (Jill  ale  or  ( Jell-ale, 
from  (;ill  or  (Jell,  an  old  name  of  this  |ilaiit  ;  but 
this  use  li;is  been  discontinued  since  the  introduc- 
tion of  lio|i>. 

GroniMllins  (  Cohitis  tcrnia),  the  spinous  loach, 
a  little  cy|iiinoid  fish  resembling  the  lo.-ich,  from 
which  it  is  distinguished  by  a  fiukeil  erectile  spine 
lieneath  the  eye,  and  by  its  more  conipre.->sed  furm. 
It  is  rare  an<l  very  local  in  ISritain.  frei|iienting  the 
muddy  parts  of  rivers,  habitually  keeping  dose  to 
the  bottom.  The  genus  is  known  to  include  only 
two  other  species. 

Groillia-llllt,  CHOtXD-BEAX,  or  Peamt, 
the  fruit  of  Arae'iis  liifiiogaa,  an  .nnnu.al  plant 
belonging  to  ilie  natural  order  Leguniinosa',  extiMi- 
sively  cultivateil  in  southern  North  America,  but 
supposeil  to  be  a  native  of  Africa.  The  name 
Ararliis,  Araros,  or  Ararielna,  was  given  by  Pliny 
to  a  plant  which  wa.s  stemlcss  ami  leafless,  being  all 
root.  Slodern  Initanists  have  given  the  name  to  a 
species  whiih  ripens  its  fruit  umlerground.  The 
pods,  though  lii-st  formed  in  the  air,  are  as  they 
increase  in  size  forced  into  the  earth  by  a  natural 


GROUND    PIGEON 


GROUSE 


433 


Ground-nut  [Avachis  hiq'tija 


motiuii  lit  their  stalks,  aiul  tliere  come  to  niutiirity 
3  or  4  inches  under  tlie  surface,  hence  tlie  popular 
name    (iround     >n-   Karth nut.       In    the   southern 

states  of  North 
America  the 
seetls,  or  nuts, 
as  they  are  1 
called,  are 
roasted  and  ' 
usetl  as  choco- 
late. When  I 
fresh  they  have 
a  sweet  taste 
r  e  s  e  ni  b  1  i  n  j; 
aliuiimls.  They 
are  a  favourite 
ai-ticle  of  food 
with  the 
negroes.  A  [ 
fixed  very! 
sweet  oil  is  l 
extracted  from 
the  seeds, 
which  Ls  con- 
sidered by  some 
i-Mual  to  DJive- 
oil,  and  it  does 
not  become 
rancid,  rather 
im|iroving  witli  age.  (iround-nuts  are  to  be  met 
with  occa-sionall.v  in  fruiterers'  shops  in  Britain, 
and  some  attempt  has  been  made  to  cultivate  the 
plant  around  I'aris  ;  but  requiting  as  it  does  to  bo 
reared  in  hotbeds,  e.xpeiise  and  trouljle  have  circum- 
scribed its  adoption  as  a  cominereial  production 
there.  It  is,  however,  cultivated  in  sotue  of  the 
wanner  countries  of  the  .smith  of  Europe. — The 
roots  of  Bitttitaii  btilhocit-sttmnin  and  B.  Jfeu'f/o-s//iii 
are  also  known  as  ground-nuts  or  Eaith-nuts 
(q.v.). 

Gronud  I'igeOU.  a  name  widely  applied  to 
those  numerous  pigeons  (('(duinbidte)  which  are 
terrestrial  rather  than  arboreal.  The  more 
thoroughly  ground-loving  forms  have  short  and 
rounded  wings,  ami  lesseneil  power  of  prolonged 
Hiwht,  but  possess  long  legs  and  a  rapid  jiace.  See 
Elliot,  Standard  yntmal  Histonj,  vol.  iv.  (  Boston, 
188.T).  for  an  admirable  account. 

Grouild-ri'llt.  iti  the  law  of  England,  is  the 
rent  which  a  person,  who  intends  to  build  upon  a 
jiiece  of  ground,  pays  to  the  landlord  for  the  use 
of  the  ground  for  a  certain  specilied  term,  usually  I 
ninety-nine  years.      The   builder  usually   pays  a  I 
certain  annual  sum  by  way  of  rent  to  the  owner,  i 
who  is  thereafter  called  the  ground-landlord,  anrl  ' 
then    commences   to   buihl   ujKin   the   land.      The 
builder  then   lets   the   houses,  and  in   doing  so  he  ' 
of  course  includes  in  the  rent  which  he  puts  upon 
each   house   a  proportiimate  part   of   this   ground-  , 
rent,   which   he   himself  is   bound  to   pay   to   the 
grcmndlandlord,    so    that    iiractically   the   tenant 

{)ays  both  the  rent  and  the  ground-rent,  the  latter 
•eiiig  so  called  because  it  issues  out  of  the  ground, 
independently  of  what  is  built  u])on  it.  (iround- 
rents  often  form  a  safe  investment  for  capital, 
because  the  security  is  good.  This  security  con- 
sists in  the  ground-landlord  being  able,  whenever 
his  gronnd-rent  is  in  arrear,  t<i  distrain  all  the 
goods  and  chattels  he  timls  on  the  premises,  to 
whomsoever  they  may  belong  :  and  as  the  ground- 
rent  is  generally  a  small  sum,  compared  with  the 
furniture  of  the  tenant,  he  is  always  sure  to  recover 
its  full  amount.  This  power  of  ilistress  e.xists 
( except  in  the  case  of  lodgers )  whether  the  tenant 
has  i)aid  his  rent  to  his  own  landlord  or  not ;  but 
if  at  any  time  the  tenant  li:is  been  obli'-ed  to  pay 
the  ground-rent  which  his  landlord  ought  to  pav, 
•236 


he  may  deduct  such  sum  from  the  next  rent  he 
pays,  and  set  ott  the  one  against  the  other  so  far 
;is  it  will  go.  At  the  end  of  the  ninety-nine  years, 
or  whatever  other  term  is  fixed  upon,  the  building 
becomes  the  property  of  the  ground-lamllonl,  for 
the  interest  of  tlie  builder  (or  mesne  landlord  as 
he  is  called)  then  expires  by  the  eUluxiou  of  time. 
The  value  of  the  property  thus  reverting  to  the 
ground-landlord  is  often  greatly  increased  by 
municipal  improvements  eHected  at  the  expense 
of  the  rate.-* — i.e.  at  the  expense  of  the  occupier 
who  pays  the  rates.  The  justice  of  this  arrange- 
ment is  open  to  question,  and  the  case  for  a 
readjustment  of  rates  is  generally  admitted  to  be 
a  strong  one.  Tliere  are  some  i>oliticians  who 
announce  that  they  will  accept  tliLs  reform  as  a 
mere  instalment ;  their  ultimate  aini  is  to  '  nation- 
alise' the  lan<l  by  taxing  ground-rents  at  the  rate 
of  twenty  shillings  in  the  pound. 

(iround-rent  corresponds  to/eu  in  Scotland,  with 
this  ditl'erence,  that  the  feu-rent  in  the  latter  case 
lasts  for  ever,  there  being  no  definite  term  fixed  for 
its  ceasing. 

Groundsel,  the  common  name  of  those  species 
of  Seuecio  (q.v. )  which  have  small  heads  of  flowers 
i-ither  destitute  of  ray  or  with  the  ray  rolled  back. 
The  Common  Groundsel  (.S'.  vulgaris),  which  is 
usually  destitute  of  ray,  is  one  of  the  most  plenti- 
ful of  weeds  in  waste  and  cultivatetl  grounds  in 
Bntaiu  and  most  [larts  of  Europe,  and  now  also 
diffused,  through  Euroiiean  commerce  and  colonisa- 
ti(m,  throughout  the  world.  It  is  a  coarse-look- 
ing annual,  of  rapid  growth,  about  a  foot  high, 
branched,  with  piiinatifid-leaves,  and  small  yellow- 
heads  of  flowers  ;  flowering  at  all  seasons,  even  in 
winter,  when  the  weather  is  mild  ;  its  seeds  being 
also  widely  difliiseil  by  means  of  their  hairj'  pappus. 
It  has  a  rather  disagieeable  smell  ;  but  birds  are 
very  fonil  of  the  young  buds  and  leaves,  and  cage- 
birils  are  fed  with  them.  It  Is  also  eaten  by  cattle 
if  better  fodder  be  scarce.  It  has  a  saltLsii  taste, 
whence  its  name  ;  and  is  of  old  repute  in  domestic 
medicine  for  poulticing.  The  other  British  species 
are  weeds  of  verj-  similar  appearance,  but  are 
stronger,  having  a  more  disagreeable  odoiu%  and 
are  viscid  to  the  touch,  tirouiidsel  has  been  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States,  and  is  now  found  as 
a  weed  in  gardens  and  waste  places  from  New- 
England  to  Pennsylvania. — Like  other  annual 
weeds,  the  groundsels  ought  to  be  hoed  down  or 
pulled  as  they  appear,  when  the  ground  is  in  crop. 

Ground  Squirrel.    See  Chipmi  nk. 

Grouse,  a  name  applied  to  many  game-birds 
in  the  family  Tetraonid;e,  which  also  includes 
quails  and  partridges.  From  these  the  grouse 
(forming  a  sub-family  Tetraonina- )  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  more  or  less  complete  leathering 
of  nostrils,  le"s,  and  feet,  by  a  bare  patch  of  skin 
over  the  eye,  by  a  comb-like  fringe  on  the  sides  of 
the  toes,  and  sometimes  by  a  distensible  sac  on  the 
side  of  the  neck.  They  are  well  known  to  lie 
large,  plump,  .somewhat  heavy  birds,  usually  short- 
tailed,  and  with  beautifully-variegated  plumage, 
which  must  often  be  protective.  They  are  esjieci- 
ally  abundant  in  the  northern  parts  of  both  ('Id 
and  New  World. 

We  shall  first  take  a  brief  review  of  most  of  the 
important  forms,  some  of  which  receive  separate 
notice.  ( 1 )  The  genus  Tetnio  is  well  represente<l 
by  the  Capercailzie  (q.v.:  T.  iiroqalltis),  its 
Siberian  relative  T.  uroga/loides.  una  the  Black- 
cock (q.v.)  or  Black  (Arouse  ( T.  Ictrij-),  well  known 
in  Britain.  (2)  The  Ptarmigans  (q.v.)  l>elong  to 
the  genus  Lagopus,  distinguished  by  their  heavily- 
feathered  toes,  and  ( with  the  exception  of  the  next 
species)  by  the  snow-white  winter  plumage  The 
lied  Grouse  ( /,.    stvlicm)   is   indigenous    only   to 


434 


GROUSE 


II,    repio 

(c/Am.v)  in  Dtlier  nortlicni  cDiintiies.  {'.i)  The  nill'eil 
arouse,  ill  tlie  ;4eiui«  l!iiiiiu<ia,  are  excejitiniial  in 
havinij  the  lower  part  of  tlie  lej;  bare,  ami  oaii 
elevate  the  soft  feathers  on  the  siiles  of  the  neck. 
Well  known  is  the  American  species  Ji.  innlnllns, 
with  several  varieties.  Tliev  freiiiieiit  wooils,  roost 
iu  trees,  nest  on  the  ^,'roiiinl,  ami  lly  sirai;;lit  ami 
swiftly.  The  male  is  famous  for  his  hahit  of 
'ilriiininin};. '  'He  staii<ls  upon  a  trunk  of  sonic 
fallen  tree,  ami.  stretehin^  himself  into  a  liori 
zontal  position,  lieat.s  stilHy  downwanls  with  hi^ 
wings,  slowly  at  lirst,  iiiereasinK  the  strokes  until 
lliey  hecoine  so  rapiil  that  the  win;,'s  arc  iiivisihic. 
This  loml  ilniiiiiiiin','  iioisi'  is  heanl  even  after  llic 
limits  of  llic  lireediii;;  seiuson.  An  allieil  siiccics. 
the  Ha/el  tlrouse  ( B.  bctu/imt),  is  wiilely  ili>trili 
Html  in  Europe  ami  .Asia,  hut  is  without  niH'  or 
ilrumming.  .\loii;;  with  two  other  species  it  is 
sometimes  rankeil  in  a  separate  ^leniis,  Tetrastes. 

(4)  .Vinoii;,'  the  iiiiiiierous  North  Aiiiciican  ;;r<mse, 
besides  species  of  lionasia  amf  l<a;;()|iiis,  tliAieare 
first  of  all  several  forms  nearly  related  to.  if  not 
included  within  the  ;;enus  Tetrao.  The  '  IJIiie 
(Jrouse'  (  Deiidra;;apus)  inhabit  ever;j;reen  forests 
at  a  lii^'li  elevation  ;  the  males  emit  in  spring;  a 
proloii;!ed  whirring;  sound  from  the  contraction  of 
two  dilatable  sacs  on  the  neck.  The  Ih^sli  is 
white  and  delicate.  I'hc  Spruce  (Irouse  (I'anacci 
are  representeil  by  several  species  'forest-  ami 
swamiilovin^  birds,  very  tame  and  uiisnspicious, 
with  clirk  and  ;,'enerally  bitter  Mesh.'  Well  known 
are  the  I'rairie  Hens  or  I'rairie  (Jliickens.  of  which 
Cupidonin,  or  sometimes  Tctnio  iii/iii/o,  is  the 
commonest,  thou^'h  in  process  of  rapid  extermina- 
tion even  in  spite  of  the  laws.  It  is  rather  smaller 
than  a  blackcock,  reddish-brown  in  colour,  with 
lieautiful  markinj;s  of  black  and  white,  and  bears 
on  the  sides  of  the  iior.k  two  lar^'c  ililatable  sacs. 
hidden  by  erectile  feathers,  ami  prodiicinj;  by  their 
expansion  and  contraction  loud  booming;;'  sounds, 
which,  as  well  as  the  combats  between  rival  males, 
enliven  the  breeding  season.  The  llesli  is  niucli 
esteiMued,  ami  the  bird  is  ruthlessly  persecuted. 
Nearly  related,  Imt  with  Icss-dcvclopcd  neck  sacs, 
is  the  sharp  tail  ;,'rouse,  referred  to  the  ^cinis 
Pediiecete.s.  The  larj;est  American  grouse,  how- 
ever, is  the  Cock  of  the  Plains  or  Sage  Cock 
(Centromere  11.1  iiruplinsitiiiiis),  the  male  of  which 
approaches  our  caj)ercail/!ie  in  size,  though  not  b.v 
any  means  in  weight.  It  is  dispersed  over  the 
western  plains,  ami.  according  to  Elliot,  owes  the 
bitter  iiiinaliitable  character  of  its  flesh  to  its  rliet 
of  Artemisia  or  '  wild  sai;e'  which  abounds  in  these 
desert  regions.  The  tail  is  reinarkalily  long,  the 
neck  sacs  very  large,  the  usually  hard  gizzaril 
portion  of  the  stomach  remains  soft.  .\s  the  Sand 
grouse  (  Pteroclida-) —one  of  which,  Palka-s's  Sand- 
grouse  (Si/rr/i'i//>i:s  imrwlij.rii-s\.  has  been  c<iming 
in  increasing  numbers  to  Britain  since  18.59  -are 
not  grouse,  if  indeed  even  gallinaceous,  they  must 
be  noticed  separat«l.v. 

Ueturning  now  to  British  grouse  (Tetraonichc  i, 
we  have  to  deal  with  (1)  the  Uaiiercailzie  (Tviniu 
urogallu.t),  (2)  the  Blackcock  (  T.  /etrix),  (3)  the 
rare  Ptarmigan  (  Lnyo/iKS  miitiin),  and  (4)  the  Red 
(Irouse  (L.  .srotirii.i).  The  lirst  thrive  are  separately 
disciis.sed :  it  remains  to  notice  briefly  tlie  host, 
which  Ls  iu  a  special  sense  the  British  grouse.  This 
is  strictly  an  insular  ptarmigan  which  does  not 
change  its  colour,  ami  is  very  nearly  related  to  the 
Willow  (Irouse  I L.  nlbiis)  of  the  Continent.  It 
is  widely  distributed  on  the  inooi-s  in  the  north  of 
Kngland,  in  Ireland,  but  aViove  all  in  Scotland. 
The  male  measures  16  inches,  and  is  predominantl.v 
reddish  and  chestnut-brown  with  some  black  and 
white.  The  female  is  rather  smaller,  and  with 
more  of  the  light  chestnut  plumage.     The  colour 


varies  considerably  in  dillerent  localities.  Pairing 
occurs  in  early  spring  ;  the  nest  is  slight,  and  on 
the  grouml  usually  among  heather  ;  the  eggs  (eight 
to   ten)   are   'of    a   bullish  while    ground    colour, 


The  Ked  Grouse  ( Lofioput  troticM ). 

mottled  with  rich  red  or  brown.'  The  female  sit« 
very  close,  ami  the  male  gives  warnitig  of  danger. 
The  birds  feed  on  leaves  and  fruit  of  bilberry, 
tips  of  heather,  seilge  seeds,  and  the  like. 

Grouse  ,are  well  known  to  be  subject  to  a  deci- 
mating ili.sease,  but  neither  in  reganl  to  the  direct 
or  imiiiect  comlitions  of  the  e|.i<lemic  is  there  an.v 
certainty.  It  was  lirst  noticed  (ISl.'iSO)  about 
the  time  when  shootings  began  to  be  let  and 
protection  or  over-prcserv.ation  became  common. 
Atmospheric omdilions,  sliccp, sheep  wiish,  heather- 
blight,  itc.  have  been  blamed,  while  .John  Col- 
quhoiiii,  author  of  Tin  Moor  rinil  thr  I.ihIi,  strongly 
maintained  that  the  indirect  cause  was  simply 
over  preservation.  The  destruction  of  birds  of 
prey,  which  used  to  kill  oM"  unhealthy  birds,  must 
certainly  have  its  nemesis.  rapi'woriiis  .are  oftc>n 
founil  ill  grouse,  but  are  not  regarded  as  of  much 
import:  a  round  worm  (Strongylus )  is  possibly 
more  injurious ;  most  probably,  however,  the 
diseiuse  is  due  tn  bm-teria  of  some  sort,  and  runs 
riot  in  unnatural  conditions. 

(irouse-shoiiting  has  long  been  a  iiopular  sport 
with  those  living  where  the  birds  abounded,  but 
it  was  not  till  near  the  middle  of  the  litth  century 
that   Southrons    bigaii   to    Hock    into  Scotland  for 

this  sport,  and  si ting  rents  to  grow  raiiidly.      In 

many  districts  the  12tli  of  .August  is  the  most 
important  il.ate  in  the  year.  Many  thousands  of 
acres  now  bring  their  owners  large  rents  for  gioiise- 
shooting;  there  are  said  to  be  in  Scotland  in  all, 
besides  deer-forests,  some  '24(Kl  separate  shootings, 
on  most  of  which  grouse  are  found.  ( Jrouse  occur 
in  eveiT  Scottish  county,  but  Perthshire  is  the 
clrief  giouse-shfKiting  region.  An  area  of  IO,(X)0 
acres  well  stocked  with  birds,  anil  having  a  shoot- 
ing lodge,  can  hardly  lie  lea-sed  for  less  than  £.500 
per  annum  (Outdoor  Sports  in  Svotliinil.  I8H9);  if 
there  be  salmon  and  ground-game,  the  rc>nl  m.ay  be 
£60<l.  The  rents  may  be  saiil  to  run  from  tenpcnce 
to  half  acrown  an  acre.  In  a  good  season,  .51M(,(K)0 
brace  may  be  shot.  It  is  coiii]iuted  th.at  every 
brace  cost.s  the  sporting  tenant  a  sovereign.  Hence 
if  e.ach  of  the  2400  ifrousenioors  yiidd  each  on  an 
aver.age '200  brace,  the  total  (OHO.'oOO  birds)  would 
represent  a  grouse-shooting  rental  for  Scotland  of 
£480,000. 

See  Bl.vckcock,  Caperc.ulzi k,  Ptakiiig.vx,  S.wn- 
orouse;  also  D.  O.  Elliot,  Tlir  THranninn;  CHev;  Y^<rV, 
1864  W);  also  in  Ttif  Rirerxide  or  Stitndnrd  Natural 
HUlnrii,  editc<i  by  J.  s.  Kingslcy  ( Lonil.  and  Boston ) ; 
A.  P..  .Meyer,  (Tmer  Avur-.  Rackrl-,  uml  liirkwild  (  Vienna, 
1887,  folio  atlas  with  17  [ilates  of  grouse);  R.  W.  Shu- 
feldt.   (Mtology  of  Nortli   America  Tetranonid(f  :    Bull, 


GROVE 


GRUNDTVIG 


435 


U.S.  lirol,  deoij):  Siirr.  vi.  (1SS1  i;  iiiaimalK  of  Yarrell. 
Howard  .Saunders,  &c. ;  Coliiulmun,  Tin  Moov  end  tin 
Loch  (1851,  (ith  ed.  1884);  Lurcl  A\'alsin^'liaiii  and  Sir 
K  Payne-(iallwev,  filmitiivi  i  Iladniinti  n  Lili.  lN,s(i); 
'  Ellangowan,'  oiilitnor  S/Mrtu  in  ScoUiiml  (UW).  For 
disease,  see  Zoolo(ii.it,  lirp.  Urit.  Assoc,  and  Jouru.  Run. 
Micr.  .Siir.  :  Chapman,  Binl  Life  on  (Ik  /lordir.i  (18891; 
Klein,  Etiiiloijij  ami  Palkohyil  of  (Jfouse  Vtsatse  ( 1892  i. 

Crove,  Sir  GEOlUiK,  born  at  Cliipliani  in  1820. 
wa.s  trained  as  a  civil  enj;inef  r,  and  erected  in  the 
We.st  Indies  the  Ki'st  two  cast-iri>n  lii;htliiinses  Imilt. 
As  a  Mienilier  of  tlie  statV  of  Itoliert  Stephenson,  he 
was  einployed  at  tlie  Chester  y;eneral  station  and 
tlie  Britannia  tnlmlar  bridge.  He  was  secretary 
to  the  Society  of  Arts  from  1.S49  to  18.32,  and 
secretary  to  the  Crystal  Palace  Company  fiom  18.52 
to  187;^,'  where  he  snlisef|nently  liecanie  a  ilirector. 
It  is  for  his  services  to  literatnrc  .and  Jimsic  that  Sir 
George  is  best  known.  As  editor  of  Mwinillinis 
Magazhie,  as  a  large  contribntor  to  .Smith's  Dirtinii- 
(try  of  t/ie  Bible,  anil  as  editor  (and  part  author)  of 
the  great  Dietionarii  of  Music  and  Mii.firiaii.i  (4 
vols.  1878-89),  he  has  served  the  reading  public: 
and  these  and  his  zeal  and  success  in  promoting 
the  love  of  good  music  secureil  for  him  the  degree 
of  D.C'.L.  from  Durham  University  in  1872,  .and 
LL.D.  of  Glasgow  in  ISSti.  He  was  kni.uhtcd  in 
188:^  on  the  opening  of  the  Uoyal  Colle;;e  of  Music, 
ot  which  lie  was  made  i)irector — a  post  he 
resigned  in  1895.  He  was  founder  of  the  Palestine 
E.xploration  Fund,  published  Bccthorcn  and  Iris 
yine  Siiiitphonir.-i  in  1896,  and  wa^  a  contriliutoi  . 
this  Eneyclopiedia.      He  died  29lh  .May  1900. 

Grove,  Sir.  William  liunERT,  lawyer  and 
physicist,  was  born  at  Swansea,  lltli  .Inly  1811. 
He  studieil  at  Brasenose,  U.xford,  and  in  183.j  was 
called  to  the  bar:  in  1871  he  was  raised  to  the 
bench,  receiving  knighthood  in  1872;  and  by  the 
.Judicature  Act  (187.5)  becoming  a  judge  in  the 
High  Court  of  .Justice.  He  retired  fiom  the  bench 
in  1887.  He  greatly  distinguished  liiniself  in  tlie 
sul)jects  of  electricity  and  optics,  and  was  professor 
of  Natural  Science  at  the  London  Institution  from 
1840  to  1847.  In  1839  he  invented  the  powerful 
voltaic  battery  known  by  his  name.  He  cim- 
tributed  extensively  toscientitic  journals,  and  pub- 
lished several  very  important  lectures,  ,i.s  those  on 
the  Progress  of  Physical  Science  (1842),  in  which 
he  propouniled  the  theory  of  the  mutual  I'onverti- 
bility  of  the  luitural  forces,  on  the  assumption  of 
their  all  being  modes  of  motion  ;  the  Correlation 
of  the  Physical  Forces  (1846),  a  development  of 
the  same  views  ;  Voltaic  Ignition  ( 1847  )  ;  and  the 
Continuity  of  Natural  Phenomena  (1866).  He 
was  president  of  tlie  ISritish  Association  in  1.HU6, 
and  was  a  Fellow  of  many  learned  societies.  He 
died  on  the  3d  August  189ti. 

tiroves.    See  AsiiKKA,  Thee-worship. 

fcJrowlor  ((jri/.sti.s  .■oiliiioiioidrs),  a  lish  of  the 
Perch  family,  abund.ant  in  m.'iny  of  the  rivers  of 
North  America,  as  in  the  neighbourhood  of  New 
York.  It  attains  a  length  of  2  feet,  atlbrds  good 
.sport  to  anglers,  and  is  much  esteemed  for  the 
table.  It  is  of  an  olive  colour,  dark  on  the  upper 
parts,  and  becoming  grayish-white  beneath.  It 
receives  its  name  from  a  sound  which  it  emits. 
The  genus  Grystes  has  small  scales,  and  only  line 
villiform  tcetlL  Nearly  allie<l  is  the  genus  Oli- 
.gorus,  including  tlie  valuable  .Murray  Coil  ((). 
inuajiiiiriciisis)  from  the  Murray  and  other  rivei's 
of  South  Australia,  which  may  attain  a  length  of 
3  feet  and  a  weight  of  KKI  lb.,  and  a  New  Zealand 
coast  form,  the  '^Hapnku  '  (0.  f/iga.i). 

CJroyilC,  The,  a  sailors  name  forCorufia  (q.v. ). 

Grub,  a  name  generally  applied  to  the  worm 
like  larvie  of  insects  when  they  have  a  distinct 
head  but  no  legs — e.g.  in  bees  and  some  beetles. 
In  distinction  therefriun,  n  larva  without  distinci 


head  and  without  limbs,  as  in  Diptera,  is  a  inar/f/uf, 
but  with  distinct  heail  and  linil)S,  anterior  as  well 
as  posterior,  is  a  i-atrr/iillai-.  Hut  these  are  all 
somewhat  rough  and  ill-delined  titles,  now  replaced 
by  a  more  exact  terminology  (see  INSECTS  and 
Lakv.x  ).  The  economic  importance  of  many  grubs, 
especially  those  of  some  beetles,  is  well  known. 
See  Corn  In.skcts, 

Grubber,  an  .igiicultural  im]dement  consisting 
of  a  framework  of  cast  or  wrought  iron,  in  which 
are  lixeil  tlnr.i  or  teeth,  somewhat  like  those  of  a 
harrow,  but  curved,  and  so  [ilaced  as  to  enter  the 
giound  somewhat  oblii|uely  when  the  imiilenient 
goes  forward  ;  the  \\ hole  moving  on  wheels,  by 
which  the  depth  to  which  the  teeth  may  penetrate 
is  regulated. 

Gruber,  .'"H-VNN  (!i)TTKEIED,  German  author, 
born  at  Naumburg  on  the  Saale,  29th  November 
1774,  stiulied  at  Leij)zig,  and  in  1811  w.as  appointed 
professor  at  the  university  of  Wittenberg,  and  in 
181.5  profes.sor  of  Philosophy  at  Halle.  He  <lied 
7th  August  1851.  His  chief  work  was  that  of 
editing,  tirst  with  Ersch.  and  after  his  death  alone, 
the  first  section  (A  to  (J)  of  the  Allyeiiicine 
Ei>ii//,/opii(/ir  [aee  Excvcloi'/EDIA  ),  Of  his  inde- 
pendent works  we  mention  Oiaralderistil.-  Hriders 
(18(J5),  Gcsiliirhte  clcs  iiicnschlichcn  Gcscltki'hts 
(1.805),  and  lives  of  n7c^n»f/ ( 181.5  16)  and  Klop- 
.vto/.- (1832)  :  he  also  edited  Wic/aiid'.s  Scimmtl/i-he 
nV/7.r  (1818  28). 

Grub  Street,  thus  descrilied  in  Dr  .Johnson's 
Dirtioiuiiy :  'Originally  the  name  of  a  street  near 
Moortields  in  London,  much  inhabited  by  writers 
of  small  histories,  dictionaries,  and  temporary 
poems,  whence  any  mean  production  is  called  Grab- 
Stircf.'  Andrew  Marvel!  used  the  name  in  its 
opprobiious  sense,  which  later  was  freely  used  by 
Pope,  Swift,  and  the  re.st.  The  name  has  been 
changed  into  Milton  Street,  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Bunhill  residence  of  the  poet.  < 'ne  of 
the  most  entertaining  of  the  old  newspapers  is  the 
Grill)  atri'et  Journal,  which  ended  with  its  418th 
number,  December,  29,  1737,  the  principal  writers 
of  which  are  sup]io.sed  to  have  been  Dr  Itichard 
Kussel  and  Dr  .lolm  Martyn,  and  which  was  used, 
if  not  In-  Pope  himself,  at  least  by  his  party,  as  a 
vehicle  for  attacks  against  the  Dunce.s. 

Gruel  is  a  mild,  nutritious,  easily-digested 
article  of  food.  To  piejiare  it,  put  a  teacupful  of 
oatmeal  into  a  ])int  of  water:  after staiuling  twenty 
minutes  pour  oil'  the  water,  lejecting  the  coai"se 
parts  of  the  meal  :  boil  the  water  twenty  minutes. 
It  may  be  flavoured  according  to  tjuste ;  butter 
should  not  be  added  if  the  gruel  is  meant  for 
invalids.  Gruel  is  more  mmrishing  than  prei)ara- 
tions  from  arrowroot,  sago,  tapioca,  and  other 
starchy  substances. 

GriiU,  .\NAST.\SIU.S.      See  Al'KR.SrERG. 

Griillberg.  a  town  of  I'russian  Silesia,  34  miles 
NW.  of  (ilogau  by  rail,  is  stirrouniled  by  vine-clad 
hills,  and  niiinufactures  wine  (since  1150),  woollen 
goods,  twine,  machinery,  &<•.     Poji,  14,396, 

GruiKltvii;.  Nikolai  Fhkderik  SEyKKix, 
Danish  ]ioet  and  theologian,  was  born  at  Udby,  in 
Zealand,  8th  September  1783,  He  Ki'st  became 
known  as  the  aiithin  of  Xnrllirru  Mi/l/io/of/;/  (  1808  ; 
3<l  ed,  enlarged  ;ind  revised,  1870)  and  Datiiic  of 
f/ir  Hnnii-  Arjc  in  the  Xortli  (1809),  These  were 
followed  in  1814  by  the  lihi/me  of  lioeskiidt:  and  the 
Hoisl.iltle  Saga,  and  in  1815  ^ly  a  collection  of 
patriotic  songs  {Kradlini/ir).  Abimt  the  same 
time  he  took  his  stanil  as  a  witness  against  the 
current  irreligion  and  ratiomtlisni.  As  time  went 
on  he  became  the  head  of  a  religious  school,  the 
Grundtvigians,  who  strove  to  free  the  cliurcli  from 
the  interference  of  the  state,  and  to  approximate  to 


436 


GKUNDY 


GUADALAJARA 


llie  ideal  of  iiidepi-iuli'iit  iclijiimis  ooiiiiiniiien.  His 
relij,'ious  views  j-cit  linn  liold  uf  the  lieiiils  <if  the 
people  thiinij;liinit  the  three  roiiiitiies  of  SeHiidi- 
nnviii.  Hesiiles  this  he  wiis  iiistnitiiciital  in  riiisinj; 
tlie  crliii'iitional  <'oriilitioM  of  the  pi'itsaiiliv.  In 
18'2.">  (Jrmultvi;;,  for  a  velienieni  attnik  upon  one  of 
the  eliii'f  tepicsentiitives  of  the  previilrnt  ration- 
alisni,  was  tiiieil  ami  suspended  from  preaching,  the 
suspension  liustlnj;  until  I83'2.  During;  all  tliesr 
vears  his  pen  was  never  i<lle.  In  ISIK  he  had 
l)ef;un  the  translation  into  Danish  of  Snorri 
Sturluson  ami  Saxo  (iramniaticus;  and  in  1S20  he 
puhlislie<l  a  Danish  translation  of  the  An^floSaxoii 
poem  liiiiiiiilf.      As  a  writer  of  sHiiilarand  saered 

f)oetry  he  stands  lii;;li  in  his  oountrvmen's  repirds  : 
lis  son  puldished  iiis  I'uclixkf  .S'/.W/Vrc  ( 6  vcds. )  in 
1880-85.  From  18.S9  Crundlvij;  pii'aclied  in  the 
eliureh  of  Vartov  Hospital  in  Coperdia^ien,  after 
1861  with  the  title  of  1>islio]i.  thou^^h  he  held  no 
see.  He  died  2d  Sentemlier  1872.  The  works  of 
his  later  vears  ini'linle  Tin-  Scitii  Uttir.s  uf  Chri.stni- 
doiii  ( ISlid;  .'fd  cd.  1SS.S)  and  Cliiirrli  Minor  (  1871  ). 
acoUeetion  of  addresses.  His  son,  SVKNTi  IIkhsi.kh 
(1824-83),  from  180!)  profe.ssor  of  Scandinavian 
Philology  at  Copenha^'en,  edited  Ihiimiarlcs  Oamlf 
Folhifiscr  { lS.')3-8.3),  other  e<dleetions  of  folk-tales, 
and  Smiiuni/.^  KiUla  { 18(i8:  2.1  ed.  1884). 

Cirillldy.  Mi:s,  the  invisilile  rriisur  niiiriiiii  ap- 
pealed to  in  the  iihriuse,  '  l!ul  what  will  Mrstlrnnily 
say  ?  ■  in  .Morton  s  play  Hjjca/  tlie  riniKjh  (  18(1(1 1. 

Grundy,  SVDNKV,  l>orii  in  Manclie.ster  23d 
Wareh  1848,  was  called  to  the  bar.  In  I87t)  he 
published  a  3-volume  novel,  The.  Days  of  his 
Vanity  :  hut  baa  since  become  known  as  a  success- 
fill  iilaywrifjtlit.  having  iiroduccd  '/'Ac  (lltisx  nf 
Fashion  (  1883),  .1  Fools  I'aradisr  (  1890),  A  White 
Lie  (1893),  6owiiiii  the  Wind  (1.S93),  and  The  New 
Woman  ( 1894).  .Many  ( like  A  Fair  of  Sjieetacles) 
are  adaptations  from  the  French. 

C!riiy«;rc,  a  little  town  of  .Switzerland,  16  miles 
SSW.  of  Kreibur;,',  jjives  its  name  to  the  faniuns 
cheese  of  the  whole  canton  of  Kreibur},'.     Pop.  1200. 

GryllllS,  a  Linncan  ^'enus  of  insects  of  the 
order  <)rth(>i)tera.  answerinj;  to  the  se<'tion  Salta- 
toria  (l,at..  'leapers')  of  later  entomologists,  and 
containing  crickets,  jjrasshopiiei-s,  locusts,  iK:c.  The 
genus  is  now  restricted  to  the  true  crickets  e.g. 
(f.  doniestirv.s  and  (i.  eampeslri.\,  while  the  family 
<!ryllid;e  is  defined  to  include  a  not  very  large 
iiuniber  of  related  genera,  such  as  the  mole  cricket 
(tiryllotalpa).  See  Cricket,  liRASSIIDI'l'EK, 
Loci?  ST. 

GrypllillS.  Sku.v.sTIA.s.  a  famous  iirinter,  born 
at  Iteutliii'.;!  II,  in  Swabia,  in  1493.  He  came  as  a 
youth  to  Lyons,  and  clied  there  in  l.Vifi,  having 
between  1.528  and  1.547  Issued  above  :HX)  works, 
iiot.ible  for  their  accuracy  and  the  large  clear  type 
in  ^\liich  they  were  printed,  tlryphius  preferred  a 
large  bold  It.alic  type.  Amongst  the  more  noteil 
works  are  the  line  Latin  ISible  of  15.50,  and  Dolet's 
I'onimentiiria  Liiii/iar  Latinw  ( 1536).  The  origin.al 
(ierman  spelling  of  the  Latini.sed  name  (irvpliius 
is  (iiii/ih,  the  I'lench  (iri/iihc.  The  well-known 
emblem  on  tJryiihiiis's  publication.s  is  a  grillin. 
IJryphius's  sons,  .\iitoine  and  Francois,  were  also 
f.amous  French  printei-s. 

Cisell-Fols,  TlIEODOR,  author  of  the  excellent 
guide-books  for  Italy,  was  born  at  St  (Jail  in  1819, 
and  has  laboured  with  equal  success  as  a  medical 
man  in  varimis  towns  (W  ur/.burg,  Herlin,  Menna, 
Zurich,  &c.  )and  a.s  a  lecturer  on  Italian  art(cliielly 
at  Ba.sel).  His  thorough  knowledge  of  Italy,  its 
history  an<l  its  art  trejusures,  is  brilliantly  illus- 
trated in  his  four  giiide-l«)oks  to  that  country — 
'Oberitalien,'  '  .Miltelitalien,'  '  Rom  und  "die 
Cani]iagiia,'  '  Unteritalien  iind  Si/ilien  ' — which 
are  published  as  Mei/er's  liei.sct/uchcr.      G.sell-Fels 


has  also  piiblisheil  works  on  the  baths  and  sanatoria 
of  Switzerlaiiil  (2d  ed.  1885),  and  Cermany  (188.5), 
ami  edited  a  guide-book  on  .South  France. 

Gliarliaro.  or  Oll.-llllin  (Sleatomis  curifiensis), 
a  lemarkalile  South  .Vmeriian  bird,  with  characters 
H  hich  .seiiii  to  unite  it  to  oh  Is  and  goatsuckers,  but 
dilleriiig  from  the  latter  in  having  a  strong  bill, 
ami  being  friigivorous.  The  food  of  the  giiiu'liaro 
consists  of  hard  and  dry  fruits.  It  is  about  the  si/e 
of  a  ciimmon  fowl :  the  plumage  brownish-gray,  with 
small  black  streaks  and  dot.*.  I'he  guacharo  is  a 
nocturnal  bird,  a  circumstance  very  singular  among 


Guacharu  {SleatornU  caripcti»u). 

friigivorous  birds.  It  spends  the  day  in  deep  and 
dark  caverns,  where  great  numbers  congregate 
and  make  their  nests.  It  wius  first  known  from 
Venezuela,  but  has  .-iiice  been  discovered  in  Peru, 
Trinidad,  and  elsewhere  in  the  northern  Soutli 
.Vinerican  region.  Humboldt  gives  a  most  interest- 
ing account,  in  bis  I'ersonal  Narrative,  of  a  visit  to- 
tlie  great  lluacharo  Cavern  in  the  valley  of  Caripe, 
near  Ciimana.  This  cavern  is  visiteil  once  a  year 
for  the  sake  of  the  fat  of  the  young  birds,  wliicli 
are  slaughtered  in  great  numbers,  and  their  fat 
melteil  and  stored  tiir  use  as  butter  or  oil.  The 
clarified  fat  is  hall  lii|uid,  traiisiiarent,  inodorous, 
and  will  keep  for  a  year  without  oecmning  rancid. 

GlliM'o.     See  ARi.sTOLoriiiA. 

Glliidillaja'ra.  ( l )  an  oM  and  decayed  tnwn  of 
Spain,  i;uiital  of  tlie  province  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  Henares,  ."i.'i  miles  NK.  of  Madrid  by  rail, 
with  some  unimportant  manufactures  of  Hannel 
and  serge,  and  a  royal  college  of  engineering.  Here 
is  the  quaint,  neglected  palace  of  the  Mendozas, 
whose  tombs,  in  tlie  Fanteon  below  the  chapel  of 
San  Francisco,  were  barbarously  mutilated  by  the 
French.  Pop.  8.524.  —  The  /iroeinre  occiil)ies  the 
northern  part  of  New  Castile  (sec  C.\.stile),  is  in 
the  great  central  jdaiii,  and  lias  an  area  of  4870 
so.  m.,  with  a  jKip.  of  203,(JOO.— (2)  Capital  of  the 
Mexican  state  of  .lalisco,  and  the  third  city  of  the 
republic,  lies  in  a  fertile  valley  by  the  Uio  (Jrande  de 
Santi.ago,  here  cros.sed  by  a  line  bridge  of  26  arches, 
280  miles  \VN\V.  of  Mexico  city,  with  wliicli  the 
place  is  connected  by  rail.  Though  most  of  the 
Iiouses  are  of  only  one  story,  the  town  present*  a 
ple.a.sing  apjiearance,  with  wide  streets  crossing  at 
right  angles,  numerous  public  squares,  and  a  tine 
shaded  (dmneda  ;  there  are  several  lines  of  tramway, 
and  water  is  supplied  by  an  aqueduct  over  20  miles 
long.  tJuailal.ajara  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop, 
ami  possesses  a  handsome  cathedral,  besides  the 
goveniment  pal.ace,  a  mint,  university,  hospitals, 
and  school  of  art.  Its  industries  .are  important :  it 
is  the  chief  seat  of  the  cotton  ami  woollen  manu- 
factures   of    the    country ;    and    the    (iuail.alaj.ara 


GUAUALAVIAR 


GUAIACUM 


437 


potteiy  and  metal  wares,  like  the  confectionery, 
have  a  reputation  all  over  Mexico.  Pop.  (1895) 
95,000. 

Guadalavini*  (anr.  Tm-iK),  a,  river  of  ea.sterii 
Spain,  lias  its  soiiree  near  that  of  the  Tagus,  in  the 
southwest  of  AragoM,  anil  after  a  course  of  190 
miles,  in  a  generally  south-south-east  direction, 
falls  into  the  Mediterranean  at  Grao,  1^  mile 
below  Valencia.  In  pa.ssin^'  through  the  beautiful 
Huerta  de  Valencia,  it  is  ilivided,  for  purposes  of 
irrigation,  into  numerous  channels. 

4ilia4lal(lllivir  (Arab.  Wddi-al-Kebir,  'the 
great  river:'  auc.  Bn'ti.i),  the  most  important  river 
of  S]iain,  and  the  only  one  that,  fed  by  the  rains 
in  winter  and  the  Sierra  Nevada's  melting  snows  in 
summer,  presents  at  all  seasons  a  full  stream.  It 
rises  in  the  Siena  de  Cazorla,  in  the  east  of  the 

Srovince  of  Jaen,  Hows  in  a  general  south-west 
irection  through  the  provinces  of  .faen,  (Cordova, 
Seville,  and,  forming  the  boundaiy  for  about  10 
miles  between  the  provinces  of  Huelva  and  Cadi/, 
falls  into  the  (Julf  ot  t 'adiz  at  San  Lucar  de  Barra- 
raeda,  after  a  course  of  374  miles.  Strelbitsky 
estimates  its  drainage  area  at  21,.iS0  sq.  m.  The 
principal  towns  on  its  banks  are  ('ordova  and 
Seville,  to  the  Lost  of  which,  about  80  miles  above 
its  mouth,  the  river  is  navigable  for  steamers. 
Below  Seville  it  twice  ilivides  itself  into  two 
branches,  forming  two  islamls — the  Isla  Menor 
and  the  Isla  Mayor.  Its  chief  affluents  are  the 
Guadajoz  an<l  the  Jenil  on  the  left,  and  the 
Oiiadaliniar  and  the  Guadiato  on  the  right.  At 
Montoro  it  breaks  through  the  outlying  spurs  of 
the  central  Sierra  Morena  in  a  series  of  rapids, 
but  its  lower  course  is  sluggish  and  dreary  in 
the  extreme ;  the  stream  itself  is  turbid  and 
muddy,  and  eats  its  way  through  an  allu\  ial 
level  given  up  to  herds  of  cattle  and  to  water- 
fowl. There  are  no  \Tllages  in  thLs  district,  which, 
though  favouiable  to  animal  and  vegetable  life,  is 
fatal  to  man,  from  the  fever  and  ague  caused  by 
the  numerous  swamps.  During  the  e(|uinoctial 
rains  the  river  rises  sometimes  10  feet,  and  the 
country  is  yearly  Hooded  as  far  up  as  Seville,  to 
•^vbich  point  the  tide  is  noticeable. 

Guadallllie  Ilidalj^O.  5  miles  by  tramway 
N.  of  Mexico  city,  is  the  chief  place  of  i)ilgrimage, 
and  its  brick  cathedral  the  richest  in  all  Mexico  : 
for  here  is  preserved  a  miraculous  picture  of  a 
brown  Virgin,  i)ainted  on  a  peasant's  coarse  cloak. 
The  treaty  which  ended  the  war  with  the  I'nited 
States  was  signed  here,  "id  February  1848. 

Gnadeloillte.  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  in  the 

West  Indies,  and  the  most  im])ortant  of  those 
which  belong  to  France,  lies  uliout  77  miles  X.  bv 
'W.  of  Martinique,  and  contains,  including  depend- 
encies, 494  sq.  ni..  with  a  pop.  in  ISO.'i  of  l()S,000, 
mostly  blacks  and  mulattoes.  It  is  divi<led  into 
Grande-Terre  on  the  east,  and  Basse- Terre  or 
Guadeloupe  proper  on  the  west,  by  a  strait  of  from 
40  to  l-'jO  yards  m  width,  which  bears  the  name  of 
Salt  Kiver,  .and  is  navigable  only  for  vessels  of  very 
light  tonnage.  The  nomenclature  of  the  two 
islands  ajjpears  curiously  perverse,  for  Basse-Terrc 
is  the  loftier  of  the  two,  and  Grande-Terre  is  the 
smaller  ;  conseipiently  the  name  Basse-Terre  is  now 
generally  .applied  solely  to  the  capital  (|>op.  7000), 
a  town  of  ollicials  mainly,  in  the  south-west  of  the 
island.  (irande-Terre,  generally  low,  is  of  coral 
formation  :  Basse-Terre,  on  the  contrary,  is 
traversed  by  volcanic  mountains,  which  culminate 
in  La  Soufribre  ( the  'Sulphur  Mine")  at  a  height 
of  5497  feet.  Eartlnpiakes  are  fiequent,  and  in 
the  towns  the  houses  are  now  built  of  wood  or 
iron.  The  chief  jmxluct  of  the  island  is  sugar : 
coftee  also  is  exporteil.  The  annual  connuerce,  in- 
cluding imports  and  exports  (about  equal )  exceeds 


£2,000,000;  more  than  half  of  this  trade  is  with 
France.  Point-ii-Pitre  (q.v.)  is  the  princii>al  town 
and  port :  Le  Moule,  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Grande-Terre,  has  8500  inhabitants,  and  tirand- 
Bourg,  on  Marie-Galante,  7300.  The  colony  is 
administered  by  a  governor,  assisted  by  a  general 
council  ;  primary  education  is  free  and  compulsory, 
and  there  is  a  good  ///<■(■<;  at  I'oint-ii-Pitre.  The 
dependencies  of  (iuadelouije  are  the  neighbouring 
islets  of  Desirade,  Maric-Gahante,  and  Les  Salutes, 
besides  St-Barthelcmy  and  part  of  Si-Martin  to  the 
north-west,  (iuaileloupe  was  discovered  by  Col- 
umbus in  149.3,  but  it  was  not  till  1035  that  it  was 
colonised  by  the  French  ;  an<l  after  repeatedly 
falling  into  the  hands  of  England,  during  her  wars 
with  France,  it  was  at  length  permanently  ceded 
to  the  latter  power  in  1810. 

<i<Uadiaiia  ( Arab.  W(hli  Anu,t\\e  anc.  Anus), 
one  of  the  five  principal  rivers  of  the  Iberian 
peninsula,  formerly  regarded  as  ri.sing  in  the 
desert  Campo  de  Moutiel,  where  a  stream  which 
drains  the  small  Laguiias  de  Kuidera  Hows  north- 
west and  disappears  within  a  few  ndles  of  the 
Zancara.  It  was  long  believed  that  this  stream 
reappeared  in  a  number  of  springs  and  lakes  that 
iTse  some  22  miles  to  the  south-west,  known  as  the 
Ojos  ('Eyes')  of  the  (inadiana,  and  connected  by 
a  .small  stream  with  the  Zaniara  :  but  it  has  now 
been  ascertained  that  the  waters  which  disappear 
higher  up  find  a  short  underground  way  to  the  Zan- 
cara, which  is  therefore  the  tnie  L'pper  (iuadiana. 
Rising  in  the  east  of  the  plateau  of  La  Manclia, 
it  flows  at  first  south  ami  west  to  the  Ojok.  below 
which  point  it  receives  the  name  of  the  Gnadiana. 
It  follows  a  sinuous  westerly  course  as  far  as  Bada- 
joz,  then  bends  southward,  forms  for  some  miles 
the  boundary  between  Spain  and  Portugal,  and 
Hows  througli  part  of  the  province  of  Alemtejo,  re- 
turning to  form  the  frontier  again,  until  it  empties 
into  the  Gulf  of  Cadiz.  It  is  about  510  ndles  in 
length,  but  is  navigable  only  for  about  42  miles. 
Its  chief  affluents  are  the  .Jabahm,  Zujar,  .\Iata- 
chel,  .Vrdila,  and  Clianza,  all  on  the  left. 

Ouaia<'IIUI.  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Zygophyllaceic,  natives  of  the  tropical  parts 
of  America.  The  flowers  have  a  5-partite  calyx, 
Hve  petals,  teu  stamens,  and  a  tapering  style  :  the 
fruit  is  a  c.a^isule,  Saugled  and  5-celled,  or  the 
cells  by  abortion  fewer,  one  see<l  in  each  cell.  The 
trees  of  this  genus  are  renuirkable  for  the  hanlness 
and  heaviness  of  their  wood,  known  variously  as 
IJfjntim  Vita',  as  Gitaiucuin-trood,  and  as  lirazil- 
ii'uod ;  as  well  as  for  their  peculiar  resinous  pro- 
duct, GuaiarHiii,  often  but  incorrectly  called  a 
gum.  The  s])ecics  to  which  the  commercial  Lignum 
\'itie  and  Guaiacum  are  commonly  refeired  is  (r'. 
fifliciiia/e,  a  native  of  sonu;  of  the  ^\'est  India 
islands,  and  of  some  of  the  continental  p.arts  of 
-Vmerica  ;  a  tree  30  or  40  feet  high,  leaves  abruptly 
pinnate,  with  two  or  three  jiairs  of  ovate,  (dituse, 
.and  perfectly  smooth  leaflets,  pale  blue  flowers  in 
small  clusters,  w  hich  are  succeeded  Viy  compressed 
rouuilish  berries,  a  furrowed  bark,  and  generally  a 
crooked  stem  au<l  knotty  branches.  It  seems  prob- 
able, however,  that  other  species,  as  well  as  this, 
sui)ply  part  of  the  guaiacum-wood  and  resin  of 
commerce.  .At  ])resent  they  are  obtained  chiefly 
from  Cuba,  .lam.aica.  and  St  l>omingo.  The  wood 
is  imported  in  billets  about  3  feet  long  .and  1 
foot  in  diameter,  of  a  greenish-brown  colour.  This 
is  the  colour  of  the  heart-wood  :  the  sap-wooil  is 
p.ale  yellow,  (iuaiacum-wood  is  remarkable  for  the 
direction  of  its  fibres,  each  layer  of  which  crosses 
the  preceding  diagonally  :  annual  rings  are  scarcely 
to  be  observed,  and  the  pith  is  extremely  small. 
It  sinks  in  water.  It  is  much  vsilued;  au.d  used  for 
many  purposes,  chiefly  by  turuers  ;  ships'  blocks. 


438 


GUAIKA 


GUANAJUATO 


rulers,  pestles,  and  IhjwIs  («ee  Bowls)  are  among  | 
the  articles  nicxst  omiiiiionlv  iiia<le  of  it.  When 
riililH'il  <»■  hi'iiteil.  it  emits  a  faint  tlisa^'rwalile 
aroniatio  smell  :  its  tjiste  is  also  pun^'ciit  ami 
aromatic.  Sliavin;.'s  anil  raspin^.'s  of  the  wooil  are 
l)OUf;ht  l>y  apothecaries  for  metlicinal  use.  The 
bark  is  also  nsed  in  medicine  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  althon;;h  not  in  Hritain.  The  virtues  of 
Imth  wooil  anil  hark  depend  cliietly  on  the  lesin 
which  they  contain,  and  which  is  itself  used  in 
powder,  iiill.  and  tincture.  It  is  an  acriil  stimu 
lant,  ancl  lia~  liecn  cmployeil  with  advanta^'e  in 
chronic  rheumatism,  in  chronic  skin  dise.i-ses.  in 
certain  ca-se.s  of  scanty  and  |>aiiifnl  niensti  nation 
(anil  hence  it  is  occasionally  an  ellectual  remedy 
in  cases  of  sterility),  and  in  chronic  catarrh.  It 
ha.s  also  heen  hi.uldy  i)nused  as  a  preventive  of 
I'ont.  The  resin  is  an  in;;reilient  of  the  well 
known  I'linnmn's  Pills.  In  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries  (_;uaiacnin  was  the  remedy  most  in  reimte 
for  syphilis.  It  is  used  in  testing'  lilood  stains 
(q.v.  j.  The  resin  .sometimes  Hows  spontaneimsly 
from  the  stem  of  the  (iuaiacnm  tree ;  it  is  some- 
times obtained  artilicially.  It  is  of  a  greenish 
brow  ri  colour,  and  has  a  brilliant  resinous  fracture. 


Otiiiiacinn  officinale. 

It  ha-s  scarcely  any  taste,  but  leaves  a  burn- 
ing sensation  in  the  mimth.  One  of  its  most 
striking  characteristics  is  tliat  it  is  coloured  Idue 
by  its  oxidising  agents.  It  contains  giioiiiric  arid. 
HOC,,Hj(J.„  which  closely  re.seinbles  benzoic  acid, 
and  yields,  on  distillation,  certain  delinite  com- 
pounds known  a.s  ijiiaiitciii,  pyrofjmiincin,  and 
hl/t/ridr  nf  fpntitfrtfl. 

Ciliaira,  i^-^.  the  port  of  Caracas  {(j.v.),  on  a 
narrow,  shadeless  strip  of  land  between  the  nionn 
tains  .and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Etlorts  have  been 
made  to  improve  the  harbour  by  the  constructioji 
of  a  breakwater  and  wharves.  The  average  value 
of  the  imports  is  almost  fl, 000,000,  and  that  of  the 
exports  nearly  as  much.  Pop.  (1887),  with  two 
neighbouring  villages,  1.5,293.  La  (Juaira  is  often 
leferreil  to  in  Kingv^ley's  We.-ittnnd  I/u .' 

Gliah'^liuy.  a  town  of  Entre  Rios,  Argentine 
Republic,  on  the  (Inaleguay  River,  which  Hows  into 
a  tributary  of  the  I'arauii  :  there  is  a  railway  (7 
miles)  to  I'uerto  liuiz  at  its  mouth.  The  town  has 
a  tannery,  steam-mills,  and  large  slaughter  houses 
and  l>eef-salting  establishnient.s.     Pop.  11,000. 

GlialCfflinyclni.  a  town  of  Entre  Rios,  Argen 
tine  Republic,  on  the  Cualeguaychu  River,  which 
enters  the  Uruguay  1 1  miles  below.  Besides 
slaughtering  and  salting  works,  it  has  an  extr.act- 
of-beef  factory.     Pop.  14,000. 


Ciliaili  or  Yacou  {Penelope),  a  genus  of  large 
;anie-birds     ((;allina>)    of     tlie     family     Cracidie, 


;i. 


.,^'01^'^^ 


Guan  ( Penelope  criitata ). 

among  the  reincsentatives  in  the  New  World  of 
the  grouse  ami  phea.sants  in  the  Old.  It  is  lepre- 
seuled  by  fourteen  .species  disti  ibuted  from  southern 
Texas  through  Mexico  to  Paraguay.  The  guans 
are  graceful  birds,  with  long  tails,  handsome, 
\ariegateil  plumage,  bare,  dilatable  patches  of 
skin  on  the  throat,  and  naked  siiaces  round  the 
eyes.  They  live  mostly  on  trees,  ilesi  ending  to  the 
ground  in  search  of  their  food,  which  consists  of 
fruits,  berries,  and  insects.  They  are  remarkable 
for  their  loud,  frequent  cries,  from  which  the 
Spaniards  call  them  squalling  phca.sants.  Their 
Hesli  is  much  esteeineif,  and  they  fall  a  constant 
and  easy  |irey  to  the  hunter. 

<iliaiialtarua.   a   town   of   Cuba,   lying  in  a 

small  lerlile  plain  among  rocky  hills,  .5  miles  E. 
of  Havana.  It  lias  two  barracks  and  a  military 
hospital.  The  popniation  is  otlicially  returned  at 
nearly  .lO.IMMl. 

Cinaiiat'o.    See  Hi'.-\n.\co. 

<>liaiiajuat().  an  inland  state  of  Mexico,  with 
an  area  ot  l'J..">0(l  sq.  in.,  and  a  pop.  in  1893  of 
l,(XI7,116.  The  greater  part  of  the  surface  belongs 
to  tlie  loftv  plateau  of  .\iiahuac  (q.v.),  and  is  tra- 
versed by  tlie  Sierra  de  (ioida  in  the  north,  and  the 
Sierra  de  Guanajuato  (11,030  feet)  in  the  centre  ; 
the  south-west  portion  belongs  to  the  fertile  |ilain 
of  Bajio.  The  riches  of  (Juanajnato  consist  chieHy 
in  its  valuable  mineral  |irodiicts  ;  there  are  large 
nunibers  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  copjier,  and  <|uick- 
silver  mines  still  worked.  Stock-raising  is  of  some 
importance,  but  agriculture  is  little  pursued, 
although  the  soil  yields  most  products  of  both  the 
temperate  and  tropical  zones;  a  noteworthy  article 
of  export  is  chillies  (see  C.\P.slCfM).  Larj^e  cotton 
and  woollen  factories  have  been  established  by 
foreigners.— ( It  ANA.UATii.  the  capital,  is  curiously 
situated  on  Iiotli  sides  of  a  tleep  Vavine,  tra- 
versed by  a  mountain-stream  that  in  the  rainy 
season  is  swelled  to  a  foaming  torrent.  The  streets 
are  steep  and  tortuous,  the  houses  frequently  of 
four  or  even  five  .stories.  The  public  buildings 
include  a  large  government  palace,  a  mint, 
baiTacks,  a  cathedral,  several  convents  and  col- 
leges, an  art-school,  and  the  Alhondiga.  a  public 
gran.uy.  The  electric  light  and  telephones  have 
been  introduced.  Surrounded  by  a  district  honey- 
combed with  mines,  Guanajuato  presents  mainly 
the  appearance  of  a  mining-town  :  its  handsomest 
jirivate  houses  belong  to  the  wealthy  proprietors  of 
mines,  .and  it  cont.ains  several  aiiialgamatlmi  works, 
others  lining  the  canon  for  several  miles.       Tliere 


GUANARE 


GUANO 


439 


are  also  blanket  factories  and  cotton-printing 
works.     Pop.  52,112. 

CSuaiiare.  capital  of  the  state  of  Zainora,  in 
V^enezuela,  .'stands  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  and 
ha-s  a  pop.  of  10,390. 

€iliaiicbe.s  the  aborigines  of  the  Canan>' 
IslaiiiN  I  ij. v.). 

(xUauin  is  a  yellowish- n-hite,  amorphous  sub- 
stance, which  derives  its  name  from  its  being  a 
constituent  of  guano ;  but  it  also  forms  the 
chief  constituent  of  tlie  excrement  of  spiders,  has 
been  found  attached  to  the  scales  of  fishes — the 
bleak,  for  example — and  seems  to  be  a  normal 
constituent  of  the  mammalian  liver  and  pancreas. 
With  regard  to  its  c)ccarrence  in  guano,  as  it 
has  not  been  found  in  the  recent  excrement  of  sea- 
birils,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  is 
formed  by  slow  oxidation  (from  atmospheric  action) 
of  the  uric  aciil,  miir'Ii  as  uric  acid  can  Ije  made  to 
yield  urea  and  oxalic  acid.  And  in  the  pancreas 
and  liver  it  probably  represents  one  of  those  tran- 
sitory stages  of  disintegrated  nitrogenous  tis,sue 
which  are  finally  excreted  by  the  kidneys  in  the 
more  highly  o.xidised  form  of  urea.  fJuanin  is  a 
tliacid  base,  but  also  forms  salts  with  metals,  and 
combines  with  salts.  When  heated  with  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  potassium  chlorate,  it  is  oxidised 
to  carbon  dioxide,  guanidin,  and  parabanic  acid. 

Gnano  (derived  from  the  Peruvian  word  Imnno. 
'  dung  ■ )  is  the  excrementitious  ile|iosit  of  certain 
sea-fowl,  which  was  found  in  immense  quantities 
on  certain  coasts  and  islands  where  the  climate  Is  ilry 
and  free  from  rain.  .Although  the  use  of  gnano  a> 
a  manure  is  comjiaratively  recent  in  Britain  and  in 
Europe,  its  value  in  agriculture  was  well  known 
to  the  Peruvians  long  before  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniards.  Alexander  von  Humboldt  lirst  brought 
specimens  of  guano  to  Europe  in  1804,  and  sent 
them  to  Fourcroy.  \'aui|uelin,  and  Klajiroth,  the 
best  analytical  cliemists  of  the  day. 

The  commercial  value  of  L'uano  depends  almost 
entirely  ujKm  the  amount  of  decomposition  to  which 


it  ha.s  been  subjected  by  the  action  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, the  value  consisting  ius  it  does  e.s.sentially  of 
nitrogenous  and  phosphatic  compounds,  the  former 
being  chietly  ammonia  .salts  derived  from  the  de- 
ccmijMisition  of  the  uric  acid  ami  urates  which  exist 
in  tile  fresh  excrement.  The  ammouiacal  portion 
of  these  deposits,  and  some  of  the  phosphates,  are 
tolerably  soluble  in  water,  anil  are  readily  washed 
away  by  rain.  There  are  three  classes  of  guanos  : 
( 1 )  those  which  have  suffered  little  by  atmo- 
spheric action,  and  which  retain  nearly  the  whole 
of  their  original  constituents,  such  as  the  Angarnos 
aiul  Peruvian  guanos;  (2)  those  which  have  lost 
a  considerable  portion  of  their  soluble  constituents, 
but  remain  rich  in  their  less  soluble  constituents — 
the  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  such  as  the 
Ichaboe,  Bolivian,  and  Chilian  guanos:  (3)  those 
which  have  lost  nearly  all  their  anmionia,  and  con- 
tain but  little  more  than  the  earthy  phosphates  of 
I  the  animal  deposit — many  bein"  further  largely 
contaminated  with  sand.  In  the  la-st  cla.ss  must  be 
'  placed  the  various  African  guanos  (excepting  that 
i  trom  Ichaboe),  West  Indian  guano,  Kuria  Muria 
,  (islands  off  the  coast  of  Arabia)  guano.  Sombrero 
I  guano,  Pata^onian  guano.  Shark's  Bay  gviano  ( from 
Australia),  iV'c. 

Most  of  the  so-called  Penivian  guano  has  been 
obtained  from  the  Chincha  Islands  off  the  coast  of 
Peru.     The  following  table  represents  the  mean  of 
I  78  samples  of  Peruvian  guanos  : 

Moisture 13-67 

<  irganic  matter  and  salts  of  aiiiiiionia 52'06 

Eartliy  itiiosphates 2*i*7b 

Alkaline  salts  containing  3*34  phosphoric  acid,  )    g.^- 

and  equal  to  689  soluble  phosphate  of  lime f 

Sand,  &c 1  S3 


100  OU 

Atnniuni.i,  ]ier  cent 16'5l' 

The  following  table  gives  the  mean  of  several 
analyses  of  the  inferior  kinds  of  guano,  the  first 
four  belonging  to  the  second  chiss  and  the  remain- 
ing three  to  the  third  cla.ss  : 


Moisture 

Organic  matters  and  salts  of  aiiuuoiiia. 

Eartliy  phosphates 

Alkaline  salts - , 

Carbonate  of  lime '. 

t^and,  &c 


Rjirllcrcargi^ca. 

27-3 

34-3 

30-3 

5-0 


31 


Ichaboe. 
Uiter  ci»rgu«->, 
20  0 
24-4 
20-4 
6-2 

29-0 


Clilltiui. 

20-4 

18-6 

31-0 

7  3 


Bolivian.   Fata^uulau.    Kuria  Muria.  S.-ildaDh:i  Bay. 


101 
210 
51 'o 
141 


23-0 
18-3 
44-0 

:;-i 

IOC. 


18-1 
12-4 
42-7 
4-2 
4  1 
is -5 


20  0 
14-0 
56  4 

2-y 


Annnonia,  per  cent.. 


100-0 

7  3 


100-0 
6-0 


The  nitrogen  in  these  analyses  is  calculated  as 
ammonia  for  the  purpose  of  comparison.  In  reality 
it  exists  in  various  forms  of  combination — viz.  as 
uric  acid,  urea  occasionally,  urate,  oxalate,  hydro- 
chlorate,  phosiihate,  \-o. ,  of  ammonia,  other  urates, 
(hianin  (i|.v.),  and  undefined  nitrogenous  com- 
pounils.  Hence,  as  may  be  infened,  a  complete 
analysis  of  guano  is  a  work  of  very  considerable 
labour ;  but,  as  its  agricultural  value  depends 
mainly  on  the  quantities  of  ammonia,  soluble  ami 
insoluble  phosphates,  and  alkaline  salts  which  it 
contains,  such  .analyses  ,i.s  those  we  have  given  are 
surticieut  for  practical  purposes,  and  they  are  easily 
made. 

If  the  value  of  a  manure  be  calculated,  as  is  done 
by  Boussingault  ami  other  chemists,  aci-ording  to 
the  amount  of  nitrogen  which  it  contains,  ime  t<m 
of  good  Peruvian  guano  is  equal  to  XU  tons  of 
farmyard  inannrc.  20  tons  of  lioi-se-dung,'384  tons 
of  cow-dung,  22i  tons  of  pig-dung,  or  14A  tons  of 
human  excrement. 

Th>-  introduction  of  guano  into  Britain  as  a 
manure  is  comparatively  recent.  In  1S40  only  20 
casks  of  it  were  imported.     In   1841   Lord   Derby 


100-0 
5-47 


loo-o 

4-5 


100  0 
2-05 


100-0 
147 


spoke  strongly  in  its  recomiuendation  at  a  meeting 
of  the  Agricultural  Society  ;  and  from  that  time  it 
came  rapidlv  into  use.  In  1850  the  import  was 
llt),925  ton.s;  in  1870,  280,311  tons:  but  in  1880  it 
had  fallen  to  80,497  tons:  and  from  1885  to  1888 
it  had  still  further  decie.-vsed  from  2.1.000  to  17.000 
tons.  Its  value  as  a  fertiliser  li,-vs  lieeii  so  much 
appreciated,  and  its  use  so  extensive,  that  it  is 
gradually  going  out  of  the  market  owing  to  the 
diminution  of  supplies,  its  place  l>eing  taken  by 
various  artificial  substitutes  (see  M.\NlRE).  See 
J.  C  Nesbit  s  pamphlet,  HiMorii  ami  I'm/niiien  of 
Sntiiriil  Giiiiniis.{.ne\v  e<\.  1860). 

FlsH-oi'.VNo.  The  organic  fertiliser  eomni<uily 
I  known  its  Kishguano  may  be  shortly  defined  as 
fish  dried  and  ground  to  powder.  The  value  of 
fish  as  a  fertiliser  is  univei-sally  admitted,  and  is 
evidenced  by  the  eagerness  shown  by  farmers,  who 
reside  in  districts  w-here  fish  can  be  easily  and 
cheaply  obtained,  in  acquiring  and  applying  it  to 
their  land.  Mu.ssels,  five-fingers  or  starfish,  her- 
rings, and  partii-ularly  sjitats  may  be  instanced  as 
the  fish  most  generally  usetl  in  tin.--  way.  The 
inconvenience  :ind  expense  arising  from  this  mode 


440 


GUANO 


GUARANTY 


of  a|>i>lii.'iiti<m  to  the  ni»\,  on  iU't'DUiit  of  llie  bulky 
a.-  well  as  the  uiii>U'n.-iant  iiatuiv  of  the  intiterial.  is 
olivious,  the  iioiifeitilisin^'  iiioiNtiire  iiloiie  aiiiouiil 
in-;  to  liotweeii  tk)  uinl  sO  |>ev  cent.,  anil  bv  so  innoli 
enhancing  the  cost  of  >;eneral  lianlaye.  'I  he  ilesini 
bility  of  conveitin;:  raw  lish  into  a  concentrated 
and  portable  powder  i<ini|>aratively  free  from 
moisture  was  lii-st  jiraclically  realised  only  shortly 
before  ISti'i  by  M.  Itohart,  whose  product  was 
olitaineil  frinn  the  refuse  of  the  Norwegian  c(k1- 
fisheries  by  drving  the  heads  anil  backbimesi  ol 
the  codlish  upon  heated  floors  after  thev  had  been 
sun-dried  on  the  rocks,  and  sulisei|nent1y  ;;rinding 
them  between  millstones  to  a  lloury  powiler. 

Of  late  years  lishguano  has  ;;rown  rapidly  in 
favour  amon<;  agriculturists,  a  prefeieiice  biuseil 
dinibtless  noon  its  merits  a-s  a  fertiliser,  and  pr<d)- 
ably  also  due  to  it.s  similarity  both  as  regards 
origin,  analysis,  and  ell'ect  l«  Peruvian  guano. 
The  sui)plie.s  of  Peruvian  guano,  as  is  now  gener- 
ally known,  are  practically  exhausted,  the  imports 
into  the  I'nitcd  Kingiloiu  having  fallen  from  about 
S(K),tK)0  tons  |ier  annum  in  years  gone  by  to  alMiut 
17,(HK)  tons  in  18S8.  Not  only  in  i|Uantity  is  I'eru 
\  ian  guano  deterioratiii';,  but  also  in  ijualily.  the 
ammonia,  for  example,  found  hy  Vnelcker  in  1864 
being  1S(>2,  whereas  in  1889  the  very  l)est  shows 
only  9.")tl,  and  othei-s  vary  from  B'oO  percent,  down 
to  as  low  a.«i  .S  per  cent. 

In  sonu-  (luarters  nitrate  of  soda  has  been  named 
as  the  probable  substitute  for  Peruvian  guano ; 
but,  although  its  sn])plies  are  at  present  enormous, 
the  character,  composition,  and  action  upon  the  soil 
are  entirely  dillerent,  one  being  of  a  niineral  and 
the  other  of  an  organic  origin.  I'isli  guano  m.iy 
be  held  to  contain  the  lish  with  its  natural  |>ro|ierties 
of  nitrogen  and  pliosphoric  acid  in  full  ;  while 
Peruvian  guano,  which  is  the  accumulation  during 
age.s  of  the  excrenu^nl  of  birds  whose  main  food  has 
been  lish,  must  have  sull'ered  by  the  action  upon 
the  lish  of  the  iligestive  organs  of  the  birds,  a-s 
well  as  the  ell'ect  of  the  weather  upon  the  ileposits. 
Fish-guano  may  therefore  be  considered  as  the  best 
substitute  for  the  failing  supplies  of  Peruvian  guano. 
.\nother  advantage  is  the  fact  that  the  available 
supi>lies  of  lish  in  Norway,  Canada,  Xewfoumllan<I. 
and  elsewhere  aie  practically  inexhaustible.  l'"ish 
guano,  according  to  the  lish  from  which  it  is  made, 
analyses  from  9  to  14  i)er  cent,  of  annnonia,  and 
from  ISto.S'i  per  cent,  of  ]ihosphate  of  lime.  At 
the  present  time  the  selling  price  per  ton  is  lixed, 
as  regarils  the  amnnniia  it  contains,  by  the  ruling 
market  price  per  unit  of  that  ingredient  in  nitnite 
of  soila,  and,  as  regards  the  phosphate  i>f  lime,  by 
the  price  of  bone  and  Calcutta  lione meal.  The 
market  value  of  lish-guano  varie.s,  according  to  the 
ainilyses,  from  about  £6  to  t8  per  ton  weight. 
Une  ton  of  lisli-guarm  is  said  to  be  eiiual  in 
chemical  effect  to  seventeen  tinie.s  its  weight  in 
farmyard  manure. 

Of  the  most  generally  known  lish-guano  there 
may  be  saiil  to  he  four  kinds.  There  is  the 
'  raw  '  guano  made  in  Christiansuml  and  the  Lofo- 
dens,  upon  M.  I'ohartV  principle,  which  is  used  prin- 
cipally in  Oerinany.  There  is  also  a  guano  maile 
in  London,  Hull,  and  elsewhere,  from  lish  which 
ha.s  been  condemned  by  the  .authorities  as  unlit 
for  human  food.  This  description,  natur.ally,  em- 
braces lish  of  all  kinils  and  sizes,  its  great  draw 
back  being  the  large  quantity  ol  oil  left  in  the 
guano,  the  presence  of  which  element  is  preju 
ilicial  to  any  fertiliser.  By  far  the  largest  ipiantily 
of  tisli-gnano  is  manufactured  in  various  parts  of 
Norway,  but  jirincipally  at  Hrettesnoes.  in  the 
Lofodens,  by  .Jensen  \-  Co.,  who  make  ;is  much 
a-s  5000  tons  per  annum.  This  guano  is  made 
from  the  heads  and  backs  of  the  codfish,  and  also 
from  the  herring.    In  both  instances  the  'raw  stud' 


is  artilicially  ilried  and  pound,  much  time  being 
saved  by  tliis  process,  insteiul  of  waiting  Moine 
months  until  the  boni's  were  sullicieiitly  ilried  by 
the  sun.  To  make  IIKNI  tons  of  cod-giiano  7,<NK),U(KI 
heads  are  neces.sjiry,  and  to  obtain  the.se  .">(), (MKi  tons 
weight  of  lish  have  to  be  caught.  The  oil  fi>iind  in 
this  guano  is  practically  nil.  The  'herring  gnano' 
is  obt.'iined  by  extracting  the  oil  and  inoisliire  by 
means  of  pressure  from  the  herrings;  the  'cake' 
thus  obtained  is  then  ground  in  the  ordin.-iry  way 
by  means  of  disintegrators,  the  result  being  a 
line  powder  of  higli  inanurial  value.  Ouaim 
obtained  from  the  cod  analyses  about  10  per  cent, 
of  ammonia  and  SO  per  cent,  phosphates,  the 
hatter  high  ligure  being  due  to  the  large  predom- 
inance of  bone  over  llesliy  or  nitrogenous  matter. 
The  contrary  is  the  ca.se  in  the  herring  guano,  in 
which  the  lleshy  m.atter  is  very  much  gi eater  than 
the  bony  substance,  the  analysis  being  about  \'.i 
percent,  each  of  .ammonia  and  phosphate,  (niano 
IS  also  made  in  Canada  and  elsewhere  from  lolwter 
and  crab  shells,  and  this  is  stated  to  Im-  a  valuable 
manure  for  garden  purposes.  The  annual  |iroiluc- 
t ion  of  lish-guano  is  estimated  at  the  |ireseiit  time 
at  l.'j,000  tons,  including  that  made  in  Kngland, 
Scotland,  Norwav,  Sweden.  Newfoundland,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  the  Vnited  States  of  .Vmerica.  For 
Kock  guano,  see  Al'.\TITE. 

taliaport'*.  a  navig.able  river  of  .South  America, 
rises  in  Brazil,  and  for  some  distance  forms  the 
boundary  between  Bolivia  and  Brazil.  It  unites 
with  ilic  Mamore  to  form  the  .Madeira  (ij.v.). 

4>liaraii:i.  from  the  seeds  of  a  plant  belonging 
to  ihc  genus  Panllinia  (natural  order  Sa]dndace;e), 
from  whose  seeds  (liiiiiiimi  Ihnitl,  a  kind  ol  food, 
is  prepared  by  the  (luaranis  and  other  sav.iges  of 
Brazil.  /'.  sorhilis  is  the  species  which  yiehls  the 
piiste  called  (luarana  breail.  It  is  made  in  round 
or  oblong  cakes,  which  are  regarded  in  all  parts  of 
Brazil  ius  very  etlicacioiis  in  the  cure  of  many  dis- 
orders, and  which  contain,  besides  other  substances, 
some  of  them  nntiillous,  a  considerable  i|iiantity  of 
a  substance  supposed  to  be  identical  with  tlieine  or 
cali'eine.  It  has  been  used  medically  in  the  Initt'd 
States  and  Knro|>e.  The  Brazilians  poiiiid  the 
(luarana  bread,  sometimes calleil  '  Brazilian  cocoa.' 
in  water,  sweeten  it,  and  use  it  iUs  a  stomachic  and 
febrifuge.  It  is  also  reputed  aphrodisiac. — The 
genus  P.aullinia  cont.aiiis  se\ei-al  s])ecies  riMnark- 
able  for  their  extremely  poisonous  ))ropi  ities.  In 
the  bark,  leaves,  and  fruit  of  /'.  iiiinniln  abounds  a 
lirinciple  which  slowly  but  surely  causes  death,  .and 
is  employed  for  th.at  )iurpose  by  the  Brazilians  :  the 
d.angerous  l>eche<|uana  honey  is  obtained  from  ]'. 
inislrulis  :  and  from  /'.  riijmiiii,  a  native  of  the 
banks  of  the  Orinoco,  an  intoxicating  drink  is 
procured. 

<>iiaraiito('    .isso<-iatioii.s,   joint-stock 

companies  on  the  insurance  principle,  which  become 
security  for  the  integrity  of  cashiers,  travellei-s,  ami 
other  employees,  on  payment  of  an  annual  sum  cal 
ciliated  either  u|ion  the  salary  or  u|>on  the  amount 
for  which  the  a-ssociation  holds  it.self  liable.  The 
iulviintage  of  the  system  is  that  it  ob\i.ites  the 
necexsity  of  rei|uesting  private  friends  to  iH'come 
sureties'     See  (It  .\I!.\.NT\ ,  and  C.M  TION. 

4iliai*ailty.  or  (;t'Alt.\NTl-;K,  is  a  contract  by 
which  one  peixon  hinds  himself  to  pay  a  debt  or  do 
some  .act  in  ca.se  of  the  failure  of  some  other  person, 
whose  debt  or  duty  it  is,  to  do  the  thing  guaranteed. 
The  ]ierson  so  binding  himself  is  generally  called 
the  surety  in  England,  while  the  person  who  is 
primarily  liable  is  called  the  principal.  Thus, 
where  A  iMurows  money,  and  B  joins  iis  a  party  in 
.a  bill  of  exchange  or  a  bond  to  secure  the  loan,  B  is 
a  surety.  Where  B  guarantee.s  that  certain  goods 
which  are  supplied   to  .\   shall   be  paid    for.   lie  is 


GUARDAFUI 


GUARIXO 


441 


more  usually  stvletl  a  guarantor  than  a  surety,  but 
the  lial>ility  is  the  same. 

Such  a  contract  must  be  in  writini,',  for  the 
Statute  of  Frauds  (29  Charles  11.  chap.  :i)  reiiuire<l 
that  no  action  should  lie  hrouttht  whereoy  to 
charge  the  defendant  upon  any  special  promise  to 
answer  for  the  debt,  default,  or  miscarriage  of 
another  person,  unless  the  agreeiuent  or  .some 
memorandum  or  note  thereof  sliimlrl  be  in  writing 
and  signed  by  the  party  to  be  charged  therewith, 
or  some  other  person  by  him  lawfully  authoriseil. 
So  that  a  surety  can  only  be  bound  by  some  writing 
signed  by  himself  or  his  agent.  And  Lord  Ten- 
terden's  Act  (9  Geo.  IV.  chap.  14,  sect.  6)  enacted 
the  same  thing  as  to  persons  making  representa- 
tions as  to  the  character,  ability,  or  dealings  of 
another,  with  intent  that  the  latter  may  obtain 
credit.  In  order  to  bind  the  surety,  there  must  also 
Ije  no  deceit  or  inisrepiesentation  used  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  risk  or  a.s  to  the  state  of  the  accounts. 
If  a  guaranty  is  given  to  a  firm,  it  is  not  binding 
after  a  change  in  the  firm,  unless  the  parties  ex- 
pressly stipulate  to  the  contrary.  If  the  creditor 
discharges  the  principal,  or  even  gives  time,  byway 
of  indulgence  to  him,  the  .surety  is  released,  for  he 
is  thereby  ])ut  to  a  disadvantage.  In  general,  the 
creditor  can  sue  either  the  principal  or  the  surety 
for  the  debt  at  his  option.  If  the  surety  is  obliged 
to  pay  the  debt  of  his  principal,  he  can  sue  the  prin- 
cipal for  the  money  so  paid,  and  is  entitled  to  liave 
all  the  securities  assigned  to  him,  so  as  to  enable 
him  to  do  so  more  ett'ectually.  If  one  of  two  or 
more  sureties  is  made  liable  for  the  whole  debt,  he 
may  call  upon  his  co-sureties  to  contribute  e(|ually 
with  himself.      For  the  Scotch  law,  see  CAUTION. 

Ciliardaflli.  C.\pe,  the  most  eastern  point  of 
the  African  continent,  and  the  extremity  of  an 
immense  promontory  (the  Somali  country)  stretch- 
ing seaward  in  an  ea-st-north-east  direction,  and 
wa.she<l  on  the  north-west  by  the  tJulf  of  .Aden  and 
on  the  south-east  by  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  cape 
is  in  11'  50'  N.  lat.  and  51'  14'  E.  long. 

Guardian,  in  English  law.  is  the  legal  re- 
presentative and  custodier  of  infants — i.e.  ]>ersons 
umler  the  age  of  twenty -one.  The  feudal  law  of 
guardianship  was  very  elaborate? ;  but  its  provisions 
have  not  been  of  practical  importance  since  the 
abolition  of  the  Court  of  Wards  in  1641.  I'nder 
the  modern  law,  a  father  may,  by  ileed  or  will, 
ajjpoint  guardians  for  his  cliiUl.  Parents  themselves 
are  called  g'uardians  by  nature  or  for  nurture:  a 
father  has  the  custody  and  control  of  his  children,  at 
lea-st  until  they  attain  the  age  of  fourteen  :  and  this 
right  pa-sses  at  his  death  to  the  mother,  either  alone 
or  jointly  with  any  guardian  whom  he  may  ha\  e 
a|)pointed.  The  courts  ajipoint  guardians  when 
necessary  ;  thus  a  guanlian  'id  liti'.ni  is  appointed 
to  defend  an  action  brought  against  an  infant ;  and 
if  an  infant  is  made  executor  a  guanlian  is  ap- 
pointed to  administer  during  his  ndnority.  If  the 
iufant  is  old  enough  to  do  so,  he  is  sometimes  per- 
mitted to  choose  his  guardian.  A  guardian  Ls  m  a 
fiduciary  position,  and  his  powers  are  usually  exer- 
cised under  control  of  the  court.  For  his  "powei-s 
in  regard  to  the  infants  marriage,  see  Infant. 

The    guardian    of    a    lunatic    is    u.sually   called 
a  committee.       In   Scotland   the   woril     guardian' 
is  sometime.s  used   in   reference   to    lunatics,    but 
seldom  applied,  except  in  a  popular  sense,  to  those 
who  have  the  custody  and   care  of  children.     In 
corres])onding  cases  in  Scotland   the  custody  of   a 
ohihl  under  twelve,  if  female,  or  fourteen,  if  male, 
belongs  to  her  or  his  tutor  ;  and   from   those  ages  I 
to   twenty-one   the   child    has   no    legal   guardian,  i 
being  tui  jiiri.i,  but  the  care  of  the  child's  nropeity  j 
belongs  to  a  Curator.     For  guardians  oi  tlie  poof, 
see  PiiDR  Laws.  I 


<>uardian  Angels.    See  Angel. 

Guards  are  in  all  armies  the  elite  of  the  troop, 
and  form  the  .soveicign's  bodyguard.  In  the  British 
service  the  (Juards  compose  what  is  called  the 
HoiLseliold  Brigade,  and  include  the  1st  and  2<1  Life 
( luards,  the  Royal  Horse  (Juards  ( see  CUIRAS.SIER.S ), 
the  Grenadier  Guards  ( three  battalions ),  Coldstream 
(Guards  (two  battalions),  and  Scots  Guards,  for- 
merly Scots  Fusiliers  (two  battalions),  or  altout 
1300  cavalry  and  tWOO  infantry.  Before  the  al>oli- 
ti(m  of  purchase,  the  ollicers  of  the  Foot  Cuards 
held  higher  army  rank  than  that  they  Ijore  regi- 
mentally — i.e.  ensigns  ranked  with  lieutenants  of 
other  regiments,  lieutenants  with  ca])tains,  ca])tains 
with  lieutenant-colonels  :  and  liy  exchanging  into 
the  line  they  were  enablerl  to  take  rank  above 
officers  of  much  longer  service.  When  purchai^e 
was  abolished  in  1871,  it  was  decided  that  ollicers 
joining  the  Guards  after  that  ilate  should  not  hold 
this  exceptional  rank.  The  brilliant  service-s  of 
the  French  Guard  in  the  Napoleonic  wars  are  well 
known.  See  also  the  articles  N.ational  Ciwrd, 
Scots  Guard.s,  Swi.ss  Guabd.s. 

Guardship  Is  a  term  used  in  two  .senses.  In 
the  first  |dace  it  is  ajiplied  to  a  guardship  of  reser\-e, 
which  is  jiractically  a  depot  ship  for  men  employed 
in  vessels  of  the  royal  navy  out  of  commission ;  and 
of  these  there  are  only  three,  stationed  at  Sheer- 
ness,  Portsmouth,  and  Plymouth.  In  the  second 
place  the  tenn  Is  applied  to  vessels  of  the  royal 
navy  which  are  stationed  at  other  ports  on  the 
coast :  they  are  the  liead()uarters  of  the  different 
coastguard  districts,  and  are  kept  manned  with 
reduced  crews:  they  can  complete  their  crews  at 
any  time  from  the  men  in  the  coastguard,  and  .so 
manned  can  proceed  to  sea  at  once  as  a  fighting 
si|uadron,  and.  intleed,  are  su])posed  to  be  in  the 
English  Channel  ready  for  action  in  four  ilavs  after 
a  mobilisation  order  is  issueil.  The  Koyal  Naval 
Reserve  in  some  cases  do  their  drill  on  board  these 
ships,  which,  however,  are  in  no  sen.se  guanl  (le. 
defence)  ships  for  the  particular  ports  at  which 
they  are  stationed. 

Guarea.  a  genus  of  tropical  American  trees  of 
the  natural  order  Meliaceie,  of  sonu?  of  which  the 
bark  is  used  as  an  emetic  and  purgative.  <!. 
ifi-dtirlifoliii  is  called  Musk-wood  in  some  of  the 
islands  of  the  West  Indies,  the  bark  smelling  so 
strongly  of  musk  that  it  may  be  used  a.s  a  perfume. 
.Although  the  tree  attains  timber  size  and  Inis  been 
employed  for  making  rum  hogsheads  when  other 
material  wa-s  scarce,  the  wood  contains  a  bitter 
resinous  substance,  the  Havour  and  smell  of  which 
is  communicated  to  the  spirits  to  their  detiiment. 

Giiarini,  (tIovanni  Battista,  poet,  was  bom 
at  Ferrara,  10th  December  1538,  studied  at  Pisa, 
Paclna,  anil  Ferrara.  ami  was  api)oiuted  to  a  chair 
at  Ferrara.  .Vt  the  age  of  thirty  he  accepted  ser- 
\ice  at  the  court  of  Ferrara,  and  was  entrusted  by 
Duke  Alfonso  II.  with  various  rli^)loiiiatic  mis.sion's 
to  the  pope,  the  enij)eror.  Venice,  and  Poland. 
He  died  in  1612  at  \  enice.  As  a  poet,  he  is  re- 
markable for  retineil  grace  of  language  ami  sweet- 
ness of  sentiment,  while  his  defects  are  occa-sional 
artificiality,  a  too  constant  recurrence  of  antitheti- 
cal imagery,  and  an  .all'ecteil  dallying  with  his  ideas. 
llis  chief  and  most  popular  w<uk.  //  I'uatur  Fido 
I  ■  The  Faithful  Swain),  obtained  a  high  measure 
of  popul.irity  on  its  appearance,  and  passed  through 
forty  eilitions  in  the  author's  lifetime,  though  it  is 
really  an  imitatiim  of  Tasso's  Amitita.  An  (in- 
ciun|)lete)  etlition  of  (Juarini's  varietl  writings, 
including  sonnets,  comedies,  satires,  and  political 
treatises,  was  published  at  Verona  in  1737  (4  v<ds.). 
See  the  monograph  by  Uossi  (Turin,  1886). 

Guarino  (Lat.  Vnrinux).  a  learned  Italian, 
born  at  Verona  in  1370,  went  to  Constantinople  in 


442 


GUAUNIKRI 


GUATEMALA 


13H.S  to  learn  IJreek  iiihUt  Clir.Vfoloniw.  Alter  lii> 
return,  lie  tan<.'lit  in  Verona,  I'iuUui,  imil  I>olo;.'na. 
wus  tutor  to  I'rinee  Lionella  of  Kerrara,  aete<l  a.- 
interjireter  at  the  Council  of  Ferrara.  and  ilieil  in 
UW).  He  performed  great  services  for  tlie  revival 
of  cliLssical  stuilie>  :  wrote  (Ireekand  Latin  j;raio 
niar«:  tianslateil  |iarts  ol  Stralio  and  I'hitarcli  ; 
and  liel|>i-d  to  i->taldisli  the  text  of  l.ivv.  I'lauln.-. 
fatnllu-.  anil  I'liiiv.  See  iiiono;;ia|ilis  liy  Uo-iiiiiii 
(  IMNil  Mil. I  Saliliadini  (  |HH.~M. 

diliarilicri.  or  (Jr.vRNKlfl,  the  name  of  one 
of  the  three  celehrated  families  of  violininaker- 
who  flourished  at  Cremona  in  the  ITtli  and  ISth 
centuries.  The  most  notable  of  the  faiiiilv  were 
AniiKKA  (H.  1650-95),  a  jminl  of  Niocolo  Aniati  : 
his  -onstJiL  SEPI-E  (ll.  ItjiHt  I7:«t)  and  l'lKTHo(ll- 
ItiiW- 1 7"2.') ) ;  and  his  ne|iliew  tJirsEl'l'K.  <oiiinioiil\ 
called  tJiusejipe  del  Gesii,  who  tlourLshed  1725 
45,  and  whose  violins  were  not  inferior  to  those  of 
the  Stiaitivari. 

GllSlstalla,  a  small  town  of  Italy,  on  (he  F'o, 
19  mile--  hy  rail  NE.  of  I'arma.  The  seat  of  a 
liLshop  (since  18'2H),  it  has  an  old  castle,  and  a 
school  of  music,  (iua-stalla  gave  name  in  1406  to 
a  conntship,  in  1621  to  a  dnchy.     I'op.  264.S. 

4iliati'IUill<U  a  lepiihlic  of  Central  America, 
lying  tietween  i:{  46'  and  17'  44'  X.  lat.,  and 
iMiunded  on  the  W.  ami  N.  by  Mexico  ;  on  the  E. 
by  IS'-lize.  the  Gulf  of  Hondunvs.  and  the  republic 
of  Hondnia>  ;  on  the  S.  and  \V.  by  San  Salviulor 
and  the  I'acilic.  Part  of  the  frontier,  liowever,  i-. 
not  yet  lived,  the  boundary  line  towards  Yucatan 
in  particular  being  still  umletermined.  In  the 
absence  of  government  surveys  the  area  is  estimated 
at  some  46,600  sii.  m.,  much  of  which  is  wholly 
unexplored,  so  tliat  the  course  of  even  the  larger 
rivers  and  the  direction  of  the  main  mountain 
chains,  iLs  laid  down  in  the  maps  of  the  country, 
are  to  a  considerable  extent  hypothetical.  The 
greater  part  of  Guatemala  is  mountainous,  the  high- 
lands having  a  mean  elevation  of  iibout  7000  feet 
above  the  sea ;  but  the  surface  presents  great 
variety,  with  extensive  plateaus,  terraces,  and  up- 
land v'alleys— the  last  notable  for  their  lieauty,  fer 
tilitv,  and  favourable  climate.  The  main  chain  runs 
generally  parallel  with  the  Pacitic  coiist,  which  it 
approaches  within  fiftv  miles ;  on  this  side  the 
slope  is  steep  and  broken  by  iiumy  volcanoes,  while 
towards  the  Allautir  it  sinks  in  gentle  incline. 
with  subsiilian  ranges  extending  to  the  water's 
edge.  Of  the  volcanoes  several  are  active:  the 
most  noted  is  Fuego  (12.075  feet),  which  lavs 
claim  to  nearly  half  of  the  recorded  eruptions  in 
Central  America.  Agua,  from  whose  crater-lake  a 
deluge  of  water  destroy eil  the  lirst  capital  in  1541. 
has  Ijeen  extinct  for  centuries.  Eartluiuakes  are 
frequent,  and  occa-sionallv  ( as  in  1863  and  1  s74 )  very 
severe  :  sulphur  and  other  hot  springs  are  numer 
ons.  Cuatemala  is  well  watered,  the  principal 
rivers  lieing  the  I'suiiiacinta,  which  liows  into 
Campeachy  Hay,  and  the  Pidochic  and  .Motagua 
(a)iont  280  miles),  which  fall  into  the  (inlf  of 
Honiliiras  ;  yet,  owing  to  the  contiguration  of  the 
countr\ ,  water  in  many  parts  is  scarce  in  the  dry 
season.  Those  of  the  streams,  moreoxer,  that 
are  navigable  possess  the  ever-picsent  liai  common 
to  Central  .\iiiericau  rivei-s.  Tlie  lakes  include  the 
Lago  de  Izabal  (36  miles  long),  lielow  which  the 
Pohx-hic  Ijecpmes  the  Rio  Dulce  :  the  Laguna  del 
Heten  (27  miles  by  15);  and  the  Lagos  de  Atitlan 
( 17  by  s  1  and  .\matitlan  (9  by  3). 

The  climate,  except  in  the  low-lying  districts,  may 
be  descrilM>il  ius  perpetual  spring,  and  is  generally 
healthy,  but  the  fieople  are  for  the  most  part  utterly 
regardless  of  all  sanitary  laws.  The  hot  coivst-lands 
on  the  Pacific  are  especially  liable  to  visitations  of 
vellow  fever.     At  the  capital  the  temperature  ranges 


from  40  to  87  K.,  and  the  annual  rainfall  is  alniut 
.'■3  inches  ;  in  the  lowlands  the  mean  range  is  from 
70'  to  90  :  in  the  uplands  ice  apiicars  in  the  dry 
winters.  The  rainy  season  extends  generally  froui 
.\pril  to  Oct<il)er,  April  ami  May  lieing  the  hottest 
months. 

(iiiatemala  is  as  yet  of  little  importance  a>  a 
milling  country,  but  chielly  U-caiise  its  resources 
are  almost  wholly  undeveloped.  tiold,  which  is 
found  in  most  of  the  river  lii-ds,  is  worked  t<i  .some 
extent  ill  the  department  of  1/abal  ;  some  silver- 
mines  are  also  worke<l,  and  a  mint  wiis  established 
in  1888;  and  salt  and  saltpetre  are  mined,  though 
not  in  large  i|uaiitities.  ( )tlicr  minerals  are  leail, 
iron,  co|iper,  coal,  ipiicksiher,  marble,  porphyry, 
suljihur,  zinc,  gypsum,  «.Vc.  iJut  the  wealth  of  the 
country  consists  in  its  rich  .soil,  which,  according 
to  the  altitude,  yields  the  products  of  every  /.one. 
The  shores  are  lined  with  mangroves,  the  rivers 
with  bamboos,  lieyond  which  rise  the  forests,  where 
the  mahogany,  the  cocoa-nut.  cohuiie,  and  other 
palms  tower  aliove  the  wild  banaiia.s,  ferns,  and 
gingers  that  scantily  cover  the  bare  soil  below, 
whilst  the  exulierance  of  orchids  and  trailing  para- 
sites confuses  the  identity  of  the  trees.  In  the 
uplands  are  forests  of  huge  pines  and  siiruces  and 
oaks,  agaves  .aiiil  cherimoyas  ap|iearon  the  hillside, 
and  thick  grass  clothes  the  gnmnd  ;  even  in  the 
dry  lava  plains  a  coarse  grass  springs  iiii  between 
the  lava  blocks,  and  acacias  and  calabash  trees  are 
met  with.  Tlie  forests  contain  over  a  hundred 
kinds  of  timber  trees,  including  many  of  the  most 
valuable;  yet,  owing  to  the  absence  of  roads  and 
means  of  transport,  Guatemala  is  obliged  to 
import  a  large  i|uantity  of  Califoriiian  red-wood 
and  other  timber.  In  1888  the  appoiutiiicnt  of 
keepers  of  the  national  forests  was  oioered.  Maize 
and  haricot  beans  ( frijolcs )  grow  freely  evervwhere, 
pejis  and  iiotiit<ies  in  sullicient  quantity  for  con- 
sumption, wheat  in  the  uplanils.  and  rice  in  the 
bottom-lands.  Other  proiliicts  are  coH'ee  (the  chief 
"•xiiort).  sugar,  cacao,  india-rubber,  tobacco,  cotton, 
pita  and  sisal  hemji,  sarsaparilla.  and  many  medici- 
nal plants,  bananas,  and  a  number  of  other  fruits, 
mostly  of  the  liiiest  quality.  The  export  <if  cochi- 
neal, formerly  of  chief  imiiortaiice,  has  almost 
lexseil.  Cattle  are  raised  suflicient  for  the  needs 
of  the  country,  though  not,  as  in  Honduras, 
for  exjiortation.  The  fauna  of  (Juatemala  includes 
the  jaguar,  puma,  iK-elot,  coyote,  red-deer,  tapir, 
peccary,  armadillo,  and  several  monkeys  ;  iguanas 
and  turtles  are  numerous,  wheie.'is  the  alligatons 
are  small  and  not  frequent,  ami  boas  and  \cnoiiioiis 
snakes,  though  the  number  of  species  is  consider- 
able, are  seldom  met  with.  The  birds  are  of  great 
variety  and  beauty,  comprising  several  liundre<l 
s|iecies ;  the  national  emblem  is  the  superbly 
coloured  (/iietzal  (q.v.).  Insects  abound,  the  most 
notable  being  the  brilliant  biitlertlies,  immense 
lieetles,  locusts,  many  kinds  of  ants,  scorpions, 
tarantulas,  gras-shoiqiers,  mosquitoes.  Hies,  and 
jiggers. 

'flic  industries  of  (iuatemala  are  chielly  confined 
to  the  manufacture  of  woven  fabrics,  pottery,  ami 
saddlery  ;  there  are  .several  chocolate  f.-u-tories,  and 
Hour  and  saw  mills  in  the  country,  and  nunieroiis 
distilleries  of  the  liery  iKjiiuiilnnti,  the  sale  of  which 
is  a  government  monopoly,  yielding  alwut  a  fourth 
of  the  annual  revenue.  San  .lose,  the  chief  port, 
Champerico,  and  Oeos,  all  on  the  Pacific,  are 
merely  open  roadsteads,  iirovided  w  itli  iron  piers ; 
but  Santo  Toniiis,  on  the  .\tlaiitic  side.  Iiils  a  good 
harlmur  ;  and  in  1883  Livingston,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Hio  Dulce.  was  proclaimed  a  free  ]iort  for  ten 
years,  since  when  the  trade  has  considerabl.v  in- 
crea.sed.  The  development  of  the  country,  how- 
ever, is  greatly  hampered  by  the  alisence  of  sernce- 
able  roads,  w  liicli  are  for  the  most  part  ie|iresented 


GUATEMALA 


GUAVA 


443 


by  loii^li  mule-tracks.  Kor  the  five  veai-s  ending 
1894,  the  aveiage  annual  imports  amounted  to 
ahout  7,000,00(1  iloUars,  the  avera^re  aiiiiual  expcnts 
to  about  15,00(1,000  dollar.s.  The  m.iihiiI-,  of  w  hich 
Britain  supplies  nearly  a  third  and  the  L'nited 
States  a  sixth,  are  chietiy  speeie,  cotton,  woollen, 
and  silli  goods,  wines  and  spirits,  railway  plant,  and 
flour;  the  principal  exports  are  coli'ee,  sugar,  fruits, 
and  hides. 

About  a  third  of  the  people  are  said  to  be  of 
European  descent,  and  the  rest  aborigines  (Maya- 
(■iuielies )  :  but  this  roiigli  lUvisioii  takes  no  account 
of  the  mixed  races,  which  embrace  nearly  a  score 
of  distinct  crosses  recognised  by  separate  names ; 
these  Ladinos  greatly  outnumber  the  coniiiaratively 
few  pure  descendants  of  the  Spanish  invaders  or 
-settlers.  The  Indians  of  the  nortliern  forest-country 
are  wild  and  uncivilised.  A  census  taken  in  ISSO 
returned  the  population  at  1,224,602;  that  of  1890 
recorded  a  total  of  1,460,017.  The  capital,  Guate- 
mala la  Nueva,  in  1895  had  85,U(tO  inhabitants, 
Quetzaltenango  20,(JO0,  Chimaltenango  and  An- 
tigua Guatemala  .about  14.000.  The  state  re- 
ligion is  the  Pioman  Catholic,  which  is  practically 
the  only  form  in  use.  altliough  others  are  alloweil 
by  the  constitution.  IJut  many  of  the  tine  old 
churches  of  the  country  are  crumbling  to  iiiin  ; 
and  it  is  said  that  scarcely  a  tenth  of  the  population 
ever  enter  those  that  remain  in  use.  About  a 
fourth  of  the  births  are  illegitimate,  the  larger  pro- 
|>ortion  occurring  among  the  whites.  Since  1879 
primary  education  has  been  compul.-*ory  and  gialui- 
tous.  There  are  now  about  a  thoiisand  iirimarv 
schools  of  all  kinds,  attended  liy  some  .lO.OOO 
pupils  ;  excellent  high  schools  for  boys  are  founil 
in  the  cajiital,  Quetzaltenango,  and  Chiquimula, 
and  for  girls  in  the  capital  and  at  Helen  :  and 
schools  of  law,  medicine,  engineering,  pldlosophy, 
literature,  and  music  are  also  provided. 

(Guatemala  is  <livided  into  twenty-two  dejiart- 
nients,  under  civil  governors.  The  executive  is 
vested  in  a  president,  elected  for  six  years  by 
direct  jiopular  vote  ;  lie  aii]points  six  secretaries 
of  state,  who  with  nine  others  form  the  council. 
The  assembly  is  elected  by  universal  suflVage.  to 
the  number  of  one  for  every  20,000  of  the  poimla 
tion.  The  stamling  army  consists  nooiinallN  ni 
about  2500  men,  the  militia  of  nearly  05,000.  This 
force  is  a  heavy  drain  on  the  resources  of  the  coun- 
try, whose  linances  are  not  in  a  flourishing  condi 
tion.  Calculated  at  the  average  rate  of  6A  dollars 
per  pound  sterling,  the  revenue  is  about  £1,000,000, 
but  the  expenditure  generallv  exceeds  the  revenue. 
In  1895  the  internal  debt  was  returned  (on  the  same 
calculation)  at  £964.000,  the  lloating  debt  at 
£400,000,  and  the  foreign  debt  at  £890,000— making 
a  total  of  near  £2,500,(J00,  including  jiast  interest. 
To  meet  the  increase  in  the  Hoating  debt,  which 
has  grown  u])  since  1887,  large  ([uautities  of  paper 
money  have  been  put  in  ciiculation.  IJut  on  the 
whole  it  must  be  said  that  of  late  the  iuleii'sl  on 
both  the  internal  and  the  foreign  debt  has  been 
punctually  paid,  and  the  bonds  have  risen  greatly 
in  value. 

Guatemala  was  concpiered  in  1524  by  Cortez' 
lieutenant,  -Xlvarado,  with  every  accompaniment 
of  cruelty  and  oppression.  .Vfter  three  centuries  of 
harsh  and  greedy  rule,  uiuler  which  the  vieeroyalty 
of  Guatemala  embraced  all  that  is  now  known  a> 
Central  America,  independence  w,as  proclaimed. 
15th  September  1S21.  A  confederation  survived 
with  ditticulty  from  1824  to  18:?9  :  it  fell  lief(ue  the 
attacks  of  Hafael  Carrera,  an  uneducated  Indian  of 
low  birth,  who  founded  the  present  republic,  and 
riii//ii(/  over  it  until  his  death  in  1S65.  From  1S71 
until  he  was  killed  in  a  war  with  Salvador  in  18S5, 
General  llanins  was  jiresident,  and  under  his  iron 
rule     the    country    made    considerahle    [irogress ; 


monastic  orders  were  rigorously  suppressed,  and 
much  of  the  church  ]>roperty  was  confiscated  and 
appropriated  to  the  uses  of  public  education  and 
for  other  pur|)Oses.  There  are  at  present  only  two 
short  lines  of  lailway  (15(jniiles)  in  operation;  a 
line  from  Puerto  ISarrios,  on  the  Atlantic,  toGuale 
mala  city,  to  connect  the  Atlantic  witii  the  I'aeitic, 
was  commenced  in  1884,  but  in  the  meantime  has 
been  abandoned.  There  aie  in  the  republic  180 
post-ottices,  and  2500  miles  of  telegraph. 

The  best  work  on  Guatemala  is  Brigham's  O'uutt tuafa, 
the  Lund  of  the  Qvetzal  (1887).  See  also  Stc-].hens, 
Incidents  uf  Travel  in  Central  A  merira  ( Kew  York, 
1841 )  ;  Dollfus  and  iiontserrat,  Vtinativ  ;n'otof/if/ue  dtniv 


lex  E\ 


nhh 


<l" 


.V  de  On 


>irtfi  et  tie  Sun  Salradm'  (  Paris. 


1808 ) ;  IJoddaui  ^\"  hethaui,  A  iriis.i  Central  A-inerira  (  Lond. 
1877);  Laferriere,  De  J'arin  a  (luutemulu  (Paris,  1877); 
a  ]iaper  by  Mr  A.    P.  Maudslay  in  Proc,  Roy.  (leiifi.  Sor. 
( 1883);  CSiarnay,  Leg  Ancienues  Villesdu  JVounan  Monde 
(Paris,    1885);    StoU,    Zur   Ethrwrirajihie    der   RtjiutAik 
i.iiiitemala   (Zurich,  1884  1.  and  (lunttmala,   Reisen  vnd 
I  Srhilderumien  (Leip.  188('i);  a  veiy  full  report  by  Ceii- 
.sul-general  Hayes  Sadler,  in  No.  (KH)  of  '  I>i|>loniatic  and 
'  Consular    Reports'    (1S8'.I);   for  the  geography,  I.*-male, 
1  'iuia   iirdiirulirii   (Guatemala.    1881  i ;    and   for  the  early 
'  historj',  jlilla  y  Vidaurre,  Histmia  de  la  Amirieu   Cen- 
tral ((aiatemaia.  2  vols.  187'J)- 

Guateillitla  {Stint inffo  ile  Gnutemtiln  :  also 
liiicitniitilit  hi  Xiierti),  cajiital  of  the  republic  of 
(iuatemala,  and  the  laigest  and  most  ini|iortant 
city  of  Central  America,  stands  on  a  witle  plateau, 
nearly  4900  feet  above  sea-level,  and  72  miles  by 
rail  NNE.  of  its  port,  San  Jose.  It  is  regularly 
built,  with  wide,  nmghly-paved  streets  running  at 
rigiit  angles,  and  houses  neatly  all  of  one  story  ; 
the  extensive  suburbs  are  iidiabiteil  chielly  by 
Indians.  In  the  plaza  the  metroiiolitan  cathedral 
towers  above  the  government  Imililings,  which 
include  the  large,  one-story  residence  of  the 
presi<lent.  There  are  nunieicms  other  churches, 
several  large  hospitals,  and  the  archbishop's  palitce. 
Educatiiui  is  cared  fin-  in  the  Instituto  Nacional, 
with  laboratories,  a  museum,  a  zoological  garden, 
ami  a  good  meteorological  observati>ry  ;  and  in 
well-api>ointe<l  schools  of  arts  and  ilesign,  agri- 
cultural and  business  colleges,  nininal  schools. 
a  iiolyteclmic  institute,  and  scho(ds  of  law  and 
medicine — all  supported  by  government.  Gther 
])ublic  structures  ,are  two  large  general  markets, 
a  sulisidised  theatre,  and  a  hull-ring.  Tramways 
and  the  electric  light  have  been  intriHluced.  and 
there  are  a  score  of  public  fountains  and  washing- 
]ilaces  ;  but  the  water,  brought  6  miles  by  an  ai|Ue- 
duct,  is  not  good.  There  are  some  manufactures 
and  a  considerable  commerce,  all  the  foreign  trade 
of  the  ie]iul)lic  being  concentrated  heie.  To]). 
( 1895)  85,000.— The  present  city  of  Guatemala  is  the 
third  capital  of  that  name.  The  lirst,  now  called 
Viuikid  Viejo,  lies  on  the  plain  lietween  Kuego  and 
.\gua.  It  was  founded  by  Alvaratlo  in  1524,  and 
destroyed  in  1541  (see  (It  ATK.M.VL.\).  It  has  a 
lio])ulation  now-  of  some  3(M)0  Indians.  The  second 
caintal,  Giiiifeniti/a  Iti  Antii/nti  (Ghl  Guatemala), 
24  miles  NE.  of  the  lirst  and  21  miles  WSAV.  of  the 
present  capital,  was  (uie  of  the  linest  citie>  nf 
America,  with  a  hundred  churches  and  60,000 
inhabitants;  in  1773  it  was  for  the  second  time 
<lestroyed  by  an  earthquake,  but  among  the  noble 
ruins  a  new  city  has  arisen,  lit  also  with  the 
(  electric  light,  and  sheltering  a  pojuilation  of  at 
least  14.000. 

Gliava  i  Psidiiini),  a  genus  of  tree.- and  shrubs 
of  the  natural  order  Myrtaceus  mostly  natives  of 
tiopical  America,  and  some  of  them  yielding  tine 
.anil  much-valued  fruits.  They  li.-ive  opposite  entire, 
or  almost  entire  leaves,  .-v  3  5lohed  lalyx,  4-5 
pet.als,  and  a  1-5-celled  berry  with  many -seeded 
'  cells. — The   Cmnmon  Guava  or  White  (in.-iva   (P. 


444 


GUAXACA 


GUBBINS 


(iiiava  ( Piidium  pyriferum ) : 
a,  sectinn  of  fruit 


pi/riferitin  )  is  ii  low  tree  of  7-20  feet,  with  luinieroux 
braiiolies,  ol)tvise  $>niootli  leaves  2-3  iiiclics  loiij;, 
ami  frn^Tiiiit  white  llowei-s  on  .solitai-v  axillan 
stalks.     It  is  said  to  he  a  native  !> like  of  the  K.ust 

anil  West 
Indies,  and  Is 
\w\\  niiich 
rnltivaled  in 
iKjth.  It  is 
not  iiiiiirol)- 
ahle,  how- 
ever, that  it 
was  intro- 
duced into 
the  East 

ln<lies  from 
America,  hnt 
it  has  now 
heconie  fully 
naturaliseil : 
it  is  to  he 
.seen  in  the 
jungle  a- 
lonnd  every 
cottage  in 
Ceylon.  It 
has  long  heen 
occasionally 
grown  as  a 
stove-plant  in  Hritain.  The  fruit  is  larger  than  a 
hen's  egg,  mundisli  ur  i>0iu'  slia|iril,  suiootli,  yelliiw; 
the  rind  thin  and  liritllc  ;  the  pulp  linn,  full  of  bony 
seeds,  aromatic,  and  sweet.  The  .jelly  or  preserve 
made  from  it  is  liigldy  esteemed,  and  is  now  regii 
larly  imported  into  Hritain  from  the  West  Indies  ami 
South  .\m('rica.  The  riml  is  stewed  with  milk,  an<l 
is  also  madi'  into  marmalade.  This  iVuit  is  rather 
astringent  than  laxative,  (hiava  Imils,  Uoiled  with 
barley  and  lii|U(irice,  make  a  nsi'ful  astiingcnt 
drink  in  diarrluea.  — The  Red  (inava  {!'.  in/inifrnim ), 
also  now  common  in  the  K;i.st  as  well  as  in  the 
West  Indies,  produces  a  beautiful  fruit,  with  red 
Hesh,  hut  not  nearly  so  agreeable  as  the  white 
guava.  It  is  very  ticid. — The  China  (Inava  ( /'. 
Ciitllcitiniim),  a  native  of  China,  |)roduces  fruit 
rea<lily  in  vineries  in  Britain.  It  is  a  larger  tree 
than  the  white  guava.  The  fruit  is  round,  abmit 
the  size  of  a  walnut,  of  a  line  claret  colour  when 
ripe,  growing  in  the  a.vils  of  the  leaves  ;  the  pulp 
purplish-red  ne.xt  the  skin,  becoming  ])aler  towards 
the  centre,  and  there  white,  .soft,  subacid,  in  con- 
sistence and  llavour  resembling  the  strawberry.  It 
makes  an  excellent  preserve.  It  succeeds  in  the 
open  air  in  the  south  of  France. — On  some  of  the 
mountains  of  Itra/.il  grows  a  dwarf  .species  of  (inava. 
called  .Marangaba  (/'.  pyijmaiitii),  a  shnib,  1-2  feet 
high,  with  fruit  about  the  size  of  a  gooscbcriy,  much 
sought  after  on  acccuint  of  its  delicious  flavour, 
which  resembles  that  of  the  strawberry.  The 
Bastard  IJuava  of  the  \Ve.st  Indies  is  a  species  of 
Eugenia  (q.v. ). 

CliaxsK-n.     See  0-vj-\c.\. 

(illil.vaqilil,  chief  commercial  city  of  Ecuador, 
and  capital  of  (iuayas  province,  lies  in  the  fertile 
valley  of  the  (Iuayas,  some  .30  miles  almve  its  mouth. 
From  the  river  the  town,  with  its  pagoda-likc 
towers,  presents  an  imposing  appearance,  whi.-h  is 
not  borne  out  on  closer  ins])ection,  and  the  climate 
is  hot  and  unhealthy,  yellow  fever  being  very 
common.  Most  of  the  houses  are  built  of  bamboo 
or  wocmI  and  earth,  ami  covered  with  cree))ers.  The 
custom-house  is  the  most  noteworthy  of  the  public 
buildings,  which  include  a  cathedral  and  a  town 
liall.  The  town,  however,  is  now  lit  with  gas, 
there  is  a  coniidele  system  of  tr.amways,  and  the 
streets  are  gradually  ))eing  paved  :  while  in  1888 
considerable  progress  was  made  with  much-needed 


water-works.  In  1889  a  statue  to  liolfvar  was 
erecteil.  The  leading  inainifacturing  establish- 
ments are  combined  steam  sawndlls,  foundries, 
and  imu'hine-shops  ;  there  are  also  ice-factories  ami 
a  lager  la-er  brewery  ;  and  the  plai'C  is  noted  for  its 
straw  hats  anil  hammocks.  Ships  drawing  IK  feet 
I'an  come  u|>  to  I  he  brcakw.iter.  ami  below  the 
town  there  is  a  wh.irf,  with  a  dry-dock  opnosite. 
The  railway  into  the  interior  w.as  sto|iped  at  Chimbo 
(<iO  miles).  Most  of  the  trade  is  in  the  hands  of 
foreigners;  of  200  vessels  of  ir)(),(H)0  tons  that  clear 
the  poll  annually,  nearly  half  the  shijis,  and  more 
than  half  the  tonnage,  are  British.  Annual  exports 
average  1 1  ..'fOO.OtK).  of  which  cocoa  repr<'sent« 
nearly  live-sixths:  the  other  priiuipal  items  are 
coU'ee,  ivory-nuts,  rnblH-r,  hiilcs.  and  sjH'cie.  .About 
7  per  cent,  is  shipped  to  Ihilaiii.  and  U  per  cent,  to 
the  Initeil  States.  The  town  was  fiainded  by 
Orellana  in  1.">.37,  and  removeil  to  its  present  site  in 
Kiii;!.  Pop.  about  SO.tHlO.  The  Bay  of  Cuayiupiil  is 
the  only  important  bay  on  the  west  coast  of  South 
America  north  of  I'atagonia. 

4aliayas.  a  fertile  coiustprovince  of  Ecuador, 
with  an  area  of  about  IMKlOscp  m..  anil  a  po]).  (  ISO.'i) 
of  0H,ti40.  Its  chief  product  is  cocoa,  of  a  very  high 
r|iiality.      Ca|iilal,  (iuayai|uil. 

4>liayilias,  a  well-sheltered  port  of  Mexico,  on 
the  <;iilf  of  California,  the  terminus  of  the  Sonora 
Kailway  ( S.'i.S  ndles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Benson,  an 
.Arizona  station  on  the  Southern  I'acilic  Railroad). 
It  is  a  small  |dace,  excessively  hot,  surrounded  by 
barren  mountains,  and  mostly  iuhabiteil  by  Indian 
lishernu'U  ;  but  already  it  c'xporls  precious  metals, 
wheat.  Hour,  I'iic.  in  consider.able  i|Uantitics,  .and 
its  trade  is  increasing.     I'op.  IMKM). 

t.nayra.    See  (U;aii!a. 

(■Ilbbias.  a  half-savage  race  in  Devon,  are 
mciilioiii'd  by  the  pastoral  poet,  AVilliam  Browne, 
in  1(>44,  in  a  poem  on  Lyuford  Law,  printed  in 
Wcstcote's  Devon.     He  says  : 

Tliis  trtwii's  i'ncIos4C<l  witli  ili'srrt  iiioitrtl. 
But  wlicrt"  iiii  t)t'ar  nor  lion  njam, 

Anil  liotiglit  ran  live  but  rrof;s; 
For  all  o'fiiunieil  by  Xoah'!*  Flo«,il, 
Of  fourscore  niili-s  srjin-i-  one  foot  's  Rood, 

Anil  bills  arc  wbolly  Ijogn. 

Ami  near  lnTfto  "s  tlie  Giibbins  Cave; 
A  [leopb-  lliat  no  knowli-<l^'e  have 

Of  law,  of  Gwl,  or  men  : 
Whom  Oi-sar  never  yet  hu1>iIiu'i1  ; 
Who  've  lawless  lived  ;  of  niannerH  rude, 

All  savaj..'e  in  Itieir  ilen. 
By  whom,  if  any  tviss  that  way, 
He  dares  not  the  least  lime  to  stay, 

Fur  presently  tbey  howl ; 
Upon  which  ttiKiial  tbey  do  muster 
'I'lieir  naked  forees  in  a  cluster, 

I.eil  forth  by  lioger  Howl. . 

Old  Fuller  says  of  this  district;  ■  Oubbin's  Land 
is  a  Scytliia  witiiin  Kngl.and,  and  they  ]iure  heathens 
therein.  .  .  .  Their  language  is  thedrosse  of  thedregs 
of  the  vulgar  Devonian.  .  .  .  They  hold  together  like 
burrs  ;  otlend  one.  and  .all  will  revenge  his  quarrel.' 
They  lingered  on,  becoming  more  .and  more  aosorbed 
into  the  general  mass  of  the  less  uncultured,  till 
the  present  time.  The  last  remnants,  ])robabIy, 
but  not  certainly  descendants,  were  in  Nyniet 
Roland,  in  North  Devon,  and  bore  the  name  of 
(  heriton.  They  lived  in  semi-nakedness  and  in 
utier  s.avagei.v  in  an  old  cottage  of  clay,  of  which 
one  wall  had  fallen  and  most  of  the  roof  had  given 
way.  so  that  in  the  only  room  grass  grew  on  the 
earth  lloor.  They  cl.aimed  a  small  tract  of  liind 
.OS  their  own,  upon  w  hicli  probably  their  forefathers 
had  s(|uatted.  They  stole  what  clothes  they  re- 
i|uired,  .and  were  continually  getting  into  trouble 
with  the  ])olice,  one  of  whom  was  felled  to  the 
earth  by  a  blow  of  the  fist  of  one  of  the  girls. 
They  were  finely  built,  muscular,  and  strong.     The 


GUBBIO 


GUELDERLAND 


445 


patriarch  of  the  family  tlieil  at  Whitstone,  liaviiif; 
speut  tlie  decline  of  liis  ihiys  in  an  old  cider  cask. 
After  the  deatli  of  tlie  grandmother,  ahout  KS60, 
the  family  got  into  ditliculties  of  one  sort  or  another, 
and  weie  (lispersed. 

Gllbbio  (anc.  Iguvium  or  Eiu/iMum),  a  city 
of  central  Italy,  on  the  sonthwestern  declivity 
of  the  Apennines,  "20  miles  XNK.  of  Perugia. 
It  has  a  IStli  century  cathedral,  several  njedieval 
palaces — the  Brancaleoni  with  a  valuable  picture- 
gallery — and  remains  of  an  ancient  theatre.  The 
celebrated  Knguliine  Tables  (([.v.)  are  preserved 
in  the  town  house.  Gubbio  was  noted  for  its 
majolica  ware,  whicli  was  brought  to  perfection 
by  Giorgio  Andreoli  in  1517-37,  by  his  delicate 
use  of  a  beautiful  niby  lustre.  Two  celebrated 
yellow  lustres  were  also  used  on  Gubbio  majolica. 
A  few  factories  still  imitate  the  rneilieval  fayence. 
From  a  town  of  SO, 000  inhabitants,  it  ha-s  dwindled 
to  5540  .since  its  incorporaticm  in  the  duchy  of 
I'rbino  in  1384. 

Gnben,  a  manufacturing  town  and  river-port 
of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  at  the 
head  of  the  na\igal:>le  jiortiou  of  the  Neisse.  '28 
miles  S.  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  The  principal 
staples  are  hats  and  cloth.  There  are  also  wool 
spinning,  tanning,  machine  factories,  &c.  The 
town  was  destroyed  by  the  Hussites  in  1434  and 
1437,  and  was  twice  occupied  by  the  Swedes  during 
the  Thirty  Years'  Wm:  Pop.  ( 1S75)  23,738;  ( 1885) 
27,086;  (1890)  29,328. 

Cillbernatis.  Axcelo  de,  an  eminent  Italian 
orientalist  and  busy  litlemtciir,  who  was  born  at 
Turin,  April  7,  1840.  He  studied  at  the  university 
there,  and  afterwards  at  Berlin  under  Bopp  anil 
Weber  ;  and  wasap]iointed  extra-ordinary  profe.ssor 
of  Sanskrit  at  Florence  in  1863,  and  ordinary  pro- 
fessor in  1869.  Be(;oming  attracted  by  the  wild 
socialistic  dreams  of  liakunin,  he  left  his  chair  in 
order  to  be  more  free,  and  married  Bakunin's  niece  : 
but  a  closer  acciuaintance  with  subversive  social- 
ism soon  restored  him  to  liLs  reason.  He  became  a 
candidate  anew  for  his  chair,  and  after  some  not 
unnatural  hesitation  was  re-elected.  His  earliest 
works  were  mostly  contributions  to  Sanskrit 
scholarship,  alternating  with  incessant  contribu- 
tions to  his  own  and  to  others'  journals.  He  ma<h' 
his  reputation  European  by  his  Zuologicul  Mi/t/i- 
olij;/!/  ( Lond.  1872),  a  work  hopelessly  marred 
by  rashness  in  speculation,  but  yet  semceable  ; 
Slona  cumjMirata  ilcgli  im  Natalici{\S''2).  Storia 
cumparata  degJi  usi  Funebri  (1873),  Mitologia 
Vvilicii  (1875),  Ston'o  dei  Viagfiiatori  Italirini  )ielle, 
Iiiilic  oriciitdli  (1875),  Mythdlor/ie  dca  Pldiitix 
(Paris,  1878),  Letteie  sopia  /'Archrcologia  IiidiaiKi 
(1881),  and  Lcttere  sopra  la  Mitologia  comparata 
(1881).  In  the  region  of  biogiaphy  and  literary 
history  he  has  i)ul>lished  Itkordi  biugrnphici  ( 1873 ), 
the  gieat  Di-iinidrio  hiiigrafii'O  deg/i  Scrittoii  con- 
tcm/)oranci (ISli)  80)  ;  monographs  upon  Giovanni 
Prati,  Manzoni,  and  others  ;  and  finally  Mo/iini/i' 
di  .itoriti  delta  Littemtiini  Indiana  ( 1882),  and  the 
ponderous  Gloria  unirersalc  dclla  Littendura  (15 
vols.  1882  85).  De  Gubernatis  has  shown  pheno- 
menal industry  and  many-sidedness,  and  has  made 
real  contributions  to  learning,  but  he  must  not  be 
taken  too  seriously  as  a  mythologist.  He  became 
professor  of  Sanskrit  at  Home  in  1891. 

Glldgeou  {(iohio),  a  genus  of  small,  carp-like 
( t'y]irinoid  )  fishes  common  in  the  fresh  waters  of 
Europe.  The  dorsal  lin  is  short,  without  a  spine  : 
the  mouth  is  directed  downwards,  and  has  little 
barbules  at  the  angles  ;  the  scales  are  of  moderate 
size  :  and  there  are  two  rows  of  hookeil  jiharyngeal 
teeth.  The  common  gudgeon  (  G.  fluviatili.s ),  which 
abounds  in  many  English  rivers,  especially  in  those 
that  run  over  gravel,  is  a  small  lish  rarelv  exceed- 


ing 8  inches  in  length,  with  upper  parts  olive-brown, 
sijotted  with  black,  and  the  under  parts  white. 
The  gudgeons  swim  in  shoals,  and,  like  the  barbels, 
feed  on  worms,  molluscs,  ami  other  sTnall  animals. 


The  Common  (iudgeoii  {lluhio  tluiiatilis). 

Angling  for  gudgeon  requires  no  art,  so  readily  are 
the  lish  lured.  Though  small,  the  fish  are  esteemed 
for  the  table.  Besides  the  British  gudgeon,  which 
is  widely  distributed  on  the  Continent,  there  is  only 
another  species  (G.  uranosrojins],  also  European, 
but  apparently  restricted  to  the  river-basins  of  the 
Danube  and  Dniester  ;  allied  genera  occur  in  the 
East. 

(illdriin.  or  KUDRUN,  an  old  Gei-man  epic, 
built  up  out  of  the  popular  songs  and  traditions  of 
the  seafaring  folk  who  dwelt  on  the  shores  of  the 
North  Sea  between  Elbe  and  Seine.  It  relates  the 
history  of  three  generations  of  the  kings  of  the 
Hegelings  (Frisians),  and  in  the  third  part  tells 
how  Gudrun,  the  daughter  of  Hettel,  king  of  the 
Hegelings,  was  carried  off  from  her  home  by  Hocli- 
mut,  son  of  the  king  of  Normandy,  how  she  pre- 
ferred to  work  like  the  lowest  maidservant  in  the 
house  of  Hoclnnut  s  mother,  and  endure  the  greatest 
indignities,  rather  than  lireak  her  troth  pledged  to 
Herwig,  king  of  Zealand,  and  bow  finally  she  was 
rescued  by  lier  brother  and  her  betrothed.  This 
poem,  which  has  been  entitled  the  (lerman  Odyssei/; 
as  the  Aibiiiingenlird  is  sonu-times  called  the  Ger- 
njiiu  Iliad,  was  written,  in  rather  arranged  ami 
edited,  by  an  unknown  poet  in  Austria,  in  all 
probability  in  the  end  of  the  12th  century.  The 
best  editions  are  by  Karl  Bartsch  (4th  ed'.  1880), 
Martin  (1872),  and  Symons  (1883);  and  the  be.st 
translations  into  modern  High  German  bv  Simrock 
(8th  ed.  1873)  and  AVeitbrecTit  ( 1884). 

OlU'bres  (from  Turkish  giaour:  cf.  Arab. 
/:ajir,  'unbeliever"),  the  followers  of  the  ancient 
Persian  religion  as  reformed  and  consolidated  by 
Zoroaster.  The  name  (iuebres  is  su|iposed  to  have 
been  first  bestowed  u]ion  this  sect  by  their  Araliic 
comiuerors  in  the  7tli  century  ;  they  are  also  known 
as  Pai>ees  (i|.v.).     See  also  I'^EKsi.^,  ZoROASTER. 

tJiiebwiller.    See  Gebweiler. 

Glioldorland  ( Geldcm,  Gelderhmd),  a  pro- 
vince of  the  Netherlands,  is  situated  between  the 
Zuider  Zee  lui  the  north-west  and  the  Prussian 
dominions  on  the  southejist.  It  has  an  area  of 
1957  sii.  m.,  and  a  pop.  (1896)  of  548,748,  two- 
thirds  Protestants.  It  is  watered  chiefly  by  the 
Meuse.  the  V.s.sel,  the  Ithine,  anil  the  Waal.  The 
surface  is  undulating,  and  about  .Arnheim,  the 
capital,  and  Nimeguen  are  the  most  picturesque  dis- 
tricts in  the  Netherlands.  The  climate  is  healthy, 
and  the  soil,  though  verv  unequal,  is  on  the  whole 
good;  the  southern  district,  Betuwe  (.see  B.vr.AVI), 
is  one  of  the  most  fertile  tracts  in  Europe.  Agri- 
culture is  prosecuted  with  great  success.  Wheat, 
rye,  buckwheat,  tobacco,  \c.  are  extensively 
grown.  .\niong  the  manufactures,  beet-sugar, 
spirits,  bricks  and  tiles,  paper,  aiul  cotton  goods 
,are  the  principal.  The  duchy  of  Gueldres  or 
Guelderland  was  more  extensive  than  the  modem 
Dutch  jirovince,  .stretching  southwards  along  the 
Meuse  to  beyond  Venlo.  It  was  originally  in- 
habited  by   tiie    Batavi    and    Sigambri,  and  after 


446 


(jri'I.nEK    KOSB 


(;UKT,nTS 


them  by  llie  Kiniikr..  In  S70  it  |insseil  to  (ier- 
many  :  luul  in  tlie  eml  of  the  llth  oentiiry  Imh'umh- 
a  tfiriloiial  power,  its  niler  lipaiiii},'  the  title  of 
connt.  Tliis  \v:is  e\(linn;.'i'i|  for  ihe  lii;,'liei  lille  ot 
duke  in  l.'K'i.  These  ilynit-tie  prinees  niaiiitaineil 
their  iiiilepeinlenee  for  just  one  eentiirv  loii^or ; 
in  14.s;{  their  ilnehy  was  taken  possession  of  hv 
.Maximilian  of  Austria.  Vet  it  wius  not  nntil 
I.")43  that  the  power  of  the  Dnke  of  (iiiehlres  was 
finally  hroken  ami  his  land  ilelinilively  ineorporatnl 
with  the  Austrian  .Netherlands.  (In  the  revolt  ol 
the  northern  provini'es  of  Ilcdland  the  northern 
part  of  (Mieldres  threw  in  its  lot  (  I.'i7!l)  with  them, 
whilst  the  sonthern  part  renniined  faithful  to  Spain. 
The  latter  w:us  fjiven  up  to  Fnissia  in  17l."{.  Hy 
the  jiejiee  of  1S14  lluehires  was  linally  diviiled  lie- 
tween  Holland  :iriil  I'nissia. 

Ciueldor  Roso,  a  eiiltivated  form  of  Vibiini  iim 
Opiihi.t   (see    V'lUfKNl'.M ).    also    popniarlv    named 

*J l.„ll      'I' '1^1 _ 1      .'l    1      C      '. £     *t... 


Snowhall    Tree.     Tl 


inal 


form  of  the 


Ki^.  1.— The  Guelder  Kose. 

guelder  rose  is  a  pretty  plentiful  native  of  Kn^danil 
and  Ireland,  Imt  is  le.ss  frequently  to  he  fouml  in 
a  wilil  state  in  Scotland.  It  is  widely  distrihnted 
in  EuP'ope  and  Uussian  .\sia,  and  even  e.\tends  into 
the   Arctic   re;,'ions.       Its  llowers    ajipear    in    early 

summer  in   rather 

dense  eymes,  2  or 

:\    inches    in   dia- 

vj,:  met*r :    the   outer 

fe."  -^.f^  \,^..^        Ih)wers        hecome 

SV';  5        '' •'ffl^^      mui-h  enlargeil.at 

tainin^   ahout    an 
inch  in  diameter, 
hut, having:  neither 
^  stamens   nor    pis- 

8--'  tils,  are   iierfec-tlv 

-.,  Ho«vr  ;  (,,  Iri.it  of  Vihurnnm  l>,u,hu,.    l,^,.,.^.,,       'f  |,^  l„„^,,. 

flowers  are  small, 
white,  with  two  or  three  pistils  on  very  short 
styles,  and  are  followed  hy  ^'lohular,  hhiekishred 
berries.  In  the  cultivated  form  the  llowers  are 
all  nmnstrous  and  harien.  like  the  outer  (lowers 
of  the  cymes  of  the  wild  form  ;  ami  crowded  Jis 
they  are  toj,'etlier  in  the  cyme,  the  structure  of 
which  is  not  enlarged,  the  inllorescence  assumes 
the  form  of  a  compact  h.ill,  hence  the  name  Snow 
ball  Tree.  In  cultivation  the  plant  attains  tlii' 
proportions  of  a  small  tree,  and  llowers  most  freely 
after  it  has  acqnireil  some  af;e.  When  in  (lower  in 
May  and  .June  it  is  one  of  the  most  ornamental  of 
liarilv  trees,  ami  is  therefore  planted  l.ar^'elv  in 
|deasure-^;r<niiids  and  shruhhciies.  The  wild  form 
IS  reareil  from  seeds  and  cuttinfrs,  the  monstrous 
form  from  cuttinj^s  or  layers  only. 

Guelpb.   an   inlainl   |K>rt   of  entry  in  Ontario, 
capital   of  \Vellin^;ton   county,  on  the  river  Speed, 


4.")  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Toronto  hy  rail.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  Ontario  .Agricultural  Collej-e,  and  hfu) 
several  llour  nulls,  woollen. mill-,  and  manufactories 
I  of  sewin;;.m.tchilie»,  »Vc.,  the  Speed  supjdying 
abundant  motive  power.      I'op.  ( 18itl  )  lU.o.ST. 

<ill<'l|»lli<-  <>r<l«T.  an  nriler  of  kiii},'htlioiMl  fur 
Hanovei.  insliiuted  liy(;eiH;,'e  l\'.,  when  Prince 
|{e;;ent,  in  IHI.").  It  is  lH>tli  a  military  ami  civil 
order,  ami  is  unlimited  in  nuiiiher.     Sec  OltDlvlts. 

CilU'Iplls  and  <>llilM>llillOS,  the  uameHof  two 
;.'reat  (liirtics.  the  conllici  hit  ween  which  may 
he  said  almost  to  epitomise  the  hi-tory  of  Italy  and 
(iermanv  from  the  llth  to  the  14th  century.  The 
orif^in  of  these  names  wils  formerly  the  subject  of 
much  speculation  :  but  historians  arc  now  a^rreed 
in  traoiiif;  them  respectively  to  the  two  families, 
Welf  and  Waiblin^ren,  which  in  the  12th  century 
were  at  the  head  of  two  rival  parlies  in  the  Cerinan 
empire,  and  whose  femls  came  to  he  identilieil  his- 
torically with  the  respective  principles  for  which 
these  parties  c<inti'nded.  \\'elf  was  the  personal 
name  of  a  prehistoric  founder  of  the  family  still  repre- 
sented in  the  royal  Kn^'lishand  (<lispossi-s.seil  i  Han- 
overian houses;  Waiblinjjeii.  a  small  town  in  Wtir- 
temberj.'.  was  a  possession  of  the  House  of  Holien- 
staufeii.  The  a.ssumption  of  the  names  ;is  parly 
:  nami's  is  trailitionally  (i.xeil  at  the  battle  ol  \\  cins- 
j  bei".  in  Swabia,  I  lid.  between  the  Kmperort  onraxl 
I  of  Hoheiistaufen  (Duke  of  I'rancoiiia)  and  W'elf, 
uncle  of  Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony,  when  the 
leaders  rallieil  their  followei-sby  the  resjiecti\e  war- 
I  cries,  'Hie  Waibliio'cn  ;'  'Hie  Well!'  It  may 
l)e  mentioned  that  ^latthew  \illani  inj;eiiiously 
■rives  a.s  etvmolo;,'y  of  (iliibellini,  Hiiiiln  hi:lli  or 
ijiiitldtiiii  ili  hulliiiilif,  'leaders  in  battles;'  of 
Ouclli,  iinnrildtiiii  ili J<\  'defenilei's  of  the  faith.' 

A-  the  chief  theatre  of  theeoiitlict  of  these  parlies 
wa-s  Italy,  llic  original  names  took  the  Italian  finiiis 
of  G/ii/n/li)ii  and  diielji.  The  former  may,  in  j.'eiie- 
ral,  he  describeil  as  tjie  supporters  of  the  imperial 
authority  in  Italy,  the  latter  as  the  opnoni'iits  of 
the  emperoi-s.  The  opposition  to  imperial  aullioritv 
ill  Italy  arose  fmiii  two  distinct  parties,  which,  for 
the  most  part,  made  common  cause  with  each  other 
from  the  church,  which  a.s.serted  its  own  spiritual 
j  inde|iendence,  and  from  the  minor  jirincipalities 
I  and  free  cities,  which  fou;,dit  for  their  provincial 
or  niunici|>al  ri;,'hts  ami  liberties.  I'ive  ;;reat  crises 
in  the  strife  of  the  Ciielph  and  (Jhibidline  parties 
are  commonly  noted  by  historians  ;  under  Henry 
IV.,  in  lO.").!  ;  under  Henry  the  Proud  of  Havana 
and  Sa.xony,  in  I1'27:  under  Henry  the  l.ion,  in 
1146;  under  Kredeiick  li.irbarossa,  in  II.")!);  and  in 
I  the  |ioiitilicate  of  the  j;reat  champion  of  churchman- 
I  ship.  Innocent  III.  The  cities  of  northern  Italy 
were  dividi'il  between  the  two  part i"s— Florence, 
[  Bolojrna,  .Milan,  I'iaceiiza,  Modena,  Kavenna,  and 
others,  a.s  a  };eneral  rule,  takiii;.'  the  side  of  the 
(Juelphs ;  while  Pisa,  Lucca,  and  .Vrezzo  were 
(ihibelline.  Several  important  cities  transferred 
their  sympathies  from  the  one  (larty  to  the  other 
accordin;,'  to  the  e.xi^'cncies  of  domestic  pcditics. 
The  ;;reat  Italian  families,  in  like  manner,  took 
o])posite  sides;  hut  the  policy  of  each  family  fre- 
<|uently  varied  from  one  generation  to  another.  In 
;,'eiieral,  it  may  be  sjiid  tliat  the  mdiles  of  the  more 
northern  iiiovinces  of  Italy  inclined  to  the(;liibel- 
line  side,  while  those  of  the  central  and  southern 
(iroviiiees  were  (iuel[ih.  By  de;,'rees,  however, 
especially  after  the  downfall  of  the  preponderance 
of  the  (ierman  emperors  in  Italy,  the  contest  ccji-sed 
to  he  a  strife  of  (irinciples.  and  dejieneratcd  into  a 
mere  stru^rRle  of  rival  factions,  who  availed  them- 
selves of  the  preslijie  of  ancient  names  and  tradi- 
tional or  hereditarv  prejudices.  Kven  in  1272 
(irejjory  X.  could  with  tnitli  reproach  the  Italians 
with    their  san^'iiinarv  animosities  for  the  sake  of 


GUEROINO 


GUERNSEY 


447 


what  weie  Imt  names,  tlie  meaiiinf;  of  which  few 
of  them  could  understand  or  explain  :  and,  in  tlie 
folh)\vin;;oenturv,  in  \:i'M,  lienedict  .\II.  |iraeticall.v 
disallowed  alto;.'('tlier  the  r(^ality  of  the  grounds  of 
division  hetween  the  |iarties,  liy  ]iroscrihin},',  nndei' 
pain  of  the  censures  of  the  church,  tile  further  use 
of  those  once -stirrinj;  names,  which  had  lonij;'  heen 
tlu:'  rallying  words  of  a  pitiless  warfare.  From  the 
14th  century  we  rea<l  little  more  of  Guelphs  or  (jhih- 
ellines  as  actually  existini;  parties  ;  hut  in  the  sense 
already  explained  the  conllici  of  ])rinci|)les  which 
they  represent  is  fonnil  in  every  period  of  history. 
See'  I'.rvce.  T/ii-  /Ifi/i/  Umiian  Eiiipire  (9th  ed.  1888)  ; 
Oscar  iirownin^,  diii/jilis  niid  (UiihrJIjiicn  (  1893). 

The  reii,'nin<;  family  of  (Jreat  Britain  occupy  the 
throne  in  virtue  of  the  Act  of  Settlement  of  1701, 
which  made  Sophia,  clauj,diter  of  Frederh'k,  elector 
I'alatine,  and  of  Flizalieth,  dau<;hter  of  James  I.  of 
Kni;land,  heiress  of  the  P'n;;lish  crown.  Sophia 
married  Ernest  Augustus,  Duke  of  Hanover,  tlic 
fourth  son  of  (ieorfi'c,  Duke  of  Brunswick  l.,une 
hurg,  a  ilirect  descendant  of  the  prince  of  (iuelpli 
hlood  in  whose  favour  Frederick  II.  cieateil  the 
duchy  of  Brunswick  Liineliuru- in  12.35.  See  H.VN- 
I  )VKR. 

GuercillO,  'the  s([uint-eyed,'  properly  (il.\.v- 
Fp.ANCli.sci)  l!.\KHiHltI,  a  jiainter  of  the  Bolognese 
school,  was  horn  2d  Fehruary  1.590.  at  Cento,  not 
far  from  I>oloj;na.  His  earliest  studies  in  paintin;^- 
were  made  in  his  n.itive  town  ;  tlien  from  l(iiy  to 
1623  he  visited  difl'erent  cities  of  Italy,  particularly 
Rome  ami  Venice,  to  improve  himself  in  his  art. 
In  1642  he  went  to  li\eat  H(do.sj;na,  where  he  hecame 
the  head  of  a  nourishing  si-hool  of  painting,  and 
there  he  ilied  22d  Decemher  l(j(i6.  (!uercino'.s  early 
paintings  show  peicc'|itilde  signs  of  L.  Caracci'sand 
t'arav.aggio's  inlluencc.  I>ater  in  life  lie  softened 
the  harshness  of  his  light  and  shade  (M)ntrasts  by 
more  harmonious  (•olouring  in  Guide  Keni's  .style. 
He  left  a  very  large  numl)er  of  pictures.  His 
masterpiece.s  are  considered  to  be  the  fresco  of 
'  Aurora,'  in  the  Villa  Ludovisi ;  the  '  Death  of 
Dido,'  in  the  Spada  I'alace  ;  and  '  Saint  Petronilla,' 
in  the  t'apitoline  (iallery,  all  three  at  Rome. 

diiierickr.  Hmxinrn  Ern.st  Fkhdin.vnd 
(1S03  78),  a  theologian  belonging  to  the  Old 
Lutheran  school,  was  professor  at  Halle,  and  author 
of  a  well-known  lliiudhitrJi  drr  KirrhriiqeHfliiiiite 
(18.53;  9th  ed.  lS(i(i-67);  of  a.  ChrUUii-he  Symholih 
( 1839  ;  3d  eil.  1801  )  :  and  of  a  Lchrbimh  der  ChrUt- 
Urhni  ArrliKulwfic  ( 1847  ;  2d  ed.  1SS9). 

Glioricko.  Otto  von,  a  celebrated  physicist, 
w.as  Iporn  at  Nlagdeburg,  in  Frus.sian  Saxony,  20th 
November  l(i02.  His  jiersonal  history  contains 
nothing  of  interest.  As  a  natural  jdiilosopher  he 
is  chieny  known  liy  his  experiments  reganling  the 
nature  anil  ellects  of  air,  his  discovery  of  (he  air 
pump  ( l(i.50),  and  of  the  Magdeburg  Hemispheres 
(q. V. ).  He  made  also  some  notable  t>bservatious  in 
electricity.  He  was  for  a  lime  engineei'  in  the 
Swedish  army,  anil  afterwards  Burgernunster  of 
Magdeburg.  He  died  at  Hamburg,  11th  Mav 
l()8(i. 

CallCI'illsiS.  the  name  ;;iven  to  armed  bands 
who,  on  oci'asion  of  foreign  invasion  or  civil  w.ar. 
I'.irrv  (m  an  irregular  warfare  on  their  own  account. 
'This  class  of  lightei's  belong  peculiarly  to  Spain, 
where  from  1808  to  1814  they  were  systematically 
organised  against  the  French,  whose  o]ierations 
they  very  seriously  endiarrassed.  The  country  itself 
also  sult'ered  from  them.  Many  of  them,  particu- 
larly .Mina's  band,  joined  Wellington,  and,  after 
having  undergone  a  course  of  disciplim'.  rendered 
signal  servi(>e  as  regular  troops.  On  thecmiclusion 
of  peace  large  numbers  weri'  organised  into  roljber- 
bands.  In  most  of  the  civil  wars  of  Spain  since 
1820  guerilla  warfare,  es|iecially  in  the  Ba^ipn;  pro- 


vinces,     has     played     a     prominent     part.       See 
Brkjanus. 

till^rilla  Oeukoes  M.mkick  1)E,  a  young  poet 
of  exceptional  genius,  was  born  at  the  chateau  of 
Le  Cayla  in  Languedoc,  4th  .August  1810,  and  was 
educated  for  the  church  at  a  Toulouse  seminary 
and  till!  College  Stanislas,  I'aris,  after  which  lie 
entereil  the  community  gathered  together  by 
Lamennais  at  La  <'hesnaye  in  Brittany,  but 
followed  his  master  in  his  estrangement  from  Rome 
and  renounced  his  novitiate  in  October  1833.  He 
next  went  to  Paris  to  try  journalism,  and  became 
a  teacher  at  the  College  Stanislas,  but  married  a 
rich  Creole  lady  in  November  1838,  and  i-ntered 
on  a  \\<tw  life  of  rest  and  ha]ipiness,  which  wa.« 
cut  short  by  his  untimely  death  of  con.sumption, 
19th  .July  18.39.  An  article  by  (ieorge  Sand  in  the 
Remte  des  Deux  Mondcs  (May  1.5,  1840)  lirst  drew 
attention  to  his  genius  :  \ns  Jii/ii/iiiir,  including  the 
I'nitaiir  (a  kind  of  prose  poem),  letters,  and  poems, 
were  published  in  1800,  edited  by  (i.  S.  Trebutien, 
with  a  critical  notice  by  Sainte-Beuve.  In  the 
words  of  the  latter,  '  no  French  poet  or  ])ainter  has 
rendered  so  well  the  feeling  for  nature — the  feeling 
not  so  much  for  details  as  foi-  the  insindile  and  the 
divine  universality,  the  feeling  for  the  origin  of 
things  and  the  sovereign  ]iiinciideof  life."  Kl'iiEXlE 
IJE  Gl'liRIx,  his  sister  (  1SIJ.5  48),  had  something  of 
her  brother's  genius  grafted  upon  a  jirofound  and 
mystical  religion,  and  devoterl  herself  with  more 
than  sisterly  devotion  to  his  memory.  Her  own 
■hiiirnals  were  publishe4l  in  1801  :  her  Lettrc-i,  in 
181)4.     Both  were  translated  into  English. 

.See  Sainte-Keuvf,  Cdiineries  du  i»7i(// (vol.  xii.)  and 
Nouffdiij'  Linufis  (  vol.  ill.) ;  Marelle,  Enghne  et  Maurice 
iJc  thi^vi II  iHerlin.  1869);  Harriet  I'arr,' J/,  and  A'.  De 
G'utrin,  a  Monoijraph  ( 1870)  ;  aiul  Matthew  Arnold's 
Jiamiis  in  Criticism  (l.'^io). 

<]illorill,  Pierre  N.vitcissi;.  B.\ron.  French 
jiainter,  was  born  at  Paris,  13th  May  177-t.  A 
pupil  of  Kegnault's,  he  lirst  attracted  notice  by 
his  '  Marcus  Sextus'  ( 1799).  the  lirst  of  a  series  of 
cla.ssic  .subjects,  skilfully  treated,  but  showing 
something  of  melodramatic  elt'ect.  After  a  visit 
to  Rome  and  Italy  in  1S()2.  he  settled  in  Paris. 
From  1822  to  1829  he  w;(s  director  of  the  French 
.\cademy  of  Painting  in  Rome,  and  he  died  there 
(Ui  6th  .Inly  1833.  Amongst  his  pupils  were  Ceri- 
cault,   Delacroix,  and  Ary  Scliett'er. 

Guernsey,  the  second  in  size  of  the  Channel 
Islands  (q.v.).  It  is  about  30  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  28  sq.  m.  in  area.  Po]i  (1861)  29,80.5; 
(1881)  32,6:iS:  (1891)  3.5,287  with  Herm  and 
.Jethon.  The  lowest  ]iart  is  to  the  north  (  L'Aiieresse ), 
the  highest  to  the  south  (  Haut  Nez)  being  .349  feet 
above  sea-level.  St  Peter  Port,  the  only  town, 
has  a  good  harbour,  open  at  all  tides ;  there  Ls 
a  large  public  school,  fimnded  1.563,  and  naineil 
after  (I'ueen  Elizabeth  ;  a  line  church,  dating  from 
the  I3tli  century,  which  lia.s  been  well  restored; 
a  library  with  museum  and  lecture-romiis  due  to 
the  benelicence  of  Messrs  (inille  ami  Alles  :  and 
;inother  at  Candie  Hon.se.  fonndeil  by  the  late 
O.  de  15.  Priaulx.  There  is  also  a  good  public 
market,  a  hidics'  college,  iioor-honse,  and  lunatic 
asylum.  iHiernscy  consists  entirely  of  primitive 
rock  covereil  with  gra\el  and  .i  surface  of  sandy 
loam.  The  climate  is  equable  and  favourable  to 
the  growth  of  fruit,  flowers,  and  vegetables.  Two- 
thirds  of  tlic  isl.uid  are  under  cultivation,  and  great 
quantities  of  fruit  and  vegetables  are  expiuled  to 
Knglaiid,  .OS  is  also  a  hanl  gray  granite  much  used 
in  building.  It  is  127  miles  from  Land's  End,  109 
from  Falmouth,  113  from  .Smithanqitoii,  69  from 
Start  Point.  Steamers  to  Enghiiid  daily,  Sundays 
excepted.  Taxation  is  light  ;  the  annual  revenue  of 
the  bailiwick — which  includes  .Mdernev  and  Sark 


448 


GUERRAZZT 


GUEUX 


— in  t'30,000,  derived  from  liiiilHiurdues,  exci.-e. 
miirkel-dues,  and  sundry  other  sources.  The  ishiiul 
is  <livided  into  ten  parishes,  eaeh  ailniinislered  l>y 
Ailouziiiiie  oi  twelve  ralepavers.  There  Ls  a  separ- 
ate lieiilenanl  ;,'i)vernor  for  Guernsey  appointed 
by  llie  erown,  and  the  constitution  is  siujihir  li> 
that  ol  .lersey  (i|.v.),  but  more  oligarchic.  It  is 
said  that  tliere  are  no  moles  or  reptiles  in  the 
i.sland. 

Cillt'rra/./.i.  I-uancIvSCo  Uii.MENlCd.  Italian 
patriot  and  lirilliant  writer,  was  born  at  Le;.'horn. 
I'2lh  .Vu^ust  1804,  and,  educate<l  for  the  le;.'al  pro- 
fession, won  a  ;,'reat  reputation  aiuonj;  his  I'onntry- 
men  by  his  political  lictions,  which  e.xeni.seil  an 
immense  inlluence  on  conteniiiorarv  Italian  events 
by  their  exalted  strain  of  patriotic  enthusia.sm. 
tiuerraz/i's  own  words  are,  "lie  wrote  a  book  when 
impotent  to  lij;lit  a  battle.'  On  the  eve  of  the  de- 
linite  breach  between  the  people  and  the  (Irandiluki- 
of  Tuscany  in  1.S49,  Guerrazzi  Wius  imluced  to  ac<>ept 
ollice  in  the  ministry.  (Jn  the  lli-jht  of  the  Grand- 
duke  he  WiUs  priK'lainied  member  of  the  ]irovisional 
{{overnment,  and  subseiiuently  dictator.  During; 
tlii.s  crisis  of  the  state  lie  ener<;etically  refused  bis 
adhesion  to  'the  substitution  of  re|iublicanisni  for 
monarchy;'  and  preserved  the  strict  autonomy  of 
Tusc.'iny  until  the  return  of  the  grand-ducal  rule. 
Then  he  w:i.s  immediately  seized  and  imprisoned  on 
the  grounds  of  having  neglected  due  measures  of 
repression  when  the  revolution  first  gathered 
strength  during  hia  ministry.  His  defence,  entitled 
A/iolugi(i  dclld  Vila  I'olitini  ill  F.  D.  Iliierrazzi 
( 1857),  is  a  mitsterpiece.  .\fter  an  imprisonment  ol 
three  years,  he  was  condemned  for  life  to  the 
galleys,  but  wa.s  subsei|uently  permitted  to  select 
Corsica  as  the  refuge  of  his  jierpetual  banishment. 
Kestored  to  liberty  and  action  by  later  events, 
Guerrazzi  sat  in  the  parliament  of  Turin  in  18IV2 
and  186.5.  He  died  23.1  September  1873.  His  chief 
works  of  fiction  are  L<i  Batliig/ia  dl  Bencrentu, 
remarkable  for  ex(|uisite  expression  and  beantiful 
poetiir  imagery  ( 1827,  lifty  time.s  re]printed  ) :  I,' Ax- 
seiliit  di  Fi iciize ,  a  niagnilicent  hist4)rical  no\el, 
treating  of  the  downfall  of  the  repulilic  of  Florence 
(1836,  iiKue  than  thirty  times  reprinted);  lsid)cjlii 
UrxiHi  (1844);  Beatrice  Ccnci  (18.54);  L'Asi/n, 
(1857).  There  are  works  on  Guerrazzi  bv  Cerona 
(1873),  Fenini  (1873),  and  Uosio  (1877);  and  Car- 
diicci  h.as  edited  his  Letters  (2  vols.  Leghorn, 
1880-821. 

Cilierrc'ro,  a  southern  state  of  .Mexico,  on  the 
Pacilic,  with  an  area  of  22,863  sq.  m.  It  is  a 
broken  mountainous  country,  rich  in  miner.als. 
fertile  in  the  upland  valleys,  and  enjoying  a 
favourable  climate  except  on  the  coast.  Po|i. 
(189.51  417,621.  Capital.  Chilpaneingo  (6000); 
chief  port,  Acapuico  (q.v.). 

AillOKClin.  BkI!TH.\ND  Dt,  Cimstableof  France, 
was  born  of  an  ancient  family  near  Dinan  in  the 
district  of  Itennes,  about  either  1314  or  1.320.  From 
his  boyhood  upwards  he  e.vcelled  in  all  martial 
exercises.  In  the  contests  between  Charles  de 
Blois  and  .lean  cle  .Moutfort  for  the  dukedom  of 
Brittany  he  took  part  with  the  former,  especially 
distinguishing  himself  at  Vannes  (1342).  After 
King  .lohn  had  been  taken  jui.soner  by  the  Black 
Prince  at  the  battle  of  Poitiei's  in  I3.5(),  Du 
(iuesclin  contended  successfully  against  the  F.nglish, 
his  valour  and  military  skill  being  especially 
shown  at  Kennes  ( 1.356)  and  Dinan  (  13.57  ).  Then, 
entering  the  service  of  the  Dauphin,  afterwards 
Charles  V.,  he  took  Mebin  (1.3.591  and  several 
other  fortified  towns,  and  freed  the  Seine  from  the 
English.  On  Charles's  acce.s.«ion  to  the  throne  in 
1.364  Du  Guesclin  w.as  created  governor  of  Pont 
Orson,  and  in  May  of  the  same  year  gained  the  battle 
of   Cocherel  against  Ch,^rles  tlie  B:id  of  Navarre. 


But  on  the  29th  Septemiier  following  he  was  de- 
feated and  taken  prisoner  by  tlie  Knglish,  uniler  Sir 
.lohn   Chanilos.   at    the  battle  of  .\uray,  and  only 

liberateil  on  pay nt  of  .i  ransom  of  KKI.OOO  livres. 

He  next  supported  llenrv.  Count  of  Trasiamare, 
against  Pedro  the  Crui-l,  1<ing  of  Castile,  bul  was 
ilefeateil  anil  taken  prisoner  by  the  Black  I'rince 
near  Najcra  (1.367).  Being  again  ransomed  on 
payment  of  a  large  sum,  Du  (iuesilin  renewed  the 
contest,  anil  in  1369  defi'atcil  and  captured  Pedro 
at  Monliel,  and  placed  the  crown  of  Castile  on  the 
head  of  Ilenry  ol  Trasiamare.  ImmeiliHlely  after- 
wards 111-  was  rer-.-Uleil  by  Charles  \'.  of  France,  at 
that  lime  hard  pressed  by  the  Fnglish.  ami  hius 
raiseil  to  the  ilignity  of  Constable  of  France.  In 
the  year  1370  Du  (Juesclin  opened  his  cam|>aigns 
against  the  Kngli.sli,  and  in  a  few  years  the  whole 
of  their  possessions  were  in  the  luinils  of  the 
French,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  fortilied 
towns.  While  a.s.siKting  at  the  siege  of  Chate.au- 
niMif  lie  Kanilon,  in  Languedoc,  Du  (Iuesclin  was 
taken  ill,  and  died  .luly  13,  1.380.  See  Lives  of  him 
liv  (Invard  de  Bervi'lle  (1767;  new  ed.  1882), 
.laniisoh  ( 1863),  Luce  ( 1883),  and  Postel  ( 1893  i. 

dllCSS.  Gkoiuik.     See  Chkhokkks. 

CillOSt*  KiwiN,  a  learned  antiipiary,  born  in 
180f),  entered  Cains  College,  Cambridge,  in  1819, 
was  eleventh  wrangler  in  the  Mathematical  Tripos 
of  1824,  and  was  thereafter  elected  In  a  fellowship. 
He  W.1S  called  to  the  bar,  but  did  not  practise,  and 
earlv  gave  himself  to  aiilii|n.uiaii  and  literary 
stuiiies.  'I'he  only  l)Ook  he  published  was  his  well- 
known  Ilixidiii  <if  EiKflitih  Ji/ii/l/iiiix  {IKiH;  2d  ed. 
revised  by  Professor  Skeat.  1882)-  a  work  of  great 
erudition,  anil  written,  moreover,  before  the  era  of 
good  editions  of  old  F.nglish  poetry  had  begun. 
His  freipient  papers  on  the  early  history  of  Homan 
and  Saxon  Kngland  and  the  Knglish  were  printed 
in  the  Archirotngieul  .lininiid  and  the  'l^nuisuiiiitit^ 
of  the  Archa'idogical  Institute  and  other  learned 
institutions,  and  earned  the  praises  of  scholars  so 
critical  as  Mr  Freeman.  These  were  collecteil 
po.sthumously,  liUing  the  second  volume  of  Oriijinex 
Ccltifir  (a  Fi-firfiiitiit),  and  <it/iir  Cinitrihutiiinx  li> 
the  Histonj  of  Britain  (2  vols.  1883).  'I'he  tirst 
volume  was  devoted  to  the  Celts  and  their  ethno- 
loi'ical  and  i)hilological  allinities ;  but,  truth  to 
tell,  this  work,  laborious  as  it  is,  was  conceived  in 
a  pre-scienti(ic  spirit,  and  its  elaborate  etymidogics 
are  valueless.  In  18.52  (Juest  succeeded  Dr 
Chapman  as  Master  of  Cains  College,  Camliridge, 
and  next  year  received  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  He 
became  F.H.S.  in  1841,  and  wjis  Vice  chancellor 
of  the  univei-sity  in  18.54.  He  resigned  the  master- 
shi]i  but  a  few  weeks  before  his  death,  which  took 
place  on  November  23,  1880. 

(•IICIIX,  or  'The  Beggars,'  the  name  a.s.suined 
by  the  confederated  nobles  and  other  malcontent.s 
who  opposed  the  introduction  of  the  Inquisition 
into  the  Low  Countries  by  Philij)  II.  of  S|iain. 
Forming  them.selves  into  an  a.s.soeiation,  November 
1565,  they  presented,  on  5tli  .Ajiril  following,  a 
formal  prolest  to  the  regent,  .Margaret  ol  Parma. 
Their  distinctive  partv  name  they  adopted  from 
an  abusive  epithet  applied  to  them  on  that  occasion 
by  one  of  Margaret's  courtiers.  The  'beggare,' 
who  rei>resented  the  national  feeling  of  the  country, 
maintained  a  long  and  vigonms  contest  against 
the  ilespotic  iiroceedings  of  Philip  and  his  .idvisers, 
but  were  illtimatidy  comjiellcd  to  succumb  to 
superior  force.  A  branch  of  them,  '  the  Beggars 
of  the  Sea,'  under  the  leiulershii)  of  the  bold  Count 
de  la  Marck,  seriously  hanussed  the  Spanish  lleet, 
c.aiitured  transports  with  supplies  for  Alva's  army, 
seized  several  fortresses,  and  succoured  besieged 
places  along  the  co.ist.  Their  capture  of  Briel  in 
Ajiril    1572  was   the   lieginning  of  the  war  which 


GUEVARISM 


GUIANA 


449 


terminated  in  tlie  independence  of  the  Netherlands 
in  1048.     See  HOLLAND. 

Oiievarisin.    See  Eiphulsm. 

<j;iievi.     See  Amtelope. 

Cillglieliui«  I'lETRO,  a  celebrated  musician  and 
compu.ser,  wa.s  born  at  Massa  di  Carrara  in  May 
1727.  His  lirst  opera,  composed  at  the  age  of 
t\venty-eit,'lit,  was  greeted  with  enthusiasm  at 
Turin.  He  visited  the  chief  cities  of  Italy,  every- 
where with  success.  After  a  residence  of  some 
niontlis  at  Dresden  and  various  other  towns,  Gug- 
lielmi  passed  over  U>  London,  where  he  remained 
five  years.  At  the  age  of  Hfty  he  returned  to 
Naples  with  the  double  prestige  of  great  fame  and 
wealth,  and  in  1793  I'ope  Pius  VI.  appointed  him 
Maestro  di  CappcUa  at  St  Peter's.  He  dieil  19th 
November  1804.  Among  his  most  popular  operas 
were  La  Didone  ;  Enea  e  Ldnif.M ;  I  due  GemeUi; 
La  ii'crva  Innamorata  ;  La  Pastorella  Nobile  ;  La 
Bella  Pescatrlee. 

C<uiaiia«  in  its  widest  signihcation,  is  the  region 
lying  between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazons  in 
South  America,  witli  the  Atlantic  on  the  east  and 
no  definitive  boundaries  on  the  west.  It  consists  of 
live  divisions,  known  res])ectivelv  as  Venezuelan, 
British,  Dutcli,  French,  and  Brazilian  Guiana,  the 
first  named  situated  to  the  west  of  the  next  three, 
and  the  last  named  to  the  south  of  all  four.  But 
both  Venezuelan  and  Brazilian  Guiana  being  in- 
corporated in  those  states,  we  have  to  describe 
heie  only  British,  Dutch,  and  French  (Juiana. 

These  three  colonies  abiit  upon  the  Atlantic,  in 
the  order  named,  between  Venezuela  on  the  north 
and  Brazil  on  the  south.  The  physical  conforma- 
tion is  practically  the  .same  in  all  three.  Next  the 
Atlantic  is  a  fringe  of  alluvial  soil,  Iving  in  many 
parts  below  the  sea-level,  and  generally  inundated 
m  the  rainy  seasons,  with  niud-tlats  skirting  the 
coast  and  sandbanks  jutting  out  into  the  ocean  ; 
these  last  are  generally  held  together  by  the  roots 
of  mangi-ove-trees,  though  not  unfrequently  they 
are  of  a  shifting  character,  forming  temporary 
islands  and  moving  about  under  the  impulse  of 
wind  and  tide  and  river  current.  This  alluvial 
zone,  varying  in  width  from  10  to  40  miles,  and 
consisting  principally  of  blue  argillaceous  soil,  of 
very  great  fertility,  contains  virtually  the  only 
cultivated  teri'itory  in  the  three  colonies.  Beyond 
it  the  contour  rises  by  a  series  of  short  terraces  or 
land  waves  up  to  an  undulating  savannah  region 
of  nujderate  elevation  (average  150  feet),  which  Ls 
formed  geologically  of  the  accumulateil  detritus 
brought  down  from  the  prinutive  mountain  masses 
in  tlie  intericu-.  The  third  and  innermost  division 
of  colonial  Guiana  consists  of  the  upland  country, 
a  plateau  region  ridged  with  mountain-chains 
(which  rise  in  places  to  3000  or  3500  feet),  and 
everywhere  covered  with  a  dense  primeval  forest, 
exceptionally  rich  in  magnificent  timber-trees — rich 
not  only  in  the  quality  of  the  timber,  l)ut  also  in 
the  variety  of  the  species.  This  division  is  as  yet 
almost  wholly  unknown,  save  that  the  C(mrses  of 
most  of  the  larger  rivers  have  been  explored  to 
their  sources. 

Hirers. — The  whole  of  (iuiana  is  well  provided 
with  rivers.  Most  of  them  How  north  or  north- 
east to  the  Atlantic,  and  bring  down  with  them 
vast  quantities  of  sedimentary  matter,  which  be- 
comes depo.sited  as  tlie  alluvial  mud  of  the  coast. 
These  streams,  altliough  they  are  of  admirable 
service  for  irrigation  purposes,  are  of  little  u.se  as 
waterways  for  navigation,  owing  to  the  mudbanks 
which  choke  their  mimtlis,  the  sandlianks  which 
obstruct  their  channels,  and  the  numerous  falls 
and  cataracts  by  which  their  waters  descend  from 
the  highlands  and  savannah  plateaus  to  the  low- 
lying  coastal  belt.  Up  to  the  line  of  the  rapids 
237 


and  falls,  however,  they  are  navigable  by  small 
ves.sels  for  distances  varying  from  10  to  150  miles. 
Several  of  them  are  connected  together  in  their 
lower  courses  by  cross-channels  and  artificial 
canals.  Indeed,  communication  in  the  colonies  is 
principally  etlected  by  water,  not  by  land. 

Climate. — The  climate,  as  beseems  a  region  lying 
between  1"  and  8°  N.  lat.,  is  hot  and  moist,  but  on 
the  whole  tolerably  uniform.  Generally  speaking, 
the  thermometer  ranges  from  a  maximum  of  95° 
to  a  minimum  of  70"  F.  ;  the  average,  however, 
deviates  but  little  from  80°  to  84°  F.  The  heat 
is  tempered  by  sea-breezes  during  greater  part  of 
the  year.  The  rainfall  is  heavy  ;  the  average  for 
British  and  Dutch  Guiana  is  75  to  100  inches 
annuall}',  and  in  French  Guiana  it  is  still  heavier, 
sometimes  reaching  140  inches  in  the  year.  The 
preci|iitati(in  is,  however,  greatest  in  the  interior ; 
hence  the  great  number  of  rivers  fed  fiom  the 
wooded  mountain-slopes  inland.  Two  rainy  and 
two  diy  seasons  are  distinguished  :  the  former 
last  as  a  rule  from  December  to  February  and 
from  April  to  August.  Hurricanes  are  extremely 
rare. 

Flora. — As  would  be  expected  from  the  nature 
of  the  country,  \egetation  is  of  extraordinary  rich- 
ness and  luxuriance.  Many  of  the  numerous  timber- 
trees  are  valuable  for  shipbuilding,  liou.se-building, 
roofing,  cabinetmaking,  &c.  Several  useful  gums 
are  yielded,  and  also  balsams,  wax,  bark,  fibre,  oil, 
nuts,  juices,  medicinal  preparations,  &c. ,  caout- 
chouc, balata  gum,  copaiba  balsam,  carapa-seed  oil, 
sar.saparilla,  cinchona,  laurel  oil,  calabashes,  silk 
cotton,  tonqua  beans,  arnotto,  Bromelia  Hax, 
angelica,  cotton,  tobacco,  &c.  The  best-known  food- 
plants  comprise  the  cassava,  sweet  potato,  arrow- 
root, capsicum  or  Spanish  pepper,  tomato,  guava, 
cherry,  avogato,  bread-fruit,  melon,  granadilla, 
banana,  pine-apple,  earth-nut,  yam,  rice,  and 
maize.  JJesides  these  there  is  a  prodigious 
quantity  of  creepers,  ferns,  tree-ferns,  and  flowers ; 
amongst  these  last  must  be  specially  named  the 
orchids,  which  often  form  a  continuous  carpet 
along  the  tops  of  the  forest  trees,  and  the  magni- 
ficent Victoria  regia  lily. 

Faitnri. — The  most  conspicuous  branch  of  the 
fauna  is  the  birds,  the  most  characteristic  forms 
being  the  stink-bird  (a  vulture),  eagles,  owls, 
nightjars,  humming-birds,  the  bell-bird,  several 
passerine  species,  orioles,  a  wren,  toucans,  jaca- 
mars,  trogons,  putt-birds,  kingfishers,  anis,  parrots, 
the  cock  of  the  wood,  curassows,  tinamous, 
trumpeters,  tlie  jacana,  the  horned  screamer,  sand- 

Sipers,  the  sun-bittern,  herons,  ducks,  and  divers, 
lammals  are  not  so  plentiful  as  the  extensive  un- 
inhabited forests  might  perhaps  suggest.  They 
are  represented  by  jaguars,  tiger  cats,  jieccaries, 
ta])irs,  deer,  sloths,  armadillos,  ant-eaters,  agoutis, 
capybaras,  opossums,  raccoons,  coatis,  porcupines, 
s((uirrels,  monkeys,  martens,  fish-otters,  and  man- 
atees. Gther  forms  of  animal  life  are  swarms  of 
insects,  including  butterflies,  crickets,  nuisquitoes, 
sandflies,  and  jiggers;  turtles  and  tortoises,  croco- 
diles, iguanas,  frogs,  snakes,  including  the  ana- 
conda and  whip  snakes  ;  several  Siluroid  fishes, 
the  electric  eel,  rays,  sharks,  and  the  sawfish. 

Iiidia/is. — The  native  Indians,  who  still  for  the 
most  |iart  lea<l  a  '  wild  '  life  in  the  forests,  constitute 
.several  ditVerent  tribes,  and  seem  to  belong  to  what 
were  probably  two  distinct  stocks,  the  indigenes 
and  their  original  ccuiquerors,  the  Caribs.  In 
many  parts  of  Guiana  rude  attempts  at  picture- 
writing  exist  on  the  rocks  and  faces  of  the  liills. 
Two  varieties  have  been  discriminated — one  deeply 
incised,  the  other  merely  scratched.  Who  the 
authors  were  is  not  known  with  certainty;  they 
are  generally  believed  to  have  been  the  ancestors 
of    the    existing    Indians,    who,    however,     have 


450 


GUIANA 


preserved   uo   traditions  relating    to    the   iiiNcrip- 
tions. 

Histori/.—TUe  (irxt  Europeans  to  ex])lore  tin' 
coast  of  (Juiaim  seem  to  have  been  the  Sjiiiniiinls 
Aliiiizo  lie  Oji'ila  in  14'.)9  and  Vicente  I'lnzon  in 
ir)<M).  Several  attempts  were  made  liy  adventuriTs 
of  dillerent  European  nations  to  found  colonies  in 
this  rej,'ion  in  the  later  i)art  of  the  Itith  and  tlic 
early  part  i>f  the  17th  centuries.  To  this  period 
beloii;;  Kaleinh's  and  the  other  expeditions  whiili 
visiti'd  this  part  of  South  America  in  search  of  the 
fahulons  ^'old  city  El  Dorado  (i|.v.)  and  the  l.nky 
of  I'arima.  Apart  from  semihuccancerin^'  expcdi- 
tions  and  landinj,'s,  the  lirst  successful  colonisatinn 
of  Guiana  seems  to  have  been  made  l>y  the  Dutch, 
im  the  Esseipiiho,  shortly  before  1013.  Tlic 
Enjjlisli  j;ot  firm  footinj;  at  Surinam  in  16.")0,  ami 
the  French  on  the  Konnm  and  Oyapock  in  lG()t. 
Two  years  later  the  Kn;,disli  seized  liotli  French 
and  Dutdi  Cuiana,  but  n-stmcil  them  in  Kiti",  and 
at  the  .same  time  handed  over  Surinam  to  the 
Netherlands  in  exchange  for  New  Amsterdam — 
i.e.  New  ^'ork.  The  French,  in  lt)74,  renewed 
their  attemiits  to  settle  at  Cayenne,  and  with 
success  ;  that  part  of  (Juiana  has  remained  in  their 
hainls  ever  since.  Except  for  two  short  periods 
(17HI-S3  and  179G-1802),  tlie  settlements  on  the 
Essec|uibo,  Demerara,  and  Berbice  and  in  Surinam 
were  hehl  by  the  Dutch  down  to  1S03,  when  tliey 
were  a^ain  taken  jiossession  of  by  the  En;;lisli, 
who  at  the  peace  of  I8U  restored  the  last  named, 
hut  retained  the  hrst  three.  Berbice  was  at  lirst 
administered  as  a  distinct  colony,  but  in  18.S1  it 
was  incorporateil  with  the  rest  of  Britisli  Cuiami. 
Durinj,'  slave-holding'  times  su^ar-plantinj,'  broii;;lit 
somt^  ilc^-ree  of  |)rosperity  to  these  colonies  ;  but 
their  productiveness  in  this  respect  w.as  very 
sensilily  crijipled  by  the  abolition  of  slavery,  whicli 
deprived  them  of  their  supplies  of  the  requisite 
kind  of  labour  for  the  plantations.  Since  that 
event  colVee  ,ind  cotton  have  almost  entirely  ceascil 
to  be  ^rown  ;  and  the  cultivation  of  beetroot  for 
su^'ar  caused  a  serious  crisis  in  lluiana  cane- 
plantin;;.  British  and  Dutch  Guiana,  however, 
still  show  signs  of  vitality :  the  canesu<'ar 
industry,  if  not  reviving,  is  at  least  not  retrogrades 
whilst  gold-mining  is  a  decidedly  progressive  in- 
ilustry.  Except  for  gold-nuning,  which  however 
remains  stationary,  French  Guiana  is  in  a  hope- 
lessly deplorable  condition. 

BlilTisii  (it  i.\N.\,  or  1)KMKR.\R.\,  with  a  coast- 
line of  :i'J()  nnles,  is  separated  from  Dutch  Guiana 
on  the  E.  by  the  river  Corentyn  ;  on  the  S.  and 
W.,  next  Brazil  and  Venezuela  respectively,  the 
boundaries  h.ave  never  been  detinitiveiy  deterndned. 
The  British  make  the  lindts  of  the  colony  extend 
.southward  to  the  sources  of  the  Esseijuibo  in  the 
Acarai  .Mountains  (about  V  N.  lat.  and  59'  \V. 
long. ),  and  trend  thence  nearly  due  east  to  the 
head-waters  of  the  Corentyn,  whilst  the  west 
boundary  (going  north)  coincides  with  the  Takutu 
and  Cotinga  as  far  as  Korainia  ;  thence  it  proceeils 
north-east  to  the  Imataca  range  and  onwanls 
north  to  the  nmuth  of  the  .Vinacuro.  The  \'vnr 
zuelans,  however,  claim  all  the  region  west  of  the 
Esseijuibo  right  up  to  the  sources  of  this  river. 
The  area  of  British  Guiana  is  approximately  set 
down  at  96,000  sq.  ra.  The  western  part  of  the 
colony  is  diversified  by  chains  of  the  Pacaraima  or 
I'arima  mountain-system,  which  stretch  generally 
from  west  to  e.ost,  as  the  Itnataca  range  in  the 
north,  the  Merume  or  Pacarainia  .Mountains,  which 
rise  to  30(X)  feet  between  4°  and  r>'  30'  N.  lat.,  and 
to  some  SOOO  or  9000  feet  in  the  table-topi)eil 
Koraima  (q.v.),  and  the  Acarai  Mountains,  which 
form  the  southern  boundary  of  the  colony  as  well 
as  the  watershed  between  the  Essequibo  and  the 
feeders  of  the  Amazons.     Between  the  two  ranges 


last  mentioneil  comes  an  eastward  extension  of  the 
great  Brazilian  savannah  region.  The  more  im- 
port.ant  rivers  are  the  Corentyn,  Berbice,  Demerara, 
Essequibo  (with  its  tributaries,  the  Uapnnuiu  and 
the  Mazuruni,  and  the  CuyuTii,  an  allliuTil  of  this 
last),  Waini,  and  Barima,  all  llowing  north  into 
the  Atlantic  ;  and  thi>  Takulu,  which,  suppii' 
niented  bv  the  Ircng  iinil  Cotinga,  feeds  the  Kio 
Branco,  aleft-hainl  triliutary  of  the  Amazon.  For 
the  dis]iuted  Venezuela  frontier,  the  subject  of 
jirolonged  negotiations  which  led  in  iKilo  to  a 
threatening  message  from  the  I'resident  of  the 
United  Sl.ites,  .see  Vkni:ziki,a. 

The  leading  industry  of  the  colony  is  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  sugar  cane.  Woodcutting  and  gold- 
mining  are  the  oidy  other  industries  of  any 
moment.  The  exports  embrace  sugar,  average 
value  .£l,2lK),(lo()  per  annum;  rum  to  the  amount 
of  neariy  ilOO.OOO ;  molius.ses  i;20,0tK) ;  timber, 
shingles,  charcoal,  cocoaiints,  balata,  and  gums. 
The  export  of  gold  increased  from  £9000  in  1.SS4 
to  f.'>00,446  in  1894.  The  total  value  of  the  ex|iorls, 
which  go  princiiiallv  to  the  United  Kingdom  and 
West  Indies,  f^idl  "from  i"3,208,(i31  in  1882  to 
£2,0.39,900  in  1895.  More  than  half  the  exports  go 
to  the  United  King<lom.  The  imports  (  mostly  from 
the  United  Kingdom),  which  consist chielly  of  Hour, 
rice,  drieil  lish,  Imtter,  poiU,  and  beef,  fell  from 
£2,224,000  in  18.S3  to  £1,608,750  in  1895. 

In  1894  the  population  was  280,869,  and  em- 
braced Euroi)eans,  ('reoles,  negroes,  coolies  from 
India,  Chinese,  natives  of  Madeiia  and  the  Azores, 
anil  aboriginal  Iniliaiis ;  but  of  these  last  only 
some  10,000  are  inchnU'd  in  the  census  n^tnrn. 
The  negroes  number  100, (M)0,  the  East  Indians 
106,000,  the  Chinese  3800,  the  F;uropeans  -JtiOO. 
Most  of  the  plantation  work  is  done  by  immigrant 
coolies  from  British  India  and  by  Chinese. 

The  colony  is  divided  into  three  counties, 
Berbice,  Demerara,  and  Esse(|uibo.  The  porta 
are  Georgetown  (q.v.),  the  capital,  and  >ew 
Amsterdam.  The  aihniinstration  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  governor,  ajipointcd  by  the  crown,  and 
two  legislative  councils — the  Court  of  Policy  (15 
members)  and  the  Condiined  Court  (23  members) 
— the  latter  having  the  control  of  the  finances. 
Slavery  was  abcdished  in  the  colony  in  18.34,  though 
the  importation  of  slaves  from  Africa  had  practically 
ceased  twenty  years  before.  Compensation  w;us 
paid  to  the  a'mcmnt  of  £4,297,1 17  for  84,915  slaves 
(£50,  12s.  per  head).  The  colony  iiosse.s.ses  one  line 
of  railway,  from  Georgetown  to  Alahaica  (21  nnles 
long),  telegraphic  communication  with  Europe  and 
the  Uinted  States,  and  a  good  system  of  postage. 

Dt'TCH  Guiana,  or  Situinam,  with  an  area  of 
46,0.')8  s(|.  ni.,  and  a  coast  line  of  240  nnles,  has  for 
its  boundary  on  the  west  the  river  Coicnlyn,  on  the 
south  the  Acarai  Mountains  and  their  eiustern  con- 
tinuation, the  Tunnic-Huiuac  Mountains,  and  on 
the  east  the  Maroni  or  Marowijn,  which  separates 
it  from  French  (iuiana.  It  is,  however,  a  matter 
of  dispute  between  the  French  and  the  Dutch  whicli 
of  the  two  upper  branches  of  this  last  liver — the 
right  hand  arin,  the  .\wa  or  Lawa,  or  the  left- 
hand  arm,  the  Taiianahoni— is  the  upper  ]>art  of 
the  main  stream.  The  Dutch  claim  tliat  it  is  the 
former,  the  French  the  latter.  The  other  rivers  of 
the  colony  are  the  Surinam,  Saramacca,  Coppe- 
name,  ami  Nickerie,  all  llowing  into  the  Atl.mtic. 
The  greater  part  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  un- 
exphued  primeval  forest,  scarcely  more  than  210 
sq.  m.  of  the  entire  area  being  cultivated,  'i'he 
chief  products  are  sugar,  cocoa,  gohl,  rum,  molasses, 
bananas,  rice,  corn— of  which  sugar,  cocoa,  and 
gold  are  largely  ex|iorted.  The  total  annual  value 
of  export.s  is  from  £300,000  to  £5(10,000;  that  of 
imports  is  from  £400,(XIO  to  £600,000.  Gold-mining 
h<us   made    rapid   strides   since   1875;    the   export 


GUIANA 


GUIDEBOOKS 


451 


having  increased  in  valne  from  £2079  in  1876  to 

£90,461    in    18.SG,    and    fl32,400    in    1803,    tl ^di 

prolialdy  one-tunrtli  more  is  ^nnijigled  out  of  llic 
colony.  In  tlie  year  1887  new  discoveries  of  gold 
were  made  in  the  district  between  the  rivers 
Tapanahoni  and  Awa,  the  region,  some  SOW)  si|.  ni. 
in  extent,  which  is  in  dispute  hetween  Holland 
and  France.  Trade  is  carried  on  principally  with 
Holland,  the  United  States,  and  CJreat  iiritain  and 
her  dependencies.  Theje  is  a  governor,  a  supreme 
council  of  live  (all  nominated),  and  a  |iartly  elected 
colonial  assemlily.  The  |iopulation,  whicli  is  very 
heterogeneous,  in  1804  numlieied  62,649,  of  whom 
nearly  one  half  live  at  Paramarilio  (q.v. )  the 
capital.  In  1884  the  total  was  given  at  5'2,978. 
Besides  these  theie  were  aliout  4000  Busli  Negroes 
— i.e.  negroes  who  escaped  cluring  slavery  times 
and  sulisecpiently  a.'sserted  their  independence — 
and  1200  Indians.  As  in  British  Guiana,  labour 
is  principally  performed  liy  co(dies  from  British 
India  and  l>y  Chinese.  Tlie  colony  is  divided  into 
eight  administrative  districts  ami  the  town  of 
Paramaribo,  and  is  under  the  charge  of  a  governor, 
assisted  liy  an  executive  council.  The  members 
of  the  provincial  estates,  the  legislative  body,  are 
elected  by  tlie  people.  Slavery  was  abolished  in 
186.S. 

French  Guiana,  or  Cayenne,  is  separated  from 
Dutch  Guiana  on  the  west  by  the  Maroni,  from 
Brazil  on  the  south  by  the  Tumuc-Humac  Moun- 
tains, and  from  the  same  country  on  the  east  by 
the  Oyapock,  although  the  French  claim  all  the 
coastal  districts  as  far  south  as  the  .Amazons.  The 
treaty  boumlary  is  the  '  river  of  Vicente  Pinzon,' 
the  identity  of  wliich  is  the  point  in  dispute  ;  the 
French  government,  however,  in  18.56  expressed 
itself  as  willing  to  recognise  the  Araguary  as  the 
treaty  stream.  The  north  and  north-east  sides  of 
the  cidony  are  washed  by  the  .Vtlantic.  Taking  the 
Oyajiock  as  the  provisionally  accepted  boundary, 
the  area  of  the  colony  is  about  31,000  sq.  m.,  whilst 
the  length  of  coast-line  is  about  240  miles  ;  the 
area,  as  oIKcially  given,  is  46,850  sq.  m.  The 
coast  is  not  so  uniformly  low  and  regular  as  in 
British  and  Dutch  Guiana.  Cayenne  (q.v.),  the 
capital  of  the  colony,  stands  on  a  rocky  promon- 
tory, and  a  little  farther  to  the  north-west  lie  the 
Safety  Islands  (lies  de  Saint),  behind  which  is  the 
best  roadstead  in  the  colony.  The  undulating, 
heavily-timbered  .savannah  region  is  crossed  by 
one  or  two  ranges  of  granite  hills,  nowhere  exceed- 
ing 2600  feet  in  height.  The  culminating  ridge, 
the  Tumuc-Humac  Mountains,  only  rises  1000  feet 
higher.  The  more  important  rivers,  which  all  flow 
into  the  Atlantic,  are  the  Maroni,  Mana,  Siuua- 
mary,  Ivourou,  Aiiprouague,  and  Oyapock. 

Tlie  commerce  is  almost  nil,  the  only  exports 
being  cocoa  and  arnotto  (roucou),  each  to  the  ex- 
tent of  about  7o0,O0O  111.  annually.  A  little  coffee 
is  grown.  Gold  is  mined,  however,  and  something 
like  a  value  of  £200,000  is  annually  exported  ; 
perhaps  half  as  much  again  is  smuggled  out  of  the 
country.  The  total  exports,  exclusive  of  gold,  have 
a  value  of  some  .£20,000,  atid  the  imi>orts  of  some 
.£400,000.  The  colony  costs  the  mother-country 
.£2o0,000  a  year.  The  population  of  the  entire 
colony,  exclusive  of  some  mountain  tribes,  only 
amounted  to  26,000 — more  than  half  in  Cayenne — in 
189.5,  and  is  slowly  l)ut  surely  diminishing;  the 
marriages  of  people  of  European  blooil  show  great 
sterility,  and  infant  mortality  is  large.  The 
]irevailing  diseases  of  the  swamjiy  coast-lands  are 
maliirial  fever,  dy.senterv,  ana'mia,  and  yellow  fever. 
From  18.53  to  1864  an  attempt  was  maiU'  to  found 
penal  coloines  in  French  Guiana,  all  of  which  proved 
disastrous,  partly  owing  to  the  uidiealthiness  of  the 
climate,  and  partly  to  the  harsh  .anil  ill-devised 
regulations    in    force   for   the  management  of   the 


penitentiaries.  ■  The  immigrant  criminals  now  come 
(since  1864)  exclusively  from  Africa  (Araljs  and 
negroes)  and  Asia  (Aunamites).  Slavery  was 
abolished  in  1848. 

Bibliooraphii. — Of  15ritish  Guiana  :  Hartsinck,  Bcschrij- 
viru/  van  (Juinna  (1770);  K.  H.  iSchoniburgk,  Deserip- 
tion  of  Brititfh  Uuiana  (1840),  Reizen  in  Guwita, 
1835-^'J  (1841),  and  papers  in  Gcoy.  Journ.  (1830-44); 
Richard  Scliondiur^^k,  Jteizeii  in  Britixrh-fJuianii,  IS4O-44 
1 1,S4.S ) ;  Dalton,  Hislor;/  of  British  Guiana  ( 1S.55 ) ;  C.  B. 
iirown  and  J.  G.  Wawkins,  Geoloijical  Survey  of  Brit.  Gu. 
(1875);  Boddaiu-Whethani,  lioraima  and  Brit.  Gu, 
(1879);  Iiii  Tluirn,  Amonrj  the  Indians  of  Gu.  (1883); 
lironkhurst,  Brit.  Gu.  (1883) ;  Netscher,  Gtsrhinlenis  run 
Essequcho^  Demcrary,  en  Berbice  (1888);  Rodway,  The 
Ifi.ilorii  of  British  Guiana  ('.i  vols.  Georgetown,  1891  '.14 ), 
mid  !ii.s  Handbook  of  British  Guiatui  (1803).  Of  Dutch 
Guiana:  Palgrave,  Dutch  Gu.  (IWO);  and  Kaiijiler, 
Surinam  (1887).  Of  French  Guiana:  Crevaux,  in  Bull. 
Soc.  Gioij.  (1878);  Nibaut,  Gu.  Franf-aisc  (1882);  works 
on  tlie  French  colonies  by  Vignon  (1885),  Rambaud 
(1880),  Lanessan  (1880),  Henrique  (6  vols.  1889-90), 
(iaflfarelli  (1893),  and  Petit  (1S94);  Coudreau,  in  Bull. 
Soc.  Geo,/,  de  VEst  (1880-87)  and  Kev.  de  Gi'oy.  (1888). 
See  also  Annah  of  Guiana  ( 1888),  by  Rod  way  and  Watt; 
and  Kaa7't  van  Guiana,  by  W.  L.  Loth  (Amsterdam,  1880). 

(liiiiana   Bark,  Fuench,  the  bark  of  Port- 

liint/ia  /u\raiii/rii,  also  called  Coutcria  sjie.ciosa,  a 
tree  of  the  natural  order  Cinchonacefe,  with 
ojiposite  ovate  leaves,  and  corymbs  of  very  large 
purple  dowers,  a  native  of  Guiana.  The  bark 
is  esteemed  a  very  jiowerful  febrifuge,  and  the 
value  of  ]Varburri's  Fever  Drops  is  believed  to 
depend  mainly  upon  it. 

tiuiociardini,  Francesco,  an  Italian  states- 
man and  historian,  was  born  of  noble  parentage  at 
Florence  in  1483.  The  combined  studies  of  law 
and  literature  engi-ossed  his  attention  at  lirst ;  and 
at  the  age  of  twenty-three  he  was  elected  professol- 
of  Law  at  Florence,  where  he  also  practised  as  an 
advocate.  But  his  real  field  was  diidoniacy  and 
statesmanship,  as  understood  at  that  time  in  Italy 
— the  diplomacy  and  statesmanship  of  Macchia- 
velli.  His  apprenticesliip  served  in  Spain  (1512- 
14),  he  became  jiapal  ruler  of  Modena  and  Keggio 
(from  1.515)  under  Leo  \.  and  Clement  VII.,  and 
afterwards  of  Parma  (1521),  the  Roniagna  ( 1523), 
and  Bologna  (1.531).  Retiring  from  the  .service  of 
the  pope  in  1334,  he  was  mainly  instrumental  in 
securing  the  election  of  Cosmo  de"  Medici  as  duke 
of  his  native  city,  Florence.  But,  being  dis- 
appointeil  in  his  ambitious  design  of  acting  as 
mayor  of  the  palace  to  this  young  prince,  (iiiicci- 
ardini  withdrew  to  ^Vrcetri,  and  busied  himself,  till 
his  death  in  1540,  witli  the  composition  of  a  great 
work,  Storia  d'  Italia,  a  dispassionate  and  coldly 
analytical  history  of  Italy  between  1494  and  1532. 
This  work  was  edited  by  Kosini  in  10  vols.  (Pisa, 
1819).  In  1857-67  there  appeared  at  Florence,  in 
10  vols.,  the  0/ierc  IitedUe  of  Guicciardini,  contain- 
ing liirordi  Politici,  a  series  of  aphorisms  on  poli- 
tical philoso|ihy  ;  li'ci/r/itnc/ito  di  Firiiizr,  a  discourse 
on  the  forms  of  government  suited  for  an  Italian 
state ;  and  Storiit  Fiorciititia.  See  Edinburgh 
Remew  (1869);  and  Gioda,  Guicciardini  e  le  sue 
opere  inedite  (Milan,  1880).  His  Ma.riiiis  wcie 
translated  into  English  by  N.  H.  Thonisou  in  1890. 

CJllioOWar  (  Oail.irar  or  (Idchicdr),  the  designa- 
tion of  .1  ]iowerful  .\Iahiatta  prince,  ruler  of  the 
state  of  Uaroda  (q.v.)  in  tJujarat.  Pihiji,  who 
became  Guicowar  in  1721.  by  predatory  excursions 
gradually  accpiired  authority  over  (Gujarat;  and 
his  son  Damjiji  ultimately  threw  off  his  allegiance 
to  the  Peishwa.  .M.ilhar  Kao.  installed  in  1871, 
was  in  1873  accused  of  attempting  to  jioisim  the 
British  Hesident,  tiied,  and  deposeil.    See  Hakoda. 

(■Ilidobooks.  When  in  lS29Mr.Iohn  Murray 
began  tliat  series  of  travels,  pei-sonal  obserwitions, 
and   jirivate  studies  which    issued   in    1836   in    his 


452 


GUIDES 


GUIENNE 


Hanillxiok  for  Hnllaml,  Belf^iiiiii,  and  North  Ger- 
nmiiv  (the  first  \w)rk  in  Eiijili.-h  to  which  tlie  name 
of  '  nanilliodk  '  Nvius  iipplieil ),  there  Wius  in  existence 
no  snch  thinj;  iu»  a  },'niJel><M>k  to  llerniany,  France, 
or  .Spain,  other  than  sucli  hooks  a-s  Howell's  In- 
strucllon.i  for  Fuircine  Trarell  (1642)  anil  its 
successors.  The  only  works  deservinf^  tlie  name  of 
guidehook  were  J.  (I.  Eliel's  An/iilniii/  for  Swit- 
zerland (Zurich,  1793;  Sth  ed.  1S43)';  William 
IJoyce's  Uilginn  Travellrr  (\^\b);  ami  Mrs  Mariane 
Starke's />/;rc6'on.s /'<r  Tranllers  in  Il'i/i/  (IS'JO). 
In  the  lonj;  series  of  his  jjiiiilehooks  Murray  had 
the  assistance  of  many  notahle  authors — of  Kichard 
Koril  for  Spain,  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  for  E^ypt, 
Sir  F.  Palf,'rave  for  North  Italy,  Dr  Porter  for 
Palestine,  vVc.  Murray's  j;uidcli()ok  served  as  the 
foundation  for  the  lirst  of  Itacdekers,  the  Ger- 
man jjuide  to  Holland  and  I!i'l;;iuni,  and  these  in 
their  turn  inspireil  those  of  liaildclcy  ami  others. 
.Most  of  liacileker's  numerous  j,'uidcliooks  are  trans- 
lated into  English,  and  are  as  well  known  as 
Murray's  even  to  English  travellci-s.  Other  well- 
known  series  of  guidehooks  are  those,  of  .\i)pleton 
ami  A.  \"  C  Black.  For  France,  the  most  accepted 
authorities  are  the  guides  of  .loanne ;  for  Italy 
the  (tJerman)  guide  of  Gsdl  I-'ds  is  admirahle  ; 
for  Norway  Tonslierg's  (in  English)  deserves  to  be 
menti<med.  Countless  guides  have  been  written 
for  all  [ilaces  of  special  interest  lioth  in  England 
and  the  t'ontinent.  An  admirahle  series  of  short 
practical  hooks  intended  to  emhrace  all  the  English 
counties  is  that  of  the  Tourist  (Juides  puhlished 
by  Edward  Stanford.  The  most  illiistrioMs  writer 
who  has  written  a  guiilehook  is  Wordsworth,  whose 
Guide  to  the  Iuiij/i.\/i  Lukes,  written  for  Wilkinson's 
Select  I'icn-s  in  isiO,  was  printed  separately  in  IS2'2. 

Cillidcs,  in  military  all'airs,  are  usually  j)ersons 
ilraw  n  from  the  country  in  which  an  army  is  oper- 
ating, one  or  more  being  sent  with  every  detach- 
ment of  troop.s.  A  guiile  slioulil  be  intelligent, 
(luick  of  eye,  experienced  in  the  topography  of 
tiie  country,  and,  above  all,  faithful.  As,  however, 
guides  must  on  many  occasions  be  drawn  from  a 
hostile  population,  and  have  probaliiy  only  a 
[lecuniary  interest  in  serving  well,  their  conduct 
IS  always  watched  with  the  utmost  jealousy,  death 
being  awanled  as  the  punishment  for  tlie  leiist 
departure  from  trnslwoithiness,  since  treason  or 
incompetence  might  involve  the  most  tlisastrous 
consequences  to  the  whole  expeilition.  In  the 
Flench  army  a  considerable  corps  of  cavalry  and 
infantry  bear  the  name,  but  the  name  only,  of 
'guides.'  They  were  first  formed  in  1744  as  a 
small  company  of  messengers  on  active  service. 
The  number  was  gradually  increased  until  the  time 
of  Najioleoii  1.,  who  formed  them  into  a  guard 
10,(KX)  strong.  In  the  I'.ritish  Indian  army  the 
corps  of  guides  of  the  Punjab  Frontier  Force  (six 
troops  of  cavalry  and  eight  companies  of  infantry) 
have  aci]uired  the  name  in  a  similar  manner. 

Cillidi.  ('.\Hi.o  .\l,KSs.vNl)Ro,  an  Italian  lyric 
poet,  was  born  at  Pavia  in  16.">0.  and  dieil  in  171'2. 
He  wius  one  of  the  founders  of  the  academy  called 
L'Arcadia.— For  another  GuiDI,  see  Ma.saccio. 

Gllidu.  (Juido  Keni,  a  celebrated  painter  of 
the  .-chool  of  Bologna,  was  Imrn  near  that  city, 
at  Calvenzano,  im  4th  Novemlier  \ri~ry.  He 
stuilied  under  Calvaert,  ami  at  the  age  of  about 
twenty  entered  the  .school  of  the  Caracci,  of  which 
he  and  Domenichino  were  the  most  famous  pupils. 
He  is  also  stated  to  have  learned  the  proce.s.se8  of 
fresco  from  I'eriantini.  His  earliest  works,  of 
which  the  'Coronation  of  the  Virgin,'  in  the 
National  Gallerj',  London,  i.s  an  example,  are 
marred  by  rather  harsh  and  violent  colouring  ;  but 
coming  under  the  influence  of  Caravaggio,  he 
adopted  many  of  the  ipialities  of  his  art,  and  his 


fidlowing  works  are  chaiacterised  by  forcible  if 
e\aggerate<l  chiaroscuro.  About  1596  he  .settled 
in  Kome,  where  he  worked  for  some  twenty  years, 
adopting  a  graceful  style,  of  which  the  famous 
'  Aurora  and  the  Hours,'  painteil  on  the  ceiling  of 
the  pavilion  of  the  Hospigliosi  Palace,  is  a  typical 
example.  This  is  u.sually  regarded  as  the  master- 
piece of  the  artist,  but  some  com|>etent  critics 
rank  even  higher  the  uiilinisheil  '  Nativity,' in  the 
choir  of  .San  Martino  at  Naples.  The  portrait 
titled  'Beatrice  Cenci '  (<|.v.)  in  the  Barberiiii 
Palace,  Home,  is  ascribed  to  (luido  on  very  doubt- 
ful authority.  He  now  entered  upon  tlie  third 
|ieriod  of  his  art,  when  he  i)aiiited  thinly,  with 
great  ease  of  execution  and  a  cold  silvery  ilelieacy 
of  colouring;  but  gradually  his  productions  lost 
the  vigour  of  his  earlier  time,  when  he  had  been 
more  directly  inspired  by  nature  instead  of  by  the 
study  of  Uaphacl  and  of  such  examples  of  the 
antique  as  the  Ni(die  group.  The  ilecline  of  his 
art  is  also  attributable  to  his  extravagant  habits 
and  his  pas.sion  for  gambling,  which  obliged  him  to 
paint  under  pressure  for  the  dealers,  ami  to  jiroiluce 
much  hasty  and  ill-consiilered  work.  (Jn  account 
of  a  (|uariel  with  the  Cardinal  Spinola  regarding 
an  altarpiece  commissioned  for  St  Pctei's  he  left 
Itome  and  settled  at  Bologna,  where  he  dieil  18tli 
August  164'2.  He  was  a  most  prolific  i)ainter,  ami 
his  works  are  to  be  found  in  all  the  chief  Euroi)ean 
galleries.  At  the  beginning  of  the  liUh  century 
they  were  verj'  highly  esteemed,  liut  now — in 
common  with  the  works  of  other  postHaphaelite 
Italian  master^  they  are  less  highly  \alued  than 
formerly.  In  addition  to  his  ]iaiiitings  (uiido  pro- 
duceil  some  vigorous  and  freely-touched  etchings, 
including  a  ]iorliait  of  Paul  V.  and  several  religious 
subjects  after  his  own  paintings  and  those  of  the 
Caracci.  He  had  many  ])Upils  both  at  Rome  and 
Bologna.  Of  these  the  most  celebrated  wasSimone 
Cantarini,  known  as  11  Pe.saie.se,  who  painted  an 
excellent  portrait  of  his  master,  now  in  the  Bologna 
Gallery. 

tiillido  AretinilS.  or  Gi;y  ok  Ahkzzo,  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  horn  near  Paris  in  990,  and  to 
have  come  to  Arezzo  .as  a  Benedictine  monk.  He 
died  a  ]uior  at  Avelhina  in  lUoO.  He  greatly  inllu- 
enced  musical  studies,  and  almost  every  <liscovery 
made  in  music  for  I.'id  years  has  been  attributed  to 
him,  including  that  o(  descant,  counterpoint,  and 
(.alisurdly  enough)  the  spinet.  It  seems,  however, 
that  it  w.'is  he  who  lirst  adopted  as  names  for  the 
notes  of  the  scale  the  initial  syllables,  set  to 
regularly  a.scending  tones,  of  the  liemistichs  of  a 
hymn  in  honour  of  St  John  the  Ba])tist  ( iit,  re, 
mi,  i<:c. ).  Mr  Hoikstro  holds  it  certain  that  lie 
inventecl  the  |)rinciple  on  w  liicli  the  construction  of 
the  stave  is  ba.seil,  ami  inobable  that  he  inventeil 
the  hexachord,  solinisation,  and  the  •  Harmonic 
or  (iiiidonian  H.and,'  a  mnemonic  method  of  in- 
dicating the  order  of  the  musical  sounds  cm  the 
lingerjoints  of  the  left  hand.  The  fame  of  Guido's 
musical  invention  drew  upon  him  the  attention  of 
the  p<ipes  Benedict  VIll.  and  .lohii  XIX.,  who 
invited  him  to  Pome.  Guiilo  left  writings  ex- 
idan.atory  of  his  musical  iloctrines,  especi.'illy  the 
MirrolufjHs  and  the  Anti/i/K/niirinm.  See  mono- 
graphs by  Angeloni  (1811),  Kiesewetter  (1844), 
and  F.alcfii  (I88'2);  Kockstro  in  the  appendix  to 
Grove's  Dietionari/  ( 1889)  ;  and  the  articdes  MlsiC, 
SoLKK(;f;ii). 

CiIlioilII<>.  one  of  the  old  French  jirovinces,  com- 
prehending the  |)resent  departments  of  (iironde. 
Lot,  Dordogne,  Aveynm,  with  portions  of  Tam- 
et-Garonne  and  Lot-et-Garonne.  It  formed  with 
(Jascony  (q.v.)  what  was  originally  the  country 
of  Aquit.ania  (q.v.),  of  which  name  Guienne  is  a 
(■orni|>tion. 


GUIGNES 


GUILDS 


453 


Ollignies,  Joseph  de,  born  at  Pontoise,  19th 
October  1721,  acquired  a  great  reputation  as  an 
orientalist,  and,  cfiietiy  on  account  of  liis  thorough 
knowledge  of  Chinese,  was  apiiointed  interpreter 
of  oriental  languages  in  the  Bibliotheiiue  du  Roi. 
He  died  in  Paris,  19th  March  1800.  His  gi-eat 
work,  V H istoire  Ginfrale  den  Hiiiis,  Tiircs,  Mofjols, 
et  aiitfcs  Tartares  occUkiitaii.c  (MoG-bS),  is  a  rare 
example  of  industry  and  research. — His  son, 
Chretien-Loi'is-Joseph  (1759-1845),  was  also  a 
very  distinguished  oriental  scholar,  and  published 
a  Chinese  l)ictionary  (1813). 

Gllilandilia,  a  genus  of  shrubs  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosn',  sub-r)rder  Ca-saliiinea".  G. 
honduc  anil  G.  hondncdhi  are  the  best- known  spe- 
cies. Both  aie  natives  of  the  warm  |iarts  of  the 
East  Indies,  Arabia,  Africa,  and  South  America. 
Egyptian  mothers  string  the  .seeds  of  both  species 
and  liang  them  round  the  necks  of  their  children, 
to  guard  them  fiom  evil  influences  and  sorcery. 
The  latter  species  is  also  called  Skkcr  Tree  and 
Small  Bondiic.  Being  about  the  size  and  shape  of 
marbles,  the  seeds  are  often  used  as  such  by  boys. 
The  shell  is  remarkable  for  its  flinty  hardness. 
The  kernel  is  \-ery  bittei-.  Ground  to  powder  and 
nuxed  witli  black  pepper,  it  is  administered  in 
India  in  agiie ;  mixeil  also  with  castor-oil  it  is 
ajiplied  externally  in  hyilrocele.  The  roots  in 
Andioyna  are  consiilered  to  be  a  good  tonic.  The 
seeds  are  often  thrown  ashore  on  the  coasts  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  are  sometimes  called 
Mriliicra  Beans. 

firllildford,  the  county  town  of  Surrey,  lies  in 
a  break  of  the  chalk  ridge  of  the  North  Downs, 
on  the  navigable  Wey,  .30  miles  S'\\'.  of  London. 
In  Cobljett's  phra.se  a  'happy-looking'  place,  it 
wears  an  air  of  order  and  cleanliness,  and  mainly 
consists  of  one  street,  running  up  the  steep  east 
side  of  the  river,  which  here  is  crossed  by  an  old 
five-arch  bridge.  Its  houses  are  still  rich  in  quaint 
gables,  projecting  fronts,  and  long  latticed  windows. 
The  sijuare  Norman  keep  of  its  royal  castle  (rivea 
1150)  IS  70  feet  higdi  with  walls  10  feet  thick  ;  on 
St  Catharine's  Hill  is  a  ruined  chapel  (131.3); 
Triiuty  Hospit.al,  founded  in  1619  by  Archbishop 
Abbot  (q.v.)  for  twelve  brethren  andeight  sisters, 
is  a  picturesque  red-brick  pile  ;  and  other  buildings 
are  the  churches  of  St  Niidndas,  St  Marv,  and  the 
Holy  Trinity,  the  guildhall  (1687),  county  hall 
(1862),  county  hospital  ( 1H68),  and  grammar-school  ' 
(1509-50).  A  railway  junction  of  some  imjiortance, 
Guildford  now  is  chiefly  famous  for  its  grain 
market,  the  'Surrey  wheats'  being  celebrated. 
From  Edward  I.'s  reign  till  1867  it  returned  two 
members  to  parliament,  then  till  1885  one.  Since 
1874  it  has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishojiric  suftVagan 
to  Winchester.  Pop.  (l.S.31)  6740;  (1891)  14,319. 
Bequeathed  in  901  by  Alfred  the  (Jreat  to  his 
nephew  Ethelwald,  liuildford  in  10.36  was  the 
scene  of  the  decimation  by  King  Harold's  men  of 
the  Ncn-man  followers  of  Alfred  the  Atheling — a 
crime  that  led  \x\\  to  tlie  Norm.an  conquest  of  Eng- 
land. The  I.)au]ihin  I.ouis  took  the  castle  in  1216  ; 
and  in  1685  Monmouth  w.as  temporarily  confined  in 
Trinity  Hospital. 

Guildhall,  a  building  in  London,  the  place  of 
assembly   of  several   courts,  and   the  scene  of  the 
civic  banquets  of  the  city  coriioration,  was  ori'dn.ally  : 
built  in   1411,  but  almost  wholly  dcstroved  l>v  the 
great  tire  of    1666.       It   was  reliuilt  in   1789  in  its  ; 
modern  form.     See  London. 

(illilds  were  associations  which  grew  up  and 
flourished  chiefly  among  the  commercial  and 
industri.al  classes  during  the  middle  ages.  "The 
word  is  derived  from  A.S.  c/i/d  {liuu-\i  i/i/d,  tier. 
gi/de)  'a  payment;'  the  idea  of  payment  may 
therefore  be  assume<l  to  be  the  prominent  origin.al 


feature  of  the  association.  The  letter  u  in  the 
English  spelling  of  the  word,  it  may  be  added,  is 
superfluous,  gi/</  being  the  correct  form.  The  full 
meaning  of  the  word  w.is  unfolded  only  in  the 
course  of  the  history  of  the  institution. 

It  is  one  of  the  many  deb.at cable  ])oints  connected 
with  the  guilds,  whether  and  how  far  the  medieval 
institution  was  preceded  and  influenced  liy  similar 
societies  in  Greek  and  Roman  times.  In  the 
crauoi  nnd  f/iiasoi  oi  the  Greeks,  and  still  more  in 
the  colleijia  ojii/iiinn  of  the  Romans,  many  writers 
find  a  resemblance  to  the  guilds.  Tlie  whole 
matter  is  obscure,  the  historical  evidence  being 
scanty  and  doubtful.  .\s  the  ancient  economy 
rested  on  slavery,  and  guilds  «ere  the  voluntaiy 
organisation  of  the  industrial  classes,  such  associa- 
tions could  not  have  been  vc^ry  widely  diflused  in 
the  ancient  world,  if  they  existed  at  all.  -The 
probability  is  that  the  trade  corporations  of  the 
latei'  Roman  period,  though  very  diflerent  from  the 
guilds,  may  have  att'ected  the  early  development 
of  the  latter.  But  the  real  origin  of  the  guilds 
must  be  .sought  in  the  needs  and  circumstances  of 
the  time  when  they  flotirished. 

The  guilds  known  to  history  were  an  organisa- 
tion of  the  commercial  and  industrial  classes, 
determined  by  the  economic,  social,  and  political 
conditions  prevalent  during  the  middle  ages.  The 
most  important  of  these  conditions  were  tlie  gi-owth 
of  freedom  in  the  towns  as  opposed  to  the  slavery 
of  oMer  times  and  the  still  existing  serfdom  of 
the  country,  the  prevalence  of  a  small  industry' 
operating  for  the  most  part  in  strictly  defined  local 
limits,  and  the  absence  of  strong  central  govern- 
ments. They  were  free  local  associations  of  the 
industrial  classes  for  the  promotion  of  their  common 
interests  at  a  time  when  central  governments  did 
not  exist  or  were  too  weak  to  perform  all  the 
functions  of  government  as  now  recognised. 

As  the  cities,  and  the  free  life  as.sociated  with 
them,  arose  but  slowly  in  the  Teutonic  .settlements 
after  the  wreck  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  guilds 
had  at  first  a  very  gradual  growth.  The  first 
mention  of  an  institution  so  called  occurs  in 
England  in  the  laws  of  Ina  (7th  century)  and 
Alfred.  M'e  hear  of  it  first  on  the  Continent  in  the 
time  of  Charlemagne  in  779.  Bv  the  middle  of  the 
9th  century  guilds  were  widely  i^itt'used  throughout 
the  Frankish  empire.  In  the  11th  century  they 
began  extensively  to  flourish  in  the  countries 
.settled  by  the  Teutonic  peoples  ;  and  they  were 
powerful  also  in  France  and  Italy,  where  the 
Teutonic  influence  had  been  only  partially  felt. 
In  the  I4tli  and  15th  centuries  the  institution 
reached  its  culminating  point. 

Guilds  were  an  historical  institution  varying 
with  the  times  and  with  the  needs  and  aims  of 
their  members ;  and  it  winild  therefore  be  mis- 
leading to  attach  too  ilelinite  a  meaning  to  the 
word.  In  some  of  them  doubtless  the  distinctive 
features  weie  periodic  festivals  defrayed  by  the 
contributions  of  the  members.  These  were  the 
social  ^'uilds.  As  during  the  middle  ages  the 
distinction  between  religious  and  secular  was  not 
so  strongly  marked  as  now,  all  the  guilds  hail  more 
or  le.ss  of  a  religious  cast.  Many  of  them,  how- 
ever, had  a  distinctly  and  exclusively  religious 
pnr]iose,  and  are  therefore  specially  called  religious 
guilds.  But  the  earliest  great  example  of  the 
histiuic  guild  was  the  (jilda  mereatoria  or  rjild 
meirhaiit.  In  the  evolution  of  town  life  during  the 
middle  ages  the  commercial  cla.ss  Wiis  the  fli'st  to 
assert  itself.  It  does  not  fall  within  the  scope  of 
this  article  to  ex])lain  the  conditions  under  which 
the  medieval  towns  aro.se ;  and  we  need  haidly 
state  that  .is  the  towns  ''lew,  the  uece.-isity  for 
intercoui-se  among  themselves  and  with  the  sur- 
rounding country  regions  was  soon  felt.     Within 


454 


GUILDS 


GUILLEMIN 


the  towns  the  iiilviince  of  civilisation  bionghl 
with  it  a  multitiiile  of  crafts,  the  workmen  in 
which  (>r;,'anise<I  themselves  into  the  iriifl  (jnHiU. 
In  ni.uiy  oivses  the  "inihl  ori^anisiuion  was  identical 
with  or  ^rew  into  the  •;oveniment  of  the  towns. 
But  a.s  the  merchant  ■^uihls  were  lii-st  in  the  lieM, 
and  moreover  as  the  ;,'reat  mi'rchants  were  fre 
qnently  also  the  local  lanillioldei-s,  the  merchant 
jjuilds  claimed  and  for  a  Ion;;  time  maintainiMl 
a  ])rivile^'ed  jiosition.  Ilencc  lierce  ami  liittcr 
strn;;;,'les  between  the  merchant  anil  craft  gnihls, 
whicli  after  continuing;  for  many  ;,'enerati(ms  ended 
on  the  wliole  in  favour  of  the  latter  towards  the 
end  of  the  14th  century. 

From  what  liiis  been  said  it  will  he  evident  that 
the  ;^uilds  had  a  far  wider  scope  than  the  trades- 
unions  of  the  |ircscMt  time.  The  distinction  lietwecn 
labour  and  cajiital  did  not  ihc'U  exist  ;  tlie  ;;uilils 
were  an  or;;anisation  of  the  whole  industrial  class, 
and  they  were  a.s.sociated  with  the  Imsiness  of  local 
and  civic  self  government  in  the  widest  sense  of  the 
word.  They  were  most  powerful  on  the  t'ontinent, 
especially  in  the  towns  of  Klanders  and  south 
Germany,  where  the  civic  life  was  stron;,'est  and 
the  central  government  ]iarticularly  weak  ;  there 
the  guild  struggles,  especially  the  struggle  of  the 
craft  against  tlie  merchant  guilds,  were  fought  out 
most  vigorously.  In  Kngland,  where  after  the 
Norman  Conouest  there  had  been  a  comparatively 
strong  central  power,  the  guilds  found  le.ss  .scoi)e 
for  inilependent  activity  in  that  way. 

The  inner  organis.ation  of  the  guilds  rested  on 
the  arrangement  of  the  workers  into  master,  jour- 
neyman, and  apprentice.  The  right  to  the  inde- 
pendent e.xercise  of  a  trade  depended  on  being 
meml)er  of  a  guild,  and  guild  membership  carried 
with  it  the  privili'ges  of  citizenship.  On  the  one 
hand,  the  guild  had  its  own  jiarticular  branch  of 
industry  reserved  to  it  ami  a  local  market  for  its 
pro<luce  .secured  ;  on  the  other  hami,  the  guild  hail 
to  see  that  its  members  |)osse.ssed  the  due  fiualilica- 
tious,  moral  and  technical,  and  that  the  work  they 
turned  out  wa.s  of  fair  and  reasonable  nnality.  In 
other  words  the  interests  of  producers  and  consumers 
were  supposed  to  he  reconciled  on  ci|uitable  terms. 
Those  objects  could  be  attained,  and  the  guild 
organisation  generally  could  be  maintained  only  by 
a  system  of  regulations,  which  were  often  very 
minute,  and  yet  were  not  sutficient  to  prevent 
continual  disputes  between  the  various  crafts.  On 
the  whole  the  guild  organisation  was  best  adapted 
to  a  stable  condition  of  industry  and  of  society. 

The  causes  of  the  decline  and  fall  of  guilds  have 
not  yet  been  tlnnoiighly  investigated,  but  the  main 
reason  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  they  became 
stagnant  and  did  not  adapt  themselves  to  the 
conditions  of  modern  jirogress.  As  they  liad  grown 
up  and  Hourislu^d  under  medieval  cimditions,  .so 
they  began  to  decay  under  the  new  influences  which 
overthrew  the  medieval  system.  I'nder  the  cen- 
traliseil  governments  which  rose  on  the  ruins  of 
feuilalism,  and  during  the  great  wars  waged  by 
them  in  the  Itith  and  17th  centuries,  the  free  civic 
life  of  Flanilers  and  (iermany  was  crushed  out.  In 
Knglaml  the  central  i)ower  represented  by  Henry 
VIII.  gave  a  severe  blow  to  the  guilds  by  conliscat- 
ing  their  prop<'rty  on  the  ]dea  that  it  was  used  for 
l)nrpi)ses  of  superstition  :  only  the  I.ondcm  corpora- 
tions redeemeil  their  funds  by  paying  ,a  line  of 
£18,700.  The  mercantile  system  was  best  adapteil 
to  such  governnu'uts,  and  the  guild  organisation  h<i<l 
to  conform  to  the  new  system.  Strong  governments 
like  France  and  I'nissia  regulated  the  guild  organ- 
i.sation  in  the  interest  of  the  central  power  as  then 
understooil.  the  result  being  to  deprive  the  members 
of  free  initiative  and  to  make  their  constitution 
more  rigid  than  ever.  Above  all,  it  was  the  great 
Industr.v  of  more  recent  times  which  linally  broke 


up  and  superseded  the  guild  iiulustry.  This  may 
he  best  illustrated  by  the  early  history  of  the  steani- 
engine,  which  was  at  once  th<?  originating  cau.se 
and  the  emboiliment  of  the  industrial  re\<ilution 
that  made  guilds  a  thing  of  the  wast.  IJecau.se 
of  the  opjiosition  of  the  traile  gnihts  of  filasgow, 
.lames  A\  att  could  jMirsue  bis  experiments  only 
within  the  limits  of  the  nnivirsity  there.  The 
skill,  energy,  and  enterprise  which  produced  the 
first  effective  steam  engine  under  \\',itt's  initiative, 
were  found  at  ISirmingham,  a  town  where  trade 
corpor.it ions  did  not  exist.  These  facts  are  typical 
of  tiie  w  hole  movement.  Guild  restrictions,  whether 
imposed  by  themselves  or  by  strong  central  author- 
ity, were  not  consistent  with  the  new  industry,  for 
wliich  freedom  was  a  prime  necessity.  This  was  at 
length  recogniseil  in  the  legislation  of  the  most 
advanced  countries  of  Enro|ie.  After  a  partially 
successful  attemi>t  by  Turgot  in  1770,  trade  cor- 
jHirat ions  were  entirely  abolished  in  France  at  the 
revolution  of  17.S!).  All  s]>ecial  industrial  luivileges 
enjoyed  by  guilds  or  corporations  in  England  were 
removed  by  the  municip.al  Keform  .\ct  of  IS.*)").  The 
North  (lermaii  Industrial  I 'ode  of  l.sCi!)  had  the  same 
ell'ect  in  tii^rmany.  Thus  the  guild  organisation, 
which  during  the  miildle  ages  realised  the  ideals  of 
freedom,  progress,  and  equity  in  such  measure  as 
was  attainable  by  the  men  of  that  time,  had  become 
op|><).sed  to  the  wider  claims  of  freedom,  iJidgre.ss, 
and  equity  as  now  understood,  and  had  to  ue  swept 
away. 

The  name  of  guild  has  recently  been  revived  fn 
connection  w  itli  a.ssociations  for  varimis  social  pur- 
lio.ses,  self-imiirovement,  iVc.  These  we  need  not 
say  are  entirely  ditlerent  from  the  old  guilds,  to 
which  this  name  were  better  restricted.  The  co- 
oi)erative  society  is  the  luily  institutiim  existing  in 
the  western  world  that  really  corresjionds  to  the 
historic  guild.  The  London  livery  eompanies  still 
continue,  but  they  have  lost  the  substantial  char- 
acteristics of  the  organisations  of  which  they  are  a 
survival  and  relic.  Kecent  investigation,  however, 
has  shown  that  guilds  have  long  llourislied  very 
extensively  in  China.  The  castes  of  India  in  many 
resjiects  perform  the  same  functions,  industrial  and 
social,  as  the  medieval  guild. 

See  the  articles  Co-operation,  Trades-unions,  City, 
CoRPOR.iTio.v,  Hanseatic  Le^vgie,  kc  The  whole  sub- 
ject of  guilds  has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  investigated, 
and  ill  some  important  cases  tlie  materials  for  such  investi- 
gation no  longer  e.xist.  Alost  of  the  documents  relat- 
ing to  the  guilds  of  Paris,  for  exain]de,  were  destroyed 
during  the  revolutionary  period  of  17811.  See  L.  l^treii- 
tano.  On  the  Hittturii  and  Dtrelopmnit  of  Gihts,  first  laib- 
lished  as  preface  to  Knijlish  Uihis  by  Lucy  Toiilmiii 
Kniith  (1870),  and  appearing  later  ns  introduction  to 
the  same  writer's  Arhi  itfiyihfcn  dvr  O'ci/i-mrart  (1871); 
Uchenowski,  KnftliiniVx  WifUiachuJiliehi'  Kntu'kkthinij  im 
Aumjaiiijc  d(s  Milhhilters  (187'.i);  L>r  ('.  Gross,  The 
(t'ild  Merchant ;  "  Contribution  to  h'ntjlish  Afunirijxtl 
Histonj  ('1  vols.  18!HI);  article  '  Cewcrbe,'  by  G.  Schiin- 
berg,  in  Selionberg's  Handbt^ok  of  J*olitical  Ecunomn  (2d 
ed.  1886);  K.  Bain,  Merchant  and  Craft  fjuHdn  of  Aber- 
deen (1887) :  and  Walford,  frifds :  their  Origin  and  Con- 
stitution (2d  ed.  188!l).  For  the  earlier  period  of  English 
gnilrls,  W.  J.  Ashley's  Introduction  to  Enttlifh  Economic 
Histiirii  and  Theory  (1888)  may  be  particularly  recoiu- 
inended. 

<>llilleillill.  AmadIvE  Victou,  a  popular  writer 
on  science,  was  born  in  Safineet-Loire,  5th  July 
lS2fi,  and  became  a  jirofessor  of  Mathematics  at 
Paris.  Of  his  numerous  illustrated  works  many 
have  been  translated  into  Fnglish,  including  The 
Heavens  (1S66),  The  Sun  (1809),  The  U'or/,/  of 
Comets  (1876),  and  The  Forre.i  of  Siitarr  ( IS7'2)  and 
Apjilirritinn  of  Phjisiriil  Forces  ( 1877),  the  last  two 
by  Mrs  Norman  Lockyer.  IJotli  in  France  and 
England  tluillemin's  works  have  gone  through  iiian.. 
editions.      He  died  2il  Januai.y  1803. 


GUILLEMOT 


GUINEA 


455 


Guillemot  (Uria),  a  genus  of  diving  birds  of 
the  Auk  family  (Alcid:e),  represented  by  eight 
sj)ecies  in  tlie  arctic  and  north  teniperate  zones. 
The  bill  is  moderately  long,  straight,  and  feathered 
to  the  nostrils;  the  feet  are  three-toed,  the  hind- 
toe  being  absent,  and 
they  are  completely 
webbed.  The  wings 
anil  tail  are  short, 
and  the  legs  are 
placed  very  far  back, 
so  that  the  bird  stands 
erect.  Its  walk  is 
:iwkward,  and  its 
llight  heavy  though 
well  sustained ;  but 
it  dives  with  gieat 
agility,  using  its  half- 
opened  wings  to  aid 
its  progress.  The 
guillemots  breed  in 
lar^ecolonieson  rocky 
cliffs,  building  no 
nests,  but  laying 
Common  Guillemot  ( Vria  troile }.  their  eggs  on  the  bare 

rock,  and  the  male 
shares  with  the  female  the  Labour  of  hatching 
and  rearing  the  young.  Their  food  consLsts  of 
crustaceans  and  small  Kshes.  The  Common  or, 
as  it  is  often  called.  Foolish  Guillemot  ( U. 
troile),  is  very  abundant  on  the  British  coasts. 
In  summer  the  head,  neck,  and  upper  parts  of  the 
body  are  of  a  dark  brown,  the  under  parts  white, 
the  hill,  legs,  and  feet  black  ;  in  winter  the  neck 
and  some  parts  of  the  head  are  white  or  mottled 
brown  and  white.  The  male  measures  about  18 
Inches  in  length  ;  the  female  is  coloured  like  the 
male,  but  is  slij'htly  smaller.  She  lays  only  one 
egg,  3  inches  in  length,  which  she  hatches  by  hold- 
ing it  between  her  legs  as  she  sits  erect  facing  the 
clilf.  The  eggs  are  pear-shaped,  and  vary  in  colour 
friirii  pale  green  to  a  deep  reddish-brown.  It  seems, 
however,  as  if  one  bird  laid  the  same  colour  of  egg 
in  successive  seasons.  The  Kingeil  Guillemot  is 
sometimes  considered  as  a  distinct  species  ( U. 
riiif/i'ia),  but  as  it  ditt'ers  from  the  common  guille- 
mot only  in  having  round  the  eyes  a  ring  of  white 
continued  backwards  as  a  fine  line,  and  as  it  is 
never  found  except  where  the  latter  also  occurs, 
most  ornithologists  now  agree  in  regarding  it  as  a 
variety.  The  Black  Guillemot  (U.  (jryllc) — .some- 
times placed  in  a  separate  genus  ( Cepplius ) — is 
found  in  Caithness  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Scot- 
land, and  is  fairly  abundant  in  the  Hebrides, 
Orkney,  and  Shetland.  It  is  smaller  than  the 
preceding  species,  its  length  being  only  14  inches, 
and  it  differs  from  it  in  laying  two  eggs.  Its 
summer  plumage  is  sooty-black,  with  the  exception 
of  white  patches  on  the  wiuL'-coverts  ;  and  in  winter 
the  head  and  back  have  vniite  markings,  and  the 
under  parts  are  nearly  white.  In  Amei'ica  U. 
f/i'i//lc  breeds  as  far  south  as  the  Bay  of  Fundy  ;  U. 
troile  is  occasionally  found  on  the  coasts  of  New 
York.  Where  guillemots  congi'egate  in  vast 
numbers,  as  at  Flamborongh  Head,  scaling  the 
dill's  in  search  of  their  eggs  is  a  regular  profession, 
and  one  which  rei|uires  much  skill  and  courage. 
The  eggs  are  occasionally  used  as  food,  as  is  also, 
iiidee<l,  the  coai-se  flesh  of  the  bird  itself:  but  they 
are  chiefly  vahied  for  their  albumen,  of  which  it 
is  said  large  quantities  are  used  in  clarifying  wine 
and  in  the  preparation  of  patent  leather.  See 
Howard  Saunders,  Midi  mil  of  ISritisli  Birils. 

(•nillini,  John,  heraldic  writer,  born  in  Here- 
fin-dshire,  about  I'lB."),  was  most  of  his  life  an  oflicial 
of  the  College  of  Arms  in  [.onilon.  In  IfilO  he 
publislied  Tlir  Dix/iliii/  of  Heriililni,  the  materials 
for  which,  however,  were  supplied  by  John   Bark- 


ham  (c.    1.572-1642),   chaplain   to  the   Archbbhop 
of  Canterbury.     Guillim  died  7th  May  1621. 

Guillotine,  the  instrument  of  decapitation 
introduced  during  the  French  Revolution  by  the 
Convention,  and  named  after  its  supposed  inventor, 
.Joseph  Igiiace  Guillotin,  a  physician  (born  1738 — 
died  in  his  bed,  not,  as  often  said,  l)y  bis  own  instru- 
ment, 1814),  who,  however,  was  only  the  person  who 
first  proposed  its  adoption.  It  was  erected  and 
first  employed  to  execute  a  highwayman  on  the 
Place  de  Gieve,  Paris,  25th  April  1792.  It  is  com- 
posed of  two  upright  posts,  grooved  on  the  inside, 
and  connected  at  the  top  by  a  cross-beam.  In 
these  grooves  a  sharp  iron  blade,  having  its  edge 
cut  obli<iuely,  descends  by  its  own  weight  on  the 
neck  of  the  victim,  who  is  bound  to  a  board 
laid  below.  The 
invention  of 
machines  of  this 
kind  is  ascribed 
to  the  Persians. 
In  Italy,  from  the 
13th  centupi-,  it 
was  the  privilege 
of  the  nobles  to  be 
]iut  to  death  by  a 
machine  of  this 
kind,  which  was 
called  mannaia. 
An  instrument  re- 
s  e  m  b  1  i  n  g  the 
guillotine  was 
likewise  employed 
during  the  middle  , 
ages  in  Germany, 
where  it  has  been 
reintroduced  since  ' 
1853,  and  at  a 
later  date  in 
France  and  Hol- 
land.    During  the 

16th  and  17tli  centuries  a  machine  called  the 
Maiden,  which  differed  but  slightly  from  the 
guillotine,  was  employed  in  Scotland  for  the 
purpose  of  decapitation  ;  among  its  victims  were 
one  of  Kizzio's  murderers  (1566),  the  Kegent 
Morton  (1581),  and  the  Marquis  (1661)  and 
the  Earl  of  Argyll  (1685).  ftlorton  is  com- 
monly, but  falsely,  said  to  have  introduced  it, 
taking  the  idea  from  the  similar  engine  at 
Halifax  (q.v.),  which  was  in  use  till  1650.  See  J. 
W.  Croker,  History  of  the  Guillotine  (1S.53); 
L'Abbe  Bloeme,  Notice  sur  la  Guillotine  (1865); 
Chereau,  Guillotin  et  la  Guillotine  ( 1871 ) ;  and 
Dubois,  Richerehes  kistoriques  et  phi/siotopiijucs  sur 
la  Guillotine  (1881).— The  name  of  guillotine  is 
also  given  to  a  powerful  machine  used  by  book- 
binders for  cutting  paper  and  cropping  the  edges 
of  books,  the  blade  having  an  oblique  motion. 

Guilty.    See  Criminal  L.wv. 

Guiniaraes,  an  ancient  and  picturesque  walled 
town  of  Portugal,  on  the  Ave,  12  miles  SE.  of 
Braga.  Here  is  the  14th-century  Uliveira  Church, 
antl  there  are  two  noted  hot  sulphur-springs  in  the 
vicinity.     Pop.  about  8205. 

Guinea,  the  name  of  a  large  section  of  the  west 
coa-st  of  Africa,  which  first  came  into  general  use 
in  the  15th  century.  Although  the  name  is  used 
with  a  difVercnt  extension  by  difVerent  writei-s,  it 
is  pretty  generally  agreed  that  the  stretch  of  coast- 
lands  so  designated  exten<ls  fnmi  the  mouth  of  the 
Senegal,  in  abinit  14^  N.  lat.,  to  Cape  Xegro,  in 
16°  S.  lat.  By  conventional  usage  it  is  further 
divided  into  two  [larts,  Ujiper  and  Lower  Guinea, 
the  dividing  line  being  taken  variously  a.s  the 
eipiator,  the  Gaboon,  the  Ogoway.  The  states 
and  political  territories  comprised  within  this  long 


Guillotine. 


456 


GUINEA 


GUINEA    PEPPER 


stretch  of  coastline,  commencing  froni  tlie  no.lli, 

are  .is  follows  :  the  French  colony  of  ^eiR'Kal,  the 

En.'lish  settlements  on  the  Ganihui.  the  1  orlut;iiese 

terntorv  of   liissAo  or  Uissajos,   the  eoasta    fnnj:e 

before  "iMUa-lallon.    Sierra    Leone   (l.ntisli),    the 

free  nejjro  reimhli.'  of  Liberia,  the  Ivory  an.l  t.oM 

Coasts  (shareil   between   Kranee  an.l    Hritain),  tlie 

Slave  Coast  (belon-ins  to  Gerniany,  Ihilain,  ami 

France),    the     Niger    delta    (fallin;,'    within       he 

British   si.here   of    conimereial    inleresl),    ami    tlie 

Cameroons  (tJcrnian)    i.i    Lpper   (lumea:    and    in 

Lower  Cuinea,  the  Spanish  settlements  on  t  onsco 

15av,  the  rrench  eohuiv  of  the  C.aboon,  the  (  ongo 

Free  State,  an.l  the   l'.)rtu;;nese  territories  of  Am- 

hriz,    Ant;.)la,    ami    llen^'uela.     The   coast-line    is 

throughout  t.ilerablv  unif.)rin,  ami  everywhere  llat. 

with  nunienius  shali.iw  la^'.>ons  sei.arate.l  from  the 

oeean  by  narrow  spits  .,l  san.l,  lying  parallel  t.. 

the  coast,     rrocee.ling  inlan.l,  the  .■.miitiy  rises  t.> 

the  central  plateau  of  the  continent  by  a  scries  ot 

]>roa.l   terrace-like   steps,  down    which    the    longer 

rivers  are  generallv  pre.'inilate.l   in  eataiaets  and 

rapids.     The  (leno'ese  claim  to  have  rcacho.l   the 

co'ists   of   tiuinea   in    l-^Jl.     They    were   leguhuly 

visited  by  merchants  from   U.m.'n  an.l  l»iepi>e  li.im 

1364   Imt  were  not  eolonise.l   until  the  I'ortugmjM-, 

un.liT  Henrv  the  Navigat.>r,  sent  out  colonies  hillier 

(14S1 ).     The  vast  indentation  of  the  Atlantic  lying 

between    Ippcr  an.l    Lower  Cuinea   is   calle.l    the 

Gulf  .if  (iuiiiea.     Gf  late  it  is  usual  to  restrict  the 

name  of  Guinea  t.i  I'pper  tiuinea,  in  "lncli  there 

are  three  ethu.ilogical  ^r.mps :    (1)  Tsbi  speaUiiig 

tribes,  the  most  barbarous,  iiicUi.ling  ih.'  Asliaiitees; 

(2)  Ehwe-speaking,    in.dmling    the    Dahomcyaiis ; 

(3)  Y.uuba-speaUing,  including  the  Kgbius  ami 
other  relatively  civilised  peoples.  French  iiillu 
ence  has  been  greatly  devch>i.e.l  in  Guinea  .>f  lat.-, 
both  <m  the  coa-st  and  in  the  Ilinterland.  French 
Guinea,  without  Fnta  Jall.m,  the  Ivory  Coa-st,  or 
Dahomey,  iiiclu.les  Grand  IJassam,  Assiiiie,  tiran. 
Lah.iu,  ami  dacki-ville  on  the  G.dd  Coast;  and 
Porto  Novo,  Giaml  I'.ipo,  K.it.imm,  and  Agont  on 
the  llight  of  lieuin.  Se.>  separate  articles  on  Gol.l) 
Coast,  \c. 

dlincn,  a  gol.l  coin  current  in  (Ileal  Britain 
from  I(iti4  .lown  t.i  1H17,  when  it  was  superseded  by 
the  S.ivereign  (ipv.),  was  at  lirst  coineil  out  of  gol.l 
from  the  (iuinea  coast.  It  w.aa  designe.l  to  be  of 
the  value  of  twentv  shillings,  and  as  legal  lender  it 
had  no  higher  value  till  1718.     But  its  actual  value 


plumage  is  dark  gray,  .with  roun.l  spots  of  white, 
generally  larger  on  the  back  an.l  umler  suifa.e. 
Some  species  are  a.lorned  on  the  head  with  a 
helmet  or  lioinv  casiiue,  while  otliere  have  tlcshy 
wattles  on  the  cheeks  and  a  tuft  or  tojikn.it  on  llie 
crown.  The  genus  is  represeiile.1  by  nine  species 
in  the  Ethioiiiaii  region— e.-Lst  to  .Ma<laga.scar,  south 
l.i  Natal.  'I'he  best  known  is  the  Common  Guinea 
Fowl    or    rintailo   (A'.   iiiiUdijris),    also   popularly 


Guinea  of  Charles  II. 

varied.  Thus  in  1695  it  wa.s  as  high  as  thirty 
shillings,  in  1697  twenty-two  shitliugs,  ihereafter 
till  17r7  twentv-one  ,and  sixpence,  but  was  linally 
fixc.1  at  twentv-one  shillings.  It  is  still  customary 
in  Great  Biiiain  to  estimate  piofe.ssioiial  fees, 
honoraria  of  all  kimls,  complimentary  sub.scriptions, 
prices  of  pictures,  race-horse.s,  &c.  in  guiiiea.s.  In 
'spade  guineas'  the  reverse  bears  a  spade-shaped 
shield  with  the  r.iyal  arms. 

<»llilloa  Corn,  a  name  sometimes  given  to 
Dun  a  (.[.v.)  ;  .sometimes  to  a  Millet  (q.v.). 

Guinea  Fowl  (A'»»i(V/o),  a  genus  of  African 
birds  in  the  Pheasant  family  ( Pliasianida> ).     Ihe 


Coiuiiiun  Guinea  Fowl  (Namida  mcko'jrh). 


known  as  '  Come-hack,'  from  its  crv',  with  naked 
liea.l,  liaril  callous  casrpie,  anil  slate  c.doure.l  plum- 
age, every  where  speckled  with  r.uiml  while  s|iots  of 
various  sizes.  It  is  c.miiiKm  in  Guinea  ami  south- 
wards to  the  Cape  of  Goo.1  H.ipe.  It  is  fiuind  also 
in  more  northern  parts  of  Africa,  and  was  known 
X/n  the  ancient  Ibmians,  by  whom  it  was  calli'.l 
Mehfii/rix  ami  (.'iil/imi  \  iiniiilirii,  an.l  highly 
prizeil'.  In  tli.dr  wil.l  state  the  bir.ls  occur  in 
ll.)cks,  soiiietiiiies.if  llfty  to  sixty,  an.l  are  extremely 
shy  iin.l  .lilli.-ult  to  'aiiproacli.  They  utter  a 
fiT.im'Ut,  harsh,  an.l  i|nenilous  cry.  They  are  not 
so  p.>lygam.ius  as  many  of  the  gallinace.uis  bir.ls, 
and  even  in  ilomesticati.in  show  a  ten.l.'my  to  iiair. 
The  guinea  fowl  is  now  comni.m  in  the  p.uiltry- 
yanls  of  most  (.arts  of  Kurojie,  alth.mgh  it  is  more 
a.laiiti'il  to  warm  than  t.)  c.iM  .•limates,  an.l  in 
.lamai.-a  lijus  been  completely  naturalise.l,  s.)  as  to 
be  .lestruetive  to  crops  and"  t.)  be  sh.it  like  other 
"ame.  In  Britain  the  young  .are  rather  trouble- 
some to  rear,  but  both  bir.ls  ami  eggs  c.inimaml 
high  luices  in  the  market.  The  eggs  are  small, 
ami  have  a  tlii.'k,  strong  shell,  but  are  jiar- 
ticularly  .■steeme.l.  Th.>  Mesh  is  somewhat  like  a 
phea-sai'ils,  but  rather  .by.  ( ;nine;i  fowls,  however, 
are  trouhli'some  in  a  ii.mltry-y.ard,  fr.iiii  the  dis- 
position of  the  males  to  attack  and  tyranni.se  over 
other  ]Miultry. 

CillillOil  Grass  {I'liiiiciim  ma-cimnm),  a  gra.ss 
.)f  the  same  genus  with  Millet  (i). v.),  a  native  of 
Guinea  an.l  Senegal,  but  intro.lu.-ed  at  an  eariy 
I  perio.l  to  the  West  lu.lies,  where  it  is  extensively 
I  cullivate.l,  and  by  the  aluin.l.ance  an.l  excellence 
of  its  f.irage  fiirins  most  important  pasture. 
Other  s]ieci.Ns  of  the  same  genus  are  among  the 
most  useful  pastur.'  an.l  forag.'  gra.sses  .if  tri>iiical 
countries. 


Gllinra  Pepper,  a  name  which  has  been 
v.ari.iusly  applied  to  the  seeds  or  dri<Ml  fruit  of 
several  very  .lillerent  plants,  agreeing  in  their 
peppery  cliaracter,  an.l  in  being  the  pr.iiluce  of  the 
west  of  Africa.  The  name  Malagnetta  (  Malagheta, 
Meleguetta,  &c.)  Pejijier  is  generally  to  be  regarded 
a-s  e.|uivalent  with  Guinea  l'e|iper,  ami  is  at  juesent 
a  fre.iuent  designathin  of  Grains  of  Paradise  (q. v.) ; 
but  the  capsules  or  dry  berries  of  Cc/ixiciim  fnttes- 
ccns  (see  Cap.skim  )  are  commonly  but  err.meously 


GUINEA-PIG 


GUINEA-WORM 


457 


sold  by  druggists  under  the  name  (iuinea  Pepper ; 
wliilst  tlie  names  (iuiiiea  Pepper,  Malaguetta 
Pepper,  and  Ktliiopian  I'epper  have  been  applied 
to  the  dried  fruit  of  C'libcha  Clusii  (see  CUBEBS), 
and  to  the  seeds  of  Ildhzdia  ( or  Xylujda )  JEthiopka, 
a  shrub  of  the  natural  order  Anonacea'.  U]>  to  the 
close  of  the  18th  century  Guinea  Pepper  continued 
in  rerpiest,  when  tlie  peppers  of  the  East  drove  it 
from  the  market. 

(i>ninea-I>is« '"'  f'AW  (  Cmna),  a  genus  of  small 
Soutli  American  roilents,  widely  represented  in 
Britain  by  the  familiar  domesticated  species.  The 
genus,  comprising  nine  specie.s,  is  tyjucal  of  the 
family  Caviuhe  (included  in  the  porcupine  like  sec- 
tion of  Kodents),  and  is  nearly  related  to  the  largest 
member  of  the  order — the  Capybara  or  Hydro- 
chcerus.  The  guinea-pigs  have  short  limbs,  tlie 
fore-feet  bearing  four  toes,  the  hind-feet  oidy  three; 
the  fore-feet  are  not  webl)ed  ;  the  ui)iier  lip  is  not 
cleft,  the  ears  are  short  and  roundeil,  and  the  tails 
are  wanting.  The  Common  Guinea-pig  or  C'avy 
(C  co6n^a)— whose  name  Guinea  is  believed  to 
be  a  corruption  of  Guiana — wjus  introduced  into 
Europe  from  South  .America  in  the  lljtii  century. 
Its  supposed  wild  original,  the  Restless  C&vy  (C. 
aperea),  aboumls  on  the  banks  of  the  La  Plata, 


Guinea-pig, 

and  is  found  in  Boli\ia  and  Brazil.  Its  colour  is 
dark  brown  on  the  back  and  yellowish-gray  under- 
neath. It  lives  in  small  troojis  near  the  borders  of 
forests,  whence  it  emerges  at  dusk  and  on  gdooiuy 
days  in  search  of  food.  It  is  timid  and  stupid,  and 
falls  an  easy  prey  to  carnivores  and  serpents.  The 
common  guinea-pig  resembles  it  closely  in  nearly 
all  points  e.xcept  colour,  which  is  very  variable,  as 
in  other  domesticated  animals.  The  guinea-pig 
multiplies  with  great  rapidity,  and  may  l>egin  to 
bear  young  wlien  two  montlis  old,  pnxlucing  one 
to  four  at  a  birth,  Mve  or  six  times  a  year.  The 
other  species  occur  from  the  Strait  of  \Iagellan  to 
Brazil,  and  one  is  found  in  Peru.  .Although  now 
e.xclusively  South  .American,  fo.ssil  forms  are  said 
to  have  been  fouml  in  the  Miocene  deposits  of 
Switzerland  and  Prance.  Some  species  of  Cavia 
are  shot  for  food,  but  no  such  use  is  made  of  the 
domesticated  form. 

Gninca-M'orill.  known  also  a.s  Filriria  Mecli- 
neii.s-is,  or  /'.  Dniriiiinilus,  is  a  j)ara.sitic  animal 
that  seems  to  ha\e  been  known  from  the  earliest 
times.  Plutarch  (|uotes  a  passage  from  a  still 
earlier  author  whicli  seems  clearly  to  refer  to 
this  worm.  I'.ut  our  knowledge  of  its  natural 
history  is  still  very  delicient,  and  we  are  at  present 
only  acquainted  with  tlie  female.  The  bo<ly  of  this 
animal  is  .slender,  cylindrical,  and  somewhat  com- 
pressed, and  is  of  the  thickness  of  pack-thread, 
except  at  the  posterior  extremity,  where  it  is  some- 
what attenuated.  It  is  opac|ue,  of  a  milk-white 
colour;  on  each  side  there  is  a  longitudinal  line; 
and  when  examined  by  the  microscope  it  is  seen  to 
be  marked  with  numerous  transvei-se  stride.  The 
anterior  extremity  is  obtuse  and  the  mouth  circu- 
lar and  beset  with  four  acute  spines.  The  length 
of  the  worm  varies  from  less  than  half  a  foot  to 


Young  FUaria  Medinensis 
( magnified ) : 

A,  individual  coiled  uj),  as 
seen  in  the  body  of  its 
parent :  B,  tlie  same  un- 
coiled in  a  drop  of  water  : 
a,  the  head ;  h,  tlie  coni- 
ineucement  of  the  tail  and 
tlie  anus. 


three  yards.  On  examining  an  adult  specimen, 
extracted  by  Malgaigne  in  Paris  in  1854,  Robin 
found  no  trace  of  intestine, 
or  of  any  organ  except  a 
very  thin  sheath  (a  uterus 
or  oviduct),  which  was 
filled  with  young  animals 
rolled  u)!  in  coils,  with  the 
tail  occasionally  project- 
ing outward.s  (see  A  in  the 
fignre).  In  these  young 
animals  we  can  trace  the 
course  of  the  intestinal 
canal,  which  apparently 
becomes  subsequently  ob- 
literated by  the  excessive 
development  of  the  genera- 
tive organs  and  the  eggs. 

This  worm  is  indigenous 
only  in  certain  hot  coun- 
tiies,  and  its  geographical 
distribution  is  regulated  by 
laws  into  which  we  have 
no  insight,  save  that  heat 
and  moisture  are  necessary 
for  its  production.  Among 
places  as  especially  note 
rious  for  its  occuiTence  are 
Senegal,  Ciaboon,  the  banks 
of  the  Ganges,  Bomliay, 
the  peninsula  of  India, 
Persia,  Arabia  Petra-a,  the 
south  coast  of  tlie  Red 
Sea,  the  region  round  the 
Caspian  Sea,  Vjiper  Egypt, 
Abyssinia,  certain  districts 

of  Nubia,  the  swampy  regions  of  the  White  Nile, 
and  tiuinea.  It  has  been  introduced  into  certain 
parts  of  America  by  negro  slaves.  The  disorder 
occasioned  liy  these  worms  frequently  becomes  an 
epidemic  in  years  of  heavy  rain,  and  especially  in 
marshy  districts.  It  appears  also  to  be  connected 
with  the  season,  being  especially  prevalent  in  the 
East  Indies  during  the  rainy  season,  and  in  Upper 
Egvpt  shortly  after  the  regular  inundation  of  the 
Nile. 

The  mode  of  producticm  of  this  parasite  in  the 
human  body  is  not  known  with  certainty.  The 
]irobability  is  that  the  young  animals  while  still 
very  minute  penetrate  the  skin,  although  by  what 
nicihanism  tiiey  can  etlect  their  lodgment  we 
do  not  know.  Having  gaineil  an  entrance  into 
the  body,  the  guinea-worm  takes  a  considerable 
time  to  ilevelop.  This  period  varies  from  two 
months  to  a  year  or  even  two  years.  The  presence 
of  the  worm  often  jiroduces  no  annoyance  for  a 
considerable  time  after  it  has  been  detected  ;  at 
other  times  it  gives  rise  to  emaciation,  .and  ]ios.sibIy 
even  death  from  exhaustion.  As  a  general  rule 
the  vesicles  caused  by  the  intlammation  excited 
by  the  presence  of  the  worm  open  spontaneously 
in  a  few  days,  and  two  or  three  inches  of  the 
anterior  end  of  the  animal  come  forth.  This  end 
is  gently  ]iulled,  and  coiled  round  a  little  roll  of 
linen  or  a  small  stick,  and  this  is  fastened  over  the 
wound  with  sticking-plaster  and  a  compress.  The 
extracticm  is  repeated  twice  a  <lay  by  rotating  the 
substance  rounil  which  the  worm  is  twisted,  and 
the  operatiim  is  often  not  completed  in  less  than 
two,  three,  or  more  nmnths.  From  the  most 
ancient  times  the  tearing  of  the  worm  has  been 
regarded  as  a  very  ilangerous  accident.  It  un- 
doubtedly gives  ri.se  to  violent  swelling,  fever, 
sleeplessness  ;  and  shortening  and  deformities  of 
the  legs,  lingerhig  fistula,  niortilication.  and  death 
(.sometimes  even  sudden  de.atli)  must  be  reckoned 
amongst  the  notable  consequence.s  of  breaking 
the  worm.     See  tjuaiu's  Dictionary  of  Medicine ; 


458 


GUINEGATE 


GUISE 


Linn.   Trans.  (1S63);  also  the  writings  of  Owen, 
Coblmlil,  and  Hiistian. 

CillineKato,  a  villaj,'e  of  Ilainault,    IJcl};imii, 
where  the  Krciieh  were  twice  ilefeateil.     ( 1 )  On  17th 
August  1479  they  were  heaten  hv  Maxiiiiilimi  1.  of 
Austria;  (2)  mi  Kith  August  1513  l>y  Henry  VIII. 
anil  the  Kinperor  Maximilian.  Tliis  hiittle  was  called 
the  Battle  of  the  Spurs— the  French  kniglils  having 
made  more  use  of  their  spui-s  than  of  their  swords. 
Cillllies,  formerly  (Ji  l.sN'ES,  a  small  town  (po|). 
SSOIH  «  miles  S.  of  Calais,  was  the  scene  of  'the 
Field  of  the  Cloth  of  (iold  '  (see  HiiNliV  vill. ). 
Ciiiiieverc.    SeeAuTiiuR. 
Cillilltfailip,  a  French  town  in  C6tes-dH-Nord, 
on  the  Trieux,  74  miles  E.  of  Brest,  was  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Fenthiiivre.     Hence  the 
word  Giiitjhnm  (q.v.).      Pop.  8744. 

Cillillliess,  Sir  Ben.iamin  Lke,  Bart.  (1798- 
1868),  was  a  meniher  of  the  gieat  hrewing  firm  in 
Dublin  estahlished  hy  Arthur  Cuinness  in  1759. 
Till'  liusine.ss,  the  largest  in  the  world,  wa.s  made  a 
limited  lial)ilily  company  in  1,S,S6,  with  a  cajiilal  of 
£(i,00(),OOI(,  employs  nearly  :mv\  persons,  anil  it-s 
premises  covc>r  4'i  acres.'  Sir  Benjamin,  M.P. 
for  Dublin  in  iHtio-GS,  and  a  baronet  from  1867, 
restored  St  Fatrick'-s  cathedral  at  his  own  co.st 
{£140,000).  His  eldest  son,  Arthur  Kdward, 
bec.ime  Lord  Ardilaun  in  1880.  His  third  son, 
Edw.mu)  Ckcii,,  born  10th  November  1847,  created 
a  baronet  in  ISS.")  and  a  peer  (Baron  Iveagli)  in 
181)1,  olaced  in  the  hands  of  responsible  trustees  in 
1889  the  sum  of  .f2.')0,000,  to  be  spent  in  inovi.ling 
sanitary  dwellings  for  workmen  at  a  low  rentt 
f'200,000  to  he  given  to  London  and  the  rest  to 
Dublin.  The  income  ilerived  from  the  use  of  the 
capital  sum  is  to  be  devoted  to  the  same  purpose. 

Ollil>ll7.roil,  the  smallest  but  the  most  densely 
neojiled  of^  the  B.-usipie  provinces  on  the  Bay  of 
Bisi-ay.  The  mountains  are  wooiled,  the  climate 
good,  minerals  are  largely  produced,  ami  there  is  a 
good  deal  of  mannfacturing  industry -. soap,  jiianos, 
carriages,  carpets,  iron,  paper.  The  cajiital  is  .San 
Sebastian.  .\rea,  728  scp  ni.  ;  pop.  (1887)  181,856. 
F"or  the  i>eople,  see  B.\S(;fE.s. 

Callisboroiiull,  a  market-town  of  the  North 
Hiding  of  Yorkshire,  9  miles  bv  rail  ESE.  of 
Middlesborough,  lies  at  the  foot  (if  the  Cleveland 
Hills,  in  the  midst  of  the  iron  mining  district.  The 
earliest  alum  works  in  England  were  established 
here  about  the  year  1600.  Here  too  are  the  re- 
mains of  a  priory  built  in  1119  hy  Robert  de  Jirus, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  Fteforiiiation  one  of  the 
wealthiest  monastic  institutions  in  the  kingdom. 
Fop.  {  is.ll  )  •20(i2  ;  ( 1881 )  6616;   ( 1891 )  5623. 

<;iliscar<l.  Kdhert,  Duke  of  .Vpulia  and  Cala- 
bria, the  sixth  of  the  twelve  sons  of  Tancred  ile 
Hauteville,  was  born  near  Coutances  in  Normandy 
about  101,').  Following  in  the  wake  of  his  elder 
brothers,  he  won  great  reimwn  in  south  Italy  .a-s  a 
soldier,  and  after  the  de.ath  of  William  and  Hum- 
phrey was  proclaimed  Count  of  .Viiulia.  (luisc.ard 
next  captured  Keggio  and  Cosenza  (lOtiO),  .-ind 
thus  conipiered  Calabria,  in  the  possession  of  which 
he  was  conlirmed  by  Fope  Nichol.as  II.  l{ol,ert 
now  became  the  oope's  champion,  and  along  with 
his  younger  hrotlier  Roger  waged  incessant  war 
against  Creeks  and  Saracens  in  south  Italy  an<l 
Sicily,  both  of  which  gradually  fell  under'  their 
arms,  the  latter  being,  however,"  given  to  Roger  as 
count.  The  ili>siiig  years  of  Robert's  life'^  were 
oieupied  in  liglning  'against  Alexius  Comnenus, 
who  had  ileposed  .Michael  VII.  from  the  throne  of 
Constantinople,  Ridiert  being  drawn  into  the 
ijuarrel  from  the  fact  that  he  had  married  his 
daughter  to  Mich.ael's  heir.  Having  sent  his  son 
Bohemond  (q.v.)  to  reduce  Corfu,  he  himself  gained 


a  brilliant  victory  over  Alexins  at  Durazzo  ( 1081 ), 
captured  that  city  (10,S2),  and  then  marched 
through  F;pirus  towanls  Constantinople.  «  Inn  he 
received  informatii>n  that  the  Kiiipenn  Henry  IV. 
had  made  an  inroad  into  Italy.  He  immediately 
Imsteiu'd  back,  compelled  Henry  to  retreat,  and 
liberated  the  jiope,  who  was  besieged  in  the  castle 
of  St  Angelo  (1084).  Then,  having  retnrniMl  to 
Epirus,  he  defeated  the  Creeks  in  several  eng.age- 
ments,  took  possessiim  of  some  islands  in  the 
••Vrchipeljigo,  and  was  on  the  point  of  advancing  a 
second  time  to  Constantinople,  when  he  (lied  sud- 
denly in  Ceiihalonia,  17th  July  1085.  See  works  on 
the  Normans  in  Eurojie  bv  "A.  H.  .Johnson  ( 1877) 
and  T.  \V.  Barlow  (1886). 

CillisC,  a  town  of  the  French  (lei>artment  of 
Aisne,  ()n  the  Oise,  25  miles  by  rail  ENE.  of  .St 
Quentin.  Within  the  town  are  the  ruins  of  a 
castle,  from  which  the  famous  Dukes  of  tJnise 
derived  their  title,  tiuise  is  now  a  pl.ace  of  consider- 
able industrial  activity,  with  woollen  and  cotton 
manufactures,  and  a  "large  foundry  (800  hands) 
for  manufacturing  cooking  and  lieating  stoves. 
The  ironworks  are  conducted  on  a  jirolit-sharing 
schenie;  and  the  workmen  are  provided  with 
dwellings  on  the  associated  jdan.  This  I-'iiniilistdre, 
of  which  the  lirst  pmtion  was  enM-ted  by  the  initi- 
ator of  the  experiment,  M.  (hidin.  in  rs59  00,  has 
cost  about  .i;80,0(Kl,  and  provides  accommodation 
for  2IXMJ  persons.  Within  the  buildings  are  a  caftS 
theat-e,  nursery,  .scIkhjIk,  covered  i)lavgroun(ls,  a 
cooperative  store,  and  a  libiarv  anil  reading-room. 
Foi>.  (1872)  5651  ;  (1891)  8153." 

CilliKC,  the  name  of  a  branch  of  the  ducal  family 
of  .I>orraine,  which  it  derives  from  the  town  ()f 
Gnise,  in  the  department  of  Aisne. 

Cl..\il)E  (IK  LoiUi.MNE,  lirst  Duke  of  Guise,  was 
the  fifth  son  of  Ren(j  II.,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  and 
was  born  at  the  chateau  of  Condd',  t)ctober  20, 
1496.  Attaching  himself  to  Francis  L,  he  fou'dit 
with  distinction  at  Marignano  in  1515;  but  after 
that  campaign  rem.ained  at  home  to  defend  France 
against  the  English  and  (Tcrmans  ( 1.522-23).  Dur- 
ing the  captivity  of  Francis  I.,  after  I'avia,  Claude 
of  (iuise  suppressed  the  jieasant  revolt  in  Lorraine 
(1.527),  for  which  Francis,  after  his  return  home, 
created  him  Duke  of  (iuise.  In  his  later  vears  he 
held  himself  aloof  from  public  life;  he  died  12th 
April  1.550. 

His  daughter  Mai-y,  usually  spoken  of  in  histoi-y 
as  Mary  of  Lorraine,"  was  born  November  22.  151.5, 
and  in  1.5.38  became  the  wife  of  .James  V.  of  Scot- 
land. By  his  death  in  1.542,  she  was  left  a  widow 
with  one  child,  .Mary,  t^ueen  of  Scots.  Inder  the 
regency  of  .\rran  which  followed,  war  broke  out  be- 
tween England  and  Scotland,  partly  on  account  of 
the  claims  which  Henry  \U\.  made  with  regard  to 
the  infant  .Mary's  marriage,  and  partly  on  religious 
grininds.  .Mary  of  Lorraine  during  those  yeans 
acted  with  nuich  wisdom  and  moderation ;"  hut 
after  her  own  accession  to  the  regency  in  1.5.54,  she 
allowed  the  (luises  too  nnich  to  inllnence  her  policy, 
the  result  being  that  the  Protestant  nobles  com- 
bined against  her  in  1.5.59.  This  rebellion,  which 
she  wa.s  assisted  by  French  troops  to  repress,  c(m- 
tinned  almost  to  the  time  of  her  death,  which  took 
iilace  in  Editilmrgli  Castle.  10th  .lune  156(».  But 
tiefore  her  death  she  was  reconciled  to  her  nobles. 

Fhanti.s,  second  Duke  of  (Iuise,  son  of  the 
first  duke,  w.os  born  at  Bar,  February  17,  1519,  and 
became  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  France.  At 
the  siege  of  Boulogne  (1.545)  he  gained  the  nick- 
name of  Balafre  from  a  severe  wound  in  his  f.ace. 
Seven  years  later  he  held  Melz  gloriously  against 
Charles  \ .  of  (Jermany,  and  thus  |irevente(l  an  in- 
vasion of  France.  He  added  to  his  reputation  .at 
Renti  ( 1.554),  fighting  ag.ainst  the  troops  of  Charles 


GUITAR 


GUIZOT 


459 


v.,  and  in  1556  took  coniinaiid  of  the  expedi- 
tion against  Naples.  Recalled  thence  in  the 
following  year  to  defend  the  northern  frontier 
against  the  English,  he  took  Calais  ( 1558 )  and 
otiier  towns,  and  brought  ahont  the  treaty  of 
Cateau  Cambresis  (1559).  He  and  hLs  brother 
Charles,  the  cardinal  ( 1525-74 ),  probably  the  most 
capable  man  of  the  Guises,  who  afterwards  played 
a  prominent  part  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  then 
managed  to  possess  themselves  of  all  real  power 
during  the  reign  of  the  weak  King  Francis  II. 
Putting  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  opposition  to  the  Reformation,  they  re- 
[iressed  Protestantism  with  a  strong  arm.  In  the 
war  between  Huguenots  and  Catholics  Guise  and 
Montmorency  won  a  victory  at  Dreux  (15(i'2),  and 
the  former  was  besieging  Orleaiis  when  he  was 
assassinated  by  a  Huguenot  nobleman,  on  ISth 
Feliruary  1563.  He  had  a  taste  for  literature,  and 
his  memoirs,  written  by  himself,  have  much  historic 
interest.  See  his  Life  by  Brisset  ( 1840)  and  Cauvin 
(1885). 

Henry  I.,  third  Duke  of  (Juise,  son  of  Francis, 
was  born  December  31,  1550.  Filled  by  the  murder 
of  his  father  with  bitter  hatred  of  the  Protestants, 
he  fought  fiercely  against  them,  at  Jarnac  ( March 
1569)  and  Moncontour  (October  1.569),  and  in  the 
same  year  forced  Coligny  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Poitiers.  He  was  one  of  tlie  contrivers  of  the 
massacre  of  St  Bartholomew,  August  24,  1572,  in 
which  he  personally  made  sure  that  Coligny  should 
be  slain  ;  and  subsequently  he  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  Catholic  League.  He  had,  however,  a 
greater  ambition,  that  of  succeeding  to  the  throne 
of  France,  for  in  respect  of  real  power  he  was 
already  the  equal,  or  rather  superior,  of  the  feel)le 
King  Henry  III.,  who.se  commands  he  set  at  nought 
and  whom  he  so  deeply  humiliated  that  the  king 
procured  his  assassination,  on  23d  December  1588, 
at  Blois.  This  duke  earned  the  nickname  of 
Le  Balafr6  ( '  of  the  scar ' )  in  an  encounter  with 
German  mercenaries  of  Conde  at  Dormans  (1575). 
See  his  Life  by  Renaukl  (1879). 

Henrv  II.,  fifth  Duke  of  Guise,  the  grandson 
of  Henry  I.,  was  born  at  Blois,  April  4,  1614.  He 
was  destined  for  the  church,  and  at  the  age  of 
fifteen  became  Archbishop  of  Rheims,  but,  in  1640, 
on  the  death  of  his  elder  brother,  he  succeeded  to 
the  dukedom.  Having  joined  the  league  against 
Richelieu,  he  was  condemned  by  the  parliament  of 
Paris  to  capital  punishment,  but  found  lefuge  in 
Flanders.  He  put  himself  at  the  head  of  Masa- 
niello's  revolt  in  Naples,  as  the  representative  of 
the  Anjou  family,  but  was  taken  pri.soner  by  the 
Spanish  forces  ( 1647)  and  carried  to  Madriil,  where 
he  remained  live  years.  After  another  fruitless 
attempt  to  win  Naples  (1654),  he  settled  at  Paris 
and  lived  the  life  of  a  courtier,  dying  in  ,Iune  16()4 
without  (le.scendants.  Hia  Mdnnirc.i  (2  vols.  Paris, 
Kit)!))  were  written  partly  by  Count  Raymond  of 
Modena  and  partly  by  his  secretary,  St  Yon.  The 
<lirect  line  of  the  house  became  extinct  on  the 
death  of  Francois  Joseph  (1675),  the  seventh  duke, 
and  grandson  of  Henry  II. 's  brother  Louis.  See 
Forneron,  Lcs  Dues  de  Guise  (2il  ed.  1893). 

<>llitar  (Lat.  cithara,  Gr.  kitliara,  'a  lyre 
or  lute'),  a  musical  stringcil  instnunent,  some- 
what like  the  lute,  particularly  well  ailapted  for 
accompanying  the  human  voice,  and  much  esteemed 
in  Spam  and  Italy.  It  was  first  introduced  into  the 
former  country  from  the  East  by  the  Moors.  It  has 
six  strings,  the  notation  of  which  is  as  follows  : 


i 


J 


but  which  sound  an  octave  lower  ;   and  the  sound 


is  produced  by  the  lingers  of  the  right  hand  twitch- 
ing the  strings,  while  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand 
make  the  notes  of  the  music  on  the  finger-board, 
which  has  frets  across  it.  The  three  highest 
strings  of  the  guitar  are  always  of  gut,  and  the 
three  lowest  are  of  silk  s])un  over  with  silvered 
wire.  The  greatest  virtuosi  on  the  guitar  have 
been  Giuliani,  Sor,  Zoechi,  Stoll,  and  Horetzsky. 

Giiizot,  Francois  Pierre  (;i;illaume,  his- 
torian and  statesman,  was  born  at  Nimes,  October 
4,  1787,  of  middle-class  Huguenot  jiarentage.  His 
father,  althougli  a  Lilieral,  was  guillotined,  April 
8,  1794,  whereupon  his  mother  removed  with  him 
to  (ieneva.  There  he  was  carefully  educated,  being 
taught  among  other  things  the  trade  of  a  carpenter, 
in  accordance  jirobably  with  Rousseau's  theories. 
In  1805  he  went  to  Paris  to  study  law.  He  soon 
drifted  into  literature ;  and  it  was  a  review  of 
Chateaubriand's  Martyrs  (1809)  that  brought  him 
under  the  notice  of  the  dictator  of  Parisian  literary 
society.  In  the  same  year  appeared  Guizot's 
Nouveau  Dictionnaire  des  Syiiotiymes,  in  1811  an 
essay  on  the  fine  arts;  and  in  1812  the  final  liter- 
ai"y  bent  of  his  mind  showed  itself  in  a  translation 
of  Gibbon.  That  same  year  he  married  the  first 
of  his  three  wives,  Mdlle.  de  Meulan  (1773-1827), 
editor  of  Le  PubUciste,  to  which  he  liad  been  a 
contributor.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  chosen 
professor  of  Modern  History  in  the  University  of 
France.  Guizot  was,  however,  a  decided  opponent 
of  the  Napoleonic  r(giinc,  and  it  was  not  till  1814, 
after  its  fall,  that  he  became  secretary-general  of 
the  ministry  of  the  Interior.  This  office  he  ex- 
changed after  the  Hundred  Days  for  the  secretary- 
generalship  of  the  ministry  of  .Justice,  and  in  1816 
for  the  general  directorship  of  the  departmental  and 
communal  administration,  being  at  the  same  time 
made  a  councillor  of  state.  As  a  ductn'naire.  or 
constitutiiinal  Liberal,  he  found  himself  out  of 
sympathy  with  the  reactionary  policy  of  the  Bour- 
bons. So  pronounced  was  his  opposition  that  in 
1821  he  was  deprived  of  bis  public  apiiointments, 
and  four  years  later  interdicted  even  from  lectur- 
ing on  history.  He  threw  himself  once  again  into 
literature.  In  conjunction  with  some  friends  he 
published  Mcmuires  relatifs  a  VHistoire  dc  France 
jusquau  13"^  Siicle  (31  vols.),  and  Mfmoires  rela- 
tifs a  la  R&volntion  d'Anf/lctcrre  (26  vols.).  He 
also  edited  translations  of  Sliakespeare  and  Hallam, 
and  commenced  his  Histoirc  de  la  Revolution 
d'Aiiglcterre.  Having  in  1828  been  restored  to  his 
chair,  he  lectured  on  the  history  of  civilisation  in 
Europe,  anil  more  particularly  in  France.  These 
lectures,  published  as  Voiirs  d'Histoire  Moderne, 
finally  established  his  reputation  as  one  of  the  firet 
historians  of  his  day. 

The  time  had  now  come  for  Guizot  to  take  a  more 
active  part  iu  politics.  In  18.30  he  was  retiirneil  to 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  for  Lisieux,  at  once  be- 
came a  prominent  member  of  the  Opposition,  and, 
altlwrngh  no  orator,  aided  indirectly  in  bringing 
about  the  Revolution  of  July,  which  jilaced  Louis- 
Philipiie  on  the  throne.  Minister  first  of  the  In- 
terior, and  subsequently  of  Public  Instructicm,  he 
signalised  his  occupancy  of  the  latter  congenial 
office  by  establishing  a  system  of  primary  schools 
throughout  France,  giving  an  impulse  to  secondary 
and  univei-sity  education,  and  reviving  the  Aca- 
dende  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques.  In  1840 
(iiiizot,  then  temporarily  in  alliance  with  his  lead- 
ing parliamentary  rival,  Thiers,  came  to  London 
as  French  amliassador.  and  was  received  with 
great  respect,  on  account  of  his  reputation  and 
the  interest  he  had  shown  in  English  history. 
But,  unfcu'tunately,  at  tliis  time  the  relations  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  France  were  strained  in 
consequence  of  the  Syrian  (|uestion,  ami  ( lui/ot  was, 
not  quite  accurately,   looked  upon  by  Meliiourne 


460 


GUIZOT 


GULF   STREAM 


hikI  I'aliiii'rstoii  lu*  tlit-  iiioiithiiieri-  of  the  policy  of 
Tliiers.  '  He  wjis  iilwins,'  in  Melliourne's  opinion, 
»aja  Melliourne's  liio'.'riiplier,  '  wliat  Tallfvuiml 
from  tlie  lii"st  pronounoeil  him  to  be — iin  iutriijdiit 
iiii.tti're.'  Fortiiimlely  for  lluizot  he  diil  not  hohl 
the  emli:u'<sy  lon^r-  Thiers's  lielli^;eient  policy 
jilarmeti  1-onis  I'liilipjie  into  virtunlly  disniissinx 
him.  (iiiiitot  Wiis  siiminiini'il  to  tnke  hi^  pliioe, 
an<l  till  the  end  of  Louis  I'liilippe's  rei^n  wius  his 
chief  ailviser,  although  it  wils  not  till  1S47  that 
lie  liecame  prime  iiiinister.  In  the  early  years  of 
his  term  of  power  liiiizot  was  undouliteilly  suc- 
cessful ;  his  chief  aim,  like  his  master's,  peace. 

When,  after  the  fall  of  IVel,  Paime|-ston  once 
more  olitained  the  control  of  Mritisli  forcij,'ii  policy, 
tini/.ot,  hy  wavof  checkmating!  him,  plnn^'ed  into  the 
inlrijiue  which  resulted  in  the  'Spanish  .Marri.a^-es. ' 
This  intrigue  wivs  totally  indefeiisilile,  and  the 
indecency  of  the  central  incident  in  it — the  fore- 
ing  of  the  younj;  queen  of  Spain  into  a  marriage 
with  a  disreputahle  ami  intellectually  contemptihle 
kinsman — revolted  the  conscience  of  Europe,  and 
Lireatly  injured  tluizot's  reputation.  It  alienateil 
Krance  from  (ireal  liritaiii,  and  coiiipelle<I  (iuizot 
to  fall  hack  for  synii)atliy  on  the  reactionary  forces 
in  Europe,  whose  hope  at  this  time  wa.s  Aiistria. 
He  al-so  relapsed  into  reactionary  methods  of 
jjovernment  at  home,  allowed  the  linances  to  drift 
into  confusion,  ami  resisted  the  rising  dcmanil  for 
liarliamenlarv  reform  ;  whilst,  although  pei-sonally 
pure,  his  administration  became  notorious  for 
scandalous  jobs. 

With  the  fall  of  Louisl'hilippe  in  February  1S4.S 
Guizol's  active  political  career  really  came  to  .'in 
end.  He  escaped  to  London,  where  he  was  cordi- 
ally receiveil  bv  old  frienils,  and  even  by  old  oppo- 
nents like  I'almerston.  In  the  troubled  period 
which  precede<l  the  establishment  of  the  second 
empire  IJuizot  made  ell'orts  both  in  Lomlon  and 
I'aris  to  rally  and  fuse  the  monarchical  parties 
of  Krance,  but  after  the  coup  (CHat  of  December 
2,  18.j1,  he  gave  himself  up  entirely  to  literature. 
He  completed  his  works  on  the  (treat  Rebellion 
in  KiiglaiKl,  umler  the  titles  of  Kfniiliition  d'A)i(jte- 
tiTir  ami  Monk,  Chute  lie  la  Hcjjubliijuc.  He  also 
publLslieil  Corncillc  el  son  Temps,  and  Slutkspeair 
et  noH  Temps  in  1852 ;  Miinoires  pour  servir  a 
VHisloire  tie  mon  Temps — an  explanation  of,  but 
certainly  not  an  apology  for  his  policy — in  1858  ; 
Mitanijes  Bioijnip/iiqucs  et  LilKraires  in  18t)8  ;  and 
Mdunges  I'oliliqucs  el  Ilisloriques  in  IS69.  His 
Vie,  Corresponaancc ,  et  J-Jcn'ls  tie  Washington 
(1839-40)  was  commis,sioncd  by  the  Tnited  States 
government.  (Juizot  took  a  keen  interest  in  theo- 
logical and  ethical  speculation,  and  for  a  long 
time  his  voice  was  su]irenie  in  the  cimsistory  of 
the  I'rotestant  church  in  I'aris,  His  excursions  into 
other  lielils  than  those  of  history  ami  jxilitics  bore 
fruit  in  Midittitinus  ct  fyuiles  Mondes  (1852),  and 
Mtilitiitioiis  sur  V flhit  urtuel  de  in  Religion  Chrd- 
tienne  (1865).  His  Histoire  de  France  racontee  ii 
mcs  pclits  Enfants  was  completed  and  published 
bv  his  daughter,  Madame  Guizot  de  Witt  (5  vols. 
1870-75). 

During  the  second  empire  Giiizot  lived  tran- 
rjuilly  in  retirement,  chielly  at  his  resilience  of 
Val  Hicher,  near  Lisieu.\,  in  Normandy.  Un 
.January  19,  1870,  he  made  his  first  political  appear- 
ance in  public  since  1848  by  attending  a  reception 
given  by  the  third  Napoleon's  '  Liberal '  minister, 
.\1.  Ullivier.  He  followed  with  a  painful  interest 
the  fortunes  of  his  country  in  the  war  with  Ger- 
many. He  ajiproveil  of  the  conduct  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  National  Defence  in  decidin"  to  carry  on 
war  (ii  outrancc.  In  a  letter  to  the  Times  on  the 
subject,  he  mentioned  the  fact  of  his  having  four 
sons  on  the  ramparts.  The  veteran  statesman 
survived  for  more  than  three  years   the  gieatest 


humiliation  his  countrv  had  ever  suH'ered,  dying 
September  12,  1874. 

That  Guizot  was  a  man  of  high  )>ersonal  char- 
acter, that  he  led  a  simple  life,  and  that  he 
despised  wealth  are  beyond  iloiibt.  He  was  a 
patriot  also,  according  to  his  lights ;  if  at  one 
period  he  intrigued  abroad  and  at  another  con- 
niveil  at  corruption  at  home,  he  did  it  for  the 
aggraiiili.senient  of  his  country,  not  for  his  own 
advantage.  It  must  be  ailmitted,  however,  that 
constitutional  pedantry,  obstinacy,  and  self-sulli- 
cieiicy  prevented  him  from  being  a  great,  in  the 
sense  of  an  accommodating  and  far-seeing  poli- 
tician. As  a  historian  he  was  painstaking  and, 
on  the  whole,  accurate,  but  he  was  not  brilliant. 
Altogether  Guizot,  though  not  a  great  man,  was  a 
large  and  imjiortant  liguie  in  the  history  of  Krance 
an<l  of  his  time. 

Tile  leadiii;;  aiitiiorities  on  the  life  of  Guizot  are  his 
own  Memoirs,  and  iiiiizot  in  Priratc  Life,  by  his  daughter, 
Madame  de  Witt  ( Eng.  trans.  188(>);  Jidis  Simon, 
Tliiers,  (luizoi,  lifinuant  (1885):  Thurcau-Dangin,  La 
Monarehie  dc  Jiiillet  (1889);  nnd  small  hiograpliies  by 
Croz.-il  (189:5)  and  Bardoux  (1894).  Sic  aLso  ICvelyn 
Ashley's  Life  of  Vinciiiiiit  Pahnerstnn  (1876),  Torivna's 
Memoirs  of  Lord  Melbourne  (1878),  and  Spencer 
"VN^al pole's  Li/c  of  Lord  John  Russell  ( 1889 ). 

Gujarat,  or  Guzerat,  the  northern  maritime 
province  of  liomb.ay,  has,  in  the  narrower  sense, 
an  area  of  10,29(i  so.  m.,  and  a  pop.  (1891)  of 
3,098,197.  In  its  wiilest  sense  <«i  the  otlier  hand 
(with  Kathiawar)  it  has  an  area  of  over  70,000 
s((.  m.,  and  a  iioii.  of  10,000,0(M).  Within  the 
wider  limits  lie  the  British  (listiicts  of  Sinat, 
Ih'o.'U'h,  Kaira,  I'ancli  Mahals,  and  Ahma<labad, 
the  territories  of  the  Gaekwar  of  Haroda  ((pv.),  and 
numerous  petty  native  states.  Of  these  last  180 
arc  on  the  jieninsiila  of  Kathiawar,  which  projects 
into  the  Arabian  Sea  to  the  north  of  the  tinll  of 
Canibay.  Gujarati  is  one  of  the  .seven  main  Aryan 
vernacular  langu.iges  of  India  (q.v. ).  See  also 
GiJi;\T. 

(illjramvala.  chief  town  of  Gujranwala  dis- 
trict, III  the  I'unjab,  40  miles  N.  of  Lahore,  on  the 
Northern  I'unjab  State  Railway,  lies  in  a  flat 
jilain,  is  notorious  for  its  biid  sanitary  condition, 
and  has  some  local  trade  and  iietty  manufactures. 
It  was  for  a  time  the  capital  of  the  Sikh  power, 
ami  Hanjit  Singh  was  born  here.  I'op.  23,000. — 
The  dislriit  has  an  are.a  of  .Siil7  s(|.  m.,  and  a 
pop.  of  (390,109,  three  fourths  Mohammedans. 

tilljrat,  or  (;tZKU.\T,  the  chief  town  of  Giijrat 
district,  in  the  I'unjab,  has  been  left  (by  a  change 
in  the  river's  course )  a  few  miles  north  of  the  present 
bed  of  the  Clienab,  but  is  a  place  of  some  military 
and  ])olitical  importance,  as  well  as  the  centre  of 
a  considerable  trade.  It  produces  cloth  and  cotltm 
goods,  brass  vessels  and  gold  inlaid-work,  and 
boots  and  shoes.  Here,  in  1849,  a  decisive  battle 
w.'is  fought,  which  linally  broke  the  Sikh  iiower, 
and  brought  the  whole  Punjab  under  IJritish  rule. 
Pop.  19.(>0().— The  district  has  an  area  of  2051  sq. 
ni. ;  po|i.  7()i  1,875.     See  also  GfJARAT. 

Gulden.     See  FLoniN. 

Gules  (ijuculex,  the  French  heraldic  term  for 
'  reil,'  is  the  jilural  of  gueule,  'the  mouth,'  Lat. 
gulei),  the  term  bv  which  the  colour  red  is  known 
in  heraldry.     See  Hkrai.iikv. 

Gulf  Stream    an«l    Oeeaiiie  <'urrents. 

The  (Jiilf  Stream  is  the  best  known,  the  best 
delined,  and  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  ocean 
currents  (see  niaj)  at  Atlantic  i.  It  derives  its 
name  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  out  of  which,  as  a 
great  current  of  warm  water,  it  flows  through  the 
Strait  of  Florida,  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
I'nited  States  of  America,  ami  is  then  dellected 
near  the  banks  of  Newfimndland  diagonallv  across 


GULF    STREAM 


461 


the  Atlantic.  This  <;ieat  body  of  warm  watei- 
indirectly  modifies  the  climate  of  western  Europe, 
and  it  is  possible  to  trace  its  etlects  as  far  as  the 
coasts  of  Spitzbergen  and  Nova  Zembla.  It  is 
essential  in  describing  the  Gulf  Stream  to  take 
into  consideration  the  general  question  of  oceanic 
circulation,  and  the  thermal  conditions  of  the 
ocean  made  known  from  the  explorations  of  the 
Chdlenger,  Blake,  and  other  recent  expediticms. 

The  prevailing  winds  of  the  globe  are  determined 
by  the  distribution  of  atmospheric  pressure,  and 
the  position  of  barometric  maxima  and  minima 
are  in  turn  determined  by  the  distribution  of 
land-masses  and  water-surfaces.  The  wind  blows 
out  of  and  around  high-pressure  or  anticyclonic 
areas,  and  into  and  around  low  pressure  or  cyclonic 
areas  (see  Atl.^ntic).  By  comparing  the  maps  of 
the  prevailing  winds  with  those  of  the  oceanic 
currents,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  latter  roughly 
coincide  with  the  winds  blowing  out  of  and  around 
the  high-pressure  areas  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans.  There  have  Ijeen  many  theories  to  account 
for  oceanic  circulation,  but  recent  researches  show 
that  all  the  principal  surface  currents  have  their 
origin  in,  and  are  maintained  by,  the  action  r>f  the 
prevailing  ^Wnds  of  the  globe,  modified  locally  by 
variations  in  temperature,  density,  evaporation, 
gravity,  and  rotation  of  the  earth. 

The  phenomenon  of  oceanic  circulation  is  to  be 
seen  in  its  simplest  form  in  the  we.sterly  wind- 
driven  currents  of  the  trade-wind  regions  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific.  The  heated  surface  waters 
of  the  tropics  are  there  driven  to  the  west,  and 
hanked  up  towards  the  eastern  shores  of  America, 
Africa,  Asia,  and  Australia.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  cold  deep  water  is  drawn  up  along  the  western 
shiu'es  of  America  and  Africa  to  take  the  place  of 
the  surface  water  driven  Itefore  the  trade-winds. 
The  temperatures  of  the  water  towards  the  western 
parts  of  the  oceans  are  thus  higher  and  more  uni- 
lorni  to  considerable  depths  below  the  surface  than 
in  the  eastern,  where  tliey  are  lower  and  have  a 
wider  range  at  dilierent  seasons  or  ditferent  states 
of  the  wind.  The  writer  has  even  measured  this  ett'ect 
of  the  wind  in  Loch  Ness  in  Scotland  ;  he  found 
the  cold  water  from  the  bottom  drawn  to  the  sur- 
face in  the  course  of  a  few  houi^,  and  the  warm 
surface  water  banked  up  to  the  north  eml  of  the 
loch,  during  a  southerly  gale.  Kecent  observations 
show  that  similar  effects  are  produced  in  the  great 
oceans  during  a  continuance  of  winds  ofl' shore. 

In  tlie  Atlantic  a  large  projiortion  of  the  watei's 
of  the  ecpiatorial  current  are  forced  into  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  through  the  i)a.ssage.s  in  the  Windward 
Islands,  and  then  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  princi- 
pally through  the  Yucatan  Channel.  The  aniount 
of  accumulation  or  heaping  up  of  water  in  the  (Julf 
of  Me.xico,  through  tiie  action  of  the  trade-winds, 
has  been  measured  by  the  ollicers  of  the  1  iiited 
States  Coa.st  Survey  :  it  bii.s  been  found  that  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  at  Sandy  Hook  is  3  feet  4  inches 
lower  than  the  waters  of  the  (hilf  of  Mexico  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  This  is  ])arlly  the  origin 
of  the  force  constantly  at  work  to  keep  up  the  How 
of  the  Gulf  Stream  tlirough  the  Strait  of  Florida. 
The  stream  as  it  flows  through  the  narrowest  part 
of  the  strait  is  .50  miles  wide,  and  has  an  average 
depth  of  3.50  fathoms.  In  the  axis  of  the  stream 
the  velocity  Is  four  or  five  knots  an  hour,  two  miles 
an  hour  or  even  less  along  the  e<lges,  and  |>robal)ly 
the  same  near  the  bottom.  It  is  estimated  to  lie 
l.")0  miles  wide  ofl'  Charleston,  and  300  miles  wide 
otr  Sanily  Hook  ;  it  then  spreads  fan-like  over  the 
surface  of  the  North  Atlantic.  CtH'Cape  Hatteras 
the  velocity  is  about  three  miles  an  hour,  ott'  the 
banks  of  Newfoundlan<l  one  and  a  half  ndle  an 
hour,  then  the  r.ate  slowly  merges  into  that  of 
the   north-easlerl}'  diift  of    the  Atlantic — four  or 


five  miles  a  day.  The  mean  surface  temperature 
in  the  straits  is  ST'S  F.  ;  off  Sandy  Hook,  73  '4  F. 
The  average  bottom  tenmerature  in  the  strait  at 
400  fathoms  Is  but  45^  F.  ;  ofl'  Charleston,  at  300 
fathoms,  53"  F.  ;  an.l  otf  Sandy  Hook,  in  200 
fathoms.  Wo  F.  The  bottom  in  the  strait,  and 
for  some  distance  north  on  the  '  Blake  plateau,' 
appears  to  be  swept  by  the  current  so  that  no  fine 
ooze  is  allowed  to  form ;  but  the  bottom,  where  hard, 
is  made  up  of  the  remains  of  surface  and  bottom- 
living  organisms,  often  cemented  together  into 
nodules  and  phosphatic  concretions.  The  diagram 
in  th(s  article  Atl.\XTIC  shows  the  distribution  of 
temiierature  across  the  Gulf  Stream  between  New 
York  and  Bermuda.  The  Gulf  Stream  water  of 
the  North  Atlantic  is  carrieil  towards  the  coasts 
of  Europe  by  the  south-west  winds ;  one  branch 
passes  on  to  the  coa,sts  of  Norway,  and  another 
south  to  the  coasts  of  Spain  ami  Africa.  As  this 
water  is  carried  into  colder  latitudes  it  sinks  on 
becoming  cooled  because  of  its  greater  density,  so 
that  otf  the  coasts  of  Britain  warmer  water  is  found 
at  a  depth  of  three-fourths  of  a  mile  than  at  a  like 
depth  off  the  tropical  coast  of  Africa,  where  the 
winds  are  otf  shore.  While  a  warm  current  pas.ses 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean  along  the  coasts  of  Nonvay 
and  Lapland,  a  cold  current  from  the  Arctic  comes 
do^^^l  the  coa.sts  of  Greenland,  and  along  the  coa^-ts 
of  Labrador  and  the  United  States,  inside  the  (julf 
Stream,  and  ultimately  sinks  beneath  it  into  the 
deeper  parts  of  the  North  Atlantic  basin.  The 
passage  from  the  green,  cold,  turbid  waters  along 
the  American  coast  into  the  deep  blue,  warm 
waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream  is  sometimes  sudden 
and  well  marked,  and  is  usually  observed  by  all 
who  sail  from  the  shore  seaward. 

The  winds  blow  out  of  and  around  an  area  situ- 
ated in  the  North  Atlantic,  between  the  north  of 
Africa  and  America,  and  the  surface  currents  of 
water  also  circulate  around  this  area,  which  is  known 
as  the  Sargasso  Sea.  Here  are  found  immense  banks 
of  floating  Gulfweed  (q.v. ),  covered  with  peculiar 
s])ecies  of  animals  :  Crustaceans,  Polyzoa,  Annelids, 
Molluscs,  Hydroids,  and  Fishes,  all  the  same  colour 
as  the  weed,  presenting  remarkable  examples  of 
protective  resemblance. 

A  very  similar,  but  not  such  a  well-defined  or 
constant  stream  as  the  Atlantic  one,  is  found  in 
the  North  Pacific,  and  is  known  as  the  Kuro  Siwo 
( '  Black  Stream  ')  or  Japan  Stream.  On  ap|)roach- 
ing  Japan  in  .\pril  from  the  south  the  Cliulknger 
found  a  belt  of  water  running  to  the  ea-stward  at 
the  rate  of  three  miles  per  hour.  In  this  stream  the 
temperature  changed  from  63'  to  68°  F.  suddenly 
several  times  without  any  alteration  in  the  rate  of 
the  current.  In  June  no  current  was  found  30  to  40 
miles  from  the  coast,  but  ch).se  to  the  s<«ith  coiust  of 
the  main  island  there  was  a  northward  current  of 
two  miles  per  hour  ami  a  mean  temperature  of  7'2''5 
F.  Alternating  bands  of  cold  and  warm  water  were 
also  found  by  the  Challcitqer  in  the  tiulf  Stream  near 
its  shore  edge.  The  origin  of  these  alternate  belts 
of  water  in  the  Japan  Stream  is  proliably  due  to  the 
monsoons.  The  northern  equatorial  current  striking 
.against  the  eastern  side  ot  the  Philippine  Islands 
is,  as  is  well  known,  diverteil  to  the  northward, 
alon<;  the  eastern  side  of  Formosa,  after  piussing 
whicii  it  appears  gradually  to  lose  its  distinctive 
character.  During  the  ni>rth-east  monsoim  a  cold 
surface  current  is  ninning  to  the  southward  from 
the  .Japan  and  Yellow  seius.  It  apjieai-s  therefore 
highly  probable  that  the  equatorial  current, 
insteail  of  losing  it.self  a-s  is  supposed,  when  it 
meets  with  the  cold  water  from  the  Japan  and 
Yellow  seas,  is  diverted  to  the  ea-stwanl  along  with 
a  cold  northerly  current,  the  two  running  together 
side  by  siile  without  intermingling  their  watei-s. 
\Vhen  the  north-east  monsoon  ceases  the  current 


462 


GULF    STREAM 


GULL 


from  the  Jaixiii  ami  Velluw  seas  also  ceases,  which 
causes  the  slackness  of  the  Kuro  Siwo,  south  of  the 
main  islaml,  in  June,  as  it  is  then  only  due  to  the 
equatorial  current.  Later  on,  in  July  and  August, 
wlien  it  is  further  augmented  liy  the  surface  drift 
from  the  t'hina  Si>a  in  the  south-west  monsoon,  it 
runs  again  with  great  rajiidity,  and  is  wholly  a 
warm  current.  Tliese  peculiar  ett'ects  are  iirohahlv 
not  ex|)erienced  to  the  eastward  of  the  meridian  of 
140'  K.  :  there  apparent ly  the  stream  is  always  a 
warm  one.  The  current  that  runs  from  the  Arctic 
Ocean  througli  liehring  Strait  is  insignificant  com- 
pared with  the  Arctic  currents  of  the  Atlantic. 
I'here  is  an  ill-delined  Sarga.sso  Sea  in  the  North 
I'acilic,  in  .some  resiiects  resemliling  that  of  the 
North  .Vtlantic.  The  surface  currents  in  the 
Indian  ( tcean  are,  a.s  is  well  known,  changed  with 
the  shitting  of  the  monsoons. 

From  the  CliitUcntjcr  ob.servations  it  ajipears 
to  be  proved  that  the  dense  warm  equatorial 
waters  which  pass  along  the  eastern  snores  of 
South  .America,  .\frica,  and  .Australia  into  the 
Clreat  Southern  Ocean  that  surrounds  the  worM 
in  latitiules  beyond  40°  S.,  become  cooled  in 
tliese  latitudes,  ami  sink  to  the  bottom  through 
the  other  waters  on  account  of  their  greater 
density.  This  water  is  then  ilrawn  slowly  north  as 
a  great  indraught  to  snjiply  the  loss  by  surface 
currents  and  evaporation  in  the  ei|ualorial  regions 
of  the  .Atlantic,  I'acilic,  and  Indian  oceans.  It 
appears  then  that  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the 
colli  water  that  tills  these  great  ocean-basins  is 
cooled  and  sinks  to  the  bottom  in  about  50°  S. 
lat.  A  portion  of  this  water  seems  also  to  be 
drawn  southward  to  supply  the  place  of  the 
relatively  liglit  though  coliI  surface  currents  that 
Mow  north  from  the  Antarctic  in  the  regions  of 
tloating  ice.  The  great  bulk  of  the  ocean  has  a  low 
temperature  -  below  4.")"  1'".;  it  is  ice  cold  in  the 
Atlantic  at  the  bottom  even  under  the  equator. 
The  warm  surface  water  is  a  relatively  thin  lilm, 
but  this  lilm  is  much  deeper  towards  the  western 
parts  of  the  oceans  in  the  tropics  than  in  the  eastern. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  regiims  of  the  westerly 
wimlsof  temperate  latitudes  the  layer  of  warm  water 
is  deeper  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  oceans,  a-s  has 
been  already  noticed  in  referring  to  the  deep-water 
temperatures  oti'  iiritain  and  tropical  Africa.  These 
facts  are  clearly  shown  on  the  Chulleuijcr  maps, 
showing  the  distribution  of  temperature  at  10,  20, 
50,  60,  100,  and  .'{(M)  falhouis. 

The  surface  currents  may,  as  we  have  seen, 
have  a  considerable  velocity,  but  there  is  no 
evidence  that  any  such  currents  exist  in  the 
deeper  waters  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  ;  the 
niovenients  there  must  be  slow  and  nia-ssive.  It  is 
true  that  between  oceanic  islands  and  in  positions 
liki!  the  Wyville-TlioiMsoii  liidge,  between  Scotland 
and  the  Kanie  Islands,  where  the  tidal  wave  is  con- 
lined,  the  ridges  are  swept  by  currents  at  a  great 
depth  ;  but  these  are  exceptional  cases.  In  the 
ol)en  ocean  the  tenijierature  decreases  with  in- 
crea.se  of  depth,  excejit  in  the  Arctic  or  Antarctic, 
where  there  is  melting  ice  on  the  surface.  In 
enclosed  seas,  like  the  .Mediterranean,  Caribbean 
Sea,  Oulf  of  Mexico,  Sulu  Sea,  ami  many  others, 
there  is  a  large  body  of  water  at  the  bottom  of  a 
nearly  uniform  temperature  ;  the  depth  at  which 
this  uniform  temperHture  is  reached  depends  on 
the  height  of  the  ridges  cutting  enclosed  sea-s  oH' 
from  general  ocean  circulation.  The  deeper  water 
in  these  can  only  be  reneweil  by  vertical  currents 
set  in  motion  liy  the  winds  or  by  convection 
currents.  The  direct  influence  of  ocean  currents  on 
climate  is  undoubtedly  great,  but  this  influence  is 
most  marked  by  the  indirect  effects  of  the  prevail- 
ing winils  blowing  from  off  these  currents  towards 
the  land,  carrying  with  them  heat  and  moisture. 


4>llirw<'(>d  {.Siinjtismiiii),  a  genus  of  seaweeds 
(Alga)  of  the  sub-order  Kucaccic,  of  which  two 
.sjiecies  {S.  viilijare  and  .S'.  hiicri/iriim)  are  found 
floating  in  immcn.sc  ijuantities  in  some  parts  of 
the  .Atlantic,  I'acific,  and  Indian  oceans.  They 
are  tropical  plants,  although  sometimes  carried  by 
winds  and  currents  to  the  Ilritish  coasts.  The  frond 
is  very  long,  and  is  furnished  with  distinct,  stalked, 
nerved  leaves,  and  simple  a.xillary  stalke<l  air- 
vessels.  The  receptacles  are  linear,  in  small  axilhiry 
clusters  or  racemes.  The  trivial  name  hurn'/rniiii, 
ajiplied  to  one  of  the  species,  Ls  deiiveil  from  the 
berry  like  appearance  of  the  air-vessels.  The  gulf- 
weed  has  only  been  found  lloating,  but  there  is 
reason  to  think  that  it  is  at  lirst  attached  to  the 
bottom  of  comparatively  shallow  jiarts  of  the  sea. 
It  floats  in  large  fields,  or  more  fiei|Uently  in  long 
yellow  lines  in  the  dircctiim  of  the  wind.  In  cross- 
ing the  Atlantic,  its  presence  is  regarded  as  a  sure 
indication  of  the  (Julf  Stream,  by  which  it  is  wafted 
northward  and  eastward.  Where  the  (Iiilf  Stream 
is  ileflected  from  the  banks  of  Newfoundland  east- 
ward, and  sends  off  its  more  southern  branch 
towards  the  Azores,  is  situated  the  l^itirgasso  Sni, 
'that  great  bank  of  weeils,  which  so  vividly 
occupied  the  imagination  of  Christopher  Cidumbns, 
and  which  Oviedo  calls  the  .seaweed  meadows' 
(Humboldt).  The  (|uaMtity  of  floating  seaweed  i.s 
often  such  as  to  iiii|iede  the  jirogress  of  ships. 
Multitudes  of  small  marine  animals  accompany  it, 
with  fishes  rea<ly  to  prey  on  them. — Th(^  gulfweed 
is  eaten  in  China;  and  in  other  ]>arts  of  the  East 
also  it  is  used  in  .sala<ls  and  as  a  pickle. 

dull  {I.iini.i),  a  genus  of  web-footed  birds 
belonging  to  the  I,arid:e,  a  family  of  long-winged 
sea-birds  having  the  longitudinal  nostrils  placed 
laterally  and  not  covered  by  a  cere,  the  three 
anterior  toes  com]iletely  webbed,  the  himl-toe,  w  lien 
present,  small  and  not  touching  the  grouml.  The 
family  includes  the  Scissor-bills  or  Skimniera 
(  Uhyncho]iida'),  the  Terns  or  Sea-swallows  (Ster- 
ninie),  and  the  tnie  (lulls  (Larina).  The  true 
gulls  are  of  less  slender  build  than  their  nearest; 
allies,  the  Terns  ;  their  wings  are  not  quite  so  long 
and  jiointed,  and  they  have  the  bill  more  hooked. 
The  most  imiiortanl  genera  are  Stercorarius,  the 
voracious  an<i  i>iedatorv  Skua.s;  Kis.sa,  the  Kitti- 
wakes;  Xenia,  the  fork-tailed  (!ulls;  and  Larus. 

The  genus  Lams  comprises  sixty  species,  cosmo- 
politan in  their  ilistribntion,  ami  includes  many  of 
tlje  larger  gulls  and  most  of  those  common  in  (Ireat 
Iiritain.  The  prevailing  colour  is  'white,  with  a 
gi'ay  mantle  varving  in  shade  from  the  most  delicate 
pearl  gray  to  a  (lark  blackish  slate  or  nearly  black,' 
and  there  are  often  black  markings  about  the  head, 
which,  however,  vary  in  dillV^cnt  seasons.  The 
two  sexes  are  usually  almost  alike  in  colour,  but 
the  young  are  dusky  and  brownish  and  have  the 
bill  dark,  while  in  ailnlts  the  liill,  legs,  and  feet  are 
bright  red  or  orange.  Tin-  legs  art;  \ cry  jjowerfnl, 
and  are  placed  well  forward  so  that  the  body  is 
carried  horizontally,  the  bill  is  stout  and  curved, 
with  a  prominent  angle  on  the  lower  part  and  a 
corresponding  swelling  on  the  u])per.  Though  most 
gulls  are  marine,  they  frequent,  ami  (!ven  breeil  by 
inland  lakes  not  far  from  the  sea,  and  large  Hocks 
of  them  may  often  be  .seen  following  the  iilough 
eagerly  picking  u|)  the  worms  and  grubs.  They 
are  very  voracious  and  will  eat  almost  anything, 
but  feed  chiefly  on  fish  and  molluscs.  To  break  the 
shells  of  the  mollu.scs  they  sometimes  carry  them 
high  into  the  air  and  drop  them  upon  a  rock. 
Audubon  tells  of  a  gull  observed  by  him  which, 
when  the  shell  did  not  break  the  first  time,  carried 
it  a  secomi  time  higher,  and  a  third  lime  higher 
still.  Some  of  the  larger  s]iecies — e.g.  the  (Jrcat 
Black-backed  (!ull  [L.  iiiririiiiis),  i)rey  even  upon 
the  cider-duck  and  other  wild  fowl,  and  very  many 


GULL 


463 


steal  the  ef^gs  of  other  birds.  Many  of  the  species 
are  migratory,  and  all  are  powerful  of  wiiif;  and  tly 
with  ajiparent  ease  against  a  storm,  dining  wliich, 
however,  they  never  soar  so  high  as  in  line  weather. 
Their  keenness  of  vision  is  remarkable,  as  must 
have  been  observed  by  every  one  who  lias  watched 
them  following  in  the  wake  of  a  steamer,  and  noted 
the  distance  from  which  they  see  even  a  small 
fragment  thrown  on  the  water,  and  the  unerring 
precision    with    which    they   dart  down    u]i(in   it. 


A^ 


wfu 


Heads  of  Various  Species  of  Gull.s : 

1,  Great  Black-backed  (young);    2,   Black-headed;    3,    liitti- 

wake ;  4,  Lesser  Black-backed ;  5,  Herring  Gull. 

Gulls  often  nest  together  in  large  numbers,  and 
to  dwellers  by  the  sea  a  'gullery,'  with  its  busy 
life  and  incessant  noise  of  screaming  and  quarrel- 
ling, is  a  not  unfamiliar  sight.  The  characteristic 
cry  of  many  gulls  is  well  suggested  in  the  old 
name  of  '  Sea-mews.' 

The  most  widely  distributed  British  species  is  the 
Herring  Gull  (i.  arqentattis),  which  breeds  on  pre- 
cipitous cliffs  or  isolated  rocks  all  round  the  coast. 
The  nest  is  made  of  grass  and  is  usually  placed  on  a 
ledge  of  rock,  but  sometimes  on  the  ground  ;  aud 
Howard  Saunders  says  that  in  North  America, 
when  the  bird  has  been  repeatedly  plundered  by 
tishermen,  it  even  nests  in  trees.  Tlie  eggs,  usually 
three  in  number,  are  light  brown,  green,  or  pale 
blue,  mottled  with  a  darker  shade.  The  male  bird 
measures  22  to  24  inches,  the  female  is  slightly 
smaller  ;  the  gray  of  the  back  and  wings  is  lighter 
than  in  most  species,  and  on  this  account  it  is  often 
called  the  Silvery  Gull.  The  Common  (lull  (L. 
can  us)  is  only  a  winter  visitor  to  England  and 
Wales,  but  breeds  alnmdantly  on  the  Scottish 
coasts  and  fresh-water  lochs,  in  the  Hebrides,  and 
in  Orkney  and  Shetland.  It  lays  three  eggs,  breed- 
ing in  colonies  on  grassy  islands  and  slopes  not  far 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  seldom  going  far 
from  land.  Its  average  length  is  18  inches.  The 
Great  Black-ljacked  Gull  (L.  mari/nis)  rarely 
breeds  in  England,  though  large  Hocks  may  be 
seen  at  some  seasons.  In  Scotland,  particularly  in 
the  Outer  Hebrides,  it  is  more  plentiful,  though  by 
no  means  common.  The  Lesser  Ulack-liacked  Guil 
{L.  fiiscKs)  is  very  abundant  in  the  marshes  of 
("umberland,  and  nests  also  in  Devon,  Cornwall, 
and  throughout  Scotland.  Its  plumage  is  white  in 
summer  e.\cept  on  the  mantle,  where  it  is  ilark 
gray  or  black.  The  Black-headed  Gull  {L.  ridi- 
bifiK/ii.'i]  is  the  commonest  species  in  Ireland,  and 
is  plentiful  on  the  flatter  portions  of  the  English 


and  Scottish  shores.  It  ha.s  a  dark-brown  hood 
in  summer  which  disappeai-s  in  winter.  The  Glau- 
cous Gull,  or  Burgomaster  (Z.  t/laucus),  and  the 
Iceland  Gull  {L.  Icucoptcnts),  visit  Britain  occa- 
sionally in  cold  weather.  One  specimen  of  Ko.ss's 
(jull  (liliijihjstr.thia  rosea}  was  shot  in  York- 
shire in  l!S4t).  Nothing  is  known  of  the  breeding 
liabits  of  this  rare  and  beautiful  Arctic  species,  and 
only  twenty-three  examples  had  been  lecoided 
previous  to  1881-82,  when  it  was  seen  in  large 
flocks  off  Point  Barrow  in  Alaska.  About  tliirty 
specimens  of  another  truly  Arctic  species,  the  Ivory 
(Jul!  (Paguphila  cbunica),  have  been  taken  in 
Britain  at  various  times.  In  North  Ameiica  gulls 
are  very  plentiful.  The  Great  Black-backed  Gull 
(L.  marinus)  and  Herring  Gull  (L.  argeiitatiis)  are 
common  in  the  north-east,  while  the  Common  Gull 
is  represented  by  two  closely  related  species  (i. 
brarhi/r/)i//ii' IIS  and  L.  dclawurensis).  The  Mackerel 
Gull  ( H yd rocohcus  scopulitiiix)  of  New  Zealand 
may  often  be  seen  in  attendance  on  the  long-billed 
oyster-catcher  as  he  digs  in  the  soft  sand  for  blue 
crabs  and  other  delicacies,  waiting  quietly  until 
something  is  discovered,  then  flapiiing  his  wings 
and  making  a  dash  at  it.  Even  if  the  oyster- 
catcher  succeed  in  flying  off  with  his  prize  he  is 
inevitably  overtaken  and  compelleil  to  give  it  up  to 
the  swifter  and  stronger  gull. 

The  Great  Skua  ( Stcrcorariiis  ratan-hadcs ),  which 
breeds  in  the  Shetlands,  aiul  is  occasionally  seen 
on  the  coasts  or  tishing-grounds  farther  south,  is  a 
.splendid  e.\ample  of  a  robber  gull,  deriving  its  food 
chiefly  by  victimising  or  even  killing  other  sea-fowl. 
It  measures  about  2  feet  in  length  ;  the  plumage  is 
predominantly  brown,  'with  white  ba.ses  to  the 
quills  conspicuous  in  flight;'  the  cry,  as  the  name 
suggests,  is  .s/,»/,  skill  :  the  nest  is  a  cavity  in  the 
moss  and  heather  of  the  highest  moorlands",  and  is 
prepared  in  the  later  half  of  May  ;  the  eggs  (never 
more  than  two)  are  olive-brown.  Three  other 
species  of  Skua  are  recorded  among  British  birds. 

The  Kittiwake  (liissa  triduclyla)  is  a  very  com- 
mon bird  on  British  coasts,  and  is  el.sewhere  widely 
distributed.  As  the  speciflc  name  sugi'ests,  the 
hind-toe  ha-s  disappeared  ;  the  length  of  tlie  l)ody  is 
about  15  inches  ;  white  predominates  in  the  plilni- 
a"e,  but  the  upper  surface  is  gray,  ami  tliere  is  some 
black  on  the  wing.  The  kittiwakes  feed  on  (ish 
and  other  marine  animals,  make  nests  of  seaweed 
and  flotsam  on  the  rocky  ledges,  lay  two  or  three 
eggs  '  from  grayish-white  to  olive-butt',  blotched 
and  zoned  with  ash-gray  and  rich  brown.'  Howard 
Saunders  notes  that  as  the  eggs  are  seldom  laid 
until  the  later  part  of  Mav,  many  of  the  young 
can  scarcely  fly  or  are  sti'll  in  the  nest  by  1st 
August,  when  the  Sea  Birds  Protection  Act  leaves 
them  to  be  slaughtered  in  thousands  to  provide 
plumes  for  ladies'  hats. 

The  flesh  of  "ulls  is  rank  and  coai-se,  but  that  of 
the  young  birds  is  salted  for  w  inter  use  on  manj' 
northern  coasts.  The  eggs  are  much  sought  after, 
and  it  is  stated  that  from  40,000  to  50,000  eggs 
of  the  herring  gull  are  taken  for  food,  in  a  single 
season,  from  the  island  of  Sylt  alone.  See 
Howard  Saunders,  'The  Larin.e  or  Gulls,' in /"lOC. 
Zool.  Soc.  (1878);  and  his  and  other  manuals  of 
British  birds. 

Gull,  Sir  Williaji  Withkv,  physician,  was 
born  31st  December  1816,  at  Thorpe-le-Soken,  in 
Esse.x.  He  studied  at  Guy's  Hospital,  and 
graduated  M.B.  at  London  University  in  1841.  Six 
years  later  he  was  made  professor  of  Physiology  at 
the  Royal  Institution,  a  post  which  he  held  for 
only  two  years.  About  the  same  time  (1847)  he 
became  physician  and  lecturer  at  Ciuy's  Hospital, 
his  specialty  being  clinical  practice.  For  his  treat- 
ment of  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1871  he  received 
a  baronetcy,  anil  was  appointed   physician-extra- 


464 


GULLET 


GUMMING 


orilinarv  to  the  Qupoii.  He  lu'ciiiiu'  a  Fellow  of  tlie 
Koyal  iU)lli'.,'(!  of  I'livsiciaiis  (1S4«)  and  of  several 
ol-lier  iiieilical  ami  Ifarned  societies.  lie  ilied 
•«)tli  January  ISiK).  Sir  W.  W.  taill  pulilislied 
iiiinieroiiH  j>a|iei-M  ami  atlilresses,  as  lir^iurls  on 
Eiiiilemic  Cholera  (with  l)r  \V.  Haly)  iii  1854; 
Giilslotiiini  J.irtiire.s  o»  f'firii/i/xis  :  the  Iliiiiterian 
oration  in  IStil  and  the  Harveian  in  1H7I);  and  Alro- 
htil  IIS  a  Mer/irine  iinil  ii.i  ti  liirermie  {  IH7H).  His 
collected  works  were  edited  for  the  New  Sydenham 
Society  hy  Ur  Aeland  in  1.S9S  and  f(dlowinf,'  years. 

4;ilil«'t.     See  DliiKSTloN,  Vid.  I\'.,  p.  814. 

<;iilliv4>r's  Travels.    See  Swikt. 

Cilllll.  a  "leneral  term  applied  to  certain  exuda 
tions  from  trees  and  plants,  whieii  are  very  dill'erent 
in  their  chemical  characters  and  their  general 
properties.  There  are,  however,  three  classes  of 
gums  which  may  he  more  particularly  referred  to 
— viz.  those  eonlaiiiinj;  arahin,  those  containing 
hiutsorin,  .and  ;,'nm  resins. 

( 1 )  U inns  I'niittiinliHj  arahin  are  hest  repre- 
sented liy  gnmaraliic,  the  ordinary  gum  of  the 
shops.  This  .suhstance  is  fouml  as  an  exuda- 
tion on  the  hark  of  the  Araria  Soier/a/,  a 
tree  of  some  20  feet  in  Iiei;;ht,  ^'rowing  ahund- 
antly  in  western  .Vfriea.  Aeeonling  to  the  care 
taken  in  collecting  it,  it  ranges  from  the  pure 
white  or  colourless  gum  of  Kordofan  to  the  dark- 
redilish  varieties  imported  fromSenegal.  Chemically 
the.se  are  al)solutely  identical,  and  therefore  a 
single  description  will  sullice.  It  occui-s  in  irregular 
lumps,  somewhat  spherical  or  vermicular  (as  in 
(ium-Seiiegal ).  It  is  hrittle,  and  shows  a  ghussy 
fracture.  It  dissolves  readily  in  water,  forming  a 
clear,  viscid,  adhesive  .solution  ;  hut  it  is  ins(dn1ile 
in  strong  alcidiol,  glycerine,  I'ther,  oils,  or  chloro- 
form. The  aildition  of  alcohol  to  a  watery  .solution 
throws  down  a  |irecipilale  of  arahin,  if  a  few  drops 
of  hydrocldoric  aciil  have  previously  been  luhled. 

Medicinally  it  has  very  slight  remedi.al  powers, 
hut  it  is  largely  used  in  prescrijitions  tor  the 
jiurpose  of  suspending  in>oluliU'  substances  in 
mixtures.  The  liner  varieties,  owing  to  their  cost, 
are  rarely  found  outside  the  druggist's  shop  ;  hut 
in  the  manufactuie  of  confections  and  in  the  arts 
large  quantities  of  the  cheaper  kinds  are  employed. 
These  are  known  under  dill'erent  names,  indicating 
the  district  from  which  they  are  ii]i|iortecl.  The 
chief  are:  Senegal  gum,  found  in  large  lirni 
reildish  ma.sses  :  Suakin  gum  or  Talka  gum,  forming 
dull  opa(|ue-looking  tears,  colourless  or  brownish ; 
and  .Morocco  or  IJarbarv  gum.  Cape  gum  is 
dt^rived  from  the  Araria  /if/rriiia^  a  nati\'e  tif  Cape 
Colony,  while  Wattle  gum  is  a  very  adhesive  variety 
obtained  from  Australia.  East  Indian  gum  is 
an  .\frii-an  product,  being  simply  imported  into 
IJonibay  from  the  Ked  Sea. 

{2)  (r inns  rontainin;/  Bitssoriii.  —  The  chief  of 
the.se,  Tragaoanth,  is  i>htained  fr<Mn  various  species 
of  Astragalus,  low  s|)iny  hushes,  natives  of  Asia 
Minor  and  I'eixia.  When  the  st«m  of  one  of  these 
|)lants  is  cut  transversely  it  will  be  fouml  that  the 
space  usually  occupied  by  the  pith  has  the  .-uipear- 
ance  of  a  translucent  gummy  mass,  whii-li  the 
microscope  shows  to  pos.sess  the  structure  of  an 
ordinary  pith.  If  incisions  are  ma<le  in  the  l>ark, 
this  semi  solid  exucles  under  pressure,  and.  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  incision  forms  llattened 
wing-like  masses,  nodules  or  worm-like  jiieces.  The 
finest  variety  is  known  as  Klake-Tragacanth,  con- 
sisting of  tl.ikes  1  to  3  inches  long  by  I  inch 
in  breadth.  The  surface  is  marked  by  wavy  lines 
and  the  Hakes  are  much  contorted.  Tragacanth  is 
translucent,  white  and  without  lustre,  somewhat 
flexible,  and  not  brittle,  and  with  little  taste 
or  smell.  AVhen  jdaceil  in  water  it  swells,  absorb- 
ing fifty  times  its  weight  of  that  liqui<l,  and  form 


ing  a  thick  mucilage.  It  hius  no  active  nu'dicinal 
properties;  hut  it  is  much  used  for  llrniing  pill 
miusses  and  lozenges.  It  enters  into  many 
emulsions,  for  instance,  that  of  cod-liver  oil,  and  it 
is  sometimes  enijdoyed  as  a  stiltcner  for  the  hair. 
It  is  useil  as  a  still'ening  material  for  various  textile 
fabrics,  and  is  much  valued  for  this  purpo.se,  where 
it  is  not  ilesired  to  give  gloss  to  the  nuiterial. 

IJesides  these  true  g)ims,  there  are  (3)  the  gum- 
resins.  In  "eneral  terms  the.se  consist  of  certain 
resins  soluble  in  alcohid,  and  of  the  true  gum,  so 
th;it  it  reijuires  both  wat<'r  ami  ah-ohol  to  ilissolve 
I  hem  entirely.  They  are  chielly  used  in  nu'dicine 
.md  ^>erfumerv,  ami  nuiy  be  said  to  form  a  connect- 
ing link  between  the  true  gnims  ami  the  true  resins, 
commercially  speaking.  The  principal  are:  (1) 
( lum-Ammoiiiacum  (see  A.M.MOJilAflM  ),  (2)  Guiu- 
.Asafo'tida  (see  Asakiktid.v),  (3)  Cum-Hen/oin 
(see  IJknzoIN  ),  (4)  Cum Calbanum  (see  (!.\l,n.\- 
Nt'M),  (.'))  <;iim-(;aiidiogc(see(!.\Ml)(»;i;),  ( (ijCuni- 
Myrrh  (see  Mviilill),  (7)  CumScammony  (see 
Sc.VMMONV).  There  are  many  other  gums  known  ; 
but  these  are  the  ones  most  used  in  the  arts  and 
medicine.  Many  also  of  iIm!  true  resins,  as  copal, 
anime,  &c.,  are  calleil  gums,  hut  they  are  strictly 
icsiii.s.     See  Hii.slN.s. 

diiinsiihstiliilcs  are  inaniifactured  from  various 
forms  of  starch,  either  liy  baking,  roa.sting  or 
clieMiical  treatment,  so  as  to  convert  the  starch  into 
1  lextrine  (i|.v).  They  are  made  on  a  very  extensive 
scale,  and  are  largely  employed  in  dressing  calicoes 
and  other  fabrics,  also  as  a  substitute  for  the  more 
expensive  gums  in  gumming  i)a]ier,  a-s  in  the  case 
of  ])oslage-stam])s  and  l.'ibefs,  which  are  made 
adhesive  bv  dextrine.  Kiu'  this  ami  sciiiu'  other 
purpo.scs,  tlie  i/iiiiisiilislitiiles  are  su|jerior  to  the 
real  gums,  its  they  are  easily  dissolved,  ami  can  he 
sjnead  more  e(|ually  over  a  smooth  surface.  For 
the  cliewing-guiii  in  use  in  the  Inited  States,  see 
Clli;\viNO-(il'M  ;  and  for  gum-trees,  see  EUCALYP- 
TI'S, Tl'i'Kl.o,  and  LlgflDAMU.VR. 

(•Illllbilllieil,  a  thriving  town  of  F.ast  Prussia, 
72  miles  by  r;iil  F,.  of  Konigsberg.  Dating  from 
1724,  it  owes  ils  prosperity  to  the  settlemeiil  eight 
years  later  lieri'  of  many  I'iotest;int  Salzburgers. 
There  are  niacliine-works,  <.\:c.      Foji.  10,20G. 

<>lllll-boil.  an  .-Miscess  (q.v.)  near  the  root  of  a 
tooili,  anil  usually  discharging  itself  towards  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  gum,  hut  sometimes 
making  its  way  more  deeply  towards  the  skin  of  the 
face,  and  if  allowed  to  liuisl  there  causing  consider- 
able deformity.  (luiu  boil  should  he  treated,  in 
the  lirst  instance,  by  protection  against  cold  and 
external  injury,  and  tree  washing  of  the  mouth 
with  hot  water;  but  as  soon  as  the  presence  of 
matter  can  he  luscertained,  it  is  usually  a  good  prac- 
tice to  give  vent  to  it  hy  a  ]>retty  free  incision. 
Comidete  cure  follows  the  removal  of  the  tooth  at 
the  root  of  which  the  inllammation  has  begun  ;  if  it 
be  left  the  disease  is  apt  to  recur.  If  the  abscess 
threaten  to  burst  through  the  skin,  extraction  of 
the  tooth  is  im]ierative.     See  Tk]-;tii. 

GlIIIIIIlillK  (in  vegetable  pathology  dmnimms), 
a  disease  which  attacks  the  ]iluni,  chen-y,  peach, 
and  other  stone  fruit-trees,  often  proving  fatal  to 
the  limbs  attacked,  ami  ultimately  also  to  the 
whole  tree  in  virulent  ca.se.s.  Recent  observations 
seem  to  prove  that  the  cause  of  the  di.sea.se  is  a 
fungus  named  Cori/ncinii  Bcijcrinrl.ii.  The  my- 
celium of  the  fungus  develops  a  ferment  which 
transforms  the  cell-walls,  starch  granules,  anil 
other  contPnt>  of  the  cells  into  gum.  While  in 
some  ca-ses  the  mycelium  is  obviously  the  exciting 
cause,  in  others  the  ferment  only  apjiears  to  be  the 
contagious  agent.  One  point  seems  quite  clear-- 
the  fungus  cannot  penetrate  .sound  healthy  hark — 
there  must  be  some  wound  or  abrasion  before  the 


GUMRI 


GUN 


465 


germ-tubes  can  enter  the  cellular  tissues  in  •which 
alone  tliey  can  spread.  Unfortunately  such  in- 
juries occur  from  many  causes  in  the  class  of  trees 
named,  and  probably  insects  are  the  chief  agents 
in  carrvinj;  the  contagion  from  tree  to  tree.  In 
prescribing  remedies,  those  that  are  preventive 
are  ob\iously  best.  Wounds  as  soon  as  they  are 
observed  should  lie  coated  with  a  thick  |)aste  of 
quicklime  or  coal-tar.  (lummed  liranches  should  be 
cut  away  without  delay  and  burned,  and  the 
wounds  dres.sed  at  once  with  coal-tar. — It  is  con- 
jectured that  Coryneum  or  some  similar  fungus  is 
the  cause  of  the  ilisease  that  produces  guin-traga- 
canth,  and  probably  other  gums  and  g-um-resins. 

diiiiiri.    See  Alexandkopol. 

Cxllllltia  a  river  of  India,  rises  in  the  North- 
western I'rovinces,  in  a  small  lake  in  28°  37'  N.  lat. 
and  SO'  7'  K.  long.,  and,  after  a  sinuous  but  gener- 
ally south-easterly  course  of  nearly  500  miles,  enters 
the  Ganges  56  miles  below  Jaunpur.  It  is  navigable 
by  boats  of  17  tons  for  over  400  miles  ;  at  Lucknow 
it  is  spanned  by  five  bridges,  and  at  Jaunpur  by 
a  bridge  of  sixteen  arches. — There  is  al.so  a  (iumti 
Kiver  in  Bengal,  which  joins  the  Meghna  after  a 
course,  inclusive  of  windings,  of  66  miles. 

€ilin>  The  term  gun  formerly  com]irised  many 
varieties  of  the  weapons  now  more  correctly  termed 
Firearms  (i|.v. ),  and  is  still  applied  in  a  general 
sense  to  Cannon  (q.v.)  and  large  ordnance,  also 
to  ([uiek-Kring  or  ^Iaclline  Guns  ((|.v. );  but  it  is 
now  more  specially  held  to  signify  the  sporting- 
gun  as  distinguished  from  tlie  military  KiHe  (n. v.). 
The  modern  shot-gun  is  invariably  breechloauing, 
and  usually  upon  the  'drop-down'  iirincii)le  (see 
IJUKKCU-LO.VDING).  The  manufacture  of  shot- 
guns is  an  im]iortant  British  industry,  and  one 
of  the  i>rocesses  of  manufacture — barrel-welding — 
is  sulliciently  interesting  to  warrant  descriptive 
details.  The  other  processes,  some  eighteen  or 
twenty  in  number,  call  only  for  the  skill  of  the 
trained  workman. 

Shot-gun  barrels  are  generally  hand-forged  from 
a  rod  of  sjiecial  materia!  which  is  usually  composed 
of  iron  of  two  distinct  varieties,  or  of  iron  and 
steel.  It  is  necessary  that  one  of  the  metals  be 
softer  than  the  other;  and  the  greater  the  jiro- 
portion  of  the  harder  metal,  and  the  hariler  the 
(piality  of  the  softer  metal,  tlie  better  will  be  the 
quality  of  the  welded   barrel.     Some   varieties   of 

gun-iron  con- 
tain 70  per 
cent,  of  steel ; 
in  others  a 
good  quality 
and  an  in- 
ferior quality 
of  iron  are 
used  together, 
and  no  steel 
enters  into 
the  composi- 
tion. The 
rod  of  gun- 
iron  is  built 
up  of  alter- 
nate layers  of 
the  hard  and 
.soft  metals, 
and  in  the 
manufacture 
of  a  Damascus  barrel  this  rod  must  be  twisted 
upon  itself  before  it  is  welded  side  by  side  to 
one  or  more  rods,  or  welded  into  a  barrel.  Tliese 
twisted  rods  are  drawn  out  between  rolls  into  a 
flattened  rod  or  'riband'  of  metal,  the  riliand 
being  conqiosed  of  one,  two,  three,  or  more  twisted 
roils  according  to  the  quality  of  the  barrel  or  the 
2;t,S 


,  ^un-barrel  iron,  twisted  and  laid  into  a 
riband  ;  6,  portion  of  gun-l)arrel  coil ; 
c,  portion  of  silver-steel  Dama.scus  barrel. 


fineness  of  figure  desired.  The  Belgian  welders 
are  more  expert  than  the  British  in  making  the 
finest  figured  barrels,  putting  as  many  as  six 
difi'erently  twisted  rods  together  to  form  a  single 
riband  ;  but  Belgian  barrels  are  not  so  hard  as  tlie 
English,  and  aie  generally  considered  to  be  inferior 
to  the  Ijest  Birmiiigliam  liand-welded  barrels.  The 
welder,  having  prepared  his  iron  and  received  it 
from  the  mill  rolled  down  to  tlie  pro]ier  size,  pro- 
ceeds to  form  the  barrel  by  twisting  the  riband 
upon  a  mandril,  just  as  one  would  cover  a  whip- 
stock  with  a  narrow  strip  of  leather.  This  coil  has 
then  to  be  heated,  a  few  inches  at  a  time,  and  the 
edges  welded  to  each  other,  the  result  being  a  tube 
four  times  heavier  than  it  will  weigh  when  finished 
by  boring,  grinding,  and  Mling,  w  hich  are  the  next 
three  processes  through  which  the  barrel  must  pas.s. 
In  double  shot-guns  the  two  tubes  to  form  the 
barrels  are  brazed  together  for  a  few  inches  at  the 
breech  end,  and  soldered  to  each  other  and  to  the 
two  ribs  and  '  packing '  which  unite  them  through- 
out their  entire  length.  The  breech  actions  are 
fitted  to  the  Ijarrels,  the  lock-work  and  bolting- 
mechanism  adjusted,  and  the  gun  is  ready  for  the 
stocker  ;  he  roughly  fashions  the  piece  of  walnut 
to  which  the  ironwork  is  secured  by  the  'screwer,' 
who  pa.s.ses  the  gun  on  to  the  '  finisher'  to  prepare 
for  its  final  embellishments,  in  which  are  comprised 
the  processes  of  polishing,  engraving,  hardening, 
blueing,  and  tempering.  The  barrels  when  finely 
polished  are  treated  witli  acid,  which  rusts  the 
surface  of  the  metals  of  w  Inch  they  are  composed, 
and  eating  more  readily  into  the  softer  metal  turns 
it  a  darker  colour.  This  piocess,  termed  '  brown- 
ing,' occupies  several  days,  and  when  successful 
shows  clearly  the  damascening  or  curls  of  fibre 
obtained  by  twisting  the  gun-iron  rods  in  the 
earliest  stage.  A  barrel  not  showing  such  curls 
would  be  termed  a  '  scelp  '  barrel  if  it  were  a  twisted 
welded  barrel,  but  if  of  one  uniform  colour,  un- 
broken by  regular  markings,  it  would  probably 
be  composed  of  plain  iron  or  steel  only. 

The  superiority  of  the  Damascus  barrel  to  one  of 
best  modern  steel  remains  a  vexed  (|uestion.  The 
evidence  adiluced  on  behalf  of  the  Damascus  is 
sufficient  to  prove  its  superiority  over  certain 
qualities  of  steel,  but  it  is  not  overw  helming  ;  and 
it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  steel  can  lie 
obtained  of  sufficiently  good  quality  and  possessing 
sufficient  strength  to  withstand  any  normal  strain 
to  which  as  a  shot-gun  barrel  it  may  be  subjected. 
The  advocates  of  the  welded  barrel  contend  that 
flaws,  which  cannot  be  detected  by  the  eye  or  by 
the  most  searchino;  test,  occasionally  exist  in  steel, 
making  it  unreliable  for  use  as  a  gun-barrel.  Sir 
Joseph  Whitworth's  Huid  compressed  steel  has 
been  used  very  successfully  as  a  material  for  shot- 
gun barrels,  Wt  the  immunity  from  flaws  which 
barrels  of  this  steel  enjoy  is  said  to  result  from  the 
careful  testing  and  examination  of  ea<-li  individual 
tube  rather  than  from  absolute  perfection  in  the 
metal  it.self.  The  complete  and  almost  perfect 
heterogeneity  of  the  material  of  the  Damascus  barrel 
l)roduces  a  homogeneous  whole,  which,  w  hen  soundly 
welded,  has  no  weak  spot,  and  will  neither  split 
longitudinally  nor  break  oft'  short  ;vs  steel  barrels 
have  done,  but  when  burst  is  pullcil,  as  it  were, 
from  shred  to  shred,  exhibiting  great  tenacity  in 
every  direction.  The  steel  barrel  here  referrecl  to 
is  that  drilled  from  a  solid  rod  of  best  mild  steel. 
Steel  barrels  drawn  from  blanks  in  the  same  manner 
as  ordinary  tubes  are  inferior  to  the  drilled  barrel. 
Still  le.ss  relialde  are  the  lap-welded  steel  barrels  in 
which  the  two  edges  of  a  strip  of  metal  are  brought 
together  and  widded  as  it  passes  at  welding  heat 
between  the  rolls.  Cold  drawn  steel  barrels  were 
at  one  time  manufactured,  but  proved  too  expen- 
sive,   and    twisted    steel    barrels    are    not   yet   a 


466 


GUNBOAT 


GUN-COTTON 


coiuiiiercial  Kuccess.  The  starularil  size  of  the 
mcxlerii  shotj^uii  is  12  bore — i.e.  twelve  Kpheiical 
leaileii  bullets  of  the  same  iliauieter  as  the  iuterior  of 
the  barrel  will  wei^h  1  lb.  avoir.  ;  fornierlv  IGaiul  20 
bores  were  iniu'li  in  voj,'iie,  and  l(i  bores  are  still  very 
coiiiiiion  ill  (k'riiiaiiy;  10  bores  are  iimch  used  in 
Korlb  .\inerica  ;  S  and  4  bores  are  used  only  for 
wild  fowling; ;  and  //init-ijiiiis,  '^\n\»  of  from  lineh 
to  3  inch  bore  liltecl  into  sliootin;;  punts,  are 
employed  for  tiring  from  i  lb.  to  4  lb.  of  shot  at  a 
time  into  Uocks  of  sea-fowl  on  the  coast  or  in  tidal 
estuaries. 

With  the  e.xception  of  the  punt-guns,  which 
require  special  mechanism,  ^uns  of  all  bores  are 
niade  upon  the  same  principle  of  bici'cli-loadin^', 
and  nearly  all  are  more  or  less  ehokeil  -  i.e.  the 
diameter  of  the  barrel  is  smhlenly  lessened  near 
the  muzzle,  forniinj,'  a  cone  which  cau.ses  the  pellets 
of  the  chaifie  to  lly  from  the  f,'uii  more  compactly 
and  at  an  increiised  velocity.  Such  is  the  perfec- 
tion to  which  till'  boriiif;  of  sliot-;,'iins  has  been 
bioiij^lit  tliat  a  "-111.  ;,'uii  may  now  be  exjiected  to 
send  on  an  avcrajio  220  pellets  of  a  charge  contain- 
inj;  305  pellets  into  a  circle  .SO  inches  in  diameter 
(or  60  into  a  10  inch  sijuare)  at  40  yards  distance, 
the  pellets  liavinj,'  an  averaj;e  velocity  at  the 
muzzle  of  840  feet  per  second,  and  a  strikiufj;  force 
at  impact  (40  yards)  of  I  SK)  oz. 

Sliot-;iuns  are  now  built  very  much  li;,'hter  than 
when  breech  loadei-s  liixt  came  into  f^eneral  use 
(ISG.));  shorter  barrels  are  used  without  loss  of 
shooting  jiower  or  ajipreciable  iniTeiuso  in  the 
volume  of  the  recoil.  Smokeless  explosives  are  in 
general  use  all  the  world  over  for  shot-guns,  and 
the  results  of  the  slightest  variation  in  the  charge  or 
quality  of  the  powder,  or  in  the  size  and  quantity 
of  the  shot,  can  be  ascertained  with  the  greatest 
scieiililic  accuracy,  by  means  of  special  instrunicnts 
found  in  all  leading  gun-manufactories.  Shot-gun 
manufacture  is  a  mechanical  science  its  well  as  a 
handicraft,  and  the  linest  productions  of  the  most 
renowned  gun-makei's  will  always  (•omniand  t'.jO  or 
even  higher  prices.  Clieai)  ill-made,  ill  litted,  ill 
regulated  guns,  shaped  by  machinery,  or  still  more 
roughly  by  hand  laliour,  constitute  the  shot-gun  of 
commerce,  ami  their  value  tluctuates  with  the 
price  of  material.  The  shot-gun  of  the  best  class 
IS  now  so  highly  perfected  that  a  new  departure, 
whether  towards  the  development  of  the  killing 
powers  of  the  weapon  or  elaboration  of  its  niechau- 
ism,  is  undesirable,  and,  until  some  radical  change 
in  the  composition  of  e.xplosives,  or  the  method  of 
using  shotguns,  takes  place,  no  noteworthy  im- 
provement upon  the  existing  type  of  gun  can  be 
e.^pected. 

See  the  article.s  GuNPOWiiEit,  Firearms,  ]!reech- 
LOADiNG,  Cannon,  Musket,  Rifle,  Machine  Guns, 
&C. ;  Greener's  (lun  and  ilx  Di i<ilni»iimt  {'iSSl;  7th  cd. 
1899);  his  Modirn  Shot  (iiina  (1W.S);  Hawker's  Guiui 
and  Shoot-iiuj  Insti'Hctiims  (1844)  ;  Stutolhitj,  by  1  ord  AVal- 
singham  and  Sir  ILPayne-Gallwey  (Badminton  Lib.  ISSti); 
Payne-Gallwey's  The  Fmvkr  in  Irtlaud  (]»82; ;  ^^  alsh's 
Modem  Sportsman's  Gun  and  Rifle  (2  vols.  1883-84); 
General  Norton's  American  Iitventvnis  and  Improve' 
ments  in  Breeeh-loadim/,  Smatf  Arms,  Heari/  Ordnance, 
Machine  Guns,  Maya^itie  Arms,  <tr.  (New  York,  18811). 

Gnnboat*  a  small  boat  or  vessel  armed  with 
one  or  more  guns  of  heavy  calibre.  From  its  small 
dimensions,  it  is  capable  of  running  close  inshore 
or  up  rivers,  and  from  the  same  cause  it  has 
little  chance  of  being  hit  by  a  larger  ve.s.sel  at  the 
Ion"  range  which  the  carrying  power  of  its  guns 
enables  it  to  maintain.  .Vt  the  outbreak  of  the 
Russian  war,  a  large  squadron  of  them  wius  hastily 
constnicted  for  the  Bntish  navy  for  the  first  time. 
Their  tonnage  was  small ;  and  their  armament 
usually  consisted  of  one  8-iucli  gun  and  one  100- 
pounder  Armstrong  gun.     Gunboats  in  their  more 


modern  form  (like  the  Ulaiiiirk)  are  small  mitstless 
vessels  mounting  one  large  gun  in  the  bow,  and 
iiroiK'lled  by  an  engine  with  single  or  twin  screws. 
The  gun  is  ]iointed  by  means  of  the  helm  or  the 
screws,  and  the  gunboat  is  in  fact  a  tloating  gun- 
carriage.  In  the  Hritish  navy  these  gunboats  carry 
an  arniour-piercing  gun  of  18  tons,  on  a  iliaught  of 
only  4  feet,  lint  they  have  bciii  designed  to  cari-y 
3,">  ton  giuis,  or  heavier.  In  18!M)  there  were  on  the 
British  Sacy  List  114  of  these  vessels,  of  wliich 
4;t  were  called  third  class,  and  are  intended  for 
coast  defence.  In  1900  there  were  in  the  navy  :i3 
torpedo  gunboats,  the  largest  form  of  special  tor|iedo 
boats.  .At  the  beginning  of  the  century  the  liiited 
.Slates  had  over  2.">0  of  tliese  vessels  ;  but  the  'gun- 
boat system'  was  soon  abandoned.  In  18HH  the 
United  States  navy  po.sses.sed  17  gunboats  of  from 
900  to  1400  tons,  armed  with  4inch  ijuick-firing 
guns  and  light  secondary  batteries.  They  are 
mainly  unanuoured,  though  some  have  a  slight 
lirotective  deck.  Most  Continental  navies  are 
lirovidcd  with  gunboats  of  various  size  and  con- 
struction. 

Gllll-carriajfC  is  a  most  important  adjunct  to 
every  )iiccc  of  ordnance.  It  requires  to  be  of  great 
strength  in  order  to  resist  the  shock  of  discharge, 
and,  in  the  case  of  a  lielil-gun  carriage,  to  bear  an 
enormous  strain  in  jia-ssing  at  a  rapiil  pace  over 
broken,  uneven,  or  rocky  ground  without  being 
unduly  heavy  or  wanting  in  iiKibility.  .\  large 
dcpartnient,  litted  with  sjilendid  inucliincry,  in  the 
Hoyal  .Arsenal  at  Wdohvich.  called  the  Uiiyal  Car- 
riage UcpHrtiiiciit,  is  cliaiged  with  this  bi-;incli  of 
manufacture  for  the  I'rilisb  service,  whether  naval 
or  military.  See  Cannon  for  plates  showing 
several  of  the  numerous  patterns,  and  also  MoN- 

CHIKl-'K  I'lTS. 

<>Iin-COttOIl.  'I'licie  are  a  \  cry  large  nuiiibcr  of 
explosive  nitio-conipounds  which  may  be  divided 
into  two  main  classes — viz.  (1)  Those  containing 
Nitroglycerine  (q.v.),  in  which  is  included  the 
great  dynamite  class,  and  (2)  those  not  containing 
nitroglycerine.  Cun-cotton  is  an  exjilosive  nitro- 
compound of  the  latter  class,  and  is  by  far  the 
most  iiii])ortant  of  the  ilass. 

So  long  ago  as  I8:{2  it  was  discovered  by  Hiacon- 
not  that  woody  (ilire  and  similar  substances  could 
be  converted  into  highly  combustible  bodies  by  the 
action  of  concentrated  nitric  acid  ;  six  years  later 
I'elouze  extended  this  discovery  to  cotton  ami 
other  organic  substanci's  ;  he  was  followed  by 
Dunia-s,  who  treated  paper  in  a  similar  way,  and 
he  proposed  to  make  cartridges  with  pa]ier  so 
treated,  the  idea  being  that  no  residue  would  be  left 
in  the  barrel  after  liring  such  cartriilgcs.  Hut  no 
practical  result  followed  these  discoveries  until  in 
184;")  Schiinbein,  a  (lerman  chemist,  having  hit 
upon  the  proper  mode  of  treating  cotton  with 
nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  announced  the  discovery 
of  gun-cotton,  which  be  pro]iosed  as  a  substitute  for 
gunpowder.  He  claimed  for  it  that  the  advantage 
it  had  over  gunjiowder  was  that  it  burned  with- 
out leaving  any  residue,  and  consequently  without 
smoke.  He  prepared  it  by  immersing  carded 
cotton  wool  in  a  mixture  of  nitric  ami  suljihuric 
acids,  and  the  equation  for  its  fonnation  may  be 
stated  thus  : 

Cellulose.       Nitric  Acid.      B';";'™^:!,^^!;'"-       Water. 

C,;H,„03  +  3(H,\0.,)  =  C„HA.3(N03)  -f  3(H..O). 

It  will  lie  observed  that  no  mention  is  made  of  sul- 
phuric acid  in  this  equation,  the  presence  of  which 
IS,  however,  essential  in  the  jiroduction  of  gun- 
cotton,  for  although  it  takes  no  active  chemical 
part  in  the  action,  it  absorbs  the  w.ater  which  is 
tornied  by  the  chemical  transformation,  and  thus 


GUN-COTTON 


467 


keeps  the  nitric  acid  up  to  its  full  strength. 
Schiiiibein's  discovery  gave  a  great  impetus  to  tlie 
question,  and  experiments  continued  to  be  made 
by  many  eminent  clieinists  in  nearly  every  country 
in  Europe  with  the  idea  of  utilising  the  new  explo- 
sive for  niilitary  ])urposes.  It  was  lirst  manu- 
factured in  England  on  a  large  scale  in  the  year 
1847  by  Messrs  Hall  &  Son  of  Favershani  ;  but,  in 
addition  to  minor  accidents,  a  terrible  explosion 
took  place  in  their  works,  which  created  so  much 
distrust  that  its  manufacture  in  England  wiis  dis- 
continued for  several  years,  as  the  cause  of  the 
explosion,  with  the  tlien  imperfect  knowledge 
possessed  of  the  subject,  could  not  l)e  satisfactorily 
accounted  for.  Tlie  lirst  country  to  turn  Schiin- 
bein's  discovery  to  practical  acc(juut  was  Austria. 
General  Von  Leiik,  an  Austrian  artillery  officer, 
after  extensive  trials  succeeded  in  greatly  improv- 
ing the  method  of  manufacture,  by  which  means  he 
was  enabled  to  moderate  and  ensure  a  uniform  rate 
of  combustion  of  gun-cotton  in  air  ;  his  discovery 
was  con.sidered  of  so  much  importance  that  in  tlie 
year  18.52  several  batteries  of  Austrian  artillery 
were  armed  with  gun-cotton  cartriilges.  But  it 
soon  fell  into  disrepute,  not  only  on  account  of  its 
unstable  nature,  but  also  because  it  was  found  that 
Von  Lenk's  improvements  were  of  no  practical 
utility  when  the  gun-cotton  was  contined  in  the 
bore  of  a  gun  ;  the  great  heat  generated  caused  the 
inflamed  gas  to  penetrate  rapidly  tlirough  the 
whole  cartridge,  so  that  there  was  little  or  no  re- 
tardation in  the  rate  of  combustion,  and  the  rapid 
comljustion  caused  excessive  pressure  in  the  bore, 
besides  giving  very  uneijual  results  when  lired. 

Since  the  failure  of  the  Austrian  cartridges  gun- 
cotton  has  not  been  used  as  a  propelling  agent  on  a 
large  scale.  I5iit  its  utility  as  a  disruptive  agent 
has  been  enoriimusly  increased  by  the  discoveries 
of  Professor  Sir  Frederick  Abel  and  the  late  Mr 
E.  O.  Brown.  Nothing  daunted  by  the  failure  of 
the  Austrian  experiments,  nor  by  ttie  explosion  at 
Messrs  Hall's  works.  Sir  Frederick  Abel  continued 
his  experiments,  and  he  ultimately  discovered  a 
method  of  manufacture  whereby  not  only  a  com- 
plete purilicatiou  from  free  acid  is  assured,  but 
the  material  is  converted  into  thoroughly  compact 
homogeneous  ma,sses.  As  a  result  of  his  exiieri- 
nients  the  method  of  manufacture  adopted  in 
England  may  l)e  briefly  described  as  follows  :  the 
best  white  cotton  waste  alone  is  employeil  :  this  is 
first  thoroughly  cleansed  from  all  grease  by  boiling 
with  alkalies  ;  it  Lsthen  pickeil  over  by  baud  and  all 
foreign  substances  removed,  after  whicli  the  libre 
is  separated  and  all  knots  ami  lumps  o])enecl  out 
by  passing  the  cotton  waste  through  a  '  leasing  ' 
machine ;  it  is  then  cut  into  '2-inch  lengths, 
thoroughly  dried,  and  diviilecl  into  charges  weigh- 
ing IJ  lb.  each,  whicli  are  kept  in  air-tight  tin 
boxes  till  ready  tor  (U|>iiing.  The  acids  used  in  the 
manuf.'icture  of  gun-cotton  are  nitric  .acid  having 
a  specilic  gravity  of  1  o2  and  sulphuric  acid  of  l'S4 
sp.  gr.  ;  these  are  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one 
part  by  weight  of  nitric  acid  to  three  of  sulphuric 
acid,  and  allowed  to  cool  down  in  iron  tanks.  The 
mixed  acid  is  run  oil'  into  the  dipping  pans  into 
which  ,a  1^-11).  charge  of  cotton  is  immersed  au<l 
left  in  for  about  live  minutes,  in  which  time  it  will 
have  absorbed  about  H  11).  of  .aciil.  The  charge  is 
now  allowed  to  cool  down,  after  which  the  waste 
acid  is  extracted  by  me.ans  of  an  'acid-extractor.' 
and  the  charge  thoroughly  washed  to  remove  all 
the  free  acid.  It  is  now  pulpeil  and  pressed  under 
hydraulic  presses  to  one-third  its  bulk,  .and  moulded 
into  slabs  of  various  sizes  and  sliajies  {m  storing. 
The  method  of  m.anufacture  as  here  described  is 
perfectly  safe,  as  the  gun-cotton  throughout  is  in  a 
wet  state. 
The  properties  of  gun-cotton,  as  compared  with 


gunpowder,  are  mainly  as  follows :  ( 1 )  It  can  be 
ignited  at  a  temperature  of  about  300",  whereas 
gunpowder  rei|uires  a  temjierature  of  about  600° 
to  ensure  ignition;  (2)  its  combustion  leaves  no 
solid  residue,  and  is  unattended  by  smoke:  (3) 
the  action  of  gun-cotton  is  much  nmre  rapid  than 
that  of  gun])0wder,  and,  as  has  already  been 
pointed  out,  it  is  this  rapiility  of  combustion  which 
renilers  it  unsuitable  to  be  used  as  a  propelling 
agent  in  cannon  :  (4)  whereas gun])Owder is  greatly 
iidluenced  and  injuriously  allected  by  moisture, 
gun-cotton  on  the  contrary  is  jierfectly  uninjured, 
and  may  lie  kept  for  any  length  of  time  in  water 
without  change.  For  military  ]iur|ioses  this  is  a 
most  important  consideration.  Apart  from  the 
questiim  of  using  gun-cotton  as  a  jiropelling  agent, 
its  value  for  destructive  ]iur]ioses  was  incontest- 
able, but  it  was  thought  to  be  necessarj',  in  order 
to  develop  its  full  power,  that  the  charge  should 
he  strongly  conhned.  Experiments,  however,  con- 
ducted by  Jlr  E.  O.  Brown  clearly  demonstrated  the 
fact  that  compressed  gun-cotton  could  be  fully  de- 
tonated in  a  totally  unconlined  state  by  fuhidnate 
of  mercury.  This  discovery  was  thought  to  a))ply 
to  dry  gun-cotton  only,  but  Mr  Brown  continuing 
his  experiments  a.scertained  that  wet  compressed 
gun-cotton  could  be  detonated  by  using  a  small 
primer  of  the  dry  material.  Still  further  dis- 
coveries were  made  with  regard  to  the  detonation 
of  gun-cotton  ;  it  was  ascertained  that  detonation, 
being  established  at  one  end  of  a  continuous  row  of 
distinct  masses  of  compressed  gun-cotton,  travels 
along  the  whole  length  of  the  row,  even  if  a  space 
of  half  an  inch  is  left  between  the  discs.  Tliese 
discoveries  ha\e  raised  gun-cotton  to  the  highest 
rank  as  a  nulitary  explosive,  as  the  necessity  for 
storing  it  in  a  dry  state,  which  is  so  highly  danger- 
ous, is  entirely  oliviated  ;  it  is  now  .always  stored 
in  a  wet  state,  the  gun-cotton  containing  about  '20 

1  per  cent,  of  water,  and  is  p.acked  in  air-tight  metal 

'  ca-ses,  so  that  the  necessity  for  rewetting  seldom 
occurs  ;  in  this  condition  it  can  be  transported  with 
perfect  safety. 

The  discoveiy  with  regard  to  its  detonation  when 
in  a  wet  state  has  led  to  this  material  being  used 
a-s  the  charge  for  torpedoes  and  submarine  mines. 
The  first  jiattern  of  Whitehead  torjiedo  was  14  feet 
long  and  16  inches  in  diameter  ;  the  speed  of  the 
torpedo  was  9  knots  for  200  yards,  and  the 
charge  was  118  lb.  of  compressed  wet  gun-cotton. 
Several  subsequent  patterns  of  torpedoes  have  been 
introduced,  the  latest  being  14  teet  long  and  14 
inches  in  diameter,  and  by  reducing  the  charge  of 
gun-cotton  to  80  lb.  the  high  speed  of  27  knots  for 
600  yards  has  been  attained.  The  immense  im- 
portance of  this  increased  speed  can  be  readily 
ajipreciated,  as  it  enables  a  torpedo  to  strike  the 
vessel  at  which  it  is  discharged  before  she  has  time 
to  get  out  of  the  way.  The  torjiedocs  are  lireil  by 
a  striker  actuated  by  a  sjuing  which  is  released  on 
the  torpedo  striking  the  side  of  the  ship :  the 
striker  is  pointed,  and  penetrates  a  cap  charged 
with  38  grains  of  fulminate  ;  this  cap  is  embedded 
in  .an  8  oz.  disc  of  ilry  gun-cotton,  enclosed  in  a 
liermetically  sealed  case,  and  placed  !V«  nearly  as 
possible  in  the  centre  of  the  wet  gun-cotton  charge 
ciuitaining   12  per  cent,  of  water.      Gun-cottcm  is 

;  also  used  as  the  charge  for  submarine  mines,  the 
charge  consisting  of  from  50  to  otH)  lb.  of  wet  com- 

1  pressed  gun-cotton. 

There  are  various  <lescriptions  of  marine  mines. 
( I )  Cruiiud  milieu:  in  these  the  charge  is  contained  in 
a  case  of  sheet  steel,  with  cjist-iron  sinkers  attached 
to  it  to  keep  it  at  the  bottom  of  the  harbour  or 
river  ;  these  nnnes  are  lircd  electrically  by  obsen'a- 
tion  friuu  the  shore  when  an  enemy's  ship  passes 
over  them.  (2)  Biio;/oiil  iiiiiict:  these  are  anchored 
a  few  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  w.ater  by  a  steel 


468 


GCN-COTTON 


ro|>e  attaolit'd  to  ii  suiikeii  \vei','lit  :  tliey  are  cmi- 
neoteii  w  illi  the  shore  hy  electric  wires  ;  a  buoy  with 
a  sijjiialliii;,'  apparatus  is  attaeheil  to  the  mine,  ami 
when  a  ship  strikes  a  liuoy  it  riiifrs  a  bell  in  the 
Bif^iiallin^'  nM)ni  on  shore;  if  the  ship  is  a  friendly 
one  it  is  alloweil  to  pass,  but  if  it  is  an  enemy's 
siiip  the  mine  is  lireit  by  electricity  and  the  shi]) 
blown  up.  (3)  Elcrtro-coiitttvt  initics :  these  are 
used  only  in  places  where  an  enemy's  shij)  would 
piu-is.  \\  hen  the  mine  is  struck  by  a  jiassinj;  ship 
a  steel  spring;  or  peiululum  moves  towards  the  point 
of  impact  and  thus  closes  the  circuit  and  iires  the 
mine  automatically. 

A  powder  made  by  the  Explosives  Company,  and 
generally  known  under  the  name  of  K.C.  I'mniir, 
la  another  form  in  which  ynn  cotton  can  lie  used. 
There  are  two  de.scri|>tions  of  this  powder — viz. 
sportinj;  and  rille  powder  :  tliey  are  iMith  es,sentially 
granulated  ^'un  cotton,  and  consist  of  small  rounded 
granules,  the  sporting;  powder  bein^r  coloured  orange 
with  aurine,  and  the  rille  powder  yellow  w  ith  picric 
acid. 

Schultze  I'oirder  may  be  mentioned  here  a.s,  al- 
tliougli  not  strictly  speaking  a  gun-cotton  powder, 
it  behuigs  to  the  cla.ss  of  explosive  compounds  not 
containing  nitro  glycerine.  The  process  of  manu- 
facture c(uisists  in  macerating  soft  timl>er  from 
which  all  resinous  ami  fatty  matter  hius  been  cx- 
tnicled  by  chemical  means,  the  residue  l)eing  ]>ure 
linely-diviiled  cellulose:  this  is  saturateil  with 
nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  and  thoroughly  )iurilled 
by  w.-ushing.  The  nitro  compound  thus  formeil  is 
tincly  ground  and  waterproofed,  and  then  sifted 
into  the  various  sizes  of  grain  rcf|uired.  Schultze 
powder  hsia  lieen  numufactured  since  about  the 
year  1S60,  bnt  E.C  is  a  powder  of  more  recent 
date.  Uotli  these  ])Owders  are  now  largely  used 
for  sporting  purpo.ses.  The  great  ailvantagcs  tliey 
possess  over  the  ordinary  black  powder  arc  that 
an  ei|ual  velocity  is  obtained  with  a  very  much 
smaller  charge,  that  they  ilo  not  foul  the  gun,  and 
that  they  are  nearly  smokeless.  But  a<'ainst  this 
must  be  set  the  ilisadvaiitjige  that  under  certain 
conditions  the  strain  on  the  breech  of  the  gun  is 
greater.  But  hitherto  the  re.><ults  obtained  from 
these  powders  when  used  in  military  lirearms  .are 
not  sutliciently  uniform  or  regular  to  justify  their 
adoption  for  military  purposes.  There  can,  how- 
ever, be  liut  little  doubt  that  a  smokeless  powder  of 
some  sort  will,  before  long,  be  universally  adopted 
by  all  the  great  powei-s  of  Europe,  not  only  for 
rilies,  but  also  for  artillery  purposes  ;  it  is  no  longer 
a  question  as  to  whether  a  smokeless  powder  should 
be  ailopted  or  not,  but  which  of  all  the  smokeless 
powilers  experimented  on  is  the  best  for  adoption. 
Smokeless  powders,  in  order  to  l>e  suitable  for 
military  purposas,  must  not  lie  too  violent  in  their 
action,  tney  must  be  able  to  staml  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold,  they  must  not  be  very  liygroscoi)ic, 
and  they  must  keep  well  in  st<ire  without  deteriorat- 
ing in  quality ;  and  the  problem  to  solve  is  to  liud  a 
powder  whicli  will  fiillil  tlie.se  conditions.  Nearly 
all  smokeless  powders  consist  essentially  of  gun- 
cotton,  or  other  lower  forms  of  nitro-cotton,  acteil 
on  by  a  solvent  snch  as  acetic  ether  or  iicetone, 
which  reduces  the  nitrocellulose  to  a  vLscid  paste  ; 
the  paste  is  then  rolled  out  into  sheets,  ami  the 
solvent  allowed  to  evaporate  ;  the  sheets  are  left 
as  a  dense  horny  substance,  and  are  cut  first  into 
strips,  and  then  the  strips  are  cut  cro.sswise  into 
grains  of  any  required  size ;  or  the  substance  can 
be  left  in  stri|>s  or  in  a  fibrous  form. 

The  French,  in  1887,  were  the  first  to  adopt  a 
smokeless  powder  for  the  cartridges  for  their  new 
small-lxire  rille,  the  Lebel.  It  is  known  as  Vieille's 
powder,  or  '  Poudre  B;'  its  exact  comjiosition  has 
teen  kept  a  secret,  but  it  is  believed  that  picric  acid 
k  mi.xed  with  the  paste  as  described  above.     The 


ballistics  attributed  to  this  powder  when  liint 
introduced  were  remarkable  ;  a  charge  of  about  70 
grains  imparted  a  muzzle  velocity  of  2()0()  feet  per 
.second,  to  a  bullet  weighing  230  grains,  lired  from 
a  rille  barrel  whose  calibre  wius  •.'ll.V'.  But  it  was 
found  that  the  powder  rapidly  ilelerioiateil,  and  that 
these  results  were  only  attainable  with  recently 
inanufactureil  powder.  Ileiici-  in  ISMI  ihe  French 
adopteil  another  powder,  the  Kieiich  1!.  N.  I'owiler, 
the  exact  comp<isition  of  which  is  kept  secret. 

The  English  g<ivernmeiit,  after  very  exhaustive 
trials  with  various  kinds  of  smokeless  powders, 
eventually  adopted  in  1891  the  powder  known  as 
lorditc  for  use  in  Her  Majesty's  land  and  naval 
forces.  The  name  comes  from  its  being  made  in  the 
form  of  string  or  cord,  the  size  of  the  cord  being 
dependent  on  the  size  of  the  gun  for  which  it  is 
rei|uired.  It  is  , a  nitroglycerine  jiowder,  and  ciui- 
sists  of  ;>8  percent,  of  nitroglycerine,  .■i7  per  cent, 
of  gun-cotton,  and  ~i  per  cent,  of  mineral  jelly,  ace- 
tone being  nseil  as  a  solvent.  These  ingredients 
are  thoroughly  mixed  or  incorporated  in  a  machine, 
in  which  an?  two  revolving  blades  somewhat  in  the 
form  of  the  .screw  of  a  steamer.  This  process, 
which  takes  .seven  hours,  converts  the  mixture  into 
Ihe  form  of  a  thick  paste,  the  paste  being  the  same 
for  all  sizes  of  cordite.  For  rille  cordite,  the  ]iaste 
is  ]ire.s.sed  through  a  small  hole,  O.'n")'  in  diameter, 
in  a  cylinder,  and  is  wouml  oil'  on  to  reels,  I'acli 
reel  holding  1  lli.  of  cordite.  The  cordite  is  then 
(lrie<l  in  a  drying  room  at  a  temperature  of  alKiut 
105''  Fahrenheit  to  drive  oil"  the  acetone,  ami  in 
this  form  is  ready  for  use  for  loading  into  rille 
carlriilge  cjuses.  I<or  larger  guns,  the  cordite  paste 
is  pressed  thriuigh  plates  Ipiving  holes  of  various 
diameters — the  larger  the  gun  the  larger  the  dia- 
meter of  the  cord.  The  sizes  at  present  in  use  for 
quick-firing  guns  are  as  follows: 

For  3  and  6  pr.  guns,  diameter  -05",  length  of  conl  1 1  incheit. 
,.        12  u  ,.  1".        i,  i.     11       t. 

ti        4-7         ..  II  -i",        .1  ..14      .. 

.1        6  I.  .1  -3",         II  ..      14      .. 

For  heavier  natures,  the  di.ameter  varies  from  -4" 
to  -5",  ami  length  of  cord  is  also  greater.  The 
weight  of  a  charge  of  cordite  varies  from  one-half 
to  twothirils  of  that  of  black  jiowder,  and  with 
this  charge  a  higher  velocity  is  obtained  with  a 
lower  lue.ssure. 

The  German  military  powder  is  also  a  nitro- 
glycerine compound.  It  is  very  similar  to  Nobel's- 
bal/lA-tifc,  in  wiiich  the  iU()porti(Ui  of  nitroglycerine 
and  gun-cotton  are  about  equal,  benzol  being  used  as 
a  solvent :  and  iiiste.a.l  of  lieing  iire.s.seil  into  cords, 
it  is  rolleil  umler  rollers  into  sheet-s,  and  then 
broken  up  into  grains  of  various  sizes. 

The  Smokeless  Powder  Company  have  also  made 
a  powder  suitable  for  military  rilli.'s,  called  riftcite  ; 
as  also  a  very  gooilsporting  smokeless  powder  known 
as  S.S.  These  iiowders  are  m.acle  of  nitro-celliilose 
in  the  form  of  nitro-lignine,  the  variims  shooting 
qualities  being  obtained  by  the  mixture  of  the 
higher  and  lower  nitrates  of  lignine,  uitro-benzol 
being  used  ;us  a  solvent. 

The  following  powilers  are  extensively  used  for 
sporting  purposes — viz.  :  Biillistitr,  already  men- 
tioned: Caniionite,  which  isanitro-cellulose  powder, 
the  gun-cotton  being  dis.solved  in  ether,  and  formed 
into  a  plastic  ma-ss,  in  which  form  it  is  pre.ssed 
through  a  cylinder  with  very  small  holes  in  the 
bottom  plate,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  rillecordite. 
Tlie.se  thin  strings  when  dried  are  then  broken  into 
grains  by  being  pa.ssed  thnuigli  revolving  rollers. 
Aiiiberilc  is  another  nitrocellulose  powder,  the 
gun-cotUm  being  mixed  with  parallin  and  shellac. 
]Valxr<i(lc  is  a  German  powder,  an<l  is  a  i>ure 
gelatinised  nitrocellulose.  The  gun-cotton  being 
completely  dissolved  in  solvents,  the  pla-stic  ma.s8 
being  divided  into  grains  bv  rotation  in  a  barreL 


GUNDAMUK 


GUNNERY 


469 


This  powder  is  kno^vn  as  a  condensed  powder,  the 
charge  necessary  to  produce  the  required  velocity 
occupying  a  very  small  space.  The  Normal  powder 
is  very  similar  to  \Valsrr)de. 

One  of  the  most  powerful  explosives  known  is 
bhisting  gelatine,  made  by  dissolving  7  per  cent,  of 
gun-cotton  in  9.3  per  cent,  of  nitroglycerine ;  it 
forms  a  gelatinous  mass  somewhat  resembling 
honey  in  colour,  and  varying  in  consistency  from  a 
tougii  leathery  material  to  a  soft  substance  like 
stirt  jellv.  It  is  stronger  than  dynamite,  a.s  the 
nitrocellulose  itself  is  explosive,  and,  if  made 
with  great  care,  and  if  absolutely  free  from  all 
impurities,  is  a  safe  and  stable  explosive.  But, 
unless  the  ingredients  of  which  it  is  composed  are 
absolutely  |)ure  and  free  from  all  foreign  matter, 
it  becomes  exceedingly  dangerous  when  stored 
in  large  quantities,  and  is  liable  to  spontaneous 
combustion. 

See  Wardell,  Gunpowder  and  Gun-cotton  (1S89); 
Chmdill,  Dictionary  of  Explosires  ( 1895);  Eissler,  Modern 
Explosives  ( 1S8!> ) ;  Guttmann,  Manufacture  of  Explosins 
(1895);    Sanford,    Nitro  -  Explosives    (1896).       See    also 

CELLDLOln,  KlFLE.S. 

Gnndamiik.    See  Gandamak. 

Gun-factories,  Royal,  form  one  branch  of 

the  Royal  Arsenal  at  Woolwich,  the  other  two 
being  the  Royal  Laboratory  and  Royal  Carriage 
Department  ;  see  W'ihjlwich.  The  process  now 
atlopted  in  manufacturing  guns  is  explained  under 
C.-\NNON.  The  Elswick  foundrj-  was  for  some  time 
recognised  as  an  auxiliary  and  supplement  to 
Woolwich  A^^enal,  the  guns  being  turned  out  at 
a  contract  price,  payable  after  rigid  inspection. 
The  close  connection  between  them  ceased  in  1863, 
but  many  orders  are  still  executed  for  government 
by  the  Elswick  firm. 

Gnns^l.  Josef  (1810-89),  composer,  born  at 
Zsambek  in  Hungaiy,  entered  a  military  band  as 
oboist,  and  wa-s  its  conductor  for  eight  years.  In 
184.3-48  he  gave  concerts  in  Berlin,  and  there  in 
1849,  after  a  visit  to  America,  he  wa.s  appointed 
director  of  the  royal  concerts.  From  1858  to  1864 
he  was  bandmaster  of  an  Austrian  regiment ;  but 
most  of  his  remaining  years  were  employed  in 
concert  tours.  Of  his  400  compositions  most  were 
waltzes  or  other  dances. 

Giin-iuetal.    See  Cannon. 

Gunnel  (Ccntronotus),  a  genus  of  coast  fishes 
in  the  Blenny  family,  but  with  more  elongate  eel- 
like form  than  the  true  blennies.  The  British 
species  (C  gunnellus),  the  spotted  gunnel  or 
buttertish,  is  common  on  British  coasts,  lurking 
under  stones  in  tidal  pools.  The  colour  is  deep 
olive,  with  a  dorsal  row  of  black  spots  surrounded 
by  wliite  rings  ;  the  usual  length  is  about  6  inches  ; 
the  skin  is  thickly  coated  with  a  mucous  secretion. 
It  is  seldom  useil  except  for  bait. 

Gunner,  in  the  British  army,  is  a  private 
soldier  of  the  Royal  Artillery.  His  pay  is  Is.  2id. 
per  diem,  except  in  the  Horse  Artillery,  where  it  is 
Is.  4<1.  ;  his  uniform  is  blue  with  red  facings,  red 
stripes  on  the  trousei-s,  and  yellow  worsted  lace. 
His  arms  consist  of  a  carbine  and  sword-b.ayonet  in 
the  garrison  artillery,  and  a  cavalry  sword  in  the 
hoi-se.  In  the  field  artillery  gunners  carry  no  arms, 
but  two  carbines  are  strajjped  on  to  each  limber. 
Master-gunners  are  warrant  officers  of  artillery, 
generally  placed  in  charge  of  <me  or  more  forts ; 
the  fii'st  class  receive  6s.,  the  sec<ind,  5s.  8tl. ,  and 
the  third,  4s.  6d.  a  day.  The  office  ha.s  much  de- 
generated in  im]iortance  since  it  was  fii-st  created, 
at  least  as  early  ;us  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 

In  the  nar>i  the  gunner  is  an  officer  from  the 
ranks  qualified  in  gunnery,  appointed  by  warrant 
from  the  Admiralty.    Rank  next  after  chief-gunner. 


below  second-lieutenant  in  the  army,  but  above 
master-gunner.  Pay,  from  on.  6d.  to  8s.  3d.,  with 
allowances  in  special  cases.  Pension,  at  age  of 
tifty-five  or  when  unfit,  not  exceeding  £120  a  year. 
Must  pass  examinations  on  board  gunnery  ships 
at  Portsmouth  or  Plymouth.  Unifomi  similar  to 
undress  of  sub-lieutenants,  but  -vrithout  distin- 
guishing marks,  and  with  black-hilted  sword. 
Duties  :  takes  charge  of  all  the  ordnance  stores 
on  l)oard  ship,  ami  is  responsible  under  super- 
intendence for  their  expenditure  and  account ;  has 
a  general  oversight  of^  everything  relating  to  the 
weapons  employed  and  their  proper  use,  either 
under  a  gunnery  officer  or  where  there  is  none.  Is 
entitled  to  a  cabin.  Gunners  are  now  sometimes 
appointed  in  place  of  sub-lieutenants  for  quarter- 
deck duties  and  to  command  torpedo-boats,  &c. 
Chief-gunner  is  a  commissioned  officer  promoted  by 
selection  from  the  gunners.  Rank  next  after  sub- 
lieutenants in  the  navy  and  with  second -lieutenants 
in  the  army.  Pay,  9s.  per  day,  and  pension  at  fifty- 
five  or  when  unfit,  not  exceeding  £150  a  year. 
Uniform  the  same  as  gunner,  but  with  a  single 
gold  stripe  and  loop  on  each  cufF,  the  same  as  sub- 
lieutenant. Duties  the  same  as  those  of  gunner. 
Both  chief-gunner  and  gunner  are  eligible  for  pro- 
motion to  the  rank  of  lieutenant  in  special  cases. 
Gunners-mate  is  a  first-class  petty-officer,  selected 
after  examination  on  board  the  gunnery  ships  from 
men  qualified  as  seamen-gunners.  Wages  the  same 
as  other  fii-st-class  seamen  pettv-officers,  from  2s. 
2d.  to  2s.  5d.  per  day,  but  with  extra  pay  for 
ijunnery  qualifications  varying  from  2d.  to  8d.  per 
day.  t  niform  the  same  as  other  lirst-class  sea- 
men petty-officers,  but  with  devices  on  right  sleeve 
denoting  gunnery  qualifications.  Duties,  assistant 
to  those  of  gunner.  Chief-gunner's  mate  is  a  chief 
petty-officer  promoted  from  the  gunners-mates. 
Pay^  from  2s.  8d.  to  3s.  2d.  per  day,  with  extra 
pay  for  gunnery  qualifications.  Uniform,  that  of 
other  seamen  chief  petty-officers,  but  with  gunnery 
devices  on  right  sleeve.  Duties  the  same  as 
gunners-mates.  Seaman-giiiiner  is  a  seaman  quali- 
fied in  gunnery  subjects  on  board  one  of  the 
gunneiy  ships,  for  which  he  receives  from  2d.  to 
4d.  per  day  extra  ])ay. 

In  the  United  States  navy,  gunners'  wages,  like 
those  of  boatswains  and  carjjentei-s,  range  from 
STOO  when  on  leave  or  waiting  orders  during  the 
first  three  year's'  .service,  to  §1800,  when  at  sea 
after  twelve  years'  service. 

Gunnery  is  the  science  which  goven-s  by  its 
laws  tlie  construction  and  employment  of  all  fire- 
arms, though  the  term  '  musketiy "  is  generally 
applied  to  the  scientific  use  of  small-arms.  It  in- 
volves a  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  metals,  and 
details  of  their  manipulation  in  gun-manufacture, 
as  well  as  the  calculation  of  the  strains  to  which 
the  weapon  will  be  subjected,  the  velocities  of 
projectiles,  and  the  etl'ect  upon  them  of  the  various 
forces  to  which  they  are  cxjHised  in  the  bore  of  the 
gun  and  during  their  llight  through  the  air. 

This  subject  was  first  treated  of  by  an  Italian 
mathematician,  Nicolas  Tartaglia,  who  in  1537 
published  La  Xuora  Scictitia.  He  also  invented 
the  gunner's  Quadrant.  Many  other  writers  fol- 
lowed him,  of  whom  the  ])rincipal  was  Galileo, 
whose  Dialogues  on  Motion  were  printed  in  1638. 
But  the  real  founder  of  the  science  was  Benjamin 
Robins  (q.v.),  whose  Neie  Principles  of  Gunnery 
appeared  in  1742,  and  treated  of  atmospheric 
resistance,  the  force  of  gunpowder,  the  eft'ects  of 
varying  the  length  and  weight  of  guns,  &c.  His 
invention,  the  Ballistic  Pemlulum  (q.v.),  enabled 
the  velocity  of  a  cannon-ball  to  be  measured,  and 
was  generally  useil  for  that  purpose  until  super- 
seded by  Navez's  electro-ballistic  pendulum  about 
1862.     Euler,   Halton,  and  others  added  by  their 


470 


GUNNY-BAGS 


GUNPOWDER 


cuiiiiiientarie»  on  Kobins's  work  to  the  f,'eneral 
kni>\vledj;e  of  the  subject  wliicli  existed  up  to  the 
end  of  the  18th  century.  In  1840  I'rofessor  Wheat- 
stone  invented  an  electric  ciironoscope  for  nieasurinjj; 
velocities,  whirh  wsis  followed  by  tho.-e  of  Navez- 
Leurs,  Bashforth,  Noble,  and  l)e  llouleiif;e.  In 
1878-80  the  Kev.  I'".  ISashforth  prixluced  his  chrono- 
;^raph  for  measuring;  the  resist.inoe  of  the  air  to 
the  motion  of  elongated  |projectiles.  By  means  of 
his  tallies  and  the  various  instruments  now  iilaced 
at  their  disposal,  mathematicians  are  able  to  calcu- 
late the  proper  len;,'tli,  thickness  of  metal,  size  of 
chamber,  charj^e,  form  of  projectile  and  method 
of  rotatinj;  it  for  a  f^un  of  j^iven  calibre,  and  also 
to  determine  the  time  of  llij;ht,  jienetration,  height 
and  velocity  at  any  jxnnt,  and  elev.itii>n  requireil 
for  any  range,  &c.  'I  he  latter  are  most  necessary 
in  order  that  the  gun  may  Im;  skilfully  haiuUeii, 
and  each  weapon  has  its  '  rauge  table'  made  out, 
giving  these  particulars. 

The  official  Text  hook  of  Gunner;/  (1887),  by 
Major  Mackinlay,  K.A.,  is  one  of  the  l)est  modern 
treatises  on  this  sul>ject,  and  has  been  largely 
nuoteil  in  foreign  works,  notably  in  the  External 
Ba/lislus  oi  C;i\>t:un  Ingalls,  I'.S.  .Artillery. 

In  1880  Major  K.  Siacci,  of  the  Italiiui  .Artillery, 
put  forwanl  a  nutthod  of  solving  trajectories  and 
problems  in  ballistics,  and  his  formula'  have  l)een 
used  by  artillerists  of  all  nations  with  very  satis- 
factory results. 

Without  e.xplaining  the  intricate  calculations  and 
delicate  instruments  used,  it  may  be  interesting  t<i 
give  a  few  examples  of  gunnery  ]>roblems.  A  sliot 
was  lired  at  Shoeburyncss  in  1887,  and  called  the 
Jubilee  shot,  from  a  9'2-incli  wire-gun  at  an  angle 
of  40°  elevation,  by  which  it  wius  thought  an 
extreme  range  would  be  obtained.  The  calculated 
range  was  •20,7ti">3  yards  (say  12  miles!  ;  maxinmm 
height,  17,1  lO'C  feet :  time  of  lliglit,  63"787  .seconds  ; 
angle  of  ilescent,  53°  50'.  The  actual  range  was 
20."23G  yards. 

The  neces-sary  elevation  for  a  12-inch  4.'>-ton  gun, 
firing  with  a  charge  of  21)5  lb.  and  a  muzzle  velocity 
of  1910  feet  per  second  at  a  point  .S(KX)  yards  distant 
and  1270  feet  above  it,  is  found  to  be  2"  25'.  An 
8-inch  howitzer  of  70  cwt.  is  to  breach  the  escarj>  of 
a  ditch  50  feet  wide,  with  common  shell  and  delay- 
action  fuze  the  angle  of  descent  must  l)e  14'  and 
the  striking  velocity  not  less  than  (ifK)  feet  jier 
second  ;  required  the  least  nece.s.sarv  distance  of  the 
howitzer  from  the  escarp,  the  re(|uisitH  charge  of 
powder,  and  angle  of  elevation.  Answer,  1936 
yards,  ti  lb.  U.L.t.J.'-  powder,  and  13°  23'. 

In  designing  a  rille  of  which  the  velocity  is  to  be 
800  feet  per  second  at  1000  yarils,  and  trajectory  in 
no  place  higher  than  32  feet,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
the  proportions  of  weight  of  bullet  to  calibre,  which 


are  fo\ind  by  Siacci's  formuhe  to  be  358  grains  for 
a  calibre  of  38  inch,  or  254  grains  for  •32-inch 
calibre. 

From  these  ami  similar  examples  it  will  be  under- 
stood that  gunnery  has  become  one  of  the  exact 
sciences.  Tlie  excellence  of  m<«lern  machinery 
enables  the  mainifacture  of  weapon,  projectile, 
powder,  and  fuze  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  theo- 
rists, while  such  inventions  as  Watkin's  position 
and  mnge  linders  and  Scott's  telescopic  siglit-s  put 
it  in  the  power  of  the  trained  artilleryman  to  show 
equally  g<)4Hl  re.sults  in  practice.  See  Breech- 
LOADl'xG,  C.\N.\()X.  KlFLE;  for  the  School  of 
Gunnery  at  Shoeburyness,  see  ARTILLERY. 

Guilliy-bass  are  made  of  a  coarse  jute  fabric 
{see  .JlTE),  and  are  very  largely  exported  from 
India  to  various  parts  of  the  world.  American 
cotton  is  largely  packed  in  these.  They  can  lie 
manufactured  at  a  low  price,  hence  the  great 
demand  for  them.  The  name  gunny  is  applied 
to  the  cloth  as  well  as  to  the  made-up  b.igs.    About 


1850  the  peasant  hand-looms  of  Lower  Bengal  met 
both  the  home  and  the  foreign  demand  for  Indian- 
nitule  gunny-bags — inileed  the  making  of  these 
wa-s  then  the  great  domestic  industry  of  that  portion 
of  India,  giving  occupation  to  men,  women,  and 
children  of  nearly  every  chuss.  Even  Imatmen  and 
domestic  servants  emplo\e<l  their  spare  moments 
at  them.  At  the  present  time  the  nunilH'r  made  at 
the  great  steam  factories,  of  which  there  are  now 
twenty-three  in  India,  far  exceeds  what  is  pro- 
duced by  hand-looms.  For  example,  in  the  year 
1885,  82,77!t.'2<l7  gunny-bags  were  exporte<l  from 
India,  of  which  only  five  millions  were  woven  by 
hand.  In  the  same  year  forty  millions  of  these 
bags  were  sent  from  llengal  to  other  parts  of  India, 
and  it  was  estimated  that  nearly  as  many  were 
used  in  Bengal  itself.  The  total  value  of  the 
Bengal  trade  in  jute  manufactures  (mainly  gunny- 
hags  or  cloth )  in  1885  was  believed  to  be  not  far 
short  of  £3,000,IKI0.  In  India  gunny-liags  are  em- 
ployed for  agricultural  and  internal  trade  purposes, 
out  many  are  also  .sent  <mt  of  the  conntrv  filled 
with  grain  and  other  nroduce.  Cloth  ami  hags  of 
the  same  kind  are  made  in  Dundee. 

Glinpowdpr  is  a  well-known  explosive  mixture 
C()m|i(iscd  of  saltiietre,  charcoal,  ami  sulphur  mixed 
together  in  certain  proportions,  somewhat  varying 
in  ilill'ereut  countries  and  in  different  descriptions 
of  powtler. 

'I'he  early  history  of  gunj)Owder  is  very  obscure  ; 
but  there  appears  to  be  little  doubt  that  the  ex- 
plosive nature  of  saltpetre  (the  great  bulk  of  which 
comes  eithei  fiom  India  or  China)  when  mixed  with 
charcoal  or  carbon  was  known  to  the  Chinese  for 
many  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  It  may 
be  assumed  that  the  discovery  of  this  jironerty  of 
.saltpetre  was  accidental :  a  wooil  lire  lighted  on  the 
earth  where  saltpetre  was  mixed  with  the  soil 
would  bring  the  two  ingredients  together,  and  the 
action  of  the  heat  would  be  sullicient  to  show  the 
nature  or  property  of  the  mixture  so  brought  about 
when  raised  to  a  certain  temperature.  It  is  certain 
that  lireworks  were  known  in  China  from  very  early 
periods ;  but  in  a  pamphlet  written  by  Colonel 
(tmodei  (Turin,  1834),  and  later  in  an  article  in  the 
Atliriiiriim  of  I)e<-ember  26,  18t58,  by  Cajitain  (now 
Lieut. -tieneral )  Henry  Ihackenbiiry.  I{..-\.,  the 
i|uestioii  as  to  the  lirst  invention  of  ;;uniioW(ler  was 
fully  di.scus.sed,  and  the  conclusion  arrived  at  was 
that  there  is  great  rea.son  to  doubt  whether  either 
the  Chinese  or  any  other  Asiatic  iveojile  invented 
gunpowiler  in  its  true  sense,  or  were  the  first  to 
use  it  as  a  |)ropelIing  agent.  It  was  left  for  more 
western  nations  to  develoji  the  discovery  of  the 
Chinese,  and  our  first  knowledge  of  the  use  of  gun- 
powder iis  a  military  agent  dates  from  the  7th 
century,  when  it  was  used  by  the  Byzantine  eiu- 
j)erors,  under  the  name  of  Greek  Fire  (q.v. ),  in  the 
defence  of  Constantinople  against  the  Saracens, 
who,  discovering  the  secret  of  its  mamif;icture,  used 
it  against  the  Cru.sadei-s,  not  however itsa  jiropelling 
agent,  but  in  the  form  of  rockets  or  liipii<l  fire.  Its 
first  use  in  Europe  as  a  propelling  agent  was  in 
Spain,  where  both  the  Moors  ami  Christians  used 
some  <le.scription  of  artillery  as  early  as  the  12th 
centiirv'.  Roger  Bacon  fii-st  introduced  it  into  Eng- 
land. Whether  he  discovered  it  indei>endently 
of  foreign  aid,  or  whether  he  conceivc(f  the  idea 
from  ancient  manuscripts,  is  uncertain  ;  but  the 
latter  is  the  more  ])robaole,  as  the  name  first  given 
to  it  was  criike,  presumably  a  corruption  of  the 
woril  rjrer.  Bacon's  discoverv-  dates  from  a  period 
early  in  the  13tli  century,  but,  owing  to  the  crude 
and  uncertain  means  adopted  for  mixing  the 
ingredients,  it  was  of  no  practical  value  till  the 
German  monk,  Bertliold  Schwarz,  introduced, 
somewhere  about  the  year  1.320,  a  method  of  manu- 
facture by  which  the  ingredients  were  thoroughly 


GUNPOWDER 


471 


incorporated;  the  meal  powder  thus  made  was  first 
used  in  England  as  a  propelling  agent  by  Edward 
III.  in  his  war  against  the  Scotch  in  1327,  the  tubes 
from  which  he  propelled  the  shot  being  called  irakei/s 
of  vat:  The  same  king  subsequently  used  cannon 
at  the  battle  of  Crecy  in  1346.  From  that  date  the 
use  of  gunpowder  throughout  Europe  soon  became 
general,  the  Russians,  who  in  1889  celebrated  the 
500th  anniversarj'  of  its  introduction  into  Kussia, 
being  tlie  last  to  adopt  it.  Until  the  reign  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  by  far  tlie  larger  quantity  of 
powder  required  by  the  English  was  obtained  from 
abroad ;  but  in  her  reign  its  manufacture  was 
introduced  into  England.  Tlie  earliest  English 
powder-mills  of  which  there  is  any  record  were 
established  at  Long  Ditton  and  Godstoue,  in 
Surrey,  by  George  Evelyn  (John  Evelyn's  gi-and- 
father)  in  1590  ;  the  Favei-sham  mills  were  started 
soon  after  this  date,  as  were  also  those  at  Waltham 
Abbey.  The  mills  at  Faversham  subsequently  be- 
came the  government  powder- factorj',  and  in  1787 
the  government  also  bought  the  mills  at  Waltham 
Abbev,  which  have  remained  in  its  hands  down 
to  this  day.  The  Faversham  mills  were  given  up 
by  the  government  after  the  peace  of  1815;  they 
were  soon  after  bought  by  Messrs  John  Hall  &  Son, 
who  still  retain  them. 

Tlie  mode  of  manufacture  adopted  in  England 
when  these  several  powder-mills  were  all 
thoroughly  established  remained  jiractically  un- 
chantred  up  to  within  the  last  thirty -live  years. 
But  uefore  proceeding  with  a  description  of  the 
manufacture  and  of  the  diti'erent  powders  now  in 
use,  it  will  1)6  desirable  to  consider  ver>-  briefly  the 
part  played  by  the  several  ingredients  of  which 
gunpowder  is  composed,  and  the  chemical  action 
which  takes  place  on  ignition.  The  saltpetre  or 
nitrate  of  potash,  KNUj,  acts  as  a  magazine  of 
o.xygen,  with  which  it  readily  parts  wlien  raised  t<5 
a  certain  temperature.  When  the  powder  is  tired, 
the  o.xygen  of  the  saltpetre  converts  most  of  the 
carbon  of  the  charcoal  into  carbonic  acid,  CO™,  a 
portion  of  which  combines  with  the  potash  of  the 
nitre  to  form  carbonate  of  pot;t.sh,  KCO3,  the 
remainder  existing  in  the  state  of  gas,  and  the 
nitrogen  is  liberated.  The  suli)liur,  which  perfoims 
the  part  of  a  second  combiLstible  in  gunpowder,  is 
for  tlie  most  part  converted  into  sulphuric  acid,  SO,, 
and  tonus  sulphate  of  potash.  The  reaction  on 
tiring  tlie  gun|)owder  may  be  expresse<l  by  the 
eouation  KO,X03  +  S  +  3C  =  3C0„  -t-  X  -f  KS. 
The  heat  generated  by  the  explosion  evolves  a  large 
quantity  of  elastic  ga.ses,  the  expansive  power  of 
which  is  greatly  increased  by  the  heat.  The  pressure 
being  equal  in  all  directions,  the  work  dcme  on  the 
projectile  in  the  bore  of  the  gun  is  due  to  this 
ela.sticity  and  expansive  force.  The  methotl  adopted 
for  measuring  the  amount  of  pressure  in  the  oore 
of  the  gun  will  be  dealt  with  hereaflei. 

Sir  Frederick  Abel,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  and  Sir 
Andrew  Noble,  K.C.B.,  carried  out  two  series  of 
most  exhaustive  and  complete  experiments  on  tired 
gunpowder,  and  the  conclusions  they  arrived 
at  were  communicated  by  them  to  the  Royal 
Society  in  two  papers  (1875-80)  under  the  lieail 
of  'Researches  on  tired  Gunpowder.'  The  results 
are  summarised  as  follows  :  when  tired  in  a  con- 
fined space  (1)  the  products  of  combustion  are 
about  57  per  cent,  by  weight  of  ultimately  solid 
niattt-r  and  43  per  cent,  of  permanent  gases;  (2) 
the  permanent  gases  occupy  about  280  times  the 
volume  of  the  original  powder;  (3)  the  tension  of 
tlie  products  of  combustion  when  the  powder 
entirely  tills  the  space  in  which  it  is  tired  is  about 
6400  atmospheres,  or  42  tons  per  square  inch  ;  (4) 
the  temperature  of  explosion  is  about  4000°  F. ; 
(5)  the  chief  gaseous  products  are  carbonic  acid, 
nitrogen,  and  carbonic  oxide ;  (6)  the  solid  residue  is 


mainly  composed  of  potassium  carbonate,  sulphide, 
and  sulphate. 

F'rom  the  foregoing  description  of  the  part 
played  by  the  nitrate  of  potash  it  might  be  thought 
that  it  would  be  highly  advantageous  to  make 
gunpowder  with  some  nitrate  containing  a 
larger  percentage  of  oxygen  than  nitrate  of  potas- 
sium ;  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  there  are  a  large 
number  of  nitrate  mixtures  other  than  gunpowder 
in  which  nitrate  of  sodium,  barium,  or  ammonium 
are  substituted  for  the  nitrate  of  potassium.  But 
unfortunately  they  are  extremely  hygroscopic,  so 
tliat  gunpowder  made  with  them  would,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  soon  become  useless  on 
account  of  the  damp  it  would  absorb  from  the 
atmosphere.  In  a  hot  drj'  climate  nitrate  of  soda 
powders  would  doubtless  be  valuable,  besides  being 
much  cheaper  to  manufacture  than  nitrate  of 
potash  powders  :  indeed  such  powders  were  used 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  construction  of  the 
Suez  Canal  ;  but,  as  these  powders  are  not  in 
general  use,  it  is  unnecessarj'  to  refer  to  them 
further. 

Proi:ess  of  Manufacture. — The  method  of  manu- 
facture of  OTupowder  at  the  Royal  (Junpowder 
Factorj-  at  Waltham  Abbey  (fully  explained  in  the 
official  handbook )  may  he  liriefly  described.  As  in 
all  other  explosives,  it  is  essential  that  the  ingredi- 
ents of  which  the  powder  is  composed  should  be  as 
pure  as  possible.  The  selection  and  preparation  of  the 
charcoal  is  of  the  greatest  importance  ;  for,  without 
any  change  in  the  proportions  of  the  components, 
the  properties  of  tlie  gainpowder  are  capable  of 
great  variation  from  the  quality  of  the  charcoal  used 
in  its  nianufncture.  The  ingredients  are  first 
reduced  to  a  Hue  jiowder  by  grinding.  They  are 
then  mixed  by  hand  in  the  proportion  of  75  per 
cent,  by  weight  of  saltpetre,  15  of  charcoal,  and  10 
of  sulphur,  and  are  next  tlioroughly  incorporated 
in  a  wet  state  in  a  powder-mill  into  a  cake  called 
a  mill-cake.  This  cake  is  then  broken  down 
between  copper-plates  into  meal.  From  this  meal- 
powder  all  granulated  powders  are  made.  The  meal 
is  compressed  in  a  press-bo.x,  the  amount  of  com- 
pression it  undergoes  being  dependent  on  the 
density  of  powder  required.  After  compression  the 
press-cake  is  broken  into  jiieces  ready  for  granulat- 
ing, which  is  done  in  the  gi-anulating  macliine,  the 
jiowder  imssing  between  gun-metal  rollei-s  till  it  is 
broken  into  giains  of  the  required  size,  diflerent 
powders  being  made  to  pass  through  sieves  whose 
meshes  are  of  the  size  of  the  <jiain  required.  There 
is  a  considerable  amount  of  dust  formed  by  the 
granulating  process,  so  that  after  granulating  it  is 
necessary  to  dust  the  powder  previous  to  glazing  it, 
which  is  the  next  operation.  It  is  glazed  in  glazing 
drums,  which,  revolving  rapidly,  impart  a  glaze  to 
the  powder  simply  by  the  friction  set  up.  The 
powder  is  now  stoveil  or  dried  in  copper-trays  in  a 
arying  room,  which  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of 
about  100"  F.,  and  the  powder  is  left  in  this  room 
from  one  to  two  houre  according  to  the  amount  of 
moisture  that  it  contains.  Formerly  all  powder  was 
granulated,  but  the  enormous  increase  in  the  size 
of  the  guns  no«  used  necessitated  the  introduction 
of  other  descriptions  of  jiowder — viz.  cut  and 
tnuuldcd  powilei>.  In  the  cut  powders,  after  the 
pnicess  of  prcssiii;/,  the  press-cake,  instead  of  being 
granulated,  is  first  cut  into  strips,  and  these  strips 
are  then  cut  into  cubes,  and  the  powtler  so  made 
is  called  cubical  or  pebble  powder  ;  there  are  at 
present  two  sizes — \'iz.  gincli  and  U-inch  cubes. 
In  the  mouliled  powdei's,  as  is  ini|ilied  in  the  name, 
each  grain  or  piece  of  powder  is  mouhled  or  pressed 
in  a  separate  mould.  This  is  done  in  a  hydraulic 
machine.  The  exact  quantity  of  granulated  powder 
required  to  form  each  prism  is  deposite<l  in  a  block 
containing  sixty -four  moulds  ;  the  powder  in  these 


472 


GUNPOWDER 


nioiiKIs  is  then  pressed  liy  plun^'ei-s  exactly  littiii^- 
tlie  moulds  till  tlie  required  density  is  oljtained. 
Tills  powder  is  culled  /irixniatic  puitt/cr,  tlie  tfiains 
or  pellets  liein^'  in  the  form  of  hexagonal  prisms 
nearly  1  inch  in  hei;,'ht  and  aliout  IJ  inch  across, 
with  a  hole  in  the  middle  ahoiit  ,Vth  of  an 
inch  in  iliameter,  the  ohject  of  which  will  lie 
cxjilained  later  on.  There  are  two  descriptions  of 
prismatic  powder — hlack  and  brown.  The  propor- 
tions of  injitredients  in  the  black  powder  are  the 
same  as  in  all  other  English  military  powders ;  bnl 
in  the  brown  powder  the  charcoal  is  made  from 
straw,  instead  of  from  wood,  and  the  proportion  of 
the  ingredients  arc  a.s  follows  ;  viz.  saltpetre  "9, 
cliarcoiil  IS.  anil  siilplinr  ;{  per  cent. 

Gunjiowder  more  nearly  fullils  the  objects 
required  in  a  ])ropelling  agent  than  any  other 
explosive  hitherto  discovered.  These  objects  are 
( I )  a  maximum  muzzle  velocity  with  even  and  low 
pressures:  (2)  uniformity  of  action,  so  that  the 
same  results  may  alw.iys  be  expected  ;  (3)  freedcmi 
from  fouling;  (4)  durability — i.e.  that  it  is  not 
liable  to  injury  in  transjiort.  and  that  its  condition 
does  not  materially  alter  when  stored. 

The  advantages  of  gunjiowder  over  other  ex]>lo- 
sives  are  ( 1 )  that,  the  rate  of  combustion  being 
gradual,  the  explosion  is  not  so  severe  on  the  bore 
of  the  gun  as  in  the  ca.se  of  more  violent  explo- 
sives ;  ("2)  the  ingredients  of  which  it  is  coni]>osed 
are  easily  produced  and  are  cheaji  :  (3)  it  is,  with 
proper  iiiecautions,  safe  in  manufacture,  in  store,  or 
in  transport.  Experiments  made  by  the  Explosives 
Committee  have  shown  that  any  alteration  in  the 
proportions  of  the  ingredients  has  not  so  great  an 
intluence  on  the  '  explosiveness '  or  rate  of  burning 
as  the  density,  hardness,  size,  and  shape  of  grain 
and  amount  of  glaze.  The  density  of  grain  Iwus  an 
important  ertect  on  the  rate  of  burning.  Hy 
abs(dute  density  is  meant  the  amount  of  powder 
actually  present  in  a  certain  bulk — i.e.  if  ditt'erent 
quantities  of  meal-pow<ler,  containing  an  eipial 
amount  of  moisture,  be  pressed  into  cakes  of  the 
.same  size,  that  which  contains  the  most  meal 
will  be  densest ;  then,  if  these  cakes  be  ignited 
simultaneously,  the  cake  which  has  the  least 
density  will  be  the  first  to  be  completely  burnt. 
Hardness  does  not  depend  on  density;  increased 
hardness  is  given  by  pressing  the  meal  in  a  moister 
comlitiim.  Size  and  shape  of  grain  are  also  import- 
ant characteristics  to  be  considered  in  connection 
with  the  explosiveness  of  powiler.  Other  things 
being  equal,  a  larger-grained  powder  burns  slower 
than  a  smaller-grained  ;  and  in  grain  of  eciual 
weight  that  whicli  lias  the  largest  surface  will  burn 
the  ipiickest.  A  highly-glazed  powder,  again, 
burns  slower  than  an  nnglazed  one,  jirobably  be- 
cause the  glaze  somewhat  retards  its  thorough  igni- 
tion. The  temperature  at  which  jiowder  ignites 
varies  from  5.30'  to  600'  F.,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  powiler,  the  finest  sporting  powder  igniting 
at  the  higher  temperature. 

It  is  only  of  late  years  that  all  these  points  have 
received  tlie  attention  they  deserve,  but  they  have 
been  forced  upon  the  authorities  by  the  nece.ssities 
of  the  times.  As  soon  as  ships  liegan  to  be  plated 
with  armour,  gnus  had  to  be  made  which  could 
throw  a  projectile  capable  of  piercing  that  armour  ; 
and  as  the  armour  increased  in  thickness  so  did  the 
guns  increase  in  size  and  power,  throwing  heavier 
projectiles,  which  necessitates  an  enormous  powder 
charge  to  |)ropel  the  shot.  In  fomier  days  there 
was  a  beautiful  simplicity  about  powder.  Practi- 
cally there  were  but  two  kinds,  one  for  muskets 
called  fine  grain  or  F.O.,  and  the  other  for  cannon 
called  large  grain  or  L.tl. ,  and  no  particular  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  the  quality  :  it  was  certainly  not 
Bubjected  to  the  searching  proofs  and  tests  which 
all  powders  made  in  these  days  have  to  undergo. 


The  first  improvement  in  powder  took  place  on  the 
introiluction  of  rilled  arms,  when  a  rillc  line-grain 

Iiowder  or  IM'M;.,  slightly  larger  in  the  grain  than 
•".<;.,  and  a  ritle  large-grain  powiler  or  H.L.Il.,  the 
grains  of  which  were  about  twice  the  size  of  those 
of  I>.t;.,  were  introduced  for  small-arms  and  cannon 
respectively.  The  I{.  !•'.(;.  jiowder  was  improved 
and  iiiaile  of  a  rather  smaller  grain,  the  size  of 
grain  being  from  ,','li  t"  ;'.■•''  "'  >^"  inch,  on  the 
introduction  of  the  Martini-Henry  rifie,  and  this 
jiowder,  known  as  K.l'M;.'-',  has  not  since  been 
altered.  l!ut  in  cannon  ]iowder,  or  powder  for 
large  guns,  the  ili'velojiment  has  been  great  and 
continuous.  When  1!. !,.(;.  jiowder  was  introduced 
it  was  the  largest  grained  and  slowest  burning 
powder  then  in  existence  in  England  ;  but  as  the 
guns  were  made  larger  and  larger  it  became 
necessary  to  use  a  slower-lmniing  powder,  which 
led  first  to  the  introduction  of  1{. !.,.(;.'-',  having 
grains  varying  in  size  from  3  to  G  to  the  inch  ;  that 
is,  the  grains  must  Jiass  through  a  sieve  of  3  meshes 
to  the  inch,  and  must  not  jiass  through  one  of  6 
meshes  to  the  inch.  A  short  time  afterwards  a  still 
larger  powder  called  K.  L.U.*,  with  grains  of  nearly 
half  an  inch  in  size,  was  introduced.  This  was 
soon  followed  bv  pebble  i)owder,  a  still  further 
development  of  It.L.d.,  for  guns  of  large  calibre 
for  which  !{.!..(;.*  was  not  suitable.  The  fiist 
]iattern  of  pebble  or  I*,  powder  was  cut  in  cubes  of 
about  liivlf  an  inch  in  size,  and  a  second  pattern  or 
1*.-  was  made  in  cubes  of  about  U  inch  in  size, 
with  rounded  edges.  Hoth  these  powders  have  a 
density  of  I  '75,  whereas  that  of  the  K.  L.ti.  powders 
is  1  (V).  Next  in  order  came  the  prismatic  powders, 
of  which  there  are  two  descriptions — viz.  prismatic 
black  or  I'risni'  and  |irismatic  brown  or  I'risiu' 
brown,  a  description  of  which  has  been  given  under 
the  head  of  manufacture.  There  arc  two  other 
powdei's  of  a  special  pattern  which  may  be  men- 
tioned— viz.  M.G.'  which  is  used  only  in  the  1-iiich 
Nordenfelt  machine  gun,  the  size  of  grain  of  which 
is  considerably  larger  and  of  more  even  size  than 
that  of  H.K.t;.-';  and  Q.E.',  a  powder  which  at 
present  is  used  only  in  the  3-  and  6  ]>ouniler  qiiick- 
liriiig  guns,  the  size  of  grains  lieing  about  half  an 
inch  square  by  about  ,V.  of  an  inch  thick. 

The  powdei's  of  other  nations  dill'er  but  slightly 
from  those  manufactured  in  England  ;  the  iiiethotl 
of  manufacture  is  the  same  in  priiici]de,  but  the 
proportions  of  the  ingredients  vary  to  a  slight 
degiee  in  every  nation. 

Having  now  described  the  various  powdei-s  in 
use,  it  remains  to  .say  a  few  words  about  velocities 
and  jiressures.  The  great  desideratum  with  all 
firearms  is  to  obtain  the  maximum  velocity  with 
the  luinimuiii  of  ])re.ssure,  and  in  the  experiments 
and  investigations  carried  out  by  the  committee  on 
exiilosives,  and  by  Sir  K.  Abel  and  Sir  A.  Noble, 
tins  end  was  kept  in  view.  It  has  already  been 
pointed  out  that  the  rate  at  which  [lowder  burns 
depends  greatly  on  the  density,  hardness,  size,  and 
shape  of  grain  :  the  greater  the  density  the  slower 
it  will  burn  ;  the  larger  the  grain  the  slower  it  will 
burn,  simply  because  the  amount  of  lighting  sur-  ' 
face  is  reduced  in  iiroportion  to  the  volunie  ;  and 
the  smoother  the  surface  of  the  grain  the  slower  it 
will  burn  for  the  same  reason.  A  powder  there- 
fore com|iosed  of,  coiiipaiatively  sjieaking,  small 
grains  ot  irregular  size  and  shape,  burns  very 
rapidly,  and  generates  a  large  volume  of  gas  sud- 
denly, thus  setting  up  a  vei-j'  high  pressure  in  the 
bore  of  the  gun.  In  some  of  the  experiments  of  the 
committee  the  pressure  recorded  in  the  bfue  of  the 
gun  was  as  high  as  60  tons  to  the  square  inch  ;  but, 
as  Captain  Noble  hail  previously  discovered  that 
the  maximum  ]iressure  of  powder  fired  in  a  con- 
fined space  did  not  exceed  4'2  tons,  this  extra  pres- 
sure could  only  be  due  to  wave-action,  a  sudden 


GUNPOWDER 


GUNPOWDER    PLOT 


473 


evolution  of  gas  locally  causing  a  vibiatorj'  motion 
of  the  gas.  This  led  to  the  introduction  of  larger- 
grained  powders,  so  as  to  retard  the  burning  of  the 
charge,  but  this  did  not  entirely  do  away  with  the 
wave  pressure.  It  was  next  sought  to  diniinisli 
the  pressure  by  giving  airspace  to  the  charge,  as 
it  was  found  that  the  density  of  the  charge — not 
the  density  of  the  grain — materially  ati'ected  the 
pressure ;  this  air-space  was  given  by  enlarging  the 
chamber  of  the  gun,  and  although  it  became  neces- 
sary to  increase  the  charge  so  as  to  maintain  the 
same  muzzle  velocity,  it  was  found  that  the  pres- 
sure was  sensibly  diminished. 

But  whilst  Great  IJritain  was  still  adhering 
to  pebble  powder,  other  nations  had  adopted  a 
prismatic  powder  with  a  hole  througli  the  centre 
of  the  pellets  or  prisms.  The  i<lea  of  this 
perforated  powder  is  due  to  General  Kodnian,  an 
American  artillerj'  officer,  who  thought  that  by 
this  means  a  charge  of  powder  would  evolve  the 
gas  at  a  more  uniform  rate.  In  a  diarge  composed 
of  solid  "rains,  the  grains  being  lighted  on  the  sur- 
face and  burning  towards  the  centre,  the  surface 
giving  oft'  gas  rapidly  decreases,  and  therefore  the 
volume  of  gas  given  off  by  the  grain  will  be 
greatest  wlien  the  charge  is  first  fired,  and  will 
rapidly  fall  off;  hence  the  ma.ximum  pressure  on 
the  bore  of  the  gun  is  set  up  almost  before  the  ])ro- 
jectile  commences  to  move.  To  overcome  tliLs,  the 
idea  occurred  to  General  Rodman  to  have  a  hole 
through  eacli  large  grain  or  pellet  of  pow'der,  so  as 
to  give  the  grain  an  interior  as  well  as  an  exterior 
lighting  surface,  so  that  as  the  exterior  ligliting 
surface  decreased  the  interior  lighting  surface  in- 
creased,  thus  preserving  the  ignited  surface  more 
uniform  during  the  burning  of  the  pellet,  and 
therefore  keeping  up  a  more  constant  evolution  of 
gas.  Tliis  tends  to  distril)ute  the  pres.sure  more 
\inili)rmly  along  the  bore  of  tlie  gun,  and  increases 
tlie  initial  velocity  of  the  projectile.  The  Ru.ssians 
in  1860  were  tlie  first  to  adopt  this  plan,  followed 
by  the  Germans,  the  English  being  the  last  to 
take  it  up  ;  it  is  now,  however,  adopted  for  the 
heaviest  guns  in  the  English  service,  the  charge 
being  built  up  of  the  hexagonal  iirisms  already 
described,  so  arranged  that  the  holes  througli 
each  column  of  prisms  shall  be  continmms  from 
one  en<l  of  the  charge  to  the  other.  The  intro- 
duction of  this  powder  has  enabled  the  type  of 
gun  to  be  entirely  altered  ;  a  description  of  the 
guns  now  in  the  service  will  be  fouiul  uruler  the 
head  of  Cannon,  Kifles  (q.v.).  We  are  indebted 
to  the  Germans  for  the  invention  of  brown  or 
cocoa  powder  ;  it  is  claimed  for  tliis  powder  that 
it  gives  a  higher  initial  velocity  with  less  pressure 
than  the  same  charije  of  black  powder. 

The  same  principles  as  have  been  enunciated  here 
with  regard  to  guns  should  govern  the  selection 
of  powder  for  mining  or  blasting  purposes.  If  it 
is  (fesired  to  shatter  a  nia.ss  of  rock,  a  verv  violent 
quick-burning  powder,  having  a  great  dr-^ruijlive 
force,  should  be  used  ;  but  if  it  is  only  desired  to 
dislo<lge,  say,  a  ma.ss  of  coal  without  sliattering  it, 
a  denser,  slower-burning  powder  should  be  chosen. 

The  instrument  generally  used  for  taking  velo- 
cities is  a  chronogiaph,  the  invention  of  Major  De 
Boulengi  of  the  Belgian  Artillery.  It  consists 
of  a  brass  column  supporting  two  electro-mag- 
nets. No.  1  electro-magnet  supports  a  long  cylin- 
drical rod,  called  the  chronometer,  covered  by 
a  zinc  tube ;  No.  2  electro-magnet  supports  a 
shorter  rod.  Two  screens  of  copper  wire  are 
placed  at  certain  lixed  distances  in  front  of  the 
muzzle  of  the  gun.  No.  1  electro-magnet  is  mag- 
netised by  the  current  passing  through  the  first 
screen,  and  No.  2  by  the  current  passing  through 
the  second  screen.  As  the  shot  passes  thnnigh  the 
first  screen  the  current  is  broken,  and  the  rod  or 


chronometer  suspended  by  No.  1  electro-magnet 
falls  by  gravity.  Similarly,  when  the  shot  passes 
through  the  second  screen,  the  shorter  weight  sus- 
pended bj'  No.  2  electro-magnet  falls  on  to  a  disc, 
which,  pressing  a  spring,  causes  a  knife  to  be  re- 
leased, and  this,  darting  forward,  strikes  the 
chronometer  in  its  fall,  making  an  indent  in  the 
zinc  tube.  The  distance  of  this  indent  from  the  zero 
point  bein"  measured  off'  on  a  scale  specially  gradu- 
ated for  the  instrument  gives  the  velocity  of  the 
shot  between  the  two  screens,  from  which  can  be 
calculated  the  muzzle  velocity.  Another  scale  gives 
the  time  of  flight. 

The  pressures  in  the  bore  of  the  gun  are  calcu- 
lated by  means  of  a  cnislier  gauge.  A  small 
copper  cylinder  is  inserted  in  the  gauge,  which  is 
screwed  into  the  gun  at  that  i)art  where  it  may 
be  desired  to  measure  the  pressure.  The  copper 
cylinder  is  measured  before  and  after  the  discharge 
of  the  gun,  the  amount  by  h  hicli  it  is  shortened  by 
the  force  of  the  explosion  being  the  measure  of  the 
force,  or  pressure,  exerted.  The  actual  pressure 
in  tons  to  the  square  inch  is  calculated  by  means 
of  a  mathematical  table  prepared  for  different 
coppers. 

See  Wardell,  GuuiMwder  and  Gun-cotton  (1889); 
Cundill.  Dictionary  of  Explosives  (1895);  Eissler,  Modem 
Explosives  (1889);  Guttmann,  Manufacture  of  Explosives 
(1895);  Sanford,  Nitro-Explosives  (1896).  For  Smoke- 
less Gunpowder,  see  GuN'-COTTOK,  KlFLES ;  and  for  laws 
relating  to  gunpowder,  see  EXPH^SIVES. 

Olllipowder  Plot.  This  plot  was  an  attempt 
on  the  part  of  a  .small  number  of  Roman  Catholic 
gentlemen  to  destroy  by  gunpowiler  King  James  I. 
and  the  Houses  of  Lords  ancl  Commons  on  the  day 
of  the  opening  of  parliament,  November  5,  1605. 
The  design  originated  in  the  busy  brain  of  Robert 
Catesby  ( q.v. ),  who  had  already  suffered  for  the  part 
taken  by  liim  in  Essex's  plot.  He  and  hLs  fellow- 
Cdnspiratoi-s  were  driven  to  desiieration  by  the 
faithlessness  of  James,  who  before  his  accession  ha<l 
led  the  Catholics  to  expect  some  measure  of  tolera- 
tion, but  soon  afterwards  put  in  full  force  the  penal 
laws  against  popeni-,  and  showed  a  disposition  to 
increase  rather  tlian  to  mitigate  their  rigour.  Early 
in  1604  Catesby  ccunmunicated  his  plan  to  John 
Wright  and  Thomas  Winter.  Guy  Fawkes  (q.v.), 
a  brave  soldier  servin"  in  the  Spanish  army,  was 
brought  over  from  Flanders,  and  together  with 
Percy  was  admitted  to  the  plot  after  taking  an 
oath  of  secrecy.  All  five  then  received  communion 
from  the  hands  of  the  Jesuit  Gerard,  who,  how- 
ever, was  not  informed  of  the  conspiracy.  On 
24th  May  Percy  hired  a  room  adjoining  the 
Parliament  House  which  they  intended  to  under- 
mine. The  adjouniment  of  parliament  from  time 
to  time  caused  sundry  pn.'itponemi'nts  of  the  work. 
In  Uecember  the  digging  was  begun.  The  diffi- 
culties were  greater  than  was  ex])ected,  and  it 
became  expedient  to  call  in  the  assistance  of  fresh 
associates — John  Grant,  Robert  Winter  (brother  of 
Thomas),  and  Bates,  a  servant  of  Catesby.  In  the 
following  March  the  conspirators  were  able  to  hire 
a  convenient  cellar  immediately  l)elow  the  House 
of  Lords.  The  mine  was  now  al>andoned,  and  the 
cellar  was  stored  with  casks  of  powder,  covered 
with  faggots. 

All  was  ready  by  May.  Money  was  now  wanted 
to  provide  men,  horses,  an<l  arms  for  the  insur- 
rection, which  it  was  intended  should  break  out  in 
the  midland  counties,  where  the  chief  conspirators 
had  congregated.  So  about  Michaelmas  some  rich 
Catholics,  Sir  Everard  Digby,  Ambrose  Rook- 
wood,  and  Francis  Tresham  were  induced  to  join. 
Tri'sliam  lacked  the  courage  and  fanaticism  of  his 
fellows.  Wishing  to  save  his  friend  Lord  Mont- 
eagle,  he  wrote  to  him  on  Saturday,  October  26,  a 
mysterious  letter,  which  was  shown  to  Lord  Salis- 


474 


gUns 


GURNALL 


bury  and  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  plot,  if  it  liati 
not  otherwise  hecn  alreaily  betrayed.  The  names 
of  the  oiiiis|iiral<)i>i  were,  however,  not  disclosed. 
The  government,  therefore,  waited  for  the  fuller 
devehi|inient  of  the  plot.  The  cellar  was  visited  as 
if  ciusually  hy  the  Lord  Chandierlain  and  Lord 
Monteajile  at  three  o'cl<K'k  on  the  afternoon  of  tlii' 
4tli.  Kawkes,  who  was  found  there,  explained 
that  the  fuel  and  fa^'<,'ots  were  the  property  of  his 
master,  I'ercv.  He  still  hoped  to  carry  Ins  desi^'ii 
into  execution,  aii<l  a  little  before  nddni;,dit  he 
returned  to  the  cellar  to  take  up  his  post  for  the 
niyht.  He  was  met  and  arrested  at  the  doorway. 
Catesby  hastened  to  Warwickshire,  hopin<;  to  raise 
his  frienils.  A  few  days  later  they  were  attackeil  : 
several  of  the  eonspiraiors,  includin>;  Catosby,  were 
killed,  iiMil  othei-s  were  taken  prisoners  .ind  com- 
mitteil  for  trial.  Froui  tlieir  confessions  the  whole 
plot  wius  ^riulually  revealed. 

The  ^'overnment  was  now  much  concerned  with  a 
suspicion  that  the  murderous  desi^-n  had  lieen  pro- 
moted or  api>roved  by  the  Jesuit.s.  Bates  had  in 
his  confession  implicated  certain  fathers  of  the 
society,  esiwcially  (laniet  (i|.v.  )and  (Jreenway.  The 
latter  made  j,'iiiid  his  escape  abroad.  (lariiet  and 
a  brother  Jesuit,  Olilcorne,  who  was  convicted  of 
nothing;  more  than  aiding  in  the  concealment  of  his 
companicm,  were  discovered  in  a  priest's  hiilinj;- 
place  at  llimllip,  whither  tlarnet  ha<l  tied  from 
Couj;liton,  in  the  nei^ddnmrhood  of  the  appointed 
renilezvous  of  the  conspirators.  Their  trial  ex- 
cited the  "xreatest  interest.  It  soon  became  evi- 
dent that  toirnet  s  knowledge,  such  as  it  was,  of 
the  plot  had  been  forced  upon  him  by  the  conspir- 
atoiTs,  who  were  an.xious  to  obtain  from  him  some 
token  of  his  a]iproval  for  the  satisfaction  of  tlieir 
own  doubtful  consciences.  He  admitted  that  he 
had  derived  a  fjeneral  knowledge  of  some  treasonable 
desij;n  ajjainst  the  ;;overnment,  in  the  lirst  instance 
from  Catesby,  and  that  subsefpiently  be  bad  learnt 
the  particulars  froTu  l'"ather  (ireenway  in  C(mfe.ssi(Ui. 
On  further  examimition  (iarnet  expressed  some 
doubt  whether  the  comnmnication  made  by  (ireen- 
way wa-s  stiictly  sacramental  or  under  the  seal  of 
confession,  or  at  least  whether  (ireenway  himself 
so  considered  it.  It  was,  moreover,  elicited  fiom 
tiarnel  that  he  li.ul  fre(iuent  conversations  with 
Cireenway  on  the  plot,  thouj;h  always  'in  relation 
to  confession.'  Finally,  when  Catesby  wished  to 
give  him  full  information  out  of  confession  — in- 
formation which  would  have  released  (iarnet  from 
all  shadow  of  scruple  in  taking  measures  to  reveal 
or  prevent  the  crime — the  Jesuit  refuseil  to  listen  to 
him.  Some  of  (ianiet's  actions,  both  before  and 
after  the  5th  November,  gave  probability  to  the 
belief  that  he  knew  more  than  he  adniitte<l,  ami 
was  not  unwilling  that  the  plot  should  succeed. 
He  blamed  himself,  indeed,  for  not  having  done 
more  to  prevent  the  ndschief,  and  declared  that  he 
should  suiter,  not  a.s  a  martyr,  but  .as  a  penili-nt 
thief.  It  is,  however,  clear  that  the  clergy  in 
general,  whether  secular  or  regular,  and  the  entire 
Catholic  community,  with  the  exceptum  of  a  score 
of  fanatics,  were  innocent  of  all  participation  in 
the  plot. 

Sue  the  Narratire  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot  by  David 
Jariline  ( 1857 ),  which  treats  the  facts  in  a  masterly  and 
impartial  spirit;  (iardiner's  tfisiori/  of  Enjlawl,  vol.  i. 
chap.  vi. ;  and  Tierney's  edition  of  Dodd's  Cliurcli 
Hittury,  vol.  ii.  In  l»9(j  Father  (ieiard,  S.J.,  tric<l  in 
What  was  the  ilunpomUr  Pint  I  to  show  that  the  evidence 
of  a  real  jilot  was  slight,  and  that  thi.'  plot  w,-is  itself 
partly  niaimfacturcd  by  government  agents ;  in  IS'.I? 
GarJuiur  traversed  this  theory  in  What  the  Ounimwdei' 

Plot   IC(U, 

GUns  (Magyar  Koszeri),  a  free  town  of  Hun- 
gary, 57  miles  SSE.  of  Vienna,  with  a  castle  of 
Prince  Esterhdzy.     Pop.  7070. 


<>llllt4'r,  EuMCND,  niathenuitician,  was  1>om 
in  Hertlordshire  in  I.IBI,  and  eilucated  at  West- 
minster and  Cliri.st  Clnmdi,  ()xf(uil.  Although  he 
took  orders  and  became  a  pri-acher  in  l(il4,  his 
mind  was  strongly  bent  towards  mathematical 
stuilies,  and  in  l(il9  he  obtained  the  professorship 
of  Astronomy  in  (iresham  College,  Lonilon,  a  jmst 
which  he  held  ilown  lo  his  death,  lOth  Deceiidier 
lti'26.  His  principal  works  are  the  Viikoii  Trhiitiju- 
liirinii  ( lyond.  lUvJll),  a  table  of  logarithmic  sines 
and  tangents  to  seven  j)laces  of  decimals,  being  the 
Hrst  table  published  in  accordance  with  Hriggs's 
system,  ami  treatises  on  the  liector,  Vrosssliiff, 
unii  other  Iiistruiiunls  (1G',J4).  (iunter  was  tne 
tiixt  to  use  the  terms  cosine,  cotangent,  and  co- 
.secant  for  the  sine,  tangent,  and  secant  of  the 
complement  of  an  arc.  To  him  are  also  due  the 
inviiiition  of  the  surveying  chain  (see  CHAIN),  a 
quadrant,  and  a  scale,  and  the  first  observation  of 
the  variatiim  of  the  compa.ss. 

The  name  of  Gnnter'.i  Snilc,  or  Gvnter's  Lines,  is 
u.sually  given  to  three  lines  to  be  seen  on  almost 
anv  sector,  and  niuiked  N,  S.  T,  meaning  the  lines 
of  logarithmic  iiiiiiihirs,  of  logarithmic  suns,  and  of 
logarithmic  ta/ii/ttila.  To  understand  their  construc- 
tion and  use  re(|uires  a  knowledge  of  logarithms  : 
they  are  explained  in  every  school  book  of  practical 
mathematics.  The  distances  of  the  divisions  marked 
1,  2,  .S,  &e.  on  the  line  of  log.  numbers,  ifpresent 
the  logarithms  of  those  numbers  viz.  0,  HOI,  '477, 
v^cc. — taken  from  a  scab-  of  ei|ual  parts.  The  other 
lines  are  constructed  on  an  analogous  ]d.an.  Calling 
to  iriinil  that  multiplication  of  numbers  is  edected 
liy  the  additi<ni  of  the  logarithms,  division  by  their 

inlliplica 
e  aide  to 
with   what  ea.se    many    romili    picddems   in    areas, 
heights,  cubic  contents,  and  other  matters  may  he 
performed  through  the  agency  of  (iunter's  Scale. 

Cilllltlir'.  a  town  ii]  the  presidency  of  Madnus, 
46  miles  WNW.  of  Masulipatam,  with  an  active 
trade  in  grain  and  cotton.  Kormcrly  badly  built 
and  overcrowded,  it  h.as  been  recent Iv  mu(li  iin- 
prove<l.      Pop-  in.fMC). 

CilirgSIOII.  a  district  of  the  Punjab,  in  the 
divisiim  of  Helhi,  with  an  area  of  1984  si|.  m.  Pop. 
(1891)668,029,  over  two-lhiiils  Hindus.  Agriculture 
is  the  chief  em)iloyment ;  the  soil  is  on  the  whole 
not  unfertile,  but  there  is  little  artiliciiil  irrigation, 
and  the  district  has  sufl'ered  greatly  from  drought. 
The  commercial  centre  is  Kewari  (rpv.);  the  civil 
heaibiuartei-s  is  (iurgjion  (pop.  4000),  21  miles  SW. 
of  liellii  by  rail,  with  some  trade  in  grain. 

fiilirllMnl.      Se('  (i.M{H\VAL. 

<ilirjllll   Italsaill.  or  Wood-oit.,  a   balsamic 


subtraction,  involution  by  their  multiplication,  and 
evolution  by  their  divisi(m,  we  are  aide  to  perceive 


liquiil  obtained  finnioneof  the  Dipteracea' (q. v. ), 
which  grows  plentifully  in  the  Andaman  Islands. 
It  resend)les  in  characters  and  medicinal  pro- 
perties Copaiba  Balsam  ((j.v.),  and  hxs  at  various 
times  l>een  sold  as  such.  It  has  been  used  aa 
a  substitute  for  copaiba,  chietly  in  the  Indian 
hospitals,  but  its  cliief  use  in  the  Ea,st  is  as  a 
varnish  for  boats,  and  for  preventing  the  attacks  of 
ants  on  timber.  At  the  reqm-sl  of  Mr  Mauley 
Hopkins,  the  Hawaiian  I'oiisul,  the  English  govern- 
ment procured  from  the  gov<'riiment  of  India  in 
1888  a  large  quantity  of  gurjun-oil,  for  checking  or 
alleviating  leprosy  in  Hawaii.  It  wa-s  used  for  this 
purpose  by  the  late  Father  Daniien  (q.v.)  amongst 
the  lepers  of  Molokai. 

(•uriiall.  Wii.i.i.vM,  tlu'ological  writer,  was 
born  in  l(il6  at  Lynn,  in  Norfidk,  was  educated  at 
Emniaiiuel  College.  Cambvidge.  and  in  1644  became 
rector  of  Laveiiham  in  Sullolk,  where  he  died,  12tli 
October  1679.  He  is  known  as  author  of  the 
devout,  quaint,  and  pithy  sermons  on  Ephesians, 
chap,    vi.,    entitled    Tlie    Christian    in    Cumpleat 


GURNARD 


GUSTAVUS    ADOLPHUS 


475 


Armour :  a  Treatise  of  the  Saints'  War  against 
the  Devil  (1655-62;  see  the  ed.  of  1865,  with 
biography  hy  Kyle). 

Gurnard  (Tritjta),  a  genus  of  acanthopterous 
fishes  of  tlie  family  Cottid;e,  reiivesenteil  in  tropical 
and  temperate  seas  hy  about  forty  species,  of 
which  seven  occur  on  British  coasts.  The  head  of 
the  gurnard  is  angular,  the  eyes  near  the  summit, 
the  upper  surface  and  tlie  siiles  entirely  bony,  the 
teeth  small  and  very  numerous.  The  body  is 
rounded,  tapering,  ami  covered  with  small  scales ; 
the  air-bladder  is  often  in  two  lateral  parts  pro- 
vided with  lateiul  muscles,  and  the  broad  pectoral 
fins  are  usually  brightly  coloured  on  the  inner 
surface.  The  most  marked  peculiarity  of  the  genus 
is  the  presence,  in  front  of  the  pectorals,  of  three 
free  finger-like  rays.  These  are  well  supplied  with 
nerves,  and  are  organs  at  once  of  locomotion  and  of 
touch.  Most  of  the  gurnards  live  near  the  bottom, 
and  feed  on  crustaceans,  molluscs,  and  small  fishes. 
AV'hen  handled  they  emit  a  peculiar  sound  caused 
by  the  escape  of  air  from  the  air-bladder — a  fact 
which  lias  gained  for  one  species  (  T.  hjra  )  the  local 
name  of  '  Piper.'  The  most  common  British  species 
is  tlie  (Iray  Gurnard  (  T.  rjiiniardus).  Its  colour  is 
brownish-gray,  nuuked  with  white,  and  the  lateral 
line  bears  a  series  of  white,  crested,  bony  plates. 
The  Ked  Gurnard  (  T.  pini)  is  also  common,  and  is 
much  used  as  food.     It  attains  a  length  of  about 


Sap]ihirine  (Uirnard  [Trigkt  hiruiido). 


15  inches.  Much  rarer  is  the  Saijphirine  Gurnard 
(7".  hirundo),  so  named  from  the  beautiful  blue  of 
its  pectoral  fins.  It  grows  to  a  length  of  about  "2 
feet,  (iurnards  are  caught  by  the  trawling-net  or 
by  hook  and  line. 

Glirney.  Jo.siiPH  John,  a  philanthropic  Quaker, 
born  at  Karlham  Hall,  near  Norwich,  .\ugust  2, 
I78>*,  was  edueati'd  privately  .-it  O.xford,  and  in 
181S  became  a  ndiiislcr  of  the  .Society  of  Friends. 
His  life  was  devoted  to  benevolent  enter})rises,  in- 
cluding the  prison  reforms  of  Ids  sister,  JIis  Fry. 
He  died  January  4,  1847.  Among  his  works  are 
Prison  Discipline  (1819).  Jictigious  Peculiarities  of 
the  Society  of  Frirmls  \  1824),  and  A  Winter  in  the 
West  Indies  (1840).  See  Hare,  The  Gurnei/s  of 
Eurlhain  (1895). 

Gustaviis  A«loll>llll$  (Gustavus  II.),  king  of 
Sweden  from  1611  to  16.'?2,  wa.s  born  at  Stockholm, 
Decendier9,  1.594,  the  son  of  Charles  IX.,  and  grand- 
son of  the  great  Gustavus  Vasa.     He  was  carefully 


educated,  and  grew  up  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
princes  of  his  age.  He  knew  eight  languages,  speak- 
ing and  writing  five  of  these  with  fiuency,  was  well 
read  in  the  cla.ssics  and  ancient  history,  proficient 
ifl  music,  and  skilful  in  all  manly  e.xercises.  When 
he  came  to  the  throne  in  his  eighteenth  year  he 
found  the  country  involved  in  wars  abroad  and 
ilisorders  at  home,  arising  from  the  disputed  suc- 
cession of  his  father,  who  had  been  elected  king  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  direct  heir,  his  nephew,  the 
Koman  Catholic  Sigismund,  king  of  Poland.  The 
first  act  of  tiustavus  was  to  secure  the  hearty  co- 
operation of  the  nobles,  by  confirming  their  privi- 
leges subject  to  the  ])erformance  fif  niilitarj'  service 
to  the  crown.  Haiing  reorganised  the  internal 
government,  and  raised  both  men  and  money,  he 
made  war  on  Denmark,  and  soon  recovered  his 
Baltic  provinces,  and  a  direct  outlet  towards 
Russia.  His  war  with  Russia  was  ended  in  1617,  by 
the  treaty  of  Stolbova,  by  which  Sweden  obtained 
supreme  dominion  over  Ingernianland  and  Karelia, 
and  part  of  Livonia,  while  Russia  recovered  Nov- 
gorod and  all  other  conquests  made  by  the  Swedes. 
In  1618  Gustavus  visited  Berlin  in  secret  and  fell  in 
love  with  the  strong-minded  daughter  of  the  Elector 
of  Brandenburg,  whom  two  years  later  he  married. 
On  that  second  visit  in  1620  he  traversed  Germany 
as  far  south  as  Heidelberg.  He  next  turned  more 
actively  to  the  intermittent  dispute  with  Poland, 
which  was  at  length  terminated  in  1629  by  a  six 
years'  truce,  which  secured  reci|irocity  of  trade  and 
freedom  of  religion  to  the  natives  of  both  countiies, 
and  left  Gustavus  master  of  Elbing,  Braunsberg, 
Pillau,  and  Memel. 

This  peace  enabled  the  king  to  mature  the  plans 
he  had  long  cherished  in  regard  to  Germany,  and 
accordingly,  after  making  vaiious  administrative 
reforms  at  home,  he  remitted  the  charge  of  the 
government  and  the  care  of  his  infant  daughter 
Christina  to  his  chancellor  Oxenstiern,  and  crossed 
to  Pomerania  about  the  nudsummer  of  1630,  with 
but  15,000  men,  to  head  the  Protestants  of  Germany 
in  their  hard  struggle  against  the  Catholic  League, 
which  was  backed  by  all  the  power  of  the  empire 
and  the  resistless  arms  of  Tilly  and  Wallenstein. 

Everything  favoured  the  success  of  the  Swedes, 
who  drove  the  imperialists  from  Pomerania,  and 
took  Stettin.  The  Duke  of  Pomerania,  the  aged 
Boguslav,  lii-st  of  the  old  Wendish  line,  engaged,  in 
return  for  Swedish  aid,  that  the  dukedom  should, 
after  his  death,  be  given  up  to  Sweden  until  the 
expenses  of  the  war  were  fully  repaid ;  whilst 
Richelieu  promised  Gustavus  a  substantial  subsidy 
as  long  as  he  maintained  an  army  of  36.000  men. 
The  Emperor  Fenlinand  had  lieen  obliged  by  the 
Electoi-s  to  disndss  the  imperious  Wallenstein  from 
his  service.  But,  while  the  Swedes  were  besieging 
Spandau  and  Kiistrin,  the  rich  city  of  Magdeburg, 
which  had  ajiplied  for  help  to  Gustavus,  who  could 
not  move  without  the  support  of  the  hesitating 
Electors  of  Brandenburg  and  Saxony,  was  taken  by 
Tilly.  His  troops  i>erpetrated  the  most  terrible 
atrocities  upon  the  citizens,  and  all  the  buildings 
were  burned  to  the  grouml  save  the  c.itliedral  alone. 
The  Proti!stant  German  princes  had  been  slow  in 
coming  in  to  Ciustavus;  but  after  John  George  of 
Sa.\ony  was  driven  into  his  arms  by  the  im]iolitic 
demands  of  Fcrclinand.  Ciustavus  came  more  and 
nu)re  to  lie  idcntilieil  as  the  champion  of  their  religion 
against  oppression.  .Meanwhile  the  unselfishness  of 
his  own  aims  and  his  elevati(m  of  character.  a.s  well 
as  the  adnnrable  discipline  and  the  conduct  of  his 
hardy  veterans  in  such  strong  contrast  to  the  un- 
governed  license  of  the  imperial  troops,  gained  the 
confidence  and  adndration  of  all  Germany.  Soon 
after  the  fall  of  Magdeburg,  Gustavus  inflicted  a 
severe  defeat  on  Tilly  at  Breitenfeld,  which  taught 
the  Catludics  to  fear  the  'snow-king  and  his  l)ody- 


476 


GUSTAVUS   VASA 


GDSTAVUS    III. 


guanl,'  as  tliey  ilesif,Tiateil  Gustaviis  and  his  small 
army.  The  kiii};  now  ailvaiioi-d  into  Kranpoiiia, 
and.  after  allowing'  liis  arniv  to  ifciiiil  tlicir  str('ii;rtli 
in  tlie  rich  liislio]irics  ot  NVur/.l>iir;;  and  Banilii-ri;, 
took  the  I'alatinate  and  Mainz,  where  he  held  a 
splendid  court,  siirronmled  hy  numerous  princi's  an<l 
anili.issadors.  In  the  April  of  lil.'W  the  Swedi's,  in 
the  face  of  I'illy's  army,  crossed  the  Lech  and 
ijained  a  decisive  victory,  whence  Tilly  wa.s  carried 
to  In;,'olsta<lt  to  ilie.  From  thence  the  march  to 
Munich  was  one  continued  triumph,  and  wherever 
Gustavus  appeared  he  was  receiveil  hy  the  populace 
as  their  j^iiardian  anjjel.  The  road  to  V'ienna  was 
now  oiien  to  him.  and  the  fate  of  the  emperor  would 
liavc  oeen  sealed  had  the  latter  not  recujli'd  his 
hauj;hty  general,  Walhiislein,  who,  havin;; accepted 
otlice  on  his  own  terms,  t,'ath(^red  to^ri'ther  a  larfje 
and  lieterojieneous  army  of  (itt.tXM)  men,  and  a<l- 
vanced  on  Nureiuher;;,  where  heentrencheil  himself 
stion{;ly.  After  withstandinf;  a  desperate  assault  of 
the  Swedes  he  was  ohlij^ed  to  retire  into  Thurinfjia. 
The  unfavouralile  season,  the  had  roads,  and  the 
cautious  dispositions  of  Wallensiein  hindere<l 
tiustavus  from  attackinj;  the  imiierialists  as  soon 
as  he  intendeil,  hut  on  Novemher  B,  IG.S'i,  the 
two  armies  came  tinally  fiU'e  to  face  at  LUtzen, 
ten  miles  to  the  .south-west  of  Leipzig.  A  thick 
fog  l.av  close  u]ion  the  ground.  The  Swedes 
gathered  to  morning  prayer  to  the  music  of 
Luther's  noble  hymn,  '  tine  feste  liurg  ist  unser 
Gott.'  About  eleven  the  mist  cleared  olF,  and 
GustAvus  gave  his  hist  orders  to  his  generals. 
Waving  his  sword  above  his  head  he  cried  '  For- 
wards,' and  rode  to  meet  the  enemy  at  the  head 
of  the  cavalry  im  the  ri^;ht  wing.  His  eager  troops 
soon  broke  the  imperial  lines,  but  Wallenstein 
bringing  up  his  reserves  drove  back  the  Swedish 
infantry  in  the  centre.  Gustavus  luustened  too 
eagerly  to  the  rescue,  and,  in  the  thick  fog  which 
had  again  descemled,  was  separated  from  the 
cavalry  he  had  ordered  to  follow  him,  ami  rode 
almost  alone  into  a  sipiadron  of  Croats.     .\  shot 

Ea.ssed  through  his  horse's  neck,  .inother  shattereil 
is  left  arm,  a  third  struck  him  in  the  back,  and 
he  fell  heavily  to  the  ground.  A  cuirassier  riding 
lip  asked  who  was  there.  'I  was  the  king  of 
Sweden.'  murmured  the  dying  king,  whereupon 
the  solrlier  shot  him  through  the  head.  Hernhard 
of  Weinuir  took  up  the  command,  while  on  the 
enemy's  side  I'a]>penheim's  cavalry  came  up  to 
take  their  part  in  the  battle.  The  Swedes  burned 
to  revenge  their  king  and  fought  with  a  fury 
that  was  irresistible.  Hour  after  hour  the  battle 
swayed  uncertainly,  till  at  length,  when  Papiien- 
heim  had  fallen  ami  his  artillery  had  been  taken, 
Wallenstein  drew  his  men  oil'  the  tield  and  left 
their  hard-won  victory  to  the  Swedes.  The  body 
of  (iustavus  was  recovered  an<l  laid  to  rest  in  the 
Riddarholm  church  at  Stockholm. 

So  fell  the  gre.-it  hero  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  and 
with  him  perished  all  hope  of  a  speedy  ending  to 
thcf.atal  struggle,  and  theestablisiiment  of  a  durable 
peace  in  Germany.  His  Corpiix  Evangel iforiim  was 
a  noble  imagination,  and  would  have  built  up  a 
Protestant  power  .arouml  the  shores  of  the  IJ.altic  so 
stnmg  as  to  liefy  all  attack,     liut  it  is  more  than 

firobable  that  a  foreigner  even  so  disinterested  as 
limself  might  have  failed  to  overcome  the  in- 
stinctive coliesivene.ss  of  even  a  divided  (lerniany. 
and  if  so,  he  was  happy  in  the  accident  of  death  <m 
the  lield  of  victory,  leaving  behind  him  a  deathless 
glory  uiidimmed  l>y  failure. 

Sec  books  on  Gust.-ivus  Adolphns  by  J.  L.  Stcvun.s 
(188.1),  Trench  (nuw  til.  18««),  C.  R.  L.  Fletcher  (1890), 
Colonel  K.  A.  Dodge  (  New  'Vork,  1896 ),  and  other  works 
cited  at  Thiktv  Ye.vu.s'  W.vr. 

Gustavus  I'asa  ((iustavus  L),  king  of  Sweden 
from    l.=>2.'!  to  lotiO,  was  born  in   1496,  of  a   noble 


house  closely  allied  to  the  Sture  family,  his  own 
family  name  being  Ericson.  Still  a  Imy,  lie 
became  involved  in  the  patriotic  struggle  with 
Christian  of  Denmark,  and  was  treacherously 
carried  oil'  to  Dennnirk,  there  to  he  kept  in  con- 
linement  with  other  n(d)les  as  hostages.  After 
a  year  he  escapecl  in  ilisguise  to  Liiheck,  thence 
to  Sweilin,  when'  he  went  about  from  place  to 
place  striving,  with  great  danger  to  himself,  and 
with  but  little  success,  to  rouse  up  a  spirit  of  resist- 
ance against  the  Danes.  At  lengtli  he  had  to 
retreat  l^i  Dalecarlia,  where  he  wandered  for 
several  months,  in  poverty  and  disguise,  with  a 
price  set  on  hi'-  head,  working  with  his  hands  on 
the  farms  and  in  the  mines.  .At  last  the  in- 
famous *  Itlood'bath  '  of  Stockholm  (  l.'J'iO)  roused 
the  slumbering  fury  of  the  Swedes,  and  gave 
(iustavus  the  opportunity  he  longed  for.  The 
hardy  minei-s  of  Dalecarlia  mustered  nmnd  him, 
and  ere  hmg  he  hail  an  army  large  enough  to  attack 
the  enemy.  Gne  by  one  tiie  strong  iilaces  fell  into 
his  hands,  and  the  cajiture  of  Stockholm  in  1.')'23 
lin.'illy  drove  the  Danes  from  the  soil  of  Sweden. 
'I'hus  fell  the  great  Scandinavian  union  which  had 
survived  the  treaty  of  Calmar  ( X'.VXi)  for  1'2()  years. 
At  the  diet  of  Strcngniis  that  same  year  (Iustavus 
was  elected  king.  Thenceforward  he  strove  with 
unceasing  zeal  to  heal  the  wounds  of  his  uidiappy 
country.  He  fouml  the  pea.santry  restless  and 
disallected,  the  Homish  clergy  wealthy,  corru]>t, 
and  unpatrioti<-,   the   Lutheran  party  too  eager  to 

Susb  their  dogma-s  by  force,  and  the  whole  countrj' 
enioralised  without  res]>eet  to  law  or  religion. 
Yet  after  forty  years'  rule  he  left  Sweden  a  peaceful 
and  civilised  realm,  with  a  full  excheipier,  and  with 
a  well-(irganise<l  army  of  ir),(HK)  men  and  a  good 
fleet — both  his  own  creations.  He  pnunoted  trade 
at  home  and  abro.-ul,  fostered  schools  and  iidh'ges, 
made  commercial  treaties  with  foreign  nations, 
and  established  fairs  for  foreign  traders,  while  he 
opened  up  roads,  bridges,  and  canals  throughout 
the  country.  In  his  relations  with  his  subjects 
(iiistavus  was  firm,  and  sometimes  severe,  hut 
selilom  unjust,  except  in  his  dealings  towards  the 
Itiimisb  clergy,  wboiii  he  despoiled  with  something 
like  rapacity  of  all  their  lands  anil  funds.  (Jn  the 
other  liand  he  did  niiicli  to  jiromote  the  cause 
of  Lutheranism  ;  although  be  took  care  that  the 
reformed  clergy  should  be  dependent  on  the  crown, 
and  enjoy  oidy  very  moderate  emoluments.  To 
him  the  La]ips  were  indebted  for  the  dill'usion  of 
Christianity  among  them  by  Lutheran  mission- 
aries ;  the  Finns  for  the  lirst  works  of  instruction — 
parts  of  the  liible  and  hymn-books  jirinted  in  their 
own  language.  Gustavus  was  methodical,  just, 
moral,  and  .abstemious  in  his  mode  of  life — his 
character  altogether  admirable  but  for  a  touch  of 
avarice.  He  was  three  times  married,  had  ten 
children,  and  died  2!lth  Sejitember  l.">(i(>,  his  eldest 
son,  Kric,  being  his  successor  according  to  the 
treaty  of  Wcstenls  (l.')44),  which  made  the  crown 
hereditary.  The  best  memoir  is  that  by  Fryxell — 
Ger.  trans.  I.ilicii  tnid  Thatcn  Giistars  I.  ]\'asa 
(18.31).  See  also  Alberg's  Gustnrus  Va.ia  and  his 
Stirring  Times  ( Lond.  1882),  and  Paul  Barron 
Wat.son's  book.  The  Siredish  Revolution  under 
Giistiiriis  Vtixri  (1HS9). 

Gustavus  III.,  king  of  Sweden,  was  born  in 
\'Hi.  and  succeeded  his  father,  Adolph  Frederick, 
in  1771.  At  that  time  Sweden  was  ruled  hy  an 
oligarchy  of  the  nobles.  The  fii-st  task  Gustavus 
set  himself  after  his  accession  was  to  break  their 
power  ,and  bring  the  supreme  authority  into  his 
own  hands :  and  this  task  he  accomplished  by 
means  of  a  feigned  revolt.  Being  of  an  energetic 
temper.anu'ut  and  pftssessing  a  considerable  share 
of  iiolitical  s.ag.acity,  (iustavus  now  laboured  hard, 
aniJ  laboured  successfullj-,  for  the   progress  of  his 


GUSTAVUS    IV. 


GUTHRIE 


477 


country,  encouraging  agriculture  anil  bettering 
the  lot  of  the  iieasantry,  fostering  commerce, 
mining,  literature,  anil  science,  especially  mcilicine, 
ordering  tlio  finances,  digging  canals,  and  biiililing 
liospitals,  orphanages,  and  workhouses,  but  he 
had  an  inordinate  love  for  things  French,  and,  in 
his  endeavour  to  imitate  the  extravagance  and 
splendour  of  the  court  of  Versailles,  lie  became 
embarrassed  for  inone.w  His  attempts  to  overcome 
this  emijarrassment  by  an  increase  of  taxation 
alienated  from  him  the  affections  of  his  people. 
Of  this  state  of  things  the  nobles  t«ok  advantage  : 
they  thwarteil  tlie  king's  designs  in  his  war  with 
Russia,  and  endeavoured  to  recover  the  power 
they  had  lost  (see  Sweden).  And,  though 
Gustavus  once  more  Iiroke  their  opposition  and 
made  himself  full  master  of  his  kingdom,  an  ill- 
advised  scheme  for  em|)loying  the  forces  of  Sweden 
in  behalf  of  Louis  XVI.  of  France  against  the 
storm  of  the  Revolution  led  to  his  own  assassina- 
tion by  Ankarstriim,  an  emissary  of  the  oligarchi- 
cal party,  at  Stockholm  in  March  1792. 

GllStaVIIS  IV..  king  of  Sweden,  son  ami  suc- 
cessor of  llustavus  in.,  was  born  1st  November 
177S.  During  the  four  years  of  his  minority,  his 
uncle,  tlie  Duke  of  Sodermanland,  acted  as  recent 
(1792-96).  This  king  was  altogether  unfitted  to 
rule  a  kingdom,  owing  to  his  crotchety  notions  of 
honour,  his  obstinate  self-will,  his  e.xalted  ideas 
of  the  prerogatives  of  kingship,  and  his  want  of 
tact  and  wisdom  in  the  management  of  public 
affairs.  The  ruling  principle  or  motive  of  his  life 
was  hatreil  of  Napoleon.  In  consequence  of  this 
feeling  he  offended  Russia  by  preferring  the  alli- 
ance with  England,  lost  Stralsund  and  Hiigen  to 
the  Frencli.  and  Finland  to  the  Russians  in  1808, 
made  an  unsuccessful  attack  upon  Norway,  and 
finally  insulted  the  En<;lish  by  his  treatment  of 
an  army  cor])s  that  had  been  sent  to  his  assistance. 
In  March  1809  the  whole  of  Sweden  was  in  a  con- 
dition of  burning  discontent,  and  a  party  of  nobles, 
acfing  in  conjunction  with  the  army,  dethroned 
their  wholly  unpopular  sovereign  and  gave  the 
crown  to  his  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Sodermanland, 
who  succeeded  as  Charles  XIII.  Gustavus  spent 
his  hist  days  abroad,  chiefly  in  Switzerland,  often 
in  great  want,  and  died  at  St  Gall,  7th  February 
18:^7. 

CJii.strow,  a  town  of  Meckle.iburg-Schwerin, 
70  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Liibeck  by  rail.  It  has  a  ca.stle 
(1558-65),  a  church  of  the  13th-15th  century,  and 
a  noticeable  pauper  school  and  orphanage,  with 
breweries,  iron-foundries,  a  sugar-factory,  tile- 
works,  and  a  large  wool  market.  It  was  for 
nearly  a  century  and  a  half  ( 155.)-1695)  the  resi- 
dence of  the  dukes  of  Meckli'uburg-Giistrow. 
Pop.  (1875)  10,923;  (1885)  13,119. 

Callt.  a  term  technically  useil  in  zoology  as  equiv- 
alent to  the  enteron  lU'  alimentary  canal.  Three 
parts  have  to  be  carefully  distinguished:  («)  the 
fore-gut  or  stuiiiudunini,  lined  by  the  outer  layer  or 
ectoderm,  and  formed  from  an  anterior  infolding  or 
invagination;  (6)  the  nud-gut  or  me.icnterrjn,  lined 
by  the  inner  layer  or  endoderin,  and  formed  from 
the  original  gastrula  cavity;  and  (r)  the  hind-gut 
or  prfji'iiiiliviiin.,  lined  by  the  outer  layer  or  ectoderm, 
and  formed  from  a  posterior  invagination.  These 
three  typical  parts,  tnus  distinguished  according  to 
their  origin,  vary  greatly  in  size  and  function  in 
different  classes  ;  but  the  mid-gut  is  the  most  im- 
portant on  jiccount  of  its  digestive  function  and 
because  of  its  outgrowths  (liver,  \-c. )  in  higher 
animals.  It  nmst  also  be  noted  that  in  vertebrate 
anatomy  the  pharynx,  gullet,  and  stomach  are 
sometimes  called  fore-gut ;  the  small  intestine, 
midgut ;  the  large  intestine,  hind-gut  ;  but  em- 
brjologically  these  are  all  parts  of  the  mesenteron 


defined  above.  See  Embryology  ;  and  for  the 
gut  manufacture,  C.vtgut. 

Glltcilbei'Si   Jon.\NNE.s,    or    Henne,    who  is 

regarded  l)y  the  Germans  as  the  inventor  of  the 
art  of  employing  movable  types  in  printing,  wa.s 
boiii  about  1400  ;it  Mainz.  He  was  ajiparently  the 
illegatimate  son  of  a  canon  named  (!ensfli'iscl],:ind  so 
adopted  his  mother's  familv  name.  In  143-1  he  was 
living  in  Strasburg,  and  seems  to  have  been 
well  known  as  a  man  of  considerable  mechanical 
skill,  who  taught  stone-cutting,  mirror-polishing, 
and  similar  arts.  When  anil  where  he  made  his 
first  attempts  in  the  art  of  printing  cannot  with 
certainty  be  ascertained.  Some  time  between 
1444  and  1448  he  returned  to  Mainz,  where,  in 
1449  or  1450,  he  entered  into  partnership  with 
Johannes  Faust  or  Fust,  a  wealthy  goldsmitii,  who 
furnished  the  money  required  to  set  up  a  printing- 
press.  This  partnership  was,  however,  dissolved 
after  the  lapse  of  a  few  years  ( 1455),  Faust  bring- 
ing an  action  at  law  against  Gutenberg  to  recover 
the  sums  he  had  advanced.  In  consequence  of  the 
legal  verdict  Faust  retained  the  printing  concern, 
and  carried  it  on  in  conjunction  with  Peter  Scbiifier 
of  Gernsheim.  (lutenberg,  with  the  assistance  of  a 
Dr  Homery,  afterwards  set  up  another  printing- 
press,  with  which  he  worked  on  till  the  date  of  his 
death,  1468.  For  authorities  and  an  account  of 
the  invention  controversy,  see  PRINTING. 

Guthrie.  Samuel,  an  American  chemist,  was 
born  in  Brimlield,  Mas.sachu.setts,  in  1782.  He 
deserves  notice  as  one  of  the  original  discoverers 
of  Chloroform  (q.v.),  which  he  termed  a  'spirituous 
solution  of  chloric  ether.'  His  i)rocess  was  tested 
as  early  ivs  1831.  He  died  at  Sackett's  Harbour, 
New  York,  19tli  October  1848. 

Guthrie.  Thom-\s,  D.D.,  an  eminent  [lulpit 
and  platform  orator,  philanthropist,  and  social 
reformer,  was  born  July  12,  1803,  at  Brechin, 
Forfarshire,  where  his  father  was  a  merchant  and 
banker.  He  studied  eight  years  for  the  ministry 
at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  devoted  two 
additional  winters  to  the  study  of  cheniistiy, 
natural  history,  and  anatomy.  Meanwhile  he 
was  licensed  as  a  preacher  by  the  presliytery  of 
Brechin  in  1825.  He  subsequently  spent  six 
months  i:i  Paris,  studying  comparative  anatomy, 
chemistry,  and  natural  philosophy,  and  walking 
the  hospitals  there.  Returning  to  Scotland,  he 
for  two  years  conducted,  on  behalf  of  his  family, 
the  afi'airs  of  a  bank  agency  in  Brechin,  .\fter 
waiting  for  fi\e  years  for  a  presentation  to  a 
living,  he  had  almost  resolved  to  abandon  the 
clerical  i)rofession  when,  in  1830,  he  received  a  pre- 
sentation from  the  crown  to  Arltirlot,  in  his  native 
county ;  and  in  1837  was  appointed  one  of  the 
ministers  of  Old  (Jreyfriars  parish  in  Edinburgh. 
Here  his  eloquence,  combined  with  devoted  laboui'S 
to  reclaim  the  degraded  poimlation  of  one  of  the 
worst  districts  of  the  city,  sooii  won  for  him  a  high 
place  in  public  estimation,  m  1840  he  was  chosen 
minister  of  St  John's  church  ;  he  declincil  calls  to 
London  and  India.  In  1843  thithrie  joined  the 
F'ree  Church,  and  for  a  long  series  of  years  con- 
tiinied  to  minister  to  Free  St  .lohns— a  large  and 
infiuential  congregation  in  Edinburgh.  In  1845-46 
he  performed  a  great  service  to  the  Free  Church, 
in  liis  advocacy  throughout  the  country  of  its 
scheme  for  jiroviding  manses  or  residences  for  its 
ministers,  and  raised  in  le.«s  than  twelve  months 
fll6,(MK)  for  this  object.  Guthrie's  zeal,  however, 
was  not  diverted  into  mere  denominational  or 
sectarian  channels.  He  came  forward  in  1847  as 
the  advocate  of  R.agged  Schools  (q.v.)  by  the  pub- 
licatiim  of  his  first  I'lca  fur  litigged  Schools.  He 
was  not.  as  sometimes  stated,  the  founder  of 
Ragged   Schools,    but    rather    the   apostle   of   the 


478 


GUTHRIE 


GUTTA-PERCHA 


deep  patlios  so  intimately  with  the  huinonnis,  liis 
tendency  to  which,  iiUhuu<;h   never  in  the  piil|>it, 


movement.  A  RajiKeJ  School  was  founded  on  the 
Castle  Hill,  in  18.S7  removed  to  Lilierton.  He  also 
earnestly  exerted  himself,  in  many  ways,  in  oppo- 
sition to  intemperance  and  other  iirevailinj,;  vices, 
and  in  favour  of  national  and  compulsory  educa- 
tion. He  heeame  a  total  abstainer  in  1S47  tliroUK'i 
a  conversati(m  with  an  Irish  car-driver,  (iuthrie 
possessed  f^reat  rhetorical  talent  ;  and  his  style  «,as 
remarkable  for  the  almndance  and  variety  of  the 
illustratiims  he  used.  I.oril  ("ocklpurn  attrilmted 
Guthrie's  remarkahh?  inlluence  over  liis  amlience  to 
the  posse.ssion  of  '  pjussion  and  eompiUision.'  Few 
public  speakers  have  ever  blended  solemnity  and 

ep      ■ 

ndi 
has  more  frei|iiently  than  anythinx  else  been  jioiiited 
out  as  his  fault,  t  Juthrie  :ihv;iys  displayed  a  ;,'ener- 
ous  syin]iathy  with  all  tiiat  tends  to  pro'^ress  or 
improvement  of  any  kind.  He  was  nnxlerator  of 
the  Oeiieral  .\ssembly  of  the  Kiee  Church  of  Scot- 
land in  May  l.S(i2,  ami  one  of  the  vice-presidents  of 
the  Evangelical  .Alliance.  He  wius  presenteil  with 
f500(J  in  ISO,"!  as  a  token  of  public  ajjpreciation. 
He  acted  as  editor  of  the  Siitir/ni/  Muri'iziin-  from 
its  establishment  in  1S(;4,  in  which  year  he  retired 
from  his  regular  ministrations.  He  died  '24th 
Febniary  1873.  tiuthrie's  most  important  pub- 
lished works  are  The  Gospel  in  Ezekicl  (1855); 
The  Waij  to  Life  (1862);  A  Plea  for  DiiDikards 
and  affain.it  i)riinlciini:s.i  (18.50);  A  P/iii  for 
Raqijcd  Schools,  a  pamphlet  (1847),  followed  by 
a  secoml  and  a  third  plea,  the  latter  under 
the  title  of  Seed-time  and  Jim-vest  of  Ragged 
Schools  (1862);  The  Citi/ :  its  Sins  and  Sorrows 
(1857);  ^f(ln  and  the  Gospel  (1865);  Angels'  Song 
(1865);  Parables  (1866);  Studie-i  of  Character 
(1868);  Sundays  Abroad  (1871).  See  his  Anto- 
inograph]!  and  Memoir,  I'llited  by  his  sons  (2  vols. 
187^4-75)';  and  a  small  Life  by  O.'Snieatoii  (19(X)). 

dJutliric,  AViLl.I.\M,  a  political,  historical,  and 
miscellaneous  WTiter,  was  born  at  Brechin,  in  For- 
farshire, in  1708,  and  eilncated  at  King's  College, 
Aberileen.  At  an  early  i>eriod  he  reiimved  to 
London,  where  he  worked  hard  for  forty  years  as 
a  man  of  letters.  He  died  in  March  1770.  Among 
his  various  works  are  a  History  of  England  ( .1  vols. 
1 7-1-1-50),  and  .(  Historical  and  Geographical  Gram- 
»!«;•(  1770;  '24th  etl.  1827),  a  useful  manual  of  in- 
formation, which  l<mg  enjoyed  immense  popularity. 

Guthriim.    See  .Ai.KREi)  THE  Great. 

tints  .Hilths,  J()H.\SS  CllKI.STdl'H  KlilEDKlCH, 
a  (icniian  teacher,  was  born  at  Quedlinburg,  in 
Pnissian  Sa.\ony,  9th  August  1759,  studied  at 
Halle,  and  from  1785  to  18.37  taught  gymnastics  and 

Geography  in  Salzmann's  scholastic  institution  at 
chneofeiithal.  He  died  21st  May  18.39.  He  is 
specially  remembereil  for  having  introduced  gym- 
nastics as  a  branch  of  education  in  German  schools. 
On  this  subject  and  on  geography  he  wrote  numer- 
ous text-books,  as  Gymnastik  fiir  die  Jugend  ( 1793) 
and  Ilaiidbnrh  der  Geographic  ( 1810) ;  he  also  edited 
Bibliothekfitr  Piidagogik  ( 1800-'20)  and,  along  with 
J.acobi,  Dcntsehes  Land  und  dcntsehes  Po//.- ( 18'20- 
32).  See  his  life  by  Wa;ssmann.sdorf  ( Heidelb. 
1884). 

Cintta-percba.  a  substance  in  many  respects 
similar  to  caoutchouc,  is  the  dried  nnlky  juice  of 
various  trees  of  the  order  Sauotacea* ;  the  chief  is 
apparently  that  called  by  Hooker  Isonandra  Gutta, 
and  by  lientley  and  Trimen  Dichopsis  Gutta.  The 
tree,  which  is  found  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca 
and  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  is  verj-  large,  attain- 
ing a  height  of  70  feet ;  the  trunk  is  sometimes 
3  or  even  4  feet  in  diameter,  although  it  is  of 
little  use  as  a  timber-tree,  the  wood  being  spongy. 
The  leaves  are  alternate,  on  long  stalks,  olM)vate- 
ublong,  entire,  soiuewliat  leathery,  green  above,  and 


of  a  golden  cohmr  lieneath.  The  (lowers  are  in 
little  tufts  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  small,  each  on 
a  distinct  stalk,  the  corolla  having  a  short  tube 
and  six  elliptical  segments;  they  have  twelve 
stamens  ami  one  pistil.  The  name,  guttapercha 
{gatta  piinha,  or  i/illah  jicrtj'u),  is  .Malay.  There 
are  two  or  three  kinds  of  trutta-percha  known  in 
commerce,  and  it  is  more  than  probable  these  are 


*s<4^;« 


Gutta-percha  [Isonandra  {Diehoptit)  Outta): 
a,  a  flower  ;  b,  fruit 

yielded  by  diiferent  species.  That  from  Singapore 
IS  esteemeil  the  best,  and  is  distinguished  by  the 
Malay  traders  as  Gutta  Talnin  or  Tnban  :  that  of 
Borneo  is  of  less  value  this  is  calle<l  Gutia  Prreha 
by  the  traders,  and  has  given  the  general  name  to 
all  ;  and  another  kind  goes  by  the  name  of  Gutta 
Gink.  The  lirst  two  are  those  generally  known  in 
our  markets.  The  former  mode  of  obtaining  the 
gutta-percha  was  a  most  destructive  one.  The 
liiiest  trees  were  selected  ami  cut  down,  and 
tli(!  bark  stripped  off;  l>etween  the  wood  and 
bark  a  milky  juice  was  found,  which  was  .scraped 
nj)  into  little  troughs  made  of  plantain  leave.s. 
Now  the  plan  of  tajiping  the  living  trees  is 
employed.  The  juice  soon  coagulates,  or  may  be 
boiled,  and  is  then  kneaded  by  hand  into  oblong 
mas.ses  a  foot  in  length. 

Gutta-percha  was  known  in  Europe  long  before 
its  pecnli.-ir  characteristics  and  uses  were  known. 
It  w.'us  brought  home  at  various  times  by  voyagers, 
in  the  forms  of  drinkingbowls  and  native  shoes ; 
anil  was  thought  by  .some  to  be  a  species  of 
india-nibber,  while  others  as.sei"ted  it  was  a 
kind  of  w(M)d,  which  they  nameil  mazcr-irood. 
But  for  its  introduction  in  1843  we  are  indebted 
chielly  to  I)r  William  Monlgomerie  of  the  Indian 
Medical  Service,  who  won  rewarded  with  the  gold 
medal  of  the  Society  of  Arts.  He  tirst  noticed 
that  the  Malays  used  it  for  making  handles 
to  their  knives,  iVc,  and  it  immediately  occurred 
to  him  that  it  might  be  of  great  use  in  a  variety  of 
ways,  e.specially  in  making  handles  for  surgical 
instruments,  the  hand  being  able  to  get  a  light  but 
firm  grasp  of  them.  Soim  tlie  importation  of  gutta- 
percha increased  amazingly;  in  1860  it  exceeiled 
16,0(KJ  cwt.  In  1864,  1865,  1870,  and  1871  the 
imports  varied  from  25,966  cwt.  to  35,6.36  cwt.  ; 
in  1876-83,  from  21,100  cwt.  to  66,000  cwt. 
Down  to  1888  these  iiuj)orts  <Ieclined  verj-  much, 
as  in  that  year  they  only  reached  22,500  cwt., 
at  .an  average  price  of  16'2  shillings  ])er  cwt.  In 
1889,  however,  they  showed  an  upward  tendency 
both  in  quantity  and  v.alue,  the  total  imports  from 
January  to  October  1889  being  .38,940  cwt.,  and  the 
average  price  241   shillings  per  cwt.     By  far  the 


GUTTA    ROSEA 


GUTZLAFF 


479 


greatest  portion  of  it  is  iiiiported  from  tlie  East 
Indies. 

Its  most  important  application  lias  l)een  in  tlie 
coating  of  marine  electric  telegrapli  wires.  In  this 
apjjlication,  as  in  most  otliers,  its  inherent  defect, 
arising  from  the  readiness  with  wliieli  it  becomes 
oxidised  and  decomposed,  has  manifested  it.self 
seriously,  and  it  Is  greatly  att'ected  l>y  age  in  its 
resisting  qualities.  Hence  substitutes  of  greater 
stability  have  been  looked  for.  Many  of  these 
have  been  forthcoming,  indianibber  being  useil 
now  to  a  large  extent,  as  also  a  composition  pro- 
duced from  asphalt,  balsam  of  sulphur,  &c.,  and 
other  coni])Oun<ls.  (Jutta-percha  is  used  for  making 
a  va.st  variety  of  useful  and  ornamental  articles. 
Among  others  the  following  may  be  mentioned  : 
golf-balls  ( ver\'  extensively ),  overshoes  ( more  in 
America  than  in  Britain ),  beltings  for  machinerv', 
pump-bucketa,  sheeting,  tissue,  thread  or  whip 
cord,  and  tubing.  A  very  large  tiade  is  done  in 
shoe  soles.  It  is  turned  by  surgeons  to  various 
uses,  chiefly  for  splints  and  moist  coverings  to 
retard  evaporation.  It  has  also  been  used  for 
stopping  hollow  teeth. 

The  great  value  of  gutta-percha  arises  from 
the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  worked,  and  its 
being  so  complete  a  non-conductor  of  electricity. 
It  softens  in  warm  water,  and  can  be  moulded  into 
any  form  in  that  state,  as  when  soft  it  is  not 
sticky  and  turns  well  out  of  moulds.  It  will 
always  be  of  great  value  as  a  material  in  which 
to  take  casts,  ;is  it  can  in  the  soft  state  be  made 
to  take  the  shai-pest  forms  most  faithfully  ;  and,  <as 
it  quickly  becomes  hard,  and  preserves  its  shape  if 
not  too  thin,  the  range  of  its  utility  in  this  respect 
is  very  extensive. 

It  is  imported  in  blocks  and  lumps  of  live  to  ten 
pounds  weight,  in  various  forms,  chiefly  like  large 
cakes,  or  rounded  into  gourd-like  lumps.  It  has  a 
very  light  reddish-brown,  or  almost  a  flesh  colour, 
is  full  of  irregular  pores  elongated  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  ma.ss  has  been  kneaded.  It  has  a 
cork-like  ajipearance  when  cut,  and  a  pecviliar 
cheese-like  odour.  Before  it  can  be  used  it  has  to 
undergo  some  preparation.  This  consists  in  slicing 
the  lumps  into  thin  shavings,  which  are  placed  in  a 
devilling  or  tearing  machine  revolving  in  a  trough 
of  hot  water.  This  reduces  the  shapings  to  exceed- 
ingly small  pieces,  which,  by  the  movement  of  the 
tearing-teeth,  are  washed  free  from  many  impurities, 
especially  fragments  of  the  bark  of  the  tree,  which, 
if  not  separated,  would  interfere  with  the  com- 
pactness of  its  texture — one  of  its  most  important 
qiialities.  The  small  fragments,  when  sutKciently 
clean.sed,  are  kneaded  into  masses ;  and  these 
are  rolled  several  times  between  heated  cylinders, 
which  press  out  any  air  or  water,  and  render  the 
mass  uniform  in  texture.  It  is  then  rolled  between 
heated  .steel  rollers  into  sheets  of  various  thick- 
nesses for  use,  or  is  formed  into  rods,  pipes  for 
water,  speaking-tvibes,  or  any  of  the  innumerable 
articles  whi<-li  may  l>e  made  of  it. 

Gutta-percha  ditt'ers  very  materially  from  caout- 
chouc or  mdiaruliber  in  being  non-elastic,  or  elastic 
only  in  a  very  small  degree.  Xotwithstanding  this 
very  striking  character  of  caoutchouc,  the  two 
articles  are  very  often  confounded  in  the  public 
mind. 

Gutta  Ro.sea,old  name  for  Acne  Rosacea(q.v.). 

Gutta  Sereua.    See  Amaurosis. 

Guttifcru*.  or  Clusi.\ce.E,  a  natural  order  of 
exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs, 
natives  of  tro])ical  countries,  very  generally  secret- 
ing an  acrid  yellow  re.sinons  juice.  A  few  are 
epiphytes.  The  leaves  are  opposite,  destitute  of 
stipules,  leathery,  and  entire.  In  botanical  char- 
acters   this    order    is    allied    to    Ilypericina".      It 


contains  alx)ut  150  known  sjjccies,  the  greater 
part  of  them  South  American,  although  all  tropical 
countries  produce  some.  The  resinous  secretions  of 
some  are  valuable,  particularly  of  those  trees  which 
yield  Gamboge  (q.v.)  and  Tacamahaca  (q.v.).  See 
also  CLtsi.i. — A  few  species  ati'ord  valuable  rimber. 
See  CxLOPHYLLUM. — The  flowers  of  some  are  very 
fragrant ;  those  of  Meitta  ferre.a  are  found  in  a 
dried  state  in  everj-  bazaar  in  India,  and  are  used 
as  a  perfume. — The  fruit  of  some  is  verj-  highly 
esteemed  ;  the  Mangosteen  ( q.v. )  has  Vieen  de-scnbed 
as  the  finest  fruit  in  the  world.  The  Mammee 
Apple  ( q.  V. )  is  another  of  the  most  celebrated 
tropical  fruits. 

Gntzkow,  Karl  Ferdinand,  German  writer, 

bom  at  Berlin,  17th  March  1811.  'Wliilst  pre- 
paring for  the  calling  of  gymnasium  teacher  he 
l)ecame  i>rofoundly  inttuenced  liy  the  French  Revo- 
lution of  1830,  and  in  18.31  he  joined  the  critic 
Menzel  in  Stuttgart,  and  helped  him  to  edit  the 
Litteratiirblatt.  This  his  introduction  to  serious 
literary-  work  led  to  the  publication  in  1832  of  the 
satirical  romance  .3/fM«-(?H)»,  and  in  1835  of  Walli/, 
die  Zveijlcrin.  For  this  last  Gutzkow  was  impris- 
oned for  three  months,  his  book  being  confiscated 
and  himself  forbidden  to  publish  any  work  within 
the  states  of  the  Confederation — the  author  having 
revealed  himself  in  his  book  as  an  ardent  champion 
of  the  '  Young  Germany  '  movement,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  oppose  romanticism  and  advocate  in 
place  of  it  all  those  revolutionaiT  ideas  which  are  in 
their  character  essentially  and  ]jeculiarly  modem. 
As  soon  as  he  obtained  his  release  he  entered  upon 
a  period  of  restless  and  migratoiy  activity  as  a 
journalist,  until  in  1847  he  l)ecame  director  of 
the  Court  Theatre  at  Dresden.  In  the  meantime 
he  had  written  some  successful  dramas,  Richard 
Sarafje  (18.39),  Zopf  nnd  Sc/iwert  (1844),  Das 
Urbild  des  Tartiiffe  (1847),  Uriel  Acosta  (1847), 
besides  Werner,  Ottfried,  Der  Konigslentnant, 
and  many  others  which  won  only  duldous  recog- 
nition. He  also  wrote  some  romances  of  consider- 
able merit,  as  Die  Ritter  rom  Geiste  ( 9  vols.  1850-52), 
Der  Zauberer  ron  Rom  (9  vols.  1858-61),  Hohen- 
schuangaii  (5  vols.  1867-68),  and  Kleiuc  Narren- 
velt  (1856),  a  collection  of  short  stories.  In 
1864  (iutzkow,  wliilst  sutt'ering  from  a  nervous 
mental  dborder,  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
upon  his  own  life.  This  malady  returned  in 
1873,  and  after  a  visit  to  Italy  he  settled  at 
Sachsenhausen,  near  Frankforton-Main,  where  he 
died,  16th  December  1878.  Gutzkow  possessed  a 
keen  instinct  for  the  s|>iritual  fermentations  and 
conllicts  and  the  intellectual  problems  of  his  time, 
and  in  his  literarj'  productions  could  not  sutticiently 
subordinate  his  interests  to  the  proper  canons  of 
art.     These  didactic  and  critical  phases  of  his  tem- 

fierament  spoil  most  of  his  best  books,  except  per- 
laps  Uriel  Acosta.  Apart  from  this  failing,  and 
the  gieat  length  of  some  of  them,  those  same  books 
exhibit  much  excellent  character  drawing,  much 
keen  analysis  of  motives,  a  penetrating  insight  into 
the  tendencies  of  cunent  thought,  clever  dialogues, 
and  skilful  and  dramatic  arrangement  of  situations 
and  scenes.  His  Gcsammclle  }Verke  have  been 
issued  in  .32  vols.  (Jena,  1873  sq.). 

GiitzlaflT.  Karl  Friedrich  ArGr.sT.  Gemian 
missionary  to  China,  wjus  born  at  Pyritz,  in  Pomer- 
ania,  8th  .July  1803.  Going  out  to  tlie  East  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Dutch  Missionarj-  Society,  he 
silent  two  years  in  liatavia  leaming  Chinese. 
Then,  in  1828.  he  procee<led  to  Bangkok,  capital  of 
Siaiii.  where  he  translatetl  the  Bible  into  Siamese. 
Finally,  in  1S31,  he  reached  the  goal  of  his  aspira- 
tions— China.  During  the  rest  of  his  life  he  lived 
mostly  at  Macao  ami  Hongkong,  occupying  himself 
with  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Chinese,  vrith 


480 


GUY 


GUYON 


writiiij;  vaiii)us  liooks  in  (/liiiiese,  (k'liiiiiii,  ami  Kiij; 
ILsli,  witli  publisliiii^a  iiioiitlily  iiia^'a/.iiieiii  Chinese, 
ami  above  all  (fiiini  1844)  with  tlie  training  of 
native  i)ieachc'i-s  to  carry  the  gospel  into  the  in- 
terior, for  at  that  time  foreigners  were  not  allowed 
to  enter  the  empire.  He  remlereil  valualile  assist- 
ance to  the  IJritish  iluring  the  war  of  1840  42  ami 
the  snl>ser|uent  negotiations  for  peace.  He  ilieil  at 
Hong-kong,  !lth  .Viigust  18.)1.  lie  pnhlisheil  a 
JouiiKil  nJ'Tlini:  Vuijaqes  aloiir/  l/ii:  Const  of  China 
(Loml.  1834;  Ger.  "trans.  183.5);  China  Opined 
(18.38);  The  Life  of  Ttw-Chting  (18.38);  ami  a 
history  of  China  in  German  ( 1847 ),  besides  ad- 
dresses, reports,  iX:c. 

Guy,  TiniM.vs,  fonnder  of  Cny's  Hospital  (n-v.), 
Sonthwark,  homlon,  the  son  of  a  lighleruian  and 
coal-dealer,  was  born  in  Fair  Street,  lloiselydown, 
near  the  Thames,  in  1044.  lie  began  busim'ss  in  Ui()8 
in  the  angle  formed  by  Cornhill  ami  Loiiiliard  .Stiect, 
lus  a  bookseller  with  a  stock  of  abniil  t'iOO,  dealing 
extensively  in  the  importation  of  English  IJibks 
from  Holland  (those  printed  at  home  being  exocnteil 
very  badly);  and,  on  this  being  stopped,  he  con- 
tracted with  the  university  of  Oxford  for  the  privi- 
lege of  printing  liibles,  which  he  coiitiimed  to  do  for 
many  years.  I!y  this  means,  and  by  selling  out 
his  original  shares  in  South  Sea  Stock  at  a  great 
adv.intage,  he  amas.sed  a  fortune  of  nearly  half 
a  million  sterling.  In  1707  he  built  and  furnished 
three  wards  of  St  Thoma.s's  llospit.al.  Kor  the 
building  and  endowment  of  the  hospital  in  Sonth- 
wark which  beai-s  his  name  he  set  apart  t''2.38,'2!)."), 
Itis.  He  was  also  a  liberal  bein'factor  to  the  Sta- 
tioners' Company,  and  built  and  emlowed  alms- 
houses and  a  library  at  Tamworth,  for  which 
he  became  one  of  the  members  about  1094. 
Besiiles  bestowing  £400  a  year  on  Christ's  Hos- 
pital, and  giving  to  various  other  charities,  he 
left  £80,000  to  be  ilivided  .-unong  those  who  coulil 
prove  any  ilegrtse  of  relationship  to  liim.  He  wa.s 
of  mean  appearance,  with  a  melancholy  counten- 
ance, and  Wius  regarded  as  an  intensely  sellish  and 
avaricious  m.an.     He  died  December  27,  1724. 

iiny  dc  Liisi;;ii:iii.    See  CypRi-.^. 

tiiy  of  Arczzo.    See  Gliuo  Aketinl  3. 

Guy  of  Warwick,  the  hero  of  one  of  the 
most  ancient  and  popular  of  our  early  English 
metrical  romances.  It  is  a  purely  English  story 
of  the  13th  century,  related  to  the  Dano-Saxon 
rom.ance  of  llnnlul.-  by  its  allusions  to  Danish  wars 
in  Englanil,  ami  to  the  Krench  KIikj  Horn  by  its 
a<toption  of  some  of  the  more  striking  incidents  in 
that  story.  Its  authorship  may  be  due  to  Walter 
of  Exeter,  a  13th-century  Franciscan  monk,  but  it 
has  undoubtedly  been  improveil  by  some  French  or 
Norman  minstrel.  The  story  li.os  close  affinity 
with  that  of  Guido  Tyrins  in  the  ili'xtn  JionitinurKjn. 
The  hero.  Sir  t!uy  of  Warwick,  is  son  of  Seganl, 
steward  of  Uoliand,  Earl  of  Warwick  ;  hisinstnictor 
in  the  exercises  of  chivalry,  the  famims  Herauil  of 
.\rdenne.  Having  fallen  deeply  in  love  with  Felice, 
the  fair  and  accomplished  ilaughter  of  the  earl,  he 
fell  into  a  grievous  sickness,  but  was  refilled  to 
life  by  a  promise  of  her  hand  when  he  had  earned 
it  by  knightly  ileeds.  Immediately  he  crossed  to 
Normandy,  at  the  great  tcmrnamcnt  of  Kouen  van- 
ijuished  every  com|)etitor,  and  at  once  .set  out  into 
far  lands,  travelling  through  Spain,  .Mmayne, 
and  Lombardy,  ami  gaining  the  prize  in  every 
tournament.  He  then  returned  to  England,  and 
overcame  the  famous  Dun  Cow  on  Diinsraore 
Heath,  near  Warwick.  But  his  haughty  mistress 
w;is  still  nn.s,atis(ie<l.  Once  more  he  left  his 
country  to  travei-se  Flanders  .iiiil  Italy,  and  here 
he  well-nigh  lost  his  life  through  the  treachery 
of  Utho,  the  'felon  duke'  of  I'avia.  He  next 
went    to    Constantinople    to    save    the    Emperor 


Ends  from  the  Saracens,  slew  the  mighty  Coldran, 
ci>usin  of  the  soudan,  and  scattered  his  huge 
army.  The  grateful  emperor  ])re.ssed  on  him  the 
hand  of  his  lovely  daughter  and  heiress  Loret,  but, 
faithful  to  Felice,  Sir  Guy  tore  himself  away,  and 
returned,  with  many  adventures  by  the  way,  to 
his  n.itive  country.  No  sooner  had  he  reached 
its  shores  th;in  tidings  were  brought  of  a  most 
portentous  dragon  then  ravaging  Nortlunnberland. 
lie  ha-stened  to  meet  the  monster,  slew  him,  and 
carried  his  head  to  King  Athelstan,  ,at  Lincoln. 
The  fair  Felice  had  now  no  scruple  to  marry  the 
hero.  But  remorse  for  all  the  slaughter  he  had 
done  merely  for  a  woman's  love  began  to  sci/c  him, 
and  after  forty  brief  days  of  wciblcd  bappiiu'ss 
be  left  his  home  in  the  ilre.ss  of  a  iialnu'r  to  visit 
the  Holy  Land.  Here  he  rescued  harl  .Jona.s  from 
his  dungeon,  and  slew  the  ferocious  giant  .-Xniir- 
aunt,  after  which  he  returned  to  England  to  lind 
.\thelslan    besiegeil  in  Winchester  by  the  Danish 

j  .\nlaf,  of  whose  army  the  mainstay  was  the  terrible 
Colbrand.      Sir  (!uy,  still  in  his  disguise,  after  a 

[  jirolongeil  aiul  awful  struggle,  succeeded  in  strik- 
ing oil  the  champion's  bead.  He  now  visited  his 
wife  all  unknown  in  his  palmer's  weeds,  and  then 
retirc<l  to  a  hermitage  at  the|)lace  still  called 
(iuy's  Cliir,  near  Warwick.  Before  bis  death  he 
sent  her  i>arting  ring  ,is  a  token  to  Felice,  and  she 
arrived  in  time  to  close  his  eyes,  surviveil  him  for 
but  lifteen  clays,  ami  was  buried  in  the  same  grave. 

An  edition  in  Frcncli  prose  wa.s  printed  at  Paris  in 
l.'iS.^  ;  the  earliest  ljij;li.sli  edition  is  undated,  but  most 
probably  appeared  abcait  15.^0.  The  earliest  English  .M.S., 
that  of  Aucbinleik.  was  jirinted  for  the  Ablwtsford  Club 
in  1840 ;  and  a^ain.  tot;ether  with  the  Caius  M.S.,  by 
I'rofessor  Zupitzji  for  the  Early  English  Text  Society 
(1883-87).  A  loth-century  version  had  already  been 
edited  for  the  same  society  by  Ziipitza  (1875-70).  All 
these  MSS.  have  most  proliably  been  traiihlated  from  the 
Anglo-French  version.  See  J.  Zupitza,  ^nv  Litrra- 
tnrafsrhichte  lien  iiutj  von  \Vanvit'k  (Vienna,  1873); 
A.  Tiinner,  I)ie  Saije  run  (iuy  von  Waruick  (1877). 

Guy  on,  Jeanne  Marie  BouvikRES  de  la 

MiniiK,  French  mystic,  was  born  at  Montargis 
(dei-t.  Loiret),  l.'ilh'April  l(i48.  She  had  destined 
herself  for  the  cliustcr,  but  was  inanied,  when 
sixteen  years  of  age,  to  Jacques  Guyon,  a  man 
of  great  wealth,  but  much  older  than  herself. 
Being,  however,  left  a  widow  at  twenty  eight, 
she  determined  to  devote  her  life  to  practical 
ministrations  to  the  poor  and  needy,  and  to  the 
cultivation  of  spiritual  ]ieifection,  or  an  endeavour 
to  realise  the  consummate  achievements  of  the 
inner  life,  for  hei-self.  The  former  part  of  her 
plan  she  began  to  carry  out  in  1081  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Geneva,  where  she  found  a 
sympathetic  coadjutor  in  Father  La  Combe.  But 
tliree  years  later  she  wa.s  compelled  to  depart 
thence  on  the  ground  that  her  t^uietist  doctrines 
were  heretical  (see  t^llETlsTs).  .\t  Turin,  (ire- 
noble,  Nice,  (ieiioa,  Vercelli,  and  I'aris,  where  she 
linally  settled  in  1086,  she  became  the  centre  of  a 
religious  movement  for  the  encouragement  of  '  holy 
living.'  But  in  January  1088  she  was  arresteil  for 
having  taught  heretical  opinions,  and  for  having 
been  in  correspcmdence  witli  .M<dinos,  the  Iciuler  of 
<|nietisni  in  Spain.  Keleiused  by  the  intervention 
of  .Madame  tie  Maintenon,  after  a  detention  of 
nine  months,  she  soon  afterwards  became  actjuain ted 
with  Fenelon  ;  but,  her  influence  spreading,  she 
wa.s  again  imprisoned  in  1095.  Out  of  a  coni- 
mi.ssi<m  appointed  to  inquire  into  her  teachings 
and  conduct  of  life  arose  a  controversy  between 
Fcnclon  (q.v.  )and  Bossnet.  Ma<lame  (iuyon  was 
not  relea.sed  from  the  Bastille  until  1702.  The 
remainder  of  her  life  was  spent  in  retirement 
at  Blois,  where  she  died,  9th  June  1717.  Her 
views  find  best  e.\pre.ssion  in  her  works  entitled 


GUYON 


GWALIOR 


481 


Les  Torrens  Spirituels,  Muyeii  Court  de  Faiie 
Oraison,  and  Le  Catitique  des  Canti'iues  intcrpreU 
selon  le  setts  mystique.  She  also  wrote  an  auto- 
biography and  letters,  as  well  as  some  siiiritual 
poetry.  Her  collected  works  appeared  in  40  vols. 
m  1767-91.  See  Uphani,  Life  and  Jieliffioiis 
Opinions  of  Madame  (Uiynn  (New  York,  1847), 
and  Guerrier,  Madame  Gnyon  (Orleans,  1881). 

Gliyoil,  KlcilAUD  DKli.vuFRE.  a  general  in  the 
Hung.ariaii  revuliitionary  war,  was  born  at  Walcot, 
near  liatli,  31st  .March  1813.  His  father,  a  com- 
mander in  the  English  navy,  was  the  de.scendant  of  a 
Huguenot  family  that  settled  in  England  after  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Guyon  entereil 
the  Austrian  service  in  1831  ;  and  married  the 
daughter  of  a  Hungarian  haron  and  field-marshal 
in  1838.  From  that  time  till  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution,  CJuyon  led  the  life  of  a  country  gentle- 
man on  his  estates  near  Koniorn,  but  was  one 
among  the  lirst  to  otter  his  services  to  the  national 
government,  and  acted  a  prominent  part  in  the 
struggle  for  independence.  During  the  retreat  of 
Gorgei's  army,  (luvon  carried  the  niountain-pa.ss 
of  Branyiszko,  ami  Ijy  that  daring  feat  re-estab- 
lished the  communication  with  the  government 
at  Debreczin,  as  also  with  the  several  other  Hun- 
garian army  ciups.  He  did  brilliant  .service  at 
Kapolya,  Komorn,  ami  elsewhere ;  and  after  the 
end  of  the  war  escapeil  to  Turkey,  and  entered  the 
service  of  the  sultan,  without  being  obliged  to 
turn  Mohammedan.  Under  the  name  of  Kcmrshid 
Pasha,  he,  as  a  general  of  division,  was  governor 
of  Damascus,  and  at  the  lieginning  of  the  Crimeiin 
war  did  much  to  organise  the  army  of  Kars.  He 
died  at  Constantinople,  12th  October  1856.  See  A. 
Kinglake,  General  (jiiyon  (1856). 

Clll.VOt,  Arnold,  geographer,  was  born  in 
Switzerland  in  1807,  took  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  at 
Berlin  in  1835,  was  the  colleague  of  Agassiz  at 
Xeuehatel  in  1839^8,  and  in  1848  accompanied 
him  X»  America.  (luyot  delivered  a  course  of 
lectures  at  the  Lowell  Institute,  which  were  trans- 
lated by  Professor  Felton  (q.v. ),  and  published  as 
Earth  and  Man  ( 1853).  In  18-54  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Physical  tJeography  and  Geology  at 
Princeton,  where  he  died,  8th  February  1884.  He 
had  the  management  of  the  meteorological  depart- 
ment of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  where  he 
more  than  once  delivered  courses  of  lectures,  and 
in  connection  with  which  he  published  Meteoro- 
logical and  I'/ii/siral  Tiddes  ( revised  ed.  1884 ). 
Guyot  was  joint-editor  of  Jolinson's  Cyclopadia 
(1874-77),  and  his  other  works  include  several 
biographies,  a  Treatise  on  Physieal  Geoqraphy 
( 1873  I,  and  a  series  of  geographies  and  wafl-maps 
which  are  in  general  use  in  American  schools. 

Guy's  Hospital  was  founded  by  Thomas  Guy 
(q.v. ),  who  leased  from  the  governors  of  St 
Thomas's  Hospital  a  large  )iiece  of  ground,  for  a 
term  of  909  years,  at  a  ground-rent  of  i'.SO  a  year. 
The  space  lieing  cleared,  the  lirst  stone  of  the 
building  was  laid  in  1722,  and  the  hospital  ad- 
mitted its  first  i)atient  in  17'2o,  a  few  days  after 
the  death  of  its  founder.  The  whole  exjiense  was 
£18,796,  16s.,  great  part  of  which  Guy  expended 
in  his  lifetime,  and  he  bequeathed  £219,499  to 
endow  it.  Soon  after  his  death  an  act  of  parlia- 
ment was  obtained,  regulating  the  numagement  of 
the  institution.  In  1829  .Mr  H\int  bei|neathed  to 
the  hospital  £19(1,000,  and  aildilional  bequests  to 
the  amount  of  £10,000  have  since  been  received. 
There  was  at  fii-st  room  for  about  400  patients  : 
now  700  can  be  acconnnodated.  The  yearly  .average 
of  patients  is  over  5000;  the  out-patients  relieved 
may  amount  to  above  80,000.  The  ann\:al  income 
is  about  ,£40,000,  chiefly  from  estates  in  the 
counties  of  Essex,  Hereford,  and  Lincoln.  The 
239 


usual  number  of  governors  is  sixty,  wlio  are  self- 
elective.  Students  enter  the  hospital  for  study, 
attending  clinical  jiractice,  lectures,  &c.,  aiid 
paying  annual  fees.  The  building  consists  of  two 
quadrangles,  united  by  a  cro.ss  structure  or  arcade, 
besides  two  wings  extending  from  the  front  to  the 
street — west  win"  built  with  elegance  and  uni- 
formity, and  whole  eilifice  handsome  and  regular. 
-\  library  and  valuable  museums  are  attached  to 
the  hospital.  New  wards,  with  tall  towers  for 
ventilation,  were  built  in  18.")2,  and  a  chemical 
labcnatory  in  1872.  In  the  cliapel  is  a  fine  marble 
statue  of  Guy,  by  Bacon,  which  cost  £1000.  Sir 
Astley  Cooper  is  burieil  in  the  chapel.  See  the  His- 
tory of  Guy's  Hospital  by  Wilks  an<l  Bellamy  ( 1893 ). 

<»iizerat.    See  Gu.i.vi!.\t. 

<>ll7.llinil  Blanco,  Anioxio,  was  born  in 
Caracas  in  1830,  was  banished  for  his  share  in 
political  disturbances,  and,  after  taking  a  promi- 
nent part  in  two  invasions,  became  vice-president 
of  Venezuela  in  18113.  Diiven  from  office  in  18GS, 
he  headed  a  revolution  which  restored  him  to 
power  in  1870,  and  for  many  years  he  was  virtual 
dictator  of  the  country  ;  other  men  were  occasion- 
ally permitted  to  fill  the  position  of  president,  but 
they  were  merely  llgure-heails.  In  1889,  however, 
jioiiular  discontent  was  aggravated  liy  reports  of 
corrupt  contracts  nuide  in  Paris  ;  and  Blanco,  who 
was  then  acting  as  envoy  to  all  the  European 
powers,  was  practically  deposed  by  congress,  which 
refuseil  to  accept  the  resignaticm  of  his  former 
protege  and  present  rival,  Dr  Koja-s  Paul.  For 
Guzman  Blanco  state,  see  CuK.\  (ClUD.VD  DE). 

Ciwalior,  a  native  state  of  central  India,  the 
dominions  of  the  Mahratta  Maharajah  Sindhia 
(q.v.),  consists  of  several  detached  districts,  with 
an  area  of  29,046  sq.  m.,  lying  jirincipallv  be- 
tween 23'  20'  and  26'  52'  N.  lat.,  and  in  70'  15' 
to  79'  12'  E.  long.  Lying  partly  in  the  ba.sin  of 
the  Jumna  and  partly  in  that  of  the  Nerbudda,  it 
divides  its  drainage  between  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
anil  the  Arabian  Sea.  The  principal  export  is 
ojiium.  At  the  census  of  1881.  the  lirst  attempteil, 
the  jiopulation  was  .3,115,857;  in  1891,3,378,774, 
mainly  Himlus.  Though  Gw.alior  is  a  Mahratta 
])rincii)ality,  being,  in  fact,  the  principal  fragment 
of  the  great  empire  of  the  Peshwa,  yet  the  Mah- 
rattas  do  not  form  any  considerable  proportion  of 
the  i>eople,  and  are  saiil  to  number  only  15, (XX). 
The  revenue  of  the  state  is  estimateil  at  £1.200,000  ; 
the  strength  of  the  army  is  tixeil  at  6(X»0  cavalry, 
.5000  infantry,  and  48  guns.  an<l  there  are  nearly 
7.500  police.  Since  1803  the  conntiy  has  l>eeu 
uiuler  British  i)rotection.  In  1843  the  British  were 
comi)elle(l,  on  the  death  of  the  sovereign,  to  send 
an  armeil  force,  which,  after  severe  fighting, 
succeeileil  in  restoring  his  ailopted  successor  to 
the  throne  :  .and  during  the  troubles  of  1857  the 
young  Maharajah  remained  faithful  to  the  British 
government,  although  deserted  by  his  troops. — 
(iw.vi.Kii:.  the  capital,  stands  65  nales  S.  of  .\gra 
by  railway.  Its  nucleus  is  an  isolated  rock  of  about 
.'J40  feet  in  height,  perpendicular,  either  naturally 
or  artificially,  on  all  sides  ;  it  measures  U  mile  by 
.300  yarils,  and  its  citadel  (saiil  to  date  from  the 
Sth  century  ),  w  hose  guns  sweep  the  only  approach, 
is  virtually  impregnable  against  any  native  force. 
Along  the  eastern  ba.M'  of  this  eminence  lies  the 
old  ti>wn  of  Gwalior,  containing  little  worthy  of 
notice  but  a  beautiful  mausoleum  of  white  sand- 
stone :  and  to  the  south-west  there  extends  for 
several  miles  the  new  town  called  Lashkar,  where 
the  Mahar.ijah  resides.  Nearly  4  miles  to  the 
north-east  is  Morar.  the  British  cantonment  from 
18.58  to  lS8t;,  when  its  line  sandstone  barracks  were 
handed  over,  along  with  the  fortress,  to  Sindhia. 
and  the  Euroiiean  lieadquarters  removed  to  Jhansi. 


482 


GWEEDORE 


GYMNASTICS 


There  are  Hindu  temples,  a  Uimlu  palace,  Jain 
caves,  aii.l  rock  sciili)tures.     Pop.  (1S91)  li>4,083. 

<«W«'«'«lor«\  :i  liiiiiik't  in  a  poverty-stricken  ilis- 
trict  3  miles  inlaml  from  the  west  coast  of  Donegal, 
•28  miles  N\V.  of  I,ettcrkenny. 

(•willilil.    Sec  Ui'ii.i.i.M. 

<>M.VIliild  {Ciiirf/oniis  rhnteoides),  a  small  fresli- 
Wiitcr  li>h,  sometimerj  called  the  Fresh  irutcillci- 
riiitf.  Wiien  fnll  jrrown  the  ywvniiul  is  aliout  10 
or  Vi  inches  in  lcn;.;tli  ;  the  lii-st  tlorsal  tin  is  hi^h  ; 
the  jaws  are  a  little  prodnced  ;  the  month  is  small, 
and   the  jaws  are   without    teeth.      It    is    found 


G^vJ■niad  (Curnjonus  clujxoidcs). 

in  some  of  the  lakes  of  Wales  ami  ('unihorland. 
Gwyniad  is  a  Welsh  name,  while  at  I'llswater  the 
fish  is  called  Sehelhj.  It  occurs  in  that  lake  in 
great  shoals,  so  that  many  humlreds  are  sometinie.s 
taken  at  a  single  ilraught  of  the  net.  It  is  rather 
an  insipid  lish,  and  cannot  he  kept  long  after  lieing 
taken  out  of  the  water,  niilc-s  .--alted,  which  it 
often  is  liy  the  poor.  There  are  numerous  nearly- 
related  species,  such  as  the  Irish  '  pollan '  (C. 
poCtiiii),  the  '  powan '  of  Loch  Loinoml,  the  'ven- 
dace '  (C.  raiiUcsim)  of  Lochinahen,  and  the  'white 
lish'  of  North  American  lakes.     See  COKEGoNL'S. 

Gwyiiii.  Nil.!..     See  Ch.mjles  II. 

Gyariiiat-Italassu.  or  I5.\L.is.s.\-GYARM.\T,  a 
town  of  Hungary,  40  ndles  N.  hy  E.  of  I'esth. 
Here  peace  wa.s  concluded  Ijetween  Austria  and 
Turkey  in  nj-2t5.      I'op.  (5788. 

liym'S.  king  of  Lydia,  who  obtained  the  throne 
hy  murdcrinj;  his  master.  King  Candaules,  and 
marryin;;  his  widow.  This  happened  ahout  087  B.C. 
(iyges  reigned  thirty-four  years,  during  the  course 
of  which  he  wrested  M.agnesia  and  Colophon  from 
the  Ionian  (Ireeks,  lent  a.ssistance  to  Psammotichus 
in  his  rev(dt  in  Kgvpt  against  .-Assyria,  and,  after 
stoutly  ilefemling  himself  for  some  tune  against  the 
Cimmerians,  was  at  last  slain  liy  them  ((w4  n.C. ). 
Plato  liius  a  fahle  in  which  Cyges,  having  miracu- 
lously ohtaineil  possession  of  a  goMen  ring  of  ;;reat 
virtue,  was  enahled  hy  means  of  it  to  make  him- 
self invisible,  and  thus  took  occasion  to  murder  his 
soverei;;n  .and  nsurp  the  supreme  power. 

fiyillliasilini.  This  word  (from  ijtjmnos, 
'naked  )w,is  applied  to  those  puhlic  (daces  or  build- 
ings where  the  iJreek  ycmths  exercised  themselves, 
fitted  up  with  running  and  wrestling  grounds,  baths, 
and  rooms  or  halls  for  eonvei's.aticm  and  discussion. 
These  were  the  favourite  resort  of  youth,  and  for 
this  reason  were  freouented  by  teachers,  especi- 
ally philosophers.  The  three  great  g>innasia  of 
Athens  were  the  Academy,  where  Plato  taii^dit  ; 
the  Lyceum,  where  Aristotle  laboured  ;  ami  the 
Cynosarges.  In  this  connection  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand the  transference  of  the  name  to  institutions 
for  the  mental  disciplining  and  instniction  of  youth. 
The  German  gymn.asiiim  is  an  u|>per  scIumjI  where 
instruction  is  carried  out  largely  liy  means  of  the 
cIlLssical  timgues.  preparing  itspiipils  for  the  univer- 
sity, and  corresponding  rou;.'hly  to  the  grammar 
and  public  schools  of  EnLfland,  and  the  grammar 


and   lii;;li   schools  of   Scotland.     Se«  EDUCATION, 
V.d.  IV.  p.  -JOS. 
(■ymiiastit'S.     .\ecording  to  the  derivation  and 

ori;,'inal  use  oi  the  word  Gymnastics  (ffifmiiim, 
'  naked  or  stripped  ')  all  athletic  exercises  might  bo 
iiuluded  under  this  head,  but  the  term  is  now  much 
nunc  restricted  in  its  application.  It  excludes 
athletic  sjKnts,  and  all  outdoor  games  such  na 
cricket,  football,  and  lawn  tennis,  and  is  limited 
to  certain  exercLses  devLseil  to  strengthen  tlio 
mnseles  and  bones,  especially  tho.sc  of  the  n]piier 
half  of  the  l>o<ly. 

Gymnastic  j;ames  in  their  original  sense  are  so 
old  ivs  to  be  prehistoric  ;  they  are  alluded  to  in  the 
2d  and  :23d  books  of  the  IIhkI.  Before  the  time  of 
Hippocrates  gymnastic  exercises  had  been  adopted 
in  (ireece  as  part  of  the  coui'se  of  medicine  intended 
to  counteract  increasing  luxury  and  imlolcnce. 
The  variims  exercises  were  speedily  condiincd 
into  a  system,  and  gymnasia,  where  they  should 
lie  practised,  were  formed  lirst  by  the  Lace- 
d.cmonians,  and  subse<iuenlly  at  Athens.  The 
Itomans  :vlo|ited  the  system,  anil  constructed 
^'vmiiasia  on  a  magniiicent  scale.  .Many  of  their 
buildings.  Inning  extensive  baths  attached,  weie 
known  as  tUtrmiv.  The  exercises  in  the  gymnasi.i 
consisted  of  running,  leaping,  dancing,  wrestling, 
boxing,  hurling,  vVc.  ;  and  in  those  days,  when  all 
men  lone  arms,  and  when,  in  close  combat,  victory 
went  generally  to  the  strongest  man,  the.se  games 
were  doubtless  of  great  value.  In  snKsequent  aijes 
of  kni;;lilly  prowess  similar  exercises  were  inobaiily 
practised,  though  less  jmblicly  ;  but  with  llie  intro- 
duction of  gunpowder,  and  through  its  means,  the 
gradual  suljstitution  of  lij;hting  at  a  distance — in 
w  hicli  .-'cience  and  skill  were  the  main  rec|uisites — 
for  personal  encimnters  where  strength  and  muscle 
went  far  to  carry  the  day,  the  attention  paid  to 
gymiiiU'tics  decrea-seil,  and  finally  vanisheil  alto- 
gether. To  nuike  infantry  soldiers  perfect  in  the 
drilled  movements  of  nia.sses,  cavalry  stddieis  good 
horsemen  anil  fair  swordsmen,  and  to  have  gunners 
who  could  take  an  accurate  aim  became  the  utmost 
sought  by  the  pos.sessors  of  great  armies  ;  while  the 
science  of  gymnastics,  having  gone  out  of  rejiute 
for  the  military,  was  speedily  neglected  in  merely 
civil  life.  It  is  only  since  the  earlier  portion  of  the 
19th  century  that  the  science  hiis  at  all  revived. 

The  revival  commenced  in  liermany,  where,  in 
1774  and  17N4.  gymnasia  were  opened  by  IJasedow 
(q.v. )  and  Salziiiann  at  Des.sau  and  Schne]ifenthal 
in  Thiiringen,  that  of  the  latter  being  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  celebrated  gymnastic  peda- 
gi);,'ue  (Juts  Muths  (q.v.).  In  1811  Friediich  Lud- 
wig  .lahn  (1778- 18.V2),  the  so-called  'Turnvater,' 
or  father  of  ^.-ymna^tics,  opened  the  fii>t  '  tnrn- 
idatz'  at  Berlin,  and  he  rendered  the  science  of 
gjinnastics  so  popular  that  it  speedily  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  youth  throughout  the  king- 
dom, and  to  the  training  thus  obtained  must  be 
attributed,  in  no  small  degree,  the  vigour  which 
succeeded  in  driving  out  the  French  army  of  the 
lirst  eniidre.  Sweden  soon  imitated  Prn.s,sia,  and 
from  that  time  gjninastics  ha-s  formed  a  ]ii'ominent 
feature  in  the  Scandinavian  eoni-se  of  education. 
In  Prussia  the  gjinnasia  began  to  1*  the  scenes  of 
political  j;atlierings,  too  liberal  in  tendency  to  please 
Its  semi-military  government :  and  in  1818  they 
were  all  closed.  The  troops  were,  however,  con- 
tinued in  gj  innastic  exerci-es,  and  showed  so  dearly 
the  advantages  of  the  trainin;;  they  experienced 
that,  about  1844,  Louis- Philippe  adopted  and  im- 
proved the  system  in  the  Krencli  anny.  From  that 
time  gynina.-ia  have  l>een  constnicted  for  almost  all 
continent.al  armies,  and,  with  more  or  less  success, 
for  the  civil  population.  England  moved  publicly 
in  the  matter  in  I8ii0.  in  which  year  .M.ijor  (after- 
wards Major-'.'cneral  I   Hammersley,  the  "father  of 


GYMNASTICS 


GYMNOSOPHISTS 


483 


military  gymnastics,'  was  sent  to  Oxford  to  be 
tiaiiiud"  in  Mr  MacLaren's  gymnasium,  and  the 
^'yMina>ia  at  AMeislidt  and  otliei'  stations  were 
then  liuilt  and  placed  under  his  superintendence. 
In  private  life,  however,  there  had  lung  been  many 
excellent  gymnasia,  one  of  the  best  and  earliest 
being  that  opened  at  Oxford  by  the  late  Archibald 
..MacLaren  in  18.58. 

(iymnastic  exercises  may  be  divided  into  two 
great  groups,  those  conducted  without  and  those 
conducted  with  .a]pparatus,  while  the  latter  group 
may  be  again  subdivided  into  those  requiring  mov- 
able apparatus  and  those  requii-ing  iiumovable 
apjiaratus — i.e.  so  far  as  the  gymnast  is  concerned. 

Exercises  without  apparatus  have  been  specially 
studied  in  Sweilen,  and  there  chielly  by  Professor 
Ling  (1776-1839),  whose  name  is  generally  associ- 
atpil  with  them  in  England.  l>y  various  movements 
of  the  arms,  trunk,  and  lower  limbs,  singly  or  com- 
liincd,  every  muscle  in  the  body  can  lie  brought  into 
play,  and  all  that  is  remiired  for  keeping  the  body 
in  health  can  thus  easily  be  practised.  In  schools 
these  movements  have  often  been  carried  out  with 
''real  advantage  l>etween  lessons,  giving  the  chil- 
ilien  that  exercise  which  their  growing  frames 
demand,  and  thus  avoiding  restlessness,  which  is 
the  natural  result  of  enforced  quiet.  AVhen  a  num- 
ber of  children  work  together,  and  especially  when 
in  time  to  music,  the  interest  of  the  practice  is 
greatly  increased.  For  further  information  the 
reailer  m.ay  consult  Dr  Koth's  account  of  the  Ling 
.system  ( 18G4 ),  or  Ling's  Hu-eilisli  Gyjiinrmtii-s  ( Lond. 
188.5).  So  important  are  these  exercises  with- 
out apparatus  considered  in  the  army  that  a  series 
of  them,  known  as  '  Extension  Exercises,'  have 
been  laid  down  in  the  ordinary  Field  Exercise  Drill- 
hooh,  and  in  the  1888  edition  of  this  work  they 
have  been  carefully  reconsidered  and  improved. 

Next  in  simplicity  are  gymnastic  exercises  with 
movable  apparatus — i.e.  such  as  weights  and  bars. 
Of  these,  the  commonest  forms  are  dumb-bells,  bar- 
liells — i.e.  bars  about  3  feet  long  with  a  weight  at 
either  end — and  Indian  clubs.  The  arms  and 
shouldei's  can  be  made  to  do  any  amount  of  work 
with  these,  according  to  the  weights  employed,  and, 
if  so  desired,  many  of  the  exercises  of  the  Hrst  group 
designed  for  the  trunk  and  lower  limbs  may  be 
carried  out  while  dumlibells  or  bar-bells  are  liehl 
in  the  hands,  thus  materially  increasing  the  work 
done.  The  weight  of  any  or  all  of  these  should  be 
carefully  suited  to  the  strength  of  the  individual, 
otherwise  more  harm  than  good  may  result  from 
their  use. 

The  forms  of  apparatus  required  for  the  last  group 
of  exercises  are  numerous,  but  oidy  a  few  are  really 
essential.  Thus  we  have  the  horizontal  bar,  capable 
of  being  placed  at  any  desired  level  between  3  and 
10  feet ;  and  parallel  bai-s — i.e.  two  bars  about 
311  inches  apart,  and  lixed  about  4  feet  from  the 
grouml.  With  these  almost  as  much  e.xercise  as  may 
be  wanteil  can  be  obtained.  But  in  most  gymnasia 
there  are,  besides,  iron  rings  hung  by  ropes  from  the 
roof,  a  trapeze-bar  also  hung  from  the  roof,  ladders 
horizontal  at  some  distance  above  the  tloin-  and 
vertical,  climbing  poles  and  ropes,  and  various 
pulleys  with  weights  attached  for  exercising  the 
wrists  and  shouldei's. 

It  is  advisable  that  beginners  working  in  a  g>-ra- 
nasium  should  be  under  tlie  direction  of  an  instruc- 
tor, who  will  be  able  to  graduate  their  exercises,  so 
as  to  avoiil  any  overstraining.  Light  and  loose 
Hanncl  clothing  should  in  all  cases  be  worn. 

The  special  value  of  gymnastics  lies  in  their  exer- 
cising tne  arms,  shimlders.  an<l  chest.  On  this 
account  tluy  are  jiartieularly  valuable  for  all  who 
lead  sedentary  lives,  and  also  as  an  important 
auxiliary  for  those  who  wish  by  athletic  exercises 
to  perfect  their  muscular  development. 


The  system  of  gymnastics  adopted  in  the  British 
army  is  a  thorough  one,  and  is  well  calculated  to 
develop  the  frames  of  recruits,  as  well  as  to  harden 
and  strengthen  those  of  the  drilleil  men.  The 
course  begins  with  the  use  of  movable  apparatus, 
after  which  the  trunk  and  lower  limbs  are  exercised 
by  walking,  leaping,  and  vaulting;  next  the  muscKs 
of  the  arms  and  of  the  trunk  are  bmnght  ont  by 
exercises  on  the  trapeze  and  parallel  bars.  Then 
the  muscles  of  the  whole  body  are  developed  by 
various  climbing  exercises  on  poles,  ropes,  and 
ladders  ;  and.  lastly,  the  training  is  brought  to  a 
practical  bearing  by  escalading  practice.  In  order 
to  imiirove  re.spiration  running  drill  has  also  been 
instituted. 

The  theorj-  of  the  advantage  derivable  from  g>ni- 
na.stics  is  simple  enough.  An  admirable  law  i  f 
nature  jirovirles  that — within  certain  limits — parts 
of  the  human  frame  increa.se  in  strength,  aiititude, 
and  size  in  proportion  to  the  use  made  of  them. 
In  gjmnastics  this  law  is  brought  to  bear  succes- 
sively on  every  jiart,  and  linally  on  the  whole 
system  in  combined  action.  If  the  exertion  be  not 
,  carried  so  far  as  to  induce  exces>ive  fali;;ue,  all 
other  jjarts  of  the  body  symiiathise  with  the  im- 
proving condition  of  that  which  is  mainly  exerted  ; 
the  circulation,  excited  from  time  to  time  by  the 
e.xercise,  acquires  fresh  vigour,  and,  blood  being 
driven  with  unwonted  fmce  into  all  parts  of  the 
system,  every  function  is  carried  on  with  increased 
activity.  An  improvement  in  the  general  health 
soon  becomes  manifest,  and  the  mind — if  simultane- 
ously cultivated  with  judgment — increases  in  iiower 
and  en<lurance. 

See  Captain  Chiasso's  Gpmnaslics  and  CaliilJiaiics  ;  G. 
Koland's  Oijmitantics ;  Walker's  British  JJaiifi/  Exer- 
cises; and  MacLaren's  Trainimj,  in  Thcvri/  and  Prac- 
tic,  and  ritysical  Education^  Thiontical  and  Practical 
( 18fi8 ).  The  books  w  rittcn  in  German  on  Gymnastics 
( '  Turnkunst ')  would  form  a  small  librarj-. 

tiyuiiie'iiin.    Sec  Cow-rL.wT. 

Ciyilllio'l'ladus,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order     JX'guuiinosa",     sub-order     Ca-saliiinic;e. — G. 
i  Ciinadciisis  is  a  Xorth  American  tree,  found  both 
in   Canada  and  over  a  great  part  of  the  L'nited 
States,  attaining  a  height  of  .50  to  00  feet,  with 
liranclies   remarkable  for  their   upright  direction, 
and  an  exceedingly  rough  bark  whicli  comes  oil'  in 
I  slips.     The  leaves  of  young  trees  are  very  laige. 
I  three  feet  long,  lupinnate,  armed  with  thorns.     The 
flowers  are  white  in  short  spikes.     The  pods  are 
I  five  inches  loii"  by  two  broad.     The  tree  is  called 
,  Chicot  in  Canada,  and  sometimes  Stump  Tree,  from 
its   dead    appearance   in  winter,   and    the   al)sence 
I  of  conspicuous  buds.     It  is  also  called  the  Kcnliirl.;/ 
I   t'lijfcc  'J ree,  because  the  seeds  were  foriiu'rly  roasted 
j  and  grouml  as  eollee  in  Keutuckv.     It  grows  well 
in   Britain.     The  wood   is  used  "both   by  cabinet- 
makers and  by  carpentei's.     It   has  very  little  sap- 
Avood.       The    pods,    preserved    like    those    of    the 
tamarind,  are  said  to  be  wholesome  and  slightly 
aperient. 

(ilVIIIIIOgeilS,  Lindley's  term,  now  obsolete, 
for  tlie  (iymnospcrms  (q.v.). 

€!>  iiiuosoiiiutsi.    See  Pteropod. 

ClyillllOSOphistS  (i.e.  'nakeil  sjiges').  the 
name  given  by  the  Creeks  to  tho.se  ancient  Himlu 
philosophers  who  lived  solitarily,  wore  little  or  no 
clothing.  an<l  addicted  themselves  to  mystical 
contemplation  and  the  practice  of  the  most  rigorous 
asceticism.  Some,  like  Kalanus,  even  burneil 
themselves  to  death  in  order  to  enter  a  state  of 
purer  being.  Strabo  divides  them  into  Brahmans 
and  Samans.  the  former  of  whom  adhered  to  the 
strictest  prineiides  of  caste,  while  the  latter  ad- 
ndtted  any  one  into  their  number  regarding  whose 
character  and  kindred  thev  were  satislied. 


484 


GYMNOSPERMS 


GYMNOTUS 


CiymnosiH'rillS  [V.r.  ffi/mnos,  'naked;'  lieiicc 
tlie  iiiinie  (iyniiiospeniis,  •  iiiikt'ilseedfir  i>lniit.-<  I, 
the  lower  or  more  iiriniitive  };'"ui>  of  Keea-i>liiiits 
(Pliaiiero^'aiiis,  >|.v. ),  ilifler  in  iiiiiiiy  points  I'roin 
the  lii^hur  j;roii|i,  the  AiLi;ios|iiMnis.  The  chief 
dill'erences  are  siimiiiarised  in  the  article  Anjiio 
sperms  (i(. v.).  (iymnosiierms  consist  of  the  orders 
Cycadaceie  (<|.v.),  t'oiiifer:i'  (i|.v.),  and  (lnela(e:e 
(see  SkagraI'E).  Althoii^di  these  orders  do  not  re- 
semble one  another  externally,  their  morjiholo^^ical 
characters  and  mode  of  sexual  rei)ro<hiction  are  very 
similar.  In  slrmiKrc  their  stems  rescndde  those  of 
Dicotyledons  ((|.v.) ;  the  secondary  wood  is  fornieil 
in  concentric  rin;,'s  from  permani'Mt  camhium,  con- 
tains tracheides  with  liordercd  pits,  liiit  no  true 
ves,sels  ;  and  secretory  piussajjes  are  |)resent  in  most 
stems,  containin;,'  resin  in  conifers  and  k'""  i" 
cyeads.  It  is,  however,  from  their  mode  of  sexual 
reproduction  that  we  are  ahle  most  clearly  to  assij;n 
their  place  amonj;  plants,  as  a  connecting'  link 
between   the  higher  cryptogams  and  angiospernis. 


1,  Tlic  lioniiapliruilito  Fi-rn  I'rotliallns  coiitnistfil  with  male 
(a)  and  rcnialu  (6)  I'rottiaUi  of  E([tusetiuii ;  2.  al)ove  are 
corrt'Sfionrtiiig  reductions  of  the  .sexual  protlialli  iti  3,  Salviiiia, 
4,  I.soetes,  5,  C.vcad  and  Conifer,  and  C,  many  AngioRjHTlns. 
A,  niiei-ospores  or  imlK-n-grains ;  c,  male  pronucleus ;  d, 
spcnnatozoid  ;  f,  male  prothallus.     13,  macrosixTes. 

In  gymnospernis  we  first  meet  with  an  organ  which 
is  mori)hologic,'illy,  and  at  the  .same  time  physio- 
logically, a  Klower  ((|.v. ).  '['Ue  J/oim-n  are  uni- 
sexual ;  ami  the  plants  either  monocious  or  diie  , 
cious;  while  hermaphroditism  prevails  among Angio- 
sperm.s.  The  male  (lowei^  are  stumeiis  hearing 
pollensacs,  which  develo))  free  unicellular  jml/iii- 
grains:  those  three  sets  of  structures  being  respec-  j 
lively  the  homologues  of  sporophylls,  niicros|>or- 
angia,  and  microspores  ot  cryjitogams.  hach 
pollen-grain  divides  into  a  large  reproductive  cell 
and  one  or  more  vegetative  cells  ( the  male  pro- 
thallus of  higher  cryptogams).  Each  cell  has  a 
nucleus,  and  that  of  the  reproductive  cell,  the  ma/' 
pronucleus,  is  the  homologue  of  the  spermatozoid  of 
cryptogams.  When  the  stamens  are  matured,  the 
sacs  open  ;  the  grains  are  shaken  out,  and  .-ome 
are  borne  by  the  wiml  to  the  surfaces  of  ripe  ovules 
( m.aerosporangia  of  cryptogams).  When  a  i)ollen- 
graiu  reaches  an  ovule  it  begins  to  germinate,  its 
coat  ruptures,   the  reproductive  cell  grows  at  the  ' 


expense  of  the  vegetative  to  form  a  poUcntube 
( antheriilinm  of  crvptogams)  which  ultimately 
jienetrates  the  nucellus  of  the  ovule,  and  its  |)ro- 
nudeus  fertilises  the  iminucleus  of  the  oosphere 
(see  1''e1!X).  This  is  a  step  in  adv.ance  of  the 
higher  cryptogams,  for  their  microspores  are  shed 
iKim  the  paiciit  plant,  ami  geiininate  imlv  in  a 
substratum  where  tiiey  develop  into  pr<ithalii  bear- 
ing antheridia  from  wliicli  spermatozoids  are  event- 
ually set  free.  The  nncrospores  of  Salriiiia  iiiittnis, 
a  heterosi>orous  fern,  form  the  only  exception,  be- 
cause they  develop  protlialli  an<l  antheridia  within 
the  s|iorangium.  Sperm.atozoids  can  fertilise  only 
with  the  help  of  water;  while  pollen  giains  of 
gymnospernis  are  carried  by  the  wind  to  the  female 
llowei's. 

In  gymnospernis,  then,  we  have  a  very  marked 
transition  in  the  jjioccss  of  fertilisation.  Sper- 
matozoids readily  i>a.ss  down  the  neck  canals  of 
arcbegoni;i  and  so  reach  the  oosphere,  but  they 
would  ]>!•  unable  to  pierce  the  nucellus  of  gymiio- 
s|iernis  ;  hence  the  necessity  of  aslow-growing  pcdien 
tube  in  the  latter.  The  female  llower  is  ji  macro- 
sporangium  borne  at  the  end  of  an  axis  or  shoot,  or 
a  carpellary  leaf  (si)oroidiyll ),  with  a  inaerospor- 
angium  in  its  axil,  on  its  iijipcr  surface,  or  mi  its 
margin.  The  ovule  hits  never  more  than  one  co.at ; 
while  in  many  angiospernis  there  are  two.  Kurllier, 
the  carpellary  leaves  never  unite  to  form  an  ovary 
louiiil  ibe  ovule,  which,  theri'fore,  remains  naked 
(hence  the  name);  in  angiospernis  the  ovules  are 
always  enclosed  in  ovaries.  The  ovule  is  filled 
at  tirst  with  a  mass  of  tissue,  the  nuce//us,  in 
which  is  afterwards  developed  the  cmOri/n-siir  or 
n:otlier-c(dl  (  macids]iore  of  cryptogams);  this  sac 
forms  within  itself  a  inotbidlus  (also  called  endo- 
sperm of  idiancrogams)  which  develops  at  its 
anterior  end  several  arcbegoiiia  (see  FHHX,  fig.  2). 
The  endosi>erni  of  gymnospernis  is  formed  before, 
that  of  angiospernis  after  fertili.satiim.  Inside 
each  archegoniuni  is  an  oosphere  which,  after 
ferlilisatiiui  of  its  pronucleus  by  the  male  pio- 
nuideus,  develops  tlie  enibivn.  I'ait  only  of  the 
oosphere  forms  the  embryo,  the  rest  forms  a 
kind  of  nutritive  yolk,  thus  resembling  the  eggs 
of  iiianv  animals.  This  is  the  only  example 
of  nieroldastic  segmentation  of  the  ovum  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom  (see  Kmii1!V(II.(i<;v).  The  em- 
bryo lies  straight  in  the  prothallus.  ami  never  curved 
as  in  many  angiosiieriiis.  ('oncealiiient  of  .alterna- 
tion of  generations  thus  takes  ]ilace  for  the  first 
time  in  gymnospernis.  In  vascular  cryptogams 
tlieie  are  two  distinct  sets  of  in<liviiluals  viz.  the 
ivsexual  (sp()ro]>liyte  generation)  re]iiesented  by  the 
fern  plant,  and  the  sexual  (oopbyte  generation) 
repiesenteil  by  the  minute  fern  prothallus.  The 
sexual  individuals  of  cryptogams,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  microspores  of  ISalvinia,  lead  independ- 
ent lives  for  a  time;  but  those  of  phanerogams 
are  parasitic  on  the  p;ueiit  plant ;  and  as  parasitism 
leads  to  degenenitioii  of  jiarls,  so  we  have  the  Jiro- 
thalli  in  gyninospernis  reduced,  ami  still  more 
reduced  in  angiospernis.  The  evolution  of  ]dant- 
forius  lias  thus  been  a  progressive  increase  of  the 
s]ioropliyte  generation  at  the  expen.se  of  the 
oopbyte.  and  this  is  in  harmony  with  the  character- 
istically anabolic  nature  of  plants.  See  tloebel's 
M'/r/i/iij/iii/i/  iif  I'Iduts.,  Sachs  I'liijsiolugy  of 
r/ir/its,  ami  \'ines"s  P/ii/siolor/i/  of  Plants. 

4>.TinnotllS,  or  Ei.ecthic  Eki,  (<1.  clectrkus), 
the  most  powerful  of  the  electric  fishes,  occurs 
in  the  fresli  water  of  Br.azil  and  (iuiana.  It  is 
type  of  a  family  Cyinnoliibe  among  the  Pliyso- 
stom.atous  bony  lislies,  but  is  the  only  known  species 
of  its  genus.  There  .are  no  doi-sal  nor  strictly 
cauilal  tins,  but  the  anal  fin  extends  on  to  the  end 
of  the  tail ;  there  are  no  scales,  and  the  eyes 
are   very  small.     The  fish   attains  a  length    of  6 


GYMPIE 


GYPSIES 


485 


feet,  ami  is  capable  witli  its  shock  of  teniporaiily 
paralysinj,'  a  man  or  large  animal,  or  of  killing  its 


Electric  Eel  ( CTi/utmjh'.^  r /. .  /, ,-  -..^  . 

prey  of   fishes   and    amphibians.     For  description 
of  tlie  electric  organs,  see  Electric  Fishes. 

Gyilipie,  a  town  of  Queensland,  61  miles  by  rail 
S.  of  Jlarvboroiigh.  The  gokl-reefs  round  yielded 
in  1S67-94  a  total  of  about  1,800,000  oz.    Pop.  S44a, 

Ciyilircology,  that  branch  of  Medicine  which 
treats  of  the  diseases  of  women. 

4>.VIIO<*ardia.  the  chanbnugra  tree,  whose 
seeils  yield  an  oil  highly  valued  in  India  and  China 
a-^  a  remedy  in  leprosy  and  skin  diseases. 

Gyoilgytts.  a  town  of  Hungary,  at  the  southern 
base  of  the  Matra  Mountains,  59  miles  by  rail 
NE.  of  Pesth.     It  has  mineral  baths.     Pop.  15,896. 

Ciyp,  the  jiseudonym  under  wliich  the  Countess 
<ialuielle  de  Martel  de  .Janville— Ijorn  Kiqneti  ile 
Miral)eau,  and  the  last  of  tliat  famous  stock — has 
v.ritten  a  long  series  of  unconventional  and  aiili- 
conventional  novels,  including  Petit  Bub  (lss2), 
Atttour  dn  Maviage  (1893),  Ellcs  et  Lui  (1SS5), 
Olie!  Ics  Psydwlog'ues  (1892),  Mdlle.  £w,  (drama- 
tised in  1895),  Pas  Jaloux  (\S95),  Lewis  Ames,  I.es 
Duns  NormeDids !  &c.  Chiffon's  3Iarria(fe  (]SQi  : 
translated  1895)  was  greeted  as  her  ma.sterpiece. 

tiypai'tos.     See  L.\m.mergeier. 

Cl.Vp.sie.S,  a  wandering  race,  dispersed  llie  wide 
worlil  over,  and  distinguisbeil  by  language,  phy- 
sirpie,  and  mode  of  life.  Their  number  in  Europe 
is  vaguely  estimated  at  700,000;  and  only  for  the 
following  countries  have  we  these  more  or  less 
tiustuorthy  statistics:  Hungary  (1890)  95,157; 
I'.osnia  and  Herzegovina  (1874),  9.5.37;  Servia 
(1890),  37,581;  Koumania  (1895)  200,000;  Bul- 
garia and  Eastern  Koumelia  (1893),  51,754;  the 
vilayet  of  Adrianople  ( 1876),  27.326  males  ;  Russia 
( 1877 ),  1 1,654  ;  Prussia  ( 1887 ),  1054  seft/ed  Clypsies. 
Asia  has  untold  thousands  of  these  nomads,  in 
Anatolia,  Syria,  Armenia,  Persia,  Turkestan,  and 
Siberia;  so,  too,  has  Africa,  in  Egypt,  Algeria, 
Ijar-Ki'ir,  and  Ivordofan.  We  find  Vhem  in  Ijotli 
North  ami  South  .\nierica,  from  Pictou  in  Canada 
to  Kio  in  Brazil  ;  nor  are  even  New  Zealand  and 
Australia  without  their  isol.ated  bands. 

Lat^  in  1417  four  hundred  '  Secani '  arrive<l  from 
the  East  at  Liineburg,  and  thence  passeil  on  to 
Hamburg,  LUbeck,  Wismar,  Kostock,  Stralsund. 
and  Creifswald.  In  1418  they  are  heard  of  at 
Leipzig  and  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  in  Switzer- 
land, and  at  Augsburg;  in  1419  at  Macon  .and  at 
Sisteron  in  I'rovence  ;  in  1420  at  Deventer:  in  1421 
at  Tournai ;  in  1422,  eti  route  for  Piome,  at  Hidogna 
and  at  Forii,  where  '  some  said  tliev  were  from 
India  ;'  in  1427  at  Paris  ;  and  so  on  till  in  14.33  we 
lose  sight  of  them  for  a  while  in  Bavaria.  Uftenest 
they  .seem  to  have  bivouacked  in  the  fields,  but  at 
Deventer  they  slept  in  a  barn,  at  Bologna  '  loilgeil 
themselves  inside  and  outside  the  gate  of  Caliera. 
and  settled  themselves  under  the  porticoes,  with 
the  exception  of  Duke  .\nilrew,  who  lay  at  the 
King's  Inn.'     Some  riding  and  some  afoot,   with 


the  women  and  children  in  wagons,  they  were  led 
by  him  or  Duke  Michael,  or  by  both  together, 
according  as  the  band,  400  to  1400  strong,  split  up 
or  reunited.  These  two  chieftains  and  certain 
subordinate  '  counts '  went  richly  dressed,  with 
fine  silver  belts,  and,  like  nobles,  led  dogs  of  cha.se  ; 
but  the  rest  of  the  'Egyptians,'  'Saracens,'  or 
'  ba]>tised  heathens'  are  described  as  lean,  hideous, 
black  as  Tartars,  poor,  and  pitiful.  They  lived  on 
charity,  and  practised  horse-chaunting,  purse- 
cutting,  palmi.stiy,  shoj)  lifting,  ami  ringing  the 
changes,  wherefore  some  were  taken  and  slain. 
They  bore  letters  of  protection  from  the  Emperor 
Sigisnnind  (procured  probably  in  1417  at  Lindau 
on  Lake  Constance),  and,  after  1422,  from  Pope 
Martin  V.  ;  and  they  professed  sometimes  to  be 
engaged  in  a  seven  years'  pilgrimage,  imposed  by 
their  bishops  as  a  penance  for  apostasy  from  the 
Christian  faith,  sometimes  to  have  been  driven  out 
of  '  Little  Egypt '  Ijy  the  Saracens  for  refusing  to 
apostatise.  Vet  another  story  wa-s  told  by  the 
tented  '  Cingari  or  Cigiiwniir,'  who  appeared  at 
Katisbon  in  1424-26,  tliat  their  exile  was  meant 
'for  a  sign  or  memorial  of  the  lliglit  of  our  Lord 
into  Egypt.'  These,  whose  woiwode  Ladi^laus 
also  bore  letters  (14'23)  from  Sigisnnind,  were 
natives  of  Hungary ;  the  others  came  seemingly 
from  the  Balkan  peninsula,  pioneers  of  vast  hordes 
behind,  who  in  1438  began  to  pcnir  over  Germany, 
Italy,  and  France,  by  thousands  instead  of  hun- 
dreds, and  headed  this  time  by  King  Zindl.  Spain 
they  readied  in  1447,  PolamI  and  Kussia  about 
1501,  Sweden  by  1512,  England  liy  1514,  and  Scot- 
land by  1505,  or  very  possilily  fifty-six  years 
earlier,  for  an  act  of  1449  refers  to  '  overliers  and 
masterful  beggars'  as  going  about  the  country  with 
'horses,  hunds,  and  other  goods. ' 

For  western  Europe,  then,  the  year  1417  does 
mark  an  era  in  tiypsy  history  ;  but  how  long  be- 
fore that  date  there  had  been  Gypsies  in  south- 
eastern Europe  remains  a  mystery.  We  recognise 
them  dimly  in  Crete  in  1322  a-s  dwellers  in  'little, 
olilong,  black,  low  tents,  like  those  of  the  Arabs,' 
and  in  caves ;  at  Constantinople  about  10.50  as 
'  descendants  of  the  race  of  Simon  M.igus,  .Itsiiikan 
by  name,  sorcerers  and  famous  rogues  ; "  and  there, 
too,  in  810  as  At/ii»r/(iiioi,  magicians,  sootlisayers, 
and  serpent-charmers.  Beyoml  any  shadow  of 
doubt,  we  find  them  prior  to  1346  on  Corfu  ;  about 
1378  at  Xau|dion,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  receiving  a 
renewal  of  former  |irivileges  ;  and  prior  to  1370  in 
Wallachia,  whose  woiwode  then  granted  forty  tents 
of  Aeififiiii  to  the  monastery  of  ^'()ditza — i.e.  the 
Roumanian  GypMcs  were  already  serfs,  and  serfs 
they  continued  till  1856.  Then,  in  a  free  metrical 
|)araphra.se  of  Genesis,  made  in  (iernuin  about  or 
iiefore  the  year  1122  by  an  Austrian  monk,  and 
eiteil  by  Freytag  in  Bildcr  aus  der  deiitse/icii  Ver- 
i/iini/eii/teil  (ii.  226,  1859),  the  following  (la-ssage 
occurs:  'So  she  (Hagar)  had  this  child,  they 
named  him  l^limael.  Prom  him  are  ilescomled 
the  Ishmaelitish  folk.  Tliey  journey  far  thmugli 
the  world.  We  call  them  eltnltsiitidc  ('workera 
in  cold  metal').  Out  upon  their  life  and  their 
manners  !  For  whatever  they  have  to  sell  is 
never  without  a  defect  ;  whenever  he  (sic)  buys 
anything,  good  or  bad.  he  always  wants  some- 
thing in  ;  he  never  abates  on  what  he  sells  himself. 
Ihey  have  neither  house  nor  country  ;  every  place 
is  the  same  to  them.  They  roam  about  the  land, 
and  abu.se  the  i>eople  by  their  knaveries.  It  is 
thus  they  deceive  folk,  robbing  no  one  openly.' 
That  Gyp.sies  were  meant  here,  likely  as  it  seems 
at  first  sight,  is  reudereil  doubly  likely  by  the  fact 
that  the  names  Aifirieiis  .ami  .-I'/rf/vy/Zare  ex]>ressly 
ajiplied  to  (Jypsies  by  Ltisignan  and  Fritschius  in 
1.5,S0  and  1664,  and  that  in  German  and  I)aidsh 
thieves'    slang    Gcse/iinei/im    and    i>mae/eiii    (Ish- 


486 


GYPSIES 


iiiaelites)  are  terms  fur  (lypsies  at  tlie  present  date. 
Finally,  the  hniioi/iimini  (' villa{;e-roamers')  of 
(ireek  writei-s  were  pvolialily  (Ijpsies.  The  term 
is  a  va<riie  iiiio,  hut  no  valuer  than  landluoprr, 
which  aoes  in  Dutch  stanu  for  '(jvpsv.'  And 
the  ki'niintlroinni,  we  tinil,  were  ^mtli  copper 
anil  );i>lil  smitlis,  roaniin";  about  the  coiintrv, 
ami  u^in;;  Ih-IIows  niaile  of  skins,  like  llmx.' 
of  Ifaiirs  Naupliote  (Jypsics  in  14117.  The  vcrl> 
ki'iinmlnxifiii  occurs  in  I'ollu.v,  who  Hourishcd 
alHiut  IS."}  A.I).  ;  ami  Tlieopliancs  Isaurus  (T.'iS  «IS 
A.D. )  spi'.ik-^  under  the  date  .544  .\.r>.  of  a.  konio- 
tiromos  from  Italy.  A  kOmnrlromos  lijrurcs,  more- 
over, in  a  (iroek  apocryphal  <;ospcl  of  unasccr- 
taineil  date  as  helpinj;  to  crucify  Christ,  which  at 
once  recalls  the  current  Montenejrrin  h';.'ond  that 
the  founder  of  the  (iypsy  race  was  accursed  for 
havin;;  forge<l  the  nails  for  the  crncilixion.*  Thus, 
on  the  one  hand,  it  is  certain  that  in  Wall.achia 
the  Gypsies  were  already  reduced  to  hondajre  in 
l.'JTO  ;  it  is  almost  certain  that  Gypsies  were  notliin-^ 
new  in  Austria  in  112'2:  .and  it  is  i»t  le.tst  hijrhly 
|irohahle  that  more  than  a  thous,anil  years  apo 
there  were  Gypsies  roaming'  throu;_'h  the  V.yzantine 
empire.  On  the  other  hand,  of  the  (;y|>sies' pas.sage 
of  the  Bos|)horus,  and  their  first  arrival  in  Europe, 
no  record  has  yet  hecn  discovered. 

From  nuMihei-s  of  scattered  notices  we  ni.ay  safely 
infer  tli.at  the  Gypsies  in  early  times  jio-^^iessed  every 
art  that  thev  jiossess  today,  with  many  hesides 
since  lost.  Thus,  in  Scotland  in  l.">.'i(l  they  'dan- 
sit  hefore  the  kin^  in  Halyrutlhouse;'  hetween  1559 
and  16'2S  they  yearly  'acted  severall  plays'  at 
Koslin,  where  Sir  William  St  Clair,  Lonl  Chief- 
justice,  'allowed  them  two  towers  for  their  resi- 
dence, the  one  called  Robin  Hi>od,  the  other 
I-lttlc  ,)ohn  :"  in  1720  they  cast  the  churcli  bell  at 
Kd/oll.  in  Forfarshire;  abimt  174t)  in  the  Itordcr 
country  they  jiraclised  enjcravin^'  on  pewter,  lead, 
ami  copper,  as  well  as  rmle  drawinj;  and  paintinjr; 
and  duiinjr  that  century  they  were  famous  as 
liildlers  ami  pipers,  and  they  worked  the  small 
irim  foundry  of  Little  Canon,  near  St  Andrews. 
In  Kn;;Iaiiil,  aj;ain,  in  1549  they  were  capable  of 
counterfeilinj;  the  great  seal  :  in  Hungary  they 
made  bullets  and  cannon-balls  in  149ti  and  l.')(i5  ; 
and  there,  too,  we  flml  them  celebr.ated  as  musi- 
cians as  early  .as  the  15th  century.  A  gifted  and 
insinuating  race,  equal  -nay,  often  sui>erior — to  the 
natiims  whose  lamls  they  roamed,  the  early  Gvpsies 
met  with  a  good  reception,  as  from  kaiser  ami  pope 
on  the  Continent,  so  in  Englaml  from  the  Earl  of 
Surrey,  who  abo\it  1519  entertained  "Gypsions'at 
Tendring  Hall,  Sull'olk  ;  in  Scotlaml  from  .J.ames 
IV.,  who  in  1.505  gave  Anthonius  (laginus,  'Earl 
of  Little  Egypt,'  a  letter  of  cmnmcndation  to  the 
king  of  Denmark.  In  Scotland,  too,  in  1540, 
James  V.  recognised  the  right  of  'oure  louit 
Johnne  Faw,  lord  and  erie  of  Lit  111  Egipt,'  to 
execute  justice  upon  his  company  and  folk,  con- 
form to  the  laws  of  Egypt.  Indeed,  it  were  easy  to 
multiidy  proofs  that  Gypsies  at  a  much  later  date 
have  iHjen  held  in  consiileration  and  regarded  with 
interest.  Charles  Bosvile,  a  t<ypsy  '  king,'  who 
was  buried  in  1709  at  Rossingtim,  Yorkshire,  had 
f "200  a  year,  and  '  wa-s  a  nia<l  spark,  mighty  line 

*  The  Gypsies  of  hoX\\  Alsace  and  Litliuania  have  a  legend  of 
tlicir  onii  that  a  Oy[>sy  stole  one  of  the  four  nails  with  which 
Christ  was  to  be  crucille<I,  aiitl  that  thenffore  G"*I  gave  them 
expn'ss  peniii'^sioii  to  steal.  Tliis  curinns  legend  olTers  a 
p<»ssible  explanation  nf  the  liitherto  unexjilairied  transition  from 
four  nails  to  three  in  Cnicitixes  q. v.)  during  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries.  The  earliest  known  example  of  this  daring  innova- 
tion is  a  copjter  erueiflx,  of  seemingly  Uyzan'ine  workmanship, 
dating  from  the  close  of  the  12th  cen'tuiy.  Ntiw,  if  Gypsies  ]iad 
then,  as  now.  a  pnietical  monoixil^-  of  luetal-working  in  south- 
e.istem  Eurojie,  that  cnicitix  must  have  been  fashione<l  by  a 
Gypsy,  when  the  three  nails  would  be  an  easily  intelligible  pro- 
test against  the  libel  tJiat  those  nails  were  forged  by  the  founder 
ctf  hi>  race. 


and  brisk,  kee)>ing  company  with  a  great  many 
gentlemen,  knights,  and  esquires :'  'Queen'  Mar- 
garet was  visited  at  Norwood  in  1750  by  the  Prince 
and  Princess  of  Wales,  and  Lazarus  IVlnlcnoro  at 
the  Liverpool  Exhibition  of  ISSO  by  I'rince  Victor 
of  Hohenlohe;  whilst  the  .Arclnluke  .Josef  of  Austro- 
Ilungary  is  a  prince  among  Romany  Ryes  (or 
■  t  ■yp.sy  gentlemen  '  i.  as  (iypsies  designate  lo\  ers  of 
thi'ir  race.  Still,  liking  and  pity  changed  sooner 
or  later  to  enmity  anil  distrust.  l''iir  the  knaveries 
of  the  first  immigrants  were  copied  by  their  succes- 
sors, and  to  actual  malpractices,  charges,  more  or 
less  baseless,  were  added  — they  were  kidnajipers, 
cannibals,  emissaries  of  the  Turks.  The  host 
charge  is  as  old  as  1424,  the  seennil  as  1,547,  and 
the  lirst  as  1G29.  Gvpsies  I'ccc  used  as  spies  by 
Wallenstcin  and  Frederick  the  (Ireat,  but  of  can- 
nibalism and  child  stealing  there  is  no  just  ground 
to  sus]iect  them,  though  lor  cannibalism  forty-live 
Hungarian  Gyjisies  were  racked,  beheaded,  qnar- 
tered,  or  hanged  in  17K2,  for  child-stealing  forty- 
seven  German  Gypsies  imprisoned  in  1h7'2.  The 
charge  in  each  case  idoved  false.  Triil.v,  any 
wrongdoings  of  the  Gy]isics  fade  into  inslgiilll- 
cance  li.v  the  side  of  the  wrongs  that  were  done 
them.  In  Germany  so  lately  as  the  first  half  of 
the  18th  centuiT,  tlie.y  were  (lunted  down  like  wild 
beasts  ;  in  one  Ithenish  iirlnclpalltv,  says  Freytag, 
the  record  of  a  day's  'bag'  includes,  among  other 
game,  'a  I'.vpsy  woman  with  her  sucking  child.' 
England  and  Scotland  were  ciim|iarativcly  mcici- 
ful,  yet  at  Durli.am  in  1592  '.Slmson,  Arlngton, 
Fetlierstone,  F'enwicke,  and  Lanckaster  were 
hanged  for  being  Egyptians;'  at  RanfV  in  1701 
three  young  F'gyptian  rogues  were  sentenced  to 
have  'their  cars  crept,  be  pnblicklle  scourged 
through  the  tonne,  burnt  uiion  the  cheek  by  the 
executioner,  and  banished  the  sliyie  for  ever  under 
the  jiaine  of  death.'  Such  are  two  .samples  of  the 
cases  whose  records  have  come  down  to  us,  few  prob- 
ably in  proportion  to  the  cases  whose  records  are 
lost;  anyjiow,  these  show  that  in  England  and 
Scotland  fully  four-score  men  and  women  were 
hanged  or  drowned  between  1577  and  1701  for  the 
olVence  of  being  w  hat  Nature  h.ad  m.ide  them.  The 
penal  laws  passed  against  the  race  between  1530 
and  1596  were  re]iealed  in  17S4  ;  but  even  in  1.S19 
it  was  carried  unanimously  at  the  Norfolk  (Quarter 
Sessions  '  that  all  persons  wandering  in  the  habit 
or  form  of  Eg'y]itians  are  punishable  b.v  imjuison- 
ment  and  whipjiing.'  One  iniiiortant  factor  in  the 
geographical  distribution  of  the  Gypsies  has  been 
deportation — from  England  to  France  and  Nonvay 
(1.544);  from  Scotland  to  liarbadoes  and  the 
American  ]ilantations  ( ItiOo,  1099,  1715,  &.c)  ; 
from  Portugal  to  Africa  till  16S5,  and  thereafter 
to  Brazil  ;  from  S]iain  to  Louisiana  (some  time 
lirior  to  1800);  and  from  the  Basfjue  eountrj-  en 
masse  to  Africa  { 1802 ). 

At  Tobolsk  in  1721  Bell  of  Antermony  heard 
of  si.xty  Tsigans,  jotirneying  from  Poland  to 
China ;"  in  \x'A  a  hundred  llung.'irian  tiypsies 
jiassed  through  F'rankfort  en  route  for  Algeria ; 
since  1866  large  bands  of  Ctihlerarl,  or  t!yi>sy 
smiths  from  south-eastern  Europe,  have  made  the 
round  of  the  Continent,  visiting  Norway,  England, 
even  Corsica;  in  1879  fez- wearing  Gy]isles  were 
camping  in  Sweden  ;  and  in  IssO  ninety-nine  'Greek' 
(Jyjjsies  were  .sti>iijie<l  at  Liverpoid  on  their  way 
from  Corfu  to  the  rnited  States.  Thus  the  nomad 
instinct  survives,  and  with  it  a  marvellous  faculty 
for  picking  up  foreign  languages — a  Hungarian 
Gypsy  will  speak  even  Basque  like  a  native. 
British  Gypsies,  however,  liaidly  ever  visit  the 
Continent ;  and  almost  everyw  here  there  ?ve 
.sedentary  as  well  as  nomadic  (;.v]isies,  though  in 
what  pri)]>ortion  it  were  hard  to  guess.  Sometimes 
they  go  into  houses  only  for  the  winter,  but  some- 


GYPSIES 


-     487 


times  tlic  house  or  cave  (not  tent  or  caravan)  is 
tlieii-  iicrnianent  al)o<le.  Nay,  it  is  cuiioiis  that, 
tlicjii;,'li  tliere  certainly  wfre  (lyiisy  teiit-ihvellers 
ill  Wallacliia  in  1370,  at  Itatislion  in  14'24,  as  there 
are  today  in  Persia  ami  America  and  in  all  inter- 
mediate lands,  still,  as  a  rule,  the  early  chroniclers 
are  silent  as  to  Gvpsy  tents ;  and  the  word  for 
'  timt '  ditfers  in  almost  every  Koniani  dialect, 
iiiileed  is  oftenest  a  borrowed  term. 

There  are  few  trades  that  Gypsies  have  not  some- 
where or  at  some  time  turned  tlieir  hands  to.  In 
En<j;land  the  writer  has  known  them  to  follow  the 
c:illinj;sof  clergyman,  billiard-marker,  Salvationist, 
lietting-man,  quack-doctor,  chimney-sweeii,  gun- 
maker,  pugilist,  .actor,  carpenter,  calnimn,  &c.,  as 
well  as  of  h.awker,  knilo-grinder,  showman,  ami 
the  like.  But  everywhere  the  men  follow  the  three 
s|iecilically  Gypsy  callings  of  horse-dealers  (slave- 
ilealers  in  Brazil,  too,  formerly),  musicians,  and 
workers  in  metal  ;  everywhere  the  women  are 
adepts  at  fortune- telling.  Their  musical  talent 
lias  rendered  them  famous  as  harpists  in  Wales, 
as  singers  in  Moscow,  as  violinists  in  Hungary  ; 
and  from  Hungary  since  ls78  their  fame  lias 
extended  to  Paris,  London,  Liverpool,  Edinburgh. 
There  are  no  such  players  of  the  czardas:  still 
Liszt's  theory  that  Hungary  owes  its  national 
music  to  the  Gypsies  has  been  impugned  by  com- 
])etent  authorities.  What  then  of  the  paradoxical 
claim,  put  forward  by  JI.  Bataillard,  that  Europe 
— at  anyrate  northern  and  western  Europe— is 
indebted  to  prehistoric  Gypsies  for  its  knowledge 
of  metallurgy — i.e.  for  everything  that  makes  life 
livable?  If  we  e.xamine  this  claim,  the  jiaradox 
sansilily  diminishes.  On  the  one  hand.  Sir  John 
Lubbock,  without  a  thought  of  the  Gypsies,  had  in 
I860  been  led  to  the  independent  conclusion  that 
the  art  of  making  bronze  was  introduced  into 
Eiiro]ie  from  the  East  by  a  small-handed  race  like 
the  Egyptians  or  the  Hindus,  a  nomad  race  too, 
who  practised  the  self-same  methods  in  dill'erent 
lands,  and  who,  whether  acquainted  or  not  with 
iron,  were  exclusively  workers  in  bronze.  What 
race  this  was  he  leaves  an  unsolved  problem, 
except  that  it  certainly  was  not  the  Pho'uicians. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  tJypsies  of  south-eastern 
ICnrope  and  .-^sia  .Minor  enjoy  a  practical  monopoly 
of  metal-working.  So  exclusively  is  the  smith's 
a  Gypsy  (and  therefore  a  degrading)  craft  in  Mon- 
tenegro tliat,  when  in  1872  the  government  estab- 
lished an  arsenal,  no  natives  could  be  got  to  lill  its 
well-paid  iiosts.  In  1880  Mr  Hyde  Clarke  wrote  in 
a  letter  tliat  'over  more  than  one  sanj:ik  of  the 
Aidin  viceroyalty  the  (!y|)sies  have  still  a  mono- 
)ioly  of  irouworking,  the  tiaalband,  or  shoeing- 
smith,  being  no  smith  in  our  sense  at  all.  He  is 
supplied  with  shoes  of  various  sizes  by  the  liypsies, 
and  only  hammers  them  on.'  In  1856  Mr  Gardner, 
consul  at  Jassy  in  Moldavia,  descrilied  the  (Jypsies 
as  'the  blacksmiths  and  locksmiths  of  the  country;' 
ii  Transylvania,  says  Boiii'r  (l.8(j.")),  'Gypsies  are 
tlie  best  farriers,  and  as  blacksmiths  generally  they 
excel.  All  the  ironwork  of  a  village  is  done  by 
them.'  Add  to  this,  and  much  more  of  the  sort 
might  be  quoted,  the  fact  that  very  many  of  the 
larly  notices  of  Gypsies,  some  of  which  we  have 
cited,  refer  to  their  skill  in  niotallurgy.  Next,  put 
I  wo  and  two  together,  tboiigli  many  iiiqiorlant 
links  in  the  chain  of  re;vsoning  are  necessarily 
oiiiitte<I  here  for  want  of  .space.  Suppose  that 
there  were  prehistoric  Gypsies  in  Europe  (and 
history  knows  nought  of  their  arrival),  that  they 
were  nom.ad  smiths,  like  the  /.uinodronioi  of  the 
7th  century  .\.D..  the  '  Ishmaclites' of  the  l'2th  cen- 
tury, and  the  Hungarian  Culdtrari  who  visited 
Norw.ay  in  187-1 ;  that  they  were  workers  in  bronze, 
to  the  exclusion  of  iron,  like  tlie  Gypsy  'Zlotars' 
today  in  eastern  Gallicia  (bell-foundei-s  these,  like 


the  Scottish  tinklens  of  17'26,  and  goldsmiths,  too, 
like  the  komodromoi) — supposing  all  this,  we  say, 
then  have  we  not  possibly  identilied  the  unknown 
]  race,  small-handed  like  the  Gypsies,  and,  like  the 
I  Gypsies  immigrants  from  the  Eiust ':■  An  objection, 
raised  by  the  writer  in  1878  to  Bataillard's  theory, 
is  that  in  every  Gypsy  dialect  of  Europe  nearly  all 
the  metallurgical  terms  seem  to  be  directly  bor- 
rowed from  the  Greek :  pHalo,  '  l»)iseshoe '  (pH- 
alim)  ;  kah'ii,  ^  i\n' (Kalaion) ;  khArloma,  'copjier' 
(rhdikoma);  kakkavi,  'kettle'  (kakkdhe);  violiv, 
'lead'  (mii/i/bdos) :  rin,  'tile'  (ruic);  and  half  a 
dozen  more.  This  looked  like  an  insuperable 
objection  ;  for  how,  unless  the  Gypsies  had  adopted 
the  farrier's  craft  since  their  arrival  in  a  Greek- 
speaking  country,  should  their  word  for  'a  lioi-se' 
be  Indian,  for  'a  horseshoe'  Greek?  But,  Batail- 
lard contends,  the  converse  may  lie  the  case,  the 
Greeks  may  have  borrowed  their  terms  from 
Ki'imani.  Certainly,  the  occurrence  of  pcdul  in 
Welsh  (12th  century,  jKdhaul),  for  'horseshoe,' 
looks  like  more  than  a  mere  coincidence ;  and 
rjlfala,  the  word  for  'tin'  with  Asiatic  Gypsies, 
seems  to  forbid  our  deri\ing  kaldi  from  kalaion. 
Anyhow,  Bataillard's  theory  is  gaining  favour 
with  foreign  arclncologists,  among  whom  MM. 
Mortillet,  Chantre,  and  Burnouf  had  arrived  in  'e- 
pendently  at  similar  conclusions. 

The  counter-theories  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
CJypsies  need  not  detain  us  long.  There  is  the 
Tamerlane  theory  of  t;rellniann  (1783),  acconling 
to  which  the  Gypsies  first  reached  Europe  in  1417 
— a  theory  disproved  by  firmly-established  facts. 
There  is  the  Behrani  Gur  theory  of  Pott  and 
Bataillard  (who  since  relinquished  it),  develo)(e<l 
in  184-1-49,  and  adopted  by  Newbold,  Sir  Heurj' 
Bawlinson,  De  Goeje,  Sir  Kichard  Burton,  and  an 
Ediiihiirijh  Kcviewer  (July  1878).  According  to 
this  theory,  about  420  .\.li.,  Behram  Gur  ini|iorted 
12,000  Jat  minstrels  from  India  to  Persia,  and 
their  descendants,  gradually  wandering  westwanl, 
entered  Europe  in  102.5  or  as  late  as  the  beginning 
of  the  14th  century.  Plausible,  and  it  may  l<e 
containing  a  modicum  of  truth,  this  theory  fails 
as  a  whole  in  view  of  the  marked  unlikeness  of 
Jataki,  the  language  of  the  Jats,  and  Ri'.niani,  the 
language  of  the  Gypsies.  Lastly,  attempts  liave 
been  made,  on  the  ground  for  the  most  jiart  of  a 
similar  habit  of  life,  to  identify  the  Gypsies  with 
various  Indian  vagrants — e.g.  by  Itichardson  with 
the  Nats  (1803),  by  K.  Mitra'with  the  Bediyiis 
(1870),  and  by  Leland  and  Grierson  with  the  Doms 
(1873-88).  Even  if  successful,  such  identification 
would  prove  little  more  than  that  India,  like 
Egypt,  has  its  Gypsy  tribes— a  fact  in  itself 
extremely  |uobable,  but  so  far  lacking  linguistic 
corroboration. 

Lanffua;/!-. — What  their  religion  has  been  to  tue 
Jews,  that  their  language  is  to  the  Gypsies — a  Inmcl 
of  universal  brotherhood.  For  Gyjisies  everywhere 
s]ieak  the  self  same  liniiiani vhir  ( '  Gvpsy  tongue'). 
Their  wonls  for  '  water '  and  'knife 'are  in  Pei'sia 
pihii,  c/ieri  ( 18'23) :  in  Siberia,  panj'i,  txrhiir!  ( 1878); 
in  Armenia,  jxnii,  rlniri  (1804):  in  Egypt,  pdni, 
iln'iri  (1856);  in  Norway,  pani,  Ijiiri  (1858);  in 
England,  paiii,  cliiiri  (1830):  in  Brazil,  pnniit, 
ell  Ill-ill  (1880) — where  spelling  and  dates  are  those 
of  the  works  whence  these  words  have  been  taken. 
But  over  and  above  their  identity— and  there  are 
hundreds  more  like  them  in  every  Gypsy  dialect — 
they  are  identical  with  the  Hindustani  paiii  and 
chiiri,  familiar  to  all  Anglo-Indians.  To  cite  but 
a  few  more  instances,  'nose,'  'hair,'  'eye,'  'ear' 
are  in  Turkish  Ri'miani  tiak,  bal,  >i<ik.  kniiii  ;  in 
Hindustani,  iiak,  hal.  iikli,  kaii  ;  whilst  'Go.  see 
who  knocks  at  the  door'  in  the  one  language  is  J/l, 
dik  kon  rhalarfla  o  fiidiir,  and  in  the  other  Jii,  diJA 
kon  cluikiijn  dear  ko.    This  discovery  was  not  made 


488 


GYPSIES 


till  loiiK  after  speciiiiriis  of  tlie  <vVl)sy  iHiijtuafje  liad 
lie{.'Uii  to  be  imlilislieil — liv  Aiuliosv  licMinle  (f|.v.)  ' 
in  1547,  whiwe  twenty-six  wonls,  taken  down  seem- 
ini^lj-  in  an  Kn;,'liMli  alehouse,  were  intemleil  to 
illustrate  tlie  liUiKuaj,'e  of  E^'vpt  :  hy  lionaventura 
Vuleanius  (I.")!t7),  whose  vooalmlarv  of  sevi^ntv- 
one  H-u.U,  oolleeteil  jiroliahly  in  liel^fiuiii.  lilU  up 
Konie  liliiiiU  paj;i's  in  a  work  on  the  (iollis;  ami 
hy  Luiloliihns  (  lli'.ll),  whose  tliirlyei^'ht  wonls  are 
einlieililiMl  in  a  history  of  Etliiojiia.  Firiit  in  17-S2 
Itiidi^'er  in  (lerniany,  followed  next  year  liy  (irell- 
niann,  ami  in  Kn^daml  ( independently  I  hy  Mars- 
den,  observed  the  resenihlanoe  of  Iti'miaid  to  llin- 
ilustani  ;  and  (ircllinanTi  strai^ditway  leaiied  to  the 
cinii-JMsioii  that  the  (;yp--ii'>  who  showed  tlicnisrlves 
in  western  Europe  in  1-H7  had  newly  come  also  to 
south-eastern  Knroiie,  and  were  a  low  caste  Indian 
trihe  expclleil  from  their  native  ei>untry  ahout  14(19 
Ijy  Tanu'rlane.  In  17S.'!  the  ohler  lan;ruii;;es  of  India 
were  a  sealed  hook  to  Europeans,  and  (nellmann's 
opinion  found  almost  unanimous  ap|iroval  for 
upwards  of  sixty  years;  Imt  thanks  to  the  lin- 
;,'uislie  lahours  "of  I'ott,  Asc(di,  and  Miklosiih, 
<-ond)ined  with  the  historical  researcdies  of  Batail- 
laril,  the  (|uesiiou  has  now  assunieil  a  new  aspect. 
Eor  while  on  the  one  hand  it  has  hecn  proved  that 
Europe  had  its  (iynsies  long  before  1417,  so  on  the 
other  Itomani  has  been  shown  to  be  a  sister,  not  a 
ilanghlcr— and  il  may  be  jvn  elder  sister— of  the 
seven  principal  New  Indian  dialects.  Not  a  few 
of  its  forms  are  more  prinntive  than  theirs,  or  even 
than  those  of  I'ali  and  the  I'rakrits— e.j;.  the 
Turkish  Komani  rti.it,  '  hand  '  ( Sansk.  hii.ila  ;  Pali, 
htillltii),  ami  i-iixitt,  'lip'  (Sansk.  osl/ia :  Pali, 
titth(i).  Miklosicli,  however,  has  jioiuteil  (Uit  that 
many  of  these  seemingly  archaic  tornis  in  Komani 
nniy  be  matched  from  the  less-kuown  dialects  of 
Iniiia,  especially  north  west  India— that  we  find, 
for  example,  in  Dardn  both  host  and  usht. 

In  the  lii'iinani  vocabulary  (live  thou.sand  words 
rich  |icrhaps),  besides  the  Indian  elements  that  con- 
stitute its  basis,  there  is  also  a  largish  percenl.-igc 
of  borroweil  words — Persian,  Armenian,  Slavonic, 
Konmanian,  M.agyar,  \c.  Thus,  the  English 
ilialci-t  has  hiiiIji-hI,  '  pear '  (  P<-'i-s.  unirfnl);  ijrasiii, 
■  nuire '  (.\rm.  i/ni.st,  'beast  of  burden');  /lOin- 
misiii,  'scandal'  (Mod.  tlr.  jxtraiitiit/ii,  'story'); 
holcvas,  'stockings'  (Slav,  cliolcva);  viiri,  'any' 
(Rouni.  i-(irc);  and  stijji-pni,  '  sister-in-law  '  (Ger. 
slief).  These  words  and  the  like  are  a  record  of 
the  route  by  which  the  English  Cyiisics  arrived 
in  Enghuiil  ;  and  as  the  lilty  (ircck  and  the  thirty 
.Slavonic  words  outnumber  all  the  other  borrowed 
words  put  together,  it  follows  that  the  Gypsies 
tarried  Imigest  in  (!reek-  and  Slavonic  speaking 
lands.  Again,  drom,  i/nim,  or  (Iron  (tir,  tlrmnris) 
is  the  Rc'imani  word  for  '  road'  not  only  in  England, 
but  in  Turkey,  Itoumania,  Hungary,  liobcmia, 
Poland,  I.ilhuarda.  Hns^ia,  .Scandinavia,  (ierniany, 
Ital.v,  .Spain,  and  IJra/.il ;  ami  the  like  hidds  more  or 
less  "good  of  the  Gypsy  words  for  'Sunday,'  'chair,' 
'hat,'  'anger,'  'bone,'  'soup,'  'pawn,'  \c.  from  the 
Greek  ;  for  '  pea-se,'  '  beer,'  '  inn,'  '  cat,'  '  cloak,'  I's.c. 
from  the  Slavonic.  This  is  important  iis  indicating 
that  the  modern  Gypsies  are  descended  not  fnuu 
successive  waves  of  Driental  immigration,  but  all 
from  the  .self-same  European-tJypsy  stock,  when- 
ever that  stock  may  have  first  been  transplanted  to 
Europe.  It  c<niclusivel.v  negatives  a  theory  like 
Koumivine's,  that  the  Italian,  Spanish,  Hjisqne, 
and  Erencli  (Jypsies  arrived  at  their  present  h.ah- 
itats  by  way  of  Africa,  and  the  Scandinavian 
Gypsies  by  w,ay  of  the  I'ral  Mmintains.  Still  more 
important  is  the  i|uestion  of  the  presence  or  the 
absence  of  Arabic  words  in  Eurojiean  Ki'im.ani. 
According  to  I»e  Goeje  (187.i)  there  are  ten  such 
words;  accoriling  to  Miklosicli  (IH7H) — and  rightl.v 
as  it  seems— there  are  none.     Neither,  however,  of 


the  two  scholai-s  lias  iierceiveil  the  possible  import- 
ance of  the  iiresence  or  the  absence  (especially  the 
absence)  of  Arabic  elements.  Kc'imani  undoubteilly 
contains  Persian  words ;  would  it  not  have  cer- 
tainly I'outaincd  also  .\iabic  words  if  the  ancestors 
of  iiur  modern  European  ( iypsics  hiid  sojoiirncil  in 
Persia,  or  even  passeil  through  Persia,  at  a  date 
later  than  the  .Arab  com|UesI  of  Persia?  If  Mik- 
losicli is  right  in  his  contention  thai  there  are  no 
Arabic  words  in  European  Honiani,  il  follows 
almost  inevitably  that  the  Gypsies  must  have 
passed  through  Persia  on  their  wav  to  Europe  at 
some  date  prior  to  the  middh'  of  llie  7lh  century 
A.  II.  In  this  connection  il  should  be  pointed  out 
that  the  dialect  of  the  (Jypsies  of  .Asia  Minor 
dill'ers  far  iikuc,  alike  in  grammar  ami  in  vocabu- 
lary, from  that  of  the  (!y])sie»  of  Turkey  than 
does  the  latter  fnnii  that  of  their  brethren  in 
Wales. 

The  tJyiisies  of  Montenegro  are  said  to  have 
complct(  ly  lost  their  language  ;  elsewhere  Konuini 
has  siiM'eied  more  in  grammar  than  in  Micaliularv. 
In  Spain,  in  Itrazil,  in  Scotland,  and  in  Norway 
its  genuine  inllections  have  been  whidly  or  almost 
w  holly  superseded  by  those  of  Siianish,  Portuguese, 
English,  and  Norwegian.  In  Eiiglaii<l  this  process 
is  still  going  on,  alhirding  an  nminestioiiable 
instance  of  '  mixed  grammar.'  such  as  Alax  Miiller 
has  pKUiounced  an  impossibility.  There  is  every 
variety  of  shade,  from  almost  ;ihsolute  piiritv  to 
as  almost  absolute  corrupliiui.  Thus,  a  ^\  elsli 
Gypsy  writes  in  a  letter,  linid  iiiii  Iniicii  bono 
pdir/n/hrii  for  tcmorro  ruiiilo  drmii  ('Give  I  you 
L'leat  thanks  fur  ymir  loving  way');  and  an 
English  Gypsy,  Miiia/i/  Lrh  i/iti  so  to  /ini  ( '  Me  not 
know  what  ^jsay),  where  the  pure  liomani  wonUI 
run,  A'<7.'  in-  Jiiuini  inr  so  Ic  /iniiir.  No  (iyp.sy 
dialects  have  lieen  better  jircserved  than  those  of 
Turkey  at  one  end  of  Europe,  and  of  Wales  at  the 
other  end  ;  from  a  comparison  of  these  it  is  easy 
to  see  how  little  thev  can  have  altereil  since  the 
ancestors  of  lho.se  wlio  now  speak  them  parted 
company  live  centuries  ago.  Tims,  the  twenty  one 
forms  in  Turkish  Iti'miani  of  the  third  personal  ]iro- 
iioun  (  masc.,  fem..  and  plur.),  with  two  exceptions, 
reaiipear  almost  or  i|Uitc  um  hanged  in  the  Welsh 
ilialect.  The  |dural,  for  instance,  riiiis  in  Turkish 
Komani,  ol,  'they;'  leii,  'them;'  Ifni/oro,  'their;' 
IiikUic  or  Uiighe,  'to  them;'  Uniljii.  'wilh  theiii;' 
liiidiir,  'from  them;'  and  in  Welsh  Komani  the 
corres]ioiiding  forms,  occurring  in  letters  Hiitten  hy 
a  si'lf-ediicaled  ( iypsy,  are  i/mi,  /in.  /i  iii/n,  tiiiilji  and 
I  I'li'.l'^ih  /'"*",  and  U mid.  l''our  of  the  cases,  it  will 
be  seen,  are  formed  by  sntlixiiig  iiost|iositions  to 
the  accusative;  and  this,  too,  holds  gooil  of  the 
nouns.  Many  of  the  verbal  inllections  are  almost 
efpially  simple,  and  may  be  as  readily  analysed  hy 
means  of  Komani  itself.  In  the  liiial  svllaldes  of 
dii-ni.  'I  give;'  di-na,  'thou  givest :'  and  dt/a, 
•he  gives,'  we  recognise  the  lirst,  second,  and  third 
pronouns.  Eroni  tlie  past  paiticijde  dino  and  isom 
or  /loiii,  'I  am;'  uoiiias  or  hoiiiiis,  "I  was,'  are 
formed  diliitiiii,  'I  gave;'  and  diuiomas,  'I  had 
given  ' — formatimis  recalling  those  of  Latin  depon- 
ents. The  future,  formed  by  prclixing  Lama 
( '  will ' )  to  the  present,  as  l.tiiiKidiini,  '  I  will  give,' 
was  modelled  probably  on  the  Modern  Greek  thilo 
or  Ilia. 

So  far,  our  ablest  Gynsiologists  are  divided  in 
opinion  as  to  the  probable  antii|uity  of  Komani. 
On  the  one  hand  Ascoli  maintains  that,  '  having 
retained  certain  nuns:  or  combiMalions  of  conson- 
ants, which  had  almost  wholly  ilis,-i|.peared  at  the 
epoch  of  the  oldest  known  Prakrit  texts,  this  lowly 
idiom  herein  surpasses  Pali  itself  in  nobility,  and 
more  nearly  apjiroaches  Sanskrit.'  Miklosich,  on 
the  other  hand,  contends  that  '  from  the  agreement 
I  of   KiMiiani  in   so   many  important  jioints  with  the 


GYPSIES 


489 


modern  Aryan  langna),'es  of  Inilia,  it  follows  tliat 
the  emigration  oaiiiiot  have  taken  jilace  till  after 
the  formation  of  tlje  latter — i.e.  till  after  the  Pra- 
krit period,  in  which  the  old  system  of  declension 
was  still  reco/^'iiised  ;  since  one  is  hardly  inclined  to 
assume  that  lioniani,  severed  from  its  most  nearly- 
related  idioms,  developed  itself  in  the  selfsame 
manner  as  they.'  In  his  Compamtine  (Jminiiuir  of 
tlic  Modern  Ari/rtii  Liinr/iiai/rs  of  hiilia  (3  vols. 
lW7'2-79)  Mr  lieanies  arrives  at  a  similar  conchi- 
.sion,  that  '  the  lani;uaj;e  of  the  (;y|>sies  is  purely 
Aryan  in  its  structure,  and  Modern  .-\ryan  too, 
being  in  many  respects  quite  as  far  removed  from 
the  old  synthetical  system  as  any  of  the  seven  lan- 
guages now  under  discussion.' 

Ndiiica. — Alike  in  Turkey  ami  England,  in  Fin- 
land and  Italy,  tlie  (lypsy  calls  hirnscU  Hum  ( '  man  ' 
or  '  husband '),  from  wiiich  come  ii,'«//(/(/ (' female 
Gypsy,'  'woman'  or  'wife')  and  the  adjective 
Romano  ( '  Gyjisv  ' ).  In  Asia  Minor  the  form  is  lorn, 
and  in  Syria '/'"(»?,  which  conies  very  near  the  Sans- 
krit doma  and  modern  Indian  dom,  '  a  low-caste 
musician.  'Husband'  is  clearly  asccoudaiy  meaning 
of  y.'oi^.aud  'man  '  the  primary  ;  soiIimJ  one  is  almost 
tem])ted  to  connect  llom  with  the  ancient  Egyptian 
ruinc,  '  man  '  (  Kawlinson's  Herodotus,  ii.  '22.") ),  and 
to  believe  that  there  really  is  something  in  the 
alleged  Egyptian  origin  of  the  fiypsies.  That  belief 
was  assuredly  current  in  south-east  Euro])e  prior  to 
their  westward  migration,  and  is  current  to-day 
from  Armenia  to  America,  ha\ing  been  stereotyped 
in  such  names  ,as  the  modern  Greek  di/ii/ifoi,  the 
Albanian  Jerk,  the  Turkish  Fdrfiirni  and  Magyar 
Phiirno  ni'pe  ( '  Pharaoh's  folk  ' ),  the  English  (rif/isi/, 
and  the  S[)anish  (lifano.  Another  very  widespread 
name  is  the  Syrian  Jinfit'iHili,  Modern  Greek  Af.sin- 
himoi,  Turkish  Trhinijliiiine,  Magyar  Tzlgnnii,  (ier- 
nian  Zir/einicr,  Italian  Xinijuro,  &.C..  perhaps  identi- 
cal with  the  Persian  ::in<iiir,  'a  saddler.'  We  can 
merely  glance  at  the  inlinite  variety  of  names 
ajiplied  to  the  Gypsies  in  ditl'erent  ages  and  differ- 
ent localities — e.g.  Hciden  ('heathen'),  S<iraceni, 
Niihiiini,  U.rti,  Cilices,  Sic  by  early  writers,  and 
the  Persian  KartirJii  ('  swarthy'),  the  Modern  Greek 
Kidziheloi,  the  Cypriote  Kilindjiridi-s,  the  French 
Biilteiniens.  and  the  Scandinavian  Tidere  ('Tar- 
tars'). Only,  if  iinder  these  manifold  and  fre- 
(piently  misleading  names  we  can  safely  recognise 
Gypsies,  it  is  at  least  just  possible  that  we  .should 
also  recognise  them  in  the  Dijnamitlcr.i  (trailers 
fnmi  foreign  parts  who  sold  brazen  pots  at  Win- 
chester fair  in  l.'UO),  in  the  Benu.iehc  ( '  foreigners  ' 
at  Wiirzburg  aliout  I3,S8;  (Jypsies  incontestably 
0,1  Frankfort  in  14!l.'));  in  the  tent-dwelling  refu- 
gees fnnu  Hnngary  and  Lorraine,  who  are  said 
to  have  discovered  the  Stourbridge  fireclay  aliout 
lojo;  or  even  in  the  Kenites,  nomad  tented 
tinkers  and  blacksmiths  in  ancient  Palestine  (cf. 
i>ayee  an<l  Neuliauer  in  the  Aeadenn/,  Nov.-Dec. 
IHSli).  In  England,  coniuum  Gypsy  s\irnames 
are  lioswell,  liuid<lan<l,  ('oo|ier,  ( Iray,  Heme,  Lee, 
Lovell,  Smith  ( I'e/idnii/ro).  ami  Stanley-  assumed, 
some  at  least,  jirobably  from  former  ]iatrons  of 
the  race.  Among  tlieir  '  Christian '  names  are 
Mantis,  Perun,  I'lato,  and  Pyramus ;  Dclarifa, 
Meralini,  Jlemberenci,  Perpcnia,  and  Sinaminti. 

Soiif/s  r(nd  Folk  Tales. — C7iin,  Uonumi  for  '  write,' 
incans  literally  '  cut,' so  points  back  to  a  ilini  an- 
ti(|uity  :  still,  the  Gypsies  have  neither  aljdiabet 
nor  literature.  M.any  Itduuini  .songs,  however,  have 
been  taken  down  in  Spain,  Hungary,  Koumania, 
and  elsewhere—ballails,  love-  and  dance-songs,  and 
threnodies.  The  last,  collected  in  'I'ransylvania  by 
Wlislocki,  are  instinct  with  pathos  and  poetry; 
but  the  rest,  rude  in  rhyme  and  in  rhythm,  as  a 
rule  have  only  a  linguistic  value.  'I'iie  famous 
'  Pharaoh  l,\v  '  is  known  to  us  only  through  a  very 
corrupt   fragment.      The    case   is   otherwise    with 


Gypsy  folk-tales,  of  which  nearly  '200  have  been 
coliecteil  since  1862  in  Turkey,  Koumania,  Austro- 
Hungary,  Wales,  &c.  A  meagre  store,  yet  sulii- 
cient  to  enable  us  to  arrive  at  certain  ilelinite  con- 
clusions. Urst,  in  dilferent  collections  we  meet 
with  variants  of  one  ami  the  same  story — e.g.  three 
of  '  The  Valiant  Little  Tailor,' and  three  of  'The 
Master  Thief.'  Secondly,  many  (]ierhaps  most)  of 
the  Gypsy  stories  are  identical  with,  though  not 
seldom  su[ierior  to,  stories  current  amongst  non- 
Gypsy  races.  Thirdly,  there  are  certain  episodes 
in  Gypsy  stories,  and  certain  whole  Gypsy  stories, 
for  which  diligent  research  has  failed  to  produce  any 
parallel.  E'ourthly,  a  numlier  of  non-Gyji.sy  stories 
pre.sent  strong  internal  evidence  of  the  iirobability 
of  their  Gyp.sy  origin.  Now,  as  early  as  l.s.'iU  the 
Gypsies  were  termed  the  '  rhapsodists  of  Moldo- 
Wallachia;'  in  Turkey  Gypsies  are  professional 
story-tellers  ;  their  stories  there  are  proved  to  be 
'  very  old  '  by  their  retention  of  otherwise  fiugotten 
Romani  words  ;  in  the  Scottish  Highlands  a  tented 
tinker  was  one  of  Canipbell's  four  principal  sources  ; 
and  finally,  according  to  lienfey,  Ralston,  Cos- 
r|uin,  Clouston,  and  other  folklorists,  most  of  the 
jMipular  stories  of  E]urope  are  traceable  to  Indian 
sources  (see  FoLKLOKK).  P.ut  how  ?  by  what  chan- 
nels?—one  channel,  iieiha[is,  was  the  Gypsies. 

Jieliqion. — Of  the  Gypsies'  religion  not  much  need 
be  said,  as  they  do  not  possess  one.  They  juobably 
had  one  at  starting  ;  but,  if  so,  they  lost  it  by  the 
way.  In  spite  of  frequent  statements  to  the  contrary, 
Romani  has  words  fm-  tiod,  devil,  soul,  heaven, 
cross ;  but  trus/rul,  '  cross,'  originally  stood  for 
Siva'.s  trident.  So,  too,  their  folklore  ensljrines 
many  strange  survivals  of  dead  heathenry — of  tree 
and  serpent  wor.ship,  of  phallicism,  tabu,  and  the 
vampire  superstition.  lint  everywhere  Ciypsies 
profess  the  faith  of  the  land  of  their  adoption — 
Mohammedan,  Orthodox,  Catholic,  Protestant. 
They  biing  their  children  to  baptism,  and  are 
scrupulous  in  the  matter  of  Christian  sepulture. 
At  Steinbach  in  1445  the  'high-born  Duke  Panuel ' 
was  buried  beneath  a  scutclieoned  monument  ;  at 
Dayton,  Ohio,  in  187S,  'Queen'  Margaret  Stanley 
was  borne  with  regal  honours  to  the  grave  :  and 
scores  of  similar  cases  could  be  cited  in  England, 
where  at  Malniesliury  in  l(i.-)7  '.John  liuccle,  a 
gypsie,  was  buried  in  King  Athelstone's  chapel,' 
and  at  Steeple  Barton  in  1794  '  Peter  IJuckland,  a 
great  man  among  the  Gvpsies,  said  to  be  very 
wealthy,'  was  interred  in  tlie  chancel.  Otherwise, 
nnle.ss  for  marriages,  nor  always  then,  the  Gypsies 
are  not  great  church-goers. 

Vlt((rt(rtcr. — There  are  (iypsies  and  Gypsies.  The 
better  .sort  are  quick-witteil,  ccnirteous,  likeable, 
trustworthy  when  trusted,  and  lavishly  generous 
with  the  one  hand,  thougli  the  other  may  itch  for 
a  bargain.  I'ntramnielled  by  prejudices,  and  vexed 
by  no  lofty  ambition,  they  have  picked  up  a  sort  of 
jieripatelic  ]ihilosoiihy,  so  lead  a  pleasant,  cuckoo- 
like  existence,  ,and  make  the  best  of  this  life — for  a 
next  they  have  small  concern.  As  to  faults,  these 
'spoilt  children  of  Nature  '  are  boastful.  ]iassiouate, 
crafty,  superstitious,  thriftless,  anil  imlolent  :  they 
break  most  of  the  Decalogue's  [irecepts,  but  lightly 
— great  crindnals  are  few  among  them.  Still, 
horse-dealing  and  jialmistry  have  not  proved  en- 
noliling  vocations.  Piety,  which  is  rare  with  t-yp- 
sies,  is  apt  to  assume  the  fcu'tn  of  cant:  ami  learn- 
ing, which  is  rarer,  of  conceit.  Imleed.  the  best 
Gypsy  is  the  tJypsy  (iii  nnturcl,  the  life-long  tent- 
dweller  in  ccmntry  lanes  ;  and  he,  like  all  fcrm 
ntitiirir,  is  threatened  with  extinction.  Gypsie.s' 
virtues  are  largely  their  own,  an  outcome  of  open- 
air  life;  their  vices  are  ascribable  to  centuries  of 
oppression,  which  h;ive  left  them  a  singular  com- 
]iound  of  deep-seated  gloom  ami  quicksilver  liglit- 
lieartcdiu'ss,  have  m.ade  them  suspicious  andhii^lile 


490 


GYPSIES 


GYPSUM 


tow-anls  all  tlie  rost  of  iiiankiinl.  '  There  's  nolliinj; 
worse,' says  the  <lvi«.v,  '  tliaii  nnsty  trmijos,'  than 
all,  that  is,  who  have  not  enjoyed  Ihi- |)i'i\  ilege  of 
•  Jyiisv  hirlh.  For  of  that  lie  is  jteniiinely  l>rouil  ; 
he  islionostly  j;rat(!ful  that  lie  '  Imsn'l  jL.'Ot  to  live  in 
none  of  your  iKneily  liiuises.'  (Jvpsy  eelebritii-s, 
ontsiile  tiie  rralni  of  nnisif,  liave  heen  few.  John 
linnyan  has  lieen  olaiiruil  as  one,  Imt  on  slender 
}.'n)nnils ;  so  havi>  Masaniello  anil  the  iiaiiiler 
Antonio  Solaiio  ( 1 3<S2- 1 4.")."> ),  nieknanied  '1,0  Ziii 
traro.'  Anyhow  there  is  Jem  Mace,  tlie  chanipion 
|iii;,'ilist  ;  and  Mi-s  C'urlyle  was  jiroud  of  her  nallliu 
ancestry. 

J'/ii/siijiir. — Early  wrilei"s  all  siieak  of  thetlypsies 
as  hiileons,  hnt  sneh  lan}niaf;e  is  like  early  travel- 
lers' descriptions  of  Alpine  scenery.  V'or  the  race 
is  a  comely  one — its  most  niarkeil  iharai'leristics 
the  tawny  olive  skin,  the  dark  histroiis  eye,  the 
ilaz/lin;;  teeth,  the  hlack  or  dark  hrown  hair  (often 
friz/leil  and  somewhat  coarse),  the  thoufjhtfnl 
hrow,  and  the  lithe  sinewy  form,  with  fmely-m.ide 
hands  and  feet,  and  arms  short  in  comparison  to 
the  leys.     The  skull  is  inesocephalic. 

BibUoyraphti. — There  are  more  than  IWO  books,  pamph- 
lets, ic.  on  the  Gypsies ;  liut  one  ami  nil  might  have 
seemed  almost  v.ilui-less  beside  tlie  'immense  collec- 
tions* of  Michael  Ivanovitch  Kounavine  (1.S20-81). 
A  itiissian  by  birth,  by  profession  a  medical  man, 
he  lived,  we  are  toll,  during  1841 -7li  amnnjf  the 
Oyj)sics  of  Germany,  Austria,  southern  France,  Italy, 
Knghind,  Spain,  Turkey,  nortliern  .\frica,  .Asia  Minor, 
central  .\sia,  Hindustiui,  and  Russia,  and,  with  much 
else,  collected  iJ-S'i  tales,  traditions,  and  ritual  songs, 
in.slirining  a  wealth  of  mythological  and  legendary 
lore.  Unfortunately  those  collections  have  disapi>eare(l, 
and  wc  know  them  oidy  tlii'oxigli  an  abstract  formed 
liefore  the  collector's  death  by  liis  friend,  Dr  -V.  Elyssecf, 
nieniber  of  the  St  l*ctei"sburg  Geographieal  Society,  and 
translated  from  Ivussian  through  French  for  the  O'l/ftxi/ 
/^rc  Joitniat  (ISIK)}.  Indian  Gypsies  have  been  treated 
by  MacUitchic  (ItWi!);  Persian  by  Sir  W.  Onscley 
{WLi)  and  Ncwbold  (lS.iij);  Syrian  by  Pott  (German, 
JXili).  Seetzen  (Ger.  l.S.'il),  Newbold  (bS.")!'.),  and  Kverest 
(bSfK));  .Vnat.ilian  by  I'aspati  (French,  ISTd)  and  Elysseef 
( I.SS'.I  I ;  .\ruionian  and  Siberian  by  Miklosich  ( ( ler.  IsTS ) ; 
K-yjitian  by  Newbold  (I.S.5()),  Vin  Krenur  (Ger.  18ti'.'), 
and  Leland  (lS7:i  82) ;  Central  African  by  Felkin  (188!l) ; 
Algerian  by  Ilataillard  (Fr.  1874);  Turkish  Ijy  I'aspati 
( Fr.  1870  1  and  Culocci  ( Ital.  IWJ);  l{oUMj;inian  by 
K4>galnitschan  or  C'ogalnitcheanu  ( Fr.  1837  J  and 
Vaillant  (Fr.  18()8);  Montenegrin  by  Cogisic  (Ger. 
1874);  .Servian  by  Miklosich  (Ger.  187C);  Bosnian  by 
Kopcrnicki  (1889);  Hungariiin  by  Bright  ('(.v.,  1818) 
an  1  the  .Vrcliduke  Josef  (Hung.  1888);  Transylvanian 
by  ■\VUslocki  (Ger.  18,S0-8!»);  Hohemian  liy  I'uchmayer 
(tier.  1.S21)  and  Jesina  (Ger.  188(1);  .Slovak  bv  Kahna 
(  Fr.  1882)  and  Von  Sowa  (tier.  1887  HO);  Polish  by  Dani- 
lowicz  (Pol.  18.'4)  and  C'zicki(Pol  1845);  Crimean  bv 
Koppen  (Ger.  1.871;  Eng.  LSW);  Kussijin  by  IJ<ihtlingk 
(Ger.  1853)  and  Miklosich  (Ger.  1872  78) ;  Lithuanian 
by  Narbutt  (Pol.  1830)  and  Dowojno-Sylwestrowicz 
(188il);  N..rwegian  by  Sundt  (  Norw.  1850  «5);  Danish 
iiy  Uyr'.und  (Dan.  1.872);  German  by  Licbich  (Ger. 
18(;3);  Dutch  by  Dirks  (Dutch,  IXni)) ;  English  and 
Welsh  bvlSryant  (1784),  Iloyland  (181G),  Harriot  ( 1.830), 
Crabb  (1831),  Roberts  (KSW;,,  Borrow  ((|.v.  1841  74), 
Uland  (1.S73  82).  Smart  and  Crofton  (1.8l!3-88),  and 
Groome  (l.S.SO);  Scottish  by  Biiird  (183ttC2),  Simson 
11803),  .MacRitehie  (18.W-94);  Ua.sque  by  Michel  (Fr. 
b8.i7),  Baudrimont  ( Fr.  1802),  and  Wentworth  Webster 
(1888);  Itahan  by  Ascoli  (tier.  1805)  ami  Colocci  (Ital. 
188;i);  Catalonian  by  MacRitehie  (18.S8);  Spanish  by 
Borrow  (1.S41),  Campuzano  (.Span.  1851),  and  Mavo 
I  Span.  1870  J ;  Brazilian  by  Mello  Moraes  (Port.  1885 
■80);  and  North  American  by  Simson  (1805)  and  Leland 
(I8.S2).  Hereto  should  be  added,  for  music,  Li.szt  ( Fr. 
18.">'J),  Leland  (1.8.82),  and  Thewrewk  de  Ponor  (188U); 
for  folklore  and  folk-tales,  Leland's  Utipitp  Sorccrii 
( 1801 )  iinrl  eight  works  cited  by  Groome  in  tlie  Nntionnl 
fl<T/<i'- for  July  18.88;  for  costume,  Crofton  (1870);  for 
met,ilhirg>-,  Andrec  (1884) ;  for  cr.aniology  and  physique, 
Kopirnicki  (Ger.  1.872),  Hovelac<|ue  ( Fr.  1874),  and 
Weisbach    (Ger.   18811);     for   histon-.   Grellmann    (Ger. 


1783;     Eng.   trans,    by    Raper,    17871,    Spivngler   (Lat 
].S3'.t),  Hopf  (Ger.  1870),  Crofton  (188S),  and,  es|>ccially, 
Butaillard  (1844-90);   and  f .  r  the  language  as  a  whole, 
Pott  (qv.,  Ger.  1844  45),  Ascoli  (Ger.   I8(i5),  and   Mik- 
losich (q.v.,  1.S72-80).      Of  these  works   the    fullest    of 
I  several   bibliographies   is   that   furnish.d   by  Cohicci    in 
I  (;li    Zinijnri   (Turin,    IKS';).       I'aint  rs    to   whom    the 
j  (lypsies   have  furnished  subjects  liavc  been  Carava^tgio, 
,  Callot,  Morland,  Philli|<,  and  Burgess;  novelists,  poets, 
phywriglits,    and    c  mposers,    Cervantes,    Scott.    Victor 
Hugo,    George    Meredith,   I>e    Fanu,    Theodore    \\  att«, 
.Matthew  Arnold,  George    ICliot,    Pu.schkiri,    Kraszewski, 
I   Brachvogcl,  Ricliepin,  Balfe,  Verdi,  Brahms,  Bizet,  ic. 
[cf.  Gosche,  iJk  ^iiicnncr  alt   Tupiis  iu   l>i,hliiii;i  und 
I  Kiiiift,   1879).      Finally,  a   vast  mass   of   material  is  to 
I  be  found  in  the  quarterly  ^010110/ (  Kdin.,  Constable)  of 
I  tlie  cosmopolitan  Ovpsv  Lore  Socictv,  which  was  fmihiled 
I  .11  188.S,  and  survive.!  until  1.892. 

G.vpsiini  is  a  valuable  mineral  of  a  eom]inra- 
tively  .soft  nature.  Chemieally  it  is  a  hydraled 
sulphate  of  lime,  CaSOj  -I-  2H.,(>.  \i>*  specific 
■rravity  is  231,  ami  its  hardness  Is  from  1  o  to  2 
of  the  mineral  scale.  The  ma.-sive  niarhle-like 
variety,  which  is  usu.ally  white  or  ilelicately  linteil 
and  translucent,  is  called  Alabaster  (ipv.);  when 
transparent  ami  crystallised  it  i>  known  as  Selenite 
((J.V.);  and  when  libriuis  and  with  a  ]iiaily  ojial- 
escence  it  is  termed  satin  spar. 

Gypsum  occurs  in  various  yeolii^.'ie.al  format  ions, 
ami  has  a  wi<le  {.'eoyraphical  clistrihntion.  E.Men- 
sive  beds  of  tlii'  common  v.triety  are  frenerallv 
made  op  of  irre;,'nlar,  conciiliciniuy,  nodular 
nuvsses.  In  the  New  Iteil  formation  near  Derby, 
at  Carlisle,  and  in  some  parts  of  Xotlinyhanishire, 
as  well  a.s  in  the  Tertiar.v  beds  of  the  subuibs  of 
I'aris,  it  is  largely  worked  for  the  ]ireparatioii  of 
jdiuster  of  I'aris.  I'roductive  beds  of  it  are  found 
in  numerous  localities  in  the  I'liiled  States,  ]irinci- 
iiallv  in  Ohio  iiiid  Michij.'an;  in  New  l!runs«ick, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  Ontario;  and  in  the  I'uujab. 
Gypsum  is  very  frequently  a.s.sociatcd  with  roek- 
Riilt.     See  Axii'vTiuiTE. 

tJypsum  contains  21  ])er  cent,  of  water,  which 
can  be  driven  oil'  by  heat.  It  is  burned  in  kilns  at 
or  a  little  lielow  a  temperature  of  iM  1'.,  and 
afterwards  irrcuind  to  a  line  |Hiwder,  which  is  called 
ji/imtcr  of  I'urlx.  This  recoiubines  with  water, 
evolves  heat,  and  almost  immediately  solidilies  or 
acts.  It  is  this  property  which  makes  it  so  service- 
able for  many  imrjioses  in  the  imlnstrial  arts.  If 
in  the  burnini,'  of  <;ypsum  the  temperature  is  raised 
!»  hiyh  or  higher  than  480  V.  it  Iom's  the  jiowerof 
rehyilrating.  and  is  then  .said  to  be  tUail  Ijin/il, 
in  which  state  it  will  not  set  when  mixed 
^\ith  water.  Like  gypsnni,  jdaster  of  Paris  is 
soluble  to  the  extent  of  rather  more  than  2  parts 
in  1000  parts  of  water  at  ordinary  temiieratnres, 
its  iioint  of  maximum  .solubility  beiny  95  F.  It 
is  tlierefiue  tmsnited  for  external  work,  excejit  in 
dry  climates  such  as  that  of  Persia.  Fin-  making 
ca-^ts  the  iilaster  of  I'aris  is  made  uii  with  water 
to  a  consistency  of  thick  cream.  In  this  state  it  is 
lionred  into  a  mould,  which  is  usually  also  made 
of  the  same  inateiial,  and  left  to  .sididify.  .Some 
oil,  such  a.s  olive,  is  brushed  over  the  mould  to 
form  a  p/irtiiif/  lietween  it  and  the  cast.  Piaster 
of  I'aris  is  most  extensively  used  for  taking  ciL-.ts 
of  .sculpture  and  architectural  details,  as  well  as 
for  e.ast-s  of  small  cdijects  such  .is  coins,  medals,  and 
engr.aved  gems.  For  potterv  minilds  it  is  also 
largely  employed,  and  it  is  use<l  to  take  a  liret 
copy  from  the  modelled  clay  in  the  ]noilnction  of 
metal  jiatterns.  Large  quantities  of  it  arc  con- 
sumed for  the  mouldings  of  the  internal  jilaster- 
work  of  houses,  .and  for  cornice  and  other  orna- 
ments. F'or  hardened  ]daster  of  Paris,  such  as 
Kecne's  cement,  see  C'kmkxts;  and  for  the  agri- 
cultural applications  of  gy|>.snni,  see  M.vxi  Klis. 
Gypsum   Ls  one  of   the  substances   which  renders 


GYPSY -WORT 


GYROSCOPE 


491 


water  liiird,  and  such  water  is  useful  in  the  biew- 
ing  of  sonic  kinds  of  lieer.  Pearl  hanhninrj,  used 
as  a  filling  in  the  manufacture  of  some  kinds  of 
paper,  is  an  artillcial  sul]ihate  of  lime,  i)recipitate<l 
liv  sul])linric  aciil  from  chloride  of  calcium.  Fictile 
Irani  is  plaster  of  Paris  which  has  been  made  to 
absorb  beeswax,  spermaceti,  and  stearic  acid,  in 
their  melted  state.  -'J'lie  average  annual  production 
of  gypsum  in  Great  Britain  is  nearlv  120,000  tons, 
valne  about  £48,000.  In  18S8  the  luoduction  of 
the  United  States  was  about  90,000  tons  ;  of  Nova 
Scotia,  120,1 18  tons.  For  the  anbydrou.s  sulphate 
of  lime,  .see  AxilVDniTE. 

CJypsy-woi't  (Ljicopns  curopwits),  sometimes 
also  called  Water  Ilorchound,  is  a  perennial  plant 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  Laliiat;c.  It  is  a 
tall  erect  bran<diing  jilant,  slightly  hairy,  with  a 
creeping  root  stock.  It  is  conuuon  in  moist  places 
ill  Britain,  the  Continent,  Russian  and  central 
Asia,  and  North  America;  and  is  regarded  as  a 
febrifuge  and  astringent.  It  dyes  black,  and  gives 
a  permanent  colonr  to  wool,  linen,  and  silk,  ami  as 
long  ago  as  l.')78  the  Gypsies  were  fabled  to  stain 
their  skin  with  it.  The  Bugle-weed  of  Nm-th 
America  [L.  virffinieus)  has  more  powerfully 
astringent  properties. 

Gyrfalooii.    See  Falcon. 

Cyroscone  (Greek)  is  the  name  given  to  an 
instrument  fiir  the  exhibition  of  various  ])roperties 
of  rotation  and  the  coni))Osilion  of  rotations.  It 
diil'ers  from  a  toji  in  having  both  ends  of  its  axis 
snppoj'ted.  The  invention  is  probably  French  or 
German,  and  in  some  of  its  forms  it  dates  from 
about  the  end  of  the  18th  century. 

If  a  mass  be  set  in  rotation  about  its  princijial 
axis  of  inertia  of  greatest  or  least  moment,  it  will 
continue  to  revolve  about  it ;  and,  unless  extraneous 
force  be  applied,  the  direction  of  the  axis  will  remain 
unchanged.  Such,  for  instance,  would  be  the  case 
with  the  earth,  were  it  not  for  the  dLsturbanccs  (see 
Nutation  and  Piuiciwsiox)  produced  by  the  sun 
anil  moon  :  the  direction  of  the  axis  wonld  remain 
lixcd  in  space.  It  is  for  this  very  reason  that  modern 
artillery  is  rilled.  If,  then,  a  mass  of  metal,  as, 
for  instance,  a  circular  disc,  loaded  at  the  rim,  and 
revohing  in  its  own  plane,  be  made  to  rotate  rapidly 
about  its  axis  of  greatest  moment  of  inertia,  and  if 
it  be  freely  supported  (in  gimbals,  like  the  box  of  a 
cimipass),  the  direction  of  its  axis  will  be  the  same 
SI)  long  as  the  rotati<in  lasts.  It  will  therefore  con- 
stantly point  to  the  same  star,  and  may,  of  coui'se, 
be  employed  to  show  that  the  apparent  rotation  of 
the  stars  abont  the  earth  is  due  to  a  real  rotation  of 
the  earth  itself  in  the  opposite  direction.  This 
application  was  made  by  Foucault  shortly  after  his 
celebrated  Peii<luluni  (i|.v.)  experiment,  as  it  had 
been  many  years  before  (March  18.36)  liy  Pr 
Sang  (see  the  Trails,  of  f/ic  11.  Heot.  Sue.  of  Arts). 
It  is,  in  practice,  by  no  means  so  perfect  a  mode 
of  jnoving  the  earth's  rotatiim  as  the  Foucault 
licndnlum  ;  but  this  arises  solely  fnun  unavoidable 
defects  of  workmanship  and  materials.  Professor 
I'iazzi  Smyth  has  a]iplied  this  property  of  the 
gyroscope  to  the  improvement  of  our  means  of 
making  astronomical  observations  at  sea.  A  tele- 
scope, mounted  on  the  same  su]i]iort  as  the  ends 
of  the  axis  of  the  gyrosco]ie,  will,  of  course,  be 
almost  unaltered  in  position  by  the  rolling  or 
pitching  of  a  \essel  ;  ami  a  steady  hori/on,  f<u- 
sextant  observations  of  altitude,  may  be  procured 


by  attaching  a  mirror  to  the  support  of  the  gyro- 
scope, and  setting  it  once  for  all  by  means  of  spirit- 
levels. 

But  the  most  singular  phenomena  sho>x-n  by  the 
gyroscojie  are  those  dejieiiding  on  the  composition 
of  rotations  (see  Rotation).  Any  motion  what- 
ever of  a  Ixxly  which  h.-is  one  point  lixed  is  of  the 
nature  of  a  rotation  about  an  axis  ])assing  through 
that  point.  Hence,  simnltaneous  rotations  alxnit 
any  two  or  more  axes,  being  a  motion  of  some  kind, 
are  equivalent  to  a  rotation  about  a  single  axis. 
The  etiect,  then,  of  impressing  upon  the  frame  in 
which  the  axis  of  the  .spinning  gyro.scope  is  sus- 
pended a  tendency  to  rotate  about  some  other  axis, 
is  to  give  the  whole  instrument  a  rotation  about  an 
intermediate  axis ;  and  this  will  coincide  more  nearly 
with  that  of  the  gv-roscojie  itself,  as  the  rate  of  its 
rotation  is  greater.  The  com])Ound  motion  con- 
sists in  the  rolling  of  an  imaginaiy  cone  fixed 
in  the  gyroscope  upon  another  fixed  in  space ; 
the  rotation  of  the  axis  of  a  top  rouncf  the 
vertical  (when  it  is  not  'sleeping'  in  an  upright 
l)Osition),  and  the  precession  of  the  earth's  axis, 
are  precisely  similar  ]iheiiomena.  Thus,  when 
the  gyroscope  is  spinning,  its  axis  being  hori- 
zontal, a  weight  attached  to  the  framework  at  one 
end  of  the  axis  (  fig.  h )  makes  the  whole  rotate  alxmt 
the  vertical  ;  attached  to  the  other  end,  the  rotation 
takes  place  in  the  o]iposite  direction.  And  the 
framework  may  be  lifted  by  a  string  attaclicd  near 


Gyroscope. 

one  end  of  the  axis  (fig.  a)  without  the  gyroscope's 
falling.  Its  axis  still  jirojccts  horizontally  from  the 
string,  but  it  revolves  as  a  whole  round  the  string. 
Various  other  singnlar  exiieriinents  may  be  made 
with  this  a]>paratiis  ;  and  others,  even  more  curious, 
with  the  gyrostat  of  Sir  AV.  Thomson,  which  is 
simply  a  gyroscope  enclosed  in  a  rigid  case,  by 
which  the  ends  of  its  axis  are  su|iportcd.  AVhen  a 
gyrostat  is  made  the  bob  of  a  ]iendnlnm  under 
certain  conditions,  the  jdane  of  vibration  of  the 
peiKluliim  turns,  as  in  Foncault's  celebrated  experi- 
ment, liut  in  general  at  a  much  greater  rate. 


li 


the  eighth  letter  in  oiiralphalM?!, 
is  derived  from  tlie  I'hiriiician 
letter  chctli,  which  was  olilaiiied 
from  tlie  K^'yiitian  hiero;.'lyiihi<- 
svmliol  whioli  j.'iii'~  hv  tin'  iiaiiic 
of  the  sieve  (see  Al.l'llAliKT). 
The  Semitic  name,  whiih  means 
a  'fence'  or  'palisade,'  is  ex- 
l)lained  by  the  f<>rni  of  tlie  letter 
Q,   wliieli    resemhles   a   three-barred   stile.       The 


Bound  was  that  of  a  stron^dy marked  contiiinous 
■jiittnral,  imxhiced  at  the  back  of  the  ]ialalc,  which 
does  not  exist  in  En;,dish.  but  is  heard  in  the  Scotch 
lo'7(  and  the  (ierman  la'/ien.  When  the  I'ho'iiician 
alphaln't  was  transmitted  tothetlreeks  the  name 
rliilh  became  itn.  As  early  as  the  Ttli  century 
n.c.  this  sign  had  two  values  among  the  Greeks; 
it  normally  re|iresented  the  long  t,  but  was  ]ier- 
missividy  used  for  the  simple  as|>irate  li.  In  the 
alphalict  of  Italy  it  was  used  exclusively  for  the 
aspirate:  1)Ut  in  tlie  later  alpha1)el  of  (heccc  the 
two  sounds  came  to  be  represented  by  a  dilleren- 
tiation  of  the  symbol,  the  form  H  being  \ised  foi' 
the  vowel  anil  the  mutilated  forms  h,  L.  for  the 
aspirate.  Hence  we  see  how  the  symbol  II  stands 
for  /(  in  the  Latin  alphabet  and  for  c  in  the  Creek. 
In  »»ld  English  li  was  a  guttural,  or  throat  soimd, 
but  it  gradually  softened  down  to  a  spirant,  and 
has  now  become  almost  a  vowel.  No  letter  is  more 
misused,  and  this  misuse  is  of  very  ancient  date. 
In  Latin  MSS.  and  inscriptions  it  is  sometimes  im- 
properly inserted,  a-s  in  the  wonls  hnrenii,  Imnimlu, 
hiiiictorita.s,  or  iiupro]>erly  ondtted,  as  in  omiiii, 
iiliittit,  f;«».sY».s- spellings  which  prove  the  un- 
certainly of  the  Usage.  In  Knglish  as  early  as  the 
I'Jtli  century  we  hud  acrf  written  Uir  liiinl,  M\A  liuht 
f<u'  ultl.  Americans,  as  a  rule,  rarely  misuse  it, 
and  in  England  an  untaught  pea-sant  is  usually 
more  correct  than  a  self-made  man.  It  has  long 
disaii])eared  from  Italian,  and  is  now  rapiilly  vanish- 
ing from  French.  The  Spaniards  suhsliluie  A  for  a 
Latin  f,  the  Spanish  liijo  representing  the  Latin 
Ji/iii.i,  just  a.s  the  Latin  hordciini  represented  the 
Sabine  fuiilciim.  Not  only  /,  but  c  and  s  are 
frequently  represented  by  h.  Thus,  /iHwdred  and 
rr;ilury,  /iCfd/ine-ss  and  co»y//ality,  hall  and  cell 
are  true  doublets,  while  the  Latin  ranis,  centum, 
and  cdjiut  ciuresjiond  to  the  English  hitiinil,  hiiii- 
iliiil,  and  liiiul,  and  the  first  sylialiles  of  /(i-.cagou 
and  liij,tMQ\\\,  which  are  derived  from  the  tireek, 
correspond  to  the  English  numerals  s/.c  and  seven. 
We  get  /((■;«/  sphere  from  the  Greek  and  .«f»i/-circle 
from  the  Latin,  /ii/)«;;-critical  from  the  (ireek  .and 
«M^(fc-(icial  from  the  Latin.  The  Irish  have  re- 
taineil  .«,  which  in  Welsh  has  faded  down  to  h, 
the  Welsh  Inn,  'old,'  being  the  Irish  sen  and 
the  Latin  sme.r.  In  English  /(  has  been  lost  in  the 
words  if,  liKif,  nee/,-,  rinff,  tear,  fee,  which  were 
formerly  written  liit,  Idnf,  hnecen,  hring,  talin;  and 
/cn/i,  while  in  ilrolit  and  genuli,  now  written  draft 
and  cnoiiejh,  it  has  become  /,  ami  in  the  words 
huge,  irharf,  nhclk,  and  irhelni  it  is  intrusive. 
In  hvit  and  hveol,  anil  many  other  words,  the 
decay  of  the  aspirate  caused  them  to  be  written 
vhile  and  irhecl,  and  excejit  in  the  north  of  England 
the  /(  in  these  words  is  hardlv  heard.     In  the  west 


I  and  south  of  England,  which  are  Saxon,  the  a-spir- 
ate  as  a  rule  is  fainter  and  more  liable  to  be  lost 

I  than    in    East    Anglia,    Vorksiiiie,    ami    Scotland, 

'  where  we  have  tlie  descendants  of  Angles  and 
Danes. 

The  c(urect  pronnnciatiiui  of  this  dillicult  letter 
is  one  of  the  most  delicate  tests  of  good   breeding. 

i  The  ipiality  of  the  souiiil  de(iends  partly  on  that 
of  the  following  vowel,  and  its  intensity  to  some 
extent  on  the  accentuation.  The  aspiration  i.s 
stronger  in  hinnhlr  than  in  hiiindili/,  in  hlinian 
than  in  hnnmne.  in  histuni  than  in  liixlurieat ,  in 
hnstilr  than  in  huslilili/,  but  it  is  the  same  in  hiijt/iy 
and  h'i/>/iine.is,  since  the  accent  rests  on  the  same 
syllable.  It  is  stronger  in  who  than  in  irhen,  in 
hole  than  in  n-holc.  In  honour  it  is  very  faint,  in 
honourable  and  honr.iti/  it  is  almost  inaudible.  It 
is  striuiger  in  h<ist  than  in  hosjiilal.  while  in  hostler 
it  has  so  completely  disappeare<l  that  the  spelling 
ostler  has  becoTiie  usual.  It  is  retained  in  harhonr, 
but  has  been  lost  in  arlioiir.  It  is  retained  in  hair 
and  hare,  but  is  evanescent  in  lieir  an<l  hour, 
though  retained  in  hereditari/  and  horologe.  No 
general  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  the  pronuncia- 
tion ;  it  deiien<ls  on  the  usage  of  good  society, 
which  changes  from  geueratiiui  to  generation.  In 
good  Kiencli  society  the  as]iirate  is  disajipearing ; 
in  England  and  .\meiica  the  reverse  is  prob.ibly  the 
ca.se.  The  reasons  why  pei'sons  who  omit  h  w  here 
it  should  be  inserted  anil  commonly  insert  it  where 
it  should  be  omitted  are  obscure,  but  have  been 
referred  by  Mr  Douse  in  his  l«n>k  on  Urinini's  Law 
to  what  he  designates  as  the  I'rinciple  of  Cross 
Compensation. 

In  (oriii.iu  musical  notation  the  letter  H  is  used 
to  denote  11  natural,  the  letter  H  being  ai>plied  to 
our  li  Hat.  This  anomalous  distinction  is  derived 
from  the  ancient  notation  by  lettei's,  before  the  in- 
vention of  the  stave,  in  which  15  natural  was  written 
in  a  siiuai'e  form  f  IS  tjuadrattnn  ),  like  ,a  small  bhu-k- 
letter  1%  while  li  Hal  was  written  as  a  Hoiiian  h 
(  li  rotiinilinn).  The  awkwardness  of  having  two 
Il's  led  to  the  introduction  of  the  II.  which  in 
small  black  letter  ( Ii )  resembles  b  closely.  See  '  Acci- 
dentals '  in  Grove's  Dietionanj.  In  the  French  and 
Italian  .system  the  same  note  is  denoted  by  the 
syllable  Si.    See  Mf.sic,  Sc.M.E,  Solfeggio. 

Haas.  C.MU,,  German  nainter,  born  20th  April 
1H'2(>,  at  Erlangen,  studied  at  Munich  (under  Cor- 
nelius) and  at  I  tome.  In  1847  he  settled  in  F>ng- 
land,  at  the  same  time  abandoning  oil  for  water- 
colours.  His  earlier  pictures  represented  scenes 
from  Tyrol  and  Dalmatia,  and  from  the  life  of  the 
F.nglish  royal  I'aniily  in  Scotland.  His  later  \yorks 
have  been  mostly  illustrative  of  oriental  subjects, 
such  as  the  life  of  the  liedouin  of  the  desert,  the 
ruins  of  r.iialbek  and  Palmyra,  and  similar  theme.s. 

Ilaarh'lll.  a  town  of  Holl.ind,  10  miles  W.  of 
Aiiisterdam,  is  intersected,  like  most  Dutch  towns, 
with  canals  and  avenues  of  trees.  Of  its  churches 
the  iirincijial  is  the  Great  or  St  Bavon's,  a  Late 
(Jothic  b.tsilica,  built  in  the  15th  century,  one  of 
the  largest  churches  in  Holland,  and  specially 
noted  for  its  lofty  tower  and  its  organ  ( 173.'S).  long 
esteemed   the   largest  and  finest  ever  constructed. 


HAARLEM  LAKE 


HABEAS  CORPUS 


493 


Before  tlie  church  stands  a  statue  of  Laurens  Coster 
(q.v. ),  to  whom  hLs  countrymen  ascribe  the  in- 
vention of  printing.  The  town-hall,  formerly  tlie 
residence  of  the  Counts  of  Holland,  li;vs  portraits 
by  Franz  Hals,  and  a  valuable  collection  of  early 
piinted  works.  The  Teyler  Institution  promotes 
the  study  of  theology,  natural  science,  ami  the  tine 
arts.  Although  Haarlem  is  no  longer  celebrated, 
as  it  was  in  the  ITtli  century,  for  its  flourishing 
trade,  it  still  weaves  cotton,  casts  type,  bleaches 
linen,  and  carries  on  an  extensive  traile  in  flowers, 
especially  in  tulips,  hyacinths,  and  other  bulbs. 
It  wa-s  a  nourishing  town  as  early  as  the  l'2tli 
century,  when  it  took  an  important  i>art  in  the 
wars  between  the  Hollanders  anil  West  Frisians. 
At  the  close  of  the  loth  century  it  was  deprived  of 
its  privileges  by  Albert  of  Saxony,  and  it  sull'ered 
severely  during  the  revolt  of  the  peasantry  (1492). 
During  the  war  of  independence  it  umlerwent  a 
seven  months"  siege  ( 1.572  73  )  from  the  Spaniards, 
in  which  the  citizens  displayed  the  ncd)lest  hero- 
ism. The  wood  of  Haarlem  is  a  favourite  place  for 
recreation;  in  it  stands  the  'pavilion,'  which  con- 
tains the  colonial  and  industrial  museum-^  and  a 
collection  of  modern  pictures.  Pop.  (1876)  34,132; 
(1894)  58,390. 

Haarlem  Lake,  which  is  now  drained  (see 
PoLDEi;  I,  lay  l>etween  the  towns  of  Haarlem, 
Leyden,  and  Amsterdam,  and  conmuinicated  with 
the  Zuider  Zee  by  the  Y.  Originally  it  emluaced 
four  small  lakes,  which,  in  consequence  of  .several 
irruptions  of  the  sea,  eventually  merged  into  one 
sheet  of  water,  covering  an  area  of  about  45,2.30 
acres.  The  depth  did  not  exceed  15  feet  :  the  thior 
of  the  lake  was  largely  composed  of  mud  and  clay, 
from  which  the  Dutch  prepare<l  '  klinkei's,' bricks 
used  for  purposes  of  paving.  The  lake  frequently 
rose  during  storms  to  an  alarming  height,  neces- 
sitating a  large  annual  outlay  in  keeping  the  dams 
and  shiices  in  repair.  In  consequence  of  tlie  damage 
done  to  Amsterdam  and  Leyden  by  two  succe.'^sive 
overtiows  of  the  lake  in  18.36,  the  government 
seriously  addressed  itself  to  the  task  of  draining  it 
(1839-52).  This  undertaking  was  etlccte.l  by 
digging  all  rounil  the  lake  a  large  canal,  into  which 
its  waters  were  pumped  by  three  gigantic  engines. 
By  these  means  the  waters  were  drained  ott'  to  the 
Y  and  Zuider  Zee.  The  enterprise  cost  £1,080,000, 
but  the  sale  of  the  lands  reduced  this  outlay  by 
£780,000.  The  population  increased  from  7000  in 
1860  to  16,000  in  1895. 

Habakkllk  (Heb.,  'embrace'),  one  of  the 
twelve  minor  ]iropliets  of  the  Old  Testament.  His 
personal  history  is  unknown.  In  his  book  he 
appears  as  a  prophet  of  Judali,  aunonncing  the 
divine  chastisemeMt  which  is  to  come  upon  his  nation 
at  the  hands  of  the  Chaldean  Nebuchadnezzar. 
He  wa-s  the  first  of  the  prophets  who  saw  in  the 
^reat  victory  of  Carchenush  (Circesium),  in  the 
lourth  year  of  Jehoiakiin,  the  fall  of  the  Egyntian 
supremacy  before  the  young  Babylonian  king. 
His  period  is  thus  lixed  in  the  last  decade  of  the 
7th  century  li.c.  Both  as  a  poem  and  as  a  prophecy 
his  book  holds  a  very  high  rank  among  the  Old 
Testament  scriptures.  His  aim  was  to  inspire  his 
nation  with  trust  in  Him  who  is  the  Goil  ot  Israel 
from  everlasting,  his  'Holy  One'  (i.  121.  After 
asking  Ood  \niy  he  hail  so  long  sutlered  his 
pro)diet  to  cry  in  vain  for  deliverance  from  the 
sight  of  iniquity  and  grievance  i  i.  '2—1 1,  he  gives  a 
vivid  description  of  the  ChaUleans  (i.  o  ct  scijq.). 
Then  he  betakes  himself  in  spirit  to  his  watch- 
tower  (chap,  ii.),  and  sees  that  this  violent  nation 
shall  at  Uist  become  the  scorn  of  the  nations  it  ha-s 
sjioiled,  its  idols  will  be  of  no  avail  :  'Jehovah  is  in 
his  holy  temide :  let  all  the  earlli  keep  silence 
before  him'  (ii.  20).     From  this  jjrospect  he  rises 


to  the  ])rophetic  liei"lit  of  tlie  tliird  chapter,  which 
is  a  majestic  hymn  describing  in  the  most  striking 
images  the  appearance  of  the  Almighty  for  judg- 
ment, and  ending  (16-19)  with  the  imjiression 
produced  by  this  prophecy  on  himself,  and  a  beauti- 
ful expression  of  his  confidence  in  God,  whatever 
may  befall.  The  keynote  of  the  whole  proiihecy 
is  the  sentence  in  ii.  4  :  '  the  just  shall  live  by  his 
faith,'  quoted  by  St  Paul  in  Koin.  i.  17,  ami  Gal. 
iii.  11.  The  best  commentaries  on  Habakkuk  are 
those  of  Delitzsch  (1843),  Hitzig(3d  ed.  1863;  4th 
ed.  by  Steiner,  1881),  Ewald  (1867  ;  Eng.  trans,  in 
vol.  iii.  oihiaPruphds,  1878),  Kleinert  (1869),  and 
Keil  (1S73). 

Habberton,  -IhHN,  author,  was  born  in  Brook- 
lyn, New  York,  24tli  February  1842,  served  through 
the   civil   war,   and   was  for  some  yeai-s  a  clerk, 
afterwards  turning  to  j(MirnaIisni.     His  best-known 
book    is    Helens    Babies    (1876),    which    attained 
an   a.stonishing  popularity   both   in   America   and 
in   Euro]>e.     He    has   published   also   The  Burton 
Erperiment  (IVTil),  Other  People's  Children  (1877), 
t  The   Worst  Boy  in   Tovn   (1880),    Who  was  Paul 
i  Grntfson?  (1881),  a  humorous  Life  of  Washington 
I  ( 1883),  One  Tramp  ( 1884),  Bnceton's  Bayou  ( 1886), 
'  and  other  \vorks. 

Habeas  C'orpiI.S,  in  English  law,  is  the  formal 
commencement  of  several  writs,  issued  by  the 
superior  courts,  which  direct  a  pereon  who  has 
another  in  custody  to  produce  the  body  of  the 
])risoner.  Such  writs  are  or  have  been  used  in 
practice  for  various  purposes.  Thus,  the  haheus 
eorpiis  ad  respondendum  was  used  to  bring  up  a 
prisoner  to  serve  him  with  a  writ  ;  and  the  habeas 
corjiiis  ad  test ijieand inn  may  still  be  used  to  bring 
up  a  prisoner  to  give  evidence.  But  the  best- 
known  and  by  far  the  most  important  form  of  the 
writ  is  the  habeas  corjms  ad  snbjiriendtim,  by 
which  the  ])erson  detaining  another  in  custody  is 
ordered  to  brin^  up  his  prisoner,  and  to  state  the 
reasons  for  such  detention,  that  the  court  may 
judge  of  their  sutticiency.  This  '  prerogative  writ ' 
is  one  of  the  chief  .securities  of  English  liberty.  By 
the  law  of  England,  as  embodied  in  the  Great 
Charter,  no  freeman  could  be  imi>risoned  except 
for  a  crime  of  which  he  was  found  guilty  by  his 
peers,  or  for  a  civil  deljt.  The  effect  of  this  rule 
of  law  was  that  the  executive  government  had  no 
right  to  inijirison  an  individual  on  sus]iiciim,  or  for 
an  indefinite  jieriod.  Arrest  and  imprisonment 
could  only  be  justified  by  making  a  detinite  charge 
against  the  ]irisoner,  and  by  putting  him  on  his 
trial  before  a  jury  witliDUt  umeasunable  delay.  A 
pei-son  illegally  imprisoned  could  demand  of  the 
Court  of  King's  Bench  a  writ  of  habeas  eorpns : 
and  on  return  being  made  to  the  writ,  the  court 
might  discharge  the  party,  or  admit  him  to  bail, 
or  send  him  back  to  await  his  trial,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  case.  This  was  the  rule  of  law  ; 
but  it  need  hanlly  be  said  that  in  ilespotic  times 
the  courts  could  not  be  relied  on  to  protect  the 
subject  against  illegal  imprisonment.  In  the  reign 
of  t'liarles  I.  the  judges  refuseil  to  issue  a  habeas 
i  eorpus  in  vacation  time.  They  also  assumed  a 
'  discretionary  power  to  grant  or  refuse  the  writ  ; 
and  the  government  sometimes  evaded  the  law 
by  sending  prisonei-s  beyond  the  sea,  to  Jersey  and 
other  places.  These  abuses  led  in  1679  to  the 
enactment  of  the  statute  31  Car.  II.  chap.  2,  coin- 
iiKuily  known  as  the  Habeivs  Corpus  Act.  This  act 
did  liot,  as  is  often  suppo.sed,  introiluce  any  new 
form  of  i>rocess  ;  but  it  secured  to  the  subject  the 
I  ancient  constitutional  remedy  of  which  the  weak- 
i  ness  of  the  judges  ami  the  bad  faith  of  the  govern- 
•  luent  had  deprived  him.  Tlu'  writ  may  be  sued 
out  by  moliiin  in  court,  or  by  an  application  to 
the  Lord  Chancellor  or  one  of  tlie  judges,  sujiported 


494 


HABEAS    COKPUS 


HACHETTE 


a  iiiiviite  pci'son  may  laKe  iiioceeainf,'s  ajjainsi  a 
juilj^e   ill   respect  ofau   act   iloiie  in  his  judicial 


hy  ailiiliivits  sliowiii-;  that  tlie  person  on  wliosc 
lii'lialf  the  motion  or  application  is  made  is  illepilly 
detiiiiic'd.  The  cliitf  rules  <if  the  act  are  as  follows. 
Wlien  a  iieisou  is  committed  to  jirison  the  jud;;e  to 
whom  application  is  made  must,  unless  there  has 
been  -.'reat  ilelay  in  nuikinj;  the  application,  ^rant 
the  writ  of  lutltcas  cui-pim.  The  writ  must  he 
oVteyeil,  more  or  less  promptly  according;  to  the 
distance :  hut  in  no  case  m\ist  the  delay  exceed 
twenty  days.  .\ny  oMicer  who  refuses  the  prisoner 
a  copy  of  the  warrant  of  commitment,  or  w  ho  shifts 
the  prisoner  to  another  custody  without  authority, 
forfeits  tKK),  arul  for  the  second  ollcncc  fitio,  and 
is  disabled  to  hold  ollice.  Xo  |icrson  once  delivered 
liy  luiheiis  corpus  may  he  reconnnitted  for  the  same 
oirence  luuler  a  penalty  of  £j((0.  A  jierson  com- 
mitted for  treiuson  or  felony  may  insist  on  licin;,' 
tried  in  the  ne.'it  term  or  session,  or  admitted  to 
Iwil,  unless  the  crown  w ilnesses  caiuiot  he  ready  : 
it  not  tried  in  the  second  term  or  session  he  mu.st 
lie  discliar>;ed.  Any  judj^e  who  denies  the  writ 
forfeits  i'500.  This  is  now  the  only  cxse  in  which 
rivate  person  may  take  proceeuinj^s  ajjainst  a 
-e   in  ■'  .     .         •      .  • 

capacity. 

The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  extends  only  to  the 
cases  of  persons  imprLsonetl  (m  criminal  charj;es ; 
hut  in  I81G  its  provisions  were  extendeil  to  other 
cases  by  the  50  (-ieo.  III.  ch,T.i>.  100.  The  result  of 
these  enactments  is  that  in  all  cases  where  any 
Jierson,  whether  man,  woman,  or  child,  is  deiirived 
of  liberty,  some  friend  may  apjdy  for  a  hiilnns 
corijiis  directed  to  the  ollicer  or  private  persim 
having  custody  of  the  prisoner.  Kefusal  to  make 
any  return  to  the  writ  will  of  course  be  ilealt  with 
as 'contempt  of  court.  If  the  party  is  detained  by 
lawful  authority  (e.g.  in  the  ca.se  of  a  child  in 
the  care  of  its  parents,  or  a  ilau'ierous  lunatic 
privately  kept  under  restraint  by  his  friends)  the 
facts  must  lie  stateil  in  the  return.  If  the  alleged 
authority  is  of  a  formal  character  (e.g.  a  warrant 
of  commitment,  or  a  certificate  of  lunacy)  it  nuist 
lie  produced,  aiul  the  court  will  judge  of  its  legal 
sutliciency.  A  writ  of  habcit.H  corjiK.i  runs  in  any 
county  palatine  or  privileged  idace,  in  the  Channel 
Islands,  and  the  Isle  of  ^lan.  In  the  case  of 
Anderson,  a  slave  who  in  IH.'i.'i  had  esi'aped  to 
Canada  after  killing  a  .Missouri  planter,  it  was  held 
that  the  writ  might  be  aiiplied  for  by  a  person 
contined  in  a  colony  ;  but  an  act  pa.ssed  in  1862 
provides  that  the  w  rit  shall  n<it  run  in  any  cohiny 
where  there  is  a  court  having  authority  to  grant  a 
liabcas  roijjiis. 

The  law  of  habeas  corpus  does  not  extend  to 
Scotland  ;  but  the  subject  is  jirotected  by  the 
Wrongous  Imprisonment  .\ct,  1701,  chap.  6,  which 
is  often  called  the  Scotch  Habeas  C<irpus  .\ct.  In 
Ireland  there  was  no  Habeas  Corjius  Act  until 
I7S3 ;  and  the  jirovisions  of  the  law  then  pa.ssed 
have  frecpiently  been  suspended  by  act.s  arming 
the  government  with  exceptional  powers.  The 
protection  of  habeim  corpus  is  secured  to  .American 
citizens  by  the  constitution  of  the  Cnited  States, 
and  liy  the  constitution  of  most  oi  the  states.  The 
state  courts  do  imt  discharge  persons  imprisoned 
by  order  of  federal  courts ;  nor  will  the  fetleral 
courts  interfere  with  persons  imprLsoneJ  under 
state  proces.«. 

In  tiiuos  (if  reliollion  or  disturbance  the  govern- 
mcnt  may  lind  it  necessary  to  arre.st  dangerous 
persons,  and  to  detain  them  in  custody  without 
bringing  them  to  trial.  In  such  ca-ses  tlie  govern- 
ment may  either  break  the  law  and  apply  to  par- 
liament for  an  .\ct  of  Indemnity,  or  it  may  invite 
parliament  to  suspend  the  Habea-s  Corpus  Act  f<ir 
a  time.  In  ISSl,  for  example,  the  Irish  govern- 
ment was  empowered  to  detain  without  trial  all 
pei>ons    rea.sonably    suspected    of    complicity    in 


treiuson  anil  crime.  In  the  Cnited  States,  Merrj'- 
man's  ca.se,  in  ls(i7,  gave  rise  to  a  keen  discussion, 
.some  eminent  lawyers  maintaining  that  the  piesi- 
ilent,  of  his  own  authority,  could  suspend  the  law 
i>i  hribcan  cor/iiis,  others  contending  that  the  jiower 
of  suspension  could  only  be  exenised  by  congress. 
For  the  history  and  law  of  HabeiLs  Corpus,  see 
lilacksloue's  Cumincnlnrks,  llallam's  Constitutional 
Jlistori/,  Story's  Commentaries  on  the  Constilntioii 
of  the  Cuitci/  iitiitci,  &c. 

Ilabcruroii.    See  H.\fBEnK,  Ai!.\ioi-r. 

llahiliUtoil,  Wll.I.I.VM,  poet,  won  born  at 
Ilendlip  in  U'unestershire,  November  4,  l(i0.5. 
His  family  was  Catholic;  his  uncle  was  executed, 
and  his  father  lay  six  years  in  the  Tower,  for  com- 
plicity in  liabington's  plot.  He  wius  eilucaled  at 
St  Oiner,  liut  diclineil  to  become  a  .lesuit,  and  was 
next  scut  to  I'aris.  He  married  Lucy  Herbert, 
daughter  of  the  lirst  Lord  I'owis,  and  ha.s  immor- 
talised her  in  his  Ctistara,  a  collection  of  lyrical 
poems,  some  of  rare  lieauty  and  sweetness,  and 
stamped  ihronghout  with  a  purity  then  unusual. 
It  was  lirst  published  in  (|narto  in  1G.'!4.  His 
father  died  in  lti47,  and  lie  himself,  says  Wood, 
'who  did  then  run  with  the  times  and  wits  not 
unknown  to  tHiver  the  usurper,  dicil  on  the  ;50th  of 
November  1054.'  (Jther  works  of  Habington  were 
The  Historic  of  Eihrard  the  Fourth  (1040);  The 
()uccne  of  Araijon,  a  Trayi-roiiicdic  (1040);  and 
Observations  ujion  Historie  ( 1041 ). 

Ilubit.      Sec     HERIiDITY,     IN.STINCT,     KEFLKX 

Action,  V.vki.vtion,  As.sociatios  of  Iue.x.s, 
C.\rs.\i,iTV,  Ethics. 

Ilill»it  and  IN-piltO,  a  pbrxse  ii.sed  in  Scotch 
law  to  d(  uou-  soiiietbii.g  so  notorious  that  it  atl'ords 
strong  and  generally  conclusive  evidence  of  the 
fact.s  to  which  it  refers.  The  best-know  n  example 
of  this  is  w  here  a  man  and  woman  coluibit  as  hus- 
band and  wife,  and  are  repined  by  the  neigbboms 
to  be  married,  in  which  ca.se  the  law  of  Scotland 
accepts  the  cohabitation  and  the  proof  by  public 
opinion  as  evidence  that  a  marriage  has  been  con- 
tracted liy  the  jiarties  by  the  interchange  of  con- 
sent. In  England  no  such  ibictrine  iirevails,  and 
the  marriage  would  have  to  be  pnivecl  in  the  usual 
way,  if  called  in  i|uestion,  by  a  suit  which  directly 
raises  such  iinestion,  though  the  parties  had  all 
their  lives  lived  together  as  man  and  w  ife. — There 
is  also  in  Scotlainl  an  ajiplication  of  the  doctrine 
of  habit  and  reimte  to  persons  when  convicted  of 
stealin'; ;  for  if  the  indii  idu.al  is  a  habit  ami  repute 
thief— I.e.  a  iiotoiion-.  thief-  the  re|iute  that  the 
accused  gets  his  liM-lihood  or  su]ipleiiicnts  it  by 
thieving  is  technically  an  aggravation  of  the 
offence,  and  may  be  charged  and  proved  as  such  ; 
nor  is  it  necessary  to  the  establishment  of  such  a 
charge  that  the  accnseil  should  have  been  previ 
ously  convicted.  In  England  and  Scotland  a  some- 
what similar  effect  is  produced  more  ciicnitously, 
by  proving  that  the  thief  has  been  several  times 
previously  convicted  (is  a  'habitual  criminal'), 
in  which  case  he  is  generally  punished  by  a  severer 
sentence. 

Ilabiliial  l»riiiikar«Is.    See  I.nebkiate.s. 

llaUNhiii-!;.    See  lI.MvsntRG. 

lla<'lM-tt<'.  Lofts,  French  publisher,  was  born 
at  Kcihcl  in  the  Ardennes,  on  oth  May  IStJO.  In 
1,S'26  he  established  in  I'aris  a  publishing  business, 
piincipallv  with  the  intention  of  i.ssuing  books 
calculaleii  to  iiniuove  school  leaching  and  elev.ate 
the  general  intelligence.  In  pui-snance  of  his  plan 
he  has  published  several  senes  of  books,  a.s  the 
liililifthciiiie  popuUiire,  liililiothrijuc  rarifc,  &C., 
which  have  <lone  most  useful  service  in  disseminat- 
ing information  and  amusement  among  the  people. 
He  also  deserves  to  be  mentioned  as  a  friend  of  the 


HACKEE 


HADDOCK 


49.' 


workinf'- classes,  and  as  the  ]iiomoter  of  inter- 
nationiil  cnpyn^'lit.      He  dieil  31st  Jul}-  1864. 

IliK'kct',  a  name  for  the  Chipmunk  (ij.v.). 

Ilackol,  Ernst.     See  Haeckel. 

IliK-klK-rry.    See  Nettle  Tree. 

lliK-kbiit.    See  Firearms. 

lliH'koilsack,  a  post-villa^'e,  eapital  of  IJergen 
couiity.  New  Jersey,  on  the  Hackensack  Kiver,  1"2 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Jersey  City.  It  has  several 
factories.      Pop.  4983. 

HnckliiiKler,  Fkiedrich  Wilhelm  von,  a 

Geriiian  novelist  anil  comedy  writer,  \va.s  bom  at 
Burtscheid,  near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1st  November 
ISIG.  After  one  or  two  false  starts  in  life,  he 
commenced  his  literary  career  with  Bildcr  aiis  dein 
Sultliitcidrlirii  ( 1,S41 ),  and  three  years  later  followed 
lip  l.is  success  \\itli  Das  Soldatcidebeii  im  Fricdcii 
(9tli  ed.  1883).  Tlie  truth  and  pleasant  humour 
of  these  hooks  induced  Uanm  von  Taubenheim 
to  invite  Hackliinder  to  accompany  him  on  his 
travels  to  the  East.  The  literary  fruits  of  this 
journey  were  Dar/iicmofi/poi,  aiifyciiom/ncn  iiiif 
eiiicr  Ecisc  in  den  Orient  (2  vols.  1842),  and  Pdi/er- 
ziif/  iiuch  Mehka  (1S47;  3d  ed.  18S1),  a  collection 
of  oriental  tales  and  legends.  In  1843  he  was 
appointed  private  secretary  to  the  crown-prince  of 
Wiirtemberg,  with  whom  he  travelled  in  the  suc- 
ceeding years.  In  March  1849  he  went  to  Italy, 
was  present  with  Radetzky's  army  during  the 
Ciim[)aign  in  I'iedmont,  and  afterwards  published 
Snld,(l,'idi:l,i-,i  im  Krie;/r  (2  vols.  1S49-.50).  From 
18.59  onwards  he  lived  for  the  most  jiart  in  Stutt- 
gart, jiartly  also  at  Leoni  on  Lake  Starnberg  (or 
Wurm )  near  Municli,  and  died  at  the  latter  place, 
6tli  July  1877.  The  best  of  his  longer  novels  are 
Handel'  viid  Wandel  (1850;  3d  ed.  1869),  Eiirjcn 
Stdl/ricd{  18.52 ),  and  Xanienlase  Gcsr.hiehtcn  ( 1851 ). 
Accurate  portraiture  of  actual  life,  mostly  its 
external  aspects,  and  a  genial  humour  are  the  most 
outstaniling  characteristics  of  these  works.  HLs 
best  comedies  are  the  Gelieimer  Agent  ( 1850),  which 
has  been  perfornieil  on  all  the  stages  of  Cennany, 
and  translated  into  several  European  languages, 
aud  JLif/neHsc/ie  Curcn  ( 1851 ).  Along  with  Zoller 
he  started  the  illustrated  magazine  Uel/er  Land  und 
Meet:  A  collected  edition  of  his  works  was  pub- 
lished at  Stuttgart  in  60  vols.  185.5-74.  See  his 
posthumous  ll'inKin  meines  Lebcus  (2  vols.  1878). 

llarkiiiatat-k.    See  Larch. 

Ilarklli'V.  a  parish  of  Middlesex,  now  forming 
a  suburb  of  Loudon,  and  3  miles  NNE.  of  St 
Paul's.  It  was  at  one  lime  a  favourite  suburlian 
residence  of  the  London  citizens,  but,  the  current 
of  fashion  having  for  many  years  been  setting  to 
the  west.  Hackney  no  longer  holds  the  rank  it 
formerly  did.  In  its  earlier  and  fashionable  days 
it  is  by  some  said  to  have  given  its  name  to 
hackney-coaches.     See  Cab.S. 

IIa4'0  v.,  surnamed  the  Old,  king  of  Norway 
from  1223  to  1263.  During  his  reign  Creenland 
an<l  Iceland  were  adiled  to  the  Norwegian  crown. 
Haco  died  in  the  (Irkneys  on  his  way  home  from 
Scotland,  where  he  had  fought  the  battle  of  Largs 
(q.v.)  against  Alexander  III.     .See  Norway. 

lladdillStwil,  the  county  town  of  Haddington- 
shire, lies  at  the  so\uhi-ru  base  of  the  (iarlcton 
Hills,  on  the  Tyne,  17  miles  E.  of  Edinburgh.  Its 
Abbey  I'hurch,  the  I.iicerna  Laudonia-  or  '  Lamp  of 
Lothian,'  is  a  cruciform  Decorated  red  sandstone 
pile,  with  a  central  lower  90  feet  high,  and  ruinous 
all  hut  the  nave  (the  parish  church),  restored  1891- 
92.  Then  there  are  the  ctmnty  buildings  ( 18331, 
the  huge  corn  exeliange  (  1854  ),  the  town-hall  ( 1748- 
1S;{1  ),  ihe  county  lunatic  a>\  lum  (1866),  and  a 
school,  the  Knox  .Memorial  Institute  ( 1880).  Had- 
dington's worthies  have   been  Knox,  John  Erowu 


and  Samuel  his  grandson,  Samuel  Smiles,  and 
Jane  Welsh  ('arlyle,  whilst  its  chief  memories 
have  been  perils  hy  Hood  and  tire,  and  the  great 
siege  of  the  English  by  the  Scotch  in  1549.  An 
ancient  royal  linrgh,  it  united  till  1885  with  North 
IJerwick,  Dunbar,  Jedburgh,  and  Lauder  to  return 
one  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  (1831)  3857; 
(1881)  4043;  (1891)  3770.  See  works  by  James 
Miller  ( 1844 )  and  John  Marline  ( 1883). 

Iladdiiis^toiisliirc,    or    East    Lothian,    a 

maritime  county  of  Scotland,  washed  on  the  north 
for  32  miles  by  the  Cerman  Ocean  and  the  Firth 
of  Forth.  Its  utmost  length  is  2()  miles,  its  utmost 
breadth  19,  and  its  area  280  S(|.  m.  In  the  south 
are  the  Lammermuir  Hills,  culminating  in  Lammer 
Law  (1733  feet)  ;  whilst  isolated  heights  are  North 
Berwick  Law  (612),  Traprain  or  Dumpender  Law 
(724),  and  the  tiarleton  Hills  (.594),  on  which 
stanils  a  conspicuous  column,  erected  in  1824 
to  the  fourth  Earl  of  Ho]ietoun.  The  Tyne,  llowing 
16  miles  north-eastward  through  the  county,  is 
its  imly  considerable  stream.  The  rocks  are  vari- 
ously Silurian,  sandstone,  \()lc.anic,  and  carbonif- 
erous, and  yield  coal,  inm,  and  limestone,  the  coal 
having  been  mined  near  Tranent  since  the  13th 
century.  The  annual  rainfall  is  25  inches,  and  the 
mean  temperature  46"  F.  Thanks  to  a  long  series 
of  skilled  agriculturists,  from  John  Cockburn  of 
Ormiston  to  Mr  Hope  of  Fenton  liarns  and  on- 
wards, Hadilingtonshire  has  for  two  hundred 
years  enjoyed  high  agricultural  fame,  having  Ijeen 
the  first  .Scottish  county  to  adopt  the  sowing  of 
turnips  in  drills  (1734),  the  thrashing-machine 
( 1787 ),  and  the  steam-plough  ( 1862 ).  About  64  i)er 
cent,  of  the  entire  area  is  in  cultivation,  and  nnjre 
than  one-seventeenth  is  umler  wood.  The  county 
returns  one  member  to  parliament.  Its  towns  are 
HaddingKm,  Dunbar,  North  Berwick,  Prestonpans, 
Tranent,  and  East  Linton  ;  and  under  these  and  the 
Bass  Kock  are  noticed  the  chief  events  in  its  history. 
The  antiiiuities  include  the  ruined  castles  of  Dirle- 
ton  and  Tantallon.  Pop.  (1S41)  35,886:  (1881) 
38, .502;  (1891)  37,491.  See  LoTHIAN,  and  works 
by  D.  Croal  (3d  ed.  1885)  and  J.  Small  ( 1883). 

Haddock  (  Gadna  aijlrjinus),  a  fish  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  cod,  and  much  resembling  it  in 
general  appearance.  The  number  of  fins  is  the 
same  as  in  the  cod,  there  being  three  dorsals  and 
two  anals.  The  haddock,  like  the  cod,  has  a 
barbule  at  the  point  of  the  lower  jaw.  The 
haddock  is  brown  on  the  back,  sihery  on  the 
belly  ;  the  lateral  line  is  black,  and  there  is  a 
black  spot  behind  each  of  the  pectorals,  these  spots 
sometimes  extending  so  as  to  meet  on  the  back. 
An  ancient  legend  ascribes  these  spots  to  the 
linger  and  thumb  of  St  Peter,  and  states  the 
haddock  to  be  the  fish  from  the  mouth  of  which 
he  took  the  tribute-money,  '  the  iuventoi-s  of  the 
legend  never  adverting  to  the  improbability  of  a 
marine  fish  living  in  the  fresh-water  lake  of  (!en- 
nesaret.'  The  haddock,  indeeil,  is  not  found  even 
in  the  Mediterranean.  Nor  does  it  enter  the 
Baltic,  although  plentiful  in  the  northern  parts  of 
the  .\tlantic  Ocean,  both  on  the  European  and 
the  American  coasLs.  On  the  British  coasts  it  is 
abundant  almost  everywhere,  appearing  in  great 
shoals  at  |Kirtieular  seasons,  but  in  si/e  and  quality 
the  haddocks  taken  at  one  part  of  the  coast  dill'er 
much  from  those  of  another.  Those  of  the  east 
coast,  and  particularly  those  caught  in  deep  water, 
are  in  great  esteem,  ami  those  of  Dublin  Bay  are 
remarkable  for  their  large  size.  A  hadilock  of  16 
lb.  has  been  taken  in  Dublin  Bay.  Generally, 
however,  this  fish  is  much  smaller.  It  is  taken 
both  by  trawl  nets  and  line.s.  The  usual  bait  for 
the  long  lines  used  to  catch  this  fish  on  the  east 
coast  of  Britain  is  mussel.      The  haddock,   when 


496 


IIADDON     HALL 


HADRIAN 


really  of  hoikI  quality,  is  perhaps  the  tinest  of  all 
the  (lailiila' :  ami  tlie  miiiinei-s  taken  on  some  i)aits 
i>f  till'  l!iiti>li  I'oiists  are  very  ^'leat,  lenileritif;  it. 
from  an  erimoiiiical  jHiiiit  of  view,  a  very  iiiiimrtmit 
lish.  It  iloes  not  '  take  salt '  so  well  as  the  cod, 
but  is  often  cnreil  l>y  ilryinn  and  smoking.  In 
March  and  April  the  haddock  is  out  of  season  : 
in  Uctohei-,  November,  Decemlier,  and  January  it 
is  in  liiiest  condition.  Smokeil  Finnan  lltttliluiLs 
are  named  from  tin'  li>liiM;;  village  of  Finnan  or 
Findiin  (i|.v.  >,  in  Ivinciinlinesliire. 

Ilatldoil  Hall,  an  cdd  English  haronial 
man>ioii,  the  seat  successively  of  .\venells,  Vernons, 
ami  the  Kulland  family,  stands  on  a  slope  over 
looking  the  Wye  in  Derbyshire,  23  miles  NNW.  of 
Derby.  The  styles  of  architecture  range  from  Nor- 
man Id  the  IGtIi  century.  IJeference  is  made  to  it  in 
Scott's  I'cvrril  of  tlie  I'lah.  See  two  winks  with 
illustrations  by  ("attermole  (IS-IO  liT  )  :  S.  C.  Hall's 
11(1(1, lun  Hull  (\^~\);  ijnaiirili/  Jurinr  (  1H90) : 
and  ll(((i(lon  Ihill,  il/nat.  by  W.  K.  Couke  (189-2). 

llado.     See  Dlsi.oc.vriiiN,  ( luK,  Dki'Osits. 

lladoiU  SiK  I'lt.vXCIsSEVMOlIt,  who  both  by  his 
writings  .luil  by  the  ctching-necdle  has  contributed 
to  the  revival  of  interest  in  etching,  was  born  in 
Lond(m  on  Kith  September  1818.  He  is  by  profes- 
sion a  surgeim.  anil  was  in  IS.'JT  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Uoyal  I'ollege  of  Surgeons.  His  work  in  con- 
nection with  etching  was  undertaken  tentatively 
in  1S4:!.  ,uid  earnestly  in  IS.'iS,  as  a  relaxation  from 
professional  laliours.  The  Etcheil  Warh  af  F.  S. 
Haden  contains  is.")  plates  from  his  hand  ;  others 
have  been  imblislied  in  liliiclr.i  (i  lEaii  Folic 
(ISG.'i-Cli).  I"he  chief  i|Ualities  of  his  work  are 
vigour  and  bre.idth.  President  of  the  Society  of 
Painter  Flchers,  he  was  knighted  in  1894,  and  has 
written  Kichcd  Woil:  of  llanhmmU  (1870-80), 
Led  (ins.  and  Ahout  Elching  ( 1881 ). 

llath'I'sh'bcil,  or  H.VDEltsl.KV,  a  town  of 
Sleswi(kllol>iiMn,  situated  .32  miles  N.  of  Flens- 
borg,  on  the  H.adersleben  Folirde,  a  narrow  arm 
of  the  Little  licit.  It  has  an  iron-fouinlry,  and 
machine  and  tidiacco  factories.      Pop.  Tli.'lo. 

llatU'S.  in  (Ireek  religion,  the  nanu>  applied  to 
the  kingdom  of  the  under-world,  the  abode  of  the 
departed  spirits  or  shades.  Hades  and  Pluto 
(q.v.)are  jilso  jiersonal  names  for  its  king.  It  is 
the  (Ireek  word  by  which  the  Septuagiiit  trans- 
lates the  Hebrew  shcal,  the  jibode  of  the  deail,  in 
which  .sense  it  occurs  frequently  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment.    See  Het.l. 

Ila«lilll.     See  M()11.\MMED,  SlXNITES. 

Hadji.    See  IIa.1.1. 

Ilaillciull*  a  qn.aint  old  market-town  of  SuH'olk, 
on  the  Ihct,  !IJ  miles  (  12.J  by  a  branch-line)  W.  of 
Ipswich.  Its  chief  buildings  are  the  biick  Kectory 
Tower  (149.5)  anil  the  noble  parish  church,  with  a 
spire  1.3J  feet  high.  Formerly,  from  \',VM,  an  im- 
portant seat  of  the  cloth-trade,  Hadleigli  was  the 
scene  of  the  death  of  the  Danish  king  (iiithruiii 
(889),  of  the  martyriloiu  of  Dr  Kowland  Taylor 
( 1555 ),  and  of  the  '  great  conference  '  ( 1833 )  out  of 
which  grew  the  'Tracts  for  the  Times,'  and  at 
which  Newman,  Hnrrell  Froude,  Trench,  and  Kose, 
the  then  rector,  were  present.  Poji.  of  parish 
(1851  )  .3710:  (1891)3229. 

Hadley.  .I.\me.s,  .an  .American  ])hiliilogist,  was 
born  at  l-'airlield.  New  'i'ork,  3()tli  March  IS21, 
graduated  at  Vale  in  1842,  was  for  si.\  years  tutor 
and  assistant  professor  there,  and  was  professor  of 
Greek  from  1851  until  his  death  at  New  Haven. 
14th  November  1872.  He  was  one  of  the  American 
committee  for  the  revision  of  the  New  Testament. 
Hadlev  published  a  (i-reek  grammar  and  Ehmrnts 
of  the  Grccli  lAin(ji(urj<:  (18()9):  .after  his  ileatli  a 
volume  of  lectures  on  Koman  Law  a|>peared,  and  a 


series  of  I'hUologirnl  and  Critiatl  Essays  ( 1873  ;  e<l. 
by  Professor  W.  I).  Whitney). 

HadU'y.  dniis,  an  Knglish  mathematician,  the 
inventor  of  llailley's  quadrant  (see  Sext.\ST)  anil 
of  a  rellecting  t<descope  (  1723).  The  honour  of  hav- 
ing invented  the  sextant  is  claimed  for  Iladley,  (hmI- 
frey,  and  Newton.  Each  seems,  however,  to  have 
made  his  own  discovery  indeiiendently.  Hadley 
described  his  instrument,  wliich  he  called  an 
'octant,' to  the  Koyal  Society  on  13lh  May  1731. 
He  contributed   several   pa|>ers  to  the    'J'i((i(xa( lions 

of  the  society  fr 1717  onwards.     Born  in  1682,  he 

died  14lh  February  1744. 

Iladrailiaili.  the  name  commonly  given  to  the 
coast  ri'gion  of  South  Aiabia  from  Aden  to  ('a]ie 
Has  al-Hadd,  but  by  moilern  Arab  geographers 
restricted  to  the  region  lying  aiqiroximatcly  be- 
tween 48  ami  51  E.  long.  It  cimsists  of  a  |d.iteau, 
parteil  from  a  mountain-chain,  the  barrier  of  the 
iMtcriiir  desert,  bv  a  complex  of  valleys.  <  'onimerce, 
agriculluii',  cit tic-breeding,  and  the  chase  are  the 
chief  occupations.  The  climate  is  drv  but  healthy. 
Pop.  about  1,'>0,(KJ0.  Nominally  tlie  people  are 
subject  to  Turkey,  but  the  social  and  political 
conditions  of  the  district  are  very  similar  to  those 
of  the  former  feudalism  of  Europe.  Chief  towns, 
Saiun  and  Terim,  the  former  the  seat  of  a  cele- 
brated Arab  seminarv.  See  Van  den  Berg,  Le 
//««////■/<,/<-,»/ (1880). 

Hadrian.      PfBui's    /Elu.s    Hadimanis, 

ItiiMiu]!  emperor  fnun  117  to  1.38  A.I>.,  was  born  at 
lioiue  ill  70.  During  the  reign  of  Trajan,  who  was 
his  guardi.m  and  kinsin.an,  he  lillcd  several  high 
ollices  in  the  state,  and  in  his  earlier  life  devoted 
himself  with  such  ardour  to  the  study  of  tlreek  as  to 
earn  the  nickname  of  (iia'cnlns.  He  accompanied 
the  emperor  in  his  wars  against  Deccbalus,  w  here  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  bravery;  and  in  117, 
when  Trajan  set  out  on  his  return  to  Italy,  he  was 
left  behiiiil  with  the  army  .as  )irefect  of  Syria. 
When  the  intelligence  reached  Antioch  that  Trajan 
had  died  in  Cilicia  on  his  jouiiiey  home,  Hadrian 
was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army,  August  11, 
117  A.I).  The  state  of  the  empire  at  the  time  was 
extremely  ciitii-al.  Insurrections  had  broken  out 
in  Kgypt.  Palestine,  and  Syria;  .Mosia  in  the  east 
and  .'\lauritaiiia  in  the  west  were  both  invaded  by 
barbarian  hordes  ;  while  the  Parthians  had  once 
more  .a-sserteil  their  inde]iendence,  and  won  seveial 
successes  over  the  imperial  forces.  Hadrian,  per- 
ceiving the  advantage  of  a  peaceful  jiolicy,  wisely 
re.solvi-d  to  limit  the  boundaries  of  the  Human 
dominion  in  the  East,  and  concluded  a  iieace  with 
the  Parthians,  surreiulering  to  them  all  the  country 
beyond  the  Euphrates.  After  appeasing  the  Ho.xo- 
laiii  and  Sarmatie,  who  li.-id  nuule  an  inroad  into 
Mosi;i,  he  lepaired  to  Home,  where  he  had  been 
already  acknowledged  by  the  senate,  established 
his  authoritv  by  liberality  towards  tlie  jieople,  and 
siijipressed  with  great  "severity  a  patrician  con- 
spnacy  against  his  life.  In  the  year  119,  for  the 
purpose  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  state  of 
the  provinces,  he  commenced  his  celebrated  journey, 
which  he  is  said  to  have  |ierfornied  chietly  on  foot, 
marching  bareheaded  20  miles  a  day  and  sharing 
cheerfully  the  hard  fare  of  the  humblest  soldiiM'. 
He  visited  (lanl.  (iermany.  Hritain,  where  he  built 
the  famous  wall  extending  from  the  Solway  to  the 
Tyne.  Sjiain.  .Mauritania,  Egyjit,  Asia  Minor,  and 
(ireece,  whence  he  returned  to  Home  .after  his  cir- 
cuit of  the  emjiire  in  120  or  127  A.D.  ,and  received  the 
title  of  I'dUr  P((lii(r.  H.adrian  spent  the  ye.ars 
1.32  and  133  in  .\thens,  which  city  he  adorned  with 
s]deniliil  and  costiv  buildings.  Alter  once  more 
visiting  Syria  ami  cnishing  a  desperate  .lewish 
revolt,  he  returned  to  Italy,  and  sjient  the  last 
years  of  liis  life  at  Rome  and  at  his  splendid  villa 


HADRIAN 


HADRIAN'S    WALL 


497 


at  Til)iir.  Duiiiif;  tlie  severe  illness  wliicli  carried 
him  off,  July  10,  138,  at  IJaiie,  lie  was  suljject  to 
violent  outlmists  of  cruelty,  to  wliicli,  as  well  as  to 
jealousy  ami  ]ileasure,  he  was  naturally  suhject. 
After  the  death  of  Lucius  C'eionius  t'oniniodus, 
whom  he  had  ado])ted  uniler  the  name  of  Lucius 
/Elius  Verus,  he  apjiointed  Titus  Aurelius  (after- 
wards the  Kmperor  Antoninus  I'ius)  his  successor. 
Durin.i;  his  reij;n  the  army  was  vigorously  disciplined 
and  reorf^aiiised,  so  that  the  harliarians  were  not 
likely  to  altrilnitc  Hailrian's  conciliating  and  peace- 
ful jmlicy  to  fear  or  weakness.  As  a  ci\il  ruler  he 
merits  hijih  praise  for  the  just  and  comjirehensive 
view  he  appears  to  have  taken  of  his  (luties  as  a 
soverei;;!!.  Hence  to  him  is  attrihuteil,  more  than 
to  any  other,  the  consolidation  of  the  monarchical 
system  of  Home.  Hadrian  also  divided  Italy  into 
four  parts  under  four  consuls,  to  whom  was  entrusted 
the  administration  of  justice.  Hadrian  had  a 
passion  for  liuildiuf; :  his  most  splendid  editices  were 
the  mausoleum  called  the  Males  Iladriuni,  in  Rome, 
the  nucleus  of  the  present  castle  of  St  Angelo, 
the  .mian  hridge  leading  to  it,  and  the  ma{;nihcent 
villa  at  Tiliur.  He  likewise  laiil  the  foundation  of 
several  cities,  the  most  important  of  which  was 
Adrianopolis.  He  was  a  lover  of  the  line  arts — in 
the  history  of  which,  .as  well  as  of  juris|irudence, 
his  reign  forms  an  important  er,a — of  jioetry,  philo- 
sophy, and  rhetoric,  all  of  which  he  attem]ited. 
He  set  a  high  value  on  Greek  literature,  and  like- 
wise on  the  cultus  of  Greece,  and  caused  himself  to 
he  initi.ated  into  the  Eleusinian  mysteries.  No 
fragment  of  ancient  literature  has  heen  more  fanious 
than  the  verses  attiihuted  to  the  dying  Hadrian  : 

Anhnula  vagula  blainUihi 
Hospes  comesque  corporis, 
Quii'  mine  abiliis  in  loca? 
Palli'Uila  ii;;i'la  iiuilula. 
Nee  lit  sitks  tlatiis  jocos. 

Mr  David  Johnston,  in  his  Translations,  literal 
and  free,  of  (he  ili/inef  Hadrian's  Address  to  his 
Sold  (privately  printed,  Bath,  1S77),  gives  no  fewer 
than  110  translations  of  all  degrees  of  excellence. 


Many  of  these  have  read  into  the  poem  a  kind  of 
Christian  or  Neoplatonist  spirituality  which  ii* 
not  really  in  it,  its  aim  heing  ratlier  tii  em|iliasise 
tlie  mi.serahle  slate  of  the  soul  as  soon  as  it  ceases 
to  enjoy  the  friendly  hospitality  of  the  Iiody.  Lord 
Carnarvon,  in  vol.  iv.  ( 18.S-1-85)  of  7'hc  Xational 
Bcrieir,  gives  versions  of  it  by  ]5yion.  Prior, 
two  by  I'ope,  one  by  Dean  Merivale,  aiul  another 
by  himself.  Of  these,  I'rior's  is  undoubtedly  the 
best,  although  the  freest  rendeiing  ;  Kyron's.  the 
]ioorcst ;  while  the  second  of  I'ope's — the  well-known 
'  Vital  spark  of  heav"nly  (lame ' — is  not  properly 
a  translation  at  all. 

See  Merivale's  Hhtorii  of  the  Bomana under  the  Empire, 
vol.  viii.;  W.  "W.  Cape's  Afje  of  the  Antonineg,  in  '  Kpoclis 
of  Ancient  History  ;'  Gregorovius,  2>«'  Kaiser  Hadrion 
(1884)  ;  and  Diirr,  Die  licisen  des  Kaisers  Hadrian 
118,S1). 

Iladrinil's  WaU.  Before  Agricola  advanced 
into  Scotland  be  planted  .some  forts  on  the  neck  of 
land  between  the  estuary  of  the  Tyne  and  the 
Solway  Firth,  to  protect  him  from  attack  in  his 
rear  and  to  secure  the  bringing  up  of  supplies.  He 
adojitcd  the  same  precaution  before  leaving  the 
Lowlands  of  Scotland  tor  the  Highlands,  placinfj 
encampments  between  the  firths  of  Forth  and 
Clyde.  Afterwards  walls  were  constructed  on 
these  two  lines.  On  the  English  side  of  the  liorder 
we  find  a  stone  wall  with  a  ditch  on  its  north  side. 
Attached  to  it  are  stationary  camps,  niile-castles, 
and  turrets  for  the  accommodation  of  the  soldiery 
who  manned  it.  To  the  south  of  the  stone  wall  is 
a  series  of  ramparts  generally  called  the  nillam. 
This  fortification  consists  of  three  aggers  or  mounds 
and  a  ditch.  The  military  way  along  which  the 
soldiery  moved  lies  between  the  niiinis  or  stone 
wall  and  the  vallum.  The  wall  was  not  intendeil 
as  a  mere  fence  to  block  out  the  Caledonians,  but  as 
a  line  of  military  strategy.  Every  station  and 
mile-eastle  has  a  wide  gateway  opening  northwards. 
This  does  not  look  as  if  the  llomans  in  the  time  of 
Hadrian  had  given  up  the  country  north  of  the 
wall  to  the  enemy.     Besides,  two  Konian  roads,  the 


ROMAN  WALL  SHOWN 
THE  VALLOM 

I^tlplish  Miles 
?  ?  ' 


'^'^-^  \ 


Map  showing  the  line  of  Hadrian's  Wall. 


Watling  Street  and  the  Maiden  Way,  run  jiast  the 
wall  into  Scotland.  <  )n  these  ways  were  stationary 
camps,  which  have  yielded  inscri]itions  and  coins 
considerably  posterior  to  the  time  of  Hadrian  m 
Severus.  A  controversy  long  existed  as  to  the 
tiim^  when  the  lines  of  fortification  in  the  north  of 
England  were  constructed.  One  great  authority, 
the  Kev.  .John  Horsley,  author  of  the  Britannia 
lioinana  (17.1'2),  maintained  that  the  north  agger 
of  the  vallum  was  reared  by  .-Vgricola,  and  that 
it  was  the  road  by  which  his  forts  were  connected, 
that  the  ditch  and  the  other  two  aggers  were  the 
work  of  Hadrian,  and  that  the  wall  was  reared 
by  Severus.  Stnkeley  ( l(iS7-17(i.j),  however,  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  that  both  vallum  and  munis 
'  were  made  at  the  same  time,  and  by  the  same  per- 
sons, and  with  the  intent  that  the  vallum  should 
be  a  countergiiard  to  the  other,  the  whole  included 
s]iace  being  military  ground.'  Since  Hoi-sley's 
day  inscriptions  in  honour  of  Hadrian  have  been 
found  in  four  of  the  mile-castles  in  the  central 
240 


part  of  the  line,  anil,  as  the  niile-castles  are  an 
essential  part  of  the  wall,  Hadrian  is  now  generally 
believed  to  have  been  the  builder  of  the  whole 
structure.  Severus,  however,  repaired  it  before 
he  advanced  into  Scotland,  where  in  three  years 
he  lost  ,")0,000  men,  and  canu'  back  to  York  to 
die.  Agricola  came  to  liritain  in  7S  .\.l>.  Hadrian 
came  towards  the  close  of  119 --v. ».  Severus  died 
in  211  .\.l>.  Towards  the  close  of  the  4th  centniy 
Theodosius,  for  a  brief  period,  reas.serted  the 
Itonian  dominion  over  the  district  between  the 
walls  of  .Vntoninus  (q.v.)  and  Hadrian,  which, 
in  honour  of  the  Kmperor  \'alens,  obtained  the 
name  of  Valentia.  But  this  newly-established  I'lo- 
vince  was  soon  lost,  and  it  was  not  long  before  the 
Romans  finally  abandoned  Britain.  Considerable 
portions  of  Hadrian's  Wall  yet  remain.  In  two 
places  the  wall  stands  9  feet  high.  See  Colling- 
wood  Uruce,  The  Uoman  /!'((//(  lk")l  ;  3d  ed.  ISGtil, 
and  Handhold;  to  the  Uoman  Wall  (1863;  3d  ed. 
ISSo);  and  Neilson,  Per  l.ineam  Valli  (1891). 


498 


HADROSAURUS 


H.E.MATURIA 


lladrosillirns,  the  name  <i\\en  to  a  very 
liir;,'o  Itiiiii.-.aiiriaii  (q.v. )  of  the  Cretaceous  epocli, 
\vliii-^c  reiiiniiis  have  been  found  abundantly  in 
Now  .loi-spy. 

Ila«'t'k<'l.  Kkn-^t  Hi;iM:irn,  a  distin^iisbed 
(Ifriiiuii  naturalist,  born  llitli  KebrnaiT  1H34,  at 
Potsdam,  lie  stiidieil  n.itural  science  ami  medicine 
at  Wiirzbnr^',  Berlin,  and  Vienna  under  Miillcr, 
Viri'liMW,  and  Kiillikcr  :  and  soon  l)cc.'ime  distin- 
•jnislicd  for  bis  cnlbiisiasin  and  orij,'inality  in  zunlo- 
j,'ical  stmlii's.  After  wcirUing  for  a  while  at  Naples 
and  Messina,  he  became  a  privatt/orcnt  in  the 
nniversily  of  .Icna  in  18(il,  a  iprofes.«or  extra- 
on/imiriiii  in  Isti-J.  ami  an  onlinary  professor  of 
Ziiolo;,'y  in  18(1.").  In  this  position,  in  spite  of  other 
inducements,  Haeckel  h.us  remained  woikin^  inde- 
fati^xably  in  his  zooloj;ical  institute,  interrupted 
(inly  by  visits  to  the  Noitli  Sea  slioivs  and  the 
Mediterranean,  or  by  more  extendeil  travels — e.^'. 
to  Madeira,  the  Canaries,  Morocco,  south  .Spain, 
Arabia,  Imlia,  and  Ceybm. 

The  most  important  of  liis  numerous  systematic 
works  are  the  following :  a  nKmograidi  on  the 
railiolaiians  ( />/(:  lliiiliijlurioi,  18G2),  with  a  superb 
atlas  of  ."?.)  plates;  the  classic  work  on  calcareous 
s[ioiij;es  {Die  KulLsrliiriioimi',  1872),  important 
both  in  relation  to  these  animals  ami  in  its  practical 
illustration  of  <;cneral  problems  smdi  as  the  nature 
of  species  ;  a  vet  larger  work  on  jellylislies  (Si/xtciii 
r/ir  Miditneii',  1879),  with  an  atlas  of  40  plates, 
which  like  all  Ilaeekel's  work  disjilay  inborn  artistic 
talent  unsurpassed  anion;;  naturalists  ;  several 
sfnaller  works,  such  as  that  on  the  development  and 
division  of  labour  of  the  SliihijiiDiilinrri  (1869),  or 
that  on  the  Moiicra  ( 1870),  in  which  he  ranks  nmler 
the  title  Proli.sta  the  lowest  forms  of  life  which 
have  not  taken  a  decisive  step  towards  plants  or 
animals,  or  that  <m  Arahitm  Coni/.i  (1870);  and 
linally  his  monumental  contiibntions  to  the 
Cliiillciirjrr  Keporls— on  Drrp-siii  Meihi.vr  (X^H'l), 
with  :?2  plates;  on  Sii>lioiioiihoia  (1888),  and 
esiiecially  on  lim/iolitria  (1887),  in  three  volumes, 
with  140  plates  and  3500  new  species. 

With  the  above  gi;,'antic  descriptive  work  Ilaeckel 
has  combined  two  rarer  accomplishments,  successful 
fteneralisalion  and  jjopular  exposition.  His  (iiiic- 
rc/ti-  Mitrji/m/iif/ic  (2  vols.  KSIKi),  in  its  reasoned 
orderliness  anil  clear  generalisations,  ranks  beside 
Spencer's  Prim-i/i/cs  of  liiology ;  it  Ls  not  only  one 
of  the  very  few  works  of  moment  on  general  mor- 
|)h(dogy,  lint  is  greater  than  its  name  suggests, 
really  inclmling  the  gist  of  a  series  of  treatises — 
e.g.  on  the  commonly  avoided  subject  of  organic 
stereometry — the  science  of  slia|ie  or  iiromoriphd- 
logy,  on  the  mnch-ilcbated  problem  of  inilividuality, 
on  the  various  modes  of  reproduction,  on  heredity, 
and  on  the  ^pedigrees  of  animals.  I$esides  being 
(me  of  the  lirst  to  sketch  the  genealogical  tree 
(.syrt/;iH«6rt««i )  of  animals,  Haeckel  gave  precise  ami 
luminous  expression  to  the  general  fact  that  the 
life-history  of  the  imlividnal  is  a  more  or  less  accu- 
rate recapitulation  of  its  historic  evolution.  .\s  a 
special  application  of  this  '  fundamental  biogenetic 
law'  his  ('■■ostr.a-a  theon'  (elsewhere  stated)  is  of 
paramount  importance ( see  EmhuY()I.<m;y).  Among 
other  general  works  may  be  noted  his  Peritimeisis 
of  the  Plit.HtiilulcK  (1876),  an  ingenious  contribution 
to  the  theory  of  Heredity  (q.v.),  and  his  specula- 
tions on  the  origin  and  development  of  animal 
tissue-s  (1S84). 

Apart  from  detailed  zoological  work,  Haeckel  has 
ilevoted  his  life  to  a|)plying  the  doctrine  of  evolution 
and  to  making  it  current  coin.  Owing  much  of  his 
motive  to  Darwin,  he  stood  for  .a  time  .almost  alone 
in  (lermany  in  his  championship  of  a  theory  not 
then  jiopular.  Hefore  the  jpublication  of  Darwin's 
I>eirinf  'if  M)t)i  Haeckel  was  the  only  naturalist 
who  had  clearly  recognised  the  import  of  sexual 


selection,  and  of  his  yntiinil  History  of  Creation 
Darwin  says,  '  If  this  work  had  aiiiieared  before  my 
essay  had  been  written,  I  should  probably  never 
have  completed  it.'  His  most  important  exposi- 
tory works  are  the  almve-mentioned  Xnliirliche 
:ie/'in/)fiiii;/snese/iie/itc  (1st  cd.  1808;  8th  ed.  1889), 
which  has  been  translateil  into  twelve  languages; 
'The  Kvolution  of  y[a.l\'  {  Aiil/inipofiriiie,  1S74  ;  M 
cd.  1877):  and  lectures  on  development  ami  evolu- 
tion, liesaniiiielte  pojniliirc  I'ortriif/e  an/  ilem 
llchiete  dcrEiittvieheliiniislrlire  ( 1 878  79 ).  H aeckcl's 
popular  works  arc  very  brilliantly  written,  but  thev 
are  not  always  .so  careful  in  statement  as  Darwin  s 
cl!ussies,anil  olleml  many  by  their  rcmorselcssconsist- 
eney,anil  by  their  impatieiicewitb  tliecdogical  dogma 
and  teleological  intcriiretation.  He  lia.s  always 
been  set  against  com|iroiiiise,  defending  the  frceilom 
of  science  in  a  famous  i>amphlel  ( Freic  W is.se nsiha/t 
iintl  Freic  Lchre)  wutten  in  answer  to  \'ircliow. 
Other  works  are  Die  Mrdiisen  (18S0);  Jhiririn, 
Goethe,  und  I.ametrrk  ( 1882);  Dcr  Moitistnus(l^9i); 
anil  Sijstcmatisrhe  Phylogenie  (1894-95). 

I.ike  all  r.thcr  naturalists,  he  ha-s  m.ade  a  few 
mistakes  ;  there  are  hints  both  in  some  of  bis  ilraw- 
ings  anil  in  some  of  his  argtimentsof  the  ilangei^  of 
artistic  and  speculative  imagination  ;  and  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  his  early  chanijiiiinship  of  evolu- 
tion and  Darwinism  has  not  resulted  in  a  taint  of 
diigmatism  in  what  is  suinetinies  called  '  Haeckelis- 
mus.'  On  the  other  band,  the  thoroughness  of  his 
systematic  labours,  the  excellence  of  bis  draughts- 
manship, the  clear  gener.'ilisaticins  of  his  Gnieielh 
Morjihiiliiffie,  the  geniality  of  his  teaching,  and  per- 
haps above  all  the  courage,  lucidity,  and  eloquence 
of  his  popular  expository  work  on  evolution  have 
raised  Haeckel  to  a  pre-eminent  [losition  among 
moilern  naturalist.s.  See  JSloLoov,  DAKWi.NtAN 
TiiKoin,  E.MUitvoLOGV,  Evolution,  Hekkditv, 
ZiH  Ji,i)i;\'. 

IliriliatrilK'sis  (Cr.  haima,  'blood,'  andcwiCAvi, 
'  viiMiitiiig  '),  the  ejection  of  blood  from  the  stinnach 
by  vomiting.  Its  most  common  causes  are  gastric 
ulcer  ;  congestion  of  the  stomach  or  the  neighbour- 
ing portions  of  the  .alimentary  canal  ( see  StoM.mii, 
Dlsi;.\SES  OK) ;  and  certain  conditions  of  the  blood, 
as  in  yellow  fever,  iniriiura,  and  sometimes  in 
typhus."      See  I'.I.KKllING. 

lla'Ilialite  (Or.  haima,  'blood'),  a  mineral 
consisting  chiclly  of  peroxide  of  iron,  is  a  valuable 
iron  lire.  There  are  two  principal  varieties,  Ked 
Haiciatitc  and  I'.rown  H;enialite.     See  Iltox. 

Ila'lliatw<'t'le  (<ir.  haima,  'blood,'  and  keif, 
'tumour'),  a  tumour  containing  blood;  opposed 
to  Hydrocele  (q.v.). 

lliriiiato\>liii.    See  Logavood. 

lla'Uiatc>7.oa  (tir.  haima,  'blood,'  and  zoiiti, 
'an  animal),  panLsites  occurring  in  the  blood. 
(a)  Some  Gregarines  (q.v.)  live  in  the  blood-cor- 
puscles of  frogs,  reptiles,  and  birds.  (//)  A  few 
Nematodes  occur  in  the  va-scular  system — e.g.  Fil- 
uria  iminitis,  in  the  heart  of  the  dog  ;  SlroiiifylKS 
«/•#«((<(/.«,  causing  abdomimil  aneurism,  in  horse  and 
a-ss  ;  Filaria  sunijiiiiiis  hoiiiiiiis,  which  in  .\ustralia, 
China,  India,  Egypt,  and  Ihazil  occurs  in  man, 
the  sexual  female  in  the  lymjih  glands  causing 
Elephantiasis  (q.v.),  iVc,  the  embryos  circulating 
in  the  lilood  and  causing  hiiinatiMia,  \c.,  while 
the  larval  a.sexual  stages  occur  within  a  mosquito, 
(c)  A  very  important  blood  paiitsile  among  Trenia- 
totles  is  IJilharzia  (q.v.),  occurring  in  Africa,  in  the 
bliMid-vessels  of  the  bladder,  mesentery,  and  portal 
system  of  num.  See  IJii.harzi.v,  '(jiikcarink, 
Nli.MATiiDE,  I'ARA.SITIS.M  ;  al.so  Lcuckart's  Para- 
sites ii/.Un,,,  trans,  by  \V.  E.  Hoyle  (Edin.  1886). 

Ila'matliria  (f-r.  haima,  'blood,'  and  ovron, 
•urine'),  the  di.scharge  of  blood  with  the  urine, 
nsuallv  from  disease  of  the  kidneys  or  blailder.     It 


H^MODORACE.^ 


HAFIZ 


499 


is  ratlier  a  syiiiptoiii  than  a  disease,  and,  altliongli 
always  of  some  gravity,  it  is  not  very  often  directly 
fatal.  Wliere  it  is  necessary  to  treat  the  syni])toin 
itself  complete  rest  is  very  important;  the  bowels 
may  rei|uire  to  he  freely  moved ;  and  styptics, 
such  as  erf^ot  or  perchloride  of  iron,  may  be  taken 
by  the  mouth,  the  former  in  thirty-drop  doses  of 
the  llijuid  extract,  the  latter  in  twenty -drop  doses 
of  the  tincture,  every  two  or  three  hours. 

HiCIIlodoraceil',  an  order  of  monocotyledons, 
con-iistiii;;  of  herbaceous  plants  with  fibrous  roots 
and  swonl-shaiied  leaves;  dillerinj,'  from  Iridace.e 
in  habit,  and  in  liavinj;  the  stamens  si.x  in  number, 
or,  if  only  three,  tvpposite  to  the  petals.  There  are 
about  fifty  known  species,  chieHy  natives  of 
America,  South  Africa,  and  Australia.  Some  of 
them  have  lieautiful  liliaceous  flowers.  A  red 
colour  e.\ists  in  the  roots  of  .some  ;  hence  the  name 
Blood-root  has  been  given  to  them  (see  S.AXGriN- 
.\Rl.v).  In  this  order  are  ranked  the  Vellozias  or 
Tree-lilies. 

IliPUlOglobill.    See  Blood. 

Hil'lliopllilia.  or  the  htcmorrhafiic  diathesis,  is 
the  name  applied  to  a  constitutional  peculiarity 
which  manifests  itself  in  a  tendency  to  excessive 
bleeding  when  any  blood-vessel  is  injured.  In 
those  who  suffer  from  it  (bleeders)  a  slight  bruise 
may  cause  extensive  extravasation  of  blood  ;  a 
small  cut  or  the  extraction  of  a  tooth  may  lead  to 
dangerous  or  even  fatal  luemorrhage.  It  i.s  not 
known  whether  it  is  to  the  Idood  or  the  blood- 
vessels of  those  atl'ected  that  the  faulty  arrest  of 
bleeding  is  due.  The  condition  is  strongly  heredi- 
tary ;  and,  though  it  rarely  aliects  women,  is  often 
transmitted  in  the  female  line.  No  cure  is  known 
for  it. 

Ilil'llioptysis  (Gr.  ptysis,  'spitting'),  expector- 
ation of  blooil,  a  symptom  of  disease  of  the  lungs 
or  heart,  in  all  cases  of  great  importance,  and  requir- 
ing immediate  attention,  but  apt  to  he  viewed 
popularly  with  a  somewhat  exaggerated  alarm.  It 
IS  seldom  directly  fatal,  but  it  is  often  the  first 
announcement  of  phthisis,  and  it  is  a  matter  of 
common  prudence  to  seek  medical  advice  on  the 
appearance  of  even  the  slightest  tinge  of  blood  in 
the  expectoration.  Blood  which  comes  from  the 
lungs  is  roughcil  up,  and  it  is  generally  bright  and 
frothy.  Blood  from  the  stomach  is  romited,  and 
has  the  appearance  of  coHee  grounds  or  hare  soup 
from  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice  on  it.  See 
lU.KEDfsa. 

Iliriiiorrliaifc.  See  Bleedixg  ;  and  for 
hiriiionhagie    diathesis,    .see    Diathesi.s,    H.ejio- 

I'HII.IA. 

Haemorrhoids.    See  Piles. 

Ila'iiiiis,  Mount.    See  Balkan. 

Hall',  a  word  derived  from  the  Danish  /lea; 
meaning  'sea,'  and  used  to  designate  three 
lagoons  along  the  Frussi.an  co.ast  of  the  Baltic— 
viz.  Stettiner  or  Pommersches  Half,  Frisches  Haff, 
and  K\irisches  Hall'.  Hatflisbing  or  haaf-fishing 
is  a  term  used  by  the  Shetlanders  to  signify  deep- 
sea  fishing. 

Hiinz,  the  poetical  name  of  Shems  ed-Din  (i.e. 
Sun  of  the  Faith)  Muhammed,  the  greatest  of 
Persian  lyrical  poets,  w;rs  born  at  Shiniz,  where 
he  passed  all  his  life  and  died,  according  to  the 
inscription  on  his  tomb,  701  A.H.  (1.S8S  A.D. ), 
though  the  year  of  his  death  is  also  given  by 
ditt'crent  authors  as  792  and  704  A.i{.  The  date 
of  his  birth  is  not  known.  His  l<dJi<i/his  Hiifiz 
signifies  one  who  is  learned  in  the  Koran  ami  the 
Hnditlis.  or  sayings  asrril)ed  to  Mohammed.  Little 
is  recorded  of  his  life,  which,  indeed,  seems  to 
have  been  uneventful.  It  is  probable  that  he 
was  married,  but  nothing  is  known  regarding  his 


domestic  life.  It  would  appear,  from  an  anecdote 
related  by  Ferishtah,  that  Hafiz  once  intended 
making  a  long  and  distant  jonmey,  notwithstanding 
his  stay-at-home  proclivities.  The  sultan  Mahnnid 
Shah  Bahmani,  who  ruled  in  the  Deccan,  invited 
the  poet  to  his  court,  and  accompanied  his  flattering 
invitation  with  a  sum  of  money  amjdy  sutticient  to 
defray  his  expenses.  H;iliz  had  proceeded  a.s  far  a.s 
Lar,  on  the  direct  route  from  Sliiniz  to  Orninz,  a 
port  on  the  Persian  tUilf,  whence  he  could  obtain 
a  much  shorter  and  ea.sier  passage  by  .sea  to  the 
Deccan,  ami  there  he  met  with  an  oUl  friend,  who 
had  been  recently  plundered  l>y  a  gang  of  robbers, 
and  generously  gave  him  a  share  of  his  money.  A 
party  of  mercliants  conveyed  him  to  Onuuz,  where 
lie  end)arkeil  in  a  vessel  bountl  for  the  Deccan. 
But  before  the  anchor  was  weighed  he  was  so  much 
terrified  at  a  storm  which  suddenly  aro.se,  that  he 
abandoned  his  purpose  and  returned  to  Shiniz, 
after  despatching  a  letter  of  apologj-  to  the  chief 
vazir,  together  with  an  ode. 

According  to  a  curious  legend,  HaHz  obtained  his 
poetical  faculty  from  the  mythical  saint,  or  prophet, 
El-Khizar  (.so  called  from  his  r/refH  r<d>e,  the  emblem 
of  perennial  youth),  who  appeared  to  him,  after  he 
had  passed  several  nights  in  watching  for  the 
coming  of  that  tutelary  friend  of  the  Faithful,  and 
who  bestowed  on  him  a  draught  of  theAVaterof  Life, 
thus  inspiring  him  with  the  gift  of  song.  From  the 
charming  sweetness  of  his  poetry,  Hiiiiz  was  fondly 
styled  by  his  ailmiring  contemporaries  Clifiijriilub, 
or  Sugar-lip.  His  ghazals  are,  e.xternally,  all  <m 
sensuous  .sulijects-  wine,  flowers,  beautiful  damsels, 
&C. ,  and  hence  he  is  often  termed  by  Europeans  the 
Anacreon  of  Persia  ;  but,  while  the  common  people, 
who  have  most  of  his  vei"ses  by  heart  and  constantly 
repeat  them,  regard  them  simply  as  love  songs, 
they  yet  posse.ss  an  esoteric  signification  to  the 
initiated,  the  objects  of  the  physical  world  being 
employeil  to  denote  tbo.se  which  are  visible  only  to 
the  itniyiid  sight.  That  is  to  .say,  H;ifiz,  in  common 
with  nearly  all  the  greater  poets  of  Pei'si.a,  was  of 
the  sect  of  Siifi  philosophers,  the  mjstics  of  Ishini, 
who  are  altogether  free  from  Mohammedan  fanati- 
cism, and  'claim  to  be  in  so  intimate  a  commuiuon 
with  the  Deity,  through  devotion  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  their  higher  and  nobler  feelings,  that  they 
can  atl'ord  to  rise  sujierior  to  the  petty  details 
of  <lognia  and  superstition.'  From  the  mvstical 
element  in  his  poems,  H;'ifiz  is  also  called  i.ishan 
cl-Gfiayd  (the  Voice  of  Mysteiy).  But,  apart  from 
any  esoteric  significaticm,  it  has  been  well  remarked 
that  'to  ignore  the  fact  that  natural  feelings  ami 
sentiments,  the  contemplation  of  natural  beauty 
and  the  enjoyment  of  human,  intellectual,  and 
corporeal  ])leasures,  stiggested  the  various  ex- 
pres.sions  of  admiration,  love,  or  wit  which  these 
poems  contain,  would  be  contraiT  to  the  dictates 
of  common  sense.'  In  short,  the  key  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  songs  of  Hafiz  is  to  be  sought  in 
a  combination  of  materialism  and  sufiism. 

Sir  (iiue  Uuseley  has  remarked  that  the  style  of 
Haliz  'is  clear,  unafl'ected.  and  harmonious,  dis- 
playing at  the  same  time  great  learning,  matured 
science,  and  intimate  knowledge  of  the  hidden  as 
well  a-s  the  apparent  nature  of  things  ;  but,  above 
all,  .1  fascination  of  expression  nnei|ualled  by  any 
other  [?  Persian  lyrical]  poet.'  The  name  of  Hatz 
is  a  household  word  throughout  Pei-sia,  and  his 
songs  are  cited  in  every  social  assembly,  so  that  be 
who  can  most  frequently  quote  from  H;ifiz  a  pa.s.sage 
approjiriate  to  the  subject  of  conversation  is  held 
in  the  highest  esteem  and  .admiration.  Indeeil  such 
reput.'ition  did  bis  ghazals  acquire  that  his  Diiihi. 
or  c(dlection,  was  resorted  to  in  (Uiler  to  gather 
from  it  /(itirns,  or  decrees  of  fate  and  judicial 
decisions,  in  like  manner  as  the  Smies  Virifi/idinr 
were  practised  in  Europe  during  meilieval  times. 


500 


HAG 


HAGENBACH 


If  we  limy  credit  populjir  tradition,  at  the  deatli  of 
Hiiliz  the  '  rijjidly  orthoilox  '  ()l)jeoted  to  the  inter- 
ment of  liis  corpse  with  tlie  custoniarv  oerenioiiies, 
becanse  of  the  looso  lone  of  intinv  of  his  och's,  ami 
his  alli';;ed  s('('|itii'isiii,  if  not  ranU  inliilility.  IJnl 
some  of  his  friends  procured  an  appeal  to  the  poet's 
Diriiii,  wliieh  ojiened  at  a  passage  that  set  all 
duuhts  as  to  his  ortlioiUixy  at  rest  : 

Tuni  not  away  fmin  the  bier  of  Ilatlz, 
For,  tlintif^li  imiuonted  in  rtin,  he  may  yet  be  aclniitted  into 
I*nm(llHe. 

It  is  <;enerally  believed  that  H;ifiz  lived  to  a  good 
old  aj,'i".  althon<.'li  tlio  date  of  his  hirth  is  not 
recordeil.  His  tmiili.  which  is  situated  some  two 
miles  north  east  of  Sliiniz,  li;is  hccn  most  niaj,'nili- 
cently  adorned  liy  princes  and  wealthy  vaziis.  and 
is  visited  hy  numerous  pilgrims  and  others  from  all 
parts  of  I'ersia. 

The  olcs  of  Hifiz  were  fii-st  collected  hy  Kasiin 
Anvuri,  after  the  poet's  death.  Many  editions  of  the 
Persian  text  have  been  printed,  anioiij;  wliich  tlie  most 
important  arc  tlie  following:  by  Abu  ,Salili  Klian 
Ispahftni  at  Calcutta  ( 1701 ) ;  by  (!,  ,Iervis  and  others  at 
Bjinbay  (182.S);  an  edition  printed  at  Cawnpore  (1831), 
and  one  at  Bulak  ( ISH4),  and  n;,'ain  in  lS4t).  A  valu.able 
edition  of  the  text  l»y  Ilrockiiaus,  in  3  vols.,  was  pnb- 
lisbeil  at  Leipzifi  ( IS.Vt  -lil ).  Von  Kosenzweig-Schwaimau 
published  at  Vienna  a  Gcrinan  translation  of  tlie  greater 
portion  of  the  poems  (3  vols.  1858 -(J4).  The  earliest 
renderin;,'  i>f  a  selection  of  the  ghazals  of  Hafiz  was 
published  at  Vienna  in  1771,  in  Latin  by  Keviczki,  and 
from  it  liichardson  chielly  translated  his  Siicrimen  of 
PeraUni  Portrii,  or  the  Oilia  of  Hajiz  (1802).  There  are 
other  English  renderings  of  some  of  the  odes  hy  Nott 
(1787),  Hin.Uey  (1800),  liousseau  (1801),  Sir  'Williain 
Ouseley  (17'."7-98),  Bicknell  (187o),  Love  (1877),  and  !:>. 
R.^  [Kobin.sonl  (187."i).  In  18111  Luutenant-coloncl 
Wilberforce  Clarke  published  a  conij)lete  Knglish  ]>rose 
rendering  of  the  l>iiuii-i-H{ifi: :  in  1.881  Professor 
Palmer  had  contcniplatud  an  Knglish  metrical  transla- 
tion of  the  cr.tire  iJiidn.  There  are  also  German 
versions  of  some  of  the  poems  by  Von  Hanuner  (1813), 
Daumer  ( 1.S4G  I,  and  Nessclinann  ( 186.5). 

Has.  ""f  of  tl'e  vernacular  names  for  the  Mi/r- 
iiie  (//ii/i)inst(  L.,  one  of  the  Cyclostomata  (U'  Hound- 
mouths,  allied  to  the  lamprey.  It  is  common  oll'lhc 
co.asts  of  the  north  of  I'.nghind,  Scotland,  and  Nor- 
way, .'ind  of  llic  North  .Mlantic  generally,  living  in 
niudily  ground  at  a  deplli  of  40  to;i4.'>  fathoms.  The 
mouth  is  a  hollow  suctorial  clisc,  furnished  with  a 
single  tooth  ahove  ami  two  rows  of  strong,  pointed, 
horny  teeth  below.  There  is  a  single  na.sal  aiieiture 
above  the  mouth,  which  communicates  with  the 
pharynx.  Itonnd  the  nostril  ami  mouth  are  four 
pairs  of  short  barbules  or  tentacles.     The   body  is 


eel-sh.aped,  with  no  lateral  fins,  but  a  slight  median 
tin  round  the  t.-iil.  There  are  no  bones  ;  the  back- 
bone is  represented  by  a  pei-sistent  notochord  with 
a  eartihaginous  .she.atli  ;  the  skull  and  immth- 
skeleton  are  .also  cartilaginous.  There  are  six  gill 
pouches  on  each  siiU',  communicating  internally 
oy  as  many  short  tubes  with  the  gullcM,  and  ex- 
ternally giving  oil' six  longer  tubes  which  unite  and 
open  by  a  single  external  aperture  in  each  side 
of  the  body  at  some  distance  from  the  head.  No 
eyes  externally  ;  mere  rudiments  intern.ally.  The 
intestine  is  straight.  (In  each  side  of  the  ventral 
meilian  line  are  a  .series  of  cutaneous  gliiiuls  which 
secrete  large  ipiantities  of  gelatinous  slime.     There 


are  no  genital  tluets.  The  eggs  are  of  very  large 
size,  and  when  expelled  from  the  ovarv  are  con- 
tained ill  a  horny  egg-membrane  ;  their  shape  is 
an  elongated  ellipsoiil,  at  each  end  of  wliiih  are 
a  numlicr  of  line  knobbcil  processes  of  the  horny 
case,  by  which  the  eggs  bcciuiic  entangled  together. 
In  the  young  state  tlie  animals  are  hermaj.hrodile, 
ami  contain  immature  eggs  and  lipi'  milt:  when 
older  they  |Udduee  eggs  only.  The  lish  is  about  1.5 
inches  in  length  when  adult,  and  of  a  livid  red 
C(dour.  There  are  no  scales.  The  .Myxine,  when 
not  feeding,  lies  buried  in  the  mud,  with  only  the 
single  nostril  protruded,  and  a  ri'spiratory  cnrieiit 
of  water  p.a.sses  throngli  this  nostril  to  the  gill- 
pouches,  escaping  again  by  the  br.am  liial  a|ieituie. 
These  creatuies  are  often  caught  in  very  large 
numbers  on  haddock-lines  (long  lines).  They 
gorge  the  bait  (inussids)  ilown  into  their  stoinacbs. 
Tliev  also  attack  lish  (cod,  haddock  |  hooked  (Ui 
the  lines,  ami  devour  all  ihe  llesh,  leaving  the  skin 
and  skeleton.  They  proliably  .atla(d<  li\ing  lish 
((;adid:e)  in  the  same  way,  but  evidence  on  this 
point  does  not  seem  very  certain.  Three  .siiecies 
are  known  — the  North  .■\tlantic  one  meiitioin'd, 
another  from  .lapaii,  ami  another  from  Magellan 
Strait.  lidellostoma,  which  is  closely  allied.  h,as 
six  or  niori'  separati'  external  bramdiial  o|ieiiin;."s 
on  e.aeh  side,  .and  is  larger.   Two  species  are  kiio\\  n  ; 


le  I  ape. 
Milled   til 


still  .at  Bergen,  described  the  liaglish  as  a  liernia- 
idiiodiie'iii  a  transition  stage,'  fcu'  according  to 
liis  researches  the  animal  is  a  iiiii/r  until  it  attains 
a  certain  size,  and  lliereafler  a.  female,  or  in  .some 
eases  a  heniia]ilirodile. 

Iliiuar.     See  AliIt.MlAM. 

Iliiulu-rry.    Sei-  I{ii;i)-(iii-:j!itv. 

Ilaultllt.  See  l''iUK.\l!Ms. 
lia;:4-iloril.  I'i!ii:rii;i(ii  mix,  poet,  was  born 
2'M  .\pril  l.os.  at  Hamburg,  stinlied  at  Jena,  and 
in  17.'13  became  secretary  to  an  old  tr.ading company 
at  Hamburg  calleil  the  '  Knglish  Court.'  He  dieil 
28th  (tclolier  I7,'>4.  His  iioetry  consists  mainly  of 
light  satiie,  narrative,  ainl  '.society'  vei-ses.  Since 
17-")(i  there  have  been  many  cidlected  editions  of  his 
jioeins  (as  in  \H-2'k  5  vol.s. )".  See  works  bv  Schuster 
(  LSS.-?)  ami  Kigenbrodt  ( 1884). 

llaKCIU  an  industrial  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
I'nhr  coal  district  of  Westjihalia,  12  miles  NK.  of 
Klberfcld  liarmen.  It  carries  on  a  great  deal  of 
puddling  and  iron-founding,  .and  li.a-s  manufactures 
of  iron,  steel,  and  tin  goods,  cotton,  cloth,  leather, 
jiajier.  beer,  and  tobacco.  I'op.  (1875)  24, 290 ; 
(  1 88,-) )  29,  U 1 1  ;   (1 89.->  j  4 1 ,83."}. 

llaiiniail.  a  town  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  situated 

in   the  Hageiiau  finest,  on  the  Moder,  21  miles  by 

rail  N.  by  K.  of  .Straslmrg.  inanufactiires  porcelain 

stoves,  and   has  cotton  and  woollen  spinning.     The 

chief  traile  is  in  liojis  ami  wine.     The   Komanesijiie 

church  of  St  (leorge  dales  from  the  I2tli  cciituiv, 

and  the  Gothic  church  of  Nichol.is  from  the  IStli. 

H.aving  been  invested  with  town  rights  by  I'rederick 

liarbarossa  in    llt)4,   it   was   made   a   free   im|ierial 

city  in   12.-)7.     Hy  the  treaty  of  Wesiplialia  (1()48) 

it  was  given   up   to  France,  and  in    1871    linally 

returned  to  Germany.      Top.  ( 1875)  1 1,720  ;  (1885) 

13,460. 

llascilbarll,  K  \i;i.  Ktnoi.F,  theologian,  w.as 

j  born    4th    .March    ISOl,   at     IJaMd.       While    at    the 

i  universities  of   ISonn   and   ISerlin,  where  he  studied 

theology,  he  w.o-s  iirincipally  inlluenced  by  Sidileier- 

maclier  and  Xe.ander  ;  and  on   his  return   to  liasel 

i  he    received    a  fresh   impulse  from   his  intercourse 

I  with   I)e  \Vette.     From    I.S24  he  occujiied  a  ch.air 

of  Theology  in   bis   native   town,   and   died    there, 

7tli  .lune  1874.      The  subjects  he  taught  were   the 

.  history  of  dogma  and  of  the  church  ;  in  respect  of 


HAGERSTOWN 


HAGUE 


501 


this  latter  he  wrote  and  tauj;lit  as  an  adherent  of 
the  '  mediation  '  si'honi  of  German  theologj-.  His 
numerous  hooks  on  cliurcli  history  were  issued  a-s 
one  uniform  work,  KiiT/ie/ir/cschichte  von  der 
aliexteii.  Zeit  his  zu tit  19  Jahffiiiitdert  (7  vols.  1868- 
72;  2d  ed.  1 885  S(/.).  Besides  tliis  lie  also  wrote 
Lchrbuch  der  iJtjiiiiiriirjciiehirlili:  (2  vols.  1840;  Eng. 
trans.);  Eiwiildo^mdit:.  Had  Mi:tJiitdoIogie  der  tltco- 
IdijUrlirit  Wis^eiisrlmftcit,  one  of  the  most  useful 
manuals  for  the  student  of  (ierman  theology, 
which  in  1S84  reacheil  an  1 1th  edition  (  hy  Kautsch  ) ; 
nine  vols,  of  Sirtitiiits ;  biographies  of  (Jicohimpadius 
and  Myconius  (1859);  a  memorial  of  De  Wette 
(I8oO);  liclifiiottsiiiiterrklit  ait  hohcrcn  Gymnasieii 
(Gth  ed.  1881);  Die  tlieijlofiische  Sc/tule  Bascls 
( ISUO) ;  and  also  two  small  volumes  of  poetry. 

Ilaiierstown.  capital  of  'Wa-shinpton  county, 
Maryland,  on  Antietam  Creek,  8.5  miles  WXW.  of 
lialtiinore  hy  rail.  It  has  machine-shops,  flour- 
mills,  and  numufactories  of  furniture  and  other 
wooden  wares,  fertilisers,  farming  implements,  and 
cigars.     Pop.  (1890)  10,118. 

Ilaifii'ada.    See  Exege.sis,  Talmud. 

Ilaiii^ai  (  Help.,  '  Ijorn  on  a  festival '),  one  of  the 
minor  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament.  He  was 
among  those  who  returned  from  the  Bahylonian 
e.xile  with  Zeruhhahel  and  .Joshua.  The  building 
of  the  temple  begun  Ijy  them  had  for  .some  time 
been  at  a  staud-still,  and  several  years  of  scarcity 
had  followeil.  In  the  second  year  of  Darius  (520) 
Haggai  jpropliesied  that  the  dearth  was  due  to  the 
divine  displeasure  with  the  settlers  for  adorning 
their  own  houses  while  the  house  of  God  remained 
unfinished.  The  personal  history  of  Haggai  beyond 
what  is  given  in  his  hook  is  unknown.  His  prophecy 
is  entirely  connected  with  the  construction  of  the 
temple,  and  closes  with  a  pnmuse  to  Zciubbabel, 
in  whom  he  appears  to  have  expected  the  fullilment 
of  the  promises  of  the  prophets  regarding  the  ideal 
son  of  i)aviil.  His  style  is  monotonous  and  weak, 
which  some  have  .ascrihed  to  the  pressure  of  troublous 
times,  others  to  his  advanced  age,  concluding  from 
ii.  3  that  he  was  .among  those  who  seventy  years 
before  were  carried  into  e.xile  ami  h.ad  seen  the 
old  temple.  There  are  commentaries  bv  Hitzig 
(3d  ed.  1863;  4th  ed.  by  Steiner,  1881),  Ewald 
(1867;  in  vol.  v.  of  Eng.  trans,  of  his  Pro/diets, 
1878),  Keil  (2ded.  1873),  Reinke  (1868).  and  Van 
Eaton  (Lectures,  ed.  hy  Uobinson,  Pittsburg, 
1883). 

llasgar<l.  Hesry  Rider,  novelist,  was  born 
flf  a  good  Norfolk  family  at  Bradenhain  Hall. 
•June  22,  I8.")6,  and  was  educated  at  Ipswich 
grammar-scliool.  He  went  <mt  to  N.atal  in  1875 
as  .secretary  to  Sir  Henry  Ihilwer,  and  next  year 
accompanied  Sir  Theoidiihis  Shepstone  to  the 
Transvaal,  where  he  .served  until  1879,  when  he 
returned  to  England  to  marry  and  settle  down 
to  a  literary  life.  His  first  book,  Celeirai/o  mid 
hi.i  White  \eif//tljoiirs  (I8S2),  pleased  the  Cape 
politicians,  but  attracted  no  attention  elsewhere. 
It  w,T,s  in  a  new  kind  of  licti<m  that  he  wius  to  nuike 
his  successes.  However,  his  Diiini  (1884)  and  T/ie 
Wi/i/i's  Head  ( 1885)  were  only  successful  after  the 
innnediate,  extraordinary,  and  not  undeserved 
jiopularity  of  Kin'i  Soloinuii'.i  ,l//«fi' ( 1885).  This 
was  too  quickly  followed  hv  She  ( 1887 ),  Jess  ( 1887 ), 
Allan  Qiiateniiaiii  ^\(if^~),'^failra^s  Bernir/c  (1888). 
Mr  Meesuii's  Will  (1888),  Cleopatra  (1889),  Allan's 
Wife  (1890),  ^'ada  the  Ldi/,  Eric,  Montezuma's 
Danr/htcr,  Joan  Haste,  &c.  Haggard  has  fertile 
invention,  vigour,  and  novelty  enough,  hut 
not  the  rare  faculty  of  making  things  seem 
true ;  while  his  style  is  crude  and  hicks  in 
<listinction,  his  gra«p  of  character  is  feeble.  His 
lights  indeed  are  powerful  hut  not  Homeric,  ami 
reek  with  needless  hlood  and  artiticial  gruesome- 


ness ;  his  pages  are  bright  with  vivid  but  some- 
what garish  African  colours.  His  chief  merit  is 
his  readahleness ;  his  gieatcst  praise  his  pheno- 
menal success  ;  for  with  ill  I  his  gifts  he  is  still  but 
little  of  the  artist,  and  hardly  to  be  taken  seriously 
as  a  novelist. 

Haggis,  a  Scotch  dish,  called  by  Burns  the 
'  great  chieftain  o'  the  [luddin'  race,'  is  usually 
made  with  the  large  stomach-bag  of  a  sheep,  also 
one  of  the  smaller  bags  called  the  king's  hood, 
together  with  the  lights,  the  liver,  and  the  heart. 
.-Vfter  the  stom.ach-bags  have  been  well  cleansed,  the 
j  small  liag  is  boiled  along  with  the  pluck.  .\  quarter 
I  of  the  liver  is  now  grated  down,  and  the  heart, 
lights,  and  small  bag  are  minced  very  fine  along 
with  a  large  onion  and  enough  beef -suet  to  moisten 
the  meal.  Two  small  teacujifuls  of  oatmeal  pre- 
viously cris]ied  before  the  lire  are  addcil,  with 
salt,  and  black  and  .Jamaica  jiepper.  The  whole 
is  now  stirred  together,  .and  put  in  the  large  bag, 
which,  however,  must  not  be  much  more  than  half 
filled  ;  it  is  sewed  up,  and  .afterwards  boiled  for 
about  three  hours. 

Hagiographa.    See  Bible. 
Ilagiohigy.    See  Saint. 

Hague'.  The  ( Dutcli  'i-  Grarenhaqe,  '  the  count's 
hed^e'),  the  capital  of  the  Netherlands,  and  the 
residence  of  the  court,  stands  2  miles  from  the 
North  Sea  and  15  NNW.  of  Rotterdam.  It  is  one 
of  the  handsomest  cities  in  the  country,  being 
intersected  by  canals  and  sluidy  avenues  of  lime- 
trees,  and  having  many  fine  public  buildings  and 
private  houses.  In  the  centre  of  the  city  is  the 
Vijver,  or  Fish-pond,  to  the  south  of  which  stands 
the  old  castle  of  the  counts  of  Holland.  It  consists 
of  two  courts,  an  outer  .and  an  inner  :  in  this  latter 
are  the  13th-century  Gothic  knight's  hall  and  the 
chambers  in  which  tlie  Dutch  parliament  holds  its 
sittings.  On  one  side  of  the  outer  court  (  Bnitcnhof) 
stands  the  gate-tower,  which  was  formerly  used  as 
a  state-prison,  and  in  which  the  brothers  De  Witt 
were  confined  till  dragged  thence  and  torn  to  jueces 
by  the  popul.ace  (1672).  The  most  noteworthy 
.amongst  the  jmhlic  huililing's  and  institutions  of 
the  place  are  the  picture-gallery,  with  a  splendid 
collection  of  works  by  native  painters  ( Paul  Potter's 
'Bull'  and  Rembrandt's  'Lesson  in  Anatomy'); 
the  royal  lihrary,  with  200.000  volumes,  4000  MSS., 
and  collections  of  coins  and  gems  ;  the  municipal 
I  museum,  with  several  Dutcli  jiictures  ;  the  Museum 
1  Meermanno-'Westreenen,  containing  a  collection  of 
early  jirinted  boidcs;  the  ethnograpliic  museum,  rich 
ill  ('hinese  and  .lapanese  objects;  the  town-house; 
and  the  royal  palaces.  The  church  of  St  .lames  is 
the  most  important  ecclesiastical  edifice ;  it  dates 
from  the  14th  century,  and  is  Gothic  in  style.  The 
Hague  is  the  seat  of  several  learned  societies, 
.as  the  Indian  Society  and  the  Institute  for  the 
!  Langu.age,  L.aml,  .and  Peoide  of  the  Dutch  Indies. 
;  Amongst  the  numerous  st.atues  that  adorn  the  city 
j  are  those  of  William  I.  (two  in  numlier),  William 
I  II.,  Spinoza,  Beinhard  of  .Saxe-Weimar,  iind  the 
monument  which  ciunmemorates  the  deliverance 
j  from  the  French.  Close  to  the  town  is  the  beau- 
tiful plea.suie-park  called  'The  Wood,'  in  which 
i  stands  a  royal  residence  (1647)  with  the  magnifi- 
cent .so-called  'Orange  Hall.'  Ryswick,  where  the 
treaty  of  1697  was  signe<l,  is  in  the  immediate 
vicinity.  The  Hague  is  connected  by  beautiful 
roads  with  Scheveningen,  a  fasliionalile  bathing- 
pl.aee  on  the  co:ist  of  the  North  Se.a,  which  is  incor- 
|ior.ated  municipally  with  The  Hague.  The  city 
owes  its  importance  mainly  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
the  residence  of  the  couit  and  the  cajiital  of  the 
country  ;  but  it  has  also  considerable  nianufjictur- 
ing  industry,  as  iiou-founding,  co]ipcr  and  le.ad 
smelting,  cannonfoumling,  printing,  furniture  and 


50:; 


HAHXKMANN 


HAIDUK 


carriage  making,  aiitl  the  iiianiifactnrc  of  gold  ami 

silver  hui-.  IN.)..  (1875)  10O,'2.-)4;  (IS91)  I f).-),5G(). 
From  l'2.')(i  :i  Imnliii;;  loilj;i'  of  tin'  t'umitw  of  llol- 
laml,  The  lla^'ue  iliii  not  uoiMiire  imporliUire  iiiilil 
the  lOtli  feiiturv  :  in  I.VJ7  it  liecaiiie  the  seal  of  the 
»u|>reiiie  court  in  IloUaiul,  in  l'>S4  the  i>laec  of 
jLssembly  of  the  States  of  Ilollami  and  of  the 
States-;.'eneral  ;  and  it  was  also  the  residence  of  the 
stadtholders.  There,  too,  numerons  treaties  have 
been  si^'iied  and  diiiloinatie  conferences  lield, 
esiieciallv  the  Trijde  Alliance  of  ItJGS  ami  that  of 
1717. 
lliiliiiciiiaiiii.  Christian  l"iiii:i>iticii  Sami  el, 

the  Ii>iinder  of  the  homeopathic  method  of  treat- 
ment (see  Ilii.MKufAl  llY ),  was  horn  at  Meissen, 
in  Saxony,  April  10,  17.'>o.  Kdncated  at  the  f;rani- 
marschool  of  Meissen,  he  entered  the  nniversity  of 
Leip/ij;  at  the  ajje  of  twenty  ;  ami  it  was  hy  teach- 
ing and  translatin;,'  hooks  wiitlen  in  En;.'lisli, 
French,  Italian,  Latin,  Clreek,  Ilehrew,  and  Araliic 
that  he  supported  him.self  while  at  the  university. 
The  reputation  he  had  made  for  himself  a.s  a 
scholar  while  at  Meissen  procured  for  him  a  free 
adndssion  to  the  univei'sity  classes.  From  Leipzig,' 
he  proceedeil  to  N'icnn.i  for  clinical  study.  «liere  he 
was  the  favouiitc  pupil  of  \'on  tjluarin.  physician  to 
the  Emperor  .loscpli.  He  then  passed  two  years  a.s 
physician  and  lihrarian  to  a  mihlcnian  residing;  in 
Transylvania,  after  which  he  entered  and,  in  1770, 
^'radnated  at  the  univei'sity  of  Krlanj;en.  Durin;; 
the  fiillowin;;  ten  yeai's  he  ])ractiscd  medicine  and 
hehl  several  pulilic  appointments  in  Dresden  and 
elsewhere,  and  then  settled  in  a  small  village  near 
Leijizin.  His  o1>servation  and  jiractice  hail  so  fully 
convinced  him,  not  only  of  the  nselcssncss,  hut  also 
of  the  injurious  character  of  the  prevailing; methods 
of  treatment,  that  he  now  ahaniloned  all  pra<-tice 
ami  devoteil  himself  to  chemical  research  and  the 
translation  into  (Jernian  of  foreign  scientific  Ijooks. 
Of  these,  Cullen's  Materia  Mci/iia  was  one.  Feel- 
in-^  di.ssatislie<l  with  his  author's  explanation  of 
the  iiiuilii.s  (i/uraiii/i  of  hark  in  curin;;  a^'ue,  it 
occnrreil  to  him  to  endeavour  to  lind  out  what 
kind  of  action  this  drnj;  had  on  pei-sons  in  health. 
He  aecordin^'ly  took  considerahle  doses  of  hark 
himself,  when  lie  observed  that  they  caused  some  of 
the  symptoms  he  had  noted  as  liein^'  characteristic 
of  ,a;,'ue  ill  Transylvania.  This  experiment  led 
to  his  interprctinj.'  tlie  curative  power  of  hark 
in  this  fever  hy  the  hypothesis  that  it  '  ovei|)owei-s 
anil  siiiPiiresses  the  intermittent  fever  hy  exciting 
a  fever  of  its  own  of  short  duration.'  This  appeal's 
in  one  of  his  notes  in  his  translation  of  Culleii. 
Thus,  as  Ameke  reniaiks,  'he  started  with  the 
idea  of  aidinj;  the  recuperative  iiower  hy  a  medi- 
cinal excitant  actinj;  directly  on  ilic  part  atl'ectcd.' 
His  experiment  also  convinced  him  that  it  was 
hy  a.scertaininf;  the  eti'ects  a  dm;;  prodnceil  on 
healthy  persons  that  its  mode  of  action  could  most 
surely  he  iLscertained.  He  therefore  commenced 
a  research  into  the  records  of  medicine,  examining 
the  reports  of  cases  of  poisoninjr  hy  individual  drugs, 
and  made  experiments  with  other  drugs  upon  him- 
self and  his  friends.  He  then  studied  all  the  ca-ses 
of  cure  hy  these  same  ilrngs  that  he  could  lind.  In 
these  investigations  he  occupied  six  years.  They 
proved  to  him  that,  whatever  might  he  the  tnith  of 
the  theory  the  hark  experiment  had  suggested,  the 
fact  was  that  in  all  instances  the  medicine  which 
had  cured  produced  a  very  similar  condition  in 
lealthy  iiersons  to  that  it  had  relieved.  This  con- 
■lusion  lie  puMishi'd  in  an  essay  in  Hii/i/aii'/.s 
■/o»r»<(/ in  17'.ll),  having  the  title  of  'A  New  I'rin- 
ciple  for  ascertaining  the  Curative  Properties  of 
Drugs.'  It  is  in  this  e.'ssay  that  the  principle  or 
rule  of  simi/ia  simililnisciireiitur  is  lirst  ]pnt  forward 
by  liim,  not  as  a  theory  hut  as  a  fact.  His  views 
at  once  met  with  vi'liement  opimsitioii.    Hi-^  di'nun- 


I  ciatioD  of  blouil-letting  and  other  violent  modes  of 
treatment  aroused    tlie  animosity   of    physicians, 
while  the  very  small  iloses  of  medicine  which  almie 
I  were  needed    according    t"   his   new   method,   pro- 
voked the  apothecaries,  whose  trade  interests  were 
I  threatened.     They  refused  to  dispense  his  prescrip- 
j  tioiis,  and  he  accindingly  gave  his  medicines  to  Ins 
]>aticnts  without  any  charge.     J'lU'  a  physician  to 
disjieiise    his   own    medicine  was   an    infiingement 
of    the    rights   and    piivileges   which    (Jcrman    law 
i  had  cmiferred  upon  the  apothecaries,  and   hence  he 
I  was  juoseeuted  in  every  town  in  which  he  attempted 
I  to  settle  from   17'.tH  niitil   IslO,  v\licii  he   returned 
I  to  Leipzig.    Two  years  afterwards  he  was  a|ipointed 
I  a  priratilocciil—m   extra-academical    lecturer — of 
1  the  uiiivei>ity.     The  thesis  he  defended  before  the 
Facultv,  when  a  candidate  for  this  position,  Was. 
been    described    as  ■  remarkable    for   its  display  of 
extensive  reading  in  the  ancient  authors,  and   not 
^  only  tho.se  more  immediately  eonnected  with  his  own 
j  ]irofessioiial    pursuits,    hut    also    in    the    cla.'^sical 
I  writei's  of   antir|uity.'     At    Leijizig  he   remained, 
]  teaching  and  developing  his  system  of  medicine  to 
an  ever-increasing  band  of  enthusiastic  discijdes, 
and  practising  his  profession  iininlluenceil  by  con- 
stantly   recurring    attacks    from    his    iirofessional 
neigliboui's  until   18'J1,  when  a  successlnl  pro.secii- 
tion   by   the  apothecaries  for  dispensing  his  own 
medicines  drove  him  out  of   Leipzig.      t'nder  the 
ju'otection  of  the   Duke  of   Anhalt-Kothen  he   re- 
1  tired    to    Kiithen,    where    he    became   a   centre   of 
attraction  to  numerous  invalids  in  all  parts  of  the 
1  world.      His  wife  dying  in  Is.'fl,  in  ls;i.")  he  mariied 
a  French  lady,  who  induced  him  to  remove  tol'aris, 
where  lie  resided  and  practised  until  his  death,  2d 
;  July  1S4:<. 

Hahnemann  is  also  known  as  one  of  the  earliest 

I  advocates  of  hygiene.    His  biKik  entitled  The  I'ririid 

of  Health,  published  in   179'2,  jnoves  him  to  have 

been  very  far  in   advance  of   his  time  on   what   is 

I  now  called   preventive  medicine.     Ki|ually  so  was 

!  he  in  the  treatment  of  the  insane.     His  account 

of  his  successful  treatment  of  a  certain  Hanoverian 

I  statesman,   who,    becoming   maniacal,   was   placed 

j  under  his  care,  shows  that  in   1794  he  had  adopted 

!  those    iirinciples    of    non-restraint     and     kindness 

j  in   dealing   with    the   insane   wliiili   in   later  yeai's 

'  were    advocated    by    I'inel    in    I'aris   and    Conolly 

I  in   F^ngland.     He  was  also  the  author  of  several 

valuable  pajiei's   on   chemistry   in   Crell's  Aniialrn 

ilcr  Chiniic — the   lir.st   (Jernian    periodical    devoted 

to   that   science.     A  statue   of    Halinemann    was 

erected    in    Leijizig    in    1851.      See    his    Life    bv 

Albrecht  (2d  ed.  Leii).  1875). 

Ilallll-IIallll,  Il>A,  CiirsTKS.s,  authoress  of  a 
gieat  niimlier  of  German  ronianccs  dealing  with 
aristocratic  circles  of  life,  conventional  in  style  and 
often  sentimental  in  feeling,  and  of  niiiiicroiis  hooks 
of  travel,  was  born  at  Tressow,  in  jMccklenbuig- 
Schwerin.  22d  June  1805.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one 
she  married  a  relative  ;  but  the  union  was  dissolved 
three  years  later.  She  thereupon  travelled  much  in 
Europe  and  the  F2ast.  In  18.")0,  weary  of  her  restless 
life,  she  embraced  Itoiiiaii  CatholiciMii.  and  in  \K>'1 
entered  a  convent  at  .Xiigers.  Her  later  writings 
are  .strongly  marked  by  ultramontane  views.  Tlie 
best  known  of  her  novels  are  Grajiii  Faiistme, 
Vlrie/i,  and  C'Iclia  t'oiiti.  Her  style  vvius  cleverly 
satirised  in  Fanny  Lewald's  Diugeiia  (1847).  A 
collection  of  her  early  romam-es  in  21  vols. 
aii|ieaied  at  lieilin  in  1851.  She  died  at  Mainz, 
12tli  January  1880. 

Ilaidarahail.    See  Hydekahad. 

liaidllU.  "1  ll.x.IDl'K  (from  a  Hungarian  word 
meaning  'droviM,'  'cowherd'),  the  name  given  in 
Hungary  to  those  who  in  the  Kith  century  iiiain- 

t.iined   ;*    '_'nerill.i  w;n-f;ive  n'_';nii^t    tlie  Tnik-.  froiii 


HAIFA 


HAILES 


503 


the  forests  of  eastern  Hurifrarv.  In  lOOo  Stephen 
ISocskay,  prince  of  Transylvania,  estalilished  them 
ill  a  ilistrict  wliich  lie  set  apart  for  their  occupa- 
tion, on  tlie  left  bank  of  the  Tlieiss,  gave  them  an 
indepemleiit  constitution,  ami  conferred  ni)on  tliem 
tlie  ])rivileges  of  hereditary  noliility.  This  favoured 
])cisition  they  retained  until  the  conclusion  of  the 
war  of  lS-19.  The  Haiduks  are  engaj;ed  almost 
exclusively  in  agriculture.  In  1870  their  country 
W!us  incorporated  in  the  county  of  Hajdu,  with 
Debreczin  as  capital.  The  name  was  formerly 
borne  by  the  Hungarian  infantry  of  the  line  ;  and 
in  the  18th  century  it  was  also  applied  to  the  ; 
retainers  of  the  Hungarian  magnates. 

Haifa,  a  seaport  of  Syria,  situated  at  the  foot 
of  .Mount  Carmet,  a  place  of  some  6000  inhabitants. 
A  little  distance  to  the  north-west  a  settlement 
of  the  AViirtemberg  'Society  of  the  Temjde'  was 
founded  in  1809,  who  now  form  a  flourishing  agri- 
cultural colony  of  300  persons,  chietly  engaged  in 
cultivating  the  vine  and  growing  fruits.  Grain  is 
exported.  Gordon  Pasha  paid  visits  to  Haifa,  ami 
here  Laurence  Olipliant  settled  in  1882.  See  his 
Jhtifa,  or  Life  in  ■Slodcrn  Palestine  (I8S7).  A 
railway  from  Haifa  and  Acre  (on  the  other  side  of 
the  bay)  to  Damascus  was  begun  in  1892. 

Ilaik.     See  Armexi.\. 

Hail.  Hailstorm.     The  word  hail  in  Englisli 

is  used  to  denote  two  phenomena  of  (juite  ditl'erent  ■ 
origin  and  formation.  The.se  have  in  recent  years 
lieen  distinguished  as  hard  hail,  or  true  hail  ;  and 
soft  hail,  which  denotes  the  line,  light  grains,  like 
small  shot,  that  frei|uently  fall  in  winter,  much 
more  rarely  in  summer,  and  are  generally  a  precursor 
of  snow.  Soft  hail  is  the  grisil  of  the  French,  ami 
the  gi-diijicl  of  the  Germans.  The  theory  of  the 
formation  of  soft  hail  has  yet  to  be  formulated. 
'I'nie  hail  is  round,  hard,  compact,  and  formed  of 
eitlier  clear  or  granular  ice,  the  hailstones  being 
often  found  wlien  broken  across  to  be  composed  of  i 
alternate  layers  of  these  two  states  of  ice.  It  has 
a  well-marked  diurnal  i)eriod,  80  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  number  of  hailstorms  occurring  in  the  six 
hours  from  10  A.M.  to  4  P.M.,  and  only  8  per  cent, 
ill  the  fourteen  hours  from  6  P. .M.  to  8  a..vi.  The 
essential  point  to  be  noted  in  the  diurnal  [leriod  of 
hail  is  that  the  maximum  period  of  hailstorms  is 
two  hours  earlier  than  the  maximum  jieriod  of 
Thunderstorms  (q.v. ).  The  maximum  ]ieriod  for 
thunderstorms  is  when  the  ascending  current  from 
the  heated  surface  of  the  earth  is  at  its  greatest 
strength  for  the  day  ;  but  the  maximum  periixl  for 
liail  occurs  two  iionrs  liefore  the  ascending  current 
has  f\illy  established  it.self,  or  it  occurs  at  the  time 
when  atmospheric  temperature  and  vajiour  diminish 
witli  the  height  at  a  much  greater  rate  than  the 
nornial.  In  the  higher  latitudes  the  fall  of  hail 
may  be  regarded  as  restricteil  to  the  warmer  months 
of  the  year  ;  in  countries  where  the  summer  is  prac- 
tically rainless  no  hail  tails  ;  ami  where  the  rainfall 
i-.  small  and  at  rare  intervals  very  few  ca.ses  of  hail 
oci'ur. 

Hail  is  connected  with  whirlwinds,  more  or  le.ss 
develo]icd  ;  and  it  Ls  when  the  hailstorm  is  an 
attemlant  on  a  tornado  or  on  a  great  tliunder- 
storm  that  it  a-ssumes  its  most  destructive  form, 
carrying  devastation  through  a  narrow  belt  of  land 
usually  of  considerable  length. 

The  theory  of  the  formation  of  hail  ha.s  been  given 
by  Ferrel  in  his  Mi-tcoroluriicnl  J,'esnir</ir.i  fur  the 
Use  of  the  Coast  Pilot,  part  ii.  ji.  85.  The  vapour 
carried  upwards  by  tlie  vortical  gvrations  of  the 
tornado  is,  below  a  certain  height,  condensed  into 
cloud  and  rain  ;  but  above  that  height  into  snow. 
Now  when  the  raindrops  forme<l  lielow  are  carrieil 
higher  up  into  the  cold  snow  regions  by  the 
powerful  a.scending  currents  of  the  tornado,  and  are 


kejit  suspended  there  a  little  while,  tliey  become 
frozen  into  clear  hard  liail.  If  these  hailstones  be 
now  thrown  quite  outside  the  gyrations  of  the 
tornado,  they  fall  to  the  earth  as  a  shower  of  com- 
]>act  homogeneous  hailstones  of  clear  ice  of  ordinaiy 
size.  Hut  should  they  be  caught  in  the  descent  ami 
carried  in  towards  the  vortex  by  the  inllowing 
aerial  current  on  all  sides,  they  aio  again  iai>idly 
carried  aloft  into  the  freezing  region.  .\  number  of 
such  revolutions  of  ascent  and  descent  may  be  made 
before  they  ultimately  fall  to  the  earth.  AVhile 
high  up  in  the  snow  region  the  hailstones  receive  a 
coating  of  snow  ;  but  while  in  the  region  lower  down, 
where  rain,  yet  unfrozen,  is  carrieil  n]i,  they  receive 
a  coating  of  solid  ice.  In  this  way  alternate  coat- 
ings of  ice  and  snow  are  received,  and  the  number 
of  each  sort  indicates  the  number  of  ascents  and 
descents  performed  before  the  hailstone  falls  to  the 
ground.  A\'hen  the  nucleus  is  compact  snow,  as  it 
usually  LS,  the  hailstone  has  its  origin  high  ut)  in 
the  snow  region  as  a  small  ball  of  snow  or  soft  hail. 

From  a  well-known  jiroperty  of  ice  (regelation), 
the  impinging  hailstones  are  frequently  frozen 
together  not  only  in  their  course  through  the  air, 
but  also  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  gi\ing  rise  occa- 
sionally to  hailstones  of  larger  dimensions.  A  curi- 
ous instance  of  the  fall  of  large  hail,  or  rather 
ice-masses,  occurred  on  one  of  Her  Majesty's  ships 
ofl' the  Cape  in  January  18(i0,  when  the  stones  were 
the  size  of  half-bricks,  and  beat  several  of  the  crew 
otl'  the  rigging,  doing  serious  injury.  More  than 
once  in  the  summer  of  1889  hailstones  jiroved  un- 
usually destnictive  on  the  continent  of  Euro]ie  ; 
in  Moravia,  for  instance,  where  many  stones  fell 
as  big  as  a  man's  fist,  and  weighing  .S  lb.,  a  number 
of  people  were  killed  in  the  liehls,  and  many  more 
were  injured. 

A  description  (taken  from  Mdii.  cle  VAccitL  (hs 
Scieiiees,  1790)  of  a  most  disiistrous  hailstorm  may 
be  here  added.  This  storm  passed  over  ]iarts  of 
Holland  and  France  in  July  1788.  It  travelled 
simii/fancoiisli/  ahmg  two  lines  nearly  jiarallel — the 
eastern  one  had  a  breadth  of  from  half  a  league  to 
live  leagues,  the  western  of  fr<im  three  to  live 
leagues.  The  s]iace  between  was  visited  only  by 
heavy  rain  ;  its  breadth  varied  from  three  to  live  and 
a  half  leagues.  At  the  outer  border  of  each  there 
was  also  heavy  rain,  but  we  are  not  told  how  far  it 
extended.  Tlie  general  direction  of  the  storm  was 
from  south-west  to  north-east.  The  length  was  at 
least  a  hundred  leagues,  jirobably  two  hundred. 
It  seems  to  have  originated  near  the  Fyrenees,  ami 
to  have  travelled  at  a  mean  rate  of  about  161 
leagues  per  hour  towards  the  lialtic,  where  it  w;us 
lost  sight  of.  The  hail  only  fell  for  about  seven 
and  a  half  minutes  at  any  one  place,  and  the 
heaviest  hailstones  weighed  about  9  onnce-s. 
This  storm  devastated  1039  parishes  in  France 
alone,  doing  damage  to  the  extent  of  nearly  a 
million  of  English  money. 

Uailt'S,  L(ii;d,  the  judicial  title  of  Sir  David 
Dairy  miile,  a  well-known  historical  antiquary,  born 
at  Edinburgh,  28tli  October  172(>.  He  w"as  the 
grand.smi  of  Sir  Ilavid  J)aliyniple,  youngest  and 
reputedly  the  ablest  son  of  the  first  Viscount  Stair. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Itrechl,  whence  he 
returned  to  Scotland  in  1740,  to  be  called  to  the 
Scottish  bar  two  years  later.  Here  his  success 
was  highly  ie.-<]icctable,  but  not  astonishing,  as  his 
extensive  learning,  sound  judgment,  and  great 
industry  were  marred  by  indiirerent  orat(uy.  In 
1766  he  wa-s  appointed  one  of  the  judges  of  the 
Court  of  Session,  and  assumed  the  title  bv  which 
he  is  chielly  known  to  jiosterity.  In  this  otlice 
his  accuracy,  diligence,  judicial  im|)artiality.  and 
dignilie<l  demeanour  secured  him  the  highest 
respect,  and  ten  years  later  he  was  made  a  justi- 
ciary lord.     At  his  country -seat  of  New  Ilailcs.  live 


504 


HAILKYHUKY    COLLEGE 


HAINAULT 


miles  from  Edinlmrjjli,  lie  gave  his  leisure  to  iin- 

iMtorni|>le(l  litonuy  ju'livity,  on  ln-lialf  nf  reli^ri'>ii 
iiii'l  ill  i-liu-i(l;iliciii  of  early  Scollisli  lii--li>iy.  And 
tliim^'li  lii>  ollii-ial  duties  were  iirduiuis,  lie  fimiid 
time  to  coiiiiHise  iiuiiieroiiM  works,  sur|iii.s>iiiK  in 
value  tlinse  of  many  men  whose  lives  have  lieen 
wholly  devoted  to  literature.  He  was  nmeli 
esteemed  l>y  I)r  Johnson,  and  eorres|>()iiileil  with 
some  of  the  jjieatest  men  of  his  time.  He  died 
•iUtli  Novemher  17!I2.  His  fiineial  sernnin  was 
|ireaelied  hy  '  Ju|>itor' C'arlyle  ;  his  appeaianee  re- 
mains to  us  in  a  eharacteristic  portrait  hy  Kay. 

Anion;;  his  books  are  SrUct  Ditcoitrsi.-^,  hi/  John  Smith 
of  Cnmbrid'jt  (ITSfj);  A  Discoiimc  on  the  (/nwrie  Con- 
spirae;/  (1757);  Memorials  ami  Letters  relatiiui  to  the 
Historii  of  Jtrit'iin  in  the  Iiei;in  of  Jtimen  /.  (1702),  a 
curious  and  interestiii;^  volume  :  The  Works  of  the  crer- 
meinonthle  Mr  John  Hates  of  Eton  (3  vols.  17lJ.">) ;  Memo- 
rials and  Letters  relatinri  to  the  Historii  of  Britain  in  the 
Reiijn  of  Charles  I,  (176G);  Annals  of  Scotland  from  the 
Accession  of  Malcolm  I  IT.,  siirnamed  Caiimorc,  to  the 
Accession  of  liolicrl  I.  i  1770)  ;  and  Annals  of  Scotland 
from  the  Accession  of  Robert  /.,  snrnamr.d  the  Brace,  to 
the  Accession  of  the  House  of  Stuart  ( 177^ ).  The  last  two 
form  one  continuous  matter-of-fact  history  of  the  greatest 
possihle  value,  wliicli  Dr  Johnson  valued  above  the 
'  painted  histories  ni'>re  to  the  taste  of  oura^e.*  }>csides 
these,  Dalryinple  wrote  works  on  leyal  anti<|uities  and 
ancient  church  liist(»ry,  edited  old  .Scot.-h  poems,  and  pub- 
lished sketches  of  the  lives  of  various  notable  Scotchincn, 
as  specimens  of  how  a  Bioi/raphia  Seotica  might  be 
cxecutid. 

llaileyllliry  C'olh'gO.  2  miles  SE.  of  Hert- 
ford, cii'cted  in  1H(I!»  hy  the  East  India  t'omjiany 
from  the  desi^'ii  of  William  Wilkins,  1{..\.,  ius  a 
place  of  training  for  ca<lets  in  their  service,  and  .so 
occupicil  until  the  transference  in  185S  of  tlie 
powers  of  the  CompaMy  to  the  crown.  .\]i  interval 
then  ensued  dining'  which  the  colle;.'e  remained 
ali.solutely  empty,  tliou;;li  the  solituile  w;us  for  a 
few  iiioMths  hroken  hy  the  arrival  of  a  rcjriment 
from  India,  fresh  from  the  mutiny  :  hut  the  huihl- 
ing  was  not  suited  for  barracks,  and  it  was  .soon 
ajjain  deserted.  For  a  while  there  was  a  talk  of 
converting  it  into  a  workhouse,  hut  happily  a 
better  fate  was  in  store  for  the  place  :  the  enter- 
prise of  several  county  gentlemen  successfully 
carried  through  a  scheme  for  estahlishing  at 
Haileyhurv  a  new  public  school,  and  in  September 
1S02  the  school  was  opened,  its  numbei-s  being 
limited  under  its  charter  to  500.  Five  e.xhibithins 
of  from  too  to  C20,  tenable  for  three  yeai-s  at 
O.Nford  or  rambridge,  and  in  some  ca.ses  elsewhere, 
are  o|ieM  yearly  for  competition  to  members  of 
the  school  who  are  under  nineteen  years  of  age; 
another  of  t.'iO  is  available  every  third  year,  and 
there  are  nine  .scholarslii|)s  for  boys  at  the  school. 
.\niong  the  professors  on  the  stall' of  the  Eji-st  India 
Company  were  Malthus,  the  |i(ditical  economist  ; 
Sir  James  Mackintosh,  the  ))hiloso|diical  historian  : 
William  Kmpson.  editor  of  the  Ei/inlmii/h  l!-ricir  ; 
ami  Sir  .Monior  .Mi>nier- Williams,  I'xiden  Sanscrit 
profes>or  at  (t.\foid  ;  and  among  the  students  who 
afterwards  became  illustrious,  John  Lawrence, 
ruler  of  the  Punjab  in  the  time  of  the  Indian 
Mutiny,  afterwards  Lord  Lawrence,  \'iceroy  of 
India  ;  Sir  Charles  Trevelyan  ;  liishoi)  F'orbes  ;  and 
Sir  Henry  liartle  Eilward  Frere.  See  Higgen,  Old 
and  Xcir  JIailci/biiri/  ( 1887),  an<l  Monier  Williams, 
ncninhrrnrrs  of  Old  UaiUijburij  College  ( 1S94). 

llaiL  llary.     See  Ave  M.4Ri.\. 

Ilailllliru  (  Eriithrinas  tnacrodoii ),  a  large  fresh- 
water lish  of  Cuiana,  beh)nging  to  a  small  group  of 
fishes  {  Lrythrinina),  familv  Characiniche  ((Jiinther ). 
It  mea-suies  from  .3A  to  4  teet  in  length  :  its  llesh  is 
tirni,  and  well  llavoured  :  and  at  times  the  lish  is  so 
abnnilant  that  it  forms  the  (iriiicipal  article  of  food 
with  the  Inilians,  who  capture  it  by  hook  or  in  an 
ingeniously  contrived   trap.     It  is  very  voracious. 


I  The  jaws  are  very  [lowerful,  and  tlie  teeth  are  large 
'  anil  can  inllict  serious  wounds  :  a  man's  haiul  has 


'W. 


Haiuiura. 

been  cut  oil'  by  them.  The  liaimura  particularly 
abounds  near  rapids  and  falls  in  the  upper  jiarts 
of  the  rivers  of  tiuiana. 

llailiniK  an  island  of  China,  the  sontherniiiost 
land  of  till'  empire,  lying  between  the  (!ulf  of  Tong- 
kiiig  and  the  China  Sea,  and  1.")  miles  S,  from  the 
111,'iinland.  It  forms  ]iait  of  the  Jirox  ince  of  Kwang- 
tiing,  and  measures  about  l.")0  miles  ( fidm  south- 
west to  northeast )  by  100.  The  centre  and  south  of 
the  island  are  mountainous  ;  on  the  north  the  moun- 
tains are  fringed  with  fertile  jdains,  well  watered  hy 
rivei-s.  The  island,  which  is  )uirely  agricultural, 
luoduces  rice,  sesamum  seeds,  ground  nuts,  sugar, 
sweet  potatoes,  taro,  cocoa-nuts,  indigo,  hems, 
turnips,  millet,  pine-ajiiiles,  and  various  kinds  of 
vegetables.  E.\ ports— pigs,  sugar,  .sesamum -.seeds, 
groundnut  cakes,  betel-nuts,  and  eggs;  annual 
value,  .t'31G,4.">0.  Imports — opium,  cotton  and  wool- 
len goods,  and  rice:  annual  value,  1410,000.  The 
capital  is  Kiuiig-chow  (]iop.  4().(KKI),  the  ]iort  of 
whiili,  lloi  how  ( l.^.OOtJ),  :{  miles  distant,  has  been 
open  to  foreign  trade  since  1870.  The  inhabilants 
number  altogether  about  two  and  a  half  millions, 
the  ]dains  being  inhabited  by  Chinese  ( 1  k  millions ), 
the  mountainous  ami  unknown  interior  by  the 
aboiiginal  I.es.  Eight  to  ten  thousand  Chinese 
emigrants  leave  Kiung  chow  every  year  for  Singa- 
pore and  Bangkok.  I'l.uils  and  animals,  especially 
iiirds  and  lishes,  are  numerous,  (iohl  exists.  The 
island  is  subje<t  to  fretjuent  eartluiuakes,  and  in 
summer  to  tvphoons.  See  15.  C.  Henrys  Ling- 
A'"/;/  (1880).  " 

llainaillt  (formerly  spelt  in  a  i)erplcxing 
variety  of  ways  from  lliiijsnetinltj:  to  Jhno;  Hey. 
Hiiiinr/iia),  a  southern  province  of  lielgiiiiii. 
.•Vrea,  14:17  S(|.  m.  ;  pop.  (1894)  1,082,494,  princi- 
pally Walloons.  The  surface  consists  in  the  north 
and  west  of  Hat  and  fruitful  plains;  thi'  south  is 
occu]Ued  by  spurs  of  the  Forest  of  .Anlennes. 
The  iirincijial  rivers  are  the  Haine — from  which 
the  province  has  its  name — the  Schehlt,  the 
Deiider,  and  the  .Sanibre,  the  l.'ust  a  tributarv  of 
the  Meiise.  The  soil  is  highly  luoductive  :  wlieat 
and  llax  are  very  e.xtensively  grown.  Valuable 
crops  of  fruit,  vegetables,  and  beet  are  produced. 
Excellent  breeds  of  horses,  horned  cattle,  and  sheep 
are  reared.  Toward  the  south  and  south-east,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Mons  and  Cbarleroi,  are  very  ex- 
tensive coalfields,  liiim  which  about  2,0(X),(XK)  tons 
of  coal  are  annually  extracted.  Iron  is  also  pro- 
duced in  considerable  <|uantity,  and  marble,  build- 
ing stone,  and  limestcme  are  (juarrieil.  Linen,  por- 
celain, irimanil  steel  gmuls,  lace,  paper,  leather.  iVc, 
are  extensively  manufactured.  '1  he  capital  is  Mons. 
From  the  9th  century  Ilainault  was  the  name  of 
a  countship,  which  embraced  the  modern  districts 
of  both  French  anil  Belgian  Ilainault.  For  man)' 
years  ( 10.30  1279)  the  history  of  the  countship  was 
closely  connected  with  that  of  Flanders  (ij.v. ). 
From  l.'U.")  to  14.3.3  it  belonged  to  the  royal  house  of 
Bavaria,  and  then  pa-ssed  to  Burgundy,  the  fortunes 


HAINBURG 


HAIR 


505 


of  which  duchy  it  shaieil  down  to  the  French 
Revolution.  French  Ilainault  ( now  the  department 
of  Nord )  was,  however,  formed  out  of  the  county 
after  tlie  treaty  of  tlie  Pyrenees  (IGJ!!).  Tlie 
present  IJelf^ian  province  was  constituted  in  IS15. 
For  Haiiiault  Forest,  see  El'I'IXC. 

II:iilll>lir!f.  a  walled  town  of  Austria,  on  the 
Maiiulie,  '27  miles  ESK.  of  Vienna,  with  a  royal 
toliacco  factory.  It  is  usually  identiCied  witli  the 
ancient  Viiniioiticm  (q.v.) ;  and  a  Koman  aiiueilnct 
.still  supplies  its  market-place  with  water.  In  the 
Nilii'hiiiiicidied  the  castle  of  Hainhurg  is  called 
Heimliurc,  the  Ixinler  fortress  of  the  country  of  the 
Huns.  It  was  taken  from  the  Hun^'arians  in  1042 
by  the  Emperor  Henry  III.,  and  afterwards  became 
a  residence  of  tlie  Austrian  princes.  In  14S2  it  was 
stormed  by  Mattliew  Corvinus,  in  KjS.'J  by  the 
Turks;  and  in  IS'27  it  was  burned  to  the  ground. 
P(il>.  4S.">7. 

Ilnilliclieil.  a  town  of  Saxony,  the  centre  of 
the  (icriuan  llaiinel  manufacture,  lies  13  miles  NE. 
of  Chemnitz.  Besides  its  staple  product,  it  also 
manufactures  cloth,  leather,  chenille,  and  plush. 
Here  Gellert  was  born  in  171").     I'op.  Sio.*!. 

Ilail*.  With  the  exception  of  the  palms  of  the 
hands  and  the  soles  of  the  feet,  the  human  skin  is 
almost  everywhere  studded  over  with  hairs.  In 
few  localities,  however,  does  the  hair  attain  any 
degree  of  thicUne.s.s  or  length.  Except  on  the 
scalp,  the  male  cheeks,  &c. ,  the  hairs  ai'e  line,  short, 
and  scanty,  but  more  apparent  in  tiiemale  than  the 
female. 

An  individual  hair  may  be  regarded  as  consisting 
of  a  root,  a  shaft,  and  a  |ioint.  The  rout  is  the 
short,  soft  bulbous  portion  which  is  withdrawn  from 
the  skin  wlien  a  liair  is  plucked  from  the  body  ; 
the  sliiift  is  the  part  which  |irojects  beyond  the  sur- 
face of  the  integument ;  and  i\ie  puint  is  its  attenu- 
ate<l  free  extremity. 

The  root  of  the  hair  is  enclosed  within  a  minute 
tubular  depression  in  the  skin  which  is  termed  the 
hitir-f'ultirlc.  This  is  the  chamber  in  wliich  the 
hair  is  manufactured,  and  it  is  here  also  that  addi- 
tions are  made  to  its  root  so  that  it  increases  in 
length.  The  skin  is  conijKJsed  of  two  layers  :  an 
outer  epidermis  and  an  inner  corium.  The  epider- 
mis is  the  cellular  protective  layer,  and  the  hair 
anil  nails  may  be  regarded  as  outgrowths  from  it. 
Amongst  the  lower  animals  the  claws,  hoofs,  spines, 
feathers,  scales,  iVc.  all  lielongto  the  same  category 
— all,  like  the  hair,  are  appendages  of  the  epidermal 
layer  of  the  skin.  The  coriiim  is  fibrous  and  vas- 
cular, and  rests  directly  upon  the  fatty  snbcutaiie- 
ons  tissue  of  the  body.  Both  layers  of  the  skin 
take  jiart  in  the  formation  of  tlie  hair-follicle.  Its 
wall,  therefore,  has  two  distinct  layers  entering 
into  its  formation — the  inner  layer  being  cellular 
and  e])idermic,  wliilst  the  outer  layer  is  filirous  and 
continuous  with  the  corium.  When  a  hair  is 
wrenched  out  of  its  socket  the  inner  layer  of  the 
follicle  adheres  to  the  root,  and  is  in  great  part 
withdrawn  with  it.  It  is  therefore  termed  X,\wr(iot- 
shcdth.  In  the  case  of  the  short  hairs  the  hair- 
follicles  do  not  sink  beyond  the  skin,  but  in  the 
case  of  the  head-hairs  and  beard  they  are  much 
deeper,  and  penetrate  into  the  subcutaneous  fatty 
tissue. 

The  extremity  of  a  fresh  hair-root  is  expanded  in 
the  form  of  a  knob,  called  the  liair-bulh.  This 
hair-bulh  is  com|iosed  of  cells  like  those  of  the  root- 
sheath,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  follicle  the  two  are 
directly  continuous  with  each  other  around  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  biilli.  .-\gaiii,  at  the  bottom  of 
the  hair  fcdliclc  there  is  a  little  fungiform  inojcctiun 
continuous  with  the  I'orium.  It  is  called  \\\>- Jmir- 
j'ti/ii/Ui,  anil  is  plentifully  supjdied  witii  buih  blood- 
vessels and  nerves.     This  papilla  is  of  the  utmost 


importance  in  connection  with  the  process  of  hair- 
growth.  It  is  also  an  agent  in  fixing  the  hair 
in  its  follicle,  because  the  lower  aspect  of  the 
hair-bulb  is  hollowed  out  into  a  cavity,  and  the 
pajiilla  is  received  into  this  in  the  same  manner 
as  a  head  is  received  into  a  caj). 

In  structure  a  hair  may  lie  considered  as  being 
composed  of  three  distinct  parts.  Its  chief  bulk 
consists  oi  Ji/iroii.s  sithsiitiicc ;  this 
is  coated  on  the  outside  by  a  thin 
scaly  layer,  termed  the  hair- 
cuticle,  whilst  its  centre  is  tra- 
veled by  a  narrow  cellular  thread 
or  core,  which  is  termed  the  ined- 
id/a.  The  hair-cuticle  is  exceed- 
ingly thin,  and  is  formed  by  a 
single  layer  of  minute  Hat  .scales 
deposited  upon  the  surface  of  the 
hair.  These  scales  overlap  each 
other  in  an  upward  direction  from 
the  root  to  the  point  of  the  hair. 
The  free  uncovered  margins  of 
the  cuticular  scales  therefore  look 
upwards  towards  the  iJoint,  and 
wlien  examined  under  the  micro- 
scope they  .appear  on  the  surface 
of  the  hair  in  the  form  of  wavy 
lines,  and  at  the  same  time  give 
to  its  outline  a  slightly  toothed 
or  serrated  appearance.  It  is  the 
arrangement  of  these  scales  which 
gives  to  hair  its  commercial  value. 
It  is  due  to  tliein  that  the  fc/liiiij 
of  hair  is  possible.  But  human 
hair  is  ill  adapted  for  this  pur- 
po.se,  because  the  cuticular  scales 
are  closely  apjdied  to  the  body  Vertical  section  of 
of  the  hair.  In  wool,  however,  iskin.showiiighair- 
the  scales  stand  well  out.  and  the 
serrations  are  so  distinct  that  the 
hairs  interlock  lirnily  the  one 
with  the  other. 

We  have  mentioned  tliat  the 
hair-root  is  attached  to  its  fidlicle  (1)  by  a  con- 
tinuity at  the  botlom  of  the  follicle  of  the  cells 
coni]iosing  the  hair-bulb  and  those  forming  the  root- 
sheath,  and  (2)  by  the  hair-biilb  being  moulded 
over  the  surface  of  the  fungi-form  liair-iiapilla. 
There  is  yet  a  third  connection.  The  follicle  is 
lined  by  delicate  imbricated  scales,  which  are 
directed  downwards  and  interlock  with  the  up- 
wardly-directed .scales  which  coat  the  hair-root. 

The  fbniiis  sidistancc  of  the  hair  is  comiiosed  of 
llattened  fibres  applied  to  each  other  in  the  longi- 
tudinal direction,  and  firmly  united  by  interveiiiug 
cement-substance.  These  fibres  can  be  still  further 
resolved  into  minute  llattened  elon- 
gated ]ilates  or  cells,  which  constitute 
the  ultimate  elements  of  the  fibrous 
sulistance.  'I'lie  ]iigiiient  or  colour- 
ing matter  of  the  hair  is  distributed 
throughout  the  fibrous  substance.  It 
is  |iartly  placed  within  the  cells  which 
build  11))  the  lilires,  and  partly  in  the 
cement-substance  whicii  glues  the 
cells  together.  But  the  colour  of  a 
hair 

the    ipiantity 

]iresent.       It    is    also    to    a    certain 
extent  determined   by  the   luesence 
of    air  which   is   contained   in   minute  chinks    or 
crannies   in    the    fibrous    substance.      These    air- 
spaces   are    numerims    in     white    hail's,    but    are 
almost  entirely  absent  in  black  hail's. 

The  ceiilral  mcdidln  is  not  ]iresent  in  every  hair, 
nor,  indeed,  is  it  to  lie  found  throughout  the  entire 
Iciigih  of  those  hairs  in  which  it  exists.  Thus  it  is 
absent  in  the  line  short  hairs  of  the  body,  and  also 


Fig.  1. 


lolhcle  : 

n,  ei)i<UTmis  ;  h,  hair  ; 
c,  liair-liiilb;  d,  d, 
oil-glands  :  e,  fat- 
cells. 


Fig 


IS    not  entirely   determined   by  Surface 
dnd   of    pigment    '""»»" 


of    a 
Hair, 
luagiiitied. 


50G 


IIAIK 


in  a  large  proportion  of  the  liaii-s  of  tlie  scalp.  In 
stnirture  it  consists  of  two  or  tlircp  rows  of  rootiin- 
j^ular  rclls,  wliiili  coMtiiili  ii  rcrtain  amount  of  air. 

Till'  stnuturc  of  liiinian  liair  is  suili  tli.it  it  can 
almost  always  lie  tlislin^rnislieil  from  liair  drawn 
from  other  sources.  At  the  same  time  it  should  lie 
noted  that  the  hair  of  certain  of  the  antliro|ioid 
apes  (in<ire  csjiecially  the  Chimpanzee  and  (ionlla) 
resemlih's  it  so  clo.sely,  lioth  in  structure  and  in 
microsiiipical  ap|iearance,  that  the  diU'cicntiation 
would  he  matter  of  extreme  <liHiculty— if  indeed 
it  were  iios.sihle.  WaUleyer,  in  his  Atlas  dcr 
Meiischlirhcii  mill  Tlihrisriieii  llmtrc  ( 1884),  jrivcs  a 
series  of  heautilul  illustrations  in  which  the  hair  of 
man  may  he  compared  with  that  of  certain  of  the 
lower  animals. 

In  connection  with  each  hair  there  is  a  remark- 
aide  contrivance  hy  means  of  which  it  is  kept 
smooth,  j,'lossy,  and  )>liant.  It  is  furnished  with 
two  or  more  oil  ;;lands.  wliicli  secrete  a  gieiusy  lliiid. 
Each  of  these  glands  consists  of  a  little  sacculated 
]iouch  which  ojicns  into  the  hair-follicle  near  its 
orilicc  liy  a  short  iliict  or  channel  of  exit.  The 
oily  matter  which  is  formed  in  the  gland  is  dis- 
charged into  the  hair-follicle,  and  thus  upon  the 
.surface  of  the  hair. 

Hairs  are  likewise  provided  with  minute  muscles. 
These  consist  of  slender  hands  of  ccmtractile  ti.ssue, 
which  cro.ss  the  olituse  angle  which  is  formed  hy  the 
hair-follicle  and  the  surface  of  the  skin.  On  the 
one  haiiil  this  little  muscle  is  attached  to  the  super- 
ficial part  of  the  true  skin,  and  on  the  other 
to  the  lower  end  of  the  hair-follicle.  They  arc  not 
under  the  control  of  the  will,  Init  cold  and  certain 
emotions,  such  a-s  horror  and  fe.ir,  will  hring  them 
intojilay.  In  such  ca-ses  the  hair-muscles  contract  ; 
they  straighten  the  hair  follicles  and  erect  the  liair.s. 
Tiie  condition  known  as  '  goose-skin  '  is  the  result. 

The  hair  follicle  is  the  lalior.itory  in  which  the 
manufacture  and  cimlimied  growth  of  the  hair  is 
etl'cctcd.  At  the  hottom  of  the  follicle  is  the  liltl<> 
papilla  upon  which  the  liair-bulh  is  mouhled.  The 
lilood-vcsscls  of  the  pajiilla  supply  the  m.aterial 
necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  hair.  Additions  are 
made  to  its  hase,  and  as  it  rises  up  in  the  follicle 
its  upwardly-directed  scaly  covering  swcciis  liefore 
it  the  scales  lining  the  follicle.  The  scales  which 
are  thus  carried  to  the  surface  constitute  a  jiart  of 
the  scurf  of  the  head.  The  rate  at  which  the  hair 
grows  dill'ers  very  iiiueh  in  dillerent  ]iarts  of  the 
hotly,  and  it  is  also  .said  to  he  alVected  liy  the  .age 
of  the  individual,  the  age  of  the  particular  hair 
under  investigation,  the  season  of  the  year,  anil 
even  the  hour  of  the  day.  The  average  growth  of 
the  heard  has  been  computcil  to  l>e  (!!  inches  each 
year.  In  the  growth  of  the  hcatl  hair  the  greatest 
discrejiancies  exist  in  the  results  ohtained  hy  ilillcr- 
ent  otiservers.  In  young  females  who  have  lost 
their  hair  hy  fevers  it  has  heen  noticed  to  grow  at 
the  rate  of  7  inches  each  year. 

NVlien  the  growth  is  good  the  average  length  of 
h.air  on  the  female  he:id  will  he  found  to  vary 
from  'Jl'  to  ■J'S  inches.  .Anything  lieyond  this  must 
he  regarded  as  exceptional.  Cxses,  it  is  true,  are 
recorded  in  which  it  has  mea.sured  from  5  to  0 
feet  ;  but  these  are  very  rare.  In  the  '  Hair  Court ' 
of  the  180'2  international  exhibition  there  Wiis  a 
specimen  of  jet  black  hair  measuring  74  inches. 
Hut  mo.-t  extraordinary  instances  are  recorded  of 
the  power  of  hair-growth  possessed  by  certain  of 
the  North  American  Indians.  A  chief  of  the  Crow 
tribe  is  mentiimed  by  Catlin  as  having  hair  of  the 
almost  incredible  length  of  10  feet  7  inches. 

The  duration  of  hair-life  is  limited,  and  sooner  or 
later  it  is  shed.  Indeed  it  is  stateil  that  the  hails 
of  an  infant  are  com]>lctely  shed  within  a  year 
after  birth  :  those  on  the  body  ami  limlis  go  liist, 
whilst    the    hairs  of    the    head    and    the    evelasln's 


follow.  This  change  b  carrieil  on  nlniost  iin- 
jierceiitibly,  seeing  that  the  place  of  the  falling 
li.aii-s  is  taken  by  a  second  crop.  The  process  of 
loss  and  renewal  is  very  simple.  The  old  hair  is 
detached  from  the  papilla,  and  soon  another  hair 
makes  its  aiipearance  at  the  liottoni  of  the  same 
follicle,  and  grows  towards  its  orilicc.  The  detached 
hair  is  thus  thrust  out  and  shed.  The  whole  process 
i-  not  unlike  the  re]dacement  of  the  milk  teeth  in 
the  child  by  the  iiennanenl  teeth.  The  second  crop 
of  hair  which  appears  is  ]ierennial.  An  eyela-sfi 
has  been  calculated  to  remain  attached  for  110 
days.  A  head-hair  hits  a  longer  period  of  life.  It 
lives  from  two  to  four  years.  Itefore  it  dies 
provLsion  is  ma<le  for  its  successor,  and  so  the 
process  of  sheihling  anil  renewal  goes  on  continually. 
During  its  life  a  hair  is  onlv  capable  of  growing  ii 
certain  determinate  lengtli.  The  ciicunistaiice 
which  determines  this  lengtli  is  the  amount  of 
nutritive  material-  which  can  be  drawn  from  the 
blood-vessels  of  the  papilla.  Thus  when  a  hair  has 
attained  its  full  length  it  will  resume  growth  for  a 
second  time  on  being  cut  short.  It  is  only  when 
the  loss  exceeds  the  powers  of  renewal  that  a 
tendencv  to  baldness  results.  In  the  ca.se  of  the 
female  liead  the  d.iily  loss  may  contain  a  ipiarter 
of  the  h.-iirs  shed  of  a  length  under  (1  inches  without 
giving  rise  to  apprehension.  Should  the  number  of 
fallen  short  bans  exceeil  this  [irojiortion  the  hair- 
loss  is  abnormal,  ;ind  b.aldness  is  likely  to  ensue. 

As  age  ailvances  the  lijiir  becomes  gray.  This  i« 
a  natural  and  ]iliysiological  process  ;  hut  it  may  1h' 
hastened  by  severe  trouble  or  other  I'auses,  In 
many  ca.ses  the  prematuie  blanching  of  the  hair  is 
hereditary.  \\  hen  the  change  is  taking  place 
party  cohmred  hairs  may  be  fref|uently  found  ;  of 
these  it  is  the  basal  jiortion  which  is  white,  w  bile 
the  terminal  part  ret.ains  its  colour.  IJrowii- 
Sei|iiard  made  sonic  interesting  experiments  on  his 
own  Ijcard  whilst  it  was  turning  gray.  He  marked 
certain  of  the  coloured  hairs,  and  kept  a  constant 
watch  on  them.  He  states  that  in  some  ea*es  an 
entire  hair  would  turn  gray  in  the  c<«irse  of  a 
night.  Two  factoi"s  would  seem  to  be  tat  work  in 
producing  this  comlition  of  hair — viz.  a  loss  of  the 
power  to  produce  pigment,  and  an  increase  of  air 
in  the  shaft  of  the  hair.  Sometimes  the  change 
occui-s  rapidly— in  the  course,  pc^rhaps,  of  a  few 
hours.  Well  authenticateil  ca.ses  of  this  are  on 
record.  It  is  said  that  the  auburn  hair  of  Marie 
Antoinette  turned  gray  in  a  single  night.  Surgeon 
I'arry  as.serts  that  he  .actually  saw  the  jet-black 
hair  of  a  rebel  sepoy  whilst  under  examination  and 
the  fear  of  a  horrible  death  turn  gray  in  the  coni-se 
of  half  an  hour.  ISaron  Alphonse  de  Kothschild 
during  the  Commune  is  another  instance.  It  is 
ditlicnit  to  give  any  reii.soiiable  explanation  of  these 
Kud<lcn  ciuses  of  hair  blanching. 

The  hair  is  regardeil  by  anthropologists  as  being 
of  high  importance  as  a  race  character.  Althougn 
there  is  no  one  special  colour  of  hair  jicculiar  to 
any  (me  race,  tliis  char.acter  must  not  be  dis- 
regarded. In  our  own  country  we  mav  see  every 
hue  from  the  fairest  flaxen  to  the  blackest  jet. 
\Vithoiit  doubt  this  jioints  to  a  diversity  of  origin. 
Independently  of  colour,  however,  there  are  cliar- 
acters  present  in  the  hair  which  separate  many  of 
the  races  of  man  widely  from  each  other.  In  the 
American  Indians,  Chinese,  .la]ianese,  ami  natives 
of  High  .\sia  the  hair  is  long,  straight,  ami  harsh  like 
a  horse's  ni.ine.  Amongst  the  negroes,  Hottenlots, 
and  l'a]>nans  it  is  crisp  and  woolly.  Between  these 
extremes  we  m.ay  jilace  the  Kuropean,  in  whom  the 
hair  is  wavy  .and  ifowing.  The  close  curling  of  the 
negroes'  hair  has  been  shown  by  several  oliservei-s 
to  be  largely  due  to  the  fact  tli.'it  the  hair  follicles 
arc  curved.  A  spiral  twist  is  thus  given  to  the  liair. 
It   h.is   been    held   that   the  straight    harsh    liair  of 


HAIR 


HAIR-DYES 


507 


the  American  Indian  is  ciiciilai-  in  transvei-se 
section,  tliat  the  wavy  European  hair  is  oval,  anil 
that  the  crisp  woolly  negro  hair  is  flattened  and 
tape-like  in  cross-section.  Tlu^re  now  appears  to 
be  reason  to  doubt  this  (see  \Valdeyer"s  Atlns). 

The  chief  use  of  the  hair,  and  particularly  of 
the  fur  of  various  mammals  which  is  es]>ecially 
developed  in  the  winter,  is  to  jiroteet  the  body  from 
("Xternal  cold.  Except  on  the  seal])  and  on  the 
throat,  this  cannot  be  c(msidereil  as  applying  to 
man.  What,  then,  are  the  uses  of  the  hair  on  the 
face,  and  especially  on  the  upper  lip  ?  We  shall 
answer  tliis  question  with  an  extract  from  an 
article  'On  the  I  se  of  the  Hair'  in  the  Lancet  for 
November  3,  1860  :  '  Mr  Chadwick,  who  li.as  done 
so  much  for  sanitary  reform,  tells  us  that  he  was 
once  very  much  struck  by  seeing  some  blacksmiths 
who  wore  beards,  with  their  moustaches  discoloured 
by  a  (juantity  of  iron  dust  which  had  accumulated 
amongst  the  hairs.  Turning  it  over  in  his  mind, 
it  struck  him  that  had  not  the  dust  been  so  arre-sted 
liy  a  natural  respirator,  it  must  have  found  its  way 
into  the  lungs,  where  it  could  not  have  been  other- 
wise than  productive  of  evil  consequences.  He 
hence  rightly  advised  that  the  razor  should  be 
ilis<-arded  by  labourers  in  all  dusty  trades — such  a.s 
millers,  b.akers,  masons,  <S:c. ;  by  workmen  employed 
in  grinding  iron  or  steel ;  and  by  travellers  on 
dusty  roarls.  In  hot,  sandy  countries  the  use  of 
the  beard  is  soon  discovered ;  and  travellers  in 
Syria  and  Egypt  find  it  nece.ssarv  to  defeml  their 
mouths  again.st  the  entrance  of  the  hot  air  of  the 
ilesert.  But  not  against  dust  alone  is  the  facial 
hair  a  ))rotection  ;  it  is  the  best  barrier  against  cold 
air,  biting  winds,  and  wheezy  fogs  that  a  Northman 
can  obtain.  .  .  .  According  to  Mr  Chadwick,  the 
sajipers  and  miners  of  the  French  army,  who 
are  remarkable  for  the  size  and  beauty  of  their 
he.irils,  enjoy  ,a  special  immunity  against  bronchial 
all'ections. '  In  corroboration  of  the  last  named 
fact  we  may  mention  another  of  a  still  more 
striking  character.  During  the  long-continued 
search  for  Franklin's  expedition,  a  transport  vessel, 
the  Xurth  !ititt\  wa-s  frozen  up  during  one  of  the 
severest  arctic  wintei's  en  record,  in  Wolstenliolme 
Sound.  The  crew  maintained  their  health  i)erfectly 
during  all  the  trials  to  which  they  were  e.xposed. 
On  their  return  to  England  in  the  early  summer 
they  shaved  oli'  the  hair  that  had  been  growing 
around  the  mouth  and  throat  for  the  last  eight  or 
nine  months,  and  within  a  week  cvki-ij  man  was  on 
the  sick  list  with  some  form  of  bronchial  or 
puhnonary  disorder. 

The  short  hairs  scattered  over  the  body  may  be 
regarded  as  being  rudimentary.  In  other  words, 
they  are  vestiges  of  a  hairy  covering  which  at  one 
time  did  fullil  a  protective  ami  sheltering  function. 
In  the  Ainos  of  Japan  and  the  Toda.s  of  the 
Nilglierries  these  haii-s  are  still  retained  in  a  high 
degree  of  development. 

Cases  occasionally  occur  where  there  is  an 
abnormal  abundance  of  hair  of  considerable  length 
in  women  on  parts  where  the  hair  is  usually  little 
more  than  down.  A  hairy  woman,  named  Julia 
Pit-^trana,  supiiosed  to  lie  .a  Mexican,  was  ex- 
hil>ited  in  London  ;  her  embalmed  body  wa-s  e.x- 
hibited  also  in  that  city  in  18(i2,  and  we  extract 
the  following  remarks  ifrom  a  memoir  (m  her  in 
T/if  Luiirrt  for  May  3  of  that  year:  'The  ears, 
and  all  parts  of  the  face  except  the  eyes,  were 
covered  with  hair  of  difl'erent  lengths.  The  1)eard 
was  tolerably  thick,  the  hairs  composing  it  lieing 
straight,  black,  ami  bristly,  the  part  of  it  which 
grew  on  the  sides  of  the  chin  hanging  down  like 
two  plaits.  .  .  .  The  upper  jiortion  of  the  li.ack  of 
the  neck  and  the  hinder  surface  of  tlu-  eai-s  were 
covered  with  haii-s.  On  the  shoulders  and  legs  the 
haii-s  were  a.s  abundant    as   thev  are  occasionally 


seen  on  very  powerful  men.'  Dr  Cliowne  described 
similar  but  less  marked  ca.ses  of  liairj'  women 
in  the  Lancet  for  1S43 :  and  in  18SG  membei-s 
of  a  JJunnese  family,  whose  bodies  were  almost 
j  entirely  co\  ered  with  hair,  were  first  exhibited  in 
I  London.  See  Be.ved,  Wig,  B.m,dnk.s.s,  Pi.ica 
Fi)LONic.\,  Ringworm,  Sc.\i-dhe.\d,  P.\u.a.site.s, 
&c.  ;  also  Sir  Erasmus  Wilson,  Healthy  Skin  and 
Hair  ( 18-to  :  new  ed.  1886). 

Ilair-balls.    See  Coxcretioxs. 

Hair-dre.ssing.  As  a  matter  of  convenience, 
as  well  a-s  of  taste  and  fashion,  the  dressing  of  the 
hair  has  received  much  attention  in  all  civilised 
nations,  ancient  and  modern.  The  Beard  is  the 
subject  of  a  separate  article.  Amongst  savages 
the  most  extraordinary  diversity  as  to  the  dressing 
of  their  hair  obtains  ;  some  frizzing  it  to  the  utmost 
extent ;  some  fixing  it  in  all  sorts  of  perverse 
arrangements  by  means  of  frames,  and  some 
partially  shaving  the  head.  The  Chinese  j>igtail, 
the  American  Indian  scalp-lock,  and  the  Moslem 
shaven  head,  with  a  small  tuft  left  by  which  to  1)6 
ultimately  lifted  into  Paradise,  are  all  well  known. 
.\ccording  to  Rev.  J.  G.  Paton,  missionary  (see 
his  Life,  1889),  some  of  the  New  Helirides  people 
have  hair  crisp  and  woolly,  stuck  full  of  feathere 
and  shells  ;  othei~s  have  hair  long  and  wavy,  twisted 
into  as  many  as  700  sejjarate  whipcords  on  a  single 
hea<l,  requiring  the  labour  of  five  years  to  com- 
plete. Amongst  modern  civilised  Europeans  the 
courtiers  and  cavaliers  of  the  17th  century  adopted 
the  practice  of  wearing  those  '  love-locks '  which 
excited  the  ire  of  the  Puritans.  It  was,  how 
ever,  in  the  manai^ement  of  ladies'  hair  that  the  ail 
of  the  professional  hair-dresser  was  in  those  times 
mainly  exercised.  In  the  18th  century,  through 
the  influence  of  French  fashions,  the  dressing  of 
hair,  male  and  female,  rose  to  a  great  pitch  of 
extravagance  and  folly  (see  Wig).  The  hair  of  a 
latlv  of  fashion  was  frizzed  ui)  in  convolutions 
antl  curls,  decorated  with  ribbons,  jewels,  and 
feathers,  and  filled  with  pomatum  and  powder  to 
a  degree  perfectly  monstrous.  As  women  of  les.s 
exalted  rank  slavishly  attempted  to  follow  these 
absurdities,  the  Ijusiness  of^  dressing  hair  was 
extensively  followed.  The  cost  of  a  full  ilre.ssing 
being,  however,  too  high  to  be  lightly  incurred, 
often  one  dres.sing  was  made  to  suffice  for  a  week 
or  fortnight,  during  which  periinl  such  care  was 
taken  to  preserve  the  greasy  fabric  undisturbed, 
that  it  became  the  frecpient  re-sort  of  trouble- 
some insects.  From  pressure  of  business  it  fre- 
quently happened  that  previous  to  balls  ladies'  hair 
had  to  be  dressed  one  or  two  davs  in  advance ; 
and  to  keen  the  head-dress  unininred  the  lady 
sat  in  a  cliair  perhai)s  two  nights  instead  of 
going  to  bed.  A  tax  on  Uair-powder  (i|.v. ), 
along  with  the  simplification  of  fashions  conse- 
([uent  on  the  French  Revolution,  not  only  exi)elled 
hair-])0wder  and  perruques,  but  brought  the  ]iro- 
fe.ssion  of  hair-ilie.sser  within  reasonable  Iniunds. 
As  regards  ladies'  hair,  fashion  is  constantly  alter- 
ing. With  respect  to  men's  hair,  short  cutting 
is  now  nnivei'sal.  Pursued  as  an  ordinary  Imsi- 
ne.ss  in  England  and  continental  countries,  hair- 
dressing  in  the  Uiiiteil  States  is  to  a  largo  extent 
resigned  to  men  of  colour,  and  in  connection  with 
many  of  the  hotels  they  are  provided  with  work- 
rooms. Of  the  innumerable  oils,  es.sences,  and 
pomade  which  are  vendeil  for  the  hair,  on  the 
doubtful  assumi)tion  that  they  improve  and  nourish 
it,  some  are  distinctly  injurious. 

Hair-dyes.  \'arions  means  have  been  adojited 
for  changing  the  natural  colour  of  the  hair  to  a 
nuire  favoured  one.  ami  for  hiding  the  ajiproaches 
of  age,  as  indicateil  by  the  jiresence  of  gray  hairs. 
These  usually  consist   in  washing  the  hair  with  a 


508 


IIAIU-KHL 


IIAli:     M.VNUFACTIUKS 


sniutiun  of  some  metallic  salt  known  to  have  the 
elVi'ct  of  (laikoninj;  its  colour,  such  as  salts  of 
silviM-,  iiii'rciiiv,  li'iiil,  anil  bisiimtli.  I'vni^iallic 
aiiil  is  also  ein|ilo_veil  to  ^ive  a  lnown  tint,  wliik- 
a  solution  of  pemxiile  of  hyilrojicn  in  water  iin- 
])Orts  a  line  ^oKlen  colour.  The  most  jierfect 
nioile  of  ilyein;j  the  hair  black  is  that  of  iirc- 
vioiisly  preparing  it  hv  a  complete  soaking  with 
a  solution  of  siilphiclo  of  potassium  :  tlic  strcn;.'th 
of  tills  siihition  niu~t  ilcpcnil  on  tlio  ilcplli  ot  lint 
inti'iuled  to  be  j,'ivon  :  the  stronger  the  solution  llic 
ilarker  the  colour  will  be.  When  thor.)u;,'hly 
wetted,  the  hair  is  allowed  to  dry  partially  :  and 
whilst  still  danii)  it  is  to  be  saturated  with  a  solu- 
tion of  nitrate  of  silver,  of  a  stren;.'th  iiroiiortionate 
to  the  depth  of  colour  desired.  This  makes  a 
very  ]iernianent  ilye,  which  only  reipiires  renewing 
where  the  new  growth  of  hair  becomes  conspicuous. 
The  fashion  of  dyeing  the  hair  is  very  ancient,  ami 
belongs  as  much  to  sav.age  as  to  civilised  nations  ; 
but  in  the  case  of  the  former  vegetable  dyes  have 
been  chielly  used.  In  China  and  other  ea.stern 
countries  the  juice  of  the  petals  of  Jiil/isru-i  Tri- 
oniiin,  the  UladderKetmia,  and  probably  other 
species  of  Hibiscus,  is  in  general  use. 

The  iletection  of  stained  hair  is  sometimes  an 
object  of  medico-legal  investigation.  Lead  may  be 
detected  by  boiling  the  hair  in  dilute  nitric  acid, 
and  then  apjdyiiig  the  tests  for  Lead  {q.v.)  to  the 
acid  solution  ;  while  the  ])resence  of  silver  may  be 
shown  l)y  digesting  the  hair  in  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid  or  idihuine  water,  when  the  resulting  chlori<le 
of  silver  m.-iy  be  dissolved  out  wilh  a  solution  of 
ammonia,  ami  submitted  to  the  onlinarv  tests  for 
Silver  (.[.v.). 

Ilair-cel,  the  form  into  which  horse  hairs  left 
to  soak  in  r\inning  water  are  preposterously 
assumed  by  many  to  develop.  The  naireel  or 
lioixehair  worm  is  really  a  Jiematode  (q.v.);  see 
also  Kki,,  THUii.\u-\vouM.s. 

Hair  <irs»SS  ( -I  iV" ),  a  genus  of  grasses,  lia\  ing 
deliiati'ly  jianicled  inllorescences,  bearing  spikelets 
with  two  unerjual  glumes,  and  two  ])erfect  llowers, 
each  with  two  ihin  membranous  bracts,  of  which 
the  outer  is  generally  awned.  The  species  are 
natives  of  temperate  and  cold  climates.  Five 
species  are  natives  of  Britain,  and  .-ue  chielly  found 
in  moors,  sandy  ])astures,  ami  other  situations 
where  the  soil  is  unfertile.  The  Tufted  Hair  tira.ss, 
or  Turfy  Hair  (inuss  (,-1.  vasi/itusii).  common  in 
better  |iastures  and  meadows,  is  a  beautiful  grass 
whi-n  in  llower,  but  forms  coarse  tufts  of  very 
rough  leaves,  which  are  usually  rejecteil  by  cattle. 
It  attains  a  height  of  2  to  4  feet,  ami  is  sometimes 
used  fen'  thatching  ricks  of  hay  or  corn,  and  in  some 
places  for  making  mats.  It  grows  lu.xuriantly  in 
moist  situations,  and  indicates  a  bailly  dr.iined 
soil.  It  is  occiusionally  tolerateil,  in  onler  to  add 
to  the  bulk  of  lioij  llinj  in  moorish  gronmls,  1>ut  is 
carefully  extirpated  wherever  agricultural  imiuove- 
ineiit  takes  place.  This  grass  is,  however,  some- 
times sown  to  form  cover  f<n-  game,  particularly 
hares ;  and  in  marshy  situations  f(n-  snipes  and 
wild  hiwl.      It  is  the  iriiitltestrdr  of  the  Scotch. 

Hair  llaillirat'tlires.  In  this  article  the 
various  kinds  of  hair  (except  wool)  used  in  manu- 
factures are  noticed,  together  with  the  dili'erent 
fabrics  or  .articles  made  from  them.  liemarks 
on  a  few  of  these  will  be  found  under  Al.l'.\c.\, 
Brlstues,  Bitisil,  and  Fiuuols  SriiST.wcKs. 
For  slieeps  wool,  which  like  fur  is  nioililieil  hair, 
and  the  similar  animal  hbres  mohair  and  alpaca, 
see  WoOLLKS  .M.\xik.\ctuuks.  Fur-covered  skins 
nseil  for  articles  of  ilress  in  their  natural  con- 
ilition,  with  just  surticient  treatment  to  (ucserve 
them,  are  described  under  FlR  :  while  tlu^  employ- 
ment of  wool,  fur,  and  hair  in  the  manufacture  of 


felted  goods  is  noticeil  under  the  headings  I'klt 
and  W.VT. 

II mini II  ll(iir.—T\ie  trade  in  Britain  in  this  is 
considerable,  sunplies  of  it  being  chielly  obtained 
from  continental  Kurope,  India,  ami  Cliina.  The 
hair  shipped  from  -Vsiatic  countrii's  is  coai>e,  that 
from  ticrniany  and  Scandinavia  is  light  coloured, 
and  that  cidh'cted  in  Italy  ami  souiImmii  France  is 
dark.  In  former  years  an  occasional  supply  ol  good 
iiuality  was  got  from  Ircdaml.  Hair  S  inches  long 
is  worth  aliout  Is.  per  ounce,  while  such  as  extends 
to  the  length  of  3  feet  sometimes  reaches  as  high 
a  price  sv*  .SOs.  i>er  ounce.  Certain  colours,  such  sis 
jiiire  golden,  are  of  greater  value  than  more  common 
Kinds,  ami  hair  from  the  living  subject  is  much 
l>etter  th.in  deail  hair.  Human  hair  i>  worked  up 
into  w  at<"hguaids,  biixtches,  iiiacclcls.  an<l  other 
liei-s<inal  ornaments,  the  patterns  of  which  are  often 
very  beautiful.  In  the  article  W'Ki  this  and  other 
imitations  in  hair  of  the  natural  covering  of  the 
head  are  noticed. 

Jlni:se-/i<iir.—'l'\\c  comiiaratively  small  ijuantity 
of  this  hair  obtained  in  I^ngland  is  got  trom  the 
combings  of  tails  and  manes,  but  it  is  of  excellent 
<|uality.  Horse  hair  is  imported  from  linssia.  (ler- 
maiiy,  ISelginm,  Simth  .\merica,  and  .Australia;  the 
imixnts  for  the  live  years  ending  IS,S(S  averaging 
nearly  iO.lltM)  cwt.  aniiually.  The  United  Stales 
import  hair  to  the  value  of  from  2J  to  '2k  million 
dollars  annually  :  exiiorlinga  value  of  from  .ViO.OOO 

to  42(I,0(K»  ilollais.      Hair  c bed  from   the  tails  of 

horses  is  the  most  valuable,  tli.at  from  the  mane 
being  of  inferior  (|ualily.  The  former  is  designated 
'hard,'  and  the  latter  'soft,'  while  the  hair  is 
further  distinguished  by  the  terms  'live'  and 
'  dead,'  acconling  as  it  has  been  taken  from  the 
animal  befine  or  after  death.  'Live'  hair  com- 
mands the  highest  price.  White  is  the  most  valu- 
able kind  as  regards  colour,  as  it  is  suitable  for 
dyeing  bright  tints,  and  the  best  hair  is  obtained 
from  wild  liorses. 

Horsehair  undergoes  three  sortings — viz.  into 
sorts  according  to  length,  into  diU'ereiit  colours,  and 
into  various  i|ualities.  .\fter  this  the  hair  is  washed 
generally  in  warm  soap  baths  and  in  water  slightly 
heated,  to  which  lime  or  potash  has  been  added. 
The  hair,  exi'e|it  the  white  sort,  which  is  to  he 
bleached,  is,  alter  cleaning  passed  through  a  dye 
lialh  in  which  logwood  is  the  chief  ingreilient. 
Short  hair  being  used  for  stulling  in  n])hidstery 
work,  anil  long  hair  chielly  for  the  niaiinlacture  of 
haircloth,  the  two  kinds  after  the  above  treatment 
undergo  dillerent  piores>es. 

Short  horse  hair,  although  best  for  the  purpose 
when  used  alone,  is  nevertheless  mixed  with  cow 
and  jiig  hair  for  stulling  chairs,  sofas,  and  the  like. 
Dilt'ereiil  blends  of  these  are  made,  and  the  three 
kinds  thoroughly  incorporated  by  suitable  machines, 
after  which  the  mixture  is  beaten  and  screened  to 
clear  it  of  du>t.  Then  follows  the  '  culling  '  pro- 
cess, by  which  the  hair  is  liist  spun  into  ropes, 
which  are  next  twisted  into  much  shorter  lengths, 
ami  by  a  third  o]>eralion  further  twisted  till  they 
get  into  a  convolute  shape.  The  curl  thus  given 
reipiires  to  be  lixed  by  placing  the  hair  in  cold 
water  for  several  hours,  ami  afterwards  in  an  oven, 
where  it  is  kept  for  some  time  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture. This  baking  also  destroy-^  the  eggs  of  obnox- 
iinis  insects.  The  hair  in  this  rope  form  rei|nires  to 
be  te.-ised  up  for  use.  For  inferior  stuffing  vege- 
table libres  are  now  mixed  with  hair. 

Iliiiii-liilli. — Long  horse-hair  is  conilied  on  steel 
combs,  and  .separated  into  ditlerent  lengths  and 
thickne-sses,  about  .'1  feet  being  the  longest  size. 
The  chief  application  of  long  hair  is  in  the  manu- 
facture of  haircloth,  which  is  generally  though  not 
alw.ays  black.  Even  when  naturally  lil.-tcU  the  hair 
is  dyed  to  give  it  a  uniform  colour.      White  hair  is 


HAIR    MANUFACTURES 


HAIRS    OF    PLANTS 


509 


bleaclied  and  dyed  different  colours.  The  length 
of  the  hair  determines  the  width  of  the  cloth,  since 
the  weft  is  formed  of  sin^'le  hairs.  Strong  linen  or 
cotton  twist  commonly  form  the  warp.  Uj)  to  the 
middle  of  tlie  19th  century  a  child  at  one  side  of 
a  handloom  sii|)]ilied  a  hair  to  the  weaver  for  each 
throw  of  the  shuttle,  to  which  the  hair  was  hooked. 
A  sn1)ser|uent  invention  made  it  |)raclicable  to  dis- 
pense with  the  child  or  servei',  the  weaver  hy  means 
of  a  treadle  working  hoth  the  hook-shuttle  for 
drawing^  tlirough,  and  the  batten  for  driving  home, 
the  weft  hairs ;  and  at  the  same  time  supplying 
these  haii-s  with  his  or  her  own  hands. 

The  power-loom,  invented  by  Mr  Isaac  Lindsley, 
of  Pawtucket,  Iihode  Island,  was  the  tirst  .success- 
ful attc>ni])t  to  supersede  the  hand-loom  in  the 
weaving  of  haircloth.  In  it  the  end  of  an  arm  or 
rod,  made  to  operate  like  a  finger  and  thuiuli, 
grasps  the  hairs  as  they  are  presented  to  it  by  a 
picker  which  takes  up  a  single  hair  from  a  bunch, 
and  this  hair  is  then  carried  liy  the  rod  through  the 
shed  of  the  warp.  This  loom  has  been  exten.sively 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  haircloth.  In  some  more 
recent  ones,  however,  the  working  parts  have  been 
simplified,  and  an  im|)ortant  arrangement  intro- 
duced by  winch  the  thin  ami  the  thick  emls  of  the 
hair  are  taken  up  by  the  picker  alternately. 

Haircloth  is  so  woven  that  only  the  hair  portion 
is  seen  on  the  surface,  tlie  linen  or  cotton  war|) 
being  hidden.  Most  of  what  is  made  in  England  is 
]ilain,  liut  some  haircloth  <laniasks,  both  black  and 
coloured,  are  woven  ;  so  al.so  are  striped  pieces  of 
various  colours.  These  ornamental  kinds,  whicli 
are  well  suited  for  elegant  furniture  in  tropical 
regions,  are  largely  made  on  the  Continent.  In 
some  special  kinds  of  fabric  both  warp  and  weft 
are  of  horse-hair.  Among  these  are  sieve-bottoms 
for  cooks,  chemists,  and  powder  manufacturers. 
Other  e.xamples  are  press-cloths  u.sed  in  making 
cider,  and  tailors'  ironing  cloths.  Horse-hair  is 
worked  up  into  onianiental  cord-like  or  braid-like 
forms  (crinoline)  for  ladies'  bonnets,  into  borden^ 
and  cords  for  carriages,  into  material  for  cigar-cases 
and  similar  articles,  and  into  fishing-lines. 

'  lirussels '  carpet  of  horse-hair  was  introduced 
by  Mr  K.  Webb  of  Worcester.  Several  kinds  of 
carpet  partly  or  wholly  composed  of  this  niateiial 
are  now  m.ade.  In  these  tissues  the  hair  is  not 
wo\en  in  the  same  way  as  it  is  in  ordinary  hair- 
cloth, but  as  a  yarn  for  which  short  hair,  some- 
times mixed  with  the  hair  of  other  aniiuals,  is 
generally  used.  The  material  is  carded,  sjiun,  and 
twisted.  Some  carpets  have  both  warp  and  weft  of 
hair;  others  have  only  a  plain  warp  ot  hair  with  a 
weft  of  jute  ;  others  again  have  a  backing  and  welt 
of  hemp,  jute,  or  cotton,  ami  the  pile  warp  of  horse- 
hair. These  carpets  are  extremely  durable,  and 
therefore  well  suited  for  offices  and  other  rooms  in 
which  there  is  much  iratlle. 

Cuwlmir  is  cons\imed  in  considerable  quantities 
by  plasterers  to  bind  the  plaster  put  on  the  internal 
walls  of  houses.  As  already  stated,  it  is  mixed 
with  horsehair  for  stutling  purposes,  and  with  wool 
for  common  blankets,  carpets,  rugs,  and  other 
articles.  Cow-hair  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  rooling  and  other  felts.  This  kind  of  hair  is 
obtaim^d  in  considerable  c|uantities  from  tanneiies. 
The  imports  of  it  in  l.SSS  amounted  to  ().>,()()0  cwt. 

('iiiiiii-liiiir  is  olitained  from  the  legs,  the  neck, 
ami  the  humps  of  both  species  of  Camel  (q. v.).  The 
hair  of  the  Arabian  camel  is  tine  and  light-cidoured  ; 
that  from  the  liactrian  camel  is  coarser,  and  of  a 
darker  shade.  It,  however,  varies  in  degi'ee  of 
fineness  according  to  the  age  of  the  animals,  young 
ones  yielding  tlie  finest  kiml.  In  Tartary.  Persia, 
.-Vrabia.  and  other  eastern  countries  camel-hair  is 
woven  into  a  soft,  w.arm,  and  durable  cloth  for  per- 
sonal  wear.     It   is  also   made  into  carpets,  tent- 


coverings,  and  other  articles.  Since  1860  a  good 
deal  ot  this  hair  has  been  sent  to  Europe  and 
America  for  weaving  into  carjiets  and  for  mixing 
with  wool ;  in  the  case  of  the  finer  kinds,  for  warm 
clothing.  The  .so-called  camel-hair  brushes  are 
made  Irom  the  tail  of  the  sable  or  of  some  kinds 
of  squirrel. 

(idiil-liuir. — The  hair  of  the  common  goat  is  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  cheap  carpets  and  for  other 
purposes,  liut  that  of  the  Angora  or  mohair  goat  is 
now  a  veiT  important  material  in  our  textile  in- 
dustries, rids  mohair,  as  it  is  called,  is  described 
under  Woollex  Manifacture.s,  and  the  fine  wool 
forming  part  of  the  Heece  of  the  Cashmere  or  shawl 
goat  is  noticed  under  CvsiiMKHK  Co.vr.  Shawl. 

Pir/liriir  nr  Bri.btlrs. — Some  pig-hair  is  mixed 
with  other  kinds  for  stuffing.  The  juincipal  use  of 
this  material,  however,  is  for  making  brushes. 
See  BiiisTLEsand  Bki'shes. 

ElejjIuDit's  Hair. — The  .strong  hair  of  the  ele- 
phant'.s  tail  is  occasionally  turned  to  some  use. 
For  examjile,  a  native  bracelet  is  employed  by 
some  of  the  tribes  in  Nyassaland,  which  consists 
simply  of  two  such  hairs  plaited. 

Hair-poMder.  a  jiuie  white  powder,  made 
from  imlveiised  starch,  .scented  with  viidet  or  some 
other  perfume,  and  at  one  time,  especially  in  the 
17th  and  18tli  centuries,  largely  used  for  powder- 
ing over  the  head.  The  f.ashion  became  universal 
among  the  higher  and  iiiidille  cla.s.ses,  anil  by  ladies 
as  well  as  gentlemen.  To  make  the  powder  hold, 
the  hair  was  usually  greased  with  pomade,  and 
accorilingly  the  fashion  was  extremely  troublesome. 
All  act  of  parliament  fixed  that  the  line  dust  fif 
which  the  powder  was  coni]iosed  should  be  made 
from  starch  alone  ;  and  we  learn  from  the  Goiflc- 
7na>i'-'i  Magazine,  that  on  November  20,  1746,  fifty- 
one  barbers  were  convicted  before  the  Com- 
missioners of  E.xcise  at  London,  and  fined  £20 
each,  for  having  in  their  kceidiig  hair-]iowder  not 
made  of  starch,  contrary  to  act  of  parliament.  In 
17!).j  a  tax  of  a  guinea  (afterwards  £1,  .Ss.  6d.)  wa.s 
put  on  the  use  of  hair-powder,  and  at  one  time 
yielded  £20,000  per  annum,  but  it  had  the  effect  of 
causing  hair-powder  to  fall  into  general  disuse. 
The  French  Revolution,  which  overturned  so  many 
institutions,  contributed  also  to  the  people  of 
Europe  returning  to  natural  and  uniiowdered  hair. 
At  the  present  day  powder  continues  to  be  used  by 
some  ot  the  footmen  of  the  nobility  and  higher 
ranks  as  part  of  their  livery.  The  tax  on  hair- 
powder  was  repealed  in  ISG'J.  At  the  time  of  its 
abolition  it  was  paid  by  abotit  800  persons,  and 
yielded  a  revenue  of  about  £1000  a  year. 

Ilair.s  of  Plants  are  outgrowths  of  epider- 
mal cells,  which  assume  various  forms.  They  may 
remain  unicellular,  resembling  simple  tubes,  or 
become  multicellular  by  division  of  the  originally 
simjile  cell.  They  develop  on  almost  any  part 
of  the  surface  of  plants  :  and  there  are  few  plants 
that  are  entirely  without  them.  A  plant  may 
have  only  one  form  of  hair ;  but  most  plants  have 
several  forms.  Similar  kinds  of  hairs  are  often 
characteristic  of  jdants  belonging  to  the  same  order 
— e.g.  the  glandular  hairs  of  the  sun-dew  (Drosera) 
order,  the  stinging  hairs  of  the  nettle  (Crtica) 
order,  and  the  scaly  hairs  of  ferns.  Root  hail's 
(see  Hoot)  are  among  the  siiiqilest  inform;  they 
arc  alw.ays  unicellular  tubes  which  absorb  water 
and  certain  minerals  es.sential  for  the  life  of  the 
plant.  The  aerial  organs  of  plants  develop  liaii-s 
which  serve  to  protect  them  from  cold,  or  injury 
from  other  sources — e.g.  many  winter  buds  have 
hairy  .scale  leaves  which  often,  with  a  gummy 
secretion.  kee]i  out  moisture,  ami  thus  protect  the 
tender  tissues  from  injury  by  frost.  Many  leaves 
also  are  protected  from  excessive  nadiation  by  the 


olO 


iiAii;-T  \ii. 


HAKLUYT 


\f 


133 


a.  h,  c,  diUeront  stajjes  in  Uie 
lU'velopinont  of  a  rt)ot-lmir;  d, 
Iiairof  prliirjioniuin  ;  c.  brancln-''! 
Jiair  of  llixwei''!  (Sisyinbrinin); 
/,  liair  nf  wallllower ;  f/,  liair  of 
clir>Nftnllii'ttiuin ;  ft,  hair  witli 
glnii'l  nt  the  tip;  i,  hair  with 
Hwollt'ii  ^Inii'liilar  base  ;  j,  stiiiK- 
inj;  hail-  witli  'liMp  of  poison  at 
the  tip  (all  the  above  are  in 
section) ;  A-.  prickles  of  bramble; 
r/i,  ei>i"lennis. 


growtli  of  liaiis.     Tlio  coniiiioii  form  of  ^jlainliilur 

liiiir  is  lliat  witli  a  swollen  tip  which  secretes  oily 

(11-  resinous,  often  strongly-smelling',  matters  which 

may    he    refiariled    as 

wasteproiliicts       that 

have  become  adapletl 

to  the  attraction  and 

caiiture  of  insects  (see 

1  N  s  i;c  r  I  V  I)  ito  I  s 

^         I  \'  Kl  "^        I'r.ANTS).    Some  ^'lan- 

Y  IJ  J  ij  iliilar   hails    have    the 

{.'lands     within      their 

hasps.       Ill  the  orders 

Coinpositic  anil   \'ale- 

riaiie.-e  hairs   form    on 

tlio  fruit  an   oifjan  of 

llitrht     {/iii/'/'ii.s).     liy 

means    of    which   the 

.  wind    is     enabled     to 

U  ~-      II     =^        cany   the   seeds,   and 

)\''  "  ff         thus  secure  their  wide 

CX_D  F  distrihiilion.        When 

hairs      liecome      still', 

generally   hy    im|ir<'g- 

nation      with      silica, 

/\"  ~ ^  , — ^='j-      tliev      form      bristles  ; 

CLC)^  j-rri  i-m    J       ,^n,i  when  they  liecome 

woody  and  hard  they 
form  prickles,  as  in 
tlie  lnamlile  and  rose. 
Hairs  may  also  grow 
internally  in  lai'ge  in- 
tercellular spaces,  hut 
these  occur  only  in  a 
few  plants. 

llaii'-tnil  ( /'//' 

iinis),  a  genus  of  ac.aii- 
thopterous  lishos  be- 
longing to  the  tropical  marine  fauna,  and  found 
generally  near  land.  The  boily  is  long,  s<'alelcss, 
greatly  couiiiressed,  ribbon-shaped,  and  ends  in 
a  long,  whiit-like  tail.  The  cleft  of  the  mouth 
Is  deep,  and  there  are  strong  teeth  on  the  jaws 
and  the  palate.  The  dorsal  iin  extends  along  the 
whole  of  the  back  and  is  spiny  throughout ;  the 
ventral  fins,  when  present,  are  in  the  form  of  a 
pair  of  scales  ;  the  anal  spines  arc  small,  and  are 
s<iiiietimes  concealed  beneath  the  skin.  Six  species 
are  known.  Some  of  them  attain  a  length  of  four 
feet.  One  species,  the  Silvery  Ilaiv-tailor  Itibbon- 
fisli  (7'.  lejiliiriis),  is  found  in  the  .-Vtlantic  (Icean, 
on  the  east  coast  of  North  .Vnievica,  from  Cape  Cod 
to  Florida  and  the  West  Indies.  Wanderers  are 
caught  oil'  the  British  and  Irish  and  more  rarely  the 
Krencli  coasts.  The  other  species  .•ire  most  common 
in  the  seas  of  India,  the  .Malay  .Vrchipelago,  and 
China.  .\s  food  they  are  held  in  various  estimation 
in  dillerent  places. 

Haiti.     See  H.VVTI. 

IIa.M-.     See  COHR.V. 

Ilajil>lir.  a  town  of  Ilengal,  on  the  (iamlak, 

iust  aT)ove  its  continence  with  the  Ganges  op|)osite 
'atna.     It  has  a  large  liver  trade.     Pop.  2."),()78. 

Ilaij.  or  H.VI>.J,  from  an  Arabic  word  meaning 
'  pil;;rlmage,'  emiiliatically  the  pilgrimage  to  the 
Kaalia  (i|.v. )  or  black  stone  in  the  great  mo.s(|ue 
at  .Mecca,  which  every  Mohammedan  whose  means 
and  health  i>ermit  is  bound  to  perform  once  at 
least  in  his  life  (see  Mecc.V).  The  hajj  once  per- 
formed, the  jiilgrim  never  omits  to  preli.x  the 
proud  title  of  Hajji  to  his  name.  Those  who  are 
incapacitated  through  bodily  infirmity  from  per- 
fcuniing  the  holy  journey  tliem.selvcs  may  semi  a 
substitute,  who  act.s  a-s  their  representative  in 
almost  every  ies]iect,  but  this  substitute  has  no 
share  whatever  in  the  merits  and  rewards  belonging 
to  the  Hajj.     Members  of  the  (iieek  and  .\rmcnian 


churches  who  perform  the  jiilgriinage  to  Jerusalem 
are  likewise  known  a.s  Hajji. 

Hake  {Mil  I  urn' lis),  a  genus  of  lislies  of  the  coil 
family  ((iadiihe),  having  a  llattened  head,  an  elon- 
g.ated  body,  two  ilorsal  tins,  of  which  the  lirst  is 
short,  and  the  second  very  long,  one  very  long  anal 
Iin,  and  the  mouth  destitute  of  barliels.  (die 
species,  the  Common  Hake(.l/.  riihinris),  is  found 
in  the  l!rili-h  seas,  in  those  of  the  north  of  Kurope, 
.and  in  the  Meililerranean.  It  is  sometimes  ;)  or 
4  feet  in  length  ;  and  is  of  a  whitish  colour,  grayish 
on  the  back.  It  is  a  very  vonoioiis  lish,  devouring 
great  numbers  of  herrings  and  pilchards  ;  hence  it 


Hake  (Merlueeius  vulijarit). 

is  frequently  called  the  Ilciriiig  Hale.  It  is  a 
coarse  lish,  "its  Mesh  white  and  llaky  :  but  it  is 
important  as  an  article  of  human  food  and  of  com- 
merce, being  salted  and  dried  in  thi'  same  manner 
as  cod  and  ling,  in  comimm  with  which  it  receives 
in  this  st.ate  the  name  of  si  ml;  Ji. ill.  It  is  generally 
taken  by  lines,  like  cod  and  ling.  In  the  s]mwning 
season,  when  it  keeps  near  the  bottom,  it  is  some- 
times caught  by  tiawl nets.-  (_)ne  other  species  is 
known,  .1/.  '/"//',  which  is  common  in  the  Sti.-iit  of 
.Magidlan  and  on  the  coasts  of  Chili,  and  also  occurs 
in  New  Zealand. 

Hakim  Hon  .illali.    See  Mdk.vnna. 

llaKIll.>l.  or  II ACKi.l  vr,  HlClIAIil),  an  Knglish 
writer  on  geography,  belonged  to  a  lleicfordshire 
family,  and  was  born  in  l.'iri.'i.  While  at  West- 
minster School  he  eagerly  jierused  narratives  of 
voyages  and  travels,  and  continued  this  course  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxfonl,  whither  he  proceeded  in 
l.')70.  licing  ajipointed  le<-turer  on  geography  or 
cosniograiihy  in  that  university,  he  introduced  the 
use  of  globes  .-ind  other  geographical  apidianccs 
into  Knglish  sehixds.  The  publication  of  iJirers 
\'iii/iif/fs  timrltinff  tin'  iJisrorri'i/  ii/  .litn'rird  (l.">S2) 
seems  to  have  i>een  mainly  instrumental  in  |iro- 
curiiig  for  him  two  years  later  the  a|ipointmeiit  of 
chaidaiii  to  the  Knglish  embassy  to  I'aris.  There 
he  wrote  DLsroiiisc  (■oinvniiiii/  ]\'islrni  Dl.iroriiies 
(l.")84),  and  had  Laudoniiiere's  manuscript  narra- 
tive of  the  discovery  of  Florida  printed,  lirst  in 
French  and  afterwards  in  Knglish,  at  his  own  ex- 
pense. (In  his  return  to  Kngland  in  l.">N8,  with  the 
a.ssistance  of  Sir  Walter  llaleigh,  he  began  to  cidlect 
materials  for  the  history  of  the  disco\ erics  made 
by  his  countrymen.  He  publisheil  the  fruits  of  his 
researches,  in  notices  of  more  than  "JtKJ  voyages, 
under  the  title  I'liiirijin/  Xiiriijiitiniif:.  I'lii/injes, 
'J'ni[lii/iiis,  mill  lliainriiici  iif  tlir  Emilixh  Siiliim 
(:?  vols.  lo9S  IGtKI;  new  cd.  5  vols.  18(19-12). 
(ioveinmeiit  rewarded  him  by  bestowing  ujion  him 
a  prebend  in  Westminster  Al>hey.  A  Sehrtioii  of 
Viiriuii.i,  Ildie,  iiiiil  luii/i/  \'oi/iir/e.i  tiiid  J/ialoricsof 
hitrrisliiiif  Dixron'rie.i,  &c.,  cliielly  imblished  by 
Hakluyt,  or  at  his  suggestion,  but  not  indudeil  in 
his  compilation,  forms  ( 1812)  ;i  supplement  to  the 
above  work.  He  also  edited  Knglish  translations 
of  Galvano's  Jli.icovrriis  of  tlir.  W'lnlil  (  KiOl  )  and 
Fernando  de  Soto's  Virf/iiiiii  ritlili/  i'lihn-rl  (MM)'.)). 
He  died  in  llilO,  and  was  buried  in  Westminstei 
.\bbcy.  Hakhiyl's  unjiulilished  manuscripts  were 
made  use  of  by  I'lirdias  in  his  I'iliirinis  {  l(J2i"i-2(i). 
The  liiil:/iii/l  Snrirli/  was  instituted  in  1840  for  the 
purpose  of  publishing  all  the  histories  of  the  earlier 
voy.ages  and  travels. 


HAKODATE 


HALE 


r.ii 


ilakodato.  the  chief  pDit  of  Yezo  in  Japan, 

sitiuUnl  on  a  peninsnla  in  the  Strait  of  T.siii,'arii. 
The  town  is  liuilt  partly  on  the  inner  slope  of  the 
Gil)raltar-like  hill  (1200  feet)  which  rloniinatcs  the 
strait,  partly  on  the  low  samly  peninsula  connoct- 
iiij;  the  hill  with  the  main  ishiml.  The  climate  is 
severe.  Hakodate,  which  lias  a  m.'ij;nilicent  liar- 
honr,  is  ( since  1.S59 )  one  of  the  open  ports  of  .laiian, 
anil  carries  on  a  brisk  export  traue  in  sea\v(u>(l, 
snl|ihnr,  heche  tie  niev,  salteil  salmon,  matches,  &c. 
The  annual  value  of  exports  is  towanls  £200,000; 
that  of  imports  is  trining.      Pop.  ( 189.3)  G.3,916. 

Hill,  a  town  in  South  Kral)ant,  0  miles  by  rail 
8S\V.  from  IJrnssels.  The  church  of  St  Mary 
(1341-1409)  is  nmch  resorted  to  by  ]iilf;rinis  on 
account  of  a  black  miracle-working  wooden  image 
of  the  Virgin,  which  during  a  bombardment  in 
1.5S0  caught  thirty-three  cannon-balls  in  her  lap — 
they  lie  piled  up  in  the  tower.  Pop.  9739. 
Ilalarlin.  See  Exegesis,  Talmid. 
Ilalas,  a  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  district  of 
Little  t'nmania,  .S'2  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Buda- 
pest.    Pop.  1.5,039. 

Ilalhd'stadf,  a  quaint  old  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  situated  in  a  fertile  plain  extending  from 
the  nortli  foot  of  the  Harz  Mountains,  2.j  miles  SW. 
of  .Magdeburg.  The  cathedral,  containing  line 
painted  glass,  and  valuable  antiijuitics  and  objects 
of  art,  alth.ough  restored  in  1850-71,  is  the  most 
notable  building  in  the  town.  It  was  erected  in 
the  l.'-ith  and  14tli  centuries  in  the  Pointed  style. 
Otlier  buildings  of  interest  are  the  church  of  Our 
Ijady  (1146),  with  antique  reliefs  <and  wall qiaint- 
ings  ;  the  town-house  ( 1360-8] ),  befon'  which  stands 
a  Koland  pill.ir  ;  the  wine-cellar  l)eneath  the  town- 
house  ;  .anil  the  Peterhof,  formerly  the  residence 
of  tlie  bishops.  The  chief  industries  of  the  town 
are  gloves,  cigars,  machines,  sugar,  leather,  pajier, 
spirits,  Sec.  ;  and  there  are  also  large  workshops  for 
railway  repairs.  Halbei'stadt  dates  from  820,  the 
year  in  which  the  see  was  transplanted  from  Ostcr- 
wieck  to  the  site  of  the  town  of  Halbcrstadt.  It 
received  town  rights  in  998  ;  was  twice  burneil 
down  in  the  12tli  century ;  and  was  held  alter- 
nately by  the  Swedes  and  Imi)erialists  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  AVar.  In  1648  it  was  given  to 
Brandenburg.  Pop.  (1875)  27,800;  (1890)  .30,786. 
See  Zscliieschc,  Jliilhcr- 
sttuH  sond  iind  jctzt 
(1882). 

Ilalhert.  .r  hat, 
I5.\i;ii,  a  weapon  which 
consisted  of  a  strong 
wooden  shaft  about  6  feet 
in  length,  .surmounted  by 
an  instrument  rescuibling 
an  axe,  balanced  on  the 
opposite  side  Ijy  a  hook 
or  pick,  wdiilst  the  shaft 
was  continued  in  a  sharp 
jiike-heail.  The  weapon 
was  much  u.sed  in  (!er- 
many,  Switzerland,  and 
Fr.ance.  In  England  it 
was  a  common  arm  fi'om 
the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 
to  that  of  tieorge  III. 
Now  it  is  rarely  seen  ex- 
cept as  borne  by  yeomen 
of  the  guard  and  others 
(m  certain  ceremonial 
occasions.  A  \ariety  of 
the  same  weapon  nuvy  be 
recognise<l  in  the  Scottish 
Lochaber  Axe  (q.v.). 
llali'yon  Ua.VS.  a  name  given  by  the  ancients 
to   the   seven   ilays   which   precede   and    the   .seven 


Ancient  ILilbert-liead. 


which  follow  the  sliortest  day  of  the  year,  on 
account  of  a  fable  that  during  this  time,  while  the 
halcyon  bird  or  Kinghsher  (q.v.)  wa.s  brooiling,  there 
always  prevailed  calms  at  .sea.  From  this  the 
jihra.se  'halcyon  clays'  h.as  come  to  signify  times  of 
liappiness  and  tranquillity. 

Ilaldane.  Koi>.kI!T,  was  born  in  London,  Feb- 
ruary 28,  1704,  and  was  educated  at  the  graULUiar- 
schocd  of  Dundee  and  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 
In  1780  he  joined  the  il/ox^ccA,' his  uncle  Vis- 
c<mnt  Duncan's  ship,  afterwards  s.aw  some  service 
under  Admiral  Jervis,  and  was  present  at  the 
relief  of  Gibraltar,  but  left  the  navy  at  the  peace  of 
1783  to  settle  on  his  estate  near  Stirling.  The 
French  Revolution  lired  him  with  new  hopes  for 
the  regeneration  of  man,  but  ere  long  a  profound 
spiritual  change  turned  the  energies  of  his  lifi-  into 
completely  new  channels.  His  vast  i)roject  for  a 
^eat  mission  in  Bengal,  at  bis  own  expense,  wa.s 
frustrated  by  the  East  India  Company's  refusal  of 
their  sanction  ;  but  liy  his  '  Society  for  the  Pro- 
jiagation  of  the  Gospel  at  Home'  he  built  so  many 
'tabernacles'  and  sujiported  .so  many  itinerant 
preachers  that  in  twelve  years  he  had  ex]iended 
more  than  £70,000.  In  the  year  1817  he  lectured 
to  theological  students  at  (ieneva  and  Montauban, 
and  returned  to  Scotland  in  1819,  taking  an  active 
interest  thereafter  in  all  religious  questions,  as  the 
Apocrypha  and  Sabbath  controversies.  He  died 
12th  December  184'2.  His  liestknown  books  are 
Eridrnccs  uiiil  A  iithririttj  iif  Diriiir  llrcrliition 
(1816),  On  the  IiixjiiraWon  of  Sn-iiitiirc  (]H'iH),  and 
Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (l^'Ah).— 
James  Alexander,  brother  of  the  pi-cceding,  was 
born  at  Dundee,  July  14,  1768,  and  was  educated 
at  the  High  School  and  university  of  Edinliurgh. 
At  sixteen  he  entered  the  navy,  and  served  f<U'  nine 
years,  after  which  he  abruptly  aliandoncd  the 
service,  although  in  the  meantime  he  had  been 
appointed  to  the  command  of  a  vessel.  A  study  of 
the  Bible  had  led  him  to  the  same  conclusions  in 
leligion  as  his  elder  brother.  Soon  afterwanls  lie 
made  the  acquaintance  of  the  famous  Simeon  of 
Cambridge,  and  with  him  traverse<l  Scotland  on  an 
evangelistic  tour.  His  later  missionary  j(mrneyings 
brought  him  into  collision  with  the  Church  of  Scot 
land,  and  at  length  in  1799  he  was  onlaiued  the 
independent  pastor  of  a  church  in  Ivlinburgh,  in 
which  he  preached  gratuitously  for  liftv  years,  and 
which  in  1808  he  led  into  the  Bapti.st'fold.  He 
ilied  Sth  February  1851 .  His  pamphlets  were  widely 
read  in  their  day  by  those  within  the  range  of  his 
influence.  Two  late  books  were  his  Duitriiic  nf  the 
Atonement  (1845)  and  his  Exposition  (ftlie  Epistle 
to  the  (Idliitirins  (1848).  See  Memoirs  of  It.  ami 
J.  A.  Ilaldane,  by  Alexander  Haldane  (1852). 

Halo,  John  PakIvER,  an  .-Vmerican  statesman, 
was  born  at  Kochester,  New  Hanqishire,  in  1806, 
and  was  United  States  attorney  for  his  state  in 
1.S34-41.  Returned  to  congre.ss  in  1842,  as  a 
Democrat,  his  name  was  afterwards  renioveil  from 
the  jiarty  ticket  because  he  refused  to  su|iport  the 
annexation  of  Texas.  The  sliuggle  that  t(dloweil 
ended  in  .a  victory  for  the  anti  sla^ery  party,  and 
in  1847  Hale  was  elected  to  the  I'nited  States 
senate,  where  he  served  for  sixteen  veal's.  He  was 
the  Free-soil  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  hS-VJ, 
but  received  under  5  percent,  ot  the  total  pcqmlar 
vote.  He  w.as  minister  to  Spain  from  1805  to  1869, 
and  died  19th  November  1873. 

Hale.  Sir  Matthew.  Lord  Chic>f-justice  of  F.ng 
land,  was  born  1st  November  UiO'.i  at  .Vlderley, 
tiloucestershire.  Intended  for  the  church,  he  was 
sent  to  Oxiord  University  in  his  sixteenth  year. 
But  sudilenly  he  abaniloneil  his  stmlious  habits, 
anil,  joining  a  company  of  strolling-playci-s,  gave 
way  to  ,a  good  ileal  of  dissipation.     He  was  on  the 


512 


HALE 


HALES 


point  iif  luTdiiiiii},'  n  snldier  when  Seijcniit  (Jlanville 
iikIucimI  liiiii  to  ail<>|it  tlie  le;.'al  profi-.-sion.  Aocoril- 
iii^'lv  ill  Ki'iH  Ilair  niteieil  the  .Soi'ii-ty  <if  Liiiciiln's 
Inn,  ami  icsuniin;,'  liis  lialiits  of  |iei><'verin;.'  .stmly 
was  in  <lne  conisc  calli'il  to  the  l>ar  I  I<>:t7  ).  Ho  soon 
aoqnireil  a  coiisiileralile  ]>ractii-e.  In  tlio  (|naiTel 
lictween  kin^'  ainl  {larliaiiKnt  Hah'  refraineil  from 
idonlifyinj;  hiiii.-i'lf  with  either  siile.  Wlien,  how 
ever,  iiarlianioni  ;.'ot  tiie  npiier  haml,  he  .-i^'ned  the 
Soh'nin  Li'a;.'ne  ami  t  ovenant.  sat  in  the  Assenihly 
of  Divines  at  Westminster,  tricil  to  hrinj;  ahont  a 
settlement  het«een  the  kiiij;  ami  |iarliament,  ami 
ultimatel.v,  taking  his  enj;.ai;ement  to  the  Common- 
wealth, wivs  made  a  juil^^e  umler  Cromwell  in  Hi."):?. 
He  acteil  a.s  a  /misnc  jiiil;,'e  of  the  Common  I'leas 
till  CromweH's  death,  hut  refused  to  h.ive  his  com- 
mission renewed  hy  Kiihard  Cromwell.  .Vfti'r  the 
Kestoraiioii  he  was  made  Chief-haron  of  the  ('o\irt 
of  E.\ehei|uer,  and  eleven  yeai-s  later  \va.s  trans- 
ferred to  the  Chief-jnsticeslii]!  of  the  Court  of 
Hindi's  Beneli.  As  a  jn<l}.'e  he  was  acute,  learned, 
and  sensihle.  and  set  Iiis  face  ajrainst  hrihery,  one 
of  the  vices  of  the  ajre.  He  was  a  |iious  man  and  a 
frienil  of  Hiehard  Itaxter.  h\U.  like  I'l.iMer.  was  iiol 
ahle  to  rise  superior  to  the  heliel  in  witchcraft.  He 
wrote  numerous  works,  as  Jlisluii/  <>/  t/ie  I'Icas  of 
the  Croiiii  (173IM.  llisturii  of  the  Common  l.niv  of 
Eii'iliiml  (171.'?),  ancl  various  Moral  iinil  Jielii/ioiix 
Worh:f{e<\.  hy  Thirlwall.  1805):  and  he  he.|ueiithi>d 
several  valuahle  lefxal  MSS.  to  Liuci>ln's  Inn.  He 
resi^'ued  liis  olliee  from  ill-health  iu  I'ehruary  lt!7(i. 
and  died  on  ('hristni.T.s-dav  of  that  year.  See  Lives 
hv  ISurnet  (lCS-2),  Williams  (1835),  Uiwcoe  (1838), 
aiid  Cainphell  (  1S40). 

Halo.  N.\Tn.\x.  an  American  solilier,  who  was 
horn  at  Coventry,  Connecticut,  (itli  .June  17.>5,  rose 
to  the  rank  of  captain  in  the  Continental  army, 
anil,  liavinj;  volunteered  to  penetrate  the  liritish 
lines  and  jirocure  intellij;ence  for  Washinj^lon,  w.is 
detecteil,  and  executed  as  a  s]iy  in  New  York  cit.v, 
22d  Septemlier  1776.  See  Lossinj;,  'J'hf  Tn-o  S/jic.s, 
A(i//i"ii  lliilr  ti  11(1  .John  Andre  (New  York,  KSSO). 
—His  errand  nephew.  KnwARD  Kvkkktt  H.m.k. 
was  horn  in  lio-t<in,  Massachusetts.  3d  April  l.s-J'J. 
graduateil  at  Harvard  in  l.s:t'.).  and  was  admitted 
to  the  Con;;re);ational  ministry  in  1S42.  In  l.S.")(i 
he  was  called  to  the  South  Con^'re^'ational  ( I'ni- 
tarian)  Church  iu  Boston,  ami  in  IS7il  he  received 
his  doctorate  from  Harvard.  His  inlluence  in 
philanthropic  movements  has  lieen  widespread. 
His  hook  'ien  Tunes  One  is  Ten  (Boston,  1870) 
ori;;inated  in  .Vnierica  a  numerous  .series  of  '  Lend 
a  Hand'  clul»,  sometimes  under  other  names,  and 
with  oM'slioots  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  ami  the 
Pacilic  Islands  ;  a  recent  development  in  I  he  I'nited 
States  is  the  society  of  'The  Kind's  l>auj.'hters. ' 
The  motto  of  these  oluhs  is  '  Look  up  ami  not 
down  ;  look  forward  and  not  hack  ;  look  out  ami 
not  in  ;  and  lend  a  hand.'  Dr  Hale  luis  edited 
several  reli^'ious  and  other  jimrnals,  as  well  as 
Linj;ard's  llistorij  of  Eneflnnd.  and  orii;inal  docu- 
ments ( from  the  British  state  papei-s  ami  the  liritish 
Museum )  hearing;  on  the  founding  "f  A'ir^'inia. 
His  publislied  hooks,  mostly  stories,  number  nearlv 
fifty. 

Hale.  S.MtAlI  .loSEI'UA.  author  of  Mary's  I.amli. 
was  liorn  at  Newport,  New  Hampshire,  tutoher 
24,  1788.  (In  the  death  of  her  hushand,  David 
Hale,  in  1822,  she  devoted  herself  to  authorsldp,  and 
became  in  1828  editor  of  the  Ladies'  Maijnzine. 
which  she  ccmtinued  to  conduct  after  it  had,  in 
1837,  become  united  with  Gndeifs  l.adifs  liooh ; 
nor  did  she  retire  from  her  eilitorial  w<irk  until 
1877.  She  was  instnimental  in  piocurin;.'  the 
employment  of  laily  medical  missionaries,  in  com- 
pleting' the  Bunker  Hill  monument,  ami  in  securing; 
that  Tliauksgiving  Day  should  be  simultaneously 


olwerved  in  all  the  states.  She  published  nearly 
twenty  works,  inclmlin*;  poems,  oKikerv  hooks, 
book>  of  poetical  extracts,  and  novel.s.  Her  most 
important  work  is  Woman's  Heeord :  or  S/.rtehes  of 
IHstimiuished  Women  (3il  e<l.  1869).  She  died 
30th  April  1879.— Her  son,  HoltATlo  (1817-96), 
in  1S37  ;.'raduated  at  Harvard,  and  was  appointed 
ellinolci;.'i>t  to  the  Initerl  States  I'acilic  exploring 
i>\:pedition.  He  prejiared  the  valuable  expedition 
report  on  Ethnotfra^ihi/  and  J'hi/ofm/t/  (]HM't),  and 
lias  published  numerous  memoirs  ami  works  on 
kindred  subjects,  inclmlin^  Indian  Migrations  as 
eriileneed  by  /.ani/ian)e  [\lilH^\),  The  Iroi/iiois  Book 
of  Eites  (1883),  a  Ee/iurt  on  the  lllaehfoot  Trilies, 
jiresented  to  the  British  As.sociation  in  I88.'i,  and  his 
introdiiclory  .aildress,  deli\ered  as  president  of  the 
Alllll^(^|llllo^l(•al  Secti(Ui  of  the  .American  Associa- 
tion in  ISSIj.  on  'J'he  (hii/iii  of  I.ani/aaije!i  and  the 
Anfi'fiiity  of  Sjieahinij  Man. 

Halopa.  a  suburb  of  Canea  (q.v.),  where  in 
1869  the  Turks  made  concessions  to  the  Cretans. 

Hales.      See  Al.KXANDEI!  OF  Ha1,E.s-. 

Hales.  .loiiN,  the  'Ever-memorable,'  was  born 
at  liath  in  1584,  anil  was  educated  iu  '  ^'lammar 
learnini,''  in  his  native  city.  At  thirteen  lie 
entered  Corpus  Christi  Colle^re,  Oxford,  took  hU 
de};ree  in  July  1603,  and  obtained  a  fellowship 
at  Merton  Collei.'e  in  1605  its  'a  jiei'son  of  le.arn- 
in;;  aliove  his  a;.'e  and  standing.'.'  Wood  tells  us 
of  hi>  extraordinary  sul)tlety  in  iihilosophical  dis- 

Iiutalion.  of  his  eloquence,  and  of  his  unusuiil 
iuowledge  of  the  Creek  ton},'ue,  which  contrib- 
uted trreatly  to  Sir  Henry  Savile's  edition  of  St 
Clirysostom,  and  procured  for  himself  in  1612  the 
chair  of  Greek  in  his  university.  Next  year 
he  delivered  the  funeral  oration  of  Sir  Thomas 
Boilley.  and  was  admitted  a  Kellow  of  Eton.  In 
1618  he  went  to  the  Ha;;ue  as  chaplain  to  the 
amha-ssador.  Sir  Dudley  Carleton,  for  whom  he 
made  a  report  of  the  ]proceedin;.'s  at  the  famous 
synod  of  Dort,  in  a  very  interesting  scries  of 
letters.  Here  the  passion  and  contentions  zeal  of 
extreme  orthodoxy  seem  to  have  convinced  him 
that  neither  side  iiossosed  the  monopoly  of  truth, 
and  indeed  that  it  is  .a  lio|iele.-.-  attempt  to  ex^lre.s.s 
spiritu.al  truth  within  precipe  dogmatic  definitions. 
According  to  his  friend  rarindoii,  'there  he  bid 
.lohn  Calvin  good-night,  as  he  often  told.'  Earjy 
in  1619  he  returned  to  Kton  to  devote  himself  to 
continuous  study,  varied  only  by  a  journey  to 
London  once  a  year,  '^'et  he  was  no  melancholy 
recluse,  but  delighted  in  the  conversation  <>i  such 
friends  as  Chillingworth,  I/ord  Falkland,  Savile, 
and  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  as  well  .as  l'.en  .Jonson, 
Suckling,  .and  other  London  wits.  His  too  lilieial 
Trial  eoneerniiiii  Sehism  anil  Sehismatiis  brought 
him  under  the  displeasure  of  Laud,  who  w,as,  how- 
ever, satislied  after  a  personal  conference  and  an 
apologetic  letter,  and  a]ipiiinled  him  to  ,a  canonrv 
at  Windsor,  the  only  piefeinienl  Hales  could  ever 
be  induced  to  accept.  No  doubt  he  allowed  him- 
self to  be  persuaded,  because  he  loved  |ieace  better 
than  argiiment  :  and  I'eter  Heylin's  aceountof  how 
Ilales  told  him  that  Laud's  logic  li.ad  '  ferreted  him 
from  one  hole  to  .another'  need  not  be  taken  too 
literally,  being,  as  Hallam  says,  ludicrous,  con- 
sidering the  relative  abilities  of  thi'  two  men. 
The  I'uritan  supreni.acy  deprived  him  of  his  othce, 
anil  reihiceil  him  to  <fi'eat  want,  which  Andrew 
Marvell  said  well  was  '  not  one  of  the  least 
ignominies  of  that  age.'  He  w.as  forced  to  dispose 
of  his  fine  collection  of  books,  which  must  have 
been  the  keenest  trial  to  his  scholar's  heart.  He 
died  at  Kton.  lOtli  May  Ii;.-|6. 

Hales  i>  a  rare  example  of  ,a  profound  student 
without  ])eilaiitiy,  a  ripe  theologian  with  an  alto- 
gether untheological  clearness  of  mind  and  direct- 


HALES 


HALEVY 


513 


ness  of  phrase.  His  conviftiun  that  duginatic 
(litt'erences  do  not  really  all'eet  relifiion,  ami  his 
zeal  for  freedom  of  s[)irit  lather  than  rij;idity  of 
form,  belonf;  not  to  his  own  time,  l)Ut  were 
qualities  well  hecomini;  the  ilear  friend  of  Falk- 
land and  Cliillin;,'Worth.  The  j,'enial  sweetness  of 
his  temjier  and  the  hiuidde  modesty  of  his  bearinj; 
litted  well  with  a  sin.L,'ularly  devout  hut  unoli- 
trusive  piety,  and  help  to  account  for  the  un- 
wonted glow  of  warmth  in  the  accounts  of  him 
by  Clarendon,  Pearson,  Marvell,  ami  Stillingfleet 
alike.  Aubrey's  false  imputation  of  Soeinianism 
has  done  much  wrong  tf)  the  memory  of  one  of  the 
most  loyal  although  enlightened  sons  of  the  Church 
of  England  :  liut  we  have  to  thank  his  rambling 
pea  for  a  glimpse  of  the  gentle  and  cheerful  little 
scholar  not  a  year  before  his  death,  '  in  a  kind  of 
violet-coloured  cloth  gown  with  buttons  and  loops,' 
the  Imitatiun  in  his  hand.  His  picture  is  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  gallery  of  Clarendon,  whose  own 
words  best  help  to  explain  the  large  tolerance  of 
his  temper  and  his  broad  conception  of  Christi- 
anity :  '  He  had,  whether  from  his  natural  temper 
and  constitution,  or  from  his  long  retirement  from 
all  crowds,  or  from  his  profound  judgment  and 
<liscerning  spirit,  contracted  some  opinions  which 
were  not  received,  nor  by  him  oublished,  except  in 
private  discouises,  and  then  rather  upon  occasion 
of  dispute  than  of  positive  opinion  ;  and  he  would 
often  say  his  opinions,  he  was  sure,  did  him  no 
harm,  but  he  was  far  from  being  confident  that 
tliey  might  not  do  others  harm,  who  entertained 
them,  and  might  entertain  other  results  from  them 
than  he  did  ;  and  therefore  he  was  very  reserved  in 
communiciiting  what  he  thought  himself  in  those 
points  in  which  he  diii'ered  from  what  was 
received. 

'  Notlung  troubled  him  more  than  tlie  Ijrawls 
which  were  grown  from  religion  ;  and  he  there- 
fore exceedingly  detested  the  tyranny  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  more  for  their  imposing  un- 
charitably ui)on  the  consciences  of  other  men  than 
for  the  errors  in  their  own  opinions  ;  and  would 
often  say  that  he  would  renounce  the  religion  of 
the  Church  of  England  to-morrow  if  it  obliged 
him  to  believe  that  any  other  Christians  should  be 
damned  ;  and  that  noliody  would  conclude  another 
man  to  be  damned  who  did  not  wish  him  so.' 

His  friend  .Ajitliony  Farindon  (151)8-11)08)  undertook 
to  collect  his  writings,  and  write  a  memoir,  but  died 
before  his  task  was  completed.  In  a  letter  to  his  pub- 
lisher he  says,  ^  1  am  like  Mr  Hales  in  this,  which  wa.s 
one  of  his  defects,  not  to  pen  anytliin;^  till  I  must  needs.' 
And  indeed  all  Hales's  writings,  valuable  as  they  are, 
are  occasional  and  unsj'steniatic  in  form.  The  Uvldcn 
Jtnnains  o/  the  Enr-memorahle  Mr  John  Hales  af  Eton 
Culhtft'  were  at  length  published  in  IfiSy  under  the  care 
of  Pearson,  who  pretixed  not  a  Life  but  an  Epistle  to  the 
Header,  containing  a  most  eulogistic  character  of  his 
autlior.  This  etUtiun  was  reprinted  in  1673  and  1688, 
and  in  1677  a  new  volume  gave  several  additional  tracts. 
The  best  edition  is  that  iss\ied  in  three  small  volumes 
by  the  Foulis  Press  at  tila.sgow  in  1765,  edited  by  Sir 
David  Dalrymple,  afterwards  a  Scottish  judge  with  the 
title  of  Lord  Hailes.  See  chap.  4,  vol.  i.,  of  TuUoch's 
liiitinnal    Thtufoi/i/    in    Emtlund    in    the    17th    Centnrti 

(187:.' I. 

Halt's  Stethen,  natural  philosopher,  was  born 
at  lieckesbourn,  Kent,  Ttli  Se]itember  1677.  He 
entered  Bene't  (now  Corjiiis  Christi)  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  11)06,  was  elected  Fellow  in  170'2,  and 
having  taken  holy  orders  was  presented  about  1710 
to  tlie  peri)etual  curacy  of  Tecldington,  in  Middle- 
sex, where  he  died,  4th  Janu.'irv  1761.  His  lii-st 
imjiortant  iiublication  was  I'ci/ctiiUe  Stiitic/:^;  or 
E.r/)C)'i»ieiifs  uii  tlie  Sop  of  Vei/etab/cx  ( 17'27  ),  which 
may  be  regarded  as  the  st.arting-poiut  of  our  tnie 
knowdedge  of  vegetable  idiysiology.  In  Hinna- 
statk-ks  ( 173.'j),  a  second  part  of  this  work  treating 
•241 


of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  Hales  gives  results 
obtained  by  experimental  methods  of  investigation 
like  those  now  in  use  in  studying  physiology.  Be- 
sides other  independent  w(uks,  including  T/ie  Means 
of  Dissolriiifi  tliK  atone  in  tlie  Blaeh/cr,  he  con- 
tributed numeious  memoins  to  the  I'lu'/oni/pliicol 
Tmnsaction.s  on  Ventilation,  on  Electiicity,  on 
the  Analysis  of  Air,  &c.  His  ventilating-machines 
were  introduced  into  the  London  prisons.  His 
improvements  in  the  mode  of  collecting  gases 
did  much  to  facilitate  the  subsequent  labours  of 
Black,  Priestley,  and  Lavoisier.  He  also  invented 
machines  for  distilling  sea-water,  preserving  meat, 
&c. 

Halesowen,  a  market-town  of  Worcestershire, 
on  the  river  Stour,  7i  miles  AVSW.  of  Birmingham. 
Its  iieople  are  nail-makers  and  manufacturers  of 
small  ironwares.  One  mile  to  the  south-east  lie 
the  ruins  of  the  Premonstratensian  abbey  founded 
by  King  John.  Shenstone  (1714-63),  a  native  of 
the  place,  carried  on  his  landscape-gardening  at 
the  Leasowes,  a  mile  distant  from  Halesowen. 
His  tomb  is  in  the  church.     Pop.  3338. 

Hal^vy,  J.\C(;i'Es  Francois  Feomental  £lie, 
composer,  was  born  of  Jewish  family  at  Paris,  '27th 
May  1799.  He  studied  at  the  Conservatoire  there 
under  Berton  and  Cherubini,  afterwards  at  Rome, 
devoting  himself  especially  to  the  old  church  music 
of  Italy,  and  on  his  return  strove  in  vain  to  put  on 
the  boards  his  operas,  La  Bohimiennc  and  Pyg- 
malion. His  next  operas,  U Artisan  ( 1827)  and  Le 
Eoi  et  le  BiHelicr  (1828),  were  failures,  but  Clari 
(1828),  in  which  Malibran  took  the  chief  role,  and 
the  comic  opera,  Le  Dilettante  d'Arii/non  (1829), 
were  successes,  and  ere  long  Halevy  found  himself 
the  compo.ser  of  the  day,  and  his  masterpiece.  La 
Juire  (1835),  carried  his  name  over  Europe.  His 
next  best  work  is  the  comic  opera,  L'f^'lair  (1835). 
Later  works  represented  with  greater  or  less  success 
are  Guido  et  CUnirra,  Les  Treize,  Le  Drapier,  Le 
Giiitarrero.  La  Lieinc  (/e  Cliypre,  Les  Moiisijnetaires 
(le  la  Ecine,  Le  Val  f/'Ane/orrc,  La  Tein/ir/e,  and 
Dame  de  I'iiiiie.  the  last  two  with  the  libretto  by 
Scribe.  Halevy  died  at  Nice,  17th  March  1862. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Gounod,  ^'ictor  M;isse, 
Bazin,  and  George  Bizet,  who  nuirried  his  daughter. 
He  worthily  carried  on  the  succession  of  the 
great  school  of  French  opera,  midway  between 
Cheruliini  and  Meyerbeer — sharing  the  perfect 
mastery  of  resource  of  the  former  and  the  tendency 
of  the  latter  to  subordinate  everything  to  efl'ect, 
and  instinctively  avoiding  the  commonjdaoe  or 
vulgar.  Admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
in  1846,  he  became  perpetual  secretaiy  in  1854. 
His  ilogcs  were  eollectetl  a-s  Souvenirs  et  Portraits 
(1861),  and  Derniers  Souvenirs  ct  Portraits  ( 1S63). 
His  Life  was  written  by  his  brother  Leon  (2d  ed. 
1863)  and  by  Pougin  ( 1865). 

Leon  H.vlevv,  brother  of  the  foregoing,  was 
liorn  at  Paris,  14th  January  1802,  studied  law, 
filled  a  chair  in  the  P<dytechnic  School,  and 
afterwards,  from  1837  to  1853,  a  post  in  the 
Ministrj-  of  Instruction,  which  he  lesigned  to 
give  himself  entirely  to  literature.  He  died  at  St 
(!i'rm.un-en-Laye,  3d  September  1883.  He  wrote 
the  introduction  to  Saint  Simon's  (Ijiinions  litti- 
retires,  pliilosi>j>lti(/ites,  et  industrielles  (1825),  and 
afterwards,  on  his  own  account,  histories,  ^loetry, 
fables,  novels,  dramatic  poems,  and  translations  of 
Mariiefli,  Vlariffo,  \c.  His  best  books  are  Rfsumi 
lie  rilistoire  dcs  Jui/s  { 1827-28),  Poi'sies Europfennes 
( 1837  ),  and  La  Gr&c  Traijiinic  ( 1845-61 ). 

LlDOVic  H.M.KVY,  son  of  Ltion,  w  as  born  at  Paris, 
1st  January  1834,  and  in  1861  became  .secretary  to 
the  Corps  Lcgislatif.  He  first  made  himself 
known  as  the  writer  of  the  librettos  to  OU'enbach's 
burlescjues  (partly  in  collaboration  with  Meilliac): 


014 


HALEVY 


II  ALI15UT 


Orphfe  (tux  Enfers  (1861),  La  helle  //<"/(;((•(  1805), 
La  Vie  Parisieiiiif  (18t)6),  La  dranfie-diirhesse  ile 
Gfruhtein  (1867),  Les  linijumh  (1870).  He  wrote 
liesiilos  a  large  nuinlierof  viiiidcvilles  and  coineilies, 
amonj;  them  La  I'trir/iote  { 1808),  Fiuiif'roii  ( 1869), 
Triror/ie  ct  Carolct  ( 1872),  Le  Maii  </r  la  fMljii/aiil, 
( 1878),  and  La  pvlitr  M/-tf  (1880).  His  Madame  el 
iMii/ixieiir  Caifliiial  (1S7.'{)  .iiid  Li.s pctits  Cardinal 
(1880)  are  deli^'litl'iilly  humorous  sketches  of 
Parisian  theatrical  life;  Uh  L'liiranioii  (l87"2)«',is 
a  collection  of  jierson.il  recollections  of  the  «ar. 
In  1882  he  .startleil  the  world  with  his  charminj; 
idyllic  stflry  L'Abbf  Constanfin,  which  has  heeii 
well  followed,  but  not  in  the  same  vein,  hy  Criijiirlle 
(ISS.S)  and  Jleii.i-  Mariaycs  (lS8:j).  Halevy  was 
admitted  to  the  .\cademy  in  1886. 

Halt'vv.  Jd.ski'II,  an  eminent  French  orientalist 

and  traveller,  was  liinii  15tli  Decemlier  1S27,  al 
A<lriano|ile.  In  18HS  ho  travelled  in  northern 
Aliyssinia  ;  next  he  traversed  (l.sii'.l  70)  Yemen  in 
quest  of  Sabiean  inscriptions  for  the  Krencli  Acad- 
emy— one  of  the  most  fruitful  journeys  ever  made 
by  an  archa'oloj;ist.  No  European  face  had  been 
seen  in  the  .lowf  since  the  soldiers  of  .Elius 
Gallus  had  visited  it  in  the  year  2t  A.n.,  and 
Halevy  travelled  as  far  north  as  Bled  Xedjran 
( IS'  N.  lat.),  and  wa-s  able  to  collect  ;is  numy  as  860 
inscriptions.  His  chief  books  are  Mission  arelifo- 
luyiquc  dans  le  Yemen  (1872),  Essai  snr  la  Languc 
Anaoit,  le  Dialect  ties  Falaelias  (\H'S),  Voyage  au 
Xcdjn'tn  (187;?),  fyiidcs  Berbi'res  {\H~a),  Milanf/es 
trEpiifiajjhic  ct  d'Arrli^oloffie  Simitlijiies  (1874), 
Etudes  Habienncs  (1875),  Etiules  sur  la  •Si/llabairc 
Cunilformc  ( 1876),  Rerhcrches  critir/ues  sur  I'Originc 
de  la  Vii'ilisation  liabi/lonienne  (1877),  Essai  sur 
les  Inscriptions  du  Saj'a  (1882),  an<l  Melanges  de 
Criliijue  el  d'Histoire  ( 1883). 

Hulfa.     See  E.srAKTO. 

Hnir-l>Inod.  related  through  one  parent  only. 
Wheii  two  persons  have  the  .same  fallier,  but  not 
the  .same  mother,  they  are  called  brothers  or  sisters 
consanguinean  ;  when  thev  have  the  same  mother 
only,  they  are  called  brotliei's  and  sisters  uterine. 
See"  Succession. 

Half-nay  is  an  .allowance  given  in  the  British 
army  and  navy  to  commissioned  ollicers  who  are 
not  actively  employed,  and  corresponds  to  the 
French  demisolde. 

In  the  navy,  otlicei's  are  appointed  to  a  ship  to 
serve  for  the  period  during  which  she  is  in  com 
mission.  At  the  end  of  thai  period,  or  if  jjromoteil 
or  otherwise  removed  from  her,  they  are  |)laced  on 
halfiiay  until  again  called  upon  to  serve.  As  the 
nunilier  of  naval  ollicers  always  exceeds  that  of  the 
appointments  open  to  them,  there  are  at  all  times 
many  on  the  nonetlective  list  receiving  about  60 
per  cent,  of  the  pay  of  their  rank. 

In  the  army,  permanent  lialf-pay,  firet  granted 
in  11)08,  was  a1>olishe<l  in  1884,  retired  pay  being 
subslitute<l  for  it.  I'nder  the  ]irovisions  of  the 
royal  warrant  of  1887,  lieutenanlcolonels  who 
have  held  command  for  four  years  are  placed 
on  tcm/H>rary  half-pay  (lis.  a  day)  until  ^)romoted. 
Majors  of  seven  years'  regimental,  or  hve  years' 
stair  service  in  that  rank  may  claim  promotion  to 
half-pay  lieutenant-colonelcies,  and  tlie.se  or  any 
ollicers  of  lower  rank  may  be  pl.aced  on  the  half 
pay  of  their  rank  while  incapacitateil  through  ill- 
health,  or  as  a  punishment  for  inefliciency.  Half- 
pay  ollicei-s  are  eligible  for  any  emi)loynient  suited 
to  their  rank,  but  are  not  borne  on  the  strength 
of  any  regiment. 

iSeeondeil  ollicers  are  those  who  are  e.xtra-regi- 
nientally  employeil,  but  whose  names  remain  on 
the  rolls  of  their  regiments,  additional  ollicers 
being  appointed  in  their  places,  (tn  the  termina- 
tion of  such  emi)loyment  they  are  absorbed  into 


the  regiment  as  8(K>n  as  vacancies  occur  in  their 
proper  rank. 

UIHcei's  on  retired  pay  are  liable  to  be  called 
upon  to  serve  in  ca.se  of  national  peril  or  great 
emergency. 

Ilaliblirloil,  Tiiii.m.vs  Cii.v.mii.ki!,  colonial 
judge  and  author,  was  bom  at  Windsor,  Nova 
Scotia,  in  1700,  wiis  called  to  the  bar  in  1820,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  House  of  .Assi-mbly.  He 
was  raised  to  the  bench  as  chief  justice  of  the 
common  pleas  in  1.S20,  and  in  1842  became  judge 
of  the  suprcnje  court.  In  IS.'il!  he  reliri'd  from  the 
bench,  and  took  up  his  resiibnce  in  Kiiglan<l.  In 
18,")8  he  received  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  the 
university  of  Oxfonl,  and  in  18o0  entered  parlia- 
ment as  Conservative  member  for  Launceston. 
He  is  best  known  .as  the  author  of  ,S'((»(  Slick,  the 
n.ame  of  a  Yankee  dockniaker  anil  jiedlar,  a  sort 
of  .Vmericiin  S:im  Weller,  whose  (|naint  drollery, 
nnso|ihisticaled  wit,  knowleilge  of  human  nature, 
and  aptitude  in  the  use  of  what  he  calls  'soft 
sawder'  have  given  him  a  fair  chance  iif  im- 
mortality. The  series  of  newspaiier  sketches  in 
which  this  character  hail  (ii'st  been  introduced 
was  ]iublisheil  in  1.S37  as  'J'lie  I'loekmal.cr,  or 
Sai/ings  and  floini/s  of  Samuel  Slide  of  SItehrillc  ; 
two  later  series  followed  in  18.'?8  and  1840,  and 
The  Attachi^,  or  Sam  Slick  in  England,  in  184.3. 
Haliburttms  other  works  include  A  Historical  and 
Statistical  Account  of  2\'ora  Scotia;  Bubbles (f 
Caiauia ;  The  Old  Judge,  or  Life  in  a  Colong ; 
Letter-bag  of  the  Great  Western  :  Yankee  Stories, 
and  Traits  of  American  Humour;  Nature  and 
Human  N(durr  ;  Hule  and  Misrule  of  the  English 
In  America  ;  and  Wise  Sous  and Mixfern  Instances. 
He  died  at  Isleworth,  27th  August  186.5. 

Halibut.  <>'  \U)lAlilT  (lliji/mi/lossus  vulgaris), 
the  largest  of  all  the  Hat  lish  ( Pleuronectiibe),  in 
form  more  elongated  than  the  flounder  or  the  tur- 
bot,  the  eyes  on  the  right  side,  the  upper  surface 
smooth,  and   covered  with   small  .soft   oval   scales, 


ll:il;iiiH    I  tt'rj'"^r    ^snn  Kil'jditx). 

the  cidour  brownish,  marbled  all  over  with  darker 
markings,  the  under  surface  smooth  and  white.  The 
halibut,  though  esteemed  for  the  table,  is  not  to  be 
compared  in  ipiality  with  the  turbot ;  its  llesh,  thimgh 
white  and  lirm,  is  dry  and  of  little  llavour.  It  is 
fouiiil  from  the  coasts  of  Spitzbergen  to  Iceland, 
oil'  Newfoundland,  iVc,  and  frum  I''inland  and 
.Scandinavia  to  the  British  and  i'rench  coasts,  but 
is  rare  in  the  Channel.  It  is  abundant  oil'  the 
(Jrkneys,  especially  in  eddies  where  tides  meet. 
It  is  also  found  on  the  co;ists  of  NeAV  Kngland, 
New  York,  California,  and  Kamchatka.  It 
is  a  lish  of  great  value  to  the  Creenlanders, 
who  preserve  it  for  winter  use  by  cutting  it  into 
long  strips  and  drying  it  in  the  air.  Oil  is  obtained 
from  it  in  considerable  qviantity,  cliielly  from  the 
bone.s.     It   attains  a  great  size ;   specimens   have 


HALICARNASSUS 


HALIFAX 


515 


been  cauglit  in  Europe  weigliin};  at  least  500  lb., 
and  one  caught  in  Iceland  was  little  short  of  20 
feet  long. 

Halicarna.SSUS  (originally  called  Zephijria), 
a  Greek  city  of  t'aria  in  Asia  Minor,  situated  on 
the  Ceramic  Gulf.  It  was  fonndeil  by  Dorian 
colonists  from  Tru.'zen,  and  defended  by  several 
citadels,  one  of  which,  Salmacis,  was  deemed 
impregnable.  Early  in  its  history  it  became  one 
of  the  cities  of  the  so-called  Dorian  Hexapolis,  from 
which  confederacy,  however,  it  was  eventually 
excluded.  When  the  Persian  power  spread  west- 
ward, Halicarnassus  readily  submitted  to  the 
dominion  of  the  conquerors.  During  this  period, 
however,  about  ."lOO  ii.c,  a  ilomestic  tyrant,  Lyg- 
daniis,  rose  to  supreme  ])ower  as  a  vassal  of  Persia ; 
and  his  descendants,  without  forfeiting  the  Greek 
character,  or  ceasing  to  cultivate  the  (ireek  litera- 
ture and  arts,  gradually  extended  their  sway  over 
all  Caria.  .Amongst  them  was  JIausolus,  whose 
wife  and  sister  Artemisia,  to  commemorate  him 
after  his  death  (3.53),  erected  the  nuigniticent 
Mausoleum  (ij.v. )  wbicb  was  accounted  one  of  the 
seven  wonders  of  the  world.  It  was  under  this 
king  that  the  city  attained  its  highest  degree  of 
splendour  and  [)rosperity.  About  twenty  years 
later  .-Vlexander  the  Great  destroyed  the  city  by 
lire  ;  but  the  inhabitants  took  refuge  in  the  citadel, 
which  successfully  resisted  his  arms.  The  city  was 
afterwards  rebuilt,  but  it  never  recovered  its  ancient 
importance  or  prosperity.  In  the  days  of  the  Roman 
empire  it  had  sunk  into  comparative  insignificance. 
Halicarnassus  wa.s  the  Idrthplaee  of  the  Greek 
historians  Herodotus  and  Diouysius.  The  site  of 
the  city  is  occupied  by  the  nujdern  Budiun.  An 
account  of  the  excav'ations  conducted  there  will  be 
found  in  Newton's  Discoveries  ut  Haliranuissus 
(IHtVi-liS). 

Halioore.    See  Dugoxo. 

Halioz,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  the  crow'nland  of 
tialicia,  is  situated  on  the  Dniester,  69  miles  .SSE. 
of  Lemberg  by  rail.  On  a  hill  in  the  vicinity  are 
the  ruins  of  the  once  strongly  fortilied  castle  of 
Halicz,  liuilt  in  the  l'2th  century,  and  the  residence 
of  the  rulers  of  what  was  formerly  the  grand  prin- 
cipality and  kingdom  of  Halicz.  '  Krom  this  word 
the  name  (ialicia  (rp  v. )  is  derived.     Pop.  34G4. 

Halidoil  Hill,  an  eminence  in  Northumber- 
land, 2  ndles  N\V.  of  Berwick,  overlooking  the 
Tweed,  was  the  scene  of  a  bloody  contlict  between 
the  English  and  Scots,  intli  July]  3.33,  in  which  the 
latter  were  defeated,  upwards  of  10,000  of  them 
(according  to  some  authorities,  14,000)  being  left 
on  the  Held. 

llaiitax.  a  thriving  market-town,  municipal, 
parliamentary,  and  county  borough,  in  the  West 
Kiding  of  Vorkshire,  is  situated  on  the  river  Hebble, 
a  feeder  of  the  <  'alder,  on  the  slojie  of  .-in  euunence, 
and  is  almost  wholly  surrounded  liy  hills.  It  is  -4,3  , 
miles  SW.  of  York,  and  194  lidles  NNW.  of 
London.  Dr  Wliitaker  derives  its  name  from  the 
four  ways  travelled  by  ]iilgrims  (•on\  erging  towards 
the  parish  church,  called  Holy  Ways  ; /ru;  (as  in 
Carfa.e)  being  Norman- Erench  for  'forks'  or  ways. 
A  more  popular  derivation  is  that  it  means  '  Holy 
Face,'  from  a  representation  of  the  head  or  face  (if 
John  the  Baptist  having  been  at  a  remote  period 
kept  in  a  chapel  where  now  stands  the  parish  church 
of  St  John  the  Baptist.  Its  situation  is  plea.sing, 
an<l  its  general  appearance  handscuue  ;  while  its 
ample  supply  of  water-power  and  of  coal,  its  facili- 
ties for  transport  both  by  water  and  liy  leading 
lines  of  railway,  and  its  position  in  )iroximitv  to 
many  of  the  great  towns  of  the  north  of  Englaml 
contribute  materially  to  its  manufacturing  ami 
ccnumercial  importance.  Some  Eleniish  artisans 
had  settled  here  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.     The 


ecclesiastical  architecture  of  Halifax  strikes  every 
visitoi-.  The  parish  church  of  St  John,  restored  in 
1879,  is  a  Hue  specimen  of  Perpendicular  Gothic ; 
'  \\\  Souls,'  built  at  the  expense  of  Edward 
Akroyd  from  designs  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott,  is  one 
of  the  best  and  most  elaborate  of  all  the  churches 
of  which  he  is  the  architect.  The  'Si|uare  Church,' 
belonging  to  the  Congregational  body,  was  erected 
in  1S55,  and  there  are  in  all  about  forty  Non- 
confornnst  churches.  The  town-hall,  opened  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1863,  is  a  veiy  ornate 
Renaissance  edifice,  from  designs  by  Sir  Charles 
Barry;  the  new  post-office  was  opened  in  1887. 
Another  important  building  is  the  Piece  Hall, 
erected  in  1779  for  the  reception  and  sale  of 
manufactured  goods  ;  it  was  presented  to  the  cor- 
poration by  Sir  S.  Ibbetson  in  1868,  and  is  now  used 
as  a  Market  Hall.  Among  the  numerous  public 
and  private  educational  institutions  of  Halifax  are 
the  Heath  grammar-school,  founded  in  158.5,  and 
the  Blue-coat  School.  The  .school-board  has  the 
control  of  fully  two-thirds  of  the  school-children. 
The  Crossley  and  Porter  Orphan  Home  and  School 
was  built  by  the  Crossley  brothers  at  a  great  cost, 
and  has  an  endowment  of  £135,894.  In  1887  Mr 
J.  Porter  of  Manchester  (formerly  of  Halifax) 
augmented  the  endo«-ment  fund  by  a  gift  of 
£50,000.  Halifax  has  four  parks — Sav'ile,  Shrogg's, 
.\kroyil,  with  free  library,  museum,  and  art- 
gallery,  and  the  People's  Park.  The  last,  the  gift 
of  the  late  Sir  F.  Crossley  (tpv.),  is  tastefully  laid 
out  from  designs  by  Sir  Joseph  Paxton,  anil  cost 
about  £40,000.  There  are  two  theatres  (one  dating 
from  1888).  The  Public  Libraries  Act  has  been 
adopted  :  there  are  also  a  Mechanics'  Institute  and 
the  Dean  Clougli  Institute  erected  by  the  Crossleys 
for  their  work-people.     There  is  a  strong  co-opera- 

I  five  society  ( Halifax  Industrial ),  with  central  stores 
erected  in  1861  at  a  cost  of  £17,400,  and  twenty- 

(  eight  branch  stores. 

The  worsted  and  carpet  trades  are  the  staple 
industries.  Crossley's  carpet-works,  the  largest 
in  the  world,  employ  more  than  5000  hands. 
The  manufactured  goods,  other  than  carjiets, 
are  chiefly  worsteil  coatings,  fancy  dress  goods, 
damasks,  and  merinos.  Cotton  fabrics  and  wool- 
cards  are  manufactured,  while  dyeing  and  hosiery 
trades  are  on  an  extensive  scale.  There  is  also 
some  trade  in  corn  ;  iron,  chemicals,  boots,  and 
mill-machinery  are  manufactured,  and  freestone 
is  (juarried.  The  water-works,  which  are  very 
complete,  have  cost  the  coriioration  about  £675,000. 
Pop.  (1851)  33,582;  (1871)  6.5,510;  (1881)  73,633; 
(1891)  82,864.  The  borough  since  1832  has  re- 
turned two  members  to  ]>arliament. 

A  strange  old  local  law,  relinquished  in  1650, 
known  as  the  Halifax  (iibbet  Law,  was  enacted 
here  at  an  eai'ly  period  of  the  woollen  manufacture, 
for  the  protecticui  of  tlie  manuf.u-turers  against  the 
thievish  propensities  of  persons  who  stole  the  cloth 
when  stretched  all  night  on  racks  or  wooden  frames, 
calleil  tenters,  to  dry.  The  Gibbet  Law  pro\ided 
that  all  jiersons  within  a  certain  circuit,  who  had 
stolen  jiroperty  of  or  above  the  value  of  13.\d..  were 
to  be  tried  by  the  frith-burghers  within  the  liberty  ; 
and.  if  found  guilty,  they  were  handed  over  to  tlie 
magistrates  for  punishment,  an<l  were  executed 
on  the  lii'st  market-ilay  following  by  means  of  an 
instrument  similar  to  the  guillotine.  See  Watson's 
Uislur;/  i,f  Il<itiJ'ti.r  ( 1775  ;  ed.  by  Leyland,  1869). 

Halifax,  the  capital  of  Nova  Scotia  and  the 
principal  .\tlantic  seaport  of  Canada,  is  situated  on 
the  eiisteru  or  .\tlantic  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  in 
44"  .•i9'  N.  lat.  and  6.3'  37'  W.  long.  It  is  the 
nearest  to  (Ireat  Ibitain  of  any  city  on  the 
American  continent,  being  liut  2178  ndles  from 
Cape  Clear.  Previous  to  the  foumling  of  the  city, 
the  niagniticent  sheet  of  water  that  constitutes  its 


51 G 


HALIFAX 


harbour  was  calle<l  by  tlie  Inilians  Chebuclo,  signi- 
fvirif;  tlie  frreatest  of  liavens— a  name  not  in- 
ii|i|irc>|ir  iate  for  wliat  i^-  oni'  of  the  linest  liarlioms  in 
llie  wiirlil.  It  is  oiisily  avcossilile  ill  all  si'a?soiis  of 
the  year,  at  all  times  of  tlie  tiile,  by  ships  of  any 
tonnage  ;  and  iseapalile  of  alVonling  safe  anoliorajje 
to  tlie  whole  ISritisli  navy.  The  fact  that  it  «ius 
selecteil  as  the  American  rendezvous  of  the  ill- 
starred  exiu'dition  of  D'.Vnville  against  the  British 
colonies  in  Anicrica  in  1740  led  to  a  demand  on  the 
iiart  of  those  colonies  that  a  place  of  such  strategic 
luiportaiiee  should  no  longer  he  unoccupied  hy 
imperial  trooiis.  Their  demand  was  ahly  siipiiorted 
by  Loiil  Halifax,  and  ;iccordingly  an  expedition 
wits  lit  ted  out  in  174!',  under  <'oriiniaii<l  of  the 
Hon.  Kdward  Cornwallis.  which  foumlcd  the  city 
and  gave  to  it  the  name  of  its  English  patron.  It 
at  once  became  the  ca|iital  of  the  province,  and  the 
priiiciiial  naval  and  inilitary  station  of  (!reat 
Ihilain  in  .•\nierica,  and  lias  reniaiiie(l  so  ever  since. 
It  is  garrisoned  by  imiicrial  troops,  ami  is  strongly 
fortilieil — its  supposed  impregnahilily  securing  for 
it  the  appellation  of  'the  Croiistadt  of  America.' 
The  docKyard,  covering  14  acres,  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  liiitish  colnnies.  Down  to  the  close  of 
the  Na|iiile(inic  wars  Halifax  was  little  more  than 
a  milil.uy  ami  naval  nitnjii'il ;  but  of  late  years  it 
has  assumed  more  an<l  more  the  character  of  a 
commercial  city.  It  is  built  on  the  western  side  of 
the  harbour,  and  extends  along  it  about  two  miles 
and  a  half.  The  streets  are  well  laid  out,  and  are 
lighted  by  electricity.  The  commercial  portion  of 
the  city  is  built  principally  of  fieestonc.  Its  watcr- 
supidy  is  excellent,  and  statistics  show  it  to  )ie  one 
of  the  healthiest  cities  in  America.  It  is  the 
residence  of  the  Konian  Catholic  archbishop  of 
Halifax  (whose  aichiepiscopal  see  includes  Nova 
Scotia,  New  HrunswicK,  Prince  Kdward  Islaml, 
and  Xewfounillanil )  and  of  the  Church  of  England 
bishop  of  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  also  the  seat  of 
Dalhousie  University  and  of  a  large  number  of 
other  educational  institutions,  including  a  .school 
for  the  blind,  and  one  fcu'  the  deaf  and  dumb.  In 
common  with  the  rest  of  the  province,  its  public 
schools  are  free,  and  attendance  at  them  between 
certain  ages  is  coinimlsorv.  It  is  the  eastern  or 
Atlantic  terminus  of  the  Intcrcnlonial  Railway  of 
Canada  and  of  the  Canadian  Piudlic  Kailway,  ami 
has  lines  of  steamers  connecting  it  with  London, 
Liveqiool,  New  York,  IJoston,  IJerninda,  the  West 
Indies,  St  Pierre,  and  both  the  east  and  west 
coasts  of  Newfoundland.  It  has  also  the  largest 
graving-dock  (.")S(»  by  102  feet)  in  .America,  con- 
structeil  in  ISSO  SO,"  at  a  cost  of  .•?l,(»00,()(K),  and 
capable  of  receiving  the  largest  ship  alloat.  The 
proximity  of  Halifax  to  the  coallields  of  Pictou 
anil  Cape  Ibetoii  and  its  extensive  wharf  .accom- 
mod.ation  make  it  a  favourite  coaling  station  bu' 
steamers  navigating  the  North  Atlantic.  Its  popula- 
tion in  1S81  was  36,100;  its  popul.ation  at  the  census 
of  ISOl  was  3S,r).")6.  Dartmouth,  on  the  o])positc 
shore  of  the  harbour  -  practically  a  suburb  of 
Halifax — has  a  |iopulatioii  of  6"2i)0.  In  an  average 
year  the  foreign  trade  of  the  port  amounts  to 
§10,000,000  or  $12,000,000.  The  total  number  of 
vessels  entering  and  clearing  the  harbour  is  from 
L'IMMI  to  riOiiO,  with  a  tonnage  of  1,.')00,000  tons. 

Halifax,  Chaim.ks  MoxT.vdf.  Ivmsi-  of,  poet 
anil  sialcviiian,  who  owed  his  introduction  to 
]iolitic,al  power  to  his  f.acile  skill  in  verse-making, 
was  the  nephew  of  the  famous  Parliamentary 
general,  the  Earl  of  Manchester,  and  wa-s  horii 
at  Morton,  in  Northamptonshire,  Ifitli  .April  16(il. 
He  was  educated  at  Westminster  School  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  formed  a 
life-long  friendship  with  Newton.  His  most  not- 
able poetical  achievement  was  a  parody  on  Dry- 
den's  Jliml  and  Panther,  entitled  The  Tou-n  and 


Country  Mouse  ( 1687 ),  of  which  he  was  joint  author 
with  ^latthew  Prior;  but  his  ]>oetry  would  hardly 
have  made  his  name  lemi'inbcied  in  the  I'.Mh  ecu 
lury.  In  the  following  \ car,  through  the  inlliience 
of  the  Earl  of  Dorset,  he  became  member  for  iMaldim 
in  the  Convention  Parliament,  anil  soon  developed 
a  decided  talent  for  linancial  business.  Itetaining 
his  seat  in  William  lll.'s  liist  ]iarliiinient,  he  was 
aplHiinted  in  IliDJ  a  Commissioner  of  the  Treasury. 
I  )n  ihc  l."ith  Dcccndier  of  the  Inllowing  year  he 
proiioscd,  in  the  House  of  Comiiioiis,  to  raise  a 
million  sterling  by  wav  of  loan.  William  rei|uired 
money  for  his  wars  ;  the  moneyed  chusses  were  tired 
of  bulible  companies,  and  knew  not  where  to  invest 
safely  ;  ami  liie  landowners  were  weary  of  heav\ 
taxation:  so  the  National  Debt  was  established. 
In  the  spring  of  l<i!M  money  was  again  wanted,  and 
Montague  supplied  it  by  originating  a  national 
bank,  a  .scheme  for  which  had  been  laid  before 
government  by  William  Palerson.  three  years 
before.  The  capital  was  to  be  l'l,-.'(l(i.(l(H),  and  the 
shareholdei's  were  to  be  called  the  (ioveinor  and 
Comiiany  of  the  liank  of  England.  As  a  rewaril 
for  tills  service  Montague  was  a]ipointed  Chancellor 
of  the  Excheipier  in  l(i!l4.  His  next  work  was  the 
recoinage  in  Uii)."),  which  be  I'arried  out  sueeess- 
fully,  appointing  Newton  warden  of  the  Mini,  and 
raising  a  tax  on  windows  to  pay  the  expense,  instead 
of  the  (dmoxious  impost  called  hearth-money.  At 
this  crisis  too  he  first  introduced  excbei|uer  bills. 
On  Godolphin's  resignation  in  1U1I7  he  became 
premier,  but  his  arrogance  and  vanity  soon  made 
liiiii  un|>o]iular.  and  on  the  accl■s^ion  to  ]iower  of 
the  Tories  in  Kill!)  he  was  obliged  to  accept  the 
auditorshi])  of  the  excheiiucr,  and  withdraw  from 
the  Commons  as  IJaron  Halifax.  He  was  im]icaclied 
before  the  House  of  Lords  for  breach  of  trust  in 
1701,  and  again  in  170:1,  but  the  proceedings  fell  to 
the  ground.  During  the  whole  of  .Anne's  reign 
Halifax  remained  out  of  o'lice,  but  was  active 
in  ]iromoting  the  union  with  Scotland,  and  the 
H.anovcrian  succession.  On  the  (|ueen's  death  he 
was  ajipointed  a  member  of  the  cimncil  of  regency, 
and  on  (Jeorge  I.'s  arrival  became  an  earl  and 
prime-minister.  His  rnle  lasted  only  nine  months, 
being  terminated  by  death  on  19tli  M.ay  1715. 

Halifax.  (iKnmiic  S.wii.k,  .\l.\i;(;t'is  of,  states- 
man, was  horn  in  the  year  i&.i'.i.  I'or  the  share  he 
took  in  bringing  about  the  Kestoiation  he  was 
created  a  viscount  in  ItiGS.  In  l(J7o  he  opjiosed 
Danby's  Test  Ilill,  and  in  1679  by  a  display  of 
extraordinary  oratory  procured  the  rejection  of  the 
Exclusion  liill.  Three  years  later  he  was  created 
a  mar(|uis,  and  made  Lord  Privy  Seal.  On  the 
acccs^ion  of  .lames  II.  he  became  president  of  the 
council,  but  was  dismissed  in  l()S.">  for  his  opposi- 
tion  to  the  reiieal  of  the  Test  Act  anil  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Act.  He  was  one  of  the  three  commis- 
sioners appointed  by  James  II.  to  treat  with 
William  or  <  )range  after  he  landed  in  England. 
After  the  (light  of  James,  Halifax  tendered  his 
allegiance  to  William  111.,  and  under  him  resumed 
the  oflicc  of  Lord  Privy  Seal  ;  but.  subsei|ucntly 
joining  the  ojipusition,  be  resigned  his  |)ost  in  1089. 
He  died  "iOtli  .April  1695.  Shaftesbury  was  the 
sole  rival  as  an  orator  of  this 

Jottiain  of  piercing  wit  anil  iiri-ijinant  tlifilglit, 

Endueil  liy  nature  and  l>y  learning  taught 

To  move  assemblies. — Dbydks'.s  Ah.^utom  and  Achitophet. 

As  a  minister  he  was  a  failure,  owing  to  his 
frequent  changes  of  side ;  yet  he  was  not  a  tickle 
party-man,  but  rather  a  iihilosophic  statesman, 
who,  in  order  to  serve  his  country,  wius  conijjclled 
by  tlie  excesses  of  jiarty  to  ailopt  this  course — such 
at  least  is  the  defence  he  lays  down  in  his  On  the 
Character  of  a  Trimmer.  The  poet  musician  Henry 
Carey  ('|.v.)  is  believed  to  have  lieeii  his  natural  son. 
See  his  Life  and  Letters,  hy  H.  C.  Foxcroft  (189.S). 


HALIOTIS 


HALL 


517 


llaliotis.  a  genus  of  gasteiopoiloiis  molluscs,  of 
the  family  Haliotithi-,  onlei'  Piosobiaiichiata ;  shell 
witlely  open,  earshapeil,  pierced  on  the  outer 
margin  by  a  series  of  holes  which  are  closed  in  the 
course  of  growth  after  ceasing  to  he  of  use  in  con- 
taining the  pallial  folds.  The  shell,  on  account  of 
its  lieautifully  iridescent  Nacre  (ij.v.),  is  much  used 
for  the  purposes  of  ornament.  In  some  parts  of 
Italy  it  is  called  Venus's  ear;  it  is  the  'mother-of- 
pearl  '  of  old  English  writers,  and  the  'orraer'  (con- 
tracted fiom  oreille  de  iner)  of  the  French.  The 
animal  itself,  in  a  living  state,  e.xhibits  great  heauty 
of  colours.  It  inhaliits  the  littoral  zone,  adhering  to 
rocks  like  the  limiiet ;  one  Japanese  species,  how- 
ever, is  found  in  deep  water.  !se\eral  species  are 
used  for  food  in  dili'erent  parts  of  the  world.  The 
genus  has  a  wide  distriliution,  being  found  in  every 
part  of  the  ocean  from  the  Channel  Islands  south- 
wards. Seventy-live  recent  and  four  fossil  species, 
commencing  in  the  Miocene  period,  are  known. 

Halitheriiiiii.    See  Digoxg. 

Hall«  the  large  principal  apartment  of  the 
castles  and  mansions  of  the  middle  ages.  The 
hall  is  of  very  ancient  origin.  The  earliest  Saxon 
buildings  we  have  any  record  of  are  the  jialaces 
of  the  kings,  and  these  seem  to  have  consisted  of 
one  large  hall,  in  which  the  king,  his  courtiers  or 
'hearth-men,'  and  all  his  retainers  ihvelt  together, 
eating  at  the  same  table,  and  sitting  round  the 
same  fire  ;  and  one  other  chamber,  in  which  the 
king  and  his  hearth-men  slept,  while  his  retainers 
slept  in  the  hall.  In  the  Norman  keep  the  hall 
occupied  the  whole  of  the  first  floor — the  private 
apartment  of  the  lord  of  the  castle  being  on  the 
Hoor  above.  In  the  l'2th  century  halls  of  a  more 
commodious  kind  came  to  be  erected  in  the  court- 
yards of  the  ca.stles,  with  the  private  apartments 
at  one  end  and  the  kitchen  offices  at  the  other. 
The  same  arraugement  ])revailed.  with  slight  modi- 
fications, during  the  l'2th  and  l.Sth  centuries.  In 
the  14th  and  1.5th  centuries,  when  England  was 
more  settled  and  prosperous,  and  manners  more 
relined,  niimerous  apartments  became  necessarii\ 
The  hall,  however,  still  retained  its  ])lace  as  the 
chief  apartnient.  In  it  the  king  or  the  lord  of 
the  manor  gave  audience,  administered  justifce, 
received  and  entertained  his  retainers  and  guests, 
and  performed  all  the  public  acts  of  feudal  life. 

At  one  end  of  the  hall  was  a  raised  |datform  or 
dais,  on  which  the  table  of  the  Irnl  of  the  manor 
was  ]jlaeed,  and  where  his  more  honoured  guests 
sat  ahuig  witli  him.  This  end  of  the  hall  was 
usually  lighted  with  large  oriel  witulows,  ami  com- 
nninicateil  with  a  building  which  contained  the 
lord's  solar,  or  bedroom  and  parlour,  on  the  upper 
Hoor,  and  the  wine-cellar  below.  The  retainers  sat 
at  a  table  which  ran  along  the  lower  iiart  of  the 
hall.  This  part  was  not  alw.-iys  in  the  cleanest 
and  sweetest  condition,  and  hence  it  received  the 
name  of  'the  marsh.'  The  entrance  porch  was  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  hall,  where  also  a  jia-ssage  was 
cut  ott'  by  a  screen.  This  passage  gave  access  to 
the  kitchen,  pantry,  ami  buttery,  and  aliove  the 
pa.ssage  a  gallery  for  musicians  was  fre(|uently  con- 
structed. Survivals  of  such  medieval  dining-lialls 
may  be  found  in  the  ( )xford  and  Candiridge  colleges, 
with  their  high  tables,  portraits,  stained  glass,  &c., 
as  also  in  the  halls  of  the  Inns  of  Court  and  of  .some 
of  the  Lonilon  guilds. 

The  hall  partook  of  the  style  of  architecture 
jirevailing  at  the  time  when  it  was  built,  and  being 
a  large  and  important  apartment  was  generally 
ornamental  in  its  character.  The  roofs  especially 
were  very  carefully  and  elegantlv  constructed,  as 
many  still  remaining  show.  The  hall  was  essenti- 
ally a  part  of  femlal  architecture.  When  that 
system   gave  way,   the   large  common   halls  were 


abandoned  and  private  dinin<'-rooms  substituted. 
Many  old  ones,  however,  still  remain  ;  but  their 
use  is  changed.  The  hall  of  the  king's  nalace,  now 
calleil  '  Westminster  Hall,'  built  by  William  Kufus, 
and  restored  by  Kichard  II.,  is  the  finest  example 
in  England,  being  .300  feet  long  and  100  feet  broad. 
See  also  Municipal  Aechitectlue. 

Hall,  or  Schwablsch-Hall,  a  town  of  Wiir- 
temberg,  Ls  beavitifully  situated  in  the  deep  valley 
of  the  Kocher,  3.")  miles  by  rail  E.  by  S.  of  Heil- 
bronn.  Like  other  places  in  whose  names  the  word 
Hall  or  Salz  occurs.  Hall  has  considerable  salt- 
works, the  brine  being  obtained  from  Wilhelms- 
gliick,  5  miles  distant,  and  producing  annually 
nearly  80,000  cwt.  of  salt.  There  are  also  cotton- 
spinning  and  weaving,  silk  and  machine  manu- 
factures, and  tanneries.  The  Gothic  church  of  St 
Michael  (14'27-I525)  has  excellent  wood-carvings. 
In  1276  Hall  was  made  a  free  imi)erial  town  ;  it 
had  enjoyed  shice  1228  the  riglit  of  minting 
money  ;  here  were  coined  the  first  silver  heller 
{hiiller)  or  farthings.  In  180'2  it  wa.s  added  to 
WUrtemberg.     Pop.  9125. 

Hall,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  Tyrol,  Ls  situated 
on  the  Inn,  6  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Innsbruck.  The 
parish  church  contains  a  monument  to  Speck- 
bacher,  the  Tyrolese  patriot  of  1809.  Ab(jut  7 
miles  north  of  the  town  is  the  Salzberg,  from  the 
mines  in  which  salt  brine  is  conveyed  to  the  pans 
of  Hall  in  Avooden  pipes.  Here  1.50,000  cwt.  of 
salt  are  produced  annually.  Hall  received  to\\-n 
rights  in  130.3.     It  is  a  health-resort.     Pop.  5756. 

Hall,  B.vsiL,  writer  of  travels  and  miscellaneous 
works,  wa.s  born  in  Edinburgh,  31st  December 
!  17fS8.  He  was  the  .son  of  Sir  James  Hall  of  Dun- 
gla.ss,  baronet  (1761-1832),  the  founder  of  experi- 
mental geolog>-  (.see  Geology),  also  distinguished 
as  a  chemist  and  as  author  of  a  work  on  Gothic 
architecture.  Basil  entered  the  navy  in  1802, 
and  became  post-captain  in  1817.  When  Lord 
Andierst  was  sent  <m  a  mission  to  the  court  of 
Peking  in  1816,  Hall  commanded  a  sloop  in  the 
naval  escort,  and  visited  some  jdaces  along  the 
western  coast  of  the  Corea  which  were  little  known 
to  Europeans.  The  chief  results  of  his  explorations 
were  published  in  .1  Voyuyc  of  Diseovery  to  Corea 
(Did  t/ic  Great  Luo-Clioo  Islands  (1818),  a  book 
which  took  the  popular  fancy.  After  this  he  wrote 
Extracts  from  a  Journal  irriftcn  on  the  Coast  of 
Chili,  Peru,  and  Mexico  in  1S20--22 ;  Travels  in 
North  America  in  1S27-2S  (a  work  that  was  vio- 
lently a.ssailed  by  the  American  press);  and,  also 
|)opular,  Fraqments  of  Voyages  and  Travels  (9  vols. 
1831-10).  Aainfcld  (1830),  a  senn-romance,  and 
I'atchivorl:  ( 1841 ),  a  collection  of  tales  and  sketches, 
also  came  from  his  ])en.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Koyal  Societies  of  London  and  Edinburgh,  and  a 
member  of  the  Astrononncal  Society  of  London, 
and  the  author  of  various  articles  in  the  scientific 
journals  of  the  da.v.  He  died  insane  in  Haslar 
ilospital,  tlosport,  ilth  September  1844. 

Hall,  Charle.s  Francis,  Arctic  explorer,  l>om 
in  Rochester,  New  Hamjishire,  in  1821,  was  suc- 
cessively a  blacksnnth,  journalist,  stationer,  and 
engraver,  and,  becoming  interested  in  the  fate  of 
the  Franklin  expedition,  devoted  his  leisure  to 
gathering  inforination  about  Arctic  America.  He 
made  two  search  exjieditions.  in  1860-62  an<l  1864- 
69,  living  ahme  among  the  Eskimo,  and  bringing 
back  some  relics  and  the  Ikjucs  of  one  of  Franklin's 
comp.any  :  and  in  1871  he  sailed  in  command  of 
the  government  ship  I'nlaris,  on  an  'expeilition 
to  tlie  North  Pole.'  He  took  his  vessel  for  '2'yO 
miles  up  the  channel  leading  fnmi  Smith's  Sound, 
and  on  "29111  August  reached  82'  16'  N. — at  that 
date  the  highest  northern  latitude  ever  reached ; 


518 


HALL 


then  turninjr  sontliwanl,  he  went  into  winter- 
quarters  at  Tliank  Ciod  Harliour,  Crceiiland  (81° 
3S'  N.).  Heri\  mi  lii<  roluni  fniiii  a  slnl;;!'  cxjieili- 
tion  ti>  the  north,  he  wai  taken  Kinhlenlv  ill,  ami 
(lieil  Sill  Noveiiiher  1.S71  :  over  his  ^'lave  a -{rateful 
e]iitai)h  wa-s  plareil  hy  the  Ihitish  ]i<ihir  exiiedition 
in  1S76.  His  companions  left  Thank  tJod  Harhonr 
in  Au^'ust  1872.  In  Octoher,  tlinin;,'li  the  ice- 
anchor  slippin;;,  nineteen  men  were  left  with  stores 
on  a  floe,  ami  onlv  after  severe  siiHerinj;s  were  they 
rcseiieil  liy  a  sealer  oil'  the  Lahrador  coast  in  the 
followiii;;  April.  The  leaking'  I'uhiri.s  was  heaelied 
on  Littleton's  Islaml,  and  in  .liine  187:5  the  party 
set  out  for  I'pernivik  in  two  hoats  which  they  had 
constrneted  ;  they  were  ultimately  picked  u]i  hy  a 
Dumlee  whaler  near  (\ape  York.  The  charts  puh- 
lished  hy  the  expedition  are  often  incorrect  and 
misleading,',  hut  anionj;  the  valnahle  results  of 
Hall's  work  were  the  exploration  of  the  West 
(Jreeiil.uid  clianiwd,  and  the  extension  of  (ireenland 
and  (iriunell  Laml  a  de<^ee  and  a  half  north.  Hall 
puhlished  Arctic  liesearc/ics,  ami  Life  among  the 
Exi/iiimaii.r  (1804);  and  fr<mi  his  papei-s  largely 
was  compiled  the  yucrnlire  •>/  the  Second  Arctic 
Erpedition  ( Wiv.s|iin^'t(m,  1879). 

Hall,  Chestku  Moon  (170,3-71),  n  gentleman 
of  Kssex  who  ill  \~:VA  aiiticiiiateil  Dollond  in  the 
invention  of  the  achromatic  Telescope  (q.v.). 

Hall,  CliKl.sTofilKi!  Nkwm.w,  Con^'regational 
minister,  wa.s  the  son  of  .loliii  \iiie  Hall,  author  of 
The  Sinner's  Fricml.  and  was  luirii  at  Maidstone 
on  '22d  May  181G.  Having;  ^.'lailiiated  at  London 
University,  he  preached  in  Hull  1S42-.54,  ami  then 
removing;  to  London,  wa,s  till  1S!)2  minister  of 
Surrey  ("lianel  or  Christchurch,  Lamheth,  which 
was  ori.i,'inally  founded  hy  Lowland  Hill.  He  en- 
joyed wiile  repiile  as  an  elo<|Ucnt  iiiid  po|iiilar 
preacher,  ami  is  the  author  of  several  works  of  a 
devotional  character,  some  of  which,  a-s  Come  to 
Jesus,  The  CnU  of  the  Master.  an<l  The  Man  Christ 
Jesus,  have  had  an  enormous  sale.  He  has  also 
written  Antiilote  to  Fear,  Meilitnlinns  on  the  Lord's 
Prai/cr.  Pi/f/rim  Sunz/s,  In  Cloud  and  Sunshine, 
&c.     See  his  A  utohiorjraiihy  ( 1898). 

Hall,  or  Halle,  Ei)\v.\i;n,  Kn;:lish  historian, 
was  lioni  ill  London  in  1499,  of  .i  family  settled 
in  Shnipshire.  h\it  of  (Jerman  descent.  He  was 
educated  at  Eton,  hecanie  scholar  of  K info's  College, 
Camhridge,  in  l.">14,  and  junior  I'Vllow  in  (hie  course, 
next  studied  at  (iray's  Inn,  and  heard  s(une  of  the 
lectures  of  Wol.sey's  foumlation  at  Oxfonl.  He 
hecanie  one  of  the  common  Serjeants  ami  under- 
sherilV  of  the  city  of  London,  and  afterwards  a 
judge  in  the  sliei ill' court,  and  dieil  in  l.')47,  in  the 
same  year  with  Henry  VIII.  Next  year  his  history 
was  printed  from  his  manuscript  hy  Kichard 
(Jrafton,  under  the  title.  The  Union  of  the  Tiro 
Xobic  Families  of  Lancaster  and  Yorke.  It  was 
composed  mostly  in  his  younger  years,  hut  was 
only  lirought  down  to  \'>'M  ;  the  rest,  ilown  to  154(j, 
was  completed  hy  (Irafton.  The  exceptionally  large 
nuinher  of  variations  in  the  copies  make  this  thick 
lilack-letter  folio  something  of  a  hihhographical 
curiosity. 

Hall's  work  is  one  nf  the  finest  of  our  early  his- 
tories, and  the  stately  dignity  of  its  style  and 
reality  of  its  ligures  had  a  charm  for  the  (liam.itic 
sense  of  Shakespeare.  To  the  stmlent  of  the  leign 
of  Henry  \'1II.  it  is  especially  valnahle  a-s  the  truth- 
lul  and  intelligent  evidence  of  an  eye-witne.s.«,  ami  if 
his  account  of  his  king  is  too  uniformly  eulogistic, 
we  must  rememher  how  inestimahly  valuahle  to  his 
legal  mind  wjis  the  jiresent  hlessing  of  a  settled 
domestic  peace  after  the  hloodshed  j^nd  distraction 
of  the  Hoses.  Hall  loves  to  descrihe  with  detail 
scenes  of  pomp  and  pageantry,  such  as  made  splen- 
did the  early  years  of  Henr\'s  reign — a  taste  that 


liarmonLses  well  with  the  stately  and  poni|)ous 
Latinisms  of  )iis  English.  The  liest  edition  is  that 
hy  Sir  Henry  Kills  (IS(Ht). 

Hall,  Jamks,  LL.I).,  geidogist,  was  horn  at 
Hingham,  Massachusetts,  12tli  Septemher  ISll, 
and  in  18.37  wjts  apjminteil  one  of  the  New  York 
state  geologists.  His  final  report  on  the  western 
l>art  of  the  state  ain>cared  in  184.3.  Of  his  other 
W(uks  the  chief  is  his  im])ortant  J'aliro/itolof/i/  of 
Xeu-  York  (vols.  i.-v.  IS47  79);  he  also  coiitrih- 
uted  to  the  geological  surveys  of  Iowa,  Wisconsin, 
and  Can.ida,  and  puhlished  nearly  2.">0  .separate 
papers.  A  memln'r  of  iiiimerous  scientilic  hodies, 
he  died  7tli  August  IsiHi. 

Hall,  Josici'll,  liishop  and  divine,  was  horn  1st 
.Inly  1574,  at  Ashhy-dela-Zouch,  Leicestershire. 
He  was  educated  at  Einnianuel  College,  Cam- 
hridge,  of  which  he  hecanie  a  Fellow  in  1")9.'>. 
Taking  orders,  he  liehl  successively  the  livings 
of  H.alsteail  aii<l  Waltham,  in  Essex,  and  the 
deanery  of  Worcester.  In  1017  he  accomiianied 
.lames  to  Scotland  to  help  estahlish  Kpiscopacy, 
anil  in  this  and  the  next  year  was  one  of  the 
English  de]mties  to  the  synod  of  Dort.  He 
was  consecrated  liishop  of  Exeter  in  11)27,  and  in 
1C41  was  translated  to  Norwich.  The  later  years 
of  his  life  were  siidrleiied  hy  persecution.  He  was 
accused  of  I'liritanism.  though  he  zealously  di'fended 
Episco|iacv,  and  he  inclined  the  enmity  of  Andi- 
liishop  Laud.  In  1()4I.  having  joined  the  ]irelates 
w  ho  protested  .against  the  validity  of  all  laws  passed 
during  their  enforced  ahsence  from  ]iai'liament.  he 
was  committed  to  the  Tower,  and  threatened  w  itli  a 
]irosecutioii  for  high-treason,  hut  was  set  at  liherty 
at  the  end  of  seven  months,  on  finding  hail  for 
.f.'itXK).  Shortly  after  his  return  to  Norwich  his 
revenues  were  se(|uestrated  and  his  projierty  pil- 
l.a^cd.  Thereafter  he  rented  a  small  farm  at 
Higham,  near  Norwich,  to  which  he  retired  in  11)17. 
There  he  died  8th  Septemher  IC'iO.  His  winks, 
including  Contrmjilntions,  Christian  Meditations, 
Episcojiacj/,  and  Miiiidns  Alter  et  Idem,  a  Latin 
satirical  romance  of  an  nnknown  country  in  Terra 
Australis,  were  edited  hv  the  Lev.  Josiah  I'ratl 
(10  vols.  1808),  and  hy  i'eter  Hall,  a  descendant 
(12  vols.  1837-^39).  His  i.oetical  Satires:  Vinji- 
demiarum  (1597-98)  Pope  calls  'the  liest  poetry 
.and  the  truest  satire  in  the  English  language.' 
Hallaiii,  however,  accuses  him  of  lieing  harsh  and 
rugged,  ohscure,  and  ungramniatical.  See  Life  hy 
(George  Lewis  ( 188(j). 

Hall,  Mahsiiai.l,  physician  and  jihysiologist, 
the  son  of  Kohert  Hall,  who  introiluced  the  jnac- 
tice  of  hleaching  cotton  with  chlorine,  was  horn 
at  Ba-sfoiil,  in  Nottingh.amshiie,  18th  I'ehriiaiy  179<). 
.Vfter  studying  medicine  at  Edinhurgh  (18(19-14), 
I'aris,  thittingen.  and  lieilin,  he  .settled  at  Notting- 
ham in  1817  :  and  practised  in  London  from  1826 
until  18.').3.  He  died  at  Ihigliton,  1  Itli  August  18.17. 
Though  not  the  origin.al  ohserver  of  the  phenomena 
of  the  retlex  action  of  thesiunal  system.  Hall  claims 
lo  have  heen  the  lii'st  to  show  tlieir  independence 
of  sensation,  to  work  out  the  laws  of  their  causa- 
tion, and  to  apply  the  knowledge  of  them  lo  the 
comprehension  of  nervous  disea.ses.  His  investiga- 
tions on  this  snhject  were  puhlished  in  two  papers 
(1833-37).  His  name  is  also  associated  with  a 
well-known  method  of  restoring  sus])ende(l  respira- 
tion (see  Hksi'IHATIoX,  AltTIKIciAL).  liesides  the 
.ihove-nientioned  papers,  he  wrote  several  works  on 
diagnosis  (1817),  the  circulation  ( 1831),  The  Inverse 
Hdtio  bctveen  llcspiration  and  IrrHahilitij  in  the 
A)iimal  Kingdom  ( 1 832),  and  on  the  nervous  system 
.111(1  it-s  dise.a-se.s.  A  hihliogi.iphy  will  he  found  in 
Memoirs  of  Marshall  Hall,  hy  his  widow  ( 1861  ). 

Hall,  KoBEliT,  di-ssenting  preacher  and  writer, 
Wius  l«)ru  at  Arnshy,  near  Leicester,  May  2,  17t)4. 


HALL 


HALLAM 


519 


Feeble  in  Ijoily  Ijut  precocious  in  intellect,  he 
learned  to  read  Ijefore  he  could  speak.  He  was 
educated  at  a  Baptist  academy  at  Bristol  (1778- 
81),  and  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen  (1781-85), 
where  be  formed  an  intimate  companionship  with 
(Sir  James)  Mackintosh.  Immediately  after  his 
graduation  he  was  appointeil  assistant'  minister 
and  tutor  in  the  academy  at  Bristol.  Here  bis 
eloquent  preaching  attracted  overflowing  audi- 
ences. As  an  orator  he  was  fluent,  rapid,  and 
impressive,  and  was  liberal,  but  not  heterodox,  in 
his  religious  views.  In  consequence  of  a  disagree- 
ment with  his  colleague,  he  went  in  1790  to  Cam- 
bridge, where  by  his  powerful  and  vivid  eloquence 
be  rose  to  the  highest  rank  of  British  pulpit  oiators. 
His  writings,  apart  from  sermons,  are  few  ;  the 
more  important  are  an  Apology  for  the  Freedom  of 
the  Press  (1793)  and  On  Terms  of  Communion 
(ISlo).  In  1806  he  settled  in  Leicester;  but  re- 
turned in  1826  to  Bristol,  where  he  died  February 
21,  18.31.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works,  with  a 
memoir  by  Dr  O.  Gregory,  and  Observations  on  bis 
Preaching  by  John  Foster,  was  puldished  at  London 
(6  vols.  1831-33;  11th  ed.  1853). 

Hall,  Samuel  C.\rter,  author  and  editor,  fourth 
son  of  Colonel  Robert  Hall,  was  born  at  Geneva 
Barracks,  County  Waterford,  9th  May  1800.  Com- 
ing to  London  from  Ireland  in  1S22,  he  studied  law, 
and  became  a  galler\-  reporter  for  the  Xev:  Times. 
He  established  the  Amulet  { 1825),  an  annual,  which 
he  edited  for  several  years  ;  succeeded  the  poet 
Campbell  as  editor  of  the  Netc  Monthh/  Mar/azinc  : 
was  sub-editor  of  the  John  Bull;  and  did  other 
journalistic  work  before  be  founded  and  edited  the 
Art  Journal  ( 1839-80),  which  has  done  so  much  to 
create  a  public  for  art.  He  was  a  pertinacious  and 
indefatigable  worker  and  skilful  compiler,  the  joint 
works  written  and  edited  by  Mr  and  Mrs  S.  C. 
Hall  exceeding  500  v(dumes.  Amongst  these  were 
Ireland,  its  Hceneri/,  &c.  (illus.  1841-43) ;  The  Boo/: 
of  Gems  :  British  Ballnds,  one  of  theKne-art  books 
of  the  century  ;  and  Boronial  Hulls.  A  testimonial 
of  £1600  was  presented  to  him  by  friends  in  1874, 
and  in  1880  he  received  a  civil-list  pension  of  £150 
a  year.  He  died  16th  March  ISS'J.  During  his 
lifetime  be  bad  associ.ated  witli  most  of  the  best 
men  and  women  of  his  time,  and  showed  a  benevo- 
lent and  helpful  disposition.  See  his  Retrospect 
of  a  Lonij  Life  (2  vols.  1883),  and  Mrs  Mayo's 
'  Recollections  of  Two  Old  Friends '  ( Leisure  Hour, 
May  1889). 

Mr.s  S.  C.  H.\LL  (Anna  Maria  Fielding),  novelist, 
and  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  in  Dublin  on 
6th  January  1800.  She  was  brought  up  by  her 
widowed  mother  at  Graige,  on  the  coast  of  Wexford, 
and  in  her  fifteenth  year  came  to  London,  where 
her  education  was  completed.  In  1824  she  married 
Sanuiel  Carter  Hall,  who  encouraged  ber  to  write, 
and  was  her  guide  and  counsellor  in  the  composition 
of  ber  tales  and  novels,  which  owed  much  to  his 
pruning  and  polishing.  She  posses-sed,  however,  a 
genuine  and  spontaneous  literary  gift.  Her  tii-st 
work,  .ikctehes  of  Iri.fh  Charartcr  ("l828 ),  established 
her  reputation.  She  wrote  nine  novels,  and  hundi-eds 
of  shorter  stories,  including  The  Bucfaneer  (1832)  ; 
Tales  of  Woman's  Trials  ( 18.34 ) ;  The  Outlaw  ( 1835 ) ; 
The  French  llcfurjce,  a  drama,  which  in  1836  was 
acted  for  abcuit  fifty  nights  at  the  St  James's 
Theatre,  London:  I'ncle  Horace  (1837);  Lights  and 
Shadows  of  Irish  Character  (18.38);  Marian  (1839); 
Miilsummer  Ere  (\Si-A) ;  The  irhilelm;/  {\Si5),  &c. 
Her  Stories  of  the  Irish  Pcasanfri/  a])|ieared  origin- 
ally in  Chambcri's  Journal.  Besides  a.ssisting  lier 
husband  in  various  works,  ami  by  contributions 
to  the  Art  Journal,  she  furnished  numerous 
articles  to  periodicals,  edited  the  St  James's 
Magazine  for  a  year,  and  wrote  various  books  for 
the  young.      Of  these   Uncle  Sam's  Money-box  is 


one  of  the  best.  She  assisted  in  the  fonuation  of 
the  Governesses'  Benevolent  Institution,  a  hospital 
for  consumptives,  and  the  Nightingale  Fund,  which 
resulted  in  the  endowment  of  a  training-school  for 
nurses.     Mrs  Hall  died  January  30,  1881. 

Hallain,  Hexrv  (1777-18.59),  historian,  son  of 
John  Hallam,  Canon  of  Windsor  and  Dean  of 
Bristol,  was  liorn  at  the  former  town,  9th  July 
1777.  He  studied  at  Eton  College  with  zeal  and 
success  (his  Latin  verses  in  the  Musce  Etonenses 
were  esteemed  by  com])etent  judges  among  the  best 
in  the  collection).  He  matriculated  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  20th  April  1795,  and  proceeded 
B.  A.  1799,  M.A.  1832.  The  modem  system  of  prizes 
was  not  yet  in  existence,  and  if  he  did  nothing 
tangible  at  the  university,  it  was  because  there  was 
nothing  to  be  done.  Certainly  all  through  he 
worked  strenuously.  He  next  read  law  in  cham- 
bers in  Lincoln's  Inn,  was  admitted  a  member  of 
the  Middle  Temple,  and  called  to  the  bar  by  that 
.society  in  1802.  His  inn  electe<l  him  a  bencher  in 
1841.  a  somewhat  rare  honour  for  a  non-practising 
barrister,  as  Hallam  from  the  hi-st  gave  himself 
entirely  to  literary  pursuits.  He  had  a  small  but 
sutbcient  fortune  of  his  own,  whilst  his  Whig 
friends  in  due  time  gave  him  various  appointments 
— a  commissionership  of  stamps  among  the  rest. 
In  1805  he  was  engaged  to  write  for  the  Edinburgh 
Eeriewi  (Byron's  famous  satire  alludes  to  him  as 
'classic  Hallam,  much  renowned  for  Greek),  but 
it  was  not  till  he  was  over  forty  that  he  published 
his  first  great  work.  This  was  his  Vieic  of  Eurojie 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  It  at  once  gave  him 
a  foremost  place  among  English  historians.  He 
received  in  full  measure  such  honours  as  fall  to 
the  lot  of  successful  scholars.  He  was  created  a 
D.C.L.,  and  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal,  the 
Antiquarian,  and  many  other  learned  societies  at 
home  and  abroad.  He  was  also  a  trustee  of  the 
British  Museum,  in  which  institution  he  took  a 
great  interest. 

His  life  was  almost  without  external  incident. 
Its  course  was  narrow  and  retired,  yet  within  it  he 
was  both  singularly  fortunate  and  unfortunate.  He 
bad  no  money  cares,  he  chose  his  own  path  in  litera- 
ture, and  its  very  drudgery  w;is  delightful  to  him. 
He  was  fond  of  travel  and  of  the  society  of  cultivated 
men,  and  he  enjoyed  both.  He  was  universally 
respected  and  admired.  He  had  married  a  daughter 
of  Sir  Abraham  Elton  of  Clevedon  Court,  Somerset- 
shire, and  the  marriage  was  a  happy  one.  He  was 
devotedly  attached  to  bis  wife  and  children  ;  but 
there  was  some  strain  of  physical  weakness  in  the 
family.  Of  many  children,  only  four  survived  early 
life.  One  of  them  died  suddenly  at  Vienna.  He 
was  the  Arthur  Heniy  Hallam"  ( 1S11-.33)  of  In 
Mcmoriam.  That  work,  rather  than  the  fragments 
he  left,  full  of  promise  as  these  were,  will  preserve 
his  name.  Hallam  felt  the  loss  keenly.  He  spoke 
of  himself  as  one  '  whose  hopes  on  this  side  the  tomb 
are  broken  down  for  ever ; '  but  fate  had  not  ex- 
hausted its  malice.  His  wife  died  in  1840.  The 
younger  son,  Henry  h'itzmaurice  Hallam  (1824-50), 
was  struck  down  .abroad  like  his  brother.  A  sister 
had  predeceased  him.  The  father  lived  on  fin- yet 
nine  years.  In  the  shadowy  joys  of  literature  he 
found  some  consolation  for  tliose  deep  pangs  which 
learned  and  unlearned  feel  with  equal  anguish. 
One  daughter,  wife  to  Colonel  Cator  of  Pickhnrst. 
in  Kent,  remaineil  to  soothe  with  pious  care  his 
last  years.  He  lived  with  ber  till  his  death,  21st 
January  1859.  He  was  buried  with  his  wife  and 
children  in  Clevedon  Church,  '  in  a  still  and  seques- 
tered situatiiui  on  a  bare  hill  that  overb.angs  the 
Bristol  Channel.'  A  statue  by  M.  Tbeed  was 
erected  to  him  in  St  Paul's  Cathedral  in  1862. 

Hallam's  position  as  an  historian  rests  upon  three 
great  works.    ( 1 )  Vieir  of  the  State  of  Europe  during 


520 


HALLAMSHIRE 


HALLECK 


the  Middle  Ages  (2  vols.  1H18),  tlie  object  of 
which  is  '  to  oxhiint  in  a  series  of  liistorical  disser- 
tations a  conipicliensive  survey  of  I  he  chief  circmii- 
stances  that  can  intcre.-t  a  |>hilos(>|>liical  inijuirer 
(lurin;;;  the  period  usually  denoniinate<l  the  niiilille 
ages.'  Special  attention  is  accordin^dy  j^ven  to 
the  modes  of  ^'overnnient  anil  constitutional  laws. 
(2)  The  Conntitiitiuiuil  Ilistvi  i)  vf  Emilaiid  from  tli( 
Accc.vsion  of  Heiirfi  I'll,  to  tlic  Daitn  of  (jconjc  II. 
(2  vols.  1S27).  The  startingooint  is  so  jixed, 
because  Uallani  liiul  already  discussed  the  ante- 
cedent portion  in  the  eighth  chapter  of  his  View  of 
thi:  .iliite  of  Eiiriijir.  He  did  not  go  further,  '  lieing 
intluenced  by  unwillingness  to  excite  the  jirejudices 
of  modern  politics.'  Tliis  did  not  save  hini  from  a 
savage  attack  by  Soutliey  in  the  (Jinirtcr/i/  licrieii: 
Macaulay  made  the  book  tlie  subject  of  a  brilliant 
panegyric  in  his  widlknown  Essay.  The  work  luis 
survived  botii  praise  and  blame.  It  is  .still  the  stan- 
dard authority  loi  the  period  over  which  it  extends; 
tlie  preceding  period  was  treated  l»y  Stubbs;  the 
subbcuueut,  by  Sir  T.  E.  May.  (3)  Intruiliiction 
tol/n-  Literal  lire  of  Ell  rn/ie  in  the  Fiftir/il/i,. •sixteenth, 
rind  Heveiitee nth  Centuries  (4  voLs.  1S37-39).  This 
exhibits  an  even  greater  range  of  information  than 
Hallam's  other  works  ;  but  it-s  extent  prevented  it 
from  l»eing  so  thorough  as  they  are.  The  sources 
are  not  so  original,  and  it  is  not  of  such  permanent 
value  as  the  Const  it  iitional  Hisluri/.  Neither  ex- 
tract.s  nor  biographical  details  are  given,  but  full 
iinalyses  of  the  works  ilisciLsscd. 

Hallam's  scholarship  is  accurate,  his  learning 
is  both  wide  and  deep.  He  is  jierfectly  honest 
and  perfectly  disinterested.  He  is  very  anxious  to 
liml  out  the  truth  iind  impart  it  to  the  reader ;  and 
his  style  is  clear  and  correct.  He  ha<l  some  ilefects. 
He  Wivs  a  Whig  of  the  cdd  sc1iim>1  (he  wa-s  keenly- 
opposed  to  the  first  Iteforni  Bill ),  ami  disposed  to 
look  .at  everything  from  a  somewliat  narrow  party 
point  of  view.  There  is  a  want  of  colour  and 
animation  about  his  style,  and  there  is  little  human 
interest  in  his  work  ;  he  dissects  the  )iiust,  but  he 
does  not  make  it  live  again  for  his  rea<lers.  He  is 
an  author  '  rather  praised  than  re.'ul,'  or  at  lea-^^t 
his  works  are  rather  consulted  by  the  stmlent  than 
jiopular  with  the  general  reiulcr.  I'ossibly  this  is 
the  fate  he  would  himself  have  wished  lor  them. 

There  is  oddly  enougli  no  comjilete  Life  of  Hallam.  The 
best  acoountti  are  the  obituary  and  funeral  notices  in  the 
Tiiiujit  24th  and  '.i\&t  .Januar)*  IH.'j'J,  and  in  the  Profteil- 
iiujs  of  the  liomit  .Sociitii  of  Lotuion  (vol.  x.  i>.  12,  1^.59- 
60).  See  also  Harriet  Martineau's  Riniirapturnl  Sketches. 
The  Jteintiiiis  of  Arthur  Henrij  Hultom^  with  a  meinoir 
by  his  father,  appeared  in  1834,  and  a  brief  notice  of 
Henry  Fitzuiaurice  Hallam  was  printed  soon  after  his 
de.ith.  Editions,  translations,  ana  abridgments  of  Hal- 
lam's works  are  numerous. 

Ilallsiinsllire,  an  ancient  manor  of  the  West 
Killing  of  Vork.-.hire,  with  Shelliehl  for  its  capital. 
It  now  gives  name  to  a  parliamentarj-  division. 

Halle,  a  city  of  Prussian  Saxcmy,  known  a.s 
Halle  an  der  .Saale,  to  distinguish  it  from  other 
|)laces  of  the  same  name  in  Germany,  is  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Saale  and  on  several  small 
islands  of  the  river,  20  miles  by  rail  N \V.  of  Leipzig. 
As  an  inijiortant  railway  centre,  Halle  has  of  late 
years  rapidly  incre;i.sed  in  size,  industry,  ami  ]>ros- 
nerity.  Its  famous  univei"sity  wils  founded  in  l(i!l4 
by  Freileriok  I.  of  Prussia  ;  after  having  been  sup- 
pressed by  Napoleon  in  1806,  and  again  in  181.S,  it 
was  re-establisheil  in  IHl.'j  and  incorporated  with 
the  university  of  Wittenlierg,  which  had  been  dis- 
solved cluriiig  the  war.  At  lirst  a  chief  seat  of  the 
pietistic  school  of  theology,  Halle  sub>ei|uently 
oecame  the  headquarters  of  the  rationalistic  and 
critical  schools.  In  1888  the  university  wa-s  at- 
tended by  l.T<)I  students,  and  h.id  116  i)rofessorsand 
lecturers.     The  Francke  Institutions  rank  amongst 


the  most  important  establishments  of  the  ]dace 
(see  Fl{.\.NCKE).  The  noteworthy  buildings  and  in- 
stitutions embrace  St  Mary's  church  ( l,">2!t-.>l );  the 
(iotliic  church  of  St  .Maurice,  dating  from  the  12tli 
century,  with  line  w«MMl-carvings  and  .sculptures; 
the  reil  tower  276  feet  high,  in  the  markel-]ilace, 
with  a  Holaiid  statue  in  front  of  it  :  the  town-hall ; 
the  remains  of  the  .Morit/.burg.  built  in  Us4,  the 
ancient  residence  of  the  archbisjiopsol  .Magdebur"  ; 
a  deacones.ses'  home:  a  large  iienitcntiary  ;  the 
medical  institutes  and  clinical  hospitals  ;  the  agii- 
cultural  institute;  the  university  library  (220,(K)0 
vols.):  a  provincial  mu.'^euni  :  an  art  collection: 
and  an  archaological  and  other  museums.  The 
most  important  imlustrial  iiroduct  of  Halle  is 
salt,  (d)tained  from  brine  springs  within  and  near 
the  town,  wliich  have  Imtii  winked  from  before 
the  7tli  century,  and  still  yield  about  114, .500 
cwt.  annually.  The  men  employed  at  the  salt- 
springs,  iiiid  known  a.s  ■  Halloreii,'  are  a  distinct 
race,  su])poseil  by  some  to  be  of  NVendish  and  by 
others  of  Celtic  descent,  who  have  retained  numer- 
ous ancient  and  char.icteristic  peculiarities.  The 
industries  next  in  importance  after  the  salt-ninnu- 
I'aclure  are  machine-niaking,  sugar  iclining,  inint- 
ing,  brewing,  the  inanufiu'ture  of  mineral  oil,  and 
fruit  cultivation.  A  very  active  trade  is  carried  on 
in  machines,  raw  sugar,  mineral  oil,  grain,  and 
Hour.  Halle  is  the  birthplace  of  Handel  the  com- 
poser. I'o]..  (1871)  .52,G3!»;  (ISSO)  71,484;  (18«5) 
81,!I4!);  (1891)  101,401. 

Halle,  originally  a  border  fortress  against  the 
Slavs,  became  in  the  lOtli  century  an  appanage  of 
the  Archbishop  of  .Magdeburg,  and  by  the  12th 
century  was  famous  as  a  commercial  city.  In  that 
and  the  l.'Jth  century  Halle  wjus  a  ]KiHertiil  member 
of  the  Hanseatic  League,  .and  succe-ssfully  withstoiKl 
a  fierce  siege  by  the  .\rclibishop  of  Magdeburg  in 
14:15,  but  linallv  fell  into  his  hands  in  1478.  Terribly 
iiii|n)verislied  during  the  Thirty  Years'  W.ar,  it  was 
incoiiiorated  with  lirandenbuig  at  the  pe.ace  of 
Westpliali.a.  See  works  by  Von  H.agen  (1866-67), 
Voss  ( 1874),  and  Schbnern'iark  ( 1886). 

Hallo.  -\riAM  1)1-;  i..\.     See  Dk.vm.v. 

Halh*.  SiK  ('H.\HI,K.S,  an  eminent  pianist,  was 
born  .at  H.agen,  in  Westphalia,  11th  .April  1819. 
He  studied  first  at  Darmstailt,  .and  from  1,840  at 
Paris,  where  his  reimtation  was  established  by  his 
concerts  of  classical  music.       Hut  the  revolution  of 

1848  drove  him  to  Kngland,  and  he  ultimately 
settled  in  Manchester.  He  and  his  highly-trained 
orchestr.a  were  ere  long  familiar  to  the  music  lovers 
of  the  kingdom  from  London  to  Aljerdeen.  He  did 
much  to  raise  the  pi>]nilar  stand.ard  of  musical 
tii-ste  by  familiarising  the  Hritish  public  with  the 
grc.nt  cl.T-ssical  masters.  An  LL. D.  of  Kdinliiirgh 
(  1884),  and  knighled  in  1888,  he  died  2.5th  October 
189.).  See  \\\»  Life  nml  Leltcr.i  (1806).  — LadY 
IIali.e  {nee  Willielmiiie  Nernda),  violinist,  wa.s 
li.irn  at  IJiiinn  in  .Moravia,  29th  .March  1S3!).  An 
oiganisl's  daughter,  she  made  her  debut  at  Vienna 
ill  1846,  and  three  years  later  played  liisi  in  London 
at  the  Philharnionic.  She  married  in  1S64  the 
Swedish  musician  Norni.ann,  .and,  after  his  death 
in  18S.5,  Sir  Charles  Halle. 

Hallrck.  Fn/-(!UKKXE,  an  American  ])oet, 
born  .at  lluilford,  Connecticut,  .Inly  8,  1790.  By 
his  mother  he  was  descended  from  .John  Eliot, 
'the  a]>ostle  of  the  Indians.'  He  became  a  clerk 
in  a  bank  in  New  York  in  1811,  and  in  18.S2 
the   private   secret.ary   of    .John    Jacob   Astor ;    in 

1849  he  retired,  on  an  annuity  of  $'2(H)  left  him 
by  .Astor,  to  his  native  town,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  days,  and  died  November  19,  1867. 
I'roni  his  lioyhood  Halleck  wrote  verses,  and  in 
1819  he  contributed,  with  .Joseph  Rodman  Drake, 
a  series  of  humorous  satirical  papers  in  verse  to 


HALLECK 


HALLEY 


521 


the  New  Vuik  Evening  Pvsf.-  In  the  same  year 
he  published  his  longest  poem,  Fanny  (2<1  ed., 
enlarj^ed,  )8'21 ),  a  satire  on  the  literature,  fashions, 
and  politics  of  the  time,  in  the  measure  of  Don 
Juan.  He  visited  Europe  in  1822,  and  in  1827 
published  anonymously  an  edition  of  his  poems 
(.3d  ed.,  enlarged,  184.5).  In  186.5  lie  published 
YoiirKj  America,  a  poem  of  three  hundred  lines. 
His  complete  Poetical  WrUimjs  have  been  etlited 
bv  his  biographer  (1869).  Halleek  is  a  fair  poet, 
riis  style  is  spirited,  Howing,  ''raceful,  and  harnioni- 
ous.  His  poems  display  much  geniality  and  tender 
feeling.  Their  humour  is  quaint  and  pungent,  and 
if  not  rich,  is  always  refined.  See  liis  Life  and 
Letters,  edited  by  .James  Grant  Wils(m  (1869). 

Halleek.  Hexrv  W.\ger,  an  American 
general,  was  born  at  Westernville,  New  York, 
16th  .Januaiy  1815,  and  graduated  at  West  I'oint 
in  IS.Sg.  During  the  Mexican  war  he  was  em- 
ployed in  the  operations  on  the  Pacilic  coast,  and 
for  his  gallant  services  was  breveted  captain  in 
1847.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  organising  the 
state  of  California,  became  captain  of  engineers  in 
18.53,  left  the  service  in  18.54,  and  for  some  time 
liractised  law  in  .San  l-'rancisco.  Un  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war  he  was  commissioned  major-general 
in  the  regular  army,  and  in  November  1861  was 
appointed  conimantler  of  the  department  of  the 
^lissouri,  which  in  a  few  weeks  he  reduced  to 
order.  In  March  1862  the  Confederate  first  line 
had  been  carried  from  end  to  end,  and  Halleck's 
command  wa.s  extended  so  as  to  embrace,  under 
the  name  of  tlie  department  of  the  Mi-ssissippi,  the 
vast  stretch  of  territory  liet ween  the  Kocky  Moun- 
tains and  the  AUeghanies.  His  services  in  the 
field  ended  with  the  capture  of  Corinth,  with  its 
fifteen  miles  of  intrencliments,  in  .May  1862.  In 
July  he  became  general-in-chief  of  all  the  armies 
of  the  United  States  ;  and  henceforth  he  directed 
from  Washington  the  movements  of  the  generals 
in  the  Held,  until,  in  March  1864,  he  was  super- 
seded l)y  General  (Jrant.  Halleek  was  chief  of 
stall'  until  1865,  comnniniled  the  military  division 
of  the  Pacilic  until  1S69,  and  that  of  the  South 
until  his  death,  9th  .lanuary  1872.  His  Elements 
of  Military  Art  ami  Science  (1846;  new  ed.  1861) 
was  much  used  during  the  civil  war ;  and  he  also 
published  books  on  mining  laws,  \-c. 

Halleflillta  (Swedish),  a  very  hard  comi)act 
rock,  yellow,  red,  brown,  green,  gray,  or  black. 
It  is  com])Of^ed  of  an  intimate  mixture  of  siliceous 
and  felspathic  matter,  with  occ;isionally  scales  of 
chlorite  or  mica.  In  hand-specimens  it  might  be 
readily  mistaken  fiu'  a  compact  felsite,  liut  in  good 
sections  in  the  field  it  generally  occurs  in  thin  beds 
anil  bands.  It  appeai-s  to  be  a  metamorphic  rock 
— in  some  cases  an  altered  volcanic  mud. 

Ilalleill.  a  town  of  Austria,  10  nnles  .S.  of  Salz- 
burg, is  noted  for  its  .salt-works  and  saline  baths. 
Salt  is  made  to  the  amount  of  220,000  cwt. 
aninially.     Poj).  .3927. 

Ilalleill  jab,  or  Allelii.v  (Heb.,  'Praise  ye 
Jeliovali ' ),  one  of  the  forms  of  doxologv  used  in 
the  ancient  church,  derived  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  retained,  even  in  the  (Ireek  and  Latin 
liturgies,  in  the  original  Hebrew.  The  singing  of 
the  doxologv  in  this  form  dates  from  the  \ery 
earliest  times  ;  but  considerable  divei-sity  has  pre- 
vailed in  ditVerent  churches  and  at  tlillerent  periods 
as  to  the  lime  of  using  it.  In  general  it  may  be 
said  that,  being  in  its  own  nature  a  canticle  of 
gladness  and  triumph,  it  wa.s  not  used  in  the 
penitential  seasons,  nor  in  services  set  apart  for 
occii-sions  of  sorrow  or  humiliation.  In  the  time 
of  St  Augustine  the  hallelujali  was  universally 
use<l  only  from  the  feast  of  Ejister  to  that  of 
Pentecost ;  but  a  centurv  afterwards  it  had  become 


the  rule  in  the  West  to  intermit  its  use  only 
during  the  sea-son  of  Lent  and  Advent,  and  on 
the  vigils  of  the  jirincipal  festivals.  In  the  Koman 
Catholic  Church  this  usage  is  followed. 

Haller,  .Vlbkecht  VOS,  anatomist,  botanist, 
physiologist,  and  poet,  wa.s  bom  at  IJern,  16th 
'  October  1708.  He  was  a  sickly  but  remarkably 
precocious  child.  After  a  severe  course  of  study, 
at  Tubingen,  Levden  (where  he  giaduated  in 
1727),  London,  i'aris,  Oxford,  and  Ba.sel,  he 
>ettled  down  to  practise  as  a  physician  at  Hem 
in  1729.  There,  in  the  coui-se  of  seven  years,  his 
botanical  researches,  especially  on  the  Hora  of 
Switzerland,  and  his  anatomical  inve.stigations, 
spread  his  fame  through  Europe,  and  led  to  his 
being  called  (1736)  to  fill  the  chair  of  Medicine, 
Anatomy,  Botany,  and  Surgery  at  the  newly- 
founded  university  of  Gottingen.  Here  he  organ- 
ised a  botanical  garden,  an  anatomical  museum 
and  theatre,  and  an  obstetrical  school ;  helped  to 
found  the  Gottingen  Koyal  Academy  of  Sciences; 
wrote  a  great  number  of  anatomical  and  physi- 
ological works  ;  took  an  active  part  in  the  literarj- 
movement  which  culminated  in  the  golden  age  of 
Goethe  and  Schiller ;  and  interested  himself  in 
nearly  all  the  questions  of  the  day.  In  1753  this 
many-sideil  man  lesigned  his  offices  and  dignities 
at  Gottingen  and  returned  to  his  beloved  Bern, 
where  the  rest  of  his  life  was  spent,  his  energies 
l>eing  principally  occupied  with  the  duties  of 
'  amnian  '  or  magistrate.  Nevertheless  he  found 
time  to  write  three  political  romances,  and  to 
prepare  four  large  works  on  the  bibliography  con- 
nected with  botanv,  anatomy,  surgery,  and  medi- 
cine. Critics  of  the  standing  of  Vilmar  name  him 
I  first  among  the  regenerators  of  German  poetry,  and 
give  him  the  credit  of  beginning  the  new  epoch. 
His  poems  were  descriptive,  didactic,  and  ( the 
best  of  them)  lyrical.  Haller  died  at  Bern,  12th 
December  1777.  His  name  is  particularly  con- 
nected with  muscular  irritability,  the  circulation 
of  the  blood,  and  numerous  excellent  descriptions, 
of  an  anatomico-physiological  character,  of  import- 
ant parts  of  the  human  body.  Of  his  volumin- 
,  ous  writings  the  chief  were  Irones  Anatuniicec 
I  (1743-50),  Upiisciila  Anatomica  Minora  (1762-68), 
\  Disputationes  Anatomica'  Helcctiores  (1746-52), 
Elcnienta  Pliysiologa-  Corporis  Hiimani  (1757-66), 
Dr  liespiratione  (1746-49),  De  Funetionibiis  Cor- 
poris Hitmani  Preccipuaruni  Partittm  (1777-78), 
Oniiscula  Pathologiea  (1755),  Enumeratio  Utirpium 
lielcetieariim  (1742),  Opusciila  Botanica  (1749), 
and  Gedichte  (17.32:  new  ed.  1882).  See  Lives  by 
Blfisch  and  Hirzel  (1877)  and  Frey  (1879). 

j      Halleya    Edmlxb,  astronomer  and   mathema- 
tician,  was    born    at    Haggerston,   near   Lomlon, 
29th  October  1656,  educated  at  St  Paul's   School, 
and  afterwards  at  t^ueen's  College,  Oxford,  which 
he  entered  in  1673.     Before  leaving  school  he  be- 
came an  experimenter  in  physics,  and  noticed  the 
variation  of   the  compa.ss.     In   1676  he  puljlisheil 
i  a   paper   (in   I'liilusopliical    Transactions)    on    the 
j  orbits  of   tlie  principal  planets,  also  observations 
on  a  sjjot  on  the  sun.  from  which  he  inferred  the 
sun's   rotation   on   its  axis.      In   November  of   the 
same  year  he  went  to  St  Helena,  where  he  ap])lied 
,  himself  to  the  formation  of  a  catalogue  of  the  stars 
i  in   the   simthern    hemisphere,   whicli   he  publisheil 
in   \6~9  (Calalogns  Siellariim  Anstraliuni).     Soon 
after  his  election  .as  a  Fellow  of  the  Hoyal  Society, 
he   was  deputed   by  that   Ixxly  to  go  to   Danzig 
(1679)  to  settle  a  controvei-sy  between   Hooke  and 
Helvetius  re^jiectiiig  the  proper  gla^^^ses  for  astro- 
nomical    observations.     In    1680  he  was  again   on 
I  the   Continent :    with   Cassini   at   Paris   he   made 
I  observations  on  the  great  comet  which  goes  by  his 
I  nauje    (see    Comet),   and    the    return    of    which 


522 


HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS 


HALL-MARKS 


he  predicted, 
piiblishcil  in 
tl  ■     ■ 


After  his  return  to  Kiij;laiifl  he 
I6S3  {P/iil.  Trans.)  his  theory  of 
uiatioii  of  thf  iiia;,'n<'t.  The  next  year 
lie  made  the  ai-i|uaiiitance  of  Newton — the  occa- 
sion heinj;  liis  desire  to  lind  a  test  of  a  conjec- 
ture which  he  had  made,  that  the  centripetal  force 
in  tlie  solar  system  was  one  varying;  inversely 
as  the  scpiare  of  the  distance.  lie  found  that 
Newton  had  anticijiated  him,  liotli  in  conjecturing; 
and  in  demonstrating,'  this  fact.  For  an  account 
of  Halley's  connection  with  tlie  pnlilication  of  the 
Principia,  see  NkwtdX.  In  UiSO  llallcy  jmhlished 
an  account  of  the  trade-winds  and  monsoons  on 
sejis  near  and  between  the  tropics.  Two  years 
later  he  undertook  a  lonjj;  ocean  voyai;e  for  the 
purpose  of  testin;;  his  theory  of  the  ma^'iietic  varia- 
tion of  tlie  compiuss,  ami  emliodicd  the  results  of 
his  observations  in  a  chart  (1701).  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  surveyed  the  coa-sts  of  the  English 
Channel,  ami  niaile  a  chart  of  its  ti<le.s.  In  1703 
lie  wa.s  appointed  Savilian  professor  of  (ieonietrv  at 
Oxford,  and  two  years  later  imblislied  Ids  researches 
on  the  orbits  of  the  comets.  On  the  death  of  Sir 
Hans  Sloane  he  became  (1713)  secretary  of  the 
Koyal  Society,  and  hehl  that  position  until  1721. 
Dining  this  period  he  ma<le  valuable  experiments 
with  liiedivint,'-liell(see  DlviNi;).  In  1720,  after  the 
death  of  Flamsteed,  he  became  lustronomer-royal, 
and  his  last  yeai-s  he  spent  in  ol>servin).'  the  moon 
through  a  revolution  of  her  nodes.  He  died  at 
(Jreenwich,  l-4th  .lanuaiv  1742.  His  Tn/mlir  Astro- 
luiiii icn-  iVid  not  appear  till  1749.  .\iiiong  his  prin- 
cipal astronomical  discoveries  may  be  mentioned 
that  of  the  long  imMpiality  of  .lupiter  and  Saturn, 
and  that  of  the  slow  acceleration  of  the  moon's 
mean  motion.  He  has  the  honour  of  having  been 
the  lii'st  who  predicted  the  return  of  a  comet,  and 
also  of  having  recummendeil  the  observation  of 
the  transits  of  Venus  with  a  view  to  deteriiiining 
the  sun's  p.arallax — .a  method  of  iusccrtaining  the 
parallax  liist  suggested  by  James  (iregory. 

llalliMrlMMiillipns.  .I.\mk.s  Oia  h.\kd,  a 
great  Shakespearian  scholar  and  antiquary,  was 
born  at  Chelsea  in  1820,  the  son  of  Thonifus  Halli- 
well.  He  studied  at  .Jesus  College,  Cambridge, 
and,  yet  an  undergraduate,  began  that  long  career 
as  an  editor  whi<'h  he  kept  u])  almost  till  the  close 
of  life.  His  studies  embraced  the  whole  fiehl  of 
our  earlier  literature,  plays,  ballads,  popular 
rhymes  and  folklore,  chap-books,  and  English 
dialects,  and  its  fruits  remain  in  the  )>ublications  of 
the  old  Shakespeare  and  Percy  societies.  As  early 
as  1S.39  he  wxs  elected  Fellow  of  the  Itoyal  anil 
Antii|Uari.an  societies,  (iradually  he  came  to  con- 
centrate himself  ujion  Shakespeare  alone,  and  more 
particularly  njion  the  facts  of  Ids  life,  the  succe-s-sive 
editions  of  his  Outlines  of  the  Life  of  i>/i(i/;exj/eii re 
(184S;  8tli  ed.  1889)  recording  the  growing  results 
of  his  disco\eries.  For  many  years  he  waged  a 
brave  warfare  with  fortune,  bill  in  1 872  he  took 
over  the  nianageiuent  of  the  property  his  wife  [ 
(died  1879)  inlieiited  from  her  father,  Thomas 
I'liillipps,  anil  assumed  his  f.atber-iii-law's  name. 
Ill  his  i|iiaint  house  at  Hollingbury  Coiise  near 
Itri^htoii  he  accumulated  an  unrivalled  collection  of 
ShaKespearian  books,  MSS.,  and  rarities  of  every 
kind,  and  dispensing  hospitalities  to  scholarly 
visitors  from  .all  parts  of  England  and  America,  as 
well  as  giving  princely  benefactions  of  books  to 
Edinburgh  I'niversity,  Stratford,  .and  liirmingham. 
Here  he  died,  JanuaiT  3,  1889.  The  privately 
printed  Co/eHf/«r  ( 1887)  of  his  collection  embr.aced 
as  many  as  804  dillerent  items.  By  his  will  it 
was  first  ofTered,  at  the  price  of  ICIOOO,  to  the 
corporation  of  liirmingham  ;  but  it  wa.s  not 
accepted.  Ap.art  from  Shakespeare,  his  Xiirseri/ 
Ulii/mcs  and  Xiirser;/  Tales  of  Enrjiand  ( 184.5)  .and 
Dictionary  of  Arehaie  and  Provincial  Words  ( 1847 ;  ' 


(itli  ed.  18G8)  will  keep  his  name  from  being  for- 
gotten. His  ni.agniticent  edition  in  folio  of  the 
Works  of  Sliahes/inire  (  Hi  vols.  18."j3-G.'))  was  pub- 
lished at  a  price  prohibitive  to  most  students. 

Ililll-lliai'ks,  or  I'I..\TE  M.\l!Ks,  are  authorised 
legal  impressions  made  on  articles  of  gold  and 
silver  at  the  various  assay  ottices  in  the  I'nited 
Kingdom  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  to  the 
]iublic  the  true  value  and  fineness  of  the  niet.al  of 
which  they  .are  composed.  The  marks  are  .a  series 
of  symbols,  which  .are  stamped  in  an  emlHissed 
style  extending  in  ,a  line  of  about  one  half  to  three- 
iiuartei's  of  an  inch  in  length,  the  si/e  of  the  marks 
varying  with  that  of  the  articles  on  which  they  are 
impressed.  They  are  usually  stamped  on  every 
separate  jiiece  that  is  used  to  cnmjiose  or  make  up 
an  article.  Tlie.se  symbols  have  the  following  re- 
presentation :  ( 1 )  Tlie  ni.aker's  mark,  which  is  the 
initials  of  his  Cliristiaii  and  surname,  used  since 
1739.  (2)  The  st.andaril  or  Her  Majesty's  mark- 
viz,  for  gold  of  22  carats,  a  crown  and  22  ;  for  gold 
of  18  carats,  a  crown  and  18  ;  for  gold  of  1.5  carats, 
1.5  and  ■625:  for  gold  of  12  carats,  12  and  '5;  and 
for  gold  of  9  carats,  9  and  375.  These  standard 
marks  reiircsent  England  ;  they  are  dillerent  for 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  In  the  F^diiibnrgh  assay 
ollice  the  marks  are  :  for  gold  of  22  carats,  a 
thistle  and  22 ;  for  gold  of  18  carats,  a  thistle  and 
18  :  for  gold  of  15  carats,  15  ;  for  gold  of  12  carats, 
12  :  and  for  gold  of  9  carats,  9.  For  (ihi-sgow  they 
are  :  for  gold  of  22  carats,  a  lion  rampant  and  22  ; 
for  gohl  of  IS  carats,  a  lion  ramjiant  and  18  :  for 
gold  of  15  carats,  a  lion  rampant  and  15;  for  gold  of 
12  carats,  a  lion  ramiiant  and  12  ;  and  for  gidd  of  9 
car.ats,  a  lion  rani]>ant  and  9.  For  Ireland  the 
stand.ard  marks  are  :  for  gold  of  22  carats,  a  harp 
crowned  and  22  :  for  gold  of  20  carats— extra 
standard  for  Ireland  only — a  plume  of  feathers  and 
20;  for  gold  of  18  carats,  a  unicorn's  head  and  18; 
for  gold  of  15  car.ats,  15  and  •(i25  ;  for  gold  of  12 
carats,  12  and  5  ;  and  for  gold  of  9  carats,  9  and 
■375.  For  England  the  silver  standard  marks  are 
a  lion  pas.sant  for  metal  composed  of  11  oz.  2  dwt. 
of  line  silver  to  18  dwt.  of  alloy,  and  lirltannia  for 
U  oz.  10  dwt.  line  silver  to  10  dwt.  alloy.  For 
Scotland,  a  thistle  for  11  oz.  2  dwt.,  and  a  thistle 
and  liritannia  for  11  oz.  10  dwt.  at  the  Edinburgh 
a.ssay  ollice;  and  a  lion  rampant  for  11  oz.  2  dwt., 
and  a  lion  raiii]iaiit  and  ISritannia  for  1 1  oz.  10 
dwt.  at  the  (Miusgow  .a.s.sav  ollice.  F'or  Ireland, 
a  crowned  harp  for  11  oz.  2  dwt.  No  new  standard 
of  II  oz.  10  dwt.  is  as.sayed  and  marked  in  Ire- 
land. The  figures  in  the  gold  standards  denote 
the  number  of  carats  line  tliere  are  in  any  article 
bearing  them,  pure  gold  being  reckoned  at  24 
carats  ;  so  that  if  a  jiiece  of  godl-plate  or  jewelrj" 
is  niarkeil  with  a  crown  and  18  it  indicates  that 
it  consists  of  18  parts  of  pure  gold  and  0  parts 
of  .some  other  and  inferior  metal.  This  alloy 
would  consist  of  three-fourths  gold  and  one-fourth 
alloy.  Gold  as  low  in  lineness  as  9  carats  is  now 
legal,  and  as  it  is  marked  by  the  .iss.iy  author- 
ities there  can  be  no  deception  if  the  public  rightly 
nnderst.and  the  hallniarKs  introduced  for  their 
benelit.  If  they  do  not,  then  they  are  likely  to  he 
deceived.  Nine-carat  gold  is  a  little  over  one- 
third  |iure  gold.  (3)  The  hall-mark  of  the  assay 
towns  :  London,  a  leopard's  head  ;  liirmingham, 
an  anchor;  Chester,  a  dagger  and  three  wheat 
sheaves;  Shellield,  a  crown;  Newcastle,  three 
castles;  Exeter,  a  castle  with  three  towel's  ;  Edin- 
burgh, a  castle  ;  Gl<a.sgow,  a  tree,  lisli,  and  bell ; 
Dublin,  Hibernia.  (4)  Theduty  mark  :  the  Queen's 
head,  or  head  of  the  reigning  sovereign,  introduced 
in  the  year  1784.  (5)  The  date  mark  :  each  assay 
office  li.a.s  now  its  letter  or  date  mark,  changed 
every  year;  20  to  26  letters  of  the  alphabet  being 
used  in  rot.ation,  and  repeated  in  ilillerent  styles  of 


HALLOWEEN 


HALLUCINATIONS 


523 


letter.  In  London  tlie  assay  year  commences  on 
the  30tli  May,  and  is  indicated  by  one  of  twenty 
letters  of  the"  alphabet,  A  to  U,  omitting  the  letter 
J.  Tlie  question  has  been  raised  whether  the  hall- 
markiiiK  system  ought  not  to  be  discontinued. 

The  following  table  (made  up  from  Cripps)  shows 
specimens  of  the  different  alphabets  used  by  the 
Goldsmiths'  Company  of  London  as  date-letters 
from  1478  ;  variety  in  "the  shape  of  the  shields  being 
also  used  as  a  further  distinction  : 

^  1478  tu  1-19S— Lonibanlic, 
ihJ/      caps.,  double  cusps. 


1498  to  1518— 
Black  letter,  small. 


^  1518  to  1538 


Lombardic,  capitals. 

fpl  1538  to  1558— 

1^        Roman  and  other  caps. 

(qjl    1553  to  1578- 

WS>      Black  letter,  small. 
[WW]  1578  to  1698— 
l^lj      Roman,  capitals. 

1  1598  to  1618— Lombardic, 
capitals,  external  cusps. 

I  1618  to  1038— 
'      Italian,  small. 

1638  to  1658- 
Court  hand. 

1658  to  1678— 

Black  letter,  capitals. 

1678  to  1696- 
Black  letter,  small. 


5i 

m 

fa] 


® 


1606  to  1716— 
Court  liand. 

1716  to  1736- 
Roniaii.  capitals. 

1736  to  1756- 
Roniaii,  small. 

1756  to  1776- 
Black  letter,  capitals. 

1776  to  1796— 
Roman,  small. 

1796  to  1816— 
Rninan,  capitals. 

1816  to  1836- 
Roraau,  small. 

1836  to  1S56— 
Black  letter,  capitals. 

1856  to  1876— 
Black  letter,  small. 

1876  to  18%— 
Roman,  capitals. 


Ca^ 


1890  to  1916— 
Roman,  small. 

The  accompanying  figure  shows  a  Birmingham 
silver  plate-mark.     1,  the  maker's  initials;  2,  the 

hei'  ■)  (("■  J  rS51  QS\  /7^  (rf)    standard  mark  :  3,  the 

|jg%(L©)l:^l5#J(3)®  hall-mark  of  Birming- 
ham  ;  4,  tlie  dutv-mark  ;  5,  the  date-letter  for  the 
year  1S89. 

See  Cripps,  Old  Eiif/lish  Plate^  its  Makers  and  Markx 
(1.S7.S;  new  cd.  1889);  and  Gee,  The  HaU-markhv]  of 
Jcinl/i  ri/  pracfiralh/  cimsideriil  (188!)). 

Halloween,  the  name  popularly  given  to  the 
eve  or  vigil  of  All  Hallows,  or  festival  of  All 
Saints,  which  being  the  1st  of  November,  Hallow- 
een is  the  evening  of  the  31st  of  October.  In 
England  and  Scotland  it  was  long  consecrated 
to  harmless  fireside  revelries,  with  many  cere- 
monies for  divining  a  future  sweetheait.  See 
Burns's  '  Halloween '  and  Chambers's  Bw/h-  of  Days. 
The  similar  Irish  customs  are  illustrated  in 
Maelise's  '  Di-op-ajiple  Night.' 

Hallstatt,  an  Austrian  vill.age  near  Cmunden, 
once  a  great  Celtic  capit.al.     See  Iron  Age. 

Hallliciuatioiis.  To  realise  in  aiiy  proper 
w-ay  what  memory  is  from  the  physiological  point 
of  view,  we  must  assume  that  every  im|iression 
on  the  senses  is  conducted  by  molecular  move- 
ments through  the  nerves  to  the  ultimate  cells 
of  the  brain,  which  then  undergo  a  cert.iin  molec- 
ular change  that  is  revealed  to  consciousness 
as  the  qualities  of  the  thing  seen  or  heard  or  felt. 
By  a  process  of  instinctive  leasoning  the  thing 
itself  is  thus  instantly  realised  in  the  grown  man, 
but  not  in  the  child.  This  molecular  change  in 
the  cells  may  be  evanescent,  or  it  may  be  lasting. 
When  lasting,  the  impression  m;iy  be  said  to  be 
'registered,'  so  that  it  can  come  before  ccmscious- 
ness  again,  and  be  'remembered.'  Each  act  of 
memory  of  the  same  impression  in  a  healthy  brain 
adds  to  the  distinctness  of  the  registration,  and 
it  is  thus  more  and  more  easily  recalled  or 
suggested,  either  spontaneously  or  from  without. 
The  millions  of  brain-cells  contain  an  incon- 
ceiv.-ible  number  of  such  registered  impressions 
of  things  seen,  heard,  touched,  smelt,  and  tasted, 
besides  the  impressions  of  past  states  of  feeling, 
past    trains    of    thought,   and    recombinations    of 


them  by  means  of  the  imagination.  It  is  in  no 
way  thought  a  strange  thing  that  we  can  recall 
all  these  in  memory  at  any  time,  or  that  by  un- 
conscious processes  of  association  they  project 
themselves  across  the  field  of  consciousness  irre- 
spective of  our  wills.  It  is  not  thought  so  very 
strange  that,  when  we  take  a  dose  of  opium  or 
cocaine,  the  registered  images  lying  in  the  brain-cells 
rise  up  and  come  across  o<ir  consciousness  so  vivi<lly 
that  we  cannot  distinguish  between  them  and  real 
objects  seen  with  the  eyes.  The  same  phenome- 
non often  occurs  in  conditions  of  half  sleep.  In 
dreaming  the  imjiressions  appear  perfectly  real  to 
the  half-consciousness  existing  at  the  time. 

Now  there  are  certain  very  sensitive  people, 
who  have  an  element  of  the  morbid  in  their 
brain  condition  or  heredity  similar  to  the  morbid- 
ness caused  by  a  dose  of  cocaine.  This  being  .so, 
what  is  the  difficulty  in  believing  that  those  regis- 
tered brain  images  should  stand  out,  an<l  seem  to 
the  consciousness  as  real  as  the  original  impression, 
and  so  produce  a  halluciiiafiiDi,  or  a  subjective 
impression  from  an  image  already  in  the  brain  that 
is  practically  the  same  to  the  consciousness  as  the 
impression  from  a  real  object?  This  is  in  no  way 
more  remarkable  than  nicmoiy  itself.  It  is  sim]>ly 
more  unusual.  It  is  very  (iuesti(mable  whether  the 
original  acts  of  menuuy  of  the  young  child  are  not 
all  of  the  nature  of  hallucinations.  The  after  recol- 
lections of  things  seen  and  of  things  imagined  are 
certainly  so  real  to  some  children  that  they  cimfuse 
them  with  things  seen  or  experienced.  If  a  man 
can  by  using  tests,  and  by  the  use  of  his  reason,  be 
made  to  know  that  the  thing  that  ajipears  to  be 
seen  and  real  is  not  so,  and  has  no  objective  exist- 
ence where  he  sees  it,  and  that  it  is  his  brain  that 
is  i)laying  him  a  trick,  he  has  a  sane  hallucination. 
If  he  cannot  be  m.ade  to  do  so,  and  thinks  it  a  real 
object,  he  is  insane  to  this  extent.  The  condition 
of  hy|inotism  illustrates  the  origin  of  hallucinations 
better  than  almost  anything  else.  Hypnotism  (rj.v. ) 
is  a  modified,  artificially-induced  sleep,  in  which 
the  consciousness  is  changed  but  not  abolished, 
and  the  reasoning  power  much  impaired.  If  a 
person  liyjuiotised  is  told  that  a  piece  of  ice  is  red- 
lurt,  he  will  not  touch  it,  and  if  he  is  made  to  do 
so,  he  behaves  as  if  he  had  touched  hot  iron. 
His  whole  mental  condition  is  one  of  temporary 
hallucinations  of  eveiy  sort.  Yet  in  the  face  of  all 
the.se  scientitic  facts  and  reasonable  hypotheses 
and  deductions  we  have  persons  calling  in  the  aid 
of  imaginary  forces,  'telepathy,'  'spirits,'  'psychic 
force,'  iVc.  to  explain  hallucinations,  and  associa- 
tions finnied  f(U'  '  psychical  research,'  evidently  on 
the  theory  that  there  can  be  a  cause  for  hallucina- 
tions other  th.in  the  registered  images  in  the  brain 
itself,  together  with  altered  conditions  of  con- 
sciousness. Many  religious  leaders  and  othei-s 
in  a  state  of  intense  brain  excitement  from 
religious  or  other  causes  have  had  hallucinations, 
after  they  had  been  sinning  against  nature's  laws 
by  depriving  themselves  of  sleep  and  of  exer- 
cise, and  by  ex])Osing  themselves  to  the  contagion 
of  inorl)id  feeling  intei'spei'sed  by  reason  or  com- 
mon sense.  Luther's  seeing  the  devil,  and  throw- 
ing his  ink-bottle  at  hinj.  .■mil  Sweilenborg's 
seeing  spiritual  beings  among  the  ministers  at 
the  council  board  are  certainly  ex]>licable  on  the 
theory  of  siiggestion  and  a  temporary  morliidness 
of  brain-working. 

But,  say  the  telepathists,  'two  people  have 
had  the  same  hallucination  at  the  same  moment. 
How  can  that  be  expl.ained  on  brain-cell  prin- 
ciples?' H  two  people  had  been  thinking  ot  the 
same  thing — for  example,  a  dear  friend  or  relative 
of  both  who  was  ill  and  supposed  to  be  dying — 
and  if  both  were  sensitive  jiersons,  and  their  feelings 
were  very  excited  at  the  time,  what  marvel  is  it  if 


524 


HALLUIN 


HALOS 


through  a  rare  cuinciUence  they  hod  seen  the  form 
of  the  living'  friend  r  Ami  if  this  iiii|iressioii  hap- 
peiii'il  ti>  lie  iieiir  the  time  when  he  iliecl,  is  it 
remarkahle  in  the  nnscientilic  state  of  niDst  minds 
that  they  made  out  it  was  the  same  moment  that 
they  hoth  saw  their  frienil's  form  appear  and  walk 
oiitat  the  door?  When  such  ilu^dieate  hallucina- 
tions are  prohed  hy  hard  scientihe  methods  it  is 
always  found  that  the  hour  of  seeinj;  them  hy  the 
two  people  was  not  i|uite  the  same,  that  one  had 
previously  niaile  a  su;,'^;estion  to  the  other  lorj;otlen 
I  in  the  excitement  of  tiie  moment,  or  that  the  hy^ures 
I  seen  hy  them  had  on  dillerent  elothin;,',  or  hail 
I  quite  ditl'erent  heanls.  Without  far  more  evidence 
tlian  h;is  heen  hrouj;lit  forward  hy  the  pseudo- 
I  scientilie  helievei-s  in  ;,diosts  and  apii.uitio.;s,  an 
I  age  of  science  will  never  adnut  a  hallucination  to 
'  he  anythinj;  hut  a  hrain  phenomenon,  id)scure  per- 
haps, hut  no  more  cdiscure  than  many  other  corre- 
lated facts  of  hrain  and  mind.  Kvery  ailvance  that 
is  made  in  our  knowledge  of  the  hrain  ami  its  work- 
ing in  relation  to  niiml  renilers  the  rational  ami 
scientific  explanation  of  all  the  hallucinations  of 
the  sane  recorded  hy  trustworthy,  unhia-ssed 
ohservers  more  easy  and  prohahle.  and  makes  less 
excusahle  the  eallinj;  in  to  exjilain  tlie  facts  of 
new  and  unknown  'forces'  or  'inlluences'  in 
nature  heyond  those  we  know  and  can  scientifically 
investigate.  Hallucinations  may  he  of  all  the 
senses,  and  may  he  of  every  degree  of  variety  and 
complication,  from  Hashes  of  light  to  arnnes  of 
men,  from  hummings  in  the  ear  to  strains  of 
'celestial  music'  I!ut  it  has  never  heen  )iroved, 
as  ought  certaiidy  to  have  occurred  if  there  was 
any  reality  in  those  occult  forces,  that  anything 
ha-s  ever  heen  seen  <u"  heard  hy  any  one  which 
the  pei-son  might  not  possihiy  have  seen  or  im- 
agined previously,  so  that  its  image  might  he 
lying  registered  in  his  hrain-cells ;  and  no  new 
knowledge  Inus  ever  come  to  humanity  from  such 
sources.  Hallucinations  were  much  more  common 
among  ])riMUtive  peoples  and  in  the  early  ages  of 
the  world  than  they  are  now.     See  IN.S.VNITY. 

Ilallllill.  a  town  in  the  French  de]>artnient  of 
Nonl,  1(1  miles  NNE.  of  Lille.  Weaving  of  linen 
and  wfxdlen  goods,  hleaching,  hrickniaking,  and 
the  manufacture  of  oil,  chemicals,  ami  chocolate 
are  the  piiiicipal  industries.     I'op.  0SII9. 

llalllistad.  a  seaport  of  Sweden,  and  capital  of 
the  province  of  Halland,  on  the  t'atlegat,  7.'>  nales 
SE.  of  Cothenliurg,  with  trade  in  corn,  wood,  Hour, 
and  coal,  and  salmonlisheries.     l'o]i.  11,825. 

llaloSCnS,  or  S.VI.T-PRODfCERS  (Gr.  /irils, 
'salt'),  are  a  well-characterised  group  of  non- 
metallic  elements — chhuine,  hromine,  iodine,  anil 
Hunrine — which  form  with  metals  compounds 
analogous  to  sca-.salt.     For  haloid  salts,  see  .S.vlt. 

llalora^t'SI't  an  order  of  thalamilloral  dicoty- 
ledons, vegetatively  reduced  from  On.agracea' 
(q.v.).  There  are  ahout  seventy  known  species, 
herhaceous  or  half-shruhhy  ;  universally  distrihutcd, 
and  almost  all  aquatic,  or  ''rowing  in  wet  places. 
The  stems  and  leaves  often  liaNe  large  air-cavities. 
The  plants  are  insignificant  in  appearance,  and  the 
Howers  generally  much  reduced.  None  of  them 
have  any  important  uses,  except  tlio.se  of  the  genus 
Trapa  (q.v.).  The  only  liritish  s])ecies  are  the 
Mare's  "Tail  (Hij>/iiiris  vulgaris)  ami  the  Water- 
milfoils  ( Myrioidiyllum ). 

Halos  and  Corou^.  Halos  are  circles  of 
light  surrounding  the  sun  or  moon,  and  are  due 
to  the  presence  of  ice-crystals  in  the  air.  The 
commonest  and  usually  the  hrightest  ha.s  a  radius 
of  alxiut  22  ilegrees — i.e.  this  is  the  angular 
distance  from  the  sun  to  its  inner  edge.  This 
size  can  he  computed  from  the  hexagonal  shape 
and  known  refractive  jiower  of  ice-crystals.     Tlie 


calculation  shows  that  light  pausing  through  the 
sides  of  such  a  crystal  is  hent  at  an  angle  varj-ing 
with  the  direction  in  which  it  falls  on  the  crystal, 
hut  never  less  than  21. J  ilegrees,  which  is  therefore 
c.alleil  the  angle  of  minimum  deviathin,  and  in  the 
greater  iiunilier  of  ca-ses  not  greatly  exceeding  that 
angle.  If,  therefore,  the  air  hetweeii  the  ohserver 
ami  the  sun  or  moon  he  lilleil  with  such  crystals 
the  light  will  he  thrown  outwards  heyond  the 
angle  of  minimum  deviation,  ami  will  mostly 
appear  at  ahout  22  degrees  distance  from  the 
sun  or  iimon,  foiming  a  circle  round  it.  As  hlue 
light  is  slightly  more  refrangilde  than  red  it  is 
thrown  farther  out,  and  the  halo  ai>pcars  coloured 
red  inside  and   hlue  out.side.     Some  of  the  crystals 

j  may,  however,  !«   lying  so  that  the   light  enters 

I  at  a  side  and  leaves  at  one  end,  or  rirr  vcrsH, 
in  which  ca.se  the  angle  of  minimum  deviation  is 
.ahout  4G  degrees,  at  which  distance  n  second 
fainter  halo  is  freiiuently  seen  with  colours  in  the 
.same  order  as  in  the  first.  These  colours  are 
generally  well  seen  in  scdar  halos,  hut  not  in  lunar, 
as  the  moon's  light  is  too  faint  to  give  distinct 
colour  to  each  ])art.  In  addition  to  the  ahove,  a 
third  still  larger  halo  has  heen  seen.  There  are 
only  four  ohservations  of  this  halo  on  record,  and 
the  r.adius  has  heen  estimated  in  the  diH'erent  ciuses 
at  from  81  degrees  to  90  degrees.  The  cause  of 
this  halo  has  not  heen  juiccrtained.  It  is  not 
coloured,  and  may  he  due  either  to  some  more 
com])lex  form  of  ice-crystal  or  to  internal  rellection 
from  the  hexagonal  crv.stals. 

Amilher  phenomenon  sometimes  seen  with  halos 
is  the  I'lir/uiir  riir/c.  w  hich  is  a  white  circle  passing 
through  the  sun  and  parallel  with  the  horizon.  It 
is  caused  hy  light  rellected  from  the  surfaces  of  ice- 
crystals  farting  vertically  through  the  air.  When 
the  sun  is  near  the  horizon  this  circle  is  intensified 
at  distances  of  22  degrees  and  Mi  degrees  from  the 
sun,  and  forms  ]iarhelia  or  mock-suns,  and  another 
mock-sun  is  sometimes  .seen  on  this  circle  directly 

I  opposite  the  sun.  A  similar  circle  is  also  formed 
passing  vertically  through  the  sun  hy  rellection  from 
the  upper  and  under  surfaces  of  the  ice-crystals. 
Halos  are  sometimes  accompanied  hy  contact 
arches,  which  are  arcs  of  circles  touching  the  halos 
of  22  degrees  and  46  ilegrees  ;  they  are  formed  hy 
long  hexagonal  jirisms  lloating  horizontally  in  the 
air,  and  are  curved  awav  from  the  sun  when  it  is 
helow  30  degrees  altitude,  hut  are  concave  towards 

I  it  at  gicater  elevations.     Several  other  more  coni- 

I  plex  forms  of  halo  have  heen  seen  in  the  arctic 
regions,  hut  are  of  rare  occurrence  in  Ihitain. 

Halos  must  not  he  confused  with  ('iJiiniir,  which 
are  smaller  coloured  circles  that  appear  round  the 
sun  or  moon  when  they  shine  through  thin  cloud  or 
mist.  In  these  the  red  is  the  outermost  colour, 
and  several  successive  sets  of  coloured  rings  are 
usually  formed.  They  are  due  to  the  ditl'raction 
the  light  undergoes  in  ]>a.ssing  among  the  drops 
of  which  the  cloud  is  composed.  The  radius  of  the 
lii-st  red  ring  of  a  corona  varies  from  1  degree  to 
:i  degrees,  according  to  the  size  of  the  drops,  and 
the  radii  of  the  others  are  successive  multildes  of 
that  of  the  first. 

When  the  sun  shines  on  a  hank  of  fog  a  large 
how  of  ahout  40  degrees  radius,  reseinhling  a  rain- 
how,  hut  not  .so  hrightly  coloured,  is  seen.  It  is 
often    douhle,    like    the   rainhow.       Owing   to   the 

i  smaller  size  of  the  water-dro^s  in  a  fog  than  in 
falling  rain,  the  Fogbov  is  wider  and  fainter  than 
the  rainhow.  The  law  determining  the  order  of 
tlie  colours— whether  red  inside  or  red  outside — 
has  not  yet  lieen  thoroughly  worked  out.  If  the 
ohser>'er  is  standing  on  an  elevated  point  so  that 
his  shadow  falls  on  the  fog,  coloured  rings  called 
(iloricn  or  -Xnthelia  are   often   seen.       Five  or  si.\ 

i  sets  of  coloui-s  have  heen  ohserved,  the  outermost 


HALOS 


HAM 


525 


having  a  railius  not  exceeiling  12  ilegiees.  In  each 
ring  the  red  is  outside,  showing  tliat  it  is  a  dittVac- 
tion  efiect  like  a  corona,  but  the  exact  cause  has 
not  Ijeen  determined.  If  the  fog  is  very  near,  the 
ol)server's  shadow  is  visiljle,  forming  what  is  known 
as  the  Brocken  Spectre  (see  Mikage)  ;  and  if  the 
fog  is  tliin  the  shadow  looks  farther  away  than  it 
really  is,  and  is  tlierefore  supposed  by  the  spectator 
to  lie  of  gigantic  size. 

Halos,  in  religious  art.  See  XlMBUS. 
Ilnis,  FraS-S,  the  elder,  portrait  and  genre 
painter,  was  liorn,  proljaljly  at  Antwerp,  in  1580  or 
1581,  though  some  autliorities  give  1584  as  the 
date.  His  parents,  nieni1)ers  of  an  old  Haarlem 
family,  returned  to  that  city  about  16IJ0,  and  Hals 
studied  under  Karel  van  Marnier  and,  according  to 
some  accounts,  under  Hulieus.  Some  ten  years 
later  he  nuirried  Anneke  Hermanszocm,  and  in 
1615  he  wxs  summoned  liefore  the  magistrates  and 
reprimanded  for  ill-treating  his  wife  and  for  his 
drunken  and  disorderly  life.  A  few  weeks  later 
his  wife  died,  and  in  1017  he  married  a  woman  of 
doubtful  character.  Lyslieth  Reynier.  In  his  later 
years,  in  sjiite  of  his  unceasing  industry,  to  which 
the  numerous  works  from  his  liand  in  tlie  conti- 
nental galleries  liear  witness,  lie  fell  into  poverty, 
and  was  relieved  by  the  municipality  of  Haarlem, 
who  in  1664  bestowed  on  him  a  pension  of  '200 
florins.  He  died  at  Haarlem  in  1666,  and  on  the 
1st  of  Septemlier  was  buried  in  the  church  of  St 
Bavon.  Hals  is  usually  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  the  Dutch  school  of  '/c/or-painting.  His  subjects 
of  feasting  and  carousal  are  treated  with  marvellous 
vivacity  and  spirit,  and  as  a  portrayer  of  faces  con- 
vulsed With  laughter  he  is  without  a  rival.  His 
portraits  are  full  of  character,  and  catch  with 
admirable  .subtlety  the  lightest  shades  of  pa-ssing 
exjiression.  Technically  his  work  is  masterly,  his 
handling  being  most  direct  and  powerful  ;  Ijut  a 
certain  hardness  and  crudeness  of  tone  is  frequently 
apparent  in  his  rendering  of  flesh,  ami  his  later 
works  have  little  variety  of  colouring,  and  show  an 
unpleasant  blackness  in  the  shadows.  Of  his  por- 
trait groups  eight  noble  exam))les  are  preserved  in 
the  museum  of  Haarlem,  the  finest  being  that  dated 
16.')3,  representing  the  officers  of  the  corps  of  St 
Adrian.  The  'Mandoline  Player'  (16.'^()),  in  the 
gallery  of  .Vmstenlam,  is  a  typical  example  of 
his  treatment  of  single  figures.  A  series  of  excel- 
lent etchings  after  the  works  of  Hals,  by  Professor 
William  Unger,  with  text  by  C.  Vosmaer,  was 
published  in  Leyden  in  1873.  As  a  teacher  he 
exercised  a  maiked  influence  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  Dutch  art,  Jan  Veispronck,  A'an  der 
Heist,  .\drian  van  Ostade,  Adrian  Brouwer,  and 
AVouwerman  having  been  his  jmpils.  An  interesting 
view  of  the  interior  of  liis  studio,  dated  lt),)2,  by 
Job  Berch-Heyde,  another  of  his  scholars,  is  in  the 
Haarlem  Museum.— His  brother,  DlltK  Hai.s,  a 
pupil  of  Abraham  Bloemaert,  was  also  an  excellent 
(/eHcc-painter  (6.  before  1600,  (/.  1656);  and  several 
of  Frans's  sons  were  artists,  the  nuist  celebrated 
being  Krans  Hal>.  the  younger,  who  flourished  from 
about  1637  to  10(i9. 

Ilalstead.  a  market-town  of  Es.sex,  on  the 
Colne,  56  miles  NE.  of  London.  The  parish  church 
has  a  wooden  spire  and  many  old  monuments  ;  the 
free  grammar-school  dates  from  1590.  It  h;us  manu- 
factures of  crape,  silk,  and  paper;  straw-plaiting 
is  also  carried  on.      Pop.  69.59. 

IlalyblirtOII.  Thumas.  a  Scotch  divine,  was 
born  at  Dupplin  near  Perth  in  1674,  and  was 
for  eleven  years  minister  of  Ceres  in  Fife,  and 
then  for  two  profes.sor  of  Divinity  at  St  Andrews, 
where  he  died  in  September  171'2.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  works,  iiu'luding  Natural  Kcli- 
gion  insufficient,  and  llcrcalcd  neecssary,  tu  Man's 


Happiness;  The  Great  Concern  of  Sal  cat  ion  ;  and 
I'en  Hermans  preached  before  and  after  the  Cele- 
bration of  titc  Lord's  Supper.  The  works,  especi- 
ally the  autobiographic  memoir,  of  the  '  Holy 
Halyliurton '  were  once  very  popular  among  the 
people  of  Scotland  ;  and  even  at  the  [iresent 
day  they  are  still  read.  They  were  published, 
together  with  an  Essay  on  his  Life  and  Writings, 
by  Dr  Kobert  Burns  (London,  1835). 

Halys.    See  Asia  Minor. 

Haul;  properly  the  hind  part  or  angle  of  the 
knee  ;  Init  usually  applied  to  the  cured  thigh  of  the 
hog  or  sheep,  UKue  especially  the  first.  Ham- 
curing,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  bacon-curing, 
is  ]>erformed  in  a  variety  of  metliods,  each  countrj- 
or  district  having  its  ow  n  peculiar  treatment ;  these, 
however,  relate  to  minor  )ioints.  The  essential 
oper.^tions  are  as  follows :  The  meat  is  first  well 
rubbed  with  salt,  and  either  left  on  a  bench  that 
the  brine  may  drain  away,  or  covered  up  in  a 
close  vessel ;  after  a  few  days  it  Ls  nibbed  again, 
this  time  with  a  mixture  of  salt  and  saltpetre,  to 
which  sugar  is  sometimes  added,  or  with  a  mixture 
of  salt  anil  sugar  alone.  It  is  then  consigned  to  the 
bench  or  tub  for  at  least  a  week  longer,  after  which 
it  is  generally  ready  ff)r  drying.  Wet  saltimj  re- 
i|uires,  on  the  whole,  about  three  weeks ;  dry 
sidtinff,  a  week  longer.  Mutton-hams  should  not 
be  kept  in  pickle  longer  than  about  three  weeks. 
Some  hams  are  merely  liung  up  to  dry  without  being 
smokeil  ;  others,  after  being  dried,  are  removeil 
to  the  smoking-house,  which  consists  of  two  and 
sometimes  three  stories  ;  the  fire  is  kindled  in  the 
lowest,  and  the  meat  is  hung  up  in  the  second  and 
third  stories,  to  which  the  smoke  ascends.  The  fire 
is  kejit  up  with  supplies  of  oak  or  beech  chips, 
though  in  some  districts  twigs  of  juniper,  and  in 
many  parts  of  (ireat  Britain  peat,  are  used.  Fir, 
larch,  and  such  kinds  of  wood,  on  account  of  the 
un])leasant  flavour  they  impart,  are  on  no  account 
to  be  used.  The  lire  must  be  kept,  night  and  day, 
in  a  smouldering  state  for  three  or  four  il.ays,  at  the 
end  of  which  time  the  ham,  if  not  more  than  five 
or  six  inches  deep,  is  perfectly  smoked.  As  cold 
weather  is  preferable  for  the  operation  of  curing,  it 
is  chiefly  carried  on  during  winter.  Many  of  the 
country-people  in  those  ]iarts  of  Englan<l  where 
wood  and  ]ieat  are  used  for  fuel  smoke  hams  by 
hanging  them  up  inside  large  wide  chimneys,  a 
method  common  in  Westmorland.  The  curing  of 
beef  and  muttim  hams  is  carried  on  chiefly  in  the 
north  of  England  and  Dumfriesshire  in  Scotland  ; 
that  of  pork-hams,  (m  the  other  haml,  is  found  in 
various  countries,  among  the  best  known  being 
those  connected  in  commerce  with  tlie  names  of 
Belfast  and  Westidialia.  Harris  of  Calne,  Wilt- 
shire, introduced  an  ammonia  freezing-process  avail- 
able both  summer  and  winter.  Chicago  ( q.v. )  is  the 
chief  centre  of  the  enormous  American  industry  of 
pork-packing.  The  imports  of  bacon  an<l  hams 
into  the  United  Kingdom  in  1888  amounted  to 
.'i,5!)4,'212  cwt.,  of  a  value  of  €8,343,387.  » >f  this 
i|Uantitv  the  value  from  the  tinted  States  was 
£3.874,170,  from  Denmark  1 1,389,047.  The  inijxirt 
of  hams  onlv  in  1,S8S  Wiis  730,408  cwt.,  of  the  value 
of  i;i,9'29,6()'2.  The  total  value  of  the  innxuts  of 
bacon  and  hivms  in  1S86  was  £8.40'2,828 ;  in  1S94, 
£10,8.55,715.  The  total  export  of  bacon  and  hams 
from  the  United  States  is  valued  at  upwards  of 
830,000,000  a  year.     See  PiG. 

Ilaill.  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Somme,  on  the  river  of  that  name,  12  miles  S\V.  of 
St  Quentin.  Its  ancient  fortress  or  castle  was 
rebuilt  by  the  Comte  de  Saint  Pol  in  1470, 
and  now  is  used  as  a  state-prison.  It  is  memor- 
able a-s  the  i)lace  of  ciuifinement  of  Joan  of  Arc, 
Moncey,  and  othei-s  ;  of  Polignac,  Peyronnet,  and 


526 


1 1  A  M 


HA  mi;  I' KG 


Guemon  <le  liiiiiville  from  1831  to  1836 ;  of  Louis 
Nnpoleon  from  1840  till  1846;  and  after  the  coup 
(Cetiit,  of  tlie  rf|mlilican  {leiienils  Cavaignac, 
Lamoricii'rc.  ( 'lianj,'arnier,  \c.  I'op.  'iKM.  See 
Gi)rii;inl,  Hum,  son  V/uitcuu,  &e.  (ISW). 

Ilaill.  \Vkst,  a  siiliiirb  of  East  London,  anil  a 
parliamentary  and  county  borough  of  Essex,  on  the 
niirlli  hank  of  the  Thames,  opposite  Greenwich. 
In  lifty  years  its  popiilatiim  grew  from  l(),0(Hi  to 
204,!Hi:t  (1S9I),  principally  owing  to  the  \ictoria 
and  Alhert  docUs  and  the  gasworks.  It  is  a  husv 
industrial  parish,  and  liiLs  silk-prinling,  shi|ihuil<i' 
ing,  distilling,  and  chemical  manufactures.  In 
188.J  it  was  made  a  parliamentary  borough,  return- 
ing two  menibei-s  to  the  House  of  Commons.  Here 
is  .Mrs  Elizabeth  Fry's  house,  "The  (.'edars.' — E.VST 
H.\M,  situated  in  the  southwest  of  the  same 
county,  U  nnles  S\V.  of  Barking,  has  a  pomiliition 
of  97l.'{.  See  Katharine  Erv,  Ili.slnrij  uf  the  I'urUhcs 
of  Kdst  unti  ]\'r.sl  llniii  (1888). 

llaillt  according  to  the  writer  of  Genesis,  wa.s 
the  second  .son  of  Noah,  and  the  brother  of  Sbem 
and  Japhcth.  The  name,  however,  as  generally 
used,  is  geographical  rather  than  ethnographicaf. 
The  word  Ham  in  Hebrew  signities  'to  be  hot,' 
and  the  descendants  nf  this  son  of  Noah  are  re- 
presented as  peopling  the  siMithcrn  regions  of  the 
earth,  so  far  as  known  at  that  time — viz.  Arabia, 
the  Persian  Gulf,  Egy]it,  Ethiopia,  Libya,  \c. 
Ham  has  also  been  iilentilied  with  Kenii  { '  black 
laml'),  an  ancient  name  of  Egypt;  but  for  this 
identilication  there  exists  no  satisfactory  philo- 
logical evidence.  Philologists  and  ethnologists 
recognise  lus  a  distinct  family  of  peo]iles  and  tongues 
a  group  which  they  call  '  llaiiiilic,'  classifying  it 
as  co-ordinate  with  the  Aryan  iind  the  Seniitic. 
See  ,Vki;U  A.  \ol.  I.  pp.  8.5,  8b. 

llailiadail,  a  town  of  Pei-sia,  in  the  province  of 
Lak  .\jemi,  is  situated  at  the  northern  base  of 
M.miit  Elwend,  ItiO  miles  WSW.  of  Teheran.  It 
contains  some  notable  tombs — e.g.  Avicenna's 
(q.v. )  and  others  allirmeil  to  be  those  of  Mordecai 
ami  Esther.  Being  the  centre  of  converging  routes 
from  Bagdail,  Erivan,  Teheran,  and  Ispahan,  it  is  the 
seat  of  a  large  transit  trade ;  and  it  carries  on  exten- 
sive manufactures  of  leather,  and  in  a  less  degree 
of  coarse  carpets  and  woollen  ami  cotton  fabrics. 
Pop.  3(t.fKMj.  Hamadan  is  generally  believed  to 
occupy  the  site  of  the  Median  Ecbatana  (i(.v. ). 

Hamadryads.  See  Xvmphs.— The  name 
Hi(iii"(/i;/'i.s  is  given  to  a  kind  of  Baboon  (q.v.); 
and  the  IItttiitit/ri//is  or  Oii/tio/i/ififfiis  rlttfts  is  the 
largest  i>oisonous  snake  of  the  Glil  World,  larger 
ancl  more  dangerous  than  any  of  the  cobras,  witli 
which  it  has  abuost  the  s.ame  geographical  range. 

Ilailiall  (Cr.  K/ii/Jiaiiifi),  the  H.vmatii  of  the 
Bible,  a  very  ancient  city  of  Syria,  on  the  (Jrontes, 
1 10  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Dama.seus.  The  town  stands 
in  the  miilst  of  gardens,  though  the  streets  are 
narrow  and  iircgular,  and  the  houses  are  built  of 
sun-ilried  bricks  and  wood.  The  inhabitants,  about 
4i),mj(),  manufacture  coarse  woollen  mantles  and 
yarn,  and  carry  on  considerable  trade  with  the 
ISedouins.  Hamath  seems  to  have  come  very  early 
in  cimllict  with  the  As.syrians,  having  been  taken 
by  them  in  SJ4  B.C.  and  again  in  743,  w'hilst  two 
revolts  of  the  people  were  crushed  by  the  .As.syrians 
in  741)  and  7'2<)  B.C.  .\fter  the  (Jneco- Macedonian  ' 
coni|uest  of  Syria.  Hamah  became  known  as  Epi- 
phani.i.  In  (5.39  it  fell  into  Moslem  hands,  ami. 
though  it  was  held  by  Tancred  from  1108  to  111.5, 
it  was  again  taken  possession  of  I>v  the  Moslems. 
Abulleda,  the  Ar.ab  geographer,  was  prince  of 
Hamah  in  the  14th  irntiiry.  Four  stones  were 
discovered  there  in  lsl2  l)y  Burckliardt,  bearing 
inscrijitions  in  an  unknown  language,  now  lielieved 
to  Ije  Hittite  (q.v.). 


Ilaiiiiiiiiflideae.    See  Witch  Hazel. 

Ilailianil,  -Ioh.xsn  GeoIh;,  a  German  writer, 
born  at  Knnigsberg  in  Prussia,  27111  August  1730. 
I'he  incipmpleteiu'ss  anrl  aimlessness  which  cliarac- 
!  terised  his  education  clung  to  hirii  all  his  days  :  he 
made  numerous  starts  in  life,  but  followed  no  one 
calling  for  long  ;  in  turn,  student  of  |ihilosophy,  of 
theologj-,  of  law,  private  tutor,  merchant,  tutor 
again,  comii»>rcial  traveller,  student  of  literature 
and  the  ancient  langua"es,  and  clerk,  he  at  length 
settled  down  in  Kiinigsberg  in  I7(!7  as  an  olhcial  in 
the  excise.  Nevertheless  lie  li\ed  but  mc.uily  until 
the  iiresent  by  a  patnm,  in  1784,  of  a  sum  of  money 
raised  him  above  want.  He  ilied  at  Miinster,  21st 
.June  1788.  His  writings  are,  like  his  life,  desultorj' 
and  without  system  ;  but  even  as  such  they  exer- 
cised a  perceptible  inlluence  upon  .lacobi,  Herder, 
(ioethe.  anil  .Jean  Paul.  For  in  spite  of  their 
symbolical  and  oracular  style,  ijualitii's  which  led 
to  their  autlior  being  desigmited  the  '  -Magus  of  the 
North,'  they  contain  the  results  of  thoughtful  and 
extensive  reading,  are  rich  in  suggestive  thought, 
encrusted  with  jiaradox  and  sarcasm,  and  thoroughlv 
bristle  with  literary  allusions.  Hamann's  independ- 
ence and  love  of  honest  truth  made  him,  however, 
unpopular  with  his  contemporaries,  except  the 
more  thoughtful  few.  Compare  Hoth's  edition  of 
his  S((iitiii//ir/ie  Si-hrifteii  (8  vols.  1821-4.5)  or 
Gildemeistcr's  (6  vols.,  including  biography,  1857- 
73).  See  Lives  by  Poel  (1874-76)  and  Claasen 
(188.5). 

Ilaillliato.  or  Ambato,  cajiital  of  Tunguragua 
prii\iiicc,  Ecuador,  in  a  shcllered  amphitheatre  on 
the  northern  slope  of  Chimborazo,  88tiO  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  w.as  twice  destroyed — by  an  eruption  of 
Cotopaxi  in  1()98,  and  by  an  earthquake  in  1796, 
but  was  speedily  rebuilt."    Pop.  12,000. 

Ilamblirii;.  a  constituent  state  of  the  German 
empire,  includes  the  free  city  of  Hamburg,  the 
towns  Bergedorf  and  Cuxhavcn,  and  several 
suburbs  and  conuuunes,  with  a  total  area  of  1.58  sq. 
m.  The  free  Hanseatic  city  of  Hamburg  is  situated 
on  the  Elbe,  iibimt  7.5  miles  from  the  (ierinan  Ocean, 
112  N.  iif  Hanipver,  and  177  N\V.  of  Berlin.  Ham- 
burg wa>  founded  by  Charlemagne  in  80S,  and  for 
three  centuries  had  to  struggle  hard  to  maintain 
itself  against  the  marauding  Danes  and  Slavs.  It 
was  niiide  a  bishopric  in  831,  .and  three  yeare  later 
an  archbishiipric.  This  last  dignity  was  trans- 
ferreil  to  Bremen  in  122.3.  The  commercial  history 
of  Hamburg  began  in  1189-90,  when  the  emiieror 
granted  it  vjirious  jirivileges,  amongst  otherw  a 
separate  judicial  system  and  exemption  from  ctis- 
toms  dues.  In  1241  it  joined  with  Liibeck  in  laying 
the  foundation  of  the  H.anseatie  League  (q.v.),  and 
from  12.59  a.s.soci.ateil  itself  closely  with  Bremen  also. 
From  that  time  it  increa-sed  rajudly  in  wealth  and 
commercial  importance,  augmenting  its  territory  by 
the  purcha.se  of  the  ti)wnslii|i  of  liitzcbiitlel,  .at  the 
iiu)uth  of  the  Elbe  (where  the  harbour  nf  Cuxhaven 
is  now  situated  I,  and  of  .several  vill.igcs  and  islands 
in  the  ncinity  of  the  town.  Under  the  protection 
of  the  German  emperors  Hamburg  soon  became 
powerful  enough  to  defend  itself  .and  its  commerce 
lioth  by  sea  and  land,  .and  carried  on  war  for  a  con- 
siderable period  .against  .sea-rovers  and  the  Danes. 
In  1.510  it  w.as  made  .an  imperial  town  by  Maxi- 
mili.an  I.  It  e.arly  embrficeil  the  diK-t lines  of  the 
Kcformation.  During  the  stormy  jieriod  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  it  never  had  an  enemy  within 
its  walls.  All  through  the  years  from  1410  to  1712 
there  were  repeated  risings  of  the  populace  ag.ainst 
the  governing  cla.s.se.s.  The  disjiutes  with  Denm.ark 
linally  ce.ased  in  1708,  that  power  renouncing  all 
claim  to  Hamburg  territory,  flie  rapid  commercial 
success  and  steadily  increasing  )irosperity  of  the 
city  were  only  momentarily  cheeked  by  a  severe 


HAMBURG 


HAMERLING 


527 


conimercial  crisis  in  1763.  Un  the  other  hand,  the 
Frencli  Revolution  drove  many  of  tlie  imigres  to 
Hamtmrg,  and  the  ranks  of  its  merchants  were  still 
further  strengthened  by  refu>,'ees  from  Holland, 
■when  that  country  was  overrun  by  the  French  in 
1795.  But  eleven  years  later  Hamburg  itself 
was  occupied  by  the  Frencli,  and  with  that  event 
there  commenced  for  the  city  a  jieriod  of  great 
tribulation.  In  1810  it  w:xs  aimexed  to  the  French 
empire,  but  at  the  same  time  lost  its  commerce  and 
its  .shipping  trade.  For  liaving  in  1813  admitted 
tlie  Russians  within  its  walls  the  city  was  cruelly 
treated  by  Davoftt,  Na])oleon's  general ;  and  the 
cup  of  its  misery  was  filled  to  the  brim  by  the  siege 
which  Bennigsen  began  in  that  same  year. 

Between  1806  and  1814,  when  the  Fiench  occu- 
pation came  to  an  end  by  the  capitulation  of 
Davoilt  to  the  allies,  the  population  deerea.sed 
by  nearly  one-half,  namely  to  55,000,  and  had  to 
endure  losses  of  property  estimated  at  £7.0(KJ,000. 
In  the  following  year  Hamlmrg  joined  the  Ger- 
man Confederation  as  one  of  the  four  free  cities, 
and  its  prosperity  began  rapidly  to  revive.  An- 
other calamity  oveitook  the  town  in  1842 :  in 
three  days  one-third  of  Hamburg  was  destroyed 
by  lire,  and  more  than  two  millions  sterling  worth 
of  property  lost.  That  part  of  the  town  was, 
however,  immediately  rebuilt  in  modem  style. 
The  older  portion  is  intersected  by  canals,  which 
serve  as  waterways  Ijetween  the  river  and  the  ware- 
houses. The  rauiiiarts  have  been  converted  into 
gardens  and  promenades.  In  1843  an  agitation 
was  set  on  foot  for  a  reform  in  the  constitution,  a 
step  which  it  took  eighteen  years  to  carry  into 
effect.  On  1st  October  1888  Hamburg  entered  the 
German  Customs  Union,  though  still  retaining  part 
of  its  territory  as  a  'free  port.'  This  change  has 
necessitated  extensive  alterations  in  the  harbour : 
several  quays  have  been  built,  warehouses  con- 
structed, steam-cranes  erected,  and  the  railway 
communication  with  the  chief  industrial  centres  of 
Germany  improved.  In  1890  new  docks  were  in 
course  of  construction  at  Cuxliaven  for  the  use  of 
the  great  ocean-going  steamers.  The  finest  public 
buildings  are  the  'school  house'  (containing  the 
town  library  of  400,000  volumes  and  5500  MSS., 
and  a  natural  history  museum ),  town-house, 
picture-gallery,  exchange,  bank,  post-ottice,  and 
some  churches.  Of  these  last  four  are  notice- 
able— St  Nicludas,  Iniilt  from  designs  by  Sir 
Gilbert  .Scott,  as  a  memorial  of  the  fire  of  1S4'2,  a 
handsome  Gothic  building,  with  a  spire  48'2  feet 
high  :  St  Michael's,  an  18th-centurv  Renaissance 
church,  with  a  spire  469  feet  high  ;  and  St  Cather- 
ine's and  St  James's,  both  Gothic  edifices  of  the 
14th  and  15th  centurie.s.  In  adilitiou  to  numerous 
excellent  schools  and  charitable  institutions.  Ham- 
burg possesses  a  school  of  navigation,  with  w  hicli  is 
connected  an  observatory,  a  zoological  and  a  botani- 
cal garden,  and  several  museums  and  art-galleries. 
Hamburg  ha-s  played  an  important  part  in  the 
history  of  the  German  stage. 

Hamburg  is  the  busiest  commercial  city  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  and  the  jirincipal  commercial 
seaport  of  Germany.  Next  to  London  it  has  the 
largest  money -exchange  transactions  in  Europe:  the 
bank  of  Hamburg  Wiis  founded  so  long  ago  as  1619. 
As  a  c(mimercial  centre  its  only  rivals  are  Lonilon, 
Liverpool,  Autwer|i,  and  New  York.  Its  manu- 
factures, though  a  long  way  inferior  in  value  to 
its  commerce,  are  not  unimportant.  The  principal 
are  cigar-making,  distilling  of  sjiirits.  su;;ar-refining, 
brewing,  engineering,  iron-founding,  manufacture 
of  chemicals,  india-rubber  wares,  furniture,  starch, 
apd  jute,  and  .shipbuilding.  In  1865  the  number  of 
ves.sels  that  entereil  the  jiort  was  5186,  with  a  gross 
burden  of  l.'2'23.(KH)  tons;  these  figures  rose  to  5'260 
vessels  and   2,11S,0(X)  tons  in   1875,  and   to  6790 


vessels  and  3,704,000  tons  in  1885,  whilst  in  1887 
they  were  7308  vessels  and  3,990,000  tons.  Tlie 
number  and  tonnage  of  the  vessels  that  cleared 
were  about  the  same  in  the  corresponding  years. 
Of  the  ves.sels  entering  in  1887  about  .36  per  cent, 
were  British.  The  imports  have  increa-sed  at  an 
(■xtraordinarily  rapid  rate  :  in  1864  thev  were 
valued  at  £.57,976,000,  in  1875  at  £85,05o',000,  in 
1885  at  £10'2,300,000,  and  in  1887  at  £111,948,800. 
The.se  retums  do  not  include  bullion.  The  total 
value  of  the  trade  of  Hamburg  with  Great  Britain 
and  her  possessions  amounted  to  £28,000,000  in 
1887.  Of  the  imports  about  one-half  represent  the 
value  of  goods  brought  into  Hamburg  by  rail  and 
river  (Elbe)  from  the  interior  of  the  countrj-.  Next 
Jifter  Great  Britain  the  countries  witli  which 
Hamburg  has  commercial  transactions  of  the 
greatest  magnitude  are  the  United  States,  the 
countries  on  the  west  and  east  coasts  of  .South 
.\merica,  France,  Holland  and  Belgium,  Central 
.America,  Ru.ssia,  the  East  Indies  and  China,  and 
I  he  east  and  west  coasts  of  Africa.  Hamburg  owes 
.i  large  part  of  its  trade  to  its  position  as  a  distrib- 
uting centre  for  commodities  brought  from  distant 
parts  of  the  world,  to  be  afterwards  sent  to  the 
dillerent  countries  of  Europe.  In  1891  the  total  im- 
jiorts  (  without  bullion  )  were  valued  at  £138,270,000, 
and  the  exports  at  £121,795,000.  Hamburg  is  a 
great  port  for  emigration.  The  city  was  severely 
visite<l  by  cholera  in  autumn  of  1892;  there  were 
17,000  cases  and  9<W0  deaths.  In  1880  the  popula- 
tion of  the  state  was  518,468.  In  1890  the  po2)ula- 
tion  was,  in  the  city,  3'23,9-23;  suburbs,  245,337;  rest 
of  the  territory,  5.3,270  ;  total  of  the  state,  622,530. 
There  were  23,351  Catholics,  and  17,877  Jews. 

See  JloijckeV»erg,  (rcuchichte  ihrFixien  uud Mansi-Stadts 
Humhiiit/ [li^So) ;  Gacdechens.  Historuch(  Topoiiraphie 
dtr  Fvtien  unit  Hiinsi-Stadt  JJamhiirff  (ISSO);  and  two 
Iiistorical  works  by  Gallois  (185li-.57  and  1861-()5). 

Hailielll.  a  town  and  formerly  a  fortress  of 
Hanover,  occupies  a  commanding  position  on  the 
^^'eser,  25  miles  SAV.  of  Hanover.  It  presents  a 
ijuite  medieval  ai)pearance,  having  many  lumses 
and  buildings  surviving  from  the  (Jot^iic  and 
Renaissance  periods  of  architecture.  Tlie  chain- 
bridge  which  here  crosses  the  AVeser  was  coniideled 
in  1839,  and  is  about  840  feet  in  length.  The  chief 
employments  of  the  peojile  are  machine-making, 
iron-founding,  Avo(d  spinning,  fish-breeding,  brew- 
ing, and  the  manufacture  of  leather,  pa])er,  artificial 
manure,  and  chenjicals.  In  the  earliest  times 
Haineln  belonged  to  the  AI)bey  of  Fulda,  and  was 
a  niemlier  of  the  Hanseatic  Confederation.  It 
sufl'ered  severely  during  the  Thirty  Years'  M'ar. 
Pop.  (1885)  11,831.  AVith  this  town  is  connected 
the  well-known  legend  of  the  Piper  (or  Ratcatcher) 
of  Hameln,  who  in  1284  freed  the  town  from  rats 
through  the  mystic  chami  of  his  pipe  ;  but,  when 
the  ]ieople  refused  to  pav  him  the  i)roniiscd  reward, 
he  exercised  the  power  of  his  music  upon  the  children 
of  the  place,  and  drew  them  away  into  the  heart  of 
an  adjoining  hill,  which  opened  to  receive  them, 
and  through  which  he  led  them  to  Transylvania. 
The  stoiy  is  familiar  from  Browning's  •  Pied  Piper 
of  Hami'lin.' 

HnilU'rlili;;.  lior.Kirr,  .\ustrian  poet,  wa.s  born 
of  poor  parents  at  KirchWrgiii  the  Forest,  in  Lower 
Austria,  <m  •24th  March  1830.  Having  completed 
his  studies  at  Vienna,  Hamerling  became  a  teacher 
in  the  gymnasium  .at  Trieste  in  1855.  But  at  the 
end  of  eleven  yeai's  of  «ork,  ill-health  compelled 
him  to  retire.  From  that  time  down  to  the  date  of 
his  death,  on  13th  July  1889,  he  lived  at  Gratz, 
almost  entirely  confined  to  his  beil,  but  nevertheless 
leading  a  busy  life  as  a  writer  of  po«>try.  He 
began  his  career  by  the  publication  in  1860  of  a 
volume   of    lyrics,    Siiiiieii    und    Minitin    (7tli   e<l. 


528 


HAMERTON 


HAMILTON 


1886;  each  edition  euliiijjetl  ami  iinj)roveil ).  His 
lyric  talent  found  expression  also  m  sucli  later 
works  as  Das  Si/iiraniiiluil  ilir  lluiiiiiiilil:  (l,St>'i), 
Amor  mill  J'xi/r/u:  (1,S,S'2),  and  ll/nltcr  im  Wiiiili: 
(18S7).  Uiit  his  best  hooks  are  throe  satirical  ejiics 
—A/iiisirr  III  Uiiin  (ISIiti;  ITtli  ed.  ISSU),  hii- 
Kiiiiiij  run  Siij/i  (lS(i!)),  and  Huiiiiiin-iiliia  (ISSS). 
In  these  hooks  his  theme  is  the  |iri>lileiii.s  that  are 
knit  al>oiil  the  inner  nature  of  man,  his  mundane 
existence,  and  tlic  institnlicins  his  mind  has  i'hm 
ccived  ;ind  his  hand  lia.s  made.  The  structural 
ciincciilions  are  often  j^'raml,  anil  the  inni^dna' 
tion  hold  :  the  emotional  and  descriptive  colour- 
in;,'  is  holli  rich  and  truthful,  the  action  vi;,'orous, 
the  philosophy  ultra-modern;  and  there  is  a  lirm 
;,'rasp  of  details,  and  a  patient  and  clever  use  of 
them,  mostly  for  satiric  purposes.  Satire  is  indeed 
one  of  the  strongest  elements  in  these  epics. 
Hanierlln;,''s  remaiiun>{  works  incluile  IVkh.v  iiii 
K.ril  {lHr>ii);  diriiiiiiiniziiif  {lS(.i\),  a  translation  of 
Leopardi's  poems  ( lst).">):  a  novel,  Ai/msiii  (1875); 
a  tragedy,  Dtiii/nii  iiiiil  Jio/jrx/iirrre  ( 1871 ) ;  two  or 
three  other  dramatic  pieces  ;  Dir  sir/ini  Tuiisiiiiikii 
( 1873) ;  an  autohiographical  work,  Stutioiicii  nicliur 
Lrbcnsiiilifcrxihiift  (188ti);  Lclirjalirc  (ler  Licbc 
(  Letters,  iVc.  1889).  Utimmt/ii/ir  irci-/vT  ( Hamburg, 
1889).     See  Life  hy  A.  I'olzer  ( 1889). 

Ilailiorioil.  I'llll.ll'  GlLIiKKT,  was  horn,  the 
.son  of  a  solicitor,  at  L.aneside  near  (^hlham,  on 
10th  Septemlier  1834.  Accordiuf;  to  the  auto 
lnof;rapliy  contained  in  the  I^ife  puhlished  hy  his 
willow  in  IS'JG,  his  youth  was  ipiite  exceptionally 
unliajipy.  He  commenced  writiuf,'  on  art  for  maga- 
zines and  reviews,  and  soon  inniluced  ;i  volume  of 
jioems  on  T/ic  /.sVi-.s-  nf  f.m/i  Airr  (iJS.'i.j),  and  .1 
Ptiiiitcrfi  Cttiiip  in  the  lliiffihunls,  tmti  Tlnnnfhts 
about  Art  (18e2).  In  18ti8  he  published  Ktrhing 
mid  Etrlirrs  a,\u\  Cuntcin/mrari/  Fnni/i  I'uintcrs;  a 
continu.'vtion  of  the  latter  appeared  in  the  following 
year,  I'uintini/  in  Frniirc  n/lrr  the  iJrr/ine  of  Ctiixsi- 
cism.  From  1869  he  edited  the  Piirtfoliii.  The 
Intillectniil  Life  ( 1873)  is  in  the  form  of  letters  of 
advice,  illustrated  hy  many  examples,  addres.sed  to 
literary  as]iiiants  and  others,  of  every  cla.ss  and  in 
all  circumstances  ;  //iiiiiiiii  Jntrrcoiirse  (1,SS4)  is  a 
volume  of  essays  on  social  subjects,  many  of  them 
dealing  with  interconr.se  a.s  atleeted  by  nationality; 
The  (Ira/ihir  Arts  i\SH2),  (inely  illustrated,  is  'a 
treatise  on  the  varieties  of  drawing,  painting,  and 
engraving,  in  comparison  with  each  other  and  with 
nature,'  the  analyses  of  the  techniiiue  of  the  mastei-s 
of  the  various  arts  1  icing  remarkable  for  discrimina- 
tion and  acumen;  J.nnt/scajic  (1885),  a  superbly- 
illustrated  volume,  is  not  so  much  a  treatise  on 
landscape-painting  as  a  work  illustrating  the  iidlu- 
ence  of  natural  l.-md.scape  lui  man.  Other  works 
are  I'lirt/'o/iu  I'liprr.s  (  1889),  Frrnrh  iinil  Eiu/lish 
(  1889),  ^hin  in  Art  {  1893),  a  couple  of  novels'  and 
his  Life  I'f  Turner  {\S'A^) ;  and  to  this  Encyclo]i.idia 
he  coiitrihuted  the  articles  P.MNTlNi;,  HEMBlt.-VNDT, 
and  Tii;nki;.  He  lived  many  years  in  France,  and 
(lied  .11   I'.onliigne  sur-Seine,  6tli  November  1894. 

IlilliU'siK'kcilt  in  Scots  law,  the  ollence  of 
a>saulling  .-i  man  in  his  own  house. 

Ilaillilcar.  next  to  Hannibal  the  greatest  of 
the  t'arlliaginians  and  one  of  the  greatest  generals 
of  antiipiity.  He  was  surnamed  I5arca  ( the  Hebrew 
13aral.)  or  'Lightning.'  When  a  young  man  he 
came  into  prominence  in  the  sixteenth  year  of  the 
Kii-st  I'unic  War  ('247  n.c. ),  when  all  Sicily,  save 
the  fiutresses  of  Drepamim  and  Lilybieum,  had 
been  wrested  from  Carthage  by  the  IJomans.  Aftei 
ravaging  the  Italian  coast,  he  landed  in  Sicily,  near 
Panormus,  and  seized  the  stronghold  of  Ercte,  a 
hill  of  'iOOtJ  feet  high  rising  sheer  from  the  sea. 
Here,  with  a  sm.all  band  of  mercenaries,  though  In- 
received  no  aid  from  his  unworthy  countrymen.  In- 


waged  almost  daily  war  with  the  UoinanH  for  three 
yeai-s,  and  delied  every  ellort  to  dislodge  him.  By 
the  spell  of  his  genius  he  preserved  diseipline  among 
his  unpaid  follower^,  whum  he  taught  to  banish 
their  old  dread  of  the  Homan  veterans,  while  with 
his  few  ships  he  hariussed  the  Italian  shores.  In 
'J44  U.u.  he  occupied  Mount  Kryx,  a  hill  "2  ndles  from 
the  coast  ami  a  less  strong  |>osition  than  Krcle,  but 
one  vvhii'li  hiy  nearer  to  the  besieged  cities  of  I)re- 
panuiii  and  l.iiOiaum.  I'or  two  year>  he  .-loud  at 
bay  with  his  handful  of  men  against  a  Koman  army, 
'  lighting,'  says  I'olybius,  '  like  a  royal  eagle,  whicli, 
grappling  with  amither  eagle  as  noble  as  himself, 
stops  only  to  take  breath  from  sheer  exhaustion,  or 
to  gather  fresh  strength  for  the  next  attack.'  The 
battle  III  the  .Kgatian  Isles  in  '241  ll.c.  ended  the 
First  I'unic  War.  and  Sicily  was  yielded  to  Home, 
liiit  Ilaunlcar  marchi'd  out  from  ICrvx  with  all  the 
honours  of  war.  Scarcely  had  |>i'ace  been  concluded 
when  the  Carthaginian  mercenaries  revolted  and 
were  joined  by  the  subject  Libyans.  Haiino,  a 
personal  enemy  of  Hamilcar,  was  sent  against  them, 
lie  failed,  and  the  task  of  s.iving  the  stale  was 
assigned  to  Hamilcar.  who  crushed  out  the  rebellion 
after  a  terrible  struggle  of  three  years  in  "238  li.t:. 
In  the  same  yeai  the  llonnms.  in  deliance  of  treaty 
engagements,  seized  on  the  Carthaginian  possessions 
in  Coi'sica.  Despite  the  antagonism  of  the  peace 
party,  headed  by  the  incompetent  Ilanno,  the 
patriotic  or  IJarcine  party,  tlmugli  a  minority,  ob- 
tained the  command  of  an  army  for  Hamilcar,  with 
which  he  lesolveil  to  carry  out  his  master  concep- 
tion. He  proposed  to  throw  Spain  into  the  balance 
to  redress  the  loss  of  Sicily.  Spain  was  not  only 
rich  in  mineral  and  other  wealth  ;  she  would  form 
an  admirable  recruiting  ground.  The  main  defect 
in  the  Carthaginian  armies  hitherto  had  been  the 
want  of  an  inf.intry  cajiable  of  coping  on  at  all  eiiual 
terms  with  the  legionaries.  Sucli  a  force  llandlcar 
determined  to  create  in  Spain,  whence  it  could  be 
m.arched  or  carried  over  sea  to  Italy  ;  in  futuie  the 
war  would  be  waged  on  Homan  .soil.  In  '237  Ii.C. 
the  general  entered  Spain,  and  in  nine  years  built 
up  a  new  dondnion  by  his  ndlitary  genius,  his 
]>olicy,  and  the  magic  of  Ids  personality.  In  •22S  n.c. 
lie  fell  lighting  against  the  tribe  of  the  Vettones. 
The  conceptions  of  the  great  H.-iinilcar  were  carried 
out  by  his  nughtier  son.  I  nlortunately  only  a 
dim  light  is  east  on  Ilanulcar'.s  marvellous  career. 
Wli.at  is  incontestable  is  that  he  wius  a  military 
giMiius  of  the  highest  order:  a  statesman  as  lofty 
in  his  concejitions  as  he  was  adroit  in  carrying  them 
out  :  a  ]>atriiil  wIkmm  neither  obloi|ny,  ingiatitude, 
mir  treachery  could  alienate  from  the  ignoble  slate 
he  strove  so  hard  to  save.  Two  men  ojdy,  it  ha.s 
been  truly  said,  in  the  whole  course  of  Homan  his- 
tory, seem  to  have  struck  the  Komans  with  real 
terror.  These  were  Hamilcar  and  his  greatei-  son. 
See  Mosworth  Smiths  Ciirthaijc  unil  the  Viirtha- 
<///(/'(/i.v  ( 1879). 

llailliltOII.  a  town  of  Lanarkshire,  on  the 
left  bank  ol  the  Clyde,  10  miles  SK.  of  (ihts- 
gow.  The  principal  edilice  is  the  burgh  buildings 
(18G3),  witli  a  clock-tower  nearly  VM>  feet  high; 
and  there  are  also  the  county  buildings,  large 
barracks,  and  a  good  racecourse.  The  former 
manufactures  of  lace,  tamboured  bohinette.  and 
cambric  have  declined  :  and  mining  is  now  the  chief 
iiiilii-.Iry  of  the  di-trict.  H.'imilton  was  made  a 
loyal  burgh  in  1.'>4S,  and  one  of  the  live  Falkirk 
parliameiitary  burghs  in  18;{'2.  Fop.  (1841)  87'24  ; 
(1881)  )8,.')17:  (1891)  '24,8ti.3.  In  l^^^^>  the  paiiia 
mentary  boundary  was  made  coincident  with  the 
municipal  (extended  in  187H). — Hamilton  Palace, 
successor  to  Cadzow  Castle,  is  the  seat  of  the  Duke 
of  Hamilton.  Dating  |)artly  from  l.'J94,  but  greatly 
i-nlargH.l  in  170.'i  and  IS'2'2,  it  is  a  sumptuoiiN  chussi- 
eal  structure,  though  itsrhoicest  art -collections  were 


HAMILTON 


529 


sold  111  1882  for  nearly  £400,000.  Within  its  policies 
are  a  superb  iiiausoleuni  ( 1S52 ),  the  ruins  of  ('adzow 
Castle,  the  herd  of  wild  wlute  cattle,  and  some 
primeval  oaks. 

llailliltOII.  a  city  of  Canaila,  the  chief  town  in 
the  county  uf  Wentworth,  Ontario,  is  situated  on 
Burlin^^tou  Bay,  at  the  west  end  of  Lake  Ontario, 
40  miles  liy  rail  SW.  of  Toronto,  and  50  WNW.  of 
Niaj,'ara  Kails.  The  business  portion  lies  at  the 
foot  of  '  The  Mountain,'  on  whose  slope  many  line 
residences  are  embowered  anioiiy  trees  and  gardens. 
Trees  line  the  wide,  handsome  streets  ;  the  houses 
are  mostly  substantial  stone  erections,  and  the 
courthouse  and  county  buildings  are  among  the 
linest  in  ('anada.  The  city  is  an  important  rail- 
way centre,  stands  in  tlie  midst  of  a  populous  and 
highly-cultivated  district,  at  the  head  of  the  lake 
na\  igation,  and  is  said  to  possess  a  larger  number 
of  manufactories  of  iron,  cotton,  and  woollen  goods, 
sewing-machines,  boots,  glass-ware,  &c.  tlian  any 
other  town  in  Canada.  Hamilton,  which  was 
founded  in  1813,  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  and  of 
a  lioiiian  Catholic  bishop,  and  sends  two  members 
to  the  House  of  Commous  and  one  to  the  i)io- 
vincial  legislature.  Pop.  (1801)  19,096;  (1881) 
3.5,1101  :  (ISOl)  48,980. 

Ilnilliltoil,  metropolis  of  the  western  part  of 
Victoria,  on  Orange  llurn  Creek,  "224  miles  by  rail 
W.  of  Melbourne.  Two  pastoral  and  agricultural 
exhibitions  are  held  here  annuallv,  and  two  race- 
meetings.      Pop.  3000. 

IlailliltOII.  ( 1 )  capital  of  Butler  county,  Ohio, 
on  the  tueat  Miami  River,  and  on  the  Miami  and 
Eric  Canal,  25  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Cincinnati.  It 
has  a  numlier  of  paper  and  Hour  mills,  several 
foundries,  manufactories  of  farming-implements, 
breweries,  \-c.  Pop.  (1890)  17,565.— (2)  A  post- 
village  of  New  York,  37  miles  SE.  of  Syracuse, 
is  the  seat  of  Madison  University,  and  of  Hamilton 
Theological  Seminary,  botli  Baptist.      Pop.  1638. 

IliUuiltOII«  capital  (pop.  2100)  of  Bermuda 
(■l-v-)- 

IlilllliltOlI,  a  great  historical  family,  is  be- 
lieveil  to  be  of  English  origin.  The  pedigree  of 
the  family,  however,  cannot  be  carried  bevond 
Walter  Fit/.-tJilbert  (son  of  Gilbert),  callerl  Hamil- 
ton, who  in  1290  held  lands  in  Lanarkshire,  and 
swore  fealty  to  King  Edward  I.  of  England  as 
overlord  of  Scotland,  and  in  1314  kejit  tlie  castle 
of  Bothwell,  on  the  Clyde,  for  the  English.  His 
surrender  of  this  slnmg  fortress,  and  of  the  English 
knights  and  nobles  who  hail  tied  to  it  from  the  Held 
of  Ilaiinocklpurn,  was  rewarded  by  King  Robert 
Bruce  by  grants  of  the  lands  and  baronies  of 
Cadzow  and  Machanshire  in  Clydesdale,  Kiiineil 
and  Barbert  in  West  Lothian,  and  other  lamls  for- 
feitcMl  liy  the  Cuniyns  and  other  adherents  of  Eng- 
land. He  attaineil  the  rank  of  knighthood,  and 
married  Mary,  daughter  of  Sir  Adam  of  (Gordon  of 
Huntly.  He  left  two  sons.  The  elder.  Sir  David 
Fit/.- Walter,  was  taken  ju'isoner  by  the  English  at 
tlie  battle  of  Neville's  Cross  in 'l340,  foiimled  a 
chantry  in  the  cathedral  of  (ilasgowin  1361,  anil 
appears  among  tlu^  barons  in  thi^  Scottish  ]iarlia- 
ments  <if  1308,  1371,  and  1373.  His  eldest  son.  Sir 
David  of  Hamilton  of  Cail/.ow,  was  the  Hrst  to 
assume  the  surname  of  Hamilton. 

Dt'KK.s  OF  fLvMiLTON,  ^.c. — The  family  was  only 
knightly  till  it  w.as  eiinoliled  in  its  si.xih  genera- 
tion, in  Sir  .lames  of  Hamilton  of  ("'ad/ow,  who  in 
1445  was  created  Lord  Hamiltim  by  a  charter 
wliich  consolidated  his  whole  lamls  into  the  lord- 
ship of  Hamilton,  with  his  manor-place  of  '  the 
Orchanl,'  in  the  barony  of  Cadzow,  as  his  chief 
messuage.  In  1460  he  foumled  a  college  in  the 
university  of  Glasgow — the  Hrst  college  in  Scotland 
foumled  by  a  layman.  He  al.so  founded  and 
242  ■ 


endowed  the  collegiate  church  of  Hamilton.  Allied 
both  by  marriage  and  by  descent  to  the  Dmiglascs, 
he  followed  their  banner  in  the  begimiing  of  tlieir 
great  struggle  with  the  crown.  But  he  forsook 
them  at  a  critical  moment  in  14.54,  and  his  season- 
able hjyalty  was  rewarded  by  large  grants  of 
their  forfeited  lands.  At  a  later  period,  after  the 
death  of  his  first  wife,  when  he  must  have  been 
well  ailvanceil  in  years,  he  received  in  marriage 
the  Princess  Mary,  the  eldest  daughter  of  King 
James  II.,  formerly  the  wife  of  Thomas  Boyd,  the 
attainted  Etarl  of  Arran.  His  only  son  by  her, 
James,  .second  Lord  Hamilton,  was  in  1503  made 
Earl  of  Arran,  and  had  a  grant  of  that  island,  the 
dowry  of  his  mother  on  her  Hrst  marriage.  After 
playing  an  important  part  in  public  allairs  during 
the  minority  of  King  James  V'.,  he  died  in  1529, 
being  succeeded  by  the  eldest  son  of  his  third  wife 
(a  niece  of  Cardinal  Beaton),  James,  second  Earl 
of  Arran.  The  death  of  King  James  A',  in  1542 
left  only  an  infant  a  few  days  old  between  him 
and  the  tlinme.  He  was  at  once  chosen  regent  of 
the  kingdom  and  tutor  to  the  young  qneeii,  and 
declared  to  be  'second  person  in  the  realm.'  He 
held  his  high  offices  till  1554,  when  he  resigned 
them  in  favour  of  the  queen-mother,  Mary  of  (iuise. 
He  received  in  1548,  fr<im  King  Henry  II.  of 
France,  a  grant  of  the  duchy  of  Chalelheraull. 
His  eldest  son,  the  Earl  of  Arran,  was  proposed 
at  one  time  as  the  husband  of  t,}iieen  Mary  of 
Scotland,  and  at  another  time  as  the  husband  of 
(^Hiceii  Elizabeth  of  England.  He  was  atHicte<l  \\  ith 
madness  in  1562,  and  never  recovered  liis  reascm, 
although  he  lived  till  1609.  His  father,  the  lirst 
Duke  of  Chatellierault,  dying  in  1575,  the  second  .son. 
Lord  John  Hamilton,  commendator  of  .Vrbroath, 
became  virtual  bead  of  the  house,  and  as  such  was 
in  1599  created  Marquis  of  Hamilton.  He  died  in 
1604,  being  succeeded  by  his  son  James,  the  second 
marquis,  who  in  1619  was  created  Earl  of  Cam- 
bridge in  England,  and  died  in  1625.  His  eldc.-t 
.son,  James,  the  third  marquis,  led  an  army  of 
6000  men  to  the  sniqiort  i>f  King  Gustavus 
Adolphus  of  Sweden  in  1031-32,  and  later  acted  a 
consiiicuous  part  in  the  great  contest  between 
King  Charles  I.  and  the  Scottish  Covenanters. 
That  king  in  1643  created  him  Duke  of  Hamilton, 
with  remainder  to  the  heirs-female  of  his  boily,  in  the 
event  of  the  death  of  himself  and  his  brother  with- 
out male  issue.  In  1648  he  led  a  Scottish  army  into 
England  for  the  king's  relief,  but  was  encountered 
and  defeated  by  Cromwell  at  Preston,  in  Lanca- 
shire, and,  ultimately  force<l  to  surrender  to  the 
parliamentary  forces,  was  beheaded  at  Westminster 
in  March  1649.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
William  who  in  1039  had  been  created  F^ail  of 
Lanark,  and  died  in  1051  of  the  wounds  %\  Inch  be 
had  received  at  the  battle  of  Worcester.  The  duchy 
of  Hamilton  now  devolved  on  the  eldest  daughter  of 
the  Hrst  duke.  Lady  Anne,  whose  husband,  Lord 
William  Douglas,  V^arl  of  Selkirk,  was  in  1600 
createil  Duke  of  Hamilton  for  life.  He  died  in  l(i94. 
and  in  1698  the  Duchess  Anne,  who  survived  till 
1716,  resigned  her  titles  in  the  king's  hands  in  favour 
of  her  eldest  son,  .lames.  Earl  of  Arran,  who  was 
anew  created  Duke  of  Hamilton,  with  the  pre- 
cedency of  1643.  Ill  1711  he  was  created  Duke  of 
Brandon  in  England,  but  the  Himse  of  Lords 
refused  him  a  seat  or  vote  in  parliament,  on  the 
ground  that  the  crown  was  disabled  by  the  Act  of 
I'nion  from  granting  a  peerage  of  (Ireat  Britain  to 
any  ]icrson  who  was  a  peer  of  Scotland  before  the 
I'nion.  The  duke  was  killeil  in  a  duel  in  Hyde 
Park  with  Lord  .\Ioliun  in  1712.  His  grandson, 
James,  the  sixth  duke,  who  married  the  famous 
beauty.  Elizabeth  (iunning,  was  succeeded  in  1758 
by  his  eldest  son,  James  George,  an  infant  of  three 
years  old.     On  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Dcmglas 


r)30 


HAMILTON 


in  1701,  the  mult'  representation  of  the  'retl'  or 
An<;ti.s  lirani-h  of  thi'  l)ou<;la.ses,  with  the  titles  of 
Miir.|ui>  of  ItonKhi'.  I'^iul  of  Aufjus,  Xc,  devolve.l 
on  the  Dukes  of  llaniillon,  as  ileseeinlants  of  the 
Dnehess  Anne's  hnsliand,  AVilliani,  Earl  of  Selkirk, 
tliird  son  of  the  lii-sl  Mari|nis  of  Doiij;las.  D.vin^' 
in  1709,  in  his  lifteentli  year,  James  (;eorf,'e,  seventh 
Duke  of  Hamilton,  was  snoeeedeil  hy  his  only 
hrother,  Dou;,'las,  who  in  17S2  took  his  seat  in 
IKirliameiit  ius  Duke  of  IJranilon,  the  House  of 
Lorils  heinx  salisded  that  the  Aet  of  I  iiion  iliil  not 
lirohihil  the  urown  from  making'  a  peer  of  Scotland 
a  peer  of  tireat  ISritiiin.  He  was  succeeded  hy  his 
uncle,  ancestor  of  the  twelfth  duke  ( lf<4o-9.5).  The 
thirteenth  duke,  horn  1802,  is  descendant  of  u  third 
son  ol  the  fourth  duke. 

DlKl.s  UK  AuKiiCiiKN,  iSrc— Loril  Claud  Hamil- 
ton, fourth  son  of  the  lirst  Duke  of  ('hatclherault, 
was  appointed  conimendator  of  the  abhey  of  Paisley 
in  I'M.i,  and  created  Lord  I'aisley  in  1587.  HLs 
descendants  <ditaine<l  successively  the  titles  of  Lord 
Aliercorn  (lOO.'J),  Karl  of  Ahercorn  (IGOO).  Viscount 
Strahane  ( 1701 ),  Marcpiis  of  Ahercorn  ( 1790).  On 
the  death  of  the  sccoml  Duke  of  Hamilton  in  lUol, 
the  second  Larl  of  .Micrcorn  claimed  the  male 
reiuesentation  of  the  House  of  Hamilton  ;  and  in 
ISOl  the  second  Marquis  and  tenth  Earl  of  Ahercorn 
(created  Duke  of  Ahercorn  in  1808)  w;vs  served  heir- 
male  of  the  lirst  Dukeof  Chatelherault,  in  thcSherill 
Court  of  Ch.uicery  at  Ediiihur^'h,  under  protest  hy 
the  Dukeof  Hamilton,  Ilrandcm.  anil  Chatelherault. 
Dyiny  in  188,-),  he  was  succeeded  hy  his  son  James, 
the  second  duke,  lK)rn  in  18.38.  The  Duke  of  Aher- 
corn is  one  of  three  j)eers  wlio  hold  peeraj^es  in 
Scotland,  in  Ireland,  and  in  Great  Itritain.  A 
cadet  of  the  House  of  Ahercorn,  born  in  1040,  wa.s 
Count  Anthony  Hamilt<m  (q.v.). 

Dteiku  I'kkuacks. — The  third  son  of  Anne, 
Duchess  of  Hamilton,  was  in  1088  created  Earl  of 
Selkirk  :  this  title  became  extinct  in  1885  on  the 
death  of  the  sixth  earl. — Lord  George  Handlton, 
lifth  son  of  Duchess  Anne,  w;us  in  1090  created  Earl 
of  Orkney.  The  sixth  earl  succee<led  in  1877. — A 
f(nirth  Sim  of  Duchess  Anne  was  in  1097  created 
Earl  of  Kujrien— a  title  that  became  extinct  in 
1810. — The  Earls  of  Haddinjitcm  are  descended 
from  a  younj;cr  .son  of  the  tii'st  ;uscertained  ancestor 
of  the  Haiiiiltons,  Sir  Walter  Kitz-llilbert. — Sir 
John  Hamilton  of  Biel  was  created  Lord  Helhaven 
and  Stenton.  The  second  lonl  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  wild  hut  eloquent  speeches  .against  the 
Union.  On  the  death  of  the  lifth  lord  in  1777  the 
title  and  estates  became  separateil  ;  the  title  be- 
came dormant  in  l,S(is,  but  was  adjudged  in  1875 
to  the  ninth  lord. — A  descendant  of  the  lirst  Lord 
Paisley  became  Viscount  Hoyiie  in  1717,  and  his 
descendant  Itec.ame  in  1800  I'aron  P>rance|ietli  in 
the  ])eerage  of  the  United  Kingdom. — Another 
br.anch  of  the  Hamiltons,  settling  in  Ireland, 
attained  to  the  dignities  of  Viscount  Clanehoy 
(1022)  and  Earl  of  Clanbr;ussil.  The  titles  became 
extinct  in  1799,  but  the  title  of  Lord  Clanbrassil 
in  the  peerage  of  the  United  Kingdom  was  created 
in  1S21. 

A  Bric/e  Account  of  Uie  Famihi  of  Hamillim.  written 
by  Dr  James  llaiUie  of  Carnbroe  during  the  first  lialt  of 
the  17th  century,  is  preserved  among  the  MSS.  in  the 
Advocates"  Lilirarj'  at  Eilinburgh.  Sec  CJilbert  Burnet's 
Mcmoifs  nf  the  Lifcj)  (ttifl  Actioiix  of  Jftmcji  and  Wiilutni, 
Dukc.1  of  Hamilton  and  C/ialtlliecault  (1077);  Ander- 
son's Histot'ical  find  Hcncalotiical  Memoirs  of  Vie  Hounc 
of  HnmiUnn  (ISi'.T);  '  Tlie  Manuscn|.ts  of  the  Duke  of 
Hamilton,  K.T.'  in  part  vi.  of  Appendix  to  the  Eleventh 
Report  of  the  Historical  JLS.S.  Commissioners  (18871; 
and  the  history  of  the  KarU  of  Haddington  by  Sir  Wm. 
Frascr  (2  vols.  4to,  1889). 

Ilaillilton,  Alex.vxder,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
-Viiicrican  statesmen,  was  lx)ni   11th  January  1757 


in  the  West  Indian  island  of  Nevis,  the  son  of  a 
Scotch  merchant  who  had  married  a  young  French- 
woman. His  father  soon  failed  in  business,  and 
.Alexander  at  the  age  of  twelve  ha<l  to  enter  the 
counting-liou.se  of  a  merchant  named  Cmger  at 
St  Croix.  HLs  extraordinary  abilities,  however, 
induced  some  of  his  friemls  to  ]irocure  for   him  a 

I  better  education  than  cinild  be  got  at  home.  He 
was  accordingly  sent  to  a  grammar-school  at  Eli/Ji- 
betbtown,  New  .ler.sey  ;  and  in  the  spring  of   1774 

j  he  entcretl   King's   (now   Columbia  I  College,   New 

I  York.  On  the  lirst  apjiearance  of  disagreement 
between  Great  ISritain  ami  her  colonies,  Hamilton, 
still  a  collegian  and  barely  eighteen,  wrote  a  series 
of   p.'ipers   in    ilefence  of   the  rights  of  the   latter, 

I  which  were  at  lirst  taken  for  the  iiroiluclion  of  the 
eminent  statesman  .lay.  .iml  whiiii  securcil  lor  the 
writer  the  notice  and  consideration  of  the  jiopnlar 
leiwlers.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  lie  obtaineil  a 
commission  lUs  captain  of  artillery,  saw  some  active 
service  in  New  ^  ork  and  New  Jeivey,  and  gained 

,  the  confidence  of  Washington,  who  made  him  his 
aide-de-camp  in  1777,  and  with  whom  he  acquired 
the  gieatesl  inltnence  iUs  his  friend  and  adviser.  In 
1781,  thrimgh  luisty  temper  on  both  sides,  the 
friendship  was  Inoken  for  a  brief  period,  and 
Hamilton  resigned  his  a]>poinlnient  on  the  stall'; 
but  he  continued  with  the  army  and  distinguished 
himself  at  Vorktowii. 

In  1780  he  marrie<l  a  daughter  of  General 
Schuyler,  who  was  a  member  of  a  |iowerfiil  New- 
York  family.  On  the  termination  of  the  w.ir  he 
left  the  .service  with  the  rank  of  eohmcl,  .anil, 
betaking  liimself  to  legal  studies,  soon  became  one 
of  the  most  eminent  lawyers  in  New  York.  In 
1782  he  wa-s  returned  to  congress  by  the  state  of 
New  York.  Hut  there  was  a.s  yet  no  national 
government  nor  any  power  higher  than  that  of  the 
several  states,  which  were  now  nearly  bankrupt; 
and  in  1780  Hamillon  t^rak  the  leading  part  in  the 
deliberations  of  the  interstate  commercial  con- 
vention at  Annapolis,  which  prepared- till,'  way  for 

I  the  great  convention  that  met  at  I'hiladeljdiia  in 
the  following  year  for  the  pnrpo.se  of  revising  the 
articles  of  confederation.  There,  .tlthough  his  own 
]ilaii  for  the  formation  of  an  aristocratic  republic 

I  w.as  .set  iuside,  the  spirit  of  his  system  was  to  a 
large  extent  adopted.  liut  Hamilton's  best  work 
for  the  constitution  w.-us  done  after  the  convention 
was  dissolved.  He  conceived  and  started  the 
famous  series  of  es,says  which  origiiiiilly  appeared 
in  a  New-  York  journal,  and  wliiili  were  after- 
w.ards  collected  under  the  title  of  Thr  I'ciUrulist. 
Fifty-one  out  of  the  eighty-live  essays  were  the 
work  of  H.amilton.  They  constitute  the  writings 
by  which  he  is  most  widely  known  ;  they  can 
scarcely  be  too  highly  jiraiscd  for  comnrehensive- 
ness,  profundity,  clearness,  and  simplicity,  and 
their  strength  and  value  have  been  recognised  in 
Europe  as  well  a-s  in  Amenca. 

I  On  the  estalilishment  of  the  new  government  in 
1789  with  Wjushington  as  president,  Hamilton  w.ts 

j  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury.     The  disorder 

I  of  the  public  credit,  and  the  deliciencv  of  oflicial 
accounts  of  the  state  treasury-,  rendered  this  oflice 
one  of  peculiar  dilliculty.  In  order  to  re-establish 
jinblic  credit,  he  earried,  in  the  face  of  much  o]iiiosi- 
tion,  a  mea-siire  for  the  funding  of  the  domestic  ilelit, 

I  founded  a  nation.al  bank,  rearranged   the  system  of 

j  duties,  and  altogether  showed   himself   to  pos.se.ss 

I  the  genius  of  the  great  hnancier.  .Moreover,  he 
pr.ietically  organised  the  administr.ation  :  and  his 
reports,    many   of    them   on    subjects    outside   the 

I  immediate  scope  of  his  own  department,  exhibit 
his  |irolounil  ability  as  a  statesman.  In  1795  he 
resigned  his  othce,  and  resunied  the  practice  of  law  in 
New  York,  where  he  was  still  constantly  consulted 
by  Washington  and  by  his  cabinet,     fte  w.i.s  the 


HAMILTON 


531 


actual  leader  of  the  Federal  (<|.v. )  party  until  his 
death,  and  was  foremost  in  the  lierce  party  strife  of 
IKOl.  His  successful  efforts  to  thwart  the  ambition 
of  his  pei^onal  rival,  Aaron  Burr  (q.  v. ),  linally 
iuvolvea  hi)u  in  a  duel  with  him.  Hamilton  had 
reason  to  re^'ard  the  practice  of  duelling  with 
especial  abhorrence,  but  he  appears  to  have  felt  , 
umlcr  an  obli^;ation  to  accept  llie  challenge ;  and 
oil  the  morning  of  11th  July  1S04  they  met  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson,  on  the  same  spot 
where  Haniillons  eldest  son  had  received  his  death-, 
wound  in  a  duel  three  years  before.  Hamilton  was 
mortally  wounded,  and  died  the  next  dav,  leaving 
the  nation  his  iuiiignaut  mourners,  and  his  slayer 
for  the  time  an  exile.  Hamilton's  ei'rors,  like  his 
.strength,  arose  largely  from  his  strong,  master- 
ful will  and  jjassionate  nattire.  The  immediate 
ellects  of  his  brilliant  services  at  a  crisis  in  his 
country's  fate  endure  to  this  day ;  his  influence  is 
stamped  on  every  page  of  the  American  constitu- 
tion ;  :iud  his  writings  still  impress  the  reader  by 
their  vigour,  their  learning,  and  the  maturity  of 
intellect  they  display.  His  works,  exclusive  of 
The  Federalist,  were  edited  by  his  son,  John  C 
Hamilton  (7  vols.  Ibol ),  who  also  jiublished  a  Life 
(2  vols.  lS3-t-40).  See  Kiethmiillers  eulogistic 
HatiL'll'jii  ami  his  Contctttjjoi'arics  (Lond.  lyG4), 
and  Lives  by  Morse  (1870),  Shea  (1S79),  Henry 
Cabot  Lodge  ('American  Statesmen,'  1SS2),  and 
Sumner  ( 1S9U) ;  Lodge  has  also  edited  Hamilton's 
Cuiiiplete  Works  (9  vols.  18S5). 

Hailliltou,  Anthony,  Coint,  a  cadet  of 
the  Aljereorn  branch  of  the  Scottish  family  of 
Hamilton,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1646.  At  twenty- 
one  he  went  to  France,  and  got  a  captain's  com- 
mission ;  in  1685  he  was  captain  of  Limerick,  and 
fought  at  the  Uoyne  ( 1690)  ;  thereafter  he  lived  at 
the  court  of  St  GernuvinenLaye,  and  theie  he 
died,  6th  August  1720.  His  writings  are  full  of 
wit  and  talent,  particularly  his  Contcs  dc  Fccric 
(3  vols.  Paris.  1805;  Eng.  "trans.  1849).  For  his 
Mimoires  da  Comic  de  Gramoxt,  see  Gramont. 

Hiimilton,  Elizabeth,  authoress,  was  born 
of  a  Scottish  family  at  Belfast  in  1758,  and,  after 
residing  in  various  parts  of  Scotland  and  in  Lon- 
don, died  at  Edinburgh,  iSd  July  1816.  Her 
wcjrks  comprise  Letters  of  a  Hindoo  Uajalt  ( 1796) ; 
Memoirs  of  Modern  Philosophers  (1800);  Letters 
on  Edueatioii  (1802);  Life  of  Aijrippina  (1804); 
Letters  on  the  Mural  and  lleliyious  Prineijdc 
(1SU6);  and — the  work  by  which  she  is  best 
known — 2'hc  Cottagers  of  Glcnburnie  (1808),  a 
singularly  vivid  and  lifelike  representation  of 
humble  rural  life  in  Scotland. 

IlaiuiltOII.  Emma,  L.vdv,  was  born  Amy  Lyon 
or  '  Hart,'  most  likely  at  Ne-ss,  in  Cheshire,  and  on 
26th  Aiuil  1763.  Her  girlhood  was  passed  at 
Hawarden.  She  hail  had  three  places  in  London, 
had  borne  two  children  to  a  navy  captain  and  a 
baronet,  and  hail  posed  as  Hygeia  in  a  i(Uack- 
doctors  '  Temple  of  Health,'  when  in  1782  she 
acce|>ted  the  protection  of  the  Him.  Charles  Greville 
(1749-1809),  to  exchange  it  in  1786  for  that  of  his 
uncle.  Sir  William  Hamilton  (1730  1803).  .-Vfter 
five  years  at  Naples,  in  1791  she  was  married  at 
Marylebone  Church  to  her  elderly  anibiissador,  and, 
returning  to  Italy,  was  straightway  admitted  to 
the  closest  intimacy  by  Maria  Caroline,  the  ijueen 
of  Ferdinand  I.  (q.v.).  Her  '  eminent  services  '  to 
the  British  Ueet  during  1796-98  in  furnishini'  infor- 
mation and  ]irocuring  supplies  were  extofled  by 
Nelson,  vaunted  by  herself,  as  deserving  of  peerage 
and  pension  :  but  they  were  much  overrated, 
where,  indeed,  not  iiurely  iiiuiginary.  Nelson  had 
lirst  met  her  in  1793  :  and  gradually  I'lalonic  friend- 
ship ripened  to  guilty  iia.-sion,  until,  four  months 
after  the  trio's  return  to  England,  she  gave  birth  to 


a  daughter  ( 1801-81 ),  •  our  loved  Horatia,'  so  Nelson 
writ<;s  of  her  in  a  holograph  letter  to  '  my  own  dear 
Wife,  in  my  eyes  and  the  face  of  Heaven.'  Her 
credulous  husband's  death,  followed  four  years  later 
by  Nelson's,  left  Emma  mistress  of  good  £2000  a 
year;  but  by  1808  she  was  owing  £18,000,  and  in 
1813  wa-s  arrested  for  debt.  Next  year  she  escaiied 
to  Calais,  where  she  died  in  penury,  15th  January 
1815.  Her  grave  is  obliterated;  but  her  loveliness 
lives  still  in  twenty-four  portraits  by  Komney,  to 
whom  she  was  ever  the  '  divine  lady. ' 

See  Nelso.n  ;  Hamiltox,  Sib  W.  ;  EoMXET  ;  the  spite- 
ful Mtntoir.i  of  Lady  Hamilttm,  ( 1815 ;  new  ed.  1891 ) ; 
Facet's  '  viuilicatiou'  in  Paraduxeis  and  I'uzzlea  (1874); 
Jeafl're.son's  Ltfiij  Jlaiailtou  and  Lord  Ndson  (1888); 
and  Hilda  Gamliii's  Emma  Lady  Hamdton  (1891). 

Hailliltou,  Ja.mes,  an  EiiglL~h  merchant,  bom 
at  London  in  1769,  who,  ha\iiig  been  taught  tJer- 
man  at  Hamburg  in  1798  by  an  original  method, 
afterwards  exchanged  mercantile  pursuits  for  the 
teaching  of  languages,  and  taught  with  great  suc- 
cess in  the  United  States  (from  1815)  and  in  Eng- 
land (from  1823).  He  died  at  Dublin,  16th  Septem- 
ber 1829.  Hamilton  discarded  grammar,  using  in 
its  stead  a  literal  word  for  word  translation,  iilaced 
innneiliately  below  the  original,  line  for  line  alter- 
nately. His  own  account  of  it  is  to  lie  found  in 
Tlie  i'rineijjles.  Practices,  and  lies  ults  of  the  Uainil- 
tonian  5//.!,<tH(  (Manchester,  1829). 

UailliltOD,  P.VTRICK,  '  the  protoinartyr  of  the 
Scottish  Keformalion,'  was  the  son  of  Sir  Patrick 
Hamilton  of  Kincavel  (Linlithwwshire)  and 
Staneliouse  ( Lanarkshire )  and  Catlierine  Stew  art, 
daughter  of  Alexander,  Duke  of  Albany,  second 
son  of  James  II.  Both  his  parents  were  illegiti- 
mate. The  exact  date  and  jjlace  of  his  birth  are 
unknown.  Both  are  approximately  settled,  how- 
ever, by  the  fact  that  he  graduated  as  Master  of 
Arts  in  the  university  of  Paris  in  1520 — the  [dace 
of  his  birth  being  noted  as  •  the  diocese  of  Glas- 
gow.' As  that  degree  could  not  be  taken  at  Paris 
before  the  age  of  twenty-one,  we  may  conjecture 
that  Hamilton  was  lx)rn  in  the  last  years  of  the 
15tli  century.  It  is  also  unknown  where  he  received 
the  elements  of  his  education.  His  nuiver.sity 
studies  seem  to  have  been  first  conducted  at  Paris, 
where,  about  the  time  of  liLs  residence,  the  opinions 
of  Luther  were  already  bei'inning  to  attract  atten- 
tion. It  may  be  con.-,ideieii  the  most  decisive  proof 
that  Hamilton  was  open  to  the  best  li'dits  of  the 
time  that  on  leaving  Paris  he  proceeded  to  the 
univei-sity  of  Louvain,  where  in  1517,  under  the 
direction  of  Erasmus,  a  college  was  founded  for  the 
study  of  Latin,  tireek,  and  Hebrew.  The  fouml.i- 
tion  of  such  a  college  at  so  early  a  date  in  the  Kith 
century  was  a  remarkable  innovation  in  university 
studies,  and  the  students  who  availed  themselves 
of  it  were  only  such  as  Avere  in  ardent  sympathy 
with  the  new  intellectual  and  religious  ideals  of 
the  time.  In  1523  we  find  Hamilton  at  the  uni- 
versity of  St  Andrews,  where  his  sympathies  with 
Lutheranisni  soon  brought  him  under  tlie  suspicion 
of  the  church  atithoiities.  To  escape  the  fate 
which  afterwards  overtook  him  he  returned  to  the 
Continent  (1.527).  After  a  brief  stay  at  Witten- 
berg, where  he  juobably  saw  Luther  and  Mclanch- 
thon,  he  settled  for  some  months  in  Marburg,  the 
seat  of  a  university  lately  foundod  in  the  interest 
of  the  Keformed  doctrines.  At  ilarburg  Hamilton 
wrote  (in  Latin)  the  only  production  of  his  which 
has  come  down  to  us — a  series  of  theological  pro- 
positions known  as  'Patrick's  Places.'  In  these 
propositions  the  main  doctrines  of  the  Lutheran 
reformers  are  stated  with  such  boldness  and  jue- 
cisiiin  that  Knox  has  embodied  them  in  his  history 
of  the  Itelormation  in  Scotland.  Hamilton  returned 
to  Scotland  in  the  autumn  of  1527,  and  shortly  after- 
wards married.     The  next  year  he  was  summoned 


632 


IIAMII.TOX 


to  St   Amlrews  by  Arclibisliop  lieaton,   uncle  of 

the  famous  oanliiiiil,  iiiid  on  a  roneweil  charge  of 
liere>'V  wits  Imrnud  at  the  stake  before  the  jia.l(y  of 
St  Siilvators  CoUe^'e,  'iiHli  l-'ebruary  l.ViS.  His 
•Icath  imibably  iliil  more  toexteml  tlie  Kt-fornitation 
in  Scothiiiil  than  even  liis  life  ronhl  have  (h>ne. 
'The  reek  of  Mivster  Patrick  Hamilton, 'saiil  one  of 
Beaton's  own  retainers,  '  has  infected  as  many  as 
it  did  blow  n|>i>ii.' 

A  i)eenliar  interest  has  always  attaclietl  to  the 
name  of  I'atrick  Hamilton.  His  winninj;  i>ei'sonal 
character,  his  eajjerness  for  all  the  best  li^'ht  of  his 
time,  his  c<mr.age,  and  his  early  ileath  mak<"  him 
one  of  the  most  interesting  (i^;nres  in  the  reli^'ions 
revolution  of  Scotland  durin;;  the  16th  century. 
His  martyrdom  also  ;^ave  a  distinct  imimlse  to  the 
doctrines  for  which  he  ilied  ;  and  Knox  himself,  in 
the  most  enijdiatic  manner,  testifies  to  Hamilton's 
im|iortance  m  the  history  of  the  Scottish  lieforina- 
tiun. 

See  Professor  Lorinior's  Patrick  HamiUon^  the  first 
Prettchcr  and  Mnrti/r  of  the  Srottish  Rifnrmtition  (1857), 
and  Dr  David  Laing's  edition  of  Kno.\'s  HUton/  of  the 
Hcformation  in  Scotfand. 

Ilailliltoil,  Wii.i.iAM,  a  Scotch  poet,  wa.s  born 
in  ITot.  most  iiiuliably  at  his  father's  estate  of 
l!,iii;4onr,  near  l']phall.  Linlithgowshire.  He  con 
tributed  to  Kainsay's  7'(((^(Wc  Miicel/iiiii/  (1724), 
and  joined  in  the  second  .lacobite  rising.  On  its 
collapse  he  escaped  to  rrancc,  but  wa.s  permitted 
to  return  in  1749  and  to  succeed  to  the  family 
estate  the  year  after.  He  died  at  Lyons,  'i.'ith 
March  1754.  The  liist  colled  ion  of  his  poems  wivs 
i.ssued,  without  his  consent,  by  Foulis  of  (Jhusgow 
in  1748 :  a  fuller  collection,  with  a  jiortrait, 
appeared  under  the  care  of  his  friends  in  17(il). 
One  of  his  poems  alone — '  The  Br.aes  of  Yarrow  ' — 
will  keep  his  name  from  ever  being  forgotten,  by 
the  deptli  and  truth  of  its  unsought  pathos.  See 
James  I'aterson,  The  Poems  niul  .^oiigs  of  William 
llamiltmi  (  IS-JO). 

llniiiiitoii.  William  Geraed  (1720-90), 
earned  the  epithet  of  'single-speech  fLimiltim' 
by  a  speech  made  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
November  13,  1754,  ;is  M.P.  for  I'etersliehl  in  Hants 
— not  quite  the  only  speech  he  ever  made  in  the 
House.  For  twenty  years  he  wa-s  Chancellor  of 
the  Irish  E.xcheqner,  and  was  by  some  regarded  as 
the  author  of  the  letters  of  Junius  (q.v.) 

Hamilton.  Sii:  William,  grandsim  of  the  third 
IJuke  of  Hamilton,  was  Inirn  in  I7.'J0,  and  in  17.->.S, 
after  eleven  years'  service  in  the  Foot  Ouards, 
married  a  beautiful  I'embrokesliire  heiress,  with 
fjtXJO  a  year,  who  died  in  1782,  an  only  daughter 
having  predeceased  her.  He  wjis  British  amluis- 
sador  at  the  court  of  Naples  from  17<>4  till  1800, 
and  in  1772  was  made  a  knight  of  the  Bath.  Dur- 
ing his  residence  in  Italy  he  took  an  active  ^lart  in 
the  excavation  of  Herculaneum  ami  I'omiieii,  and 
formed  a  rare  collection  <il  aMlii|iuties,  wliich  was 
afterwards  puicha-sed  for  the  British  .\lu.seum.  He 
was  author  of  several  sumptuous  works — AiUiqiiites 
Ktnisrjues,  Grecfjucs,  ct  liomiii/ics,  tir^s  tin  cabinet 
fie  M.  Hamilton  (4  vols.  Naples,  1766-67);  Obseri-u- 
tiiins  on  Mount  Vcsticiiis  (1772);  Vitmjti  I'ldeffrai 
(Naples,  1776-77),  &c.  He  died  btli  April  1803. 
See  H A.MILTON  (E.MMA,  Ladv). 

Ilaillilton,  Sin  William,  of  Preston,  the 
most  learned  and  .scientilic  philosopher  of  the 
Scottish  scho(d,  WiVs  born  March  8,  1788,  at  Olas- 
gow,  where  his  father.  Or  Willi.am  Hamilton. 
and  his  grandfather,  L)r  Thomas  Hamiltcm,  held 
the  chairs  of  Anatomy  and  Botany.  Though  the 
Hamiltons  of  Prest<m,  in  Hadilingtonshire,  who 
were  raised  to  a  baronetcy  in  1673,  had  not  a.ssumed 
their  title  since  the  death  of  Sir  William  Hamilton 
in  November  1688,  when  his  brother  and  heir.  Sir 


Koliert,  the  Covenanter,  refused  to  take  the  oath 

of  allegiance,  the  ])hilo>oplier  made  good  his  claim 
to  rel>rcsent  them,  and  theiefme  to  be  ile.sceiided 
from  the  leader  of  the  Covenanters  at  Bothwell 
Bridge.  .Alter  gaining  high  distinction,  especially 
in  the  philosojihical  chi.<ses,  at  (ilitsgow,  he  went 
in  1809  to  Balli.d  College,  Oxfonl,  jus  aSnell  exhibi- 
tioner. He  graduated  with  liist-cla.ss  honours  in 
1810:  and  it  was  here  that  he  laiil  the  basis  of  his 
vast  erudition  in  medieval  and  moilern,  a-^  well  as 
in  ancient  literature.  He  left  Oxford  in  1812,  and 
was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar  in  1813;  1ml  he 
seems  never  to  have  had  any  practice  in  his  pro- 
fessi(m  exce|)t  what  became  incumbent  im  him  on 
being  aippointed  erown-scdicitor  of  the  Court  of 
Teinds.  In  18'20.  on  the  death  of  Dr  Brown,  he 
was  an  nnsuecessful  competitor  for  the  chair  of 
Moral  Philosophy  in  Kdinbnrgh  ;  in  l!S21  he  was 
appointed  In  the  prof<'ssorshi]i  of  Ilistoiy. 

Il.imilton  had  now  reached  his  thiiiieth  year 
without  giving  to  the  worhl  any  imlication  of 
those  speculations  which  he  had  been  silently  and 
slowly  matnrin".  But  in  18'2t)  there  apiiearcd  in 
the  Eillnburijh  Jicvieir  a  crilic|ue  of  Cousin's  Coins 
fir  I'hilosri/ihic  of  the  ]nex  ions  year,  in  «hich  was 
developed  that  idiiloNopher's  doctrine  of  the  In- 
(initc.  The  critiijue  imme<liately  excited  admira- 
tion both  at  home  and  abroad,  and  for  .-iome  years 
after  this  Hamilton  was  a  regular  contributor  to 
the  Etli)ibiiif)h  Heriew.  Besides  other  |<liilosophical 
articles,  two  of  which,  on  the  Philoso]ihy  of  Per 
ception  and  on  Hecent  Publications  in  Logical 
Science,  are  esjiecially  cehdirated.  he  contrilmteil 
se\eral  pa|>ei's  on  education  and  university  reform. 
Many  ol  these  contriliutions  were  translated  into 
Cernian,  French,  and  Italian  ;  and  in  18.")2  they 
were  all  edited  by  Hamilton  himself,  with  notes  and 
appendices,  under  the  title  of  IHscnssions  in  I'hilu- 
Sophy  and  IJteraliiiT,  Kihieation,  and  fnircrxiti/ 
llefonn.  In  18.36  Hamilton  wius  elected  to  the 
chair  of  Logic  and  Met:i])hysics  in  Edinburgh. 
During  his  first  session  he  delivered  a  course  of 
lectures  on  metaphysics,  which  was  fcdiowed  in  the 
succeeding  session  by  a  course  on  logic;  and  these 
two  courses  he  cimtimieil  to  reail  each  alternate 
year  till  the  close  of  his  life.  His  intltience  soon 
oegan  to  show  itself  in  the  university  among  the 
young  men  who  were  attracteil  thither  from  dill'er- 
ent  parts  of  Scotland,  and  other  countries,  in  many 
Ciuses  chielly  for  the  sake  of  hearing  Hamilton. 
Extensive  notes  of  his  lectures  were  taken  by  his 
students,  and  numerous  copies  of  them,  transcribed 
from  shorthand  reports,  were  in  circulation  during 
the  later  years  of  his  life.  After  his  death  these 
were  published  under  the  editorship  of  Professors 
Mansel  and  Veitch  (Sir  William  /linnitlon's  Lec- 
tures, 4  v<ds.  18.')9-U1 ).  Tlie.se  lectures,  which 
were  mostly  written  during  the  currency  of  the 
.sessions  in  which  they  were  first  ilelivered,  want 
the  exactness  of  thought  and  cx]iression  which 
mark  the  works  revised  by  himself  for  i)ublica- 
tion  ;  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  m.iterials 
embodied  in  these  vohimes  were  not  wrought  into 
another  work  which  Hamilton  had  idanned.  This 
was  his  edition  of  the  works  of  Keid,  with  notes 
and  supplementary  ili.s.sert:itions.  The  general  aim 
of  Hamilton's  whole  philosophy  is,  in  fact,  but 
the  special  aim  of  this  e<lition  of  lieid  (1846;  ad 
ilitional  notes  from  Hamilton's  .MS.S.  bv  Mansel. 
lH(i2).  His  conviction  was  that  the  idiilosophy  of 
Common  Sense  Up  v.)  represents  the  highest  reaches 
of  human  speculation  :  and  he  accordingly  sought 
in  his  annotations  of  Beid's  w  ritings,  as  in  liis 
independent  works,  to  ]ioint  out  the  relation  of 
the  Scottish  |>hilosophy  to  the  systems  of  other 
countries,  as  well  as  to  translate  it  into  a  more 
.scientific  expression.  His  labour  on  Keid  was  in- 
terrupted by    ill  health.       By   the   paralysis  of  his 


HAMILTON 


HAMLET 


533 


whole  right  side,  thouKli  his  mind  continued  un- 

iMi|i;iired,  his  power  of  work  was  seriously  curtailed 
cliuiii;,'  the  later  years  of  his  life,  lie  nevertheless 
jirodiieed  a  new  edition  of  Du^'ald  Stewart's  works 
in  1854  55;  and  he  was  generally  ahle,  with  an 
assistant,  to  iierforni  the  duties  of  his  class  till 
the  close  of  session  1855-5(5,  when  his  healtli 
suildenly  hecanie  worse,  and  he  died  0th  May. 

Hamilton's  system  professes  to  he  merely  an 
explieation  of  the  Scottish  philosophy  ;  it  may, 
however,  he  ((Uestioneil  whether  all  his  exegetical 
skill  has  vindicated  the  position  claimed  for  Iteid, 
whether,  therefore,  it  would  not  have  heen  hetter 
for  Hamilton  had  he  struck  into  a  sejiarate  path. 
For  while  his  philosojiliy  is  distinguished  in  general 
from  previous  Scottish  speculations  hy  its  more 
rigorously  systematic  character,  it  ventures,  a.s  in 
his  doctrine  of  the  conditioned,  into  wholly  new- 
realms  of  thought.  This  doctrine,  which  limits 
positive  thought  to  the  conditioned  sphere  hetween 
the  contradict<ny  poles  of  the  intinite  and  the 
ahsolute,  attracted  more  attention  than  any  of  his 
other  doctrines,  especially  after  the  publication  of 
.Mansel's  Bam/iton  Lectures  in  1858  (see  CoN'Dl- 
TIOX).  Hamilton's  contributions  to  logic  may  be 
reduced  to  the  two  principles  ( 1 )  of  distinguisliing 
reasoning  in  th<'  ipiantity  of  extension  from  rea.son- 
ing  in  that  of  comprehension,  from  which  issues  his 
twofidd  determination  of  major,  minor,  and  middle 
terms,  and  of  major  ami  minor  premises:  and  (2) 
of  stating  explicitly  what  is  thouglit  implicitiv  ; 
whence  were  derived  the  '  quantiiication  of  the 
)iredicate,'  reduction  of  the  modes  of  conversion 
to  one,  and  simplifications  of  the  syllogism. 

.See  Life  by  Veitcli  ( 1809 ) ;  short  monographs  by  Veitcli 
(ISSli)  and  Jlonck  (ISSl);  Scth's  ScoUiah  PhilomphiJ 
(new  cd.  1S9J);  and  SCOTTISH  PHILOSOPHY  in  'Vol.  IX. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William  Row.\n,  one  of  the 
few  really  great  mathematicians  of  the  19th 
century,  was  born  in  Dublin  on  August  3-4,  1805. 
I'rom  his  infancy  he  dis]dayed  extraordinary 
talents,  and  at  thirteen  had  <a  good  knowledge 
of  thirteen  languages.  Having  ,at  an  unusually 
early  age  taken  to  the  study  of  m.athematics,  in 
his  fifteenth  ye.ar  he  had  mastered  thoroughly 
all  the  ordinary  university  course,  and  commenced 
(iriginal  investigations  of  so  promising  a  kind 
that  I)r  Brinkley,  himself  a  very  good  mathe- 
matician, took  him  under  his  especial  )iatronage. 
His  earlier  essays  connected  with  caustics  and 
contact  of  curves  grew  by  degrees  into  an  elab- 
orate treatise  on  the  Theory  of  Systeiiis  of  Rays, 
puldished  by  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  in  1828. 
To  this  he  added  various  su|)plenients,  in  the  last 
of  which,  published  in  IS.S.S,  he  predicted  the 
existence  of  the  two  kinds  of  c<mical  refraction 
the  exjierimental  verilication  of  which  by  Lloyd 
still  forms  one  of  the  most  convincing  proofs  of 
the  truth  of  the  Undulatory  Theory  of  Liglit.  The 
great  feature  of  his  Sy.stoits  of  liuys  is  tlie  employ- 
ment of  a  single  function,  upon  whose  dirt'erential 
coellieients  (taken  on  various  hyi)otlieses )  the 
whole  of  any  optical  jiroblem  is  made  to  depend. 
He  seems  to  have  been  le<l  bv  this  to  his  next  great 
work,  A  General  Method  in  iJyinuiiics,  published  in 
the  Philoso/ihirat  Tniiisdctidiis  for  18.S4.  Here, 
again,  the  whole  of  any  dynamical  problem  is  made 
to  depend  upon  .a  single  function  and  its  differential 
coellieients.  This  paper  produced  a  i)rofound 
sensaticm,  especially  among  continental  mathe- 
maticians, .lacobi  of  Kdnigslierg  took  up  the 
]iurely  mathematical  siile  of  Hamilton's  method, 
and  considerably  extended  it  :  ami  of  late  years 
the  dynamical  part  has  been  richly  commented  on 
and  elalxn'ated  by  mathem.atieians  of  all  nations, 
all  uniting  in  their  admiration  of  the  genius  dis- 
jdayed  in  the  original  papers.  For  these  researches 
HaiMilti>n  was  elected  an  honcu'arv  member  of  the 


Aca<lemy  of  St  Petersburg,  a  rare  and  coveted  dis- 
tinction. The  principle  of  varying  action,  which 
forms  the  main  feature  of  the  memoirs,  is  hardly 
capable,  at  all  events  in  few  words,  of  popular  cx- 
planati(m.  Among  Hamilton's  other  works,  which 
are  very  numerous,  we  may  mention  particularly 
a  very  general  Theorem  in  the  Separation  of 
Symbols  in  Finite  Differences,  his  great  paper  on 
Unctuatinf/  Functions,  and  his  Examination  of 
AlieVs  Argnnicnt  concerning  the  Jntjio^sifjility  of 
solving  the  General  E(juation  of  the  Fifth  iJegree. 

We  may  also  particularly  allude  to  his  memoir 
on  Algebra  us  the  Science  of  Pure  Time,  one  of  the 
first  steps  to  his  grand  invention  of  quaternions. 
The  steps  by  which  he  was  led  to  this  Latter 
investigation,  which  will  certainly  when  better 
known  give  him  even  a  greater  re|uitation  than 
conical  refraction  or  vaiying  .action  has  done,  will 
be  more  ]uoperly  treated  under  t^f.\TEI!Xloxs. 
On  the  latter  subject  he  published  in  1853  a  large 
volume  of  Lectures,  which,  as  the  unaiiled  work  of 
one  man  in  a  few  years,  has  perhaps  hardly  been 
surpassed.  Another  immense  volume  on  the  same 
subject,  containing  his  more  recent  improvements 
and  extensions  of  his  calculus,  as  well  as  a  some- 
what modified  view  of  the  general  theory,  was 
published  after  his  death,  which  took  place  2d 
September  1865. 

While  yet  an  nndergiaduate  of  Trinity  College, 
Kublin,  he  was  ajipointed  in  1827  successor  to  Pr 
lirinkley  in  the  Andrews  chair  of  Astronomy  in 
the  university  of  Dublin,  to  which  is  attached  the 
astronomer  rov.alshi]!  of  Ireland.  This  post  he  held 
till  his  death.  In  1835  he  was  knighted  on  his 
delivering  the  address  a.s  secretary  to  the  Uritish 
Association  for  its  Dublin  meeting.  He  occupied 
for  many  years  the  post  of  president  of  the  Koyal 
Irish  Academy  ;  he  was  an  honorary  member  of 
most  of  the  great  scientific  academies  of  Europe. 
He  held  during  his  life,  not  in  Dublin  alone,  but 
in  the  worhl  of  science,  a  ])osition  as  merited  a-s 
it  was  distingtiished.  See  his  Life  by  Graves  (3 
vols.  1883-89). 

Hamilton  droiip.  a  subdivision  of  the  upper 

Devonian  strata  of  New  York. 

Hamiltonian     System.      See    H.\milton 

( J.-\ME.S  I. 

Hamlet,  the  hero  of  Shakespeare's  greatest 
tragedy,  but  whether  a  figure  originally  historical, 
mythological,  or  p.artly  both,  still  rem.ains  un- 
certain. The  legend  of  Amieth  is  fii-st  fouiul  in 
the  third  and  fourth  books  of  the  Latin  history  of 
Denmark  by  Saxo  tJramniaticus,  written  about  the 
enil  of  the  12th  century,  but  first  jirinted  at  I'aris 
in  1514.  -Vccinding  to  this  version,  tiervendill, 
the  governor  of  Jutland  under  Riirik,  king  of  Den- 
mark, leaves  two  sons,  Horvendill  and  I'l'Ugo. 
Horvendill  for  a  brave  exploit  is  rewarde<l  with  the 
hand  of  Gerutha,  Riirik's  daughter,  who  bears  him 
a  son,  Amieth.  Fengo  murders  his  brother,  and 
then  prevails  upon  (ierutha  to  marry  him  by  per- 
suading her  that  he  had  done  this  crime  nu^rely  out 
of  love  for  her.  .\mlelh  to  save  his  life  feigns 
madness,  and  is  put  to  some  strange  tests  by  his 
suspiciims  uncle.  He  is  finally  sent  to  England 
witli  two  attend.ants,  bearing  a  sealed  letter  in- 
structing the  king  to  (lut  him  to  death,  but  he  con- 
trives to  alter  the  writing  so  as  to  procure  for  (hem 
death,  and  for  himself  an  honourable  reception. 
He  next  marries  the  king's  daughter,  and  returns 
after  a  year  to  Denmark,  burns  down  the  banijuet- 
ing-hall,  together  with  its  drunken  revellers,  and 
slays  Fengo  w  ith  his  own  sword.  He  ne.xt  revisits 
England,  but,  as  his  father-in-law  and  Fengo  had 
had  a  secret  agreement  that  the  survivor  shouhl 
avenge  the  other's  death  if  caused  by  violence,  he  is 
sent  for  his  own  doom  to  Scotland  to  woo  the  queen 


r.:u 


HAMLEY 


HAMMER-PURGSTALT, 


Mprinatliriida,  wlio  lind  killed  all  former  suitors. 
IJiit  the  terrililo  queen  herself  falls  in  love  with  the 
hero,  whose  liiial  fate  is  to  fall  in  lialtle  with 
ViUletiis,  the  snecessor  of  Uliiik.  'The  interest  of 
the  sti>rv  for  students  of  Shakespeare  ends  with 
Saxo's  third  liocd<,  which  hrinys  it  down  to  the 
ileath  of  Ken^o. 

The  story  of  Hamlet  was  freelv  translated  in  the 
(ifth  volume  of  l'"ran(;ois  de  Belleforest's  lli.ttnircs 
Ti-ir/if/iies  {\iS~0),  and  a  rough  hut  literal  English 
Iraiislatiiin  of  this  exists  in  a  single  ropy  (oneo 
I'Mward  Capell's)  in  the  litirary  of  Trinity  Cdllege, 
( 'aniliridge,  entitled  T/ir  Jfi/.itnrir  of  lliimlilit 
I  London,  l(i()8:  reprinted  in  Collier's  'Shake- 
speare Ijihrarv,'  1841  ).  I*r  Latham  in  his  Dixsir/n- 
iinn.1  on  Hiiinfrt  (1S72)  contends  that  the  hero  in 
Saxo's  tliiril  hook  is  a  diH'erent  personage  from  that 
in  the  fourth,  the  former  lieing  iileiitical  with 
t)laf  Kyrre,  the  Anlaf  C'wiran  of  the  Sd.rnii 
l'liri)iiirli\  and  the  Anilaf  Cuaran  of  the  /;•/.■,■/( 
Aiiii'ils  :  the  latter,  with  the  Hygelacof  Heowulf, 
and  the  t'liocilaicus  of  tiregory  of  Tours.  Zinzow, 
Die  Jlam/elsfif/c  (1877).  For  the  whole  question, 
see  Sinirock's  Qiicllcn  ties  S/ifil.r.ipcnrc  (1870), 
Moltke's  Sliiikcxpenres  Ilrimht-Qiiclkn  (  1881 ),  ami 
Hansen's  J.cr/cnd  of  Jfamlrt  (Chicago,  1887). 

Ilamloy,  Sir  Kdward  Brite,  K.t^.B.,  lieu- 
tiMiantgcneral,  w:is  horn  at  l!»ilniiii,  '27111  Al)ril 
ISJ4,  solved  in  the  Crimea,  wjts  coniiiianilant  of 
the  stall'  college  in  1870-77.  did  delimitation  work 
on  the  Italkan  and  .Armenian  frontiers,  and  com- 
manded the  second  division  at  Tel-cl-Keliir  in  1882 
(wliere  l,oiil  W<dseley  and  he  fell  out  ).  In  I88.'i-S)2 
he  was  ( 'onserv.ative  memlier  for  liirkenheail ;  and  he 
died  Mill  August  189.3.  He  wrote  on  the  war  in  llie 
Crimea  (Sd  ed.  1891 ) ;  Wdtinqions  Ciiircr  (  1800) ; 
'J'lir  Oficiiilinus  of  IIV(r(18G0:  4lli  ed.  1878);  and 
To//'iiir  (1879) :  besides  several  clever  novels,  and 
other  works.     See  the  Life  l>y  Innes  Shand  ( 189.')). 

Ilnilllill.  II.\NXII!.\I-,  statesman,  w.as  lioni  in 
I'aii^,  Maine,  27th  August  18(19,  practised  law 
from  IS.i.'i  li>  1848,  was  speaker  of  the  Maine  house 
of  representatives  in  18.'J7-40,  and  was  returned  to 
congress  in  1842.  He  sat  in  the  United  States 
senate  .as  a  Democrat  in  ]84.8-.')7,  when  lie  was 
elected  governor  liy  the  Kepulilieans,  as  o])po.sing 
tin?  extension  of  slavery  to  new  tenitoiics.  He 
was  generally  in  the  senate  lill  his  death,  4lli  .Inly 
1891  ;  Wius  vice-president  under  Lincoln,  amli.assailor 
to  Spain,  regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
and  .'III  Lf>.  I). 

Ilailllll.  a  town  in  Westphalia,  on  the  Lippe.  25 
miles  .N  K.  of  Dortmund  liy  rail,  hius  large  metal 
indusiiics,  including  iron-foundries,  wiieworks, 
manufactories  of  ni.acliiues,  iron  furniture,  iVc. 
i'op.  (187.->)  18.904;  (1890)24,909. 

liailllllillliet.  a  jiort  of  Tunis,  on  its  own  gulf, 
30  iiiil.s  si;,  of  Tunis.      Pop.  5000. 

llaillllH'r,  a  tool  for  heating  malleable  ma- 
terials into  form  or  for  driving  nails,  wedges,  i.'i.c. 
Often  hammers  are  required  of  greater  weight 
than  a  man  can  wield,  and  a  great  variet.v  of  po«er- 
liaiiiMicrs,  ni.a.sses  of  iron  raised  by  stciiii  and 
falling  by  gravity,  are  used.  The  /iclrc  m'  shiiifjiing 
hammer,  used  for  com^jressing  the  niii.ss  of  iron 
divawn  from  the  ]inddling  furnjice,  ami  the  tilt- 
/utmmrr,  used  in  the  ni.anufacture  of  shear-steel, 
.are  iin|>ortant  examples  of  such  hammers.  The 
lirst  is  a  heavy  bar  of  cast  iron  about  ten  feet  long, 
weighing  three  or  four  tons  and  upwards,  to  which 
is  attached  .a  head  of  wrought  iron  f.aced  with  steel, 
weighing  nearly  half  a  ton  more.  It  works  ujion 
.an  .axis  .at  the  end  of  the  bar  farthest  from  the 
head,  and  is  raiseil  by  cams  attached  to  a  heavy 
wheel  set  in  motion  by  steam  or  water  power  : 
the.se  cams  strike  or  '  lick  '  a  projection  extending 


beyond  the  head,  and  thus  raise  it  about  18  or  20 
inches  at  the  rate  of  from  seventy  to  one  hundreil 
times  ]icr  minute.  The  tilt-liaminer  is  similar,  Imt 
much  lighter,  and  is  .adapted  feu- striking  above  three 
Inindii'd  blows  per  minute.  In  order  to  attain  this 
velocity  a  short  'tail'  extends  with  a  downward 
inclin.ation  beyond  the  axis,  and  the  cams  strike 
this  downwards,  and  thus  lift  the  longer  arm  of  the 
lever  to  which  the  head  is  attached.  These,  when 
worked  by  steam,  are,  of  course,  steam-hammers; 
but  when  the  term  steam-b.-immer  is  used  without 
i|Ualilicatiiin,  it  ap)dies  to  aiKillier  and  more  elab- 
orate machini'  of  very  dill'ercnt  construction.  Sec 
Sti:,\m-iiammki!. 

Ilainill4'l*r(*st.  the  most  northern  town  of 
Kuidpe,  is  situated  in  70  40'  N.  l.it.  and  'IT 'MY 
K.  long.,  (ui  the  island  of  Kvalii,  in  the  Norwegian 
province  of  Kinmark.  It  is  the  rendezvous  of  the 
lishing  lleets  of  the  Kara  Sea  and  the  waters  along 
the  Spitzbcrgen  co.asts.  It  iiiip<Mts  coal,  salt,  lieni|i, 
Hour,  ^.c.  in  exchange  for  lish  and  lish-oil,  with 
some  reindeer  hides,  eider-ilown,  and  fox-skins. 
During  the  two  summer  months  the  sun  is  con- 
tinually above  the  horizon.  The  winter  is  niilil 
enough  to  allow  of  the  Hsheries  being  carried  on. 
The  town  was  burnt,  2Ist  .Inly  1890.      I'op.  '2289. 

IlaiiiiiKT-lirad.  or  H.\mmi:r-i[i:.\i)i:i>  Sii.mik 

(Zi/iiii  ii'i ).  a  genus  of  llshcs  of  the  family  of  Sharks, 
liaving  thegeiieiiil  form  and  characters  of  the  family, 
but  distinguished  from  all  other  lislies  by  the  un- 
usual form  of  the  lie.ad,  which,  resembling  a  doiible- 
he.aded  li.amnier  laid  flat,  extends  on  both  sides  to 


%..  >■- . 

•7'r-*-                 .    ■  -., 

Rl^L  A^Tty**^     iJ^^^^M 

">*«»-:, 

^^^^^^1 

■MAb^ 

^^^^^^^1 

Hammer-head  (Zijijn na  mnii'int}. 

a  eonsiiler.able  length,  carrying  the  eyes  at  tl :ids 

of  the  l:itcral  expansions.  The  cre.sci'iit  shaped 
mouth  is  below  the  centre  of  the  head,  the  nostrils 
are  on  the  front  edge  of 
the  liea<l,  and  the  eyes 
are  covered  by  an  eyelid 
or  nictitating  membrane. 
In  young  specimens  the 
liainmer-he.adcd  shape  is 
not  so  well  developed  as 
in  .adults.  The  hammer- 
heads bring  forth  their 
young  alive.  In  one 
female,  nearly  11  feet 
long,  thirty-seven  em- 
bryos were  found.  There  are  fne  known  .species, 
all  of  them  being  most  abund.ant  in  the  tropics. 
Z.  mrilliiis.  by  f:ir  the  most  coinmon  form,  occnra 
in  nearly  all  tropical  an<l  subtropical  .seas.  In  the 
tropics  specimens  of  this  species  '  may  often  be  .sc<n 
<a.scen<ling  from  the  clear  blue  ilepths  of  the  oci-an 
like  a  great  cloud.'  Some  large  ones,  one  over  13 
feet  long,  have  been  taken  on  the  Ihitish  coasts. 

llailllllCr-PlirKStall.-I'lSEPlI,  rHKIlIKRR  vhn, 
orii'nlMJist,  "'a-  bum  at  ( Iratz,  9tli  .Inly  1774. 
studied   at   \'ienna,    and   lived   fnnii    1799    to    1800 


t'ndcr  side  of  the  head, 
showing  nioutli. 


HAMMERSMITH 


HAMPDEN 


535 


as  interpreter  at  Constantinople,  afterwards  be- 
coiiiinj;  a  court  councillor  at  Vienna.  He  was  en- 
nol>lcii  in  1835  on  succeeding  by  inheritance  to  the 
Styrian  estates  of  the  Countess  von  Pnrgstall,  the 
last  of  her  race.  He  died  at  Vienna,  SSd  November 
IS5(i.  He  had  a  wide  but  latliev  superficial  know- 
ledge of  Turkish,  Arabic,  I'ersian,  and  other  eastern 
languages,  and  his  industry  and  zeal  did  much  to 
jiusli  forward  the  good  work  of  opening  up  the 
Kast  to  the  West.  Of  his  books  may  be  named, 
in  the  region  of  history,  Ge.sr/iichte  dcr  Assassi/ieii 
(  KSIS) ;  Ueschichte  des  'Osmnti.  Reichs  (2d  ed.  183-i- 
3(i)  ;  Gcmaldesaal  Moslim.  IIerrsrher{lS:i7~:i9)  ;  Ge- 
srhiclitc  der  Ilrhanc  (1843);  Grsrk.  drr  Chanc  dcr 
KriiH  (IS.iG);  in  that  of  literary  history,  Gcsch. 
dcr  arhdiicH  Kedchiinste  Frrsirns  ( 1818)  ;  Grsrh.  der 
(l.sniii)i.  Dichthiinst  (1836-38);  Liite.ndm-fjcsrhirMe. 
drr  Araher  (1850-57).  See  Scblottniann's  Life 
( 1857 ). 

Ilaiuiuersmitll,  a  parliamentary  borough 
(since  1885)  of  Middlesex,  is  situated  on  the 
Thames.  A  suspension  bridge  was  opened  here  in 
1827,  and  a  new  one  by  Prince  Albert  Victor  in 
June  1887.  The  borough  returns  one  member  to 
parliament.  Formerly  a  detached  village,  Hammer- 
snnth  is  now  a  large  town,  and  forms  part  of  West 
London. 

Ilailllliock  (Spanish  hamaca,  a  West  Indian 
word  I,  the  apparatus  in  which  a  sailor  slings  his  bed. 
A  sailor's  hammock  consists  of  a  piece  of  hempen 
cloth  or  of  strong  netting,  aliout  6  feet  long  and  3  in 
width,  gathered  together  at  each  end,  and  hung 
to  liooks  under  the  deck.  Hammocks  of  netting 
are  often  swung  from  trees  in  jiarks  and  gardens 
as  a  plea.sant  place  for  idling  in  line  weather. 

Ilaillinoild,  Henry,  English  divine  and  con- 
troversial writer,  was  boiii  at  Chertsey,  Suriey, 
.August  18,  1605,  and  educated  at  Eton,  and 
.M:iL;clalen  College,  Oxford.  In  1633  he  was  pre- 
siMitcd  to  the  rectory  of  Pensliurst,  in  Kent,  and 
ten  J  ears  later  was  made  archdeacon  of  Chichester, 
liut  his  loyal  adhesion  to  the  cause  of  Charles  I. 
cost  liim  his  living  ;  yet  he  officiated  as  chaplain  to 
the  king  till  his  attendants  were  dismissed  in  16-t7. 
Hammond  then  returned  to  Oxford,  and  was 
chosen  sub-dean  of  Christchurch.  I)e|irived  by  the 
liarliamentary  comnussioners  in  1648,  he  shortly 
after  retired  to  Westwood  in  Worcestei'shire,  where 
he  died  April  25,  1660.  His  celebrated  work,  the 
Paraphrase  and  AtiniAatiitnson  the  Xcir  Tcst(tmcnt, 
was  published  in  1653  (new  ed.  4  vols.  1845).  His 
collei-ted  works  with  biography  were  published  in 
4  vols.  1674  84.  His  I'arwticsis  was  edited  by 
Manning  in  1S41.  The  .SV'c/hohs  were  reprinted  in 
1851,  the  Minor  Theoluf)iral  Works  in  1849,  both 
in  the  Oxford  Library  of  Atifjlo-Catholic  Theology. 
liishn^)  Fell's  Life  (1661)  is  reprinted  in  Words- 
worth s  i'cc^r.s.  Bioff.,  vol.  iv. 

Ilamoazc    See  Plymouth. 
Ilaiiiooii.    See  Seist.vn  (  L.vke  of)- 

llanipdoil.  John,  English  statesman  and 
patriot,  was  the  eldest  son  of  William  Hampden  of 
Hampden,  in  Huckinghiim,  bv  Eliz.abeth,  second 
ilaughter  of  Sir  Henry  Cromwell  of  Hinohinbrooke, 
Hiinliiigdonshire,  and  aunt  of  Oliver  Cromwell. 
He  was  born,  it  is  believed,  in  London,  in  1594. 
He  received  his  early  education  at  the  gram- 
mar-school of  Thame,  and  proceeded  in  1609  to 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  Four  years  later  he 
becaine  a  stuilent  of  the  Inner  Tennde,  London, 
liut  his  father's  death,  when  he  was  only  three  years 
of  .ige,  had  left  him  the  master  of  a  eonsiilerable 
estate,  and  he  does  not  ajipe.ar  to  have  (iractised  as 
a  barrister.  In  1619  he  married  Elizabeth  Symeon, 
a  lady  to  whom  he  was  much  attaoheil  ;  'on  a 
sudden,"   according  to   Clarendon,    "from   a  life  of 


great  pleasure  and  license,  he  retired  to  extraordin- 
ary sobriety  and  strictness,  to  a  more  reserved  and 
melancholy  society.'  But,  although  he  became  in 
all  essentials  a  Puritan,  he  never  cea.sed  to  be  a 
l>olislied  country  gentleman.  In  January  1621  he 
entereil  parliament  as  member  for  the  borough  of 
(;ram])Ound,  a  seat  which  he  subse<niently  ex- 
changeil  for  Weiidover,  and  at  once  entered  the 
ranks  of  the  parliamentai-y  oiiposition,  of  which  the 
recognised  leaders  were  Pym,  Eliot,  Oliver  St  John, 
•and  Coke.  Although  he  w.as  no  orator — it  is 
Ijelieved  that  in  the  first  five  i>arliamenls  in  which 
he  sat  he  never  opened  his  mouth — his  judgment, 
veracity,  and  high  character  secured  for  him  a 
leading  position  in  the  ranks  of  his  ]iarty.  In  1626 
lie  helped  to  prepare  the  charges  against  I'ucking- 
ham  ;  the  following  year,  having  refused  to  pay  the 
]iroportion  of  the  general  loan  which  Charles  at- 
tem])ted  to  raise  on  his  own  authority,  he  was  con- 
fined in  the  Gatehou.se  and  subsefiuently  in  Hamp- 
shire, to  be  released  on  Charles  finding  it  necessary 
to  summon  a  new  parliament.  His  leading  political 
associates  were  Pym,  whom  he  regarded  as  his 
leader  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  Sir  John 
Eliot,  who  was  his  personal  friend,  ami  after  the 
interests  of  whose  cbihlren  he  looked  at  the  time 
that  their  father  wa.s  in  prison.  When  Charles 
dissolved  parliament  in  1629,  Hampden  retired  to 
his  seat  in  IJuckinghamsbire,  and  gave  himself  up 
to  the  jdeasvires  and  duties  t)f  a  rural  life,  althojigh 
he  neglected  neither  his  friends,  his  country,  nor 
his  favourite  political  studies.  In  1634  his  wife, 
who  had  borne  him  nine  children,  died.  The  same 
year  Charles  resorted  to  the  impost  of  ship-nmney, 
as  an  evidence  of  the  right  which  he  claimed  to  tax 
the  countiT  in  any  way  he  chose,  and  although  he 
confined  its  incidence  at  first  to  London  and  the 
maritime  towns,  in  16.36  he  extended  it  to  inland 
places.  Hampden  refiLsed  to  pay  his  share  of  the 
impost,  and  in  1637  lie  Avas  prosecuted  before  the 
Court  of  Exchequer  for  non-payment.  Seven  of  the 
twelve  judges  sided  against  him,  but,  as  Mr  S.  K. 
Ganliner  ha.s  .said,  '  the  conncctiim  between  the 
rights  of  property  and  the  parliamentary  system  wivs 
firmly  established.'  The  jnosecution  also  made 
Hampden  the  most  popular  man  not  only  in  the 
ranks  of  the  parliamentary  opiiosition  but  in  Eng- 
land— a  position  which  he  never  lost,  altlumgh  he 
still  played  a  secondary  part  to  Pym  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  He  was  a  member  both  of  the  Short 
Parliament,  which  opposed  Charles  and  StraH'ord  in 
connection  with  the  war  with  Scotlaml,  and  of  the 
much  more  memorable  Long  Parliament,  for  which 
he  was  returned  by  the  electors  both  of  Wemlover 
and  of  Buckinghamshire,  although  he  elected  to  sit 
for  the  county.  He  had  indeed  not  a  little  to  do 
with  giving  this  remarkable  body  its  character,  as 
before  the  election  took  place  he  rode  fiom  county 
to  county  exhorting  the  electoi-s  to  give  their  votes 
to  men  worthy  of  their  confidence. 

Ham])den  at  once  took  a  foremost  place  in  the 
new  House.  ■  The  eyes  of  all  men  were  fixed  upon 
him,'  says  Clarendon,  '  as  their  patriw  jxitcr,  and 
the  pilot  that  must  steer  the  vessel  through  the 
tempests  and  rocks  which  threatened  it.'  He  took 
part  in  almost  all  the  leailing  transactions  of  the 
Long  Parliament,  esiiecially  in  the  .action  which 
ended  in  the  death  of  Stiallord,  although  he  seems 
to  have  lieen  ot  oi)inion  that  proceeding  by  bill  was 
unnecessary,  .and  that  the  better  coui'se  would  have 
been  to  obtain  judgment  on  the  impeachment.  Had 
the  abortive  negotiations  between  Charles  and  the 
leaders  of  the  opposition  come  to  anything,  it  Is 
understood  that  the  ]>ost  of  tutor  to  the  Prince 
of  Wales  would  lune  been  oHered  to  Hampilen. 
Still  he  h.ad  never  any  faith  in  the  king,  and 
when,  through  the  formation  of  a  jiarty  of  constitu- 
tional  rovalists  in  the  Commons  itself  with   Lord 


nSG 


HAMl'UKN 


HA  Mrs  HIRE 


Kulkland  at  its  Iioa<l,  it  seemed  not  imiiossible  tliat 
Clmrlos  would  In-  alile  to  criisli  the  lioertii's  of  liis 
comitiy,  II:ini|Mli'ii,  like  hU  relative  ('roinwell, 
inedil.Ui'il  self  exile  to  New  Kn;;lancl,  not  for  the 
lir>t  liiiu'  ill  the  eoiirse  of  liis  |piililie  life.  In  tlie 
ileliate  on  the  aililress  to  llie  kinj;.  known  its  the 
(iiaml  Keiiionstraiiee,  it  was  the  ealmiicss  of 
IlaiiiiMleii  wliieh  preventeil  the  two  parties  in  the 
House  from  li^litiii^  on  its  lloor.  He  was  one  of  the 
live  iiiemliei-s,  Charles's  attempt  to  seize  whom, 
when  enj,'a^'(^(l  in  the  discharge  of  their  parlia- 
iiieiitarv  duties  on  January  4,  1642,  precipitated 
the  Civil  War. 

Wlieii  hostilities  hroke  out,  Hampden  suh.scrihed 
L''2()ll()  to  the  puldic  service,  took  a  colonel's  com- 
mission ill  the  parliamentary  army,  and  raised  a 
iej;iiiieiit  of  iiilaiitrv  in  his  own  county  of  liuckin;;- 
liaiii.  He  atleniled  to  his  military  as  to  his  parlia- 
mi'ntary  duties  with  encr^ry  and  promptitude,  ami 
on  various  oeeitsions,  as  at  the  hattle  of  Kil;;eliill 
and  theas.sault  and  capture  of  Heading',  he  exhiliiled 
hotli  iicrsonal  luavery  and  generalship.  He  was, 
however,  placed  under  Kssex,  and  although  he  pro- 
tested against  his  chief's  hesitation,  he  was  powerless 
to  avert  its  coiisei|Uences.  He  heartily  approved  of, 
and  to  a  certain  I'xtent  aiiticipatcil.  the  suggestions 
made  hy  Croiiiwell  which  ultimately  resulted  ill 
the  eonveisioii  of  the  ]>.arliaiiieiitary  forces,  umler 
the  designation  of  the  'new  model,'  into  an  invin- 
cihle  .army.  On  the  IStli  June  1643,  while  endeav- 
ouring, on  C'halgrove  Field,  near  Thame,  to  check 
a  marauding  force  under  the  command  of  Prince 
Hupert,  he  was  struck  in  the  shoulder  liy  two  halls. 
He  W!is  iilile  to  reach  Thame,  and  there  he  lingered 
till   the  '24111.      Hampden   has  left  heliiiid   him   the 


lepiil 
urliai 


lane,  an<l  single  iiiindcd  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Long  rarlianient,  while  inferior  to  none  in  resolu- 
tion or  sincerity.  He  showed  hefore  his  death 
such  capacity  both  as  a  .statesman  and  a  solilier 
as  to  justify  .Macaulay  in  ineilicting  that  if  lie 
had  lived  he  would  have  been  the  W.ashington  of 
Knglaiul. 

The  stnnd.iril  biography  of  Hampden  is  I.,ord  Nugent' .s 
Mnnoriiih  iif  Huininloi  (1831).  Among  the  numerous 
wctrks  ill  which  lie  forms  a  prominent  figure  are  Claren- 
don's HUtorii  ../  the  RiWUiim  (1702  4);  S.  K,  Gardiner's 
Hi'*titrii  of  Knt/iaufi  and  Historif  of  tlir  (Jr((it  Civil  War 
(l.S.s:i  is;i)  ;  and  John  Korstcr's  Arrexl  of  the  Fife  Mem- 
bie.i  (l,sr>0)  and  Sir  John  Kliut  (2dcd.  1871).  See  also 
CiiILTEItx  HiLl.s  ;  and  for  reasons  fur  rejecting  the  com- 
moidy  accepted  account  of  his  death,  see  two  letters  by 
C.  H.  Firtii  in  the  Acadenii/,  November  2  \),  1880. 

Ilailipdoil,  Hksx  DrcK.soN,  theologian  and 
bishop,  was  horn  in  liarbadoes  in  170.').  studied  at 
Oriel  College,  Oxford,  taking  a  double  liist  in 
1S13,  anil  becoming  in  due  course  I-'ellow  ami  tutor 
of  lii<  college.  In  1832  his  famous  Hampton  lectures 
on  thv  Sr/i'i/ii.stir  I'liilusrjplitj  considered  ill  its  Jiela- 
tioii  to  Christian  Tlieulorm  were  by  great  part  of  the 
church  consiilered  grievously  heretical,  and  raised 
a  controversy  that  threatened  to  break  up  the 
Chnicli  of  England.  His  .successive  aiipointmcnts 
to  tlic!  iniiicipalship  of  St  Mary's  Hall  (1833),  the 
chairs  of  .Moral  I'bibisopliy  (  I8:i4  )  ami  of  Ilivinity 
(18.30).  were  denounced  alike  by  the  Kvaiigclical 
and  Hi;;li  Cliiueh  p.arties,  and  his  elevation  to  the 
see  of  Hereford  in  1S47  was  by  them  regarded  as  a 
death-blow  to  Trinitarian  religion.  Vet  I'ishop 
Hampden's  works  may  now  be  regarded  as  innocent 
and  eilifvino.  After  an  episcopate  of  studious 
<|uiet,  he  dieil  at  London,  2.3d  April  1808.  Of 
his  books  m.iy  be  named  his  Work  of  Christ  mid 
the  Spirit  (1847),  Lectures  on  Moral  I'hi/osoph;/ 
(18'>6),  .anil  Fiithrrs  of  Greek  Philnsophij  (1802). 
See  H.  H.aiiipden's  Smne  Memorirds  (1871),  and, 
for  the  Hampilen  controversy,  Stanley's  Life  of 
A  mold. 


llailipolo.  KtCH.VKD  Uni.i.K,  known  as  the 
Hi'iiiiit  of  Hanipole,  was  born  about  1290  at 
Thornton  in  Vorkshire.  Sent  to  Oxford  by  Neville, 
aridide.acon  of  lliirham,  he  made  great  progress  in  his 
studies,  .ami  at  nineteen  assunied  a  hermit's  ilie.ss, 
and  gave  his  life  entirely  to  the  austerities  of  religion 
anil  to  writing,  down  to  his  death  in  1.34!l,  when  he 
was  buried  in  the  Cistercian  nnnnery  of  Hampolc 
near  Doiicaster.  He  wrote  religious  books  both  in 
Latin  .ami  in  Knglish,  and  rendereil  the  I'salnis  into 
English  ]iidse.  His  great  work  is  I'hr  I'ricl.e  of 
Coiiseieiire  {Stiiindiis  Coiiseicittifr),  ti  poem  written 
both  ill  English  and  Latin.  The  English  version 
contains  9024  lines  on  the  instability  of  life,  death, 
purgatory,  doomsday,  the  iiaiiis  of  hell,  and  the 
joys  of  lieaven.  It  was  edited  by  I)r  Itichard 
Jlorris  in  18(53  for  the  I'liilologic-il  Society.  A 
small  collection  of  Ilanipole's  |irose  pieces  was  editeil 
by  the  Hev.  (J.  O.  IVny  for  the  Early  En-lish  Text 
Society  in  1806.  See  also  the  jiapers  by  .1.  Clliii.ann 
in  v<d.  vii.,  and  C.  Kribel  in  vol.  viii.,  of  Eiii/lische 
Stiii/icti,  and  llorstmann's  monograidi  (bsn.")). 

Ililllipslliro.  Hams,  or,  ollicially,  the  county 
of  Sor  I IIAMII  UN,  a  maritime  county  in  the  .soutli 
of  England,  is  bounded  W.  by  I)oi-set  and  Wilts, 
N.  by  Herks,  E.  by  Surrey  and  Sussex,  and  S.  by 
the  English  Channel.  The  county,  including  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  has  an  area  of  1021  .sip  in.,  or 
1,037,764  acres.  7(HI,(H)0  of  which  are  gener.allv 
under  culture.  I'op.  (  1801 )  219.290;  ( 1841 )  3.->4,682"i 
(18G1)  481,81."):  (1881)  593,40.5;  (1891)  090,(186. 
The  surface  is  iliveisilied  by  the  North  and  Smith 
Downs,  the  loftiest  jioints  iieiiig  Sidown  Hill  (940 
feet),  and,  on  the  I'.erksliire  border,  lnk]ieii  lliaeon 
(11)11  feet),  the  highest  chalk-down  in  ICnglaiid. 
The  southwestern  portion  of  the  county,  almost 
wholly  detached  from  the  iii.ain  portion  by  the  South 
amjiton  Water,  is  occupied  mainly  by  the  New 
Eorest,  92,.305  .acres  in  extent,  the  iiio]ierty  of  the 
crown.  In  the  south-east  .and  east  there  are  remains 
of  the  forests  of  Here,  Wooliner,  ami  Walthani 
Cliaee.  The  principal  livers  are  the  Test,  the 
Iteheii,  and  the  Avon,  all  (lowing  southward  ;  the 
last  named  forms  the  western  boiiiidary  of  the  New 
Eorest.  The  climate  of  the  county  is  in  general 
milil,  and  favourable  to  vegetatiiui  ;  indeed,  in  the 
.south  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  it  is  believed  to  be  milder 
than  in  any  other  jiortion  of  Creat  Ibitain.  All  the 
usual  crojis  are  ]irorluced,  the  wheat  being  especi- 
ally good  as  a  rule  :  hops  are  cultivated  ;  ami  the 
l).acon  cureil  here  is  faiiKius.  The  Downs  afl'ord 
pasturage  for  an  excellent  breed  of  sheep.  Honey 
IS  a  speciality  of  the  county.  The  manufactures 
are  inconsiilerable,  except  at  Portsmouth  and 
(Josport.  Sonthamiitim  and  Portsniouth,  both 
teriiiiiii  of  iiiiportaiit  railways,  are  the  chief  centres 
of  trade.  The  county,  exclusive  of  the  parlia- 
mentary boroughs  of  Portsmouth,  Soutliamiiton, 
Winchester,  .and  Christchurch,  and  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  returns  live  meinbers  fm-  its  live  divisions 
— North  or  Basingstoke,  West  or  Andovcr,  East  or 
Peterslield,  South  or  Eaieham,  and  New  Eorest. 
The  county  council  consists  of  100  members. 
Hampshire  is  wholly  in  the  diocese  of  Winchester. 
Towns  other  than  the  four  boroughs  are  Alder- 
shot,  .Mton,  Anilover,  I!;isingstoke,  IJishops  Wal- 
thani, liournemouth,  Eanham,  (Josport,  llavant, 
I.ymiiigton,  Peterslield,  liingwood,  Honisey,  .and 
Titelilield.  The  chief  edilices  in  the  county  po.ssc.ss- 
iiig  historical  or  architectural  interest  are  tliose  at 
Winchester  ((|. v.)  :  Porchester  Castle,  at  the  head 
of  Portsmouth  Harbour;  Carisbiooke  Castle  in 
the  Isle  of  Wight;  Calshot  ami  Hurst  Castles, 
now  occupied  as  coastgn.ard  stations,  erected  in 
the  time  of  Henry  A'lII. ;  Netley  and  Beaulieu 
Abbeys,  and  the  Priory  of  St  Denis,  all  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Southampton.  Haiii])shire  is 
exceedingly    rich    in    Koman     remains.       .\nioiig 


HAMPSHIRE    BASIN 


HAMSTER 


537 


Hiinipsliiie's  worthies  have  been  Jane  Austen, 
AValter  Besant,  Cliavles  Dickens,  'Williani  (Jilpin, 

Kflile,  Kiii^'sli-y,  Aiclitnshop  Warhani,  (lilbert 
A\'lute,  \\illiaiii  of  Wykeliani,  and  Eihvanl 
Yount;.  See  Fsi-K  OF  Wight,  New  Forest;  ami  the 
histories  by  Woodward  (1861-69)  and  Sliore  (1892). 

Ilniiipsliiro  Basin.    See  Eocene  System. 

Ilailipstead,  a  [larliamentary  borough  of 
Middlesex,  is  finely  situated  on  a  range  of  hills  4 
miles  XW.  of  London.  It  was  formerly  famous  for 
its  medicinal  springs,  and  is  still  a  favourite  place 
of  residence  and  of  holiday  resort  among  Lon- 
doners, who  are  attracted  to  it  by  the  beauty  of 
its  situation  and  the  i>urity  of  its  .air.  On  the 
summit  of  the  liill  (430  feet),  alxive  the  village, 
is  the  Heath,  which  atibrds  extensive  and  pleasant 
prospects  of  the  surrounding  country.  A  house 
on  the  Heath,  formerly  called  the  L'pper  Flask 
Inn,  and  now  a  private  residence,  was  at  one 
time  the  place  of  resort  of  the  famous  Kit-Cat 
Chib,  at  wliicli  Steele,  Addison,  Iiichardsim, 
Walpole,  and  others  used  to  assemble.  Hamp- 
stead  is  as.s<)ciated  with  many  names  in  literature 
an<l  art,  >as  tho.se  of  Pope.  Gay,  Johnson,  Akenside, 
Joanna  Haillie,  iJvron,  Constable,  Romney,  Cole- 
ridge, Ke.ats,  Shelley,  Leigh  Hunt,  and  Landseer. 
The  borough  returns  one  member.  Pop.  68,425. 
See  Howitl's  Nurtliern  Heights  of  Louduii  (1869), 
and  works  by  Loliley  (1889)  and  Baines  (1890). 

Ilailiptoil.  a  village  of  Middlesex,  on  the 
Thames,  1.5  miles  SW.  of  Lon<lon.  In  the  vicinity 
are  many  fine  mansions  and  lieautifnl  villa.s,  in- 
cluding t;arrick"s  villa.     Pop.  4776. 

H.VMI'TON  Coi:kt  P.\l.\ce,  long  a  royal  residence, 
ami  now  j)artially  occupied  by  persons  of  good 
family  in  reduced  circumstances,  stands  about  a 
ndle  from  the  village  in  the  midst  of  grounds  that 
extend  to  the  Thames.  The  original  palace  was 
erected  by  Cardinal  Wolsey,  and  by  him  presented 
( 15'26)  to  Henry  VI 11.,  who  enlarged  it  and  formeil 
around  it  a  royal  deer-park.  Here  Edward  W.  was 
bom,  his  niotlier.  Queen  Jane  Seymour,  died,  and 
Charles  I.  underwent  a  portion  of  his  confinement. 
Here  too  wiis  held  in  1604  the  famous  conference 
between  the  Ijishops  and  the  Presbyterians.  It 
continued  to  be  a  royal  residence  down  to  the  time 
of  George  II.  A  considerable  portion  of  it  was 
rebuilt  by  William  III.,  from  clesigns  by  Wren, 
and  he  also  laid  out  the  park  and  g.ardens  in  the 
formal  Dutch  style.  The  picture-gallery  contains 
several  Italian  works,  Lelv's  Beauties  of  the  Court 
of  Charles  II.,  and  valuable  specimens  of  Holbein, 
Kneller,  W(>st,  i."i:c.  The  cartoons  by  Raphael 
have  been  removed  to  the  South  Kensington 
Museum.  The  g.ardens  present  a  series  of  raised 
terraces,  fcuin.al  tlower-plots,  and  long  and  shady 
arcades,  and  have  among  other  attractions  a  '  maze  ' 
or  Labyrinth  ( q.v.).  Damage,  estimated  at  £20,000, 
was  caused  by  fire  in  November  1886.  See  Ernest 
Law,  Hrimntoii  Court  in  Tudor,  Stuart,  Orange, 
and  Guelph  Times  (3  vols.  1885-91). 

H.\MPTox  Court  Conference,  a  conference 
which  took  place  at  Hampton  Court  shortly  after 
the  accession  of  James  I.  to  the  throne  of  England, 
in  order  to  the  settlement  of  ecclesiastical  disputes. 
Of  the  divines  snmmiuied  the  representatives  of 
the  High  Church  party  were  more  numerous  than 
the  Puritans  ;  the  Puritans  were  among  the  least 
extreme  of  their  party.  Archbishop  Whitgift,  with 
eight  bishops,  six  'deans,  and  an  archdeacon, 
a])peare<l  on  the  High  Church  side;  two  Oxford 
professoi-s  of  divinity,  two  divines  from  Cam- 
luidge.  and  along  with  them  Patrick  Galloway, 
minister  of  Perth,  maintained  the  Puritan  cause. 
On  the  king's  accession  the  Puritans,  entertain- 
ing great  hopes  of  rele;ise  from  the  rigid  enforce- 
ment of  ceremonies  which  galled  their  consciences. 


and  of  the  reformation  of  abuses  in  the  church, 
had  addressed  a  petition  to  the  king,  known  as 
the  Millenary  I'rtitinn,  because  it  was  signe<l 
by  nearly  one  thousaml  ministers  in  all  parts  of 
the  country.  But  the  king's  intention  was  not 
to  comply  with  their  wishes,  and  the  Hampton 
Court  Conference  seems  to  have  Ijeen  merely  a 
device  for  making  it  apfiear  tliat  their  demands  had 
been  considered  and  found  unreasonable.  On  the 
first  day  of  the  C(mference  ( 12tli  January  1604)  the 
High  Church  representatives  alone  were  admitted 
to  the  presence  of  the  king,  who  demanded  their 
opinion,  which  they  gave  on  the  third  day  after, 
;  in  favour  of  the  existing  system  in  all  the  parts 
comjdained  of.  On  the  16th  of  January  the 
i  Puritans  were  called  to  the  king's  presence,  but 
j  along  with  them  some  of  their  opponents,  when 
James  debated  keenly  against  the  Puritans,  and, 
according  to  his  own  account  of  the  matter, 
'peppered  them  soundlv.'  On  the  18th  of  JanuaiT 
both  parties  were  called  in,  and  the  royal  judgment 
intimated,  which  was  afterwards  announced  in  a 
juoclamation  very  advei-se  to  the  Puritans.  See  S. 
R.  Gardiner's  History  of  Knglaud. 

Hampton,  a  town  and  bathing  resort  of 
Virginia,  giving  name  to  Hampton  Roads,  a 
channel  between  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  estuary 
of  .James  River.  The  town  cimtains  a  normal 
institute  for  coloured  pupils.  The  channel,  which 
is  defended  by  Fortress  Jlonroe,  was  the  scene  of 
several  naval  actions  during  the  civil  war.  Pop. 
2684. 

Hampton.  W.\de,  an  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  South  Carolina  in  17.")4,  served  in  the 
revolutionan'  war  under  Marion  and  Sumter,  was 
twice  elected  to  congress,  and  in  1809  became 
brigadier-general.  In  1813,  now  a  major-general, 
he  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  invade  Canada. 
He  afterwards  Itecame  wervlthy  by  land  specula- 
tions, and  at  his  death  in  1835  was  said  to  own 
.3000  slaves. — His  grandson,  W.VDE,  bom  in  Colum- 
bia in  1818,  was  a  state  senator  when  the  civil  war 
began.  He  raised  a  force  of  infantry,  cavalry, 
and  artillery,  known  as  '  Ham|)t<ui's  Legiim,'  and 
serveil  at  Bull  Run  and  in  the  Peninsular  cam- 
paign. As  brigadier-general,  he  commanded  a 
cavalry  force  in  the  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania 
campaigns  in  1862-()3,  and  was  severely  wounded  at 
Ciettysburg.  He  received  the  coinmaml  of  Lee's 
cavalry  in  1864,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general  ;  and  in  1S65  he  served  in  .South  Carolina 
against  Sherman.  He  was  elected  governor  of  his 
state  in  1876,  and  United  States  senator  in  1878 
and  1884. 

Hamster  (  Crirrtns ),  a  genus  of  rodent  mammals 
of  the  family  Murid.'e,  characterised  by  a  stoutish 
bmly,  short  legs  and  tail,  cheek-jiouches  reaching 
back  almost  to  the  shouldei-s,  live  toes  on  the 
hind-foot  and  four  toes  and  a  thumb-wart  on  the 
forefoot.  Two  incisor  teeth  are  present  in  each 
jaw  (as  iisu.al  in  rmlents),  the  upjier  ones  yellow 
,and  undiviiled  ;  there  are  three  molar  teeth  on 
either  siile  in  each  jaw,  which  have  true  roots,  the 
foremost  the  largest.  The  stomach  has  two  divi- 
sions, and  there  is  a  large  ca'cum.  There  are  nine 
species,  of  which  the  most  important  is  the  Common 
Hamster  (Crinliis  r«/(/'(;(.v),  distributed  from  the 
Rhine  to  the  middle  of  Siberia,  and  from  60  N. 
lat.  to  the  Caucasus.  It  is  about  1  foot  in  length 
(2  inches  being  occupied  by  the  tail,  which  is 
slightly  hairy):  yellowish  -  grav  alK>ve,  black 
below,  with  several  yellowish-wliite  patches  on 
the  side,  and  with  w  hite  feet.  It  breeds  twice  in 
the  year,  and  from  four  to  sixteen  young  are  pro- 
duced each  time,  which  are  liorii  blind.  The  males 
especially  are  very  pugnacious,  and  will  defend 
themselves  courageously  to  tlie  last  g;usp.     During 


rt38 


HANAPER    OFFICi: 


HAND 


the  winter  tlie  lianister  Iiiliematcs,  livinj;  upon  its 
store  of  fiHiiI.  Kacli  iniliviiliidl  iiinUes  ii  burrow  for 
itself,  to  which  there  is  a  vertical  I'litrance  ami  a 
slopiii;;  passa^'o  for  exit.  The  sleeping'  apartini'iit 
is  always  separate  from  the  storehouse,  of  which 
voiiii''  hamsters  onlv  make  one,  older  ones  several. 


Hamster  {Cricetus  vulgaris). 

It  lives  upon  root.s,  };rain.  ami  fruits,  but  does 
not  disilain  to  eat  frogs,  beetles,  or  worms.  During,' 
the  summer  it  lays  up  a  store  of  jrrain  and  pulse, 
which  it  cariies  home  (luring  the  night  in  its  cheek- 
pouches.  Only  the  nutritive  ]iortioTis  of  its  booty 
are  stored  up,  the  husks  and  clialf  licing  rejected  : 
sometimes  tlie  amount  of  its  hoard  will  reach  nearly 
a  liundrcdweighl.  Ilciicc  it  is  a  great  pest  to  the 
farmers  of  the  countries  in  which  it  abounds,  ami 
the  oliject  of  their  unceasing  hostility.  The  skins 
of  liamslcrs  are  of  some  value. 

llaiiapei*  Ollioe,  an  ollice  of  the  Court  of 
('liaucery.  from  which  certain  writs  were  formerly 
issued.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  f.act  that 
the  iiapers  .and  writs  used  to  be  kept  in  a  hamper 
{ill  hdnapcrio).  The  ('omptridlers  of  the  Ilanaper 
were  abolished  in  1842. 

Ilaiinil.  a  town  in  the  I'russi.nn  province  of 
IIi'ssc  Nassau,  is  situated  .at  the  conlluence  of  the 
Kirizig.and  the  .Main,  I."?  miles  E.  by  N.  of  I'rank- 
fovt  by  rail.  It  is  divideil  into  the  Old  and  the 
New  'I'own  ;  the  latter  w.as  founded  in  l")!)?  by 
Protestant  refugees  from  Holland  and  Kclgium, 
who  introduced  the  m.anufacture  of  woidlen  .and 
silk  goods,  which  still  nourishes.  The  town  of  Hanau 
stands  ]ire-emincnt  in  (Icrnumy  for  its  jewelry  and 
gold  and  silver  wares.  Besides  these  it  carries  on 
manufactures  of  carpets,  chocolate,  leather,  cards, 
iiajicr,  hats,  tob.acco,  and  gunpowder,  and  has 
breweries  .and  an  ironfoundry.  Here  the  brothers 
(Jrimin  were  born.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  the 
waleringplace  of  Wilhelnisbad.  Hanau  <latcs  as  a 
town  from  l.'tO.'j.  It  had  .a  very  ehei|ucred  history 
during  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Near  the  town 
was  fought  one  of  Napoleon's  last  b.allles  in  Oer- 
many,  O.-tober  .SO  and  'A\.  1M,'J,  when  he  defeated 
the  ."illii'd  Austrians  and  Bavarians  un<ler  Wrcde. 
Top.  (1S75)  2-2,2G!);  ( 189tt)  2o,029. 

Ilanrork.  Wisfiei^d  Scott,  a  distinguisbeil 
American  gener.al,  was  born  at  Montgomery  S(|uare, 
near  Philadelphia,  14th  Kebruary  1S24.  His  grand- 
father was  a  Scotsman,  his  father  an  attorney  of 
good  position.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1.S14.  served  with  merit  through  the  war  with 
Mexico,  and  had  reached  the  rank  of  captain  when 
the  civil  war  broke  out.  Commissioned  in  1H61 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  he  <lid  good  service 
in  organising  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  and  was 
prominent  in  the  b.attles  of  South  Mimntain  .and 
Antietam  :  .at  Kredericksburg,  .as  m.ajor-general  of 
volunteers,  he  leil  .^(Xlll  men  to  the  desperate  .assault 
on  .Miirve's  Heights  through  .a  <le.adlv  tire  from 
which  less  than  ."iOOO  came  back.  In'  .June  1863 
he  was  given  the  commanil  of  the  2d  corps.  At 
Cettysburg.  Hancock  was  in  command  until  Meade's 
arriv.al  ;  and  on  %\  .Inly  he  was  severely  wounded, 
but   remained  on   the  lield   until   the  enemy's   last 


determined  n.ssaiilt  wa.s  repulsed  by  his  corps.  In 
lS(i4  he  w.as  conspicuous  in  the  hard-fought  oattles 
of  the  Wilderness,  Spotlsylvania,  and  Cold  Harbor  ; 
at  Sjiottsylvania  he  caiiturcil  m-arly  an  entire 
division,  and  cairied  a  salient  of  lielil-works  on  the 
Confeilerate centre,  afterwards  known  as  the  'bloody 
angle,'  which,  with  the  help  of  the  (ith  corps,  he 
held  against  I.ee's  ilesperate  assaults.  For  this, 
anil  his  services  afterwards  umler  (irant,  he  w.o-s 
created  brig.Oilier-gencral  in  the  regular  army.  12th 
August  lH(i4.  His  wound  now  broke  out  again, 
anil  thereafter,  while  the  war  continued,  his  energies 
were  directed  maiidy  to  the  work  of  organisa- 
tion. In  IHtiO  he  was  promoted  to  m.ajor-general, 
and  .assigned  to  the  comm.aml  of  the  department  of 
the  Missouri,  where  be  w.as  for  a  time  employed 
against  the  Indians.  He  w.as  then  transferred  to 
the  South,  and  in  1.'<(>S  to  the  division  of  the 
.Atlantic.  To  this  post,  after  three  years'  comm.and 
in  Dakota,  be  was  restored  in  1S72,  and  hlled  it 
till  his  death.  He  was  the  Democratic  candidate 
for  the  presidency  of  the  Cnited  States  in  l.s.so,  but 
was  defeated  by  (larheld  fi].v.).  He  died  on 
(Jovernor's  Island,  in  New  York  li.arbnur,  9lli  Febru- 
ary IHSO.  (ir.ant  has  written,  '  H.ancock  sl.ands  the 
most  conspicuous  llgure  of  all  the  general  ollicers 
who  did  not  exercise  .a  separate  command.' 
.Mcf'lellan  called  him  'superb,' and  the  title  stuck 
to  him.  He  w.as  a  brave,  fearless  soldier,  ]>rompt 
in  decision,  and  skilled  to  command  ;  but  one  who 
would  rather  lead  than  send  his  troops  forward, 
.and  whose  presence  in  the  thickest  of  the  (ighl  won 
him  their  conlidenee.  See  the  Lives  bv  .luiikiu  ami 
Norton  (liSSO),  Ooodrich  (1880),  Walker  (18!M)), 
and  the  Jteiiiinisccnccs  of  him  by  his  widow  ( 1887). 
Hand.  The.  The  genus  Homo,  or  Man,  w.as 
ranked  liy  Cuvier  in  his  classilic.ation  of  mammals 
as  a  distinct  order,  Biiuana,  in  consei|uence  of  man 
lieing  the  only  .anim.al  possessing  tiro  liinids.  lie- 
cently  the  tendency  has  been  to  revert  to  the 
cia.-siliration  of  l.inuaus,  and  to  place  man  with 
all  monkeys,  lemurs,  and  bats  in  the  order  Pri- 
mates (see  BiMAN'.v,  .M.\MM.\i.l.\).  .\l  lirst  sight 
it  might  be  considered  that  the  so-called  l^ii.adru- 
i]iana  or  four-h.anded  aniin.als  (monkeys,  vV;c. )  were 
better  eqnipjied  than  tho.se  which  possess  only  two 
hands,  but  tliis  is  far  from  being  the  ease.  None  of 
the  four  h.ands  arc  adajiteil  to  the  variety  of  .actions 
which  the  human  hand  is  ca|iable  of  ]iorl"orming, 
and  they  are  all,  to  some  degree,  required  for  suii- 
port  and  locomotion  ;  so  that,  while  in  the  higher 


B      CARPAL 

eoHcs 

F  O  R  M  I  N  a 
WRIST 

METACARPAL 

BONCG 


1  t     PHALANGES 
rORMINQ     FINGERS 


Fig.  1.- 


-  Front  view  of  the  Bones  of  right  hand 
a,  radius ;  h,  ulna. 


forms  of  the  rjn.adrum.ana  the  extremities  present  an 
a)i|iroximation  in  structure  to  those  of  man,  in  the 
lower  they  gradu.ally  tend  to  resemble  the  ordin.ary 
i|U.adrupedal  type.  'That,'  says  Cuvier,  'which 
constitutes    the    hritid.    properly    so    cnlled,    is    the 


HAND 


539 


faculty  of  opposing  the  thumb  to  tlie  other  fingers, 
so  as  to  seize  upon  the  most  minute  objects — a 
faculty  wliich  is  carried  to  its  highest  degree  of 
perfection  in  man,  in  wliom  the  whole  anterior 
extremity  is  free,  and  can  he  emjiloyed  in  prehen- 
sion.' The  peculiar  prehensile  power  of  the  human 
hand  is  ehielly  dependent  u]>on  the  length,  power, 
and  mobility  of  the  thumb,  which  can  be  brought 
into  exact  ojiposition  to  the  extremities  of  all  the 
fingers,  whether  separately  or  grouped  together. 

Tlie  general  .arrangement  of  the  bones  of  the  hand 
will  be  understood  bv  a  reference  to  fig.  1. 


In  fi 
which 


the 


we  have  a  diagram  showing  the  way  in 


«D 
"0 


]0 


Fig.  2. — Diiigrani  of 
the  Bones  of  tlie 
H.ind,  with  the 
ends  of  tlie  R,i(liu.s 
and  (Una  (after 
Humphry )  : 

1,  end  of  railiiis;  2.  end 
ofulna  ;  3,  scaplioid  ;  4, 
semilunar ;  5,  cunei- 
form ;  0,  pisiform  ;  7, 
trapezium ;  8,  trape- 
zoid ;  9,  magnum  ;  10, 
unciform  ;  11,  11, 
metacarpal  bones ;  12, 
12,  first  row  of  plia- 
langes  ;  l;i,  13,  second 
row  ;  14, 14,  tliird  row  ; 
I,  tliumt):  II,  foreliiiger, 
&c. ;  V,  little  finger. 


bones  of  the  hand  are  arranged.     The 

carp.al   bones  (.S  to  10  in  the 

figure)  are  eight  in  number, 

and  are  arranged  in  the  «rist 

in    two    rows.     The   first    or 

n    n   r  n  "   "I'psr  row  consists  practically 

jV       n    n  ^  U'^    "f  t'"''^e  bones  (3,  4,  5),  the 

"0    Li  L!  D  ri"    '"'"'t''  ( "  >  ''"'"K  regarded  as 

yj  CD  tB  1 — -7      belonging  to  the  class  of  Sesa- 

r-s~\  GJ  r~^       ?"0(>/    BoHcs    (I'j.v.),    and    the 

\z "-^    @  second   row  of  four  bones  (7, 

8,  9,  10):  so  that,  excluding 
the  pisiform  bone  (6),  the 
carpal  and  the  tarsal  bones 
correspond  in  numlier.  As  we 
commonly  term  the  palm  the 
front  of  the  hand,  the  thumb 
Uecomes  conventionally  the 
outer,  .and  the  little  finger  the 
inner  digit ;  but  according  to 
the  rules  of  comparative  an- 
atomy, and  in  onler  to  com- 
pare the  liand  and  foot,  we 
ought  to  reverse  these  terms. 
The  outer  (3)  of  the  carpal 
bones  of  the  fiist  row  sup- 
ports (through  the  interven- 
tion of  7  .and  8)  the  hones  of 
the  thumb  .and  forefinger  (i 
and  II),  and  constitutes  with 
them  the  outer  division  of  the 
hand.  The  inner  (5)  of  the  carp.al  b<mes  bears 
the  little  and  the  next  (the  ring)  finger  (y  and 
IV),  and  constitutes  with  tlicni  the /»hcc  division 
of  the  hand,  while  the  middle  one  (4)  bears  the 
niiihlle  finger  (III),  and  belongs  to  the  midfUe 
division  of  the  hand.  We  likewise  .see  from  this 
figure,  and  also  from  fig.  1,  that  the  two  outer 
bones  (3  and  4)  are  connected  with  the  radius, 
while  the  inner  bime  (5)  is  connected  (indirectly 
by  a  thicU  ligament)  with  the  ulna. 

The  carpal  bones  are  so  arranged  that  the  carpus 
presents  a  dorsal  convex  surface,  upon  which  the 
tendons  of  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  fingers 
play,  and  a  palmar  concave  surface  on  which  "the 
tendons  of  the  flexcn-  muscles  lie.  The  several  bones 
are  joined  to  one  another — each  hone  being  united 
to  three  or  more  others — by  a  large  extent  of  surface, 
.and  are  girded  together  by  strong  ligamentous 
bands.  The  wrist  is  thus  as  strong  as  if  it  had 
lieen  constructed  of  one  solid  piece  of  bone,  while 
the  slight  gliding  movements  which  occur  between 
the  several  liones  give  it  an  elasticity  which  serves 
to  breaU  the  shocks  that  result  from  falls  upon  the 
haml.  The  uppeiiuost  surface  of  the  first  row  of 
carpal  biuies  is  convex,  and  this  convex  surface  is 
received  into  a  wide  cup  or  socket,  formed  by  the 
lower  articul.ar  surface  of  the  radius  and  by  a 
ligament  passing  from  that  bone  to  the  ulna,  tike 
the  gre.at  toe,  the  thumb  has  only  two  phaliinges, 
while  each  of  the  other  digits  has  three. 

For  the  ditlerent  directions  in  which  the  arm 
.and  hand  collectively  can  be  moved,  see  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  construction  and  movements  of  the 
shoulder  and  elbow  joints  at  Ari\i.      Movements 


of  the  forearm  and  hand,  to  which  there  is  virtually 
nothing  analogous  in  the  leg,  are  those  of  '  prona- 
tion .and  sujiination.'  In  promiiirm  (derived  from 
proniix,  'with  the  f.ace  downwards')  we  turn  the 
palm  of  the  liand  downwards,  as  in  picking  up 
.any  object  from  the  table;  in  supination  (derived 
from  aiijiinii.i,  'with  the  f.ace  upw.ards'),  we  turn 
the  p.alni  upw.ards,  as  for  the  purpose  of  receiving 
anything  that  may  be  )d.aced  in  it. 

These  movements  of  jinmation  .and  supination 
are  so  important  to  the  usefulness  of  the  hand 
that  we  must  notice  the  muscles  by  which  they 
are  chiefly  effected.  One  of  these  niu.scles  passes 
from  a  projecting  [irocess  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
.arm-bone  at  its  lower  end  to  the  outer  edge  of  the 
middle  of  the  r.a<lius.  Its  contraction  causes  the 
r.adius  to  roll  over,  or  in  front  of,  the  ulna.  It  thus 
pron.ates  the  h.and,  .and  is  called  a.  pronator  muscle. 
Another  crosses  from  the  front  of  the  lower  end  of 
the  ulna  to  the  corresponding  part  of  the  radius. 
Its  shape  and  its  action  are  indicated  by  the 
name  pronator  enindratiis.  Another  muscle  p.as.ses 
from  <a  projecting  process  on  the  outer  side  of 
the  arm  bone  and  from  the  outer  aspect  of  the 
ulna  to  the  outer  surface  of  the  r<adius  near  it.s 
upper  part.  It  runs  therefore  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion to  the  former  muscle,  and  produces  an  opposite 
effect,  rolling  the  r.adius  and  the  hand  back  into 
the  position  of  supination.  Hence  it  is  called  .a 
Kripinator  muscle  (see  fig.  3).  The  fourth  is  a  very 
powerful  muscle  termed  the  Biceps  (q.v.),  which 
not  only  bends  the  elbow,  but,  from  the  mode  in 
which  its  tendon  is  inserted  into  the  inner  side  of 
the  radius,  '  also  rotates  the 
radius  so  as  to  siipinate  the 
hand  ;  and  it  gives  great 
power  to  tliat  movement. 
Svhen  ^\e  turn  a  screw,  or 
drive  a  gimlet,  or  draw  a 
cork,  we  always  employ  the 
snpinati)i(j  movement  of  the 
hand  for  the  purpose :  and 
all  screws,  gimlets,  and  im- 
plements of  the  like  kind  .are 
made  to  turn  in  a  m.anner 
suited  to  that  movement  of 
the  right  hand,  because 
mechanicians  have  observed 
that  we  have  more  power  to 
supinate  the  hand  than  to 
pron.ate  it.'  Supin.atiim  can 
only  be  performed  to  its  full 
extent  by  m.an,  and  even  in 
man  it  is  not  the  natur.al  or 
habitual  position  ;  monkeys 
can  partially  effect  the  move- 
ment, .and  in  most  of  the 
lower  animals  the  part  corre- 
sponding an.atomically  to  the 
hand  is  constantly  in  a  state 
of  pron.atiim. 

'i'lie  movements  of  which 
the  band  itself,  without 
reference  to  the  arm,  are 
cajialde,  are  vei'j"  numerous, 
and  in  this  respect  differ  con- 
siderably from  the  corre- 
sponding movements  of  the 
foot.  Tims  we  can  bend  the 
fingers  down  upon  the  ]).alm, 
or  we  can  extend  them 
beyond  the  straight  line  ;  we 
can  sejiarate  them  fnun  one 
.another  to  a  considerable 
extent,  .and  we  can  close  them 
with  consider.able  force.  The  \mst  and  h.and  are 
bent  forwards  or  flexed  upon  the  forearm  by  three 
muscles    which    p.a.ss  downwards    from    the   inner 


Fig.  3.  —  Tlie  super- 
ficial Muscles  of  the 
Forearm  : 
1,  biceps ;  2,  tendon  of 
biceps ;  .^,  tlie  radial 
flexor  of  tlie  wrist ;  G, 
tlie  long  palmar  muscle, 
spreadingout(at  9)iiito 
the  imlmar  fascia  ;  s,  tlie 
uluarflexorof  the  wrist : 
10,  the  long  supinator 
muscle. 


540 


HAND 


HANDCUFFS 


coiulyle  or  expniulod  end  of  tlio  liiiiiieniR,  and  are 
teniii'd  tlu'  ntiliiil  flijiir,  the  ulnar  Jlctur,  and  tlii' 
liiiiri  piihiiiir  iiiiisi'Ics.  The  first  two  of  these 
iimseh's  are  inserted  into  wristhones  on  the  radial 
and  nhiar  siiles  respectively,  while  the  third  ex- 
pands into  a  fan  like  fn.seiii  or  niendirane  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand,  .'in<l  thus  serves  hoth  to  sMpjinrt 
the  skin  of  the  palm  and  to  )>roteet  the  nerves 
and  vessels  whieh  lie  lielowit.  I'enealh  the  jialmar 
fasi'ia  lie  two  sets  of  //(/or  musrles  iif  the  linj;ei-s, 
and  thev  present  so  heautifnl  a  meelianieal  arran^'u- 
ment  ius  to  merit  s]ieeial  notice. 

The  siiperjirini  or  /in/i/ni/al Jlrror  nniscle  passes 
down  the  front  of  the  forearm,  and  ilivides  into  four 
tendons,  which  hecome  ajiparent  after  the  removal 
of  the  palmar  fascia,  and  are  inserted  into  the  second 
]>Iialan;^cs  of  the  lingers,  each  tcMuloii  splittin;;  at  its 
terminalion,  to  fj've  passa;;e  to  the  similar  tendons 
of  till'  i/ii/i  ity prrfinifiiiij //c.rornn\svh\  which  ]),a.sses 
from  the  upper  part  of  the  ulna  to  he  inserted  into 
the  last  phalanx  of  each  linger.  This  arranj;enient 
of  the  tendons  of  the  superlicial  and  deep  llexor 
niu.scles  is  shown  in  li;;.  4.     To  tlie.se  flMor  muscles 


To  show  tlie  ]tfrri)mt.icm  i»f  one  of  tlie  tendons  of  the  sniK-r- 
fleiai  Ik-xnr  muscle  (  which  is  insort^'d  into  llie  sccoint  ph.ihinx), 
in  <ir(ler  to  alhiw  tlie  corres[Kintiini;  tendon  of  tlic  deep  Itexor 
to  i«ss  onwards  to  be  iliserte<l  in  tlic  last  i>tKiIanx. 

correspond  the  common  cxfensor  muscle  of  the 
linoers,  which,  like  the  llexors.  ilivides  into  four 
tendons,  one  for  each  linger.  Hesides  these,  there  is 
a  special  crtritstn-  of  the  index-linger,  a  series  of 
iiiii.scles  forming  the  hall  of  the  thumli,  which  move 
that  organ  in  almost  every  direction,  and  various 
small  muscles  giving  lateral  and  other  movements 
to  the  lingers. 

It  is  sulticient  to  ohserve  that  the  hand  is  very 
ri'hly  sujiplied  with  blood-vessels  and  nerves,  with- 
out entering  into  any  anatomical  details  on  these 
jioiiits.  There  is  no  [lart  of  the  hody  where  the 
sense  of  touch  is  so  acute  as  at  the  tips  of  the 
lingers;  hut  we  clefer  to  the  article  TkIch  the 
eonsiileration  of  the  .speci.al  arrangements  which 
make  this  part  of  the  haml  peculiarly  imjiortant 
in  relation  to  our  knowledge  of  external  olijeet.s. 

As  a  measuring  standard  for  the  height  of  horses  a 
hand  is  ,a  i)alm-hre.adth,  assumed  to  lie  four  inches. 
l""or  left-liandedness,  \-c.,  see  HluHT-  AXU  Left- 

IIANDEDXE.S.S. 

Our  notice  of  the  comparative  anatomy  of  the 
Koot  (q. V. )  renders  it  unnecessary  to  trace  the 
modifications  i>resented  in  the  lower  animals  by  the 
liones  corre.sponding  to  those  of  the  human  haml. 
as  the  carpal  anil  metacarpal  hones  with  their 
ph.alanges  undergo  ad.iptations  of  form  to  meet  the 
individual  wants  of  the  animal,  very  mmh  in  the 
same  manner  Jis  the  tarsal  and  metatarsal  hones 
and  their  ]ilialanges.  Thus,  the  reader  will  readily 
see  th.at  the  so  called  knee  of  the  horse,  for 
example,  is  the  carpus,  and  he  will  have  no 
<lilliculty  in  tracing  the  met;iiai]ial  li<ines  and 
]ihalangc.s.  See  Kir  Charles  Hell,  'J'/ir  Hand,  its 
Mtrliiuiinin  (I ml  Vilnl  Endovmcnts  ( Uridgewater 
Treati.se,  IS.%;  9tli  ed.  1874). 

Handcuffs,  the  instruments  used  for  securing 
prisoners  under  .arrest.  In  the  I5tli  and  I6th 
centuries  they  .are  spoken  of  as  mrircls,  mroirirlci, 
and    shdi'lclnil'ts.      tntil    within    the   latter   half   of 


tlie  19tli  century,  those  in  conmion  use  seem  to 
have  been  only  of  two  kinds— vi/.  the  rigid  or 
lignre  K  liandciiUs,  employed  chiclly  in  prisons  for 
the  punishment  or  restraint  of  refractory  or  violent 
prisonci-s,  and  the  llexihle  or  chain  handciiIVs 
used  by  the  jioliee  and  military  when  conveying 
a  pei-son  in  custody  from  one  place  to  another. 
With  the  former  the  wrists  are  so  conlined  as  to  he 
fixed  in  one  position  either  in  front  or  behind  the 
body  of  the  prisoner,  the  latter  method  being  the 
one  generally  adopted  when  they  aic  iml  mi  for 
infraction  of  iirison  legnlations.  This  punishment 
is  a  much  dieaded  one,  the  conlinement  ot  the 
wrists  together  at  the  prisoner's  back  even  for  a 
short  period  iK'ing  exceedingly  irksome  and  iinconi- 
forlable.  The  chain  li.uidciifr,  which  is  in  most 
common  use,  is  made  so  (hat,  while  ile|iiiving  the 
jirisoner  of  the  free  use  of  his  hands  and  arms, 
a  ehiinge  in  the  )iosition  of  these  to  some  extent 
is  ])ermitted,  and  the  rigidity  of  the  lignre  M  hand- 
cull's  is  avoided.  Of  recent  years  sever.il  iniprove- 
nieiits  h.ave  been  made  in  the  construction  of  the 
handcufl's.  They  are  much  lighter,  and  many  of 
them  are  now  adjustable  {ti  in  fig.).  I!y  means  of 
a  riitclirl  .arrangement  they  are  made  to  fit  any  si/e 
of  wrist,  and  the  ililllciilly  w  liich  was  foiinerly  met 
by  an  oflicer  taking  two  or  three  pairs  of  dilleient 
sizes  with  him  when  going  a  distance  to  bring  ji 
prisoner  has  thus  been  overcome.  For  the  removal 
of  gangs  of  piisoners  from  one  iirison  to  another  a 
long  chain  is  used,  running  through  and  connecting 
the  handcnU's  by  which  each  prisoner  is  .secuied. 
(iangs  of  eight  or  ten  men  aie  thus  fastc'iied  to- 
gether, the  chain  Jiassing  through  a  ring  lixcd  on 
each  haiidcuir,  and  made  fast  at  both  ends  by 
what  are  known  as  etulluehs. 

In  addition  to  the  handcun's  above  described 
there  are  .several  a])pliances,  mostly  of  recent 
invention,  which  are  employed  by  the  police  in 
securing  prisoners,  but  which  ai(^  not  known 
among  the  ollieeis  of  the  law  as  handcull's.     Thev 


Various  forms  of  Handcuffs. 

have  a  variety  of  names — such  as  simps  (h  in  fig.), 
nippers  (r  in  fig.),  ttristcrs  {d  in  fig.),  iVc.  They  are 
distinguished  from  the  handcufl's  by  the  fact  that 
they  are  intended  only  for  one  wrist,  the  other  jiart 
or  handle  being  held  by  the  oflicer  conveying  the 
|)risoner.  They  are  mostly  of  American  oiigin, 
their  chief  design  being  to  enable  an  oflfender  to  be 
instantaneously  secureil,  and  thus  pievent  attempts 
to  resist  capture.  The  siiiip  is  the  one  most  in  use 
in  (Ircat  liritain  among  detective  odicers ;  the 
smaller  loop  is  sli|)ped  on  the  wrist  of  the  oflender, 
and  the  fastening  is  snapped  into  |ilace  ami  held  in 
the  hand  of  the  detective;  in  an  emergency  this 
instrument  is  very  efi'ective  when  used  .as  a  knuckle- 
duster. In  the  I'nited  States  and  the  colonies  the 
nijtjicrs   are   recognised    .as    the  most   ellectual    for 


HANDCUFFS 


HANDEL 


541 


prompt  operation  ;  by  an  ingenious  arrange- 
ment of  the  centre-bar,  shown  in  the  tig.,  it  can 
be  instantaneously  fastened  by  one  liand  on  the 
wrist  of  an  otVenchjr.  Tlie  iirister  is  now  generally 
forbidden  in  Great  IJritain,  instances  having  arisen 
ill  which  its  application  has  been  atteniled  with 
serious  injury  to  the  prisoner ;  but  it  is  still 
frequently  used  in  some  parts  of  America  and  in 
other  countries  where  open  resistance  to  the  law 
is  of  more  fre'|uent  occurrence.  It  is  composeil 
of  a  chain  attached  to  two  handles.  The  chain  is 
put  round  tlie  wrist,  the  bandies  brought  together 
and  twisted  till  the  chain  grijis  tight  enough.  In 
cases  where  prisoners  liave  to  he  removed  who  are 
charged  with  crimes  of  a  desperate  kind,  the  culprit 
is  occasionally  .secured  by  leg-irons  (c  in  tig.)  in 
a<ldition  to  the  handcutl's,  anil  these  are  also  used 
in  convict  establishments  upon  prisoners  who  have 
shown  themselves  to  be  dangerous.  The  leg-iron 
is  fastened  al)ove  the  ankle  and  locked  by  a  key. 

llaiKlel,  (iKOUCK  KiiKDEliiCK,  born  at  Halle,  in 
Saxony,  at  Xo.  4  of  the  Grosser  Schlamm,  I*'eb- 
ruary  2.3,  1GS5.  The  tlernian  name  was  Georg 
Friedrich  Handel  (lu-onounced  Hendel);  but  he 
himself  signed  G.  I'".  Handel  to  the  end  of  his 
life.  His  father  (then  sixty- three)  was  a  sur- 
geon ;  his  mother  the  second  wife.  His  passion 
and  ability  for  music  began  from  the  first,  but 
against  his  father's  will.  At  seven  or  eight  the 
boy  was  placed  under  Zachau,  organist  at  Halle, 
and  in  about  a  year  was  writing  a  regular  composi- 
tion every  week,  besides  playing  organ,  clavier, 
violin,  and  hautboy.  In  or  about  1696  he  was  sent 
to  the  court  of  Berlin,  where  he  met  Ariosti  and 
Buononcini  the  com])osers.  In  1697  his  father  died, 
but  his  education  was  carefully  continued,  and  on 
February  10,  1702,  he  entered  the  university  of 
Halle,  and  in  tlie  same  year  became  organist  of  the 
church  at  the  Moritzburg  there.  Before  this  time 
he  was  well  known  as  a  musician.  In  1703  he  went 
to  Hamlnirg,  then  one  of  the  most  musical  towns  in 
Germany.  Here  he  played  second  violin  in  the 
opera  orchestra,  accompanied  on  the  theatre  harpsi- 
chord, made  all  the  music  and  enjoyed  all  the  life 
po.ssilile.  .\mong  musical  houses  M'hicli  he  fre- 
quented was  that  of  Sir  Cyril  Wich,  English  repre- 
sentative. In  Holy  week,  1704,  he  produced  his 
first  Fassio)!.  In  December  he  had  a  duel  with 
his  friend  Matthes<m,  nearly  fatal,  though  the  differ- 
ence was  soon  adjusted;  and  in  January  170.5, 
Ahiiira,  his  first  ojiera,  was  brought  out,  and  was 
followed  by  AVco,  F/oriiido,  and  Diijiluie — iill  in 
(ierman.  He  also  gave  innumerable  lessons,  and 
wrote  niucli  harpsichord  music.  In  the  summer  of 
1706  he  left  Hamburg,  and  in  .January  1707  we  lind 
him  at  Florence,  in  Ajiril  at  Kome,  and  in  .July 
back  at  Florence,  proclucing  Itutlrlrjo.  The  first 
three  months  of  170S  be  s|ient  at  \'enice.  and  pro- 
duced ^h/riji/iiiiit  :  thence  he  went  to  Kome  for 
another  three  months,  and  thence  to  Naples,  po.ssibly 
till  Christmas  1709 — the  whole  journey  one  cim- 
tinued  triumphal  progre.s.s,  both  in  playing  and 
composition.  He  then  returned  to  Florence,  and 
tinished  his  visit  at  Venice  in  the  middle  of  1710. 

He  returned  by  Halle  to  Hanover,  and  was  made 
Kaiiellmeister,  witli  an  income  of  l.jtJO  crowns,  and 
leave  to  travel.  Thence  he  went  by  Diisseldorf  to 
London,  where  lie  arrived  in  November  1710.  His 
tirst  ojiera,  Jiimihlo,  was  produced  at  the  (j'ueen's 
Theatre,  Haymarket,  February  24,  1711,  with  pro- 
digious success.  After  this  he  returned  to  Hanover, 
and  remained  in  Germany  till  the  autumn  of  1712, 
when  he  went  back  to  London.  That  winter  he  pro- 
duced 1/  J'listor  Fido  ami  Tcsru.  Thesjiringof  171.? 
saw  his  first  com|iosition  to  English  words,  thelirst 
BirtJiildfi  (_ld(\  and  the  Cticrht  Te  Dtii/ii.  During 
this  time  he  lived  cliielly  with  Lord  liurlingtmi  at 
his  house  in  I'iccadilly.     On  .August  1,  1714,  t^iieeii 


Anne  died,  and  on  September  18  George  I. 
arrived.  Tlie  operas  of  tiiis  year  were  .Silla  and 
Ajiiti(//ij/.  The  king  was  naturally  displeased  at 
Handel's  long  absence  from  Hanover,  and  jierhajis 
at  his  writing  a  Tc  Dcum  for  Utrecht;  but  Handel 
made  his  peace  by  the  if'atcr  Music,  written  for  a 
royal  water-party,  August  22,  171").  He  received  a 
pension  of  .i"200,  to  which  were  afterwards  added 
two  other  amounts  of  t'20O  each,  giving  him  a 
permanent  income  of  .t'O'tO,  representing  consid- 
erably more  than  the  same  sum  at  present.  In 
July  1716  he  accomp.anied  the  king  to  Hanover, 
and  returned  with  him  in  the  following  January. 
While  there  he  wrote  his  second  German  I'nasioii. 
In  171S-19  no  operas  were  performed,  and  Handel 
was  engaged  by  the  Duke  of  Cliandos  to  direct  the 
music  at  his  palace  at  Cannons,  near  Edgware. 
Here  he  wrote  the  twelve  Clutndos  Anthems  and 
two  Tc  Dunns  (in  B  flat  and  A),  Esther,  Acis  and 
(kilateit,  and  the  first  set  of  Lessons,  containing  the 
'  Harmonious  Blacksmith.' 

Ill  1720  the  Royal  Academy  was  founded  in  the 
Haymarket,  by  subscriiition  of  i'.')0,000,  'to  secure 
a  constant  supply  of  operas  by  Handel,  to  be  jier- 
fornied  under  his  direction. '  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  great  revolution  which  f<n'  a  hundred  years  and 
more  kept  English  music,  once  so  strong  in  its 
native  school,  under  the  dominion  of  foreignei'S. 
As  director,  Handel  had  been  to  Dresilen  early  in 
1719,  and  had  engaged  Senesino  and  others.  Bach 
travelled  thither  to  see  him,  but  missed  him  by  one 
day.  The  Koyal  Academy  Theatre  ojiened  April 
2,  1720,  and  Handel's  Itadiimisto  was  produced. 
Thirteen  other  operas  are  s|)read  over  the  next 
eight  years — Muzio  Seevola  (Act  .3  only  composed 
by  him),  Floridaiite,  Ottone,  Flario,  Oiidio  Cesare, 
Taniirlano,  Rodclinda,  Sciplone,  A/essandro,  Ad- 
tiirfii,  Iliecardo,  Sine,  Tolomeo.  During  this  time  he 
was  naturalised,  F'ebruarv  13,  1726.  In  June  1727 
George  II.  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  as  court 
composer  Handel  composed  Zitduk  the  Priest,  and 
three  other  anthems,  for  the  coronation.     On  June 

I,  172S,  the  theatre  clo.sed,  and,  the  money  being 
all  spent,  the  Koyal  Academy  of  Music  was  at  an 
end.  Handel  and  Heidegger  then  toijk  the  house 
on  their  own  account,  and  tshortly  after  Handel  set 
out  to  linil  singers  in  Italy.  On  June  29  he  was  at 
Halle  with  hi.s  mother,  then  sulleriiig  from  paraly- 
sis, under  which  she  lingered  till  December  27,  1730. 
The  new  venture  opened  December  2,  1729,  with 
LutKriv,  followed  by  Farteno/ic.  The  iie.xt  season 
began  November  3,  1730,  and  contained  the  new 
opera  Fvru ;  Eziv  and  Sostir/nc  followed.  This 
spring  saw  several  revivals  of  Esther,  also  two  of 
Alia  and  (liilatea.  The  season  of  1732-33  brought 
forward  Vrlainlo.  The  .speculation,  however,  was 
not  successful,  the  quarrels  with  the  singers  and 
rival  composers  were  continual,  and  the  result  was 
the  ojieniiig  of  the  'Ojiera  of  the  Nobility.'  to  which 
the  whole  com|iany  had  revolted,  in  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fielils,  December  29,  173.3.  The  struggle  was 
tremendous.  On  one  side  wa-s  H.andel  with  his 
partner  ;  on  the  other  a  company  of  rich  and 
powerful  noblemen,  with  all  the  compo.sers  that 
could  be  got  together — Buononcini,  I'orpora,  Hasse, 
and  all  the  great  singers.  Handel's  sea.soii  began 
October  30,  1733,  and  he  brought  out  Arianna. 
His  contract  for  the  King's  Theatre  ex])ired  July 
6,  1734  ;  then  began  a  .series  of  di.sastei-s  and 
worries.  The  Nobility  took  the  King's  Theatre, 
and  Handel  was  ilriven  lir.st  to  Lincoln's  Inn,  and 
then  to  Covent  (iarden,  where,  in  partnership  with 
Kich,  he  produced  six  new  opera-s,  Ariodaiite, 
Alrina,  Atalanta,  (riitstino,  Arntinio,  Berenice, 
besides  reviving  many  of  his  old   ones.     On  June 

II,  1737,  the  Nobility  retired,  with  a  loss  of 
tl2.000,  while  Handers  los.ses  hail  been  so  severe, 
including  1 10,000  of  funded  savings,  that  he  was 


642 


HANDEL 


olili<;etl  to  coinpoiintl  with  liis  creditors,  ami  ^'ive 
bills  for  a  hu>;e  aiiioiiut.  No  wonder  that  tliu 
health  of  even  his  iimssive  frame  liroke  down  ; 
paralysis  disalileil  his  right  arm,  and  his  mind  w;us 
lor  a  time  seriously  disordered.  A  visit  to  Aixla- 
I'liapelle,  and  the  stron-^est  remedies  there,  how- 
ever, restored  him,  and  hy  November  7  he  wils  baek 
in  Lomlon.  This  ended  his  career  as  coni|>oser- 
mana^'er. 

Handel's  opera  ilays  were  now  over.  True,  he 
wrote  a  few  more  for  his  old  partner  Heidegger— 
Faraiiioiit/u,  ^icrsc,  Imeiico,  and  l)ciiliiiniii :  but 
henceforward  he  was  to  tread  a  nobler  jiath.  that 
of  the  Enf,'lisli  oratono,  which  htm  rendered  liini 
immortal.  Eslhi:r  had  been  composed  before  1720, 
Dcbunilt  and  Allndin  in  173:5,  Alcriiiidrr's  feaxt  in 
173ti,  in  the  very  thick  of  his  opera  si|nabbles.  Then 
came  the  funeral  anthem  for  his  friend  t,|ueen  Caro- 
line, 'The  ways  of  Zion '  (1737),  it.self  abnost  an 
oratorio,  and  cimtainiu','  some  of  his  noblest  music. 
^iiiil  w;us  produced  early  in  1739;  Israel  in  Kijypl 
followed  in  three  months  :  then  the  Otic  for  lit 
Ceiiltti's  Uitij,  November  173'.(,  and  IS Alleijrii,  Feb- 
ruary 1740.  The  MrssUiU.  linished  September  14, 
1741,  wa-s  produced  in  Dublin,  Ajiril  13,  1742.  He 
returned  to  London  shortly  after,  and  produced 
.SV(/;i.v<(/i  (which  he  had  befrun  before  leaving'  for 
Dublin),  lus  the  leading  work  in  an  (uatorio  season 
of  twelve  night.s,  in  the  course  of  which  the  Messiah 
was  (irst  given  in  London.  The  new  style  told,  and 
he  cnjoyeil  a  sliort  time  of  prosperity.  In  1743  he 
had  a  return  of  paralysis,  and  in  1751  we  lind  him 
at  Cheltenham  drinking  its  waters.  Hut  nothing 
interferes  with  his  activity.  From  1744  to  1730 
oratorio  follows  oratorio,  like  huge  rocks  thrown 
fmth  from  a  crater.  The  DittiiKjen  Te  Dcum  and 
an  anthem,  "The  King  shall  rejoice,'  in  com- 
memoration of  the  great  victory,  were  followed 
by  Jvscj>/i,  Sciiiclc,  Jiclsltcizzar,  Hercules,  The  Oeea- 
sionctl  Urutorio,  Judas  Maeeabwus,  Alexander 
BhIus,  Joshua,  Solomon,  Susanna,  and  Theodora. 
Of  these  Judas,  written  as  a  hymn  of  triumph  on 
the  campaign  of  Culloden,  has  always  been  the 
most  pogtular. 

Handel's  music  had  now  taken  wider  posses-sion 
than  ever  of  the  public,  and  had  penetrated  to  a 
lower  stratum.  At  the  Lenten  "  Oratorios  '  nothing 
else  Wiis  done.  There,  too,  were  his  great  organ 
performances,  which  were  very  popular.  He  w,as 
probably  not  a  great  jiedalist,  but  the  spirit  and 
lire  of  his  pl.aying  must  have  been  immcn.se.  He 
has  left  eighteen  organ  concertos  to  testify  to  it. 
He  composed  for  all  occiusions.  The  AnI/ieni  for 
the  I'eare  and  the  Fireivor/.s  Music  for  the  public 
fetes  after  the  treaty  of  Ai.x-la-Chapelle  were  both 
Ills.  The  Foundling  Hospital  acquired  much 
wealth  through  his  music,  and  he  himself  maile 
nionev,  so  that  at  his  <le.ith  he  had  the  large 
sum  of  t'2(),0(MJ  in  the  funds.  Of  this  £1000  WiLs 
left  to  the  lloyiil  Society  of  Musicians. 

In  the  summer  of  17.')0  he  went  abroail,  and 
again  mis.sed  liach,  who  died  July  '2.S.  After  his 
return  he  wrote  Je/iht/iah,  his  la-st  oratorio.  His 
eyes  had  for  some  time  troubled  him,  and  in  May 
17.V2  he  was  couched,  but  with  no  succe.ss.  Hence- 
forward, with  some  slight  glimmering,  he  was 
virtually  blinil  ;  but  with  the  help  of  his  (dd  pupil, 
.lolin  Christopher  Smith,  he  continued  his  Lenten 
oratorio-concerts  to  the  enil.  His  la-st  note  w.as 
probably  a  peucil  quaver,  inserted  in  a  ()uintet  in 
Je/ililhiih.  He  died  in  his  house  (now  No.  2."))  in 
llrook  Street,  Bond  Street,  at  8  .\.M.,  Easter  Eve, 
April  14,  1759,  aged  seventy-four,  and  was  buiied 
in  Poet's  Corner,  Westminster  Abbey,  8  P.M., 
.\pril  20.  At  this  tiiue  Haydn  was  twenty-seven, 
and  Mozart  three. 

There  is  .something  expressly  English  in  Handel's 
characteristics.     His  size,  hLs  hearty  appetite,  his 


vast  productiveness,  his  domineering  temper,  his 
humour,  his  power  of  business,  are  all  i>ur  own.  So 
was  his  eye  to  the  main  chance.  When  a  friend 
picked  out  the  liest  pieces  in  one  of  his  oratorios, 
lie  said,  '  True,  they  are  the  l<e.st  ;  but  you  have  for- 
gotten the  pieces  that  are  to  make  the  money.' 
In  fact  he  i)re-eniinently  bidongs  to  En;;land.  The 
)iractical  sense  of  his  niusi<-,  and  its  close  alliance 
with  the  Bible,  joineil  to  its  lolty  imaginativeness, 
suit  the  English  public.  Its  sacred  character  anil 
its  independence  of  the  theatre  also  fall  in  with 
our  I'uritan  siiirit.  Abroad  he  is  little  known, 
and  that  mostly  as  a  curio.sity.  Hut  to  the  great 
English  public  he  is  even  still  their  meat  ami 
drink.  And  yet  on  how  slender  a  thread  does 
the  connection  hang !  But  for  the  oratorios  of 
the  Messiah  and  Israel  in  Eiiyjil  Handel's  name 
could  hardly  have  been  what  it  is  to  us.  His 
operas  scarcely  htsted  Iwyond  then"  original  produe 
tion.  When  diuliu  Cesare  wius  re\  ived  in  1787  ( the 
year  in  which  lion  (Hoeuuni  was  brought  out  in 
Vienna),  it  had  to  be  enriched  by  the  most  favourite 
songs  from  the  others,  to  make  it  go  down.  The 
Messiah,  however,  took  the  English  pi-ople  from 
the  lirst,  and  liius  gone  on  being  |)erformed  more 
and  more  till  now.  It  must  have  been  heard 
ofteiier  than  any  jday  of  Shakespeare's.  The 
revival  of  Israel  followed  in  our  own  times, 
though  its  fame  is  still  incomplete.  It  is  no 
exaijgeralion  to  say  that  these  two  works  have 
made  Handel's  name  immortal.  In  them  he 
fortunately  forgot  that  the  house  had  to  be 
tilled  ;  nothing  is  ad  ea/ilaniluui — all  is  pure 
music.  But  for  the  light  rellected  from  tiiem 
few  of  his  works  would  have  remaincil  to  the 
present  day.  The  bright  light  last  from  these  two 
niaster])ieces  illumines  a  number  of  compositions 
which  otherwise  woiilil  have  forever  reniuiiied  in 
the  dark.  More  than  this,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  enormous  spread  of  music  since  his  day  hits 
been  very  largely  due  to  the  popularity  of  the 
Messiah.  Cheap  editions  of  that  uoble  work  have 
always  led  the  van. 

It  is  unncccs,sary  to  describe  the  characteristics 
of  his  compositions,  because  every  I'.iilon  knows 
them,  or  can  know  them.  His  plagiarism  must  lie 
mentioned,  though  there  is  no  room  to  deal  with 
both  sides  of  the  subject.  His  habit  of  using^ 
almost  of  preferring — iile;is  from  strangei's  or  from 
his  own  earlier  works  Is  most  remarkable.  l'crlia]is 
this  w.is  his  own  practical  way  :  the  work  had  to 
be  done  in  the  time,  and  he  trusted  in  himself  that 
all  would  ln^  right.  I'erhaps,  too,  the  habit  came 
from  a  deeper  source  than  mere  economy.  When 
writing  the  Hallelujah  Chorus,  he  looked  up  like 
Isaiah  in  the  Temple,  ami  had  the  .same  vision.  '  I 
did  see,' .said  he,  'all  heaven  open  before  me,  and 
the  (ireal  (bid  Himself.'  This  was  the  spirit  in 
which  he  comjioscd  ;  and  to  one  so  near  the  fount 
of  inspiration  themes  or  pxs.sages  will  always  be 
subordinate  to  the  general  result,  which  in  Handel's 
ciusi-  is  pure  golil.  Sometimes  he  takes  movements 
bodily  ('Egypt  was  glad'),  but  he  oftener  adopts 
fragments  or  subject-s.  His  power  of  transforma- 
tion is  extraordinary.  He  will  take  an  ordinary 
theme  from  .some  trivial  work,  and  transmute  it 
into  an  alisolutely  immortal  monument  ( '  Hail- 
stone chorus').  On  the  other  hand  his  very- 
greatest  works  are  absolutely  his  own  ('Halle- 
lujah:' 'The  people  shall  hear,'  Ac).  And  the 
remarkable  thing  is  that  with  all  this  business- 
like procedure  the  ellect  is  .so  high,  characteristic, 
and  appropriate.  Beethoven's  juilgment  on  him 
was  jierfeclly  sound  :  '  Handel  is  the  unajiproach- 
able  master  of  all  masters  ;  go  to  him  and  learn  to 
produce  great  ellects  with  little  means.' 

Handel's  iiowers  of  work  were  enormou.s.  He 
rarely  sketched   his  pieces,   but   began   the  score 


HANDFASTING 


HANG-NESTS 


543 


at  once.  Scoring  was  a  light  matter  in  those 
days,  but  even  so  he  was  very  raiiid.  liinaldo  was 
written  in  fourteen  days,  Tanidiano  in  twenty,  the 
]\lissiiih  in  twenty-four,  ami  Israrl  in  lilleen. 

His  face  was  far  nohler  than  is  usually  supposed. 
Tile  portraits  are  mostly  poor,  and  the  gross  features 
they  give  are  ])art  of  the  iuieterale  caricature  wliicli 
jiursued  his  hgure,  his  features,  and  his  language 
through  life.  Those  who  want  to  .see  him  ;us  he 
was  should  have  a  cast  of  I'loubiliac's  head  iu 
Westminster  Abbey,  itself  taken  from  a  mould, 
and  full  of  tenderness  and  dignitj'.  His  smile  is 
saiil  by  those  who  bad  seen  it  to  have  been  heavenly, 
'like  the  sun  breaking  through  a  cloud.'  For 
English  biographies  read  liis  Memoirs  by  Main- 
waring  (1770),  and  his  Life  by  Kockstro  (1S83), 
with  a  complete  list  of  works  and  dates.  C'hrys- 
ander's  German  biography  is  invaluable,  but  un- 
linished  (vols,  i.-iii.  i856-G7).  Of  the  works  them- 
selves the  best  edition  is  that  of  Chrvsander 
(  ISJO  ct  acq.) :  with  all  |)Ossible  condensation  they 
till  uiuety-eight  vols.  The  majority  of  the  auto- 
graph ilSS.  are  at  Buckingham  Palace ;  sketches 
are  at  Cambridge  in  the  Fitzwilliam. 

The  first  Handel  Commeuioratioii  performance  was 
held  in  AVestniinster  Abbey  in  1784;  Haiulel  Festivals 
have  been  held  since  lS5i',  usually  triemiially,  at  the 
Crystal  Palace.  Handel  societies  for  the  publication  of 
Handel's  works  were  founded  in  London  in  1843,  and 
Leipzig  in  1S5G,  and  a  Handel  and  Haydn  Society  for 
lieiforniances  of  their  works  at  Boston,  U.S.,  in  1815. 

HaiKlfastiU!;  ( iu  Old  English,  merely  '  be- 
trothal ; '  A.S.  /icdu/ficstan,  '  to  pledge  one's  hand  ' ) 
was  a  custom  at  one  time  prevalent  in  Scotland,  by 
whicli  a  man  and  a  woman  entered  into  conjugal 
relations  on  the  strength  simply  of  a  verbal  con- 
tract of  marriage.  Persons  so  handfasted  were 
bound  to  each  other  for  a  twelvemonth  and  a 
day,  after  which  they  could  either  sejiarate  or  be 
formally  united  in  marriage.  The  custtun  had 
its  great  evils  in  .society,  and  the  clergy,  both  of 
the  pre-Keformation  and  the  iiost-Keformation 
churclies,  directed  many  injunctions  against  it. 
See  MoItG.\X.\TIC  .M.\RRI.VGE. 

Ilaudicapitiug  is  the  term  used  in  various 
games  and  sports  to  denote  the  placing  of  competi- 
tors, good,  bad,  and  inclitl'erent,  on  such  a  footing 
that  all  shall  have,  as  nearly  as  possible,  an  equal 
chance  of  winning.  Thus,  in  Horse-racing  (q.v.), 
when  the  speed  of  one  horse  has  been  ascertained 
to  lie  greatly  superior  to  that  of  another,  the  swifter 
of  the  two,  in  a  haudicap  race,  is  made  to  carry 
e.Ktra  weight  to  an  amount  that  shall  be  deemed 
sullicient  to  reduce  its  speed  to  a  level  with  that  of 
its  antagonist.  In  ]dgeon-shooting  from  traiis,  the 
more  skilful  the  shooter,  the  farther  back  lias  he 
to  stand  from  the  traps.  In  games  such  a.s  che.ss 
and  draughts,  certain  'men'  are  allowed  to  the 
inferior  player ;  in  billiards,  the  better  of  two 
allows  his  antagonist  a  certain  number  of  '  points  ;' 
at  cricket,  an  eleven,  such  a.s  the  eleven  of  All 
England,  Will  sometimes  play  against  twenty-two 
others,  the  (rom])etition  being  at  times  very  close. 
In  swimming  and  iu  pedestrianism,  the  inferior 
com|ii'titors  are  allowed  a  certain  '  law,'  or  start ; 
in  yachting,  the  vessel  of  greater  tonnage  is  handi- 
capiied  with  lesser  ones  by  allowing  them  e.xtra 
time  for  the  performance  of  the  race. 

Handsel  denotes  earnest-money,  or  part-i>ay- 
ment,  by  way  of  Idnding  a  bargain.  In  some  jiarts 
of  England  '  faslen-penny  '  is  used  with  the  same 
siguilication.  In  Scotland  han<lsel  jiopularly 
>iguilies  the  first  of  a  series  of  transactions  in 
Iraile,  as,  for  example,  the  first  sale  etl'ected  in 
the  day  or  week,  or  the  first  of  a  series  of  presents. 
It  is  likewi-se  emphiyed  to  signify  a  present  given, 
generally  to  a  servant  or  child,  on  the  first  Monday 
in  the  year — hence  called  Handsel  Moiulav. 


Ilaud-tl'CC  (C/wiroslcmon plcUaiiuitlcs),  a  large 
tree  of  the  natural  order  Sterculiacea-,  whicli  re- 
ceives its  name  from  the  peculiar  apjiearance  of  its 
liowers.  These  lia\e  no  corolla,  but  a  large  o-lobed, 
angular,  coloured  calyx — bright  red  witliin — from 
which  project  the  five  stamens,  united  by  their 
filaments  into  a  column,  and  separating  and  curving 
at  the  summit,  where  tliey  bear  the  anthers,  so  as 
to  have  some  resemblance  to  a  hand  or  claw.  It  is 
interesting  also  as  being  an  object  of  superstitious 
veneration  to  the  Jlexicans,  and  as  being  related 
to  the  famous  Baobab  or  Monkey-bread  (AdcDisunia 
diijitataj  of  Senegal,  Guinea,  and  other  countries 
of  that  region  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 

Haiidwritiug'.      See   AVkitisg,    Evidence, 

EXI'KRT. 

HailSJ-cllOW  (Hiiiirj-rhaii),  the  gate  of  the 
imperial  canal,  capital  of  the  Chinese  province  of 
Cheli  chiang,  and  since  the  Japanese  treaty  of 
Shimcuioseki  ( 189.5 )  a  treaty  port,  is  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Tsien-tang  in  the  Bay  of  Hang-chow,  11(1  miles 
SW.  of  Shanghai.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  Sung 
empire  of  southern  China  previous  to  its  overthrow 
by  the  Mongols,  and  was  a  splendid  oily  when 
visited  by  Marco  Polo  early  in  the  14th  century. 
The  city,  one  of  the  great  commercial,  religious, 
and  literary  centres  of  China,  has  clean,  well-paved 
streets  and  many  magnificent  temples,  is  a  prin- 
cipal seat  of  the  silk  manufacture,  of  gold  and 
silver  work,  and  is  noted  for  the  beauty  of  its 
surroundings.  From  a  remote  jieriod,  many  spots 
in  the  environs  have  lieen  the  resoit  of  iiilgrims ; 
and  here  several  thousands  of  candidates  as.semble 
every  year  for  the  public  examinations.  It  was 
formerly  a  naval  port.  The  river  is  subject  to  a 
dangerous  bore  or  eagre.  Previous  to  the  Tfiiping 
rebellion,  the  city  had  some  '2,000,000  inhabitants  ; 
but  it  was  then  (1801)  laid  in  ruins  by  the  rebels, 
and  now  contains  a  [lopulation  estimated  at  from 
400,000  to  800,000. 

Hanging.    See  Execution,  Strangulation. 

Hanging  Gardens.  The  Hanging  Gardens 
of  Babylon  were  anciently  reckoned  among  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  Their  construction  is  \ari- 
ously  ascribed  to  Queen  Semiramis  and  to  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. Diodorus  and  Stiabo  have  given  de- 
scriptions of  them.  They  are  said  to  have  formed  a 
scjuare,  with  an  area  of  nearly  four  acres,  aiul  rose 
in  terraces,  supported  on  masonry  arches,  to  a 
height  of  75  feet.  They  were  irrigated  from  a 
resei\oir  built  at  the  top,  to  which  water  was 
lifted  from  the  Eujjlirates  bv  a  screw.  Fountains 
and  bani|ueting-roonis  were  clistribnted  throughout 
the  numerous  terraces ;  groves  and  avenues  of 
trees,  as  well  as  parterres  of  liowers,  diversified  the 
scene;  whilst  the  view  of  the  city  and  neighbour- 
hood w;is  extensive  and  magnificent. 

Hang-nests  {Irtcri(hc),  a  family  of  finch-like 
pereliing  birds  peculiar  to  America,  and  widely 
distributed  over  both  continents,  though  most 
largely  re])resented  in  the  tropical  parts  of  South 
America.  They  are  often  known  as  American 
Orioles,  a  name  received  because  of  their  brilliant 
black  iind  yellow  colour,  not  from  any  connection 
with  the  ori(des  of  the  Old  World.  The  family 
includes  many  well-known  birds,  such  as  bobo- 
links, cow. birds,  grackles,  Ac,  but  the  name 
hang-nest  is  not  literally  apjilicable  to  all,  and 
most  perfectly  to  such  genera  as  Ca.ssicus  and 
<.)stinoiis  from  tropical  South  America.  The 
curious  purse  like  nests  woven  by  many  of  the.se 
birds  .ire  often  aliout  two  feel  iu  length,  anil  have 
a  hole  for  entrance  near  the  bottom,  at  one  side. 
One  of  the  best-known  species  of  hang-nest  is  the 
Baltimore  Oriole  ( q.  v. ).  The  hang-uests  are  related 
to  the  starlings  and  Weaver-birds  (q.v.)  of  the 
eastern  hemisphere. 


544 


HAN-HAI 


HANNIBAL 


llail-liai,  ail  aiK'U'iit  iliit'clnp  sini  in  central 
A>i;i.  now  ic|Mi'sonte(l  only  liy  Luke  Lohnor  (ii-v.). 
Ser  Asia.  \ HI.  1.  p.  4S0. 

llailko>V  {lliiiih'iiii),  a  liverport  of  Cliina, 
ill  till'  iHDviMoe  of  Hu-|iei,  at  the  jiinctiuii  of  the 
Ilaii  Kiver  with  the  Yan-j-t-sze,  (ilM)  iiiile.s  W. 
of  Shanghai.  Slrirlly  siieakiiij;,  Hankow  is  a 
siiliinli  lit  the  towns  of  NVii-eliaiiK  ami  llan-yuiiL', 
the  three  to^'etlier  foiiiiiii;,'  one  lnij,'e  eity.  \'e.'isels 
of  lai^;e  size  can  leaeli  li.iiikow,  the  river  heiii;,' 
naviyalile  to  the  I'ity  of  k-iiaii;;,  421)  miles  liijj;lier 
np.  Since  ISti'i  Hankow  has  lieen  open  to  forei},'n 
traile.  The  principal  article  of  export  is  tea,  of 
which  one-foiirlh  to  one  tliini  out  ol  a  total  value 
of  two  or  three  iiiillions  of  iioumls  exported  an- 
nually is  sent  to  l.omloii.  Oilier  article^  of  e.\porl 
are  silk,  oil,  ve;,'etalile  tallow,  toliacco,  hides,  nut- 
galls,  coal,  iiiiisk,  anil  wax.  The  chief  imports  are 
upiiini,  cotton,  piece-j,'oo<ls,  woollens,  metals,  siiyai , 
edilile  .seaweeil,  sapanwooil,  'llama'  hraiil,  dyes, 
matches,  kerosene  oil,  and  needles.  The  annnal 
iiii|iorts  sometimes  reach  a  value  of  over  i'(i,000,UOO, 
the  exiiorls  of  over  i'.">. 000,000.  Of  its  larye  trade 
with  the  provinces  of  the  interior  no  statistics  are 

pulilishcd.      Since  IS'.W  a  f;icat  cotto ill  with  71") 

looms  works  tweiilytwo  hours  daily,  making'  yarn 
and  cloth  from  natixecotton.  In  ISSO  a  decree  of  the 
emjieror  antlioiiseil  the  construction  of  a  railway 
from  Hankow  to  I'ekin;;,  700  miles  in  lenjitli. 
Iteliiro  the  IViipiiij;  reliellioii  the  three  cities  had 
a  population  of  over  ."i.OOO.oiio ;  it  is  now  about 
l,700,(l(Kl,  Hankow  havin;;  7"'0,000  of  these. 

Ilailloy.  a  town  of  modern  growth,  in  Stalloid- 
shire,  in  the  district  knov.n  as  the  Potteries 
((J.V.),  IS  miles  N.  of  Stallord.  It  manufactures 
china,  earthenware,  ami  encaiistii'  tiles.  In  the 
vicinity  are  coal  and  iron  mines.  Haiiley  wa-s 
constituted  a  municipal  lioroii;;h  in  1X57,  ami  a 
parliamentarv  lioroii^'h,  returning;  one  memlier, 
111  iss.-,.  I'op.  (  KS.-)1  t  •-'.'i.Sli!);  (  1S7I  )  :i!l,!)7l) :  ( I8SI  ) 
4.S,;iGl  ;  (1S9I)  r)4,H4li  :  of  parliamentary  borouyh 
{includinj;  liurslem.  i|.v.),  8G,S4.">. 

Ilaillia,  William,  the  hiofiiapher  of  f'halniei-s, 
was  liorn  in  ISOS,  the  son  of  a  tlieolo^'ical  professor 
at  r.clfast.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
Kilinliuijili,  and  was  (udained  in  IS.'i.j  to  the  Lanark 
shire  parish  of  Kast  Killiride.  He  came  out  at  the 
Disruption,  and  hecanie  in  IS.'iO  collcai,'iie  to  Dr 
lluthrie  in  rivc  St  .lolin's  Churi-h,  Kdinliiirj,'li.  He 
w;is  made  1).  1>.  hv  Kiliiihurt;h  in  l.StU,  and  rcsi;;ned 
his  church  tliroiijjli  illliealtli  in  I.Sli7,  hut  survived 
until  ISS'J.  He  edited  for  some  years  the  Xuiili 
Jiritish  Hcrictr,  and  puhlislicd  many  theological 
hooks,  of  which  perhaps  the  hest  known  is  (Jiir 
Lord's  Life  uii  Eiirth  (  l.SliO).  Well  known  works  are 
his  Miinuirs  uf  iJrCliiilnins,  his  tat  herin  law  ( 4  vols. 
184!)  52;  a  lifth,  his  correspondence,  I85;i),  and  The 
Lcllers  of  Tliumiis  ICrshiiic  of  l.iiilatlien  ( 1877-78). 

Ilailliay.  Jamk,**.  critic  ami  novelist,  w,as  horn 
at  Ounilrics,  17th  Kcliriiaiy  IS27.  A  few  years  of 
hoyhood  were  spent  ill  the  navy,  from  which  lie  wiis 
dismis.sc<l  at  eighteen  hv  a  coiirtniartial  sentence, 
afterwards  quasheil  as  irregular.  He  early  devoted 
himself  to  a  busy  life  of  letters,  linding  a  favourite 
pastime  in  the  study  of  genealoj/y,  licialdry,  the 
cla-ssies,  and  18lli-centuiy  Englisli  literature.  In 
18(50-154  he  edited  the  Ediiihiirfjli  Coiiniiil,  .and 
wa.s  afterwards  liritish  consul  at  liarcelona,  where 
he  died  suddenly,  M  .lanuarv  187,'{.  Of  lii.s  novels 
the  best  are  Siiiijldun  Foitlciioy  ( 1850)  and  Ku.stiici 
Conyers  ( 1855).  His  Lectures  on  Satire  and  Satir- 
ists (1854)  and  Essni/s  from  the  Qtiiirterlij  lievicv 
( 1861 )  show  wide  knowledge  and  line  literary  sense, 
often  expressed  in  admirably  terse  and  epigram- 
matic Knglish.  (Jther  works  were  Three  liiindred 
Years  of  a  Xorman  House — the  CJurney  f.ainily 
(18(5(5),  and  Studies  ou  Tharheray  ( 18(59). 


llaillliltaKacity  of  Missouri, on  the  Mississippi, 
here  crossed  by  all  iron  railroad  bridge.  111  miles  by 
rail  NN\\.  of  St  Louis.  The  centre  of  an  import 
ant  network  of  railways,  it  has  an  extensive  trade 
in  lumber.  Hour,  and  cattle,  and  manufactories  of 
Hour,  tobacco,  lime,  and  railroad  cars.  There  are 
coal  III iiies  close  by.  Hannibal  is  the  seat  of  a 
.Melliodi>t  .-idlege.      Top.  (IS'.M))  l'2,857. 

Hannibal  ( '  the  grace  of  liaal :'  cf.  the  Hanniil 
of  Scripture)  was  the  .son  of  the  great  Carthaginian 
general  llamilcar  liarca  (<|.v.),  and  was  born  in 
247  K.C.  It  is  said  that  in  his  ninth  year  his  father 
led  him  to  an  altar  and  baile  him  swear  eternal 
enmity  to  Iloiiie.  From  the  age  of  nine  to  eighteen 
he  was  trained  in  war  and  diplomacy  under  llamil- 
car ill  .Sjiaiii  ;  and  froiii  his  eighti'enth  to  his  twenty- 
lifth  year  he  wa.s  the  chief  agciil  in  i-ariyiiig  out  the 
plans  by  which  his  brother  in  law,  Ilasdiiibal,  ex- 
tended and  consolidated  the  Carthagiiiiun  dominion 
in  the  Peninsula.  (.)n  the  death  of  Ilusdriibal  in 
221  II. r.,  the  .soldiers  with  one  voice  chose  Hannibal, 
then  in  his  twenty-sixth  year,  lus  their  general. 
Forthwith  he  crossed  the  Tagiis,  and  in  two  years 
reduced  ,-ill  Spain  up  to  the  Kbro,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  ( lieek  colony  of  Saguntiim.  That  low  n, 
which  claimed  the  protection  of  Home,  fell  in  218 
Il.f.,  and  the  Secoml  Punic  war,  or  as  the  liomans 
justly  called  it,  'the  War  of  Hannibal,'  began, 
(i.irrisoning  Libya  with  Spaniards,  and  Spain  with 
Libyans  (a  precaution  against  treachery  i,  Hannibal 
set  out  on  his  iiianh  for  Rome.  In  the  summer  of 
218  I!.C.  he  left  New  (_ailhage  with  90,000  foot, 
12,000  horse,  ami  37  elephants,  cros.sed  the  Pyrenees, 
and  gained  the  Klione,  where  his  passage  wa.s  barrecl 
by  a  host  of  (lauls.  The  general  thereupon  sent 
part  of  his  troops  two  days'  journey  up-stream,  with 
ordei's  to  cross  the  Ithone  and  fall  on  the  rear  of  the 
barbarians.  His  orders  were  executed  by  Haiino, 
and  the  pa.ssage  of  the  river  wius  safely  etlecled. 
He  crossed  the  Alps  in  lifteen  days,  in  the  face  of 
obstacles  which  would  have  proved  insuperable  to 
almost  any  other  eonimander.  His  troops,  reared 
under  African  and  Spanish  suns,  perished  in  thou- 
sands amid  ice  ami  snow.  The  native  tribes  threat- 
ened the  annihilation  of  his  force,  and  were  only 
dispersed  by  his  matchless  courage  and  address. 
The  lieasts  of  burden  fell  over  picciiiices  or  stuck 
fast  anil  were  frozen  to  death.  in  places,  rocks 
had  to  be  shattered  ami  roads  constructed  to  enable 
the  men  to  creep  loiiml  pioiecting  crags.  When  he 
gained  the  valley  of  Aosia,  Hannibal  had  but  20,000 
foot  and  (iOOO  horse  to  attempt  the  coni|iiest  of  a 
power  which  had  lately  show  ii  that  she  could  put 
an  army  of  170,000  uiirivalleil  soldiers  iiilo  the  lield. 
After  allowing  his  men  to  reciuil  in  the  villages 
of  the  fiieiiilly  Iiisubres,  he  overcame  the  Taiirini, 
besieging  and  taking  Turin,  and  forced  the  Lignrian 
and  Celtic  tribi's  on  the  I'pper  Po  to  serve  in  his 
army.  At  the  Ticinus,  a  stream  which  enters  the 
Po  near  Pavia,  he  enconiiteicd  the  liomaiis  under 
Scipiii.  The  cavalry  of  both  armies  joined  battle, 
Hannibars  Niiiiiidian  horse  proved  their  suiierioritv, 
and  Scipio  fell  back  beyonil  the  Po.  The  Cartha- 
gini.ans  crossed  the  river,  and  the  liiTst  great  battle 
of  the  campaign  was  fought  in  tli(>  plain  of  the 
Trebia.  Placing  .Mago  in  aiiibiish  with  2000  men, 
Hannibal  enticed  the  Komaiis  across  the  stream. 
His  light  troops  retired  bifoic  ihc  legionaries,  and 
as  Scipio  was  pressing  on  to  fancied  victory  he  wiu* 
taken  in  Hank  by  the  terrible  Niiniidian  horse,  Majjo 
came  down  in  the  rear,  and  the  40,000  men  of  tlie 
consular  army  were  either  cut  to  pieces  or  scattered 
in  Higlit.  Wintering  in  the  valley  of  the  Po, 
in  the  early  spring  Hannibal  cros.sed  the  Apen- 
nines and  puslicil  through  a  region  of  lalics. 
Hooded  by  the  melting  of  the  snows,  to  l''asiil;i-. 
The  beasts  of  burden  perished  in  vast  numbers 
amid   the   mora-sses ;    the   (-lauls,   disheartened    by 


HANNIBAL 


545 


the  jierils  of  the  journey,  IiaJ  to  be  driven 
forward  by  Mago's  horsemen,  and  the  general 
lost  an  eye.  tjuitting  P'trsuhf,  Hannibal  wasted 
Etruiia  with  fire  and  sword,  and  marched  towards 
Rome,  leaving  bchiml  him  two  consular  armies  of 
60,0(10  men.  He  awaited  tlie  consul  Flaminius  by 
the  I.ake  Trasimene,  where  tlie  hills,  retiring  in  a 
semicircle  from  the  shore,  enclose  a  plain  entered 
by  two  n.arrow  parses.  Concealing  the  main  body 
of  his  ,arniy  amid  the  hills,  he  placed  his  Nnmidians 
in  ambush  at  the  pass  by  which  the  Konians  must 
enter  ;  while  he  stationed  part  of  his  infantry  in  a 
conspicuous  position  near  the  other  defile.  The 
Romans  pushed  into  the  valley  ;  the  pass  in  their 
rear  was  secured  by  the  Carthaginians  who  had  lain 
in  ambush ;  Hannibal's  men  charged  fiom  the 
heights,  and  the  .army  of  Flaminius  was  annihilated. 
Six  thousand  infantry  cut  their  way  through  the 
farther  pass,  but  these  were  overtaken  by  the  horse 
uniler  Alaherbal  and  fenced  to  yield  on  the  following 
day. 

After  recruiting  his  men  in  the  champaign  covintry 
of  Picenum,  where  the  Numidian  hor.ses,  we  are 
told,  w'ere  groomed  with  old  Halian  wine,  Hanni- 
bal marched  through  Apulia  and  ravaged  Campania, 
dogged  by  the  dictator  Quintus  Fabius  Maximus, 
whom  he  vainly  emleavoured  to  entice  into  an 
engagement.  He  wintered  at  Gerontium,  and  in 
the  spring  took  up  a  position  at  (/anna-  on  the 
Aufidus.  A  Roman  .army  of  80,000  men,  under  the 
consuls  L.  .-Einilius  Panlus  anil  P.  Terentius  Varro, 
marched  .against  him.  H.annibal  Hung  his  troops 
(he  had  but  30,000)  into  a  space  enclo.sed  on  the 
rear  and  wings  by  a  loop  of  the  river.  He  placed 
his  Siianish  infantry  in  tlie  centre,  with  the  African 
foot  on  citlier  ll.mk.  His  Numidian  horse,  now 
reduceil  to  '2000  men,  he  posted  on  the  right  wing  ; 
while  Hasdrulial,  with  8000  heavy  cavalry,  was 
oppo.sed  to  the  Roman  cav.alry  on  the  left.  The 
legionaries  pressed  into  the  loop,  and  Hannibal 
drew  li.ack  his  centre  before  them.  Ha.s(lrulial  on 
the  left  broke  the  Roman  cavalry,  swejit  round  to 
the  left  wing  of  the  Romans,  drove  the  second 
detachment  of  Roman  horse  into  flight,  and  then 
came  thundering  in  the  re.ar  of  the  legionaries.  The 
Libyairs,  who  had  by  the  general's  orders  fallen 
back  as  the  Piomans  presseil  after  the  retiring 
Spanisli  infantry,  now  closed  on  the  enemy's  flanks. 
Packed  together  so  closely  that  they  could  not  use 
their  weapons,  assailed  in  front.  Hank,  an<l  rear, 
the  legionaries  were  hewn  down  through  eight 
hours  of  carnage  till  .30,000  lay  dead  on  the  lield. 
The  battle  became  a  butchery.  Nearly  '20,000  men 
were  taken  prisoners.  The  consul  P.aulus,  the  pro- 
consul Servilius,  the  master  of  the  horse  JUnucius, 
21  military  tribunes,  ami  60  senatoi's  lay  ,amid  the 
slain.  On  his  side  Hannibal  lo.st  but  .ITOO  men. 
'Sen<l  me  on  with  the  horse,  general,'  said  Maher- 
bal,  'and  in  live  days  tlumshalt  su])  in  the  Capitol.' 

Hut  the  general  was  wiser  than  the  Hery  captain 
of  the  horse.  It  has  been  connnon  to  censure 
Hannibal  for  neglecting  to  march  on  Riune  after 
the  battle  of  Canna'.  Rut  his  dazzling  triumph  did 
not  for  ,a  moment  unsettle  his  clear  judgment.  He 
knew  that  his  forces  were  unei|ual  to  the  t.ask  of 
stoiining  a  walled  city  garrisoncil  by  a  jiopulation 
of  lighting  men.  An  attack  which  he  had  maile  on 
S]iolctiuiu  had  proved  the  in.adecpiacy  of  the  small 
Carthagini.-in  army  to  carry  a  strongly  fortilied 
town.  Had  he  followeil  the  advice  of  .Maherbal,  he 
would,  in  all  likelihood,  have  dashed  his  army  to 
l)ieces  against  the  walls  of  Rome.  His  aim  was  to 
ilcstroy  the  common  oppressor  by  raising  the  Italian 
allies  against  her  ;  and  the  hope  was  partly  justilied 
by  the  revolt  of  Lucania  and  Rruttium.  Samnium 
and  Ajiulia.  The  soundness  of  judgment,  the 
patience  and  self-control  which  he  evinceil  in  this 
hour  of  intoxicating  success  are  hardly  les.s  mar- 
•243 


vellous  than  the  genius  by  which  the  succe.ss  had 
been  won.  After  the  battle  of  Cann;e  the  character 
of  the  war  changes.  Hitherto  Hannibal  had  swept 
everything  before  him.  Rivers  and  mountains  and 
mora.sses  liail  been  powerless  to  thwart  his  jirogress. 
Army  after  army,  vastly  .superior  in  numliers  and 
composed  of  the  best  fighting  men  the  ancient 
world  oversaw,  had  come  against  him  to  be  broken, 
scattered,  and  destroyed.  His  career  thnmgh  Italy 
had  been,  in  the  wonls  of  Horace,  as  the  rush  of 
the  flames  through  a  forest  of  [lines.  But  after 
Cann:e  the  tide  turned.  His  niggardly,  short-sighted 
countryn>en  denied  him  the  support  without  which 
success  w.as  impossible.  As  his  veterans  were  lost 
to  him  he  ha<l  no  means  of  tilling  their  idaces,  while 
the  Romans  could  put  army  after  army  into  the 
field.  Rut  through  the  long  years  during  wliieh  he 
maintained  a  hopeless  struggle  in  Italy  he  was  never 
defeated.  Nor  did  one  of  his  veterans  desert  him  ; 
never  was  there  a  murmur  of  ilisallection  in  his 
camp.  It  has  been  well  said  that  his  victories  over 
his  motley  followers  were  hardly  less  wcmderful 
than  his  victories  over  nature  ami  over  Rome. 

Hannibal  spent  the  winter  of  216-21.5  B.C.  at 
Capua,  where  his  men  are  said  to  have  been 
demoralised  by  luxurious  living.  When  he  again 
took  the  lield  the  Romans  wisely  avoided  a,  pitched 
battle,  though  the  Carthaginians  overr.an  Italy, 
caiituriiig  Locri,  Thurii,  Metapontum,  Tarenlum, 
and  otlier  towns.  In  211  n.v.  he  marched  on 
Rome,  rode  up  to  the  Colline  gate,  and,  it  is 
said,  tlung  his  spear  over  the  walls.  Rut  tlie  fall 
of  Capua  smote  the  Italian  allies  with  dismay, 
and  ruined  his  hopes  of  recruiting  his  ever- 
diminishing  forces  from  their  ranks.  In  210 
n.c.  he  overcame  the  pra-tor  Fulvius  at  Herdonea, 
and  in  the  following  year  gained  two  battles 
in  Apulia.  Thereafter,  he  fell  uiion  the  con.suls 
Crisjiinus  and  Marcelhis,  both  of  whom  were 
slain  and  their  forces  routed,  while  he  almost 
annihilated  the  Roman  army  which  was  besieging 
Locri.  In  '207  B.C.  his  brother  Hasdrubal  maicheil 
from  Spain  to  his  aid,  but  \ias  surprised,  defe.-ited, 
and  slain  at  the  Metauius  by  the  consul  Nero, 
liy  the  barbarous  emnmands  of  Nero,  Hasdrubal's 
head  was  Hung  into  the  camp  of  Hannibal,  who 
bad  been  till  then  in  ignorance  of  his  brother's 
doom.  The  battle  of  tlie  Metaurus  sealed  the 
f.ate  of  '  the  lion's  brood  ' — of  the  great  house  of 
Hamilcar.  But  for  four  years  Hannibal  stood  at 
bay  in  the  hill-country  of  Bruttium,  defying  with 
his  thinned  army  every  general  who  was  sent 
.against  him,  till  in  '202  B.C.,  after  an  absence  of 
fifteen  years,  he  was  recalled  to  Africa  to  repel 
the  Roman  invasion.  In  the  same  year  he  met 
Scipio  at  Zama ;  his  raw  levies  fled,  and  in  part 
went  over  to  the  enemy  ;  his  veterans  were  cut 
to  pieces  where  they  stood,  and  Carth.age  was  at 
the  mercy  of  Rome.  So  ended  the  Secoml  Punic 
w.ar — the  war,  as  Arnold  so  truly  .said,  of  ,a  man 
with  a  nation,  and  the  war  which  is  perhaps  the 
most  wonderful  in  all  history.  Three  hundred 
thousand  Italians  had  fallen,  and  three  hundred 
towns  liad  been  destroyed  in  the  struggle. 

Peace  being  made.  Hannibal  turneil  his  genius 
to  political  toils.  He  amended  the  constitution, 
cut  down  the  power  of  the  ignoble  oligarchy, 
checked  corniiition,  and  placed  the  city's  finances 
on  a  sounder  tooting.  The  enemies  whom  he  made 
by  his  reforms  ilenouneed  him  to  the  R<unans,  and 
the  Romans  demandeil  that  he  should  be  sur- 
rendered into  their  hands.  Sotting  (Uit  .as  a  volun- 
tary exile,  llannilial  visited  Tyre,  the  mother-city 
of  Cartilage,  and  then  bcto<di  him.self  to  the  court 
of  Antioclius  at  Fphesus.  He  was  well  received 
by  the  king,  who  nevertheless  rejected  his  advice 
to  carry  the  w.ar  with  Rome  into  Italy.  On  the 
conclusion  of  peace,  to  avoid  being  given  up  to  the 


5-i6 


iiannin(;T(»n 


HANOVER 


RoinaiiR,  lie  reimired  to  I'rusiius,  kinf;  of  Ititliynia, 
for  wlioin  lie  ■;aiiii'il  a  luival  victory  over  tlie  kiii^ 
of  lVr;,'aiiiiis.  Tin'  Hoiiians  ii;,'aiii  ilomaiuliii;:  tlial 
li(>  should  lie  surri'iuU'rcd,  lie  l>allU'<l  liis  eueiiiios  liy 
takin^X  poison,  wliioti.  we  are  told,  he  carried  ahout 
with  him  in  a  riii^;,  and  died  at  Lihyssa  about  the 
year  Is;!  ii.c. 

In  jniljrin';  of  the  oliaracter  and  achievements  of 
Hannihal,  it  must  never  lie  foi;,'otten  that  for  all 
that  »e  know  of  him  we  are  iiidehted  to  his  iiii- 
]il.vc.ilile  eiuMiiies.  No  ('ar(h,i;;iiiian  record  of  that 
astounding  career  hits  come  down  to  us.  The 
Hoiiians  did  all  that  unscriijmlons  niali^rnity  can 
to  lilacken  the  fame  and  lielittle  the  deeds  of  the 
most  terrilile  of  their  foes.  Yet,  tliouj.;li  calumny 
has  done  its  liitterest  a;.'ainst  him,  Hannilial  not 
only  dazzle.s  the  im.i;;ination  hut  takes  captive 
the  heart.  He  stands  out  a-s  the  incarnation  of 
ma).'iianimity  anil  jiatriotism  and  sell' sacrilicinj,' 
heroism,  no  less  tlian  of  incomparahle  military 
};enius.  Napoleon,  the  only  jreneial  who  could 
plausilily  challen^'c  the  Cartliaj.'inian"s  supremacy, 
had  throu^'hout  the  ^treater  part  of  his  career  an 
imnieMse  superiority  to  his  adversaries  in  the 
<|uality  of  the  forces  which  he  wielded.  He  had 
the  cntliusia-m  of  the  lievoliition  heliind  him, 
and  he  w.as  unham]iei'ed  liy  authorities  at  home. 
Hannihal,  on  the  contrary,  saw  his  jilans  thwarted 
and  linally  wrecked  hy  the  sordid  tuerchantnidiles 
of  the  city  he  strove  so  hard  to  save.  He  had 
not,  like  Alexander,  to  lead  iiicked  troops  ajiainst 
elfeminate  Asiatics.  He  hail  to  mould  his  little 
■army  out  of  raw  and  liarliarous  levies.  He  had 
no  reinforcements  to  fall  hack  on.  With  a  motley 
army  of  Libyans,  Cauls,  and  Spaniards  he  ha«I  to 
encounter  a  nation  in  arms— a  nation  of  the 
stoutest  and  most  hinhlytr.ained  warriors  of  ancient 
times.  There  is  not  in  all  historj-  so  wonderful 
an  examjile  of  what  a  sinj,'le  man  of  j,'enius  may 
achieve  against  the  most  tremendous  odds  ivs  the 
stoiy  of  the  riiienician  hero — the  t;reatest  captain 
that  the  world  ha.s  seen.  See  Bosworth  Smith's 
Cuitliage  unii  the  C<irt/i(if)iniiiiis  (1879);  Henne- 
hert's  Ilistuiic  (tAntiUial  (ISTO  !)i)  :  Dod};e"s  Han- 
nibal (1891 ) ;  ami  works  cited  at  Carthage. 

Ilnilllilistoil,  Jame.s,  lirst  Bishop  of  Ea.stern 
F.i|ualiiri.il  Africa,  liorn  3d  September  184",  at 
Hurstpierpoinl  in  Sussex,  became  a  student  of 
St  Mary  Hall.  (Ixfonl,  in  IStiS,  and  wa.s  ordained 
in  IST.").  In  ISS-2,  alter  seven  years'  earnest  labour 
in  his  native  parish,  he  volunteered  for  missionary 
work  in  Africa,  and  was  sent  out  by  the  C'huicu 
Missionary  Society  to  reinforce  their  missionaries 
in  r^anda.  But  his  health  broke  down  when  he 
reached  Kajjei,  on  the  south  shore  of  Victoria 
Nyanza,  and  he  wa.s  obli^jed  to  return  home  to 
Kn;;lanil.  His  health  iniprovinj;,  he  was,  on  24th 
June  1SS4,  consecrated  Bishop  of  Eastern  Ki|ua- 
torial  -Africa,  and  in  the  foUowinj;  .January  entered 
his  new  diocese,  t-aking  up  his  ijuartei-s  at  Krere 
Town,  near  Momb.-usa.  In  July  188.')  lie  started 
once  again  for  the  interior,  the  object  of  his 
journe.v  being  to  re.acli  the  mission-station  of 
Kuliaga,  in  Uganda.  liut,  after  successfully  sur- 
mounting the  dilliculties  and  dan(,'ei-s  of  the  mail 
through  the  land  of  the  Miusai,  he  was  slain  by 
order  of  Mwanga,  king  of  I'ganda,  on  ■29th  October 
188.'),  at  a  place  not  far  from  the  right  bank  of  the 
Nile.  See  his  Life  by  Dawson  ( 1887)  and  his  Last 
Journals  {eA\t.Pi\  in  1888). 

Ilaiino,  a  name  Uirne  by  a  number  of  Cartha- 
ginian admirals  and  soldiei-s,  one  of  whom  w.os 
defeated  by  the  Romans  in  the  sea-fight  of  F>no- 
mus  in  2.")(i  n.c.  Another  Hanno,  surnamed  the 
Great,  w,a.s  the  leader  of  the  |ieace  jiarty  who 
opposed  the  patriotic  partv  headed  by  Haniilcar 
Barca.  during  the  interval  Yietween  the   First  and 


the  Second  Punic  war.  When  the  Carthaginian 
mercenaries  revolted  in  241  n.C.  Hanno  was 
appointed  to  reiluce  them  to  submission.  He 
proved  a  thoroughly  incapable  general,  and  the 
tiusk  in  which  he  had  failed  was  discharged  by 
Haniilcar  Barca. 

Ilsilllio.  a  king  or  magistrate  of  Carthage  who 
nihil  Hook  a  celebrated  voyage  of  discovery  along 
the  west  coast  of  Africa.  His  ex]ieililion  is  .said  to 
have  consisteil  of  sixty  .ships  ;  he  founded  numer- 
ous colonies  or  trading-stations,  and  jiroceeded  .ts 
far  .south  .OS  a  imiiit  that  has  been  variously  identi- 
fied with  places  between  Cape  Nun  and  the  I'.ight 
of  Benin.  On  his  retuni  to  Carthage  he  inscribed 
an  account  of  his  voyage  on  a  tablet,  and  jilaced  it 
in  the  teiii]ile  of  Moloch.  It  .seems  to  have  been 
written  in  the  Punic  language  ;  the  version  of  it 
which  remains,  entitled  the  T'eiinliis  nf  lliniiiu,  is 
only  .a  Creek  translation.  The  date  of  the  voyagn 
li.as  been  lussigned  to  ilid'erent  periods  between 
570  n.c.  and  470  n.C,  and  the  idenlilic.ation  of  the 
author  of  it  lias  been  also  a  subject  for  dispute. 
For  .a  full  discussion  consult  DodwelVs  Dissertations, 
prefixed  to  Hudson's  dcuri.  ]'et.  Sirijitorrs  I  Ki'JH) ; 
Bougainville's,  Vivien  de  St  Martin's,  and  Tauxier's 
Es.says,  Falconer's  English  translation  (  1797  i.  and 
Mer's  Mritioirc  sitr  Ic  I'erijilc  (/'JJamiiiii  { ISS.")). 

llil-lloi<  the  capital  of  Tong  king,  and  liead- 
f|U,uteis  iif  the  French  administi.ation,  on  the  left 
bank  of  till'  Song  coi  or  Iti'd  Kiver,  SO  miles  in  a 
direct  line  from  the  sea.  The  commercial  city  has 
a  riverfront  of  a  mile  and  a  half;  the  citadel  be- 
hind contains  within  its  walls  most  of  the  ollicial 
buildings.  Embroidery  and  wiuk  in  molherof. 
jiearl  are  the  chief  local  industries.     Pop.  KKt.dOO. 

IljIIIOVOr  ( Cer.  Hainio'm),  formerly  a  kiiiiidom 
of  iioithern  Cermaiiy,  but  since  18(i()  incorporated 
with  Prussia.  Area  of  the  Prussi.an  province,  14.s.'j;t 
s(|,  m.,  or  nearly  twice  the  size  of  Wales;  ]iop. 
(1871  )  1,903,080  :"(18Sj)  2,1 72,702:  ( 1890)  2.27S,3()1, 
mainly  Lutherans,  with  280,0(X)  Catholics,  and 
1(5,000  .Jew.s.  Except  in  the  .south,  where  the 
Harz  Mountains  (fi.v. )  attain  a  maximum  allitinle 
in  Hanover  of  .'{0.37  feet,  the  surface  belongs  to  the 
great  north  (Jernian  plain,  and  is  divcisilied  by 
miH>rs  and  heaths,  notably  the  extensive  Liinebuig 
Heath.  It  is  watereil  by  the  Elbe,  Weser,  Ems, 
ami  their  tributaries.  The  peo]de  carry  on  mining 
in  the  Harz,  cattle-bree<ling  on  the  niaivhes  anil 
he.aths,  agriculture  in  the  more  fertile  regions,  and 
seafaring  pui'suits  on  the  coast.  The  weaving  of 
linen,  clotli,  and  cotton,  the  working  of  iron  and 
other  metals,  gla-ss,  ]iaper,  anil  pottery  making, 
and  bleaching,  count  .amongst  the  more  important 
industries.  The  mining  priHiucts  are  very  various, 
and  include  iron,  silver,  zinc,  lead,  co)iper,  coal, 
salt,  petroleum,  and  turf.  Bees  .are  kept  in  the 
Liinebuig  Heath  ;  Nordeniey  and  Borkuni  { islands  ) 
are  much  freijuented  as  se.a.si«le  resorts,  (iottingen 
is  the  se.at  of  ji  university,  and  the  capital  is 
Hanover  (f|.v. ).     See  also  Pi!f.s.siA,  (iKHMAXV. 

The  jieople  of  the  north-c.asteni  and  central  pro- 
vinces are  mostly  Saxons ;  those  on  the  coast  are 
of  Frisian  origin  ;  those  on  the  west  of  the  Ems, 
Dutch  ;  and  those  in  the  southern  provinces.  Thiir- 
ingi.ans  and  Franconians.  Platt-Deutsch.  or  Low 
Germ.an.  is  cominonly  spoken  in  the  rural  districts; 
but  High  Cerm.an  is  the  language  of  the  educated 
and  higher  cla.s.ses,  and  is  spoken  with  more  purity 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  empire. 

J/ixlonj. — Hanover  w.-us  occupied  in  remote  ages 
by  Saxon  tribes,  who,  after  an  olistinate  resistance, 
sultiiiitted  to  Cbarlem.agtie  and  embraced  Chris- 
tianity. In  the  time  of  Louis  the  Cerman  it  w.as 
incoi-])orated  in  the  duchy  of  S.-ixony.  In  9.51  the 
Emperor  Ctho  I.  bestowed  it  on  Hermann  Billing; 
on   the  extinction  of  his  family  in   1106  it  fell  to 


HANOVER 


647 


Lotliaire  of  Supplinlmrg.  ]iy  tlie  innrria^e  of  liLs 
<laii;.'lit('r  to  Hem y  tlie  Froii'l  of  liavaria,  tliediicliy 
)i.'i--^ci|  to  llii,'  (Uiel|ilis.  Heiiiy  tlic  Lion,  son  of 
Jiemy  t\n'.  I'roiiil,  did  mucli  to  advance  tlie  civilisa- 
tion of  Ills  sul)jects  by  confoning  lights  and  privi- 
leges upon  various  towns  wliiidi  had  advocated  liis 
cause ;  hut,  wlien  he  fell  under  the  ban  of  the 
empire,  ai)erioil  of  anarchy  and  confusion  succeeded, 
whii-h  at  lirst  threatened  the  ruin  of  the  country. 
When,  however,  in  11.S0  Henry  was  deprived  of  the 
duchy  of  Saxon}',  he  was  allowed  to  retain  his 
hereditary  lands  of  Urunswick  and  Liineburg. 
From  this  time  down  to  the  Kith  century  the 
history  of  Hanover  Ls  inseparable  from  that  of 
I'.runswick  (q.v. ). 

The  history  of  Hanover  as  a  moilem  state  l)egins 
with  the  foundation  of  tlie  line  of  Itrunswick-Liine- 
burg  by  William,  who,  in  the  partition  which  he  and 
his  elder  bi other  Henry  (founder  of  the  Urunswick 
liouse,  extinct  in  1884)  made  of  tiie  dominions  of 
their  father,  Krnest  I.,  obtaine<l  in  1569  the  duchies 
of  Liineburg  and  Celle(Zell ).  William  died  in  1592, 
leaving  seven  sons,  of  whom  four  successively  ruled 
over  the  laml.  Of  the  seven  only  one  (George)  mar- 
ried. His  eldest  son.  Christian  Lewis,  in  acconlanee 
with  a  family  compact,  took  (1648)  as  his  portion 
of  tlie  inheritance  Liineburg,  (Tiubenhagen,  Diep- 
holz,  and  Hoya,  with  Celle  for  his  residence  :  while 
his  next  brother,  George  William,  obtained  Kalen- 
beig  anil  Giittingen,  with  Hanover  for  his  residence. 
Thus  originated  the  lines  of  Celle  and  Hanover. 
Christian  Lewis  set  himself  the  task  of  raising  his 
country  from  the  miseries  it  lia<l  endured  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.  After  his  death  in  166j  his 
lirotlier  George  William  exchanged  his  own  duchy 
for  that  of  Celle,  leaving  Hanover  to  a  younger 
brother,  .lohn  Frederick.  George  William,  as  Duke 
of  Celle,  deserves  notice  for  his  w.arlike  .and  active 
adiiiinistration  :  lie  sent  auxiliaries  to  Venice  to 
aiil  tlie  republic  against  the  Turks;  co-operated 
with  the  Duke  of  lirunswick  to  reduce  his  insurgent 
capital  ;  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  emperor 
against  France  and  Sweden  ;  sent  an  army  into 
llnngary  to  resist  the  Turks;  and  in  1088  lent 
troops  and  money  to  William  of  Orange  against 
James  II.  of  ICngland.  John  Frederick  of  Hanover 
entertained  a  great  admiration  for  the  French,  and 
aped  the  magnilicence  of  the  court  of  Versailles. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  lirother,  Ernest  .\ugnstus 
(another  .son  of  George),  in  1679.  Thus  the  Han- 
overian territories  were  again  united  under  one 
head,  in  (Jeorge  Lewis,  son  of  Krnest  Augustus, 
who  succeeded  to  the  duchy  of  Hanover  in  1698, 
and  to  that  of  Celle  in  170.5.  The  mother  of  George 
Lewis  was  Sophia,  daughter  of  Frederick  V.  of  the 
I'alatiiiate  and  of  Elizabeth,  daughter  <if  James  I. 
of  Knglarid.  In  1714  George  Lewis  became  king  of 
F.ngland  as  George  I.  His  father,  Erne-st  Augustus, 
had  in  169'J  been  invested  with  the  dignity  of  the 
newly-created  ninth  electorate. 

I'lider  i;eorge  Lewis  as  king  of  England  and 
second  elector  of  Hanover  or  Urunswick- Liineburg, 
a  brighter  epoch  opened  to  the  Hanoverians  ;  they 
were  relieved  from  the  bunlen  of  maintaining  the 
ducal  court  and  household,  and  the  revenues  of  the 
crown  were  thenceforth  appropriated  to  the  general 
jiurposes  of  the  state.  The  government  wa.s  left  in 
the  hands  of  a  viceroy  and  the  conlidential  council. 
r.remen  and  Verden  were  obtaineil  in  this  reign  by 
purchase  from  Sweden  (1719).  George  II.,  who 
siici'eeded  in  17'i7.  like  his  father  spared  the 
revenues  of  Hanover  at  the  expense  of  those  of 
Kiigland.  In  his  character  of  elector,  he  espoused 
the  cause  of  .Maria  Theresa  in  the  Austrian  war  of 
succession  ;  but  in  the  Seven  Veal's'  War  ILinover 
silled  with  Prussia  against  Austria  and  France,  and 
sutl'cred  severely,  especially  by  the  capitulation  of 
Closter-Seven    (1757).       This    king    lounded    the 


university  of  (ioitingen  in  1734-37.  The  jieace 
which  prevailed  during  the  first  thirty  years  of  the 
reign  of  (Jeorge  III.,  who  succeeded  on  the  death 
of  his  grandfather  in  1760,  and  who  alone  of  the 
four  Georges  never  visited  his  (jernian  doniiiiions, 
proved  a  veritable  godsend  to  Hanover,  \\  hicli  also 
profited  l)y  the  increa.sed  English  and  American 
trade.  In  1793  Hanoverian  troops  took  part  in  the 
wars  against  the  French  Republic,  the  exjienses 
of  their  maintenance  being  defrayed  by  England. 
Uut  in  1801  Fnissia,  refusing  to  acknowledge  the 
neutrality  of  Hanover,  threw  troops  into  the 
electorate,  and  maintained  her  military  occupancy 
for  a  year.  In  1803,  when  war  was  renewed 
between  Englaiul  and  France,  an  army  under 
Mortier  intimidated  the  Hanoverians  to  such  an 
extent  that,  without  striking  a  blow,  they  )dedged 
them.selves  to  abstain  from  .serving  against  France, 
to  di.sband  their  army,  to  give  up  their  arms 
and  horses  to  the  enemy,  and  to  submit  to  receive 
a  French  corps  of  occupation  30,000  stiong. 
In  1807  Napoleon  ajipropriated  a  portion  of  the 
electorate  to  coiiijdete  the  newly-formed  kingdom 
of  Westphalia,  which  in  1810  received  the  whole 
of  the  Hanoverian  territory.  On  the  successful 
termination  of  the  \\ar  of  liberation,  Hanover  wa.s 
created  a  kingdom  in  1815.  In  1819  a  new  consti- 
tution was  granted,  which  made  provision  for  the 
election  of  two  leinesentative chambers;  but  it  only 
la.sted  until  18.33.  Nevertheless,  the  general  dis- 
affection and  distrust  had  risen  to  the  highest 
pitch  when  William  IV.  a.scended  the  throne; 
and  in  1831  the  ]iririie minister.  Count  Miinster, 
who  had  long  been  olmoxious  to  the  mass  of  the 
people,  was  dismissed,  and  the  Duke  of  Cam- 
bridge, son  of  George  III.,  who  had  since  1816 
acted  as  governor-general,  was  invested  vitli  the 
title  of  viceroy.  George  IV.  was  of  course  also 
king  of  Hanover  ;  but  on  the  death  of  William  l\'. 
in  1837  Hanover  was  separated  from  England  and 
given  to  the  next  male  heir,  Ernest  Augustus, 
Duke  of  Cumberland,  the  fifth  son  of  George  III. 
(1771-1851).  This  prince  initiated  a  policy  in  all 
respects  reactionary ;  but  in  1848  he  did  so  far  yield 
to  the  .storm  as  to  just  save  his  throne  by  the  un- 
willing concession  of  liberal  reforms.  A  famous 
incident  in  the  struggle  wa-s  the  protest  and  expul- 
sion in  1837  of  seven  (Mittingen  professors  (see 
GoTTINGEN  ).  His  son,  the  blind  George  \.  ( 1819 
78),  who  succeeded  in  1851,  held  very  extreme  views 
in  regard  to  the  kingly  power  and  the  claims  of 
the  aristocracN ,  and  for  fifteen  years  he  struggled 
against  the  will  of  the  people  in  defence  of  his 
absolutist  ide;i.s.  In  1866  Hanover  took  ]iart  with 
Austria,  and  at  Langensalza  (■27th  June)  the  army, 
alter  <a  successful  defence,  was  surrounded  and 
ca]iitulateil  ;  Hanover  was  then  occuidcd  by 
Prussia,  .and  finally  annexed.  George  \  .  until  his 
death,  and  since  then  his  son,  Ernest  Augustus, 
Duke  of  Cumberland  (b.  1845),  still  maintaining 
their  cl.aini  to  the  Hanoveri.an  throne,  were  com- 
pelled to  live  in  banishment.  The  incorporation 
with  Prussia  was  viewed  with  anything  but  general 
favour;  Professor  F^vald,  for  instance,  to  the  day 
of  his  death,  being  .a  st.aunch  adherent  of  the  exiled 
liou.se.  In  1868  the  so-called  Welfoifondti  ( '(;uel|ih- 
fund  ') — the  private  property  of  the  king  of  Hanover 
— wa.s  sequestrated  by  Prussia,  and  h.as  subse- 
quently been  managed  by  a  commission.  Prince 
Dismarcks  enemies  were  wont  to  aflirm  that  this 
fund — called  by  them  Jicptilieiifomls  ('ISeptile- 
fund") — wiis  largely  used  for  bribing  newspapei-s 
to  support  the  government  policy. 

See  Ociiifiiule-kxilon  ftir  dU  Provinz  ffannovcr  ( Berl. 
1887);  and  works  by  J.  Meyer  (1886),  Grotefend  (liS.".?), 
and  Moding  (1881-84). 

Ilaiiovor  (Ger.  Hannover),  formerly  capital 
of  the  kingdom,  now  chief  town  of  the  province  of 


548 


HANOVER 


HANSEATIC    LEAGUE* 


Hanover,  is  situated  on  a  sub-triliutarj'  of  tlie 
Woser,  78  lllile^.  SK.  of  Bieinen,  112  S.  of  Ham 
Imuk.  'iii'l  '•''*  ^^  •  "f  Heilin.  It  consists  of  tlie 
oM  town,  with  narrow  streets  ami  nieilieval  houses, 
ami  the  liamlsonie  nioilern  town,  Ivin^'  muth,  east, 
ami  south  east  of  the  oKler  portion.  The  most 
interesting;  liuiMings  are  the  town-hall,  foumle<l  in 
1430,  with  antiijue  sculpture  ami  line  freseoes  ;  the 
royal  library,  with  I70,(»0  volumes  ami  40(K)MSS., 
ineiinabula,  arehivi^s,  ami  valuahle  state  papei-s  ; 
the  theatre,  one  of  the  lar;;est  and  dramatieally  one 
of  the  most  important  in  (lermany  ;  the  jialaoe  of 
King  Krnest  Augustus,  with  a  lilirary  and  eollee- 
lions  of  coins,  arms,  ami  engravings;  the  museum, 
with  gotnl  n.atural  history  and  art  collections ;  the 
royal  state  palace ;  the  Kestner  Museum,  with 
Etruscan,  (Ireek,  an<l  Roman  antic|uities  and  a 
cidlection  of  engravings  (120,(K)0)  ;  the  polytechnic 
school,  formerly  a  ducal  c;istle  ;  the  castle  church, 
in  which  are  preserved  a  collection  of  medieval 
church  utensils,  relics,  many  of  them  lirouglit  from 
Palestine  liy  Henry  the  Lion  in  117'2.  and  an  altar 
juece  by  L.  Cranach  ;  the  I4tli  century  '  m.arket  ' 
church,  with  stained  glass  ami  monuments  ;  and 
the  '  new  town'  chureli,  with  an  elegant  tower  and 
the  toml)  of  I.eiliuitz,  who  died  in  Hanover.  The 
niagiiiliient  railway  station,  i)erhaiis  the  linest  in 
(iermany,  should  also  he  mentioned.  Hanover  was 
the  (irst  place  in  (lermany  that  was  lighted  Avith 
ga-s  (18'2G).  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  town 
IS  the  royal  palace  of  Herrenhansen,  whose  beauti- 
ful grounds  ami  ganlens  are  oi)en  to  the  public. 

Since  Hanover  became  a  centre  of  the  North 
(icrman  railw.ay  .system,  its  manufactures  have 
greatly  increa.sed  in  importance.  .Vmongst  the 
foremost  industries  are  railway  rejiair  slio|)S,  iron- 
founding,  typefounding,  the  manufacture  of  piano- 
fortes, india-rubber  goods,  tobacco,  linen,  sugar, 
chocolate,  hardware,  brewing,  and  distilling. 
!'i>p.  (1871)S7,G41  :  (1880)  |->2,84:! ;  (1890)  lGa,l.");{. 
Il.inover  is  the  birthiilace  of  the  brothers  Schlegel  : 
inland  the  actor  and  dramatist;  Louisa,  r|ueen  of 
Prussia;  Sir  William  Ilerseliel;  and  the  historian 
Pertz.  In  the  14th  century  the  town  wa,s  a  member 
of  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  in  the  l.")lli  it  had 
a  prosperous  trade,  which,  however,  iledined  con 
siilerably  ilnriiig  the  troublous  times  of  the  llefor 
mation.  From  about  1040  its  impcut.ance  resteil 
mainly  on  the  fact  that  it  was  the  residence  of  the 
Juke  and  elector.  The  revival  of  its  industry 
within  recent  yeare  has  also  brought  with  it  a 
revival  of  coninierce.  Sec  works  by  Hartniann 
(ISSOi  and  Kalbe  (I88C). 

Ilnnovrr,  a  ])ost-vill,age  of  New  Hampshire, 
pleasantly  situated  near  the  ea.st  bank  of  the  Con- 
necticut, 55  ndles  N\V.  of  Conconl.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Dartmouth  College  (1770),  which  is  richly  en- 
<lowed,  and  possesses  n  library  of  G5,<K)0  volumes. 
It  includes  a  meilical  school  and  the  state  college 
of  agriculture  and  mechanic  arts.     Pop.  1134. 

Ilniisnrd.  a  well-known  name  in  ctmnection 
with  the  printing  of  the  Ibitish  parliamentary 
recorils.  Luke  Hansard,  born  in  1752  at  Norwich, 
came  to  Lomlon  in  1770,  and  worked  for  .some  yeai"s 
a.s  compositor  in  the  otiice  of  Hughes,  juinter  to 
the  House  of  Commons,  whom  in  17i)8  he  succeeded 
a.s  sole  propriet4U- of  the  busines,s.  He  died  in  1828  ; 
but  his  descemlants  continued  to  |uint  the  parlia- 
mentary reports  down  to  the  beginning  of  1889.  In 
1837  a  bookseller  named  Stockdale  brought  an 
action  for  libel  against  the  Messi-s  H.ansaid,  the 
libel  eonsi.-.ting  of  statements  in  the  parliament- 
ary reports  which  the  latter  hail  printed,  and  after 
more  than  one  trial  the  judges  decided  in  favour  of 
Stockdale.  To  obviate  any  similar  cxse  an  ,act  of 
parliament  Wiis  ])a.s.sed,  directing  that  prix'eedings 
against   persons   for  public4ition  of  ]ia|iers  printed 


by  order  of  cither  Hoii.sc  of  Parliumcnl  are  to  be 
stayeit  by  the  courts  of  law,  upon  delivery  of  a 
cerlilicate  ami  adiilavit  that  such  publication  is  by 
order  of  either  Hou.'-e.  Cobbelt  s  I'aititiintntini/ 
Ilisluri/  of  Eiiiiliind  from  lUCd  tu  ISUll  w.a-s  con- 
tinued from  18(Hi  by  tlie  son  and  successors  of  Luke 
Haiisaril ;  and  the  name  Han.sard  has  iK-en  since 
then  given  to  the  printed  reports  of  the  debates  in 
parliament.  liut  the  siieeclies  there  jiriiited  are 
not  taken  down  by  a  .special  stall'  of  shorthaml 
writers;  they  are  extracted  in  the  gro^s  Imm  the 
Londim  mcuning  newspapers.  They  are  usually 
sent  to  the  peers  or  members  by  whom  they  were 
siHikeii  for  revision  and  correction.  See  Jiifii/injih- 
trill  MiUKilr  <if  LiiUf  Hansard  (1829)  and  Report  of 
Select  Comiidttee  of  House  of  Cimimons  ( 1828). 

llailS4'iltic  Leauiie,  or  H.\ns.\,  a  politico- 
comiiKicial  association  or  league  of  cities  in 
the  north  of  (lermany  and  the  ailjoining  slates, 
which  lloiuif.hed  all  through  the  middle  ages. 
Neither  the  circumstances  out  of  which  it  grew, 
mu-  the  date  of  its  origin,  can  he  juccisely  deter- 
mined. The  original  germs  of  the  union  may  un- 
doubte<lly  be  reeogni.sed  in  tlio.se  fortuitous  or  teiii- 
]M)iarv  combinations  of  merchants,  trading  ahuig 
the  .same  routes  or  in  the  same  places,  which  were 
formed  for  purposes  of  mutual  protection,  whether 
from  pirates  at  sea  or  from  robbers  on  land,  at  aiiy- 
rale  trom  the  thousand  and  one  vexations  ami 
dangers  to  which  the  isolated  trader  was  in  those 
rude  times  constantly  exposed.  In  cour.so  of  time 
more  permanent  ,a.s.sociations  were  founded  abroad, 
partly  for  mutual  protection,  partly  for  the  purjHi.se 
of  securing  from  the  rulers  of  the  slate  Ihey  were 
domiciled  in  more  favourable  conditions  for  trade, 
partly  in  order  to  control  the  nuirket  ami  exclude 
from  jiarlicipation  in  it  all  who  were  not  members 
of  their  own  Imdy. 

The  earliest  guihl  of  (.ieriuan  merchants  estab- 
lished ill  a  foreign  country  seems  to  have  been 
founded  in  Loudon  in  or  before  the  I2lh  century. 
Certain  it  is  that  traders  from  Cologne  were 
at  that  time  settled  there  in  the  enjoyment  of 
special  trading  privileges.  This  guihl  wa.s  viewed 
with  favour  by  the  English  kings,  who  from 
time  to  time  conferred  u))oii  its  members  valuable 
prerogatives  ami  advantages,  in  return  for  .services 
which  the  wealth  and  connections  of  the  guild 
.allowed  it  to  render  to  them.  Thus  it  was  with 
money  borioweil  from  them  that  I'Mwaid  111. 
carried  on  his  campaigns  in  France.  This  royally- 
fostered  colony  of  Eiisterlings  (whence  'sterling,' 
from  the  i)niity  of  their  coined  money),  a-s  they 
were  called  by  the  English,  subse(|nently,  about 
1474,  developeil  into  the  powerful  association 
known  as  the  .Merchants  of  the  Steelyard.  Other 
giiihis  existed  later  at  Uoston,  Hull,  York,  \e. 
Another  inii)ortant  centre  of  the  Ilan.seatic  cities 
in  the  early  yeai-s  of  their  confederation  wa.s 
Wisby,  on  the  island  of  Bornholm  in  the  lialtic. 
Here,  although  the  guild  embraec'd  merchants  from 
several  towns,  the  iiilluenee  of  l.ubeek  rei^ined 
supreme,  as  that  of  ('olo;,'ne  diil  in  London.  This 
station  w.is  the  chief  dei)ot  f(U-  the  trade  with 
Russia,  and  with  the  (lerman  cidoiiy  of  Livonia,  the 
name  given  at  that  perioil  to  all  the  e.-ustern  seaboard 
of  the  Baltic  lus  far  north  as  the  (lulf  of  EiMland. 
Wisby  was  also  the  mother-city  of  a  no  less  imiiortaiit 
Hanseatic  settlement  at  Novgoroil,  near  Lake  Ilmen, 
in  Ru.s.sia.  At  Witten,  in  the  province  of  Skaiie, 
the  soutlieni  portion  of  Sweden,  which  during  the 
greater  (lait  of  the  luiildle  ages  belonged  to  Den- 
mark ;  at  liergen,  on  the  west  coiust  of  Norway; ; 
and  at  Bruges  in  Elanders  there  were  Hanseatic 
ilepots  of  lirst-rate  importance,  bcsiiles  numerous 
others  of  secomlary  conseciuence  scattered  along 
the  shores  of  the  North  and  Baltic  seas.  Most  of 
tliese  trading  colonies  were  governed   by  their  own 


HANSEATIC    LEAGUE 


549 


code  of  laws  and  customs,  different  from  those  of 
the  country  in  which  they  were  estalilished.  In 
fact  each  of  tliem  was  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
an  indepen<lent  state  within  a  state.  As  a  general 
rule  the  members  of  the  colony  were  not  allowed  to 
marry,  were  put  throujjh  rouj;li  ami  trying  initia- 
tion ceremonies,  had  to  work  their  way  up  through 
the  various  grades  of  the  guild,  and  after  serving  a 
certain  number  of  years  had  to  give  i)lace  to  new- 
comers from  the  mother-cities  at  home;  whilst  the 
regulations  governing  their  domestic  life,  their 
style  of  housing,  eating  and  drinking,  ami  amus- 
ing themselves,  were  very  similar  to  those  which 
prevailed  in  the  mona-steries  of  the  time. 

Hut  there  was  another  and  more  imjiortant  phase 
of  the  movement — viz.  that  which  develojied  itself 
at  home.  At  first  the  individual  cities  seem  to 
have  acted  almost  independently  of  each  other  in 
founding  trading-colonies  abroail  :  at  all  events  the 
intluence  of  Cologne  was  for  some  tiuie  su]irenie 
in  London,  and  that  of  Liibeck  supreme  in  Wi.sby. 
IJiit  gradually  merchants  from  other  eoiiuuercial 
towns  of  Cermany  were  admitteil  to  share  the  pre- 
rogatives of  the  guild  and  colony.  This  spirit  of 
a.ssociation  reacted  in  turn  upon  the  mother-cities, 
and  about  the  middle  of  the  1.3th  century,  under 
the  cementing  force  of  a  close  community  of 
interests,  the  large  trading-cities  of  north  (lermany 
began  to  co-operate  together  in  leagues,  more  or 
le.ss  officially  constituted.  Amongst  the  earliest  of 
supreme  moment  was  that  formed,  at  the  period 
indicated,  between  Hamburg  and  Liibeck  ( 1241 ) 
for  the  protection  of  the  highways  connecting  the 
two  cities.  When,  however,  Liilieck,  which  had 
rapidly  acquired  a  leading  position  among  the 
couimercial  towns  of  north  (lernumy,  desired  to 
enter  the  league  of  towns  which  had  allied  them- 
selves with  Cologne,  the  latter  city  strove  hard  to 
exclude  her,  but  in  vain.  From  this  time  dates 
the  introduction  of  a  political  element  into  the 
league.  Liibeck  soon  formed  alliances  with  the 
AVendish  towns  on  the  Baltic,  lying  to  the  east  — 
viz.  Wismar,  Kostock,  Stralsund,  and  Greifswalrl. 
The  Saxon  ami  Westphalian  towns,  which  had 
already  banded  themselves  together  in  separate 
and  independent  confederations,  joined  the  princi- 
pal league,  at  the  head  of  which  Liiljeck  soon 
placed  herself  by  common  consent  of  the  rest ;  and 
the  Prussian  towns  a.ssociated  themselves  alxmt 
1340  with  those  of  Westphalia.  The  cities  of  the 
priiuipal  league  did  not,  however,  form  a  demo- 
cratic confeileration  of  municipal  states  with  a 
regular,  well-conceived  constitution,  such  as  we 
find  in  confederated  states  at  the  present  day.  The 
first  and  principal  object  of  the  association  was  to 
maintain  a  monop(dy  of  trade,  by  jealously  exclud- 
ing all  rivals,  in  such  countries  as  Russia,  Norway, 
and  the  south  of  Sweden,  as  well  as  to  preserve  in 
their  own  hands  the  special  commercial  preroga- 
tives which  they  had  managed  to  ac(piire  in  coun- 
tries like  England  and  Flanders.  Thus,  in  the 
Ijeginning  their  interests  were  mainly  concentrated 
u|ion  their  colonies  and  trading-depots,  and  what- 
ever foreign  policy  they  may  have  had  was  shajied 
by  the  necessities  of  protecting  or  furthering 
those  interests,  which  were  of  coursi?  of  a  jmndy 
commercial  character.  Yet,  as  their  wealth  in- 
creased, and  therewith  their  political  intluence, 
these  Pluenicians  of  the  north  began  to  pursue 
other  than  mere  ordinary  mercantile  aims.  In 
Norway,  for  instance,  they  insisted  that  the  entire 
trade  of  the  country,  at  least  of  the  northern  .and 
western  portions,  should  pass  through  their  dejiot 
at  liergen,  where  they  ousted  the  native  Nor- 
wegians from  their  own  wharves  and  warehouses, 
seized  upon  their  trade,  and  refused  all  obeilience 
to  the  civic  authorities  of  the  town.  And  in 
Kussia  their  behaviour  was  not  a  whit  less  arbi- 


trary and  high-handed.  But  the  first  awakening 
of  the  league  to  the  consciousness  that  it  was  the 
possessor  of  real  political  power  came  in  1370,  when 
It  brought  King  Waldemar  of  Denmark,  the  most 
powerful  and  energetic  sovereign  on  the  Baltic 
shores,  to  his  knees,  and  imjxjsed  upon  liim  a 
humiliating  peace.  For  m.any,  many  ycar>  rela- 
tions between  the  Hanseatic  merchants  and  the 
Danes  had  been,  and  continued  to  be,  those  of 
latent  or  open  hostility,  for  the  Danes  were  the 
only  serious  risals  the  Hansa  had  to  encounter, 
and  Denmark  had,  as  now,  control  of  the  Sound 
and  the  Belts,  besides  holding  possession  of  tin- 
south  of  Sweden,  ofl'  whose  coasts  the  great  herring 
fisheries,  one  of  the  princi|ial  sources  of  wealth  to 
the  Hanse  merchants,  were  in  those  ages  carried 
on. 

P'roni  the  peace  of  Stralsund  ( 1370  i  the  Hanseatic 
League  claimed  the  right  of  controlling  the  election 
of  each  successive  sovereign  who  was  crowned  king 
of  Denmark.  And  by  the  I()th  century  its  otiicers 
had  advanced  so  far  in  statecraft,  and  the  league 
itself  ha<l  acriuired  so  much  political  intluence, 
that  it  was  able  to  depose  the  king  of  Denmark 
(Christian  II.),  and  bestow,  not  only  his  crown, 
but  akso  that  of  Sweden,  ujHin  candidates  of  its  own 
nomination.  Yet  its  power  was  then  already  a  cen- 
tury on  the  wane.  This  result  was  brought  about 
by  the  co-ojieration  of  a  variety  of  causes,  chief 
amongst  which  were  the  following.  The  discovery 
of  America  and  of  the  sea-route  to  India  struck 
the  severest  Ijlow  at  the  Hansa  by  di\erting  the 
stream  of  commerce  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Atlantic 
shores  of  Europe.  Amongst  other  changes,  it 
caused  a  falling-ofl'  in  the  demand  for  furs,  a 
staple  commodity  of  Novgorod  ;  while  towards  the 
middle  of  the  l.jth  century  the  herrings  cea.'^ed 
to  enter  the  Baltic  in  such  large  quantities,  but 
began  to  direct  their  cour.se  instead  to  the  coasts 
of  Holland.  The  Dutch  members  of  the  league 
broke  away  from  it  early  in  the  1.5th  century, 
and  by  adapting  themselves  to  the  altered  con- 
ditions of  the  age,  soon  rose  to  be  formidable 
rivals  of  their  former  a.ssociates.  The  English  too 
were  laying  the  foundations  of  their  subsequent 
connnercial  supremacy,  and  in  1598  Elizabetli  de- 
prived the  Steelyard  merchants  of  all  their  privi- 
leges, and  banished  them  from  the  country.  The 
discovery  by  Sir  Richard  Chancellor  of  the  sea- 
route  to  the  White  Sea  struck  a  fatal  blow  at  the 
immopoly  hitherto  enjoyed  by  the  Hanse  merchants 
in  the  trade  with  Russia.  The  conversion  of  so 
nuany  European  nations  to  Protestantism  greatly 
lessened  the  deman<l  for  dried  and  salted  herrings 
in  Lent,  as  well  as  for  wax  for  candles,  which  tlie 
Hanse  merchants  imported  in  large  quantities  from 
Novgorod.  In  the  miildle  of  the  lOtli  century  the 
'contor'or  depot  of  Bruges  wa.s  removed  to  Ant- 
werp, where,  however,  the  old-fashioned  mi-thoils 
of  doing  Ijusiness  still  practised  by  the  Hanse 
merchants  were  unable  to  compete  successfully 
against  the  more  moilern  and  enterprising  methods 
of  the  Dutch  and  the  Flemings.  And  unity  no 
longer  prevailed  within  the  league  itself,  for.  whilst 
Liibeck  clung  with  jealous  tenacity  to  the  anti- 
quated conservative  policy  of  the  jiast.  Hamburg 
insisted  upon  conforming  itself  to  the  newer  con- 
ilitions  of  the  age  ;  and  several  of  the  other  towns, 
finding  that  the  advantages  which  had  fonnerly 
accrued  to  them  from  their  participation  in  the 
league  were  no  longer  reaiied  by  them,  fell  off  fnun 
it  one  after  the  other,  lint  the  deciv  must  also 
be  attril>uted  in  large  measure  to  tlie  advances 
made  by  the  states  of  Europe  in  the  knowledge 
and  apjilication  of  the  ]uinciplcs  of  government  ; 
whilst  the  more  perfect  jueservation  of  public  order, 
and  the  removal  of  m.any  of  the  vexatious  impedi- 
ments to  the  free  circulation  of  connnerce,  de|irived 


550 


HANSI 


HAPSBURG 


tlie  lea;;ue  of  its  most  ellicifiit  niisoii  d'etre.  Finally 
the  Tliirty  Years'  War  «'CiU<ioiieil  an  entire  ilcraii;,'e- 
iiK'iit,  ami  even  at  times  cessation,  of  all  trade 
relations,  a  state  of  tliinj;s  from  the  evils  of  wlilcli 
the  members  of  the  leaj,'ue  never  were  able  to 
recover.  Troni  10"2S  onwards  the  only  cities  which 
niaile    any    real    enileavours    to    revive     the    once 

iMiwerful  association  were  Liiheck,  Hamburg',  and 
{rcnien.  15ut  the  resuscitated  Icajiue,  even  after 
its  conlirniation  by  the  treaty  of  \  icnna  in  ISl."), 
wii-s  more  a  thinj;  of  name  tlian  of  reality  ;  and 
in  the  l!)tli  century  Ilanseatic  cities  was  not  so 
much  the  collective  title  of  a  combinalicm  of  towns 
for  trading;  ]iurposes,  as  a  common  name  for  the 
ind<'|icndent  repuldlcan  municipal  stales  of  Ham- 
Imi;;,  lirenien,  and  Liibeck.  In  IHTOeacli  of  these 
was  made  an  iiiti'j;ial  |iiirt  fif  the  (Icrmaii  cmiiire, 
and  by  1S8(I  all  had  joined  the  (lerman  imperial 
customs  union. 

The  administration  of  the  aflaii's  of  the  league 
was  in  the  hands  of  ilepiities  represenlin^  the 
constituent  towns  of  the  confederation,  who  met 
together  at  least  once  in  every  three  years,  though 
as  a  general  rule  every  year,  at  one  of  the  towns 
of  the  league,  usually  at  Liiljeek,  at  which  town 
the  archives  of  the  llaiisa  were  always  picserved. 
These  a.sseiiiblies  represeiite<l  the  political  corpora- 
tion of  the  Hanseatic  cities;  they  determined  the 
amount  of  the  duties  to  lie  levied  on  iiiii)orteil  and 
exported  goods,  li.\ed  the  amount  of  the  perioilieal 
I'oiitrilintioiis  to  be  |>aid  by  the  several  towns  to 
the  conimon  trciisiiry  of  the  league,  ilecided  all 
<|Uc'stioiis  of  peace  and  war,  settled  all  internal 
(jiiarrcls  between  the  members  of  the  league,  and 
punished  dis(d)eilient  or  olfeiiding  towns  by  tine, 
or,  in  the  last  instance,  by  exclusion  from  the 
Hansa,  called  'unhansing.'  .\s  it  wiis  always  the 
)ira<'tice  fin-  towns  to  join  the  confederation  and 
withdraw  from  it  at  tlieirown  will,  it  is  not  possil)le 
to  state  the  precise  number  of  towns  which  con- 
stituted the  league.  The  war  against  Waldcniarof 
Denmark,  wliieli  took  place  when  the  Hansa  was 
at  the  summit  of  its  ])ower,  was  waged  by  at  least 
seventy-seven  cities,  though  probably  the  league 
embraceil  more  than  these.  See  histories  of  the 
league  by  Sartorius  (1S02  8).  I,appenberg  (IS.'il), 
Barlholil  (ISti'J),  and  Helen  ZiiiiiiiiTM  ( in  English, 
ISS'.l);  alsothe  llini.ir-l,'cri:s.-:i;,  or  ullicial  proceedings 
of  the  assemblies  ( 1873  ct  seq.). 

Ilaiisi.  a  town  of  the  district  of  Hissar,  in  the 
pritvince  of  the  I'unjab,  about  80  miles  NW.  of 
l)clhi,  was  a  Hritish  caiitonnient  from  1802  down 
to  the  .Mutiny  (1857).     Top.  12,056. 

Iliiii.soiii.    See  Cabs. 

Ilniistcoil,  C'lllilsToni.  a  Norwegian  astrono- 
mer, was  born  at  Christiania,  2lith  September  1784. 
In  1814  he  Wiis  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Mathe- 
matics in  the  university  of  t'lirlstiaiiia,  and  there, 
in  ISl!),  iiublisheil  his  famous  work,  Iiinntiijdlinii.s 
into  Trrrcsliiiil  Mdiiiiiil.sia,  the  methods  of  observa- 
tion de.scribed  in  which  have  been  generally  fol- 
lowed since,  and  which  he  himsidf  apjdicd  in  the 
course  of  a  journey  to  the  east  of  Siberia  in  1828-30. 
The  scienlilic  results  of  this  journey  were  iiublished 
in  18t>."J.  In  1821  he  iliscovered  the  •  law  of  magnetic- 
force  '  (.see  M.MJNKTIS.M).  It  was  chielly  by  his 
initiative  that  the  astronomical  .and  magnetic 
observ.atories  .at  Chnstiania  were  foumled.  He  w.as 
also  professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  School  of 
Artillery,  superintendent  of  the  triangulation  of 
Norway,  and  reorg.aniser  of  the  nati<uial  system  of 
weights  anil  incisures.  He  ilied  at  Christiania, 
lltli  April  187.3.  He  published  lectures  on  .astron- 
omy, .a  Wink  on  mechanics,  another  on  geometry, 
several  on  terrestrial  m.agnetism,  .and  numerous 
memoirs,  of  which  the  greater  part  are  inserted  in 
the  Mdijazin  fur  JSaliirvidcitshibcnie. 


llaillllllAll  is  the  name  of  a  fabulous  monkey, 
who  plays  a  great  role  in  the  legendary  history  of 
the  secoiiil  or  classical  period  of  Hindu  mythology. 
He  is  represented  there  as  the  strenuous  friend  ami 
ally  of  \  ishnu,  when  the  latter,  in  his  incarnation 
as  Haina,  made  his  expedition  to  ('e\lon,  in  order 
to  recover  his  wife  Siti'i,  carried  oil'  by  the  giant 
Kavana.  In  the  war  between  Kama  ami  KAvana, 
Ilanuman,  on  one  occasion,  is  related  to  have 
bridgeil  over  the  ocean  bi'tween  the  continent  of 
India  and  Ceylon  with  rocks  of  a  proiligions  size, 
which  he  and  his  friends  threw  into  the  sea.  See 
ExTKi.i.f.s  MoNKEV,  Vi.slixr. 

Ilsimvay,  Jt>N.\s,  an  eccentric  English  traveller 
and  pliil;mtliropist,  born  at  Portsmouth  in  1712. 
Apprenticed  at  seventeen  to  a  Lisbon  merchant,  he 
afterwaiils  traded  at  St  Petersburg,  .iiid  in  the 
September  of  1743  left  that  city  on  .in  ailveiitiirous 
journey  through  liiissia  and  Persia,  returning  in 
the  .Inly  of  1750.  He  published  an  account  of  his 
travels  in  1753,  ami  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  mostly 
in  London  as  one  of  the  commissioners  for  victual- 
ling the  navy  from  171)2  to  1783.  He  was  an  uii- 
we.iiying  fiiend  to  chimney  swecjis,  parish  infants, 
and  unfortunates,  ami  aihocated  with  earnestness 
solitary  coiilinenient  for  luisimeis,  and  a  milder 
system  of  ]iunishment  gener.ally.  I'lirther.  he 
deserves  grateful  remembrance  for  having  written 
down  the  giving  of  v.-iils,  and  as  the  first  Knglish- 
man  to  cany  an  umbrella  at  home  in  spile  of  the 
interested  insolence  of  the  hackney-coaclimeii.  His 
attack  on  tea  drinking  was  less  successful,  but 
here  he  had  the  honour  to  be  opposed  by  l)r  .lidin- 
son,  who  f(U-  once  rcpliccl  to  an  attack  by  aiiswiring 
Hallway's  angry  ans«er  to  his  review  of  his  Kssaij 
on  I'eo.  Elsewhere  tjohnsim  said  tli.at  '  .lonas 
ac(|uire<l  some  reiiiitallon  by  travelling  abroad,  but 
lost  it  all  by  travelling  at  home.'  He  ilied  Sep- 
tember 5,  I7SG.  See  I'ugh's  liemarhahle  (lieiir- 
7-c)ircx  in  the  Life  of  Jonas  Jlanutiy  ( 1787  ). 

llainvoll  .\syllllll.  the  lunatic  asylum  for  the 
county  of  Middlesex,  is  situated,  not  in  the  parish 
of  llanwell,  but  in  the  .'nljoining  palish  ot  Nor- 
wood, 71  miles  \V.  of  I'adilington  Station,  London. 
It  w.-us  originally  founded  in  1831,  and  now  give& 
shelli'r  to  about  1800  patients. 

llan-yaiiy;.    See  H.ankow. 

Ilaparanda.  a  town  in  the  Swedish  province 
of  Nonbottcn.  U  mile  from  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Torne;i,  ami  opiiosile  the  Finnish  town  of  Tiuneii 
(ij.v.).  It  is  the  c(mimercial  outlet  for  the  norlhern- 
most  iirovince  of  Sweden,  and  posses.ses  a  meteoro- 
logical station.     I'op.  1150. 

Ilap'lodon  I  lit.  'simple  toothed'),  a  terrestrial 
roileiil  |uc  uliar  enough  to  be  formed  into  :!  family 
by  itself,  and  regarded  as  a  connecting-link  be- 
tween beavers  ami  s(|uinels.  It  is  reiuescnteil  by  a 
single  species  (//.  rnftis],  restricted  to  'a  small 
area  on  the  west  coast  of  North  America,  in  \\asli- 
ington  and  Oregon  territories,  and  a  portion  of 
California.'  The  aborigines  called  it  'ShowtT  or 
'Sewellel,"  the  trajipers  the  '  lioomer '  or  'Moun- 
tain Heaver."  The  animal  is  i)lumii,  with  broad 
heail,  short  limbs,  and  hardly  any  tail  ;  measures 
about  a  foot  in  length  ;  and  has  a  brownish  colour. 
It  lives  socially  in  colonies,  burrows  underground, 
and  lives  on  vegetable  matter.  As  a  connecting- 
link  Ilaiilodon  is  of  much  interest  to  naturalists, 
while  the  Indians  use  its  skin  and  probably  also  its 
llesh. 

llapsbiirs.  or  Habsburg,  Hou.se  of,  of 
which  liie  imiicrial  f.amily  of  Austria  are  the  repre- 
sentatives, derived  its  name  from  the  castle  of 
Habsburg,  or  Habiclitslmrg  (Hawk's  Castle),  on 
the  Aar,  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Aargau.  The 
cjistle  was  built   by  Werner,   Bishop  of  Strasbiirg 


HARAR 


HARBOUR 


551 


(1001-29).  The  real  founder  of  the  family  was, 
liowever,  Albert,  who  is  iiieiitioned  in  the  annals 
as  Count  of  Hai)sburg  in  1153.  He  was  appointed 
landj^'rave  of  Lpper  Alsace,  l<u-d  of  the  Zurich 
hundred,  and  suzerain  of  various  aldieys  by  the 
Ei]]|iiMc>r  Frederick  I.  Under  him  an<l  his  sou, 
Itudiilf  I.,  the  family  became  one  of  the  most 
])o\\erfu[  in  S\val)ia,  including  under  their  rule  the 
territoiies  of  tlie  Ijishops  of  Constance,  JStrasburg, 
liasel,  Coire,  Lausanne,  and  those  of  the  al^bot  of 
St  Call,  with  some  temi)oral  liels.  After  liudolf's 
dealh  in  1232,  ins  sons,  Albert  IV.  an<l  Kuilolf  II., 
divided  their  father's  jiossessious — Uudolf  Ix'coni- 
iii;;  the  founder  of  the  Hapsburj,'-Laul!enburj,'  line. 
This  line  again  divided  into  two  branches,  which 
became  e.xtinct  in  1408  and  141.3  respectively. 
-Gilbert  IV.  laid  the  foundation  of  the  future  great- 
ness of  the  House  of  Hapsliurg.  His  eldest  .son, 
Kudolf  III.  (  Kudolf  I.  of  Austria),  who  succeedeil 
him,  and  who  was  sub-sequently  (1273)  elected 
emperor,  Ijy  appropriating  the  provinces  which  he 
had  wrested  from  (Jttocar  of  Bcdiemia — vi/.  Upper 
anil  Lower  Austria,  Styria,  and  Carnicda — greatly 
increased  the  power  of  his  family.  To  the  family's 
territories  were  added  in  1330  Carinthia,  and  in 
13IJ1  the  Tyrol.  On  the  death  of  Kudolf  IV.  ( 1,36.")) 
the  liouse  divided  into  the  .-Vustrian  and  Styrian 
branches;  but  the  former  became  extinct  in  14,37, 
whilst  the  latter  have  worn  the  imi)erial  crown 
almost  uninterruptedly  down  to  the  i)resent  time 
(see  Au.STRi.\,  Germany,  and  Sp.m.n).  Mean- 
wliile  the  original  family  possessions  were  gradually 
absorbed  liy  the  Swiss  confederated  cantons  ( 13S0- 
1474).  In  ISSl  the  Austrians  jjroposed  to  |)urch;use 
the  castle  of  Hapsburg  and  give  it  as  a  wedding 
gift  to  the  Crown-prince  of  Austria  ;  but  the  peo[ile 
of  .Aaigau  refused  to  hear  of  the  sale. — Compare 
I'riiici!  Lichnowski,  Geschkhtedes  Haiises  Hahsbiirg 
( lSo7);  also  Co.xe's  House  of  Austna  (1807). 

Ilarai't  a  city  of  Africa,  in  the  country  of  the 
Callas,  about  200  miles  WSW.  of  Berbera,  stands 
on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  which  surnmnd  it, 
Mount  Hakim  on  the  west  rising  to  S400  feet.  It 
is  tciiiced  with  a  low  wall  and  forts,  the  wall 
being  pierced  l)y  five  gates.  The  streets  are 
simply  water-channels  crossing  the  uneven  sur- 
face ;  the  houses  are  partly  stone  editices,  partly 
huts.  In  the  neighmmrhood  are  tine  banana 
groves  and  coH'ee  gardens.  Formerly  the  place 
was  a  commercial  centre  of  considerable  import- 
ance, but  it  has  now  lost  a  good  deal  of  its  trade 
to  T.adjura  and  Berbera.  CoH'ee,  hides,  cattle, 
anil  a  dyestutl'  called  vnrs,  are  the  principal 
objects  of  commerce.  The  popidation  number 
about  37,000,  of  whom  two-thirds  are  females. 
They  include  native  Harari  (nearly  one-half), 
(iailas,  Somali,  and  Abyssinians.  The  Harari, 
thiiugh  i>liysically  resembling  the  Abyssinians, 
dilVi'r  both  in  tlieir  dress  and  manners  from  all 
tlicir  neighbours,  but  are  rapidly  becoming  assimi- 
lati'd  in  these  respects  to  the  -Arabs.  Their 
iaiigu.-ige  would  seem  to  belong  to  the  Hamitic 
division,  and  is  probably  a  descendant  of  the 
ancient  CJe'ez,  though  Arabic  is  reiilacing  it  for 
commercial  purposes.  Harar,  which  was  converted 
to  Islam  in  1521,  was  formerly  the  capital  of  an 
independent  state.  In  1875  it  was  conmicred  by 
till'  Kgyplians,  who  gave  it  back  to  its  nativecmir; 
Italian  in  1S90-97,  it  is  now  British.  See  Burton's 
Fust  Foutstej)s  in  East  Africa  (new  ed.  1894). 

llai'boiir,  an  inlet  of  the  sea,  so  protected 
from  the  winds  and  waves,  whether  by  natural 
conformation  of  the  land,  or  by  artilicial  means, 
a.s  to  form  a  secure  roadstead  for  ships.  It  is  with 
harbours  which  are  wholly  or  in  part  artilicial  that 
this  article  deals. 

Harboui-s  may  be  divided  into  harboui-s  of  refuge 


and  those  for  commercial  purposes.  The  latter  are 
often  merely  tidal — i.e.  capable  of  being  entered 
by  vessels  only  at  certain  states  of  the  tide,  and 
where  the  vessels  rise  and  fall  with  the  tide.  The 
former  are  roadsteads  of  good  depth,  i)rotected  by 
breakwaters,  and  accessible  at  all  times  of  tide, 
where  ships  may  take  refuge  during  storms.  The 
two  kinds  are  sometimes  combined,  there  bein<j 
the  harbour  proper,  ami  a  capacious  ])rotecteu 
roadstead  outside  of  it,  ius  at  Cherbourg  and  else- 
where. 

With  the  birth  of  commerce  and  naval  warfare, 
in  the  earliest  ages  of  civilisation,  arose  the  neces- 
sity for  artilicial  harbours.  The  I'hojnicians,  the 
fathers  of  navigation,  soon  set  to  work  to  protect 
their  scanty  strip  of  Levantine  coast.  At  Tyre 
two  harbours  were  formed,  to  the  north  and  to 
the  south  of  the  peninsula  on  which  the  city  w;i.s 
placed.  At  Sidon  similar  but  le.ss  extensive  works 
long  testitied  to  the  wealth  and  engineering  genius 
of  the  Phoinicians.  The  breakwaters  were  princi- 
pally constructed  of  loose  rubble. 

Carthage,  in  another  part  of  the  Mediterranean, 
also  po.ssessed  a  harbour,  in  two  divisions,  formed 
by  moles,  and  connected  with  one  another  by  a 
canal  70  feet  wide,  tin  the  inner  harbour  stood 
the  arsenals,  with  room  around  them  for  220  war- 
ships. Still  kee])ing  to  the  great  inland  sea,  we 
come  to  Greece  ;  but  here  natuie  had  provided  so 
many  navigable  inlets  that  little  remained  to  be 
done  by  man.  Nevertheless,  some  minor  works 
were  e.\ecuted  at  the  Piraus  and  elsewhere,  chielly, 
of  coui-se,  for  warlike  purjxises.  The  Uomans,  lind- 
ing  ships  necessary  to  the  dominion  of  the  world, 
.set  about  constructing  harbours  for  them,  in 
their  usual  solid  and  woikmaiilike  numiier.  The 
coasts  of  Italy  still  show  how  well  they  nnder- 
stood  both  the  jjrinciples  and  the  practice  of  this 
branch  of  marine  engineering.  Below  is  given 
a  plan  of  the  ancient  port  of  Ostia,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Tiber  (now  more  than  two  miles  inland), 
one  of  their  finest  and  most  complete  under- 
takings of  this  natiue.     A  distinguishing  feature 


Fig.  1. — Ancient  Harbour  of  Ostia. 

of  their  harbour-making  is  the  open  or  arclied  mole. 
Built  with  open  arches,  resting  upon  stone  piers,  it 
gives  full  ]day  to  the  tidal  and  littoral  currents, 
thus  ]>reventing  the  deposit  of  sand  or  mud  ;  but 
in  i)roportion  as  this  advantage  is  increased  (by 
increasing  the  span  of  the  arches),  so  also  is  the 
agitation,  and  con.sequeut  insecurity,  of  the  water 
witiiin.  The  decay  of  commerce  anil  civilisation. 
consci|Ucnt  upon  the  f.ill  of  the  Koman  emidre.  put 
a  stop  to  harbour-niaking  ;  nor  could  any  want  of 
the  art  be  felt  until  the  revival  of  commerce  by 
the  Italian  republics  of  the  middle  ages.  But  the 
rich  traltic  of  Venice  and  (!eima  soon  led  to  the 
construction  of  suitable  i)orts  at  those  places  :  and 


552 


HARBOUR 


tlie  moles  of  the  latter  city  and  tlic  works  in  tlie 
la^'oons  of  Venice  remain  to  this  day.  France 
WHS  next  in  the  lield,  enihankin;;,  [Motertinj,',  and 
deepening  the  niouths  of  the  rivei-s  ahmj,'  her 
north  western  shores,  as  at  Havre,  Diepiie,  Dun- 
kirk, \c.  Ill  IG27,  durin^;  the  siege  of  |{ochelk', 
Mi'tezeau  constructed  jetties  of  h)ose  rubble-stone, 
til  prevent  access  to  the  city. 

Meanwhile,  liritain,  whose  ocean-coninierce  is 
of  ciiiiiparativcly  reci'ut  date,  la^'^red  far  ln-hiiid  her 
continental  rivals.  With  few  exceptions  her  ports 
were  absolutely  unprotected,  or  rather  uncre.itecl  ; 
and  this  state  of  thin;;s  ccmtinucd  until  late  in  the 
ISth  century.  Two  of  the  few  exceptions  were 
Hartlepool,  where  a  harbour  was  formed  about 
12.")<).  and  .\rbroath  in  ISa-t.  In  the  ITtli  century, 
at  Whitby  and  Scarborou^di  rou;;b  ]iiei-s  were 
thrown  out,  protectiuf;  the  moutli  of  the  port  ; 
while  at  Yarmouth  a  north  jetty  and  subsec|nently 
a  south  one  were  formed.  An  ancient  mide  existed 
at  Lyme  Rej;is,  a  section  of  which,  from  Smiles's 
Lirix  of  the  Eiif/iiicrr.i,  is  rjiven  below  (see  li;;.  3). 
IJut  the  chief  ellbrts  of  the  early  En^'lish  engineers 
were    directed    against   the  shoals   and  waves  of 


Fig.  2.— liovur  Harbuur  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 

Dover.  When,  however,  .Smeaton  rose  to  vindicate 
the  engineering  talent  of  England,  things  took  a 
diti'erent  turn  ;  and  now  few  countries  sur|ia.ss 
Great  Britain  in  the  number  of  artilicially  improved 


36  6 


Fig.  3. 
a,  ancient  pier  at  Lyme  Regis ;   6,  wooilen-frained  pier,  fitlecl 
witli  nit)ble ;  0.  pier  at  llavre.  with  apron  ;  </,  maisimry  pier, 
on  rubble  rouudation. 

coniincrcial   harbours,  or  in  the  just  appreciation 
of  their  importance. 

In  the  construction  of  harbours  the  great 
desi<lerata  are  sufficient  depth  of  water  and 
[lerfect  security  for  the  vessels  likely  to  frenuent 
them,  together  with  the  greatest  possible  facilities 
for  ingress  during  any  weather ;  while  the  chief 
obstacles  to  be  surmounted  are  the  action  of  the 
waves  u])on  the  protecting  piei-s  and  breakwaters, 
and  the  formation  of  sandbanks  and  bars,  which 
diminish  the  depth  of  water  at  the  entrance  and 
also  within.  The  designs  of  harbours,  ,as  has  been 
•ibeady  indicated,  may  be  cbi.'isitied  under  the 
following  hc.ids  :  ( 1 )  harbours  of  refuge  and 
anchorage  breakwaters;    (2)  deep-water  and   tidal 


harbours  for  commercial  jiurposes  ;  (3)  piers,  either 
straight,  or  kanted,  or  curved;  (4)  quays  or 
wharves. 

These  diirerent  works  are  obviously  suited  for 
dillerent  localities,  and  for  ccmtending  with  dillcrent 
exposures.  C^nays  are  clearly  suited  for  the  most 
sheltered  sitnation><  oidy,  and  the  enginci'r  must 
consider,  when  designing  a  harbour,  w  hicli  tyjie  of 
harbour  will  be  most  ei'onomical  and  clb'ctivc.  In 
coming  to  a  deii-.iiin  the  natnn'  of  the  trallir,  the 
exposure,  and  the  gcologieal  features  of  the  eojust 
must  be  carefully  considereil.  A  good  chart  or 
marine  survey  furnishes  valuable  evidence  as  to 
the  force  to  which  harbour  works  will  be  exjiosed. 
Among  the  points  to  be  noted  is  the  //'//c  ofnid.rimum 
i:r/iii.siirr,  or  the  greatest  fetch  or  reaeh  of  open  sea, 
as  well  as  the  dejith  of  water,  in  front  of  the  har- 
bour. Thomiui  Stevenson  proved  by  observations 
that  t/ic  iraves  iiicrcasc  in  the  ratio  of  the  sijuarc 
rout  of  llicir  r/isttnicc  from  the  vini/iriiril  sliorc  as 
measured  along  the  line  of  exposure,  and  he  gives 
the  fcdlowing  simide  formula  :  Where  //  =  height  of 
wave  in  feel  during  a  strong  gale,  and  (I  =  length 
of  exposure  in  miles  for  distances  of,  say,  Id  miles 
and  ii]iwards.  then  h  =  I  os  (/.  The  heights  so 
obtained  will  be  inciCiLsed  when  they  p.ass  into  con- 
verging ehannels,  and  tlecrea.sed  when  they  pa.ss 
into  expanding  channels.  The  greatest  measureil 
height  of  the  waves  was  by  Scoresliy  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  where  he  found  billows  of  43  feel  in  height 
from  biillow  to  crest,  and  .'i(i  feet  was  not  an  uneom- 
nion  height.  At  Wick,  ( 'ailhne.-.s-sliiic,  waves  of 
about  40  feet  have  struck  the  breakwater.  Amongst 
the  greatest  recorded  forces  exerted  by  the  waves 
niav  be  mentioned  the  breaking  or  (|uarrying  out 
of  Its  positicm  in  situ  of  a  mass  of  13  t<uis  on  the 
Skerries  of  Whalsay,  in  Shetland,  at  a  level  of  74 
feet  above  the  sea— this  height,  of  course,  being 
reached  by  .s/idinrj.  Hut  the  most  astonishing  feat 
of  which  we  have  an,v  knowledge  wius  at  \\'ick 
breakwater,  where  in  the  winter  of  KH7'2  a  mass 
of  masonry,  cmicreted  together  as  a  moiuditli,  and 
bound  with  iron  bars  4J  inches  in  diameter,  and 
weighing  no  less  than  I3.")0  t<ms,  was  torn  from  its 
seat  in  the  work,  and  thniwii  to  leeward. 

Thomas  Stevenson  ilevised  an  iiistniment  called 
the  Marine  Dynamometer  for  ascertaining  niiimri- 
cu/li/  the  force  which  is  exerted  by  the  waves  in 
the  Atlantic  and  IJorman  oceans.  lie  found  that 
the  mean  of  his  observations  during  winter  wius 
more  than  three  times  that  exerted  during  summer, 
the  maximum  force  recorded  being  3^  tons  jicr 
stjiKtri-'  foot. 

Variiius  local  causes  materially  afl'ect  the  height, 
and  therefore  the  force  of  the  waves.  In  some 
cases,  where  a  strong  current  runs  jiast  the  coast, 
as  at  Suniburgh  roost  in  Shetland,  it  causes  a 
dangerous  breaking  sea  in  the  current,  and  while 
this  roost  or  race  continues  to  rage  the  coitsi  under 
lee  is  comparatively  sheltereil  ;  but  when  the  force 
of  the  tide  is  exhausted  and  the  ruosi  disajipears, 
a  heavy  .sea  rolls  in  upon  the  shore.  It  is  this 
encounter  between  the  ground-swell 
the  ocean  and  the  current  of  tide  or 
which  causes  miniattue  races  at  the 
rivers. 

Another  most  material  element  in  the  (iuesti(m 
of  exiiosure  is  the  di-plh  of  water  in  front  <if 
the  harbour;  for,  if  that  depth  be  insullicient  to 
admit  of  the  transini.ssion  of  the  waves,  they  break 
or  spend  themselves  before  they  reach  the  |>iers. 
Thus,  Leslie  found  at  Arbroath  harbour  that  the 
works  were  not  so  severely  tried  by  the  heaviest 
waves  as  by  others  of  les.ser  size  which  were  not 
trijiped  up  ami  broken  by  the  outlying  rocks.  In 
the  same  way,  at  the  river  AIne  the  harbour  within 
the  bar  is  more  disturbed  by  ordinary  waves  than 
during  great  storms.      It   thus   iijipears   that  the 


waves  of 
and  water 
mouths   of 


HARBOUR 


553 


largest  waves  are  not  always  so  destiuctive  as 
smaller  ones.  Scott  Kussell  has  stated  the  law 
that  wa\es  break  whenever  they  come  to  water  as 
ilcep  as  their  own  heiglit ;  so  that  10-feet  waves 
slioulil  break  in  10-feet  water,  and  20feet  waves  in 
'20-feet  water.  There  seem,  however,  to  Ije  some 
waves  whicli  lireak  on  reaching'  water  wliose  depth 
is  e(|ual  to  twice  their  own  heit;ht.  Proofs  of  the 
depth  to  wliich  the  surface  undulations  e.\tend 
have  been  given  by  Sir  George  Airy,  Sir  Jolin 
Coode,  Captain  Calver,  and  Mr  John  Murray,  C'.E. 
Kankine  has  shown  that  the  crest  and  trougliof  the 
sea  are  not,  as  was  generally  believed,  equidistant 
from  the  level  of  still  water.  When  I  is  the 
length  of  the  wave,  H  its  height  from  trough  to 
crest, 


Crest  aljove  still  water 


Trough  below  still  water  = 


H 
H 


785-4 


•7854 


I  ' 
W 

I  ' 


o'-FT'f-rm)  line= 


It  has  been  held  l)y  some  engineers  tliat  in  deep 
water  waves  are  jiurely  oscillatory,  having  no 
jiower  of  translation,  and  therefore  incapable  of 
exerting  any  force  against  a  vertical  face  of 
masonry.  This,  however,  is  incorrect.  Were  there 
no  wind  projielling  the 
waves,  no  current  to  in. 
terfere  with  their  char- 
acter, .and  no  interference 
with  one  another,  such  as 
the  rellectcd  wave  from  a 
vertical  face  meeting  the 
ne.xt  opposing  wave,  such 
a  theoiy  might  be  true. 
True,  however,  it  is  not ; 
ami  all  sea- works,  in  what- 
ever depth  of  water  tliey 
may  be  placed,  will  as- 
suredly have  to  withstand 
impulsive  action.  Be- 
sides, it  must  be  kept  in 
view  that  in  order  to  re- 
duce the  expense  of  con- 
struction it  is  essential, 
where  the  bottom  is  soft, 
to  make  the  foundation 
a  pile  of  loose  rubble  or 
concrete  blocks.  It  fol- 
lows from  wliat  lias  al- 
ready been  said  that  the 
rubble,  by  shoaling  the 
water  in  front  of  the  work, 
will  cause  the  waves  to 
become  waves  of  transla- 
tion before  they  reach  the 
vertical  superstructure, 
which,  assuming  the 
waves  to  have  been  simply 
oscillatory,  would  have 
rellectcd     them     without 

lireaking,  and  therefore  without  their  having  exerted 
an  impulsive  force  further  than  statical  pressure 
upon  the  masonry. 

There  is  no  lixed  rule  iis  to  the  best  prolile  of 
any  sea-work,  which  must  necessarily  depend  upon 
a  v.ariety  of  local  pectiliarities,  such  as  tlu'  nature 
of  the  bottiim.  and  the  size  and  ipiality  of  the 
materials  obtainable.  While  a  long,  shining  break- 
water does  not  oiler  the  same  amount  of  resistance 
to  the  waves,  neither  is  it  in  itself  so  strong,  for 
the  weight  resting  on  the  face-stones  is  decreased 
in  propcntion  to  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  the  slope. 
On  the  other  hanil,  the  tendency  of  the  waves 
to  produce  horizontal  disiilacement,  supposing  the 
direction  of  the  imjiinging  particles  to  be  horizontal, 
is  (iroportional  to  the  cube  of  the  sine  of  the  angle  of 
clccdtion  iif  the  trail. 


In  tidal  harbours,  or  those  in  shoal-water,  it  is 
admitted  by  all  that  the  waves  break,  and  therefore 
exert  an  impulsive  force.  Such  works  have  to 
withstand  ( 1 )  the  direct  horizontal  force  which 
tends  to  remove  the  masonry;  (2)  the  vertical 
force  acting  upwards  on  projecting  stones  or 
protuberances,  and  against  the  lying  beds  of  the 
stones;  (.3)  the  vertical  force  acting  downwards 
upon  the  talus  wall,  or  passing  over  the  parapet 
and  falling  upon  the  ro.adway  ;  (4)  the  back- 
draught,  which  is  apt  to  remove  the  soft  bottom  in 
front  of  the  work;  and  (5)  the  blowing  action  of 
waves  on  the  air  or  water  which  fills  the  inter- 
stices of  open-work  piers. 

In  designing  the  ground-plan  of  harbours,  some 
rules  should  he  kept  in  view  :  ( 1 )  the  entrance 
should  be  always  kept  seawards  of  the  works  of 
masonry,  care  being  taken  that  the  direction  of 
the  piers  does  not  throw  the  sea  across  the  en- 
trance ;  (2)  there  should  be  a  good  'loose,'  or  point 
of  departure  free  of  rocks  or  a  lee-shore;  (3) 
spending  beaches  inside  should  be  provided  to 
allow  the  waves  that  pa,ss  in  to  Ineak  and  s]iend 
them.selves.  A  harbour  basin  surrounded  with 
vertical  quay  walls  becomes  a  '  boiling  pot ; '  this 
is  a  point  frequently  overlooked  by  engineers  ;  (4) 


looo  500 


Scale  of  Section 


i2"Feet 


J°Feet 


Fig.  4.— Calais  Harbour. 

the  relation  of  the  width  of  entrance  to  the  area  of 
a  harbour  should  be  a  matter  of  careful  study,  as 
npon  this  depends  the  trampiillity  of  the  interior, 
or  what  has  been  called  the  reductive  power  of  the 
harbour.  Stevenson's  formula  ior  the  reducli\e 
power  is  given  below  :  II  =  height  of  wave  at 
entrance  ;  h  -  breadth  of  entrance  ;  B  =  breadth  of 
harlmurat  place  of  oliservation  :  I)  =  distance  from 
mouth  of  harbour  to  place  of  ob.servathui  :  x  = 
reduced  height  of  wave  at  jilace  of  observation. 


H\  6 


(H  + 


H^)^!^ 


\'  B  50 

Fig.  4  represents  the  harbour  of  Calais,  which 
was  constructed  by  the  French  government,  and 
openeil   on   Sd   June    1889.      Great   difliculty    was 


554 


HARBOUR    GRACE 


HARDENBERG 


ex|>erienee(l  in  keeping  tlie  entrance  free  from 
sttii.l,  the  ol.l  sliiiiiii;;  basin  beinj:  foun.l  cpiite 
inaileqiuitc  for  the  imr|K)se  on  at-count  of  its  «lis- 
tiiiK-e  from  the  entriinoe.  Tlie  large  Uusin  con 
structod  ha-i  jiroveil  more  etleotive,  enal)ling  much 
hirger  steamers  now  to  he  jmt  n|iim  tlie  passage. 

Uendels  plan  of  ileiM>siting  rnhlile  from  open 
stages  of  pile-work  is  fre<|ueMtly  iiseJ  in  the 
constniolioM  of  ileep- water  piei-s. 

The  cross-sectional  form  of  hreakwaters  depends 
naturally  on  the  depth  of  water,  expo.sure,  ami  the 
materials  that  can  he  most  easily  ohtaiued.  The 
sy.stem  of  liringing  <ip  a  ruhhle  mound  to  within  12 
or  18  feet  of  low-water  level,  and  then  forming  a 
nia-sonry  wall  on  this  hase,  was  ailopteil  at  Portland, 
Alderney.  Wick,  llolyhe.'ul,  and  other  jdaccs;  while 
at  Dover  and  Aherileen  the  wall  with  a  slight 
hatter  has  been  brought  up  from  the  bottom.  The 
introduction  of  I'ortlaml  cement  concreli?  in  coin- 
parativelv  recent  times,  as  de.scrilied  in  the  article 
Hkkakwatkii  (Vol.  II.  p.  41o),  lia.s  greatly  facili- 
tatol  the  work  of  the  havbonr  engineer. 

The  commercial  value  of  a  harbour  increases, 
according  to  Stevenson,  not  .simply  as  the  depth 
of  the  water  is  increiused,  but  as  tin-  nihr  of  the 
dijitlt.  Hence  the  great  e.\pense  which  is  willingly 
incurred  for  securing  even  a  foot  or  two  of  addilimial 
depth.  The  greatest  achievement  in  deepening  is 
at  the  Tyne,  where  I're  dredged  out  the  channel 
to  20  feet  at  low-water  all  the  way  up  to  New- 
castle In  18«9-95  Messrs  Stevenson  of  Kdinburgh 
deepened  tlie  lower  reaches  of  the  t'lyde  to  23 
feel  at  low-water  spring  tides.  Scouring  is  .•ils_o 
emidoyeil  for  increasing  the  ilepth,  as  by  Sir  W. 
Cubitt  at  Cardill',  where  2.'>(H)  tons  of  water  a 
minute  are  let  oil'.  Uendel's  scheme  for  Kirken- 
liead  was  base<l  simply  on  the  quantity  liberated 
and  the  sectional  area  of  the  channel,  ami  wrus 
therefore  o|ierative  for  any  distance,  and  did  not 
depend  on  tin;  propelling  head,  or  on  the  ilirec- 
tion  in  which  the  water  left  the  sluices,  which  con- 
ditions regulate  ordinary  .scouring  on  the  sin.all 
scale,  and  which  is  eilicacious  for  only  short 
distances  from  the  outlet.— Docks  (i\.v.)  of  various 
kinils  are  connected  with  harbours. 

Pine  timber  is  ailniirably  adapted  for  soft  soil.s, 
when  the  exposure  is  not  great,  but,  owing  to  the 
rav.iges of  the  Tticdo  iiuvalU and  Liinnuriit  hnOrniis 
in  localities  where  there  is  no  admixture  of  fresh 
water,  it  is  soon  destroveil.  Oreenlieart,  African 
oak,  and  bullet-tree  are  little  alVected  by  the  worm, 
as  shown  by  experiments  m.ade  in  1814  at  the  liell 
Kock  hy  liobert  Stevenson.  Even  limestone  and 
sandstoiie  are  i>erfoiated  by  the  I'liolades  and 
Saxicava-.  Metals  also  sulfer  from  chemical  action 
when  immersed  in  sjilt  water.  George  Kennie's 
experiments  showed  that  wrought  iron  resists  tliis 
action  lietter  than  cast  in  the  ratio  of  8  to  1  ;  while 
Mallet's  experiments  show  that  from  ,V,tli  to  ,*,5ths 
of  an  inch  in  depth  of  castings  1  inch  thick,  aiid 
about  I'V.ths  of  wrought  iron,  will  be  destroyed  in 
a  century  in  clean  salt  water.  A  cannon-hall  ih 
inches  in  iliameler  became  oxidi-sed  to  the  extent 
of  Jths  of  an  inch  in  the  century. 

See  Bre.vkw.vteb,  Docks,  Coalixg  St.\tioxs.  ami  the 
articles  on  t".vi..Ms,  Chekbocrg,  Dovek,  H.vvke,  Holv- 
HK.vi),  Petehhkad,  Plymouth,  I'ortland,  ic.  ;  also 
Sir  John  Kennie's  book  on  Harbours  (4  vols.  ISol- 
54 1;  Thomas  .Stevenson,  Dciijn  and  Coiistruclion  of 
Jfarhoura  (3d  cd.  1S80I;  L.  F.  Vernon  Harcourt, 
H'irljours  and  Dorku  (2  vols.  188.5);  and  the  Minutes  of 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  passim. 

Harbour  trace,  a  port  of  entrj-  and  the 
second  town  of  Newfoundland,  on  the  west  snle 
of  Cimccption  15ay,  84  miles  by  rail  WNW.  of  St 
John's,  li.as  a  large  but  .somewhat  exposed  liarbimr, 
with  a  revolving  light,  and  carries  on  a  consider- 
able trade.     It   is  the  seat  of   a  Konian  Catholic 


bisho]),    and    contains    a  Catholic    cathedral  and 
convent.      I'op.  70o4. 

Ilarltlir^.  a  seaport  of  Prussia,  in  the  pri>vince 
of  Luncbuig,  Ls  situated  5  miles  S.  of  Hamburg, 
on  the  Elbe.  Its  iiulustries  include  guttapercha 
gtMids,  palm-oil,  cotlon-seeil  oil,  saltpetre  and 
other  chemicals,  nrtilicial  manure,  walknigslicks, 
leather,  mineral  water,  machines,  lieer,  and  jute. 
Since  the  deepening  of  the  Kibe  the  commerce  of 
Hnrburg  has  greatly  increa.seil.  It  is  a  place  of 
holidav  resort  for  the  Hamburgers.  Pop.  (1S7j) 
17,1^1";  (  1S8.-)  I  22.344. 

Harcniirt,  Sin  William  Vernos,  the  second 
son  of  th"-  late  Hev.  William  Vernon  Harcourt 
of  Nuneham  Park,  Oxfordshire,  and  grandson  of  a 
former  Archbishop  of  Vork,  was  Ikuu  October  14, 
1827,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  with  high  liononis  in  18.')1.  He 
W.1S  calleil  to  the  bar  in  18.")4,  went  llie  Home 
Circuit,  and  w.is  made  a  (Jiieen's  Counsel  in  iJSOli. 
It  was  during  this  period  that  he  nc<iuired  ilistinc- 
tion  by  his  contributions  to  the  Sulunlinj  Hiricir, 
and  his  lettei-s  in  the  Times  under  the  sigiiiiture 
of  •Historicus.'  After  unsuccessfully  contesting 
the  Kirkcaldy  burghs,  he  was  returneil  to  jiarlia- 
ment  for  the  city  of  Oxford  as  a  Liberal  in  lSti8. 
The  following  year  he  waselccte.1  profe.ssc  ir  of  Inter- 
national Law  ill  the  university  of  Cambridge.  ^  He 
tiMik  an  independent  tone  iii  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, sometimes  attacking  both  friends  and  foes. 
Hut  the  undoubled  mark  which  he  made  bv  his 
abilities  and  oratory  caused  him  to  Ik-  appointed 
.solicitor-general  in  "November  1.S73,  « bin  he  re- 
ceived the  honour  of  knighthood.  He  held  olbce 
until  Mr  lllailstone's  retirement  in  Pebruary  1874, 
anil  when  that  statesman  returned  to  power  in 
18811  he  was  appointed  Home  Secretary.  Oh 
seeking  re-election  at  Oxford,  however,  he  was 
defeated,  but  was  almost  immediately  returned 
for  Derby  upon  the  opportune  reliiemeiit  of  Mr 
Pliinsoll."  During  the  session  of  18.S0  Sir  William 
piloted  the  tHduiid  Came  liill  through  the  Hou.se 
of  Commons,  and  in  1881  he  introiluced  the  .•\niis 
Bill  (Ireland)  in  a  speech  which  was  strongly 
resented  by  the  Irish  members.  He  brought  in  the 
Prevention  of  Crimes  Hill  ( 1882)  and  the  Explosives 
Bill  of  1883,  which  dealt  summarily  with  dynaiiiile 
outrages.  He  next  made  an  abortive  attemiit  to 
grapide  with  the  municipality  of  London.  The 
ministerial  policy  in  the  Simdan  he  defended  with 
much  skill  on  various  occasiims.  In  1885  Sir 
William  went  out  of  office  with  liLs  chief,  but 
returned  with  him,  as  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer, 
to  iiower  for  six  months  in  18.s(j--an  ollice  be  resumed 
in  Sir  ( Hailstone's  Home  Ilule  cabinet  of  18!»2.  and 
held  till  189.5.  He  w.os  elected  leader  of  the  Liberal 
party  (out  of  ollice)  on  the  resignation  of  Lord 
Roseberv  in  1896,  which  office  he  resigned  in  De- 
i  cember  "l89S.  The  letters  of  'Historicus'  were 
pul)lis!i''l  in  voliinic  form  in  18G.3. 

HardaiiKcr  Fjord.    See  Nohway,  p.  529. 

Ilardriiltori;,  Hkisrich  vo.\.    See  NoyALis. 

liar«l<-iilH-r;i:.  Kakl  Aigust,  Prince  vox, 
a  Prussian  statesman,  was  born  at  Essenroda,  in 
Hanover.  May  31,  1750.  After  labouring'  for  twelve 
years  (1770-82)  in  the  .service  of  Hanover  and 
eight  in  the  service  of  Brunswick,  Hardenlierg 
chanced  to  attract  the  attention  of  Krederick- 
William  II.  of  Pnissia.  On  his  recommendation 
he  was  nominateil  administr.icor  of  the  principality 
of  Ansbach  and  Baireuth,  and  after  the  union  of 
this  latter  to  Prussia  in  1791  was  a|q)ointed  a 
Prussian  minister  of  state  and  a  member  of  the 
cabinet  ministry.  In  this  capacity  his  chief  work 
was  the  negotiation  of  peace  between  Pnissia 
and  the  French  Republic  at  H;usel  in  1795.  _Oji 
the  accession   of    Frederick-William   III.  in  1797, 


HARDERWr.JK 


HARDY 


555 


Hanlenljerg  was  entrusted  wit li  the  iiiaiiajjeiiient  i)f 
iiupiirtant  brandies  of  internal  att'airs,  anil  in  180;5 
became  first  Prussian  minister.  Tin-  ]irinci|ial  aim 
of  liis  policy  \va^  to  preserve  neutrality  in  the  war 
between  h'rance  anil  Englanil :  but  in  KSUU,  when 
Prussia  \vas  coerced  by  Napoleon  into  becoming 
his  ally,  HarJenberg  was  disniisseil.  In  IHU),  how- 
ever, he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  state  in  suc- 
cession to  .Stein  (((.v.);  and  although  Prussia  was 
at  this  ])eriod  in  a  deplorable  condition,  humbled 
in  the  very  dust  before  Prance,  Hardenberg  ad- 
dressed himself  to  the  task  of  completing  the 
internal  reforms  begun  by  his  predecessor.  In  the 
war  of  lil)eration  he  took  a  prominent  part,  and 
saw  his  eflorts  crowned  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  June 
Is  14.  Soon  after  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
prince.  He  accompanied  the  allied  sovereigns  to 
Lonilou,  took  part  in  the  juoceedings  of  the  con- 
gress at  Vienna,  and  in  the  treaties  of  Paris  ( 1815). 
In  1S17  he  reorganised  the  council  of  state,  of 
wliich  he  was  appointed  president.  He  was  also 
piesent  at  the  congresses  of  .-Vixla-Chapelle,  Carls- 
bad, \'ienna,  Lauliach,  and  Verona  ;  and  <lrew  up 
the  new  Prussian  system  of  imposts.  During  a 
tour  through  the  north  of  Italy  he  was  taken  ill  at 
Pavia,  and  died  at  Genoa,  '2Gth  November  1822. 
To  Hardenberg  Prussia  is  mainly  indebted  for  the 
improvements  in  her  army  system,  the  abolition  of 
serfdom,  of  the  privileges  of  the  nobles,  and  of  a 
nuiltituile  of  trade  corporations,  the  encourage- 
ment of  municipal  institutions,  and  the  reform  of 
her  educational  system.  Yet  in  his  later  years 
he  was  unable  to  overcome  the  reactionary  tend- 
encies of  the  king ;  all  he  could  do  wa-s  to  moderate 
tlicm  and  prevent  them  running  to  e.xcess.  See 
Itauke's  Di'nkirurdirihfif'^t  drs  Fitrstcii  fon  llnrthn- 
l/eiy  (o  \ols.  1877),  which  includes  Hardeuberg's 
own  memoirs. 

Ilardemijk,  a  fishing-town  of  the  Netlier- 
lands,  on  the  south-east  shore  of  the  Zuider 
Zee,  :M  miles  NE.  of  Utrecht  by  rail.  From  IWS 
to  isll  it  was  the  seat  of  a  university.  It  is  now 
a  depot  for  recruits  for  the  Dutch  East  Indian  armv. 

Pop.  7;i;». 

IlarUliead.    See  Menhadex. 

Ilai'dioailllte.  king  of  England,  son  of  Canute 
the  Cueat  liy  Emma  of  Normandy,  the  wiilow  of 
Ethelred  11."  At  the  time  of  his  father's  death 
(10.;."))  Hardicanute  was  in  Denmark,  and  the 
throne  of  England  was  given  by  the  witenagemot 
to  Harold,  his  younger  brother;  Wessex,  however,  > 
w;vs  reserved  for  the  absent  prince,  whose  claims  j 
to  the  kingdom  were  upheld  by  ( lodwin  and  Emma. 
(In  tiie  death  of  Harold  in  1040  Hardicanute  was 
elected  king  in  his  ]ilace  :  but  he  oidy  reigned  two 
years,  dying  of  apoplexy  in  1042.  Vet  in  that  short 
time  he  provoked  the  discontent  of  his  subjects  by 
the  imiiiisition  of  a  very  heavy  dancrjeld. 

llardillST,  Stephen-,  the  third  abbot  of  the 
celebrated  monastery  of  Citeaux,  an  Englishman 
by  biith,  who  endeavoured  to  restore  the  lienedic- 
tine  rnle  to  itsiuiginal  simplicity.  He  died  in  1134. 
See  l-'lsTKuri.\NS. 

llardiiisc  Hexkv  H.msdinoe,  Vi.'scofST,  I 
llrili-h  geiieial  and  governor-general  of  India,  was 
lioiM  at  Wrotham,  in  Kent,  30th  .March  1785. 
(ia/etted  an  ensign  in  1798,  he  served  all  through 
the  Peninsular  war,  fighting  in  most  of  its  battles, 
being  wounded  at  Vimiera  and  Vittoria.  and  taking 
a  decisive  part  in  the  .sanguinarv  contest  at  .Albuera. 
Prom  1809  to  1813  he  was  also  attached  to  the 
Portuguese  armyas  a  deputy-quartermaster-general. 
(Ml  till-  renewal  of  hostilities  after  Napoleon's  escape 
from  Klba,  Hardinge  hastened  to  join  Wellington, 
who  iqipointed  him  commissioner  at  the  Prussian 
head(|u.arters.  In  eonsei|uence  of  a  severe  wound 
received  at  Ligny  he  was  unable  to  take  part  in 


the  battle  of  AVaterloo.  From  1820  to  1844  he  took 
an  active  share  in  parliamentary  life,  wa.s  Secretary 
for  War  under  Wellington  in  1828,  and  afterwanls 
Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland.  In  1844  he  was  ap- 
pointed Governor-General  of  India.  It  was  during 
his  tenure  of  office  that  the  lirst  Sikh  v.ar  bioke 
out.  After  the  peace  of  Lahore  (1845)  he  was 
created  a  vi.scoiint,  and  granted  a  iiension  of  t'.">oiii) 
by  the  East  India  Company,  as  well  as  one  of  t'MoiiO 
for  three  lives  by  ])arliamenl.  In  1852  he  suc- 
ceeded Wellington  as  eomnianderin-chief  of  the 
Urilish  army.  In  18.>o  he  was  maile  held  marshal. 
In  Jnly  of  the  following  year  he  resigned  the  office 
of  eomnuin<ler-in-cliief,  and  on  the  24lli  of  Septem- 
ber 1S5U  died  at  South  Park,  near  Tuubridge.  See 
the  monograph  by  his  son  ( 1891 ).  • 

Hard  Labour.    See  Pitisuxs. 

Ilardoilin.  Je.vn,  an  eccentric  clii.s.sical  scholar, 
was  born  in  lt>4(5,  at  Qnimjier,  in  Brittany,  entered 
the  Jesuit  order  at  the  age  of  twenty,  and  from  1083 
lilled  the  post  of  librarian  of  the  college  of  Louis  le 
Granil  in  I'ari.s.  In  a  s])irit  of  eccentric  scepticism, 
ILudouin  maintained  tluit  the  entire  body  of  cliL-si- 
cal  literature,  with  the  exception  of  Cicero's  writing.s, 
Pliny's  Xafiiral  Mistori/,  Viigils  Gcorijirs,  Horace's 
Sadies  and  Epistles,  Homer's  IliatI,  and  Herodotiiss 
History,  wa-s  spurious,  and  had  been  written  by  the 
monks  of  the  13th  century.  He  also  rejected  all 
the  reputed  remains  of  ancient  art,  together  with 
the  inscriptions  and  coins  which  are  attributed  to 
cla-ssical  times;  nay,  he  even  extended  his  scepti- 
cism to  the  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  to  the  (ireek  text  of  the  New,  the 
original  langu.age  of  which  he  held  to  have  been 
Latin  !  HesMes  this,  he  condemned  as  apocryphal 
all  councils  of  the  Church  anterior  to  the  Conncil  of 
Trent.  Yet,  with  all  this  extravagance,  Hanlonin 
w;is  a  scholar  of  real  attainments,  and  most  of  his 
works  posse-ss  historical  and  critical  value.  |iar- 
ticularly  his  edition  of  Pliny  (5  vols.  4to,  Paris, 
1GS9).  Of  his  renuiining  works,  the  nmst  valuable 
is  the  Cullectio  VoncHtonnn  (12  vols,  folio,  Paris, 
1715);  a  commentary  on  the  New  Testament,  in 
folio;  .and  several  volumes  on  numismatics  and 
chrimology.     He  die<l  at  Paris,  September  3,  1729. 

Hardwdr  (Br<iidtcur«,  'Vishnu's  gate'),  \ier- 
haps  the  most  famous  spot  on  the  Ganges,  slamls 
on  the  right  or  west  bank  of  the  river,  at  the  point 
where  it  emerges  from  the  sub  Himal.aya  into  the 
plains  of  Hindustan,  39  miles  NE.  of  SaliarnnjMir, 
North-west  Provinces,  l-'rom  its  position  on  the 
sacred  stream,  it  attracts  immense  numbers  of 
jiilgrims  for  the  purposes  of  ablution,  as  many  as 
100,000  in  ordinary  .seasons  (March  and  .\])rih,  but 
eveiT  twelfth  ve.ar  a  sacreil  festival  brings  about 
300,1X10.  Har(lw;ir  is  1024  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
has  a  jiop.  of  4520.     See  Ganges. 

Hardy,  .\i.ex.\xdre.  a  prolific  Parisian  drama- 
tist (  l.-)70';-16.30'M,  from  IGOO attached  , as  playwright 
to  the  newly-started  Theatre  dii  Mai.ais,  for  which 
he  wrote  from  five  to  seven  hundred  pieces,  of  which 
but  forty-one  are  e.xtant.  f  )f  his  jilays  ( ed.  Stengel. 
5  vols,  .\laibiiig,  188.3-84)  the  best  is  Miiriamiie. 

Hard.V.  Siu  Tiiom.\s  Diffi'.s.  a  distinguisheil 
pal;eo;;rapher,  was  born  in  1804,  in  Jamaica,  the 
son  of  a  major  of  artillery.  His  earliest  writings — 
illustrating  the  reign  of  King  .John — appeared  in 
Arcliiiiiliitiitt  :ind  the  Exrcrpla  Ilisturicii.  In  IStil 
he  succeedeil  Sir  Francis  Palj,'rave  .as  deputy-keeper 
of  the  Public  Records,  in  which  capacity  his  learn 
ing  was  ei|U,allecl  only  by  his  courtesy.  He  was 
kni'jhteil  in  1870,  and  died  in  London  loth  June 
1878.  His  most  important  works  were  two  folio 
volumes  of  the  early  Close  Itolls  (1833-44),  one  of 
the  I'atrtit  Rolls  ( 18,35),  and  others  of  the  Xoniinii 
liolls  (1835)  and  Clmrter  Rolls  (18:17)  for  the  Re- 
cord Comniissiou  ;  Cutttlofjuc  of  Lord  Chaucelloi-s, 


556 


HARDY 


HARE 


Keepei-xof  fircat  Seal,  XIiu'*tersof  Uolls,  &c.  ( 1843)  ; 
a  lie-s'iijilhr  Caliilngiic  i>f  MUS.  on  liiitish  liis- 
toiv  (.'{  vols.  lX(i'i-71);  and  The  lufiinter  nf  Uirliiiiil 
ik'Kdliiwc,  1873-7S).— His  Wrother,  SluWlLLlAM 
Hakdv,  was  lioin  6lli  July  1807.  On  liis  brollier's 
ileatli  in  1878  lie  succeeded  a.s  depulvkecpcr,  was 
knisliU'd  ill  1883,  and  died  17tli  -Maicli  18«7.  He 
editctl  Wauiiii's  Jiciciicit  tlai  Chioiiiijiics  (4  vols. 
1804-84  1. 

Ilard.v.  Sii!  TiiiiM.vs  M.vstertos  (1769-1839), 
lioiii  at  l'orli.-.liain,  in  Doi-setsliiie,  was  closely 
jiissociatcd  in  his  naval  career  with  Nelson  (f|.v.). 

Hardy,  Tiiom.\s,  one  of  the  foremost  of  niodern 
ICiiLili^li  novelist.s.  a.  writer  of  singular  power  and 
of  liiarked  individiialily,  wa.s  born  at  ri)|i<'r  liock- 
haniiilon,  in  Doisetsliiie.  on  2d  .liiiie  1840.  He 
wa--  Uaiiird  as  an  ecclesiastioal  aicliilect  at  Dor- 
chester, Imt  spent  a  ^reat  part  of  liis  piipilajje  in 
iea<lin^  Latin  and  tJreek  with  a  fellow  student. 
In  Lon<lon  in  1863  lie  trained  the  l)ri^e  and  medal 
of  the  Institute  of  British  Architects  and  Sir  W. 
Tite's  prize  for  architectural  de.sij,'U  ;  here  too  he 
found  time  to  study,  at  King's  College  and  other- 
wise, moilern  languages,  literature,  and  theology. 
He  also  began  to  write:  an  article,  'How  I  built 
myself  a  House,'  appeared  in  Cham  he  is. t  Juiinial 
in  180J,  anil  ranks  ivs  his  tirst  published  produc- 
tion. The  experiment  of  a  not  unsuccessful  novel, 
Desiieratc  liemedies  (1871:  new  ed.  18',K)),  shai>ed 
his  destiny  ;  and  about  1873  he  delinitely  foi-sook 
the  )irofessioii  of  architecture  for  that  of  literature. 
i'lider  the  drceniruod  Tree  (187-1  remains  one  of 
his  most  charming  stories  ;  and  this  and  ..1  I'tiir  uf 
lllue  Ei/cs  ( 1873)  prepared  the  way  for  his  first  great 
work,  i-'iir  f'loiii  /he  A/n/ldiiiif  Vinird  (1874),  which, 
first  issued  in  Conihill  as  a  serial,  h.xs  remaineil  on 
the  whole  his  most  popular  book.  It  was  f<dlowed 
bv  The  llniid  of  Elhclhcrtu  (1876),  The  lUtitrn  of 
the  Nalire  (1878),  The  Tiiimpel-miijor  (1880),^! 
Lriodieran  (1881),  Two  on  a  Tower  (1882),  The 
Mdifor  of  Casterbridf/e  (1886),  The  Ji'ood/diiders 
(1887),  11  mscj:  7'«/es  (collected  1888),  A  Group  of 
Soble  Dames  (1891),  Tess  of  the  D'Urhervillex 
(1891),  Life's  Lillle  Ironies  and  A  Few  Crusted 
Characters  (collected  1894),  Jttde  the  Ubsciire 
(189.">),  and  The  Well-beloved  (1897).  -Much  of 
Mr  Hardy's  earlier  work  was  in  poetry,  but  most 
of  his  verses  he  destroyed  :  and  it  wa,s  not  till  1898 
that  a  volume  of  M'essex  J'ucms  ajipeared.  Mr 
Hardy  has  contributeil  largely  to  periodical  litera 
ture,  and  two  of  his  stories  have  been  dramatiseil. 
Of  his  novels,  some  critics  have  preferred  The 
Iteturn  of  the  Natire,  othei's  The  Trumjictmujor : 
but  'Jess  of  the  If  Urberrilles  is  for  most  people  his 
most  characteristic  and,  on  the  whole,  his  greatest 
work.  It  was  not  for  nothing  that  in  youth  Mr 
Hardy,  as  architect's  apprentice  in  church  resto 
ration,  visited  innumerable  villages  throiigliout 
Wessex  ;  not  for  nolhing  did  he  elect  to  remain  a 
Wes-sex  man.  If  there  be  any  tales  that  are  racy 
of  the  soil,  it  is  Mr  Hardy's  stories  of  Wesse.v  life 
and  manners,  t^iiilo  exceiitional  is  his  command 
of  rustic  humour,  of  the  \Vesse.x  ilialect,  ami  of 
pithy  dialogue.  But  his  chiefesl  characteristic  is 
perhaps  Iris  det«rmiDation  at  all  risks  to  present  in 
all  its  width  and  depth  the  tragedy  of  human  lifi 
perhaps  to  err  on  the  side  of  regarding  life  jis  to 
terribly  and  inevitably  .sad  and  sombre.  Our  social 
system  is  very  imperfect,  even  rotten  :  conventions 
and  proprieties  are  hollow  ;  cant  and  shams  abound  ; 
our  .social  code  is  cniel  and  cruelly  unequal.  Tiussion 
ami  the  pa.ssions  are  the  key  of  life  and  of  litera 
lure,  and  freedom  of  speech  mnst  be  maintained 
and  e.xercised.  Sincerity  in  art  forbids  the  artist 
to  call  a  spade  anything  but  a  spade,  or  to  invent 
happy  endings  for  too  true  stories.  Kven  friendly 
(lilies  reproach  Mr  Hardy  with  pe.s.simism,  some- 


times to  the  verge  of  morbidness.      But  it  may 

.safely  Ijc  said  that  if  lie  is  pessimist  he  is  not 
cynical  :  enough  there  certainly  is  of  satire  and 
irony.  In  all  his  stories  iiiiily  of  plan  is  con- 
sistently  kept  in  view,  and  incidents  all  work 
towards  the  inevitable  conclusion.  The  nervous 
Knglish  style — appropriate  rather  than  brilliant, 
natural  rather  than  exipiisite — is  in  just  keejiing 
with  the  austerity  of  the  issues  handled  ami  the 
archiicctonic  coiiipleteiie.ss  of  the  presentment. 

Tlu-re  are   iiiono^ra)ilis  on   Mr  Hanlv  and  his  art  by 
Miss   Macdonell   ( IStM  I   and   Mr  Lionel  Johnson  (ls!t4) 
I  —the    Litter   with    a   full    hihlio^'rapliy   of   Mr   Hardy's 
I  publicatioiih. 

I  lianlyii:;.  "r  Harding,  Jems,  a  l.')th-centur>' 
!  English  rhvming  chronicler,  wiis  born  in  1378,  and 
was  br(«ig)it  up  in  the  houseludd  of  Harry  Percy, 
the  famous  Hotspur,  whom  he  saw  fall  on  Shrews- 
bury held  in  1402.  I'ardoned  for  his  treason,  he 
served  under  Sir  Robert  I  infraville,  became  con- 
stable of  Warkworth  (.'astle,  fought  at  Agincourt, 
and  served  the  crown  in  coiilidential  and  critical 
niis.sioiis  to  Scotland.  His  chronicle,  comjio.sed  in 
limping  stanzas,  and  treating  the  history  of  Kng- 
laiid  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  lliglit  of 
I  Henry  \'l.  into  Scotland,  he  rewrote  and  presented 
to  Kiiward  I\'.  just  after  his  accession.  It  is  poor 
history  and  ]pooier  poetry,  but  the  account  of  the 
'  Agincourt  campaign  has  the  interest  of  the  eye- 
I  witne.s.s.  For  his  hostility  to  the  Scots  he  hatl 
api>arently  giM)d  grounds  in  his  own  experience. 
Harilyng's  Chroiiiile  was  c(Uitiiiued  by  the  printer 
Richard  Grafton  down  to  the  thirty-fourth  year  of 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIll.,  but  Crafton's  work  was 
little  more  than  a  recast  of  ll.ill.  The  l>est  edition 
of  Hardvng's  Chronicle  and  its  continuation  is  that 
by  Sir  Henry  Ellis  (1812). 

Hare,  a  term  including  all  membei-s  of  the 
roilent  family  Leporidie.  with  the  exception  of  the 
rabbit.  Its  chief  distinctive  characters  are  as 
follows  :  four  incisor  teeth  in  the  upper  j.iw 
(instead  of  two  as  in  most  liodentia),  two  .small 
square  teeth  staniling  immediately  behind  the  w  ell- 
known  front  teeth  :  live  or  six  molai-s  in  the  upper 
■and  live  in  the  lower  jaw,  which  .are  composed  of 
two  tlat  plates  disposeil  transversely  :  lips  thick, 
w  ith  a  dee|i  median  incision  and  very  moliile,  w  itli 
long  bristles  ;  eyes  large  ;  ears  more  or  less  long  ; 
head  and  body  long  and  compre.sse<I ;  hind-legs 
long  (except  in  Lagomys),  five  toes  on  the  fore, 
four  on  the  hind  legs  ;  tail  short.  The  body  is 
covered  by  a  thick,  almost  woolly  coat,  w  liich  is  in 
some  demand  for  making  hats.  Two  recent  genera 
only  are  included,  Leims  and  Lagomys.  The  I'oni- 
inon   Hare  (Lcjtus  liiiiidiis)  is  about  27  inches  in 


i  lu-  t  "ininnn  Marc  [L^jjtig  fuiu^hj.^}. 

length— of  which  only  3  inches  belong  to  the  tail  — 
1  foot  high,  and  weighs  13-20  lb.  The  fur  con- 
sists of  two  kinds  of  hairs,   one  short,  thick,  and 


HARE 


557 


woolly,  the  other  longer  and  stouter.  Tlie  colour, 
owing  to  the  vai"j'ing  tints  of  these  two  sets  of 
hairs,  is  a  thill  reiKlish-brown,  paler  on  the  sides 
and  white  below,  which  from  its  resemblance  to 
the  earth  is  admirably  adapted  to  conceal  tlie 
animal. 

The  hare  is  in  the  main  of  nocturnal  habits,  and 
passes  llie  ilay  sleeping  in  its  'form,'  a  slight 
dejirL'ssion  among  the  grass  and  other  herbage,' 
sheltered  from  the  sun  in  summer  and  the  wind  in 
winter.  In  the  evening  it  creeps  out  to  feed, 
nearly  all  vegetalile  substances  being  palatable  to 
it ;  green  vegetaliles  and  root-crops  are,  however, 
its  special  delicacies,  though  it  will  gnaw  the  bark 
ofV  trees  when  hard  pressed.  In  places  where  it  is 
protected  liy  game-laws  it  does  great  damage  on 
account  of  its  voracity  and  feitility. 

In  addition  to  its  protective  colouring,  caution 
and  speed  are  the  hares  security.  Crouched  in  its 
foru],  on  any  sign  of  danger  it  at  once  sits  up  on  its 
haunches  and  looks  around  ;  its  next  action  is  to 
crouch  down  and  try  to  conceal  itself ;  should  this 
fail  and  the  enemy  approach  too  near,  it  betakes 
itself  to  flight,  in  which  its  long  hind-legs  give  it 
a  great  advantage  in  running  either  on  a  level  or 
u])liill  ;  in  descending  it  proceeds  diagonally,  other- 
wise its  springs  would  overturn  it.  Its  course  is 
chosen  with  great  cunning  so  as  to  place  all  possible 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  its  pursuer,  and  though  it 
does  not  take  naturally  to  water  it  has  been 
known  to  swim  a  considerable  distance  when 
closely  ju-essetl.  It  has  many  enemies  ;  nearly  all 
beasts  and  birds  of  prey  will  attack  it,  not  to 
mention  man,  whose  pursuit  is  treated  in  special 
articles  (see  Coursing  ;  also  G.\me  L.\ws). 

The  time  of  pairing  is  in  February  or  March, 
and  at  this  period  tlie  pugnacity,  which  is  even 
more  a  characteristic  of  this  cautious  animal  than 
its  proverbial  timidity,  comes  into  evidence,  for 
the  males  light  ferocioisly  for  the  females.  The 
period  of  gestation  is  thirty  days  ;  there  are  three 
to  five  young  (known  as  '  leverets')  in  each  litter, 
and  four  (rarely  five)  litters  are  produced  yearly; 
the  lirst  in  March,  the  last  in  August.  The  young 
can  see  \vlien  born,  and  are  only  inditterently  tended 
by  their  mother  for  about  a  month. 

The  Common  Hare  is  distributed  over  the  greater 
part  of  Europe  an<l  a  small  portion  of  western 
Asia,  as  far  north  as  Scotland,  south  Sweden,  and 
Persia,  and  as  far  south  as  France  anil  north 
Italy.  Three  ilitiereut  local  varieties  have  been 
recognised  :  ( 1 )  the  South  European  (  L.  iiirr/i- 
tcrniiii'Ks,  L.  meridional  is),  small,  short,  with 
looser  hair  of  a  reddish  tinge  ;  ("2)  the  Mid- European 
(L.  tiinidiis  s.  str. ,  L.  campirola),  stouter,  with 
longer  luiir  and  brownish-gray  ;  ( 3 )  the  Ea,stern 
form  (L.  Cfispicns),  very  thick-haired,  and  gray  or 
whitish-gray  in  colour. — The  Irish  Hare,  formerly 
known  as  L.  hil/cniiciis,  is  not  regarded  as  a  dis- 
tinct s|iecies  by  the  best  authorities,  but  as  a 
variety  of  the  Alpine  hare. 

The  Alpine  Hare  {L.  variabilis)  is  distinguished 
by  its  smaller  size,  the  shortness  of  the  eai"s, 
which  are  luit  so  long  as  the  head,  the  white  tail 
about  half  the  length  of  the  head,  and  the  form  of 
the  lirst  upper  molar.  It  occui-s  in  the  circum- 
pohir  regions  as  far  south  a.s  5.">  X.  lat.,  and  also 
in  elevated  positions  in  more  temoerate  regions, 
such  as  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  and  inobably  the 
Caucasus.  As  a  British  form  it  is  contineil  to  the 
north  of  Scotland  and  Cumberland.  Three  difi'er- 
ent  varieties  have  been  described :  ( 1 )  the  Polar, 
white  both  in  summer  and  winter,  with  the  ex- 
ce]itiiin  of  the  tips  of  the  cars:  (2)  .alpine  form 
or  •  lihic  Hare.'  grayish-ljrown  in  summer;  (.")) 
temi)crate  form,  grayish-brown  both  summer  and 
winter,  but  somewhat  whitish  in  the  latter  season. 
The  Irish  hare  is  probably  this  form. 


Two  species  of  hare  have  been  recorded  fiom 
India  and  central  Asia,  and  one  from  the  Cape. 
The  American  continent  yields  some  dozen  diH'erent 
forms,  only  one  of  which,  however,  occurs  in  the 
southern  portion.  Am<mg  these  are  the  Polar 
Hare  (L.  i/liicialis),  the  Xorthern  Hare  (L.  atneri- 
caniis),  and  I.,  arjnaticxs  and  L.  jjalustris,  the 
S«amp  and  Marsh  Hares  ;  these  last  are  excellent 
swimmers  and  divers. 

Fo.ssil  hares  have  been  found  in  the  Pliocene 
formations  of  Fiance,  the  Post-Pliocene  of  North 
America,  and  the  caves  of  Ihazil. 

The  Pikas  belong  to  the  genus  Lagomys  (some- 
times maile  the  type  of  a  clistinct  family,  Lago- 
myid.'c),  which  is  distinguished  from  Le]ius  by  its 
short  hind-legs,  very  short  tail,  and  rounded  ears, 
as  well  as  by  the  presence  of  complete  collar-bones. 

The  type  species  L.  aljtiiiiis  somewhat  resembles 
a  Guinea-pig  in  shape  and  size ;  the  colour  is 
reddish-yellow  sprinkled  with  black  above,  redder 
on  the  sides  and  front  of  the  neck,  paler  below.  It 
continually  emits  a  penetrating  whistle,  repeated 
two  or  three  times  in  .succes-sioii,  which  h.as  been 
compared  to  the  note  of  a  woodpecker.  It  inhabits 
burrows  in  the  ground  which  it  excavates  for  itself, 
and  in  which  it  stores  up  food  for  the  winter.  Its 
habits  are  nocturnal.  There  are  eleven  <liti'erent 
species,  which  extend  from  Kamchatka  along  the 
chain  of  mountains  in  the  centre  of  Asia,  just 
entering  Europe  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Volga.  In  America  they  are  confined  to  certain 
parts  of  the  Kocky  Moiinlain.s.  See  FuK.s  ;  and 
27te  Hare,  liy  Alacpherson,  Lascelles,  &c.  ('  Fur  and 
Feather '  series,  1S96). 

IIare<  Jilius  Chakle.s,  one  of  the  chief  early 
leaders  of  the  Broad  Church  (larty,  was  born  near 
Vicenza,  in  Italy,  September  13,  IT'Jo.  He  s|)cnt 
part  of  his  boyhood  in  (iermany,  and  after  his 
return  was  sent  to  the  Charterhouse,  from  which 
in  ISI'2  he  passed  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
Here  he  was  elected  to  a  fellowship  in  1818,  and 
afterwards  became  classical  lecturer.  He  tried  the 
study  of  law,  but  soon  abandoned  it,  took  orders  in 
1826,  and  succeeded  his  uncle  in  the  rich  family 
living  of  Hurstmonceaux,  Sussex,  in  1832.  He 
gathered  round  him  a  line  library  of  12,000  volumes, 
and  numbered  among  his  friends  Landor,  Maurice, 
Bunsen,  and  others  of  the  greatest  spiritual  teachers 
of  his  time.  He  had  .John  Sterling  as  his  cuiats 
(1834-3.')),  and  married  in  1844  Esther  Maurice, 
sister  of  Frederick  JIaurice.  He  became  Arch- 
deacon of  Lewes  in  1840,  in  1853  chaplain  to  the 
Queen,  and  died  January  23,  1855.  His  annual 
charges  are  among  the  most  important  sources  for 
a  study  of  the  ecclesiastical  c(Uitroversies  of  his 
time.  Another  great  service  that  he  did  was  to 
awaken  Englishmen  to  the  fact  that  they  had  much 
to  learn  in  theology  from  (Iermany.  His  style  is 
cumbrous,  and  his  books  gain  nothing  from  their 
orthograpliical  ]ieculiarities.  Already  in  182(»  he 
had  translated  Fouiiuc's  :ii>itra»i,  when  in  1827  he 
imblished  anonymously  Giitssciat  Tnitli,  written  in 
conjunction  with  his  brother  Augustus.  His  next 
work  wjvs  the  translation  of  Xiebuhr's  Histuri/  nf 
Borne  (1828-32)  in  collaboration  with  Thirlwall, 
anil  his  own  Viiidieation  of  yiebiiln's  Hist  urn 
(1829).  His  most  important  contributions  to 
theology  are  The  Viefori/  of  faith  (1840)  and  The 
Missioii  if  the  Comforter  (1846),  two  series  of 
elaborate  sermons  preached  at  Cambridge.'  In  1848 
he  edited  the  J.'emains  of  Joh}i  Sterling,  with  a 
life,  a  strong  sense  of  tlie  inadequacy  of  which 
inspired  Carlyle's  masterpiece.  Other  books  are 
Parish  Sermons  (2  vols.  1841-40)  and  a  Viniliea- 
tinn  of  f.iither  otfainst  his  Beeent  English  Assail- 
ants (18.')4).  See  his  nephew's  Memorials  of  a 
Quiet  /,//<•.— His  elder  but  less  important  brother, 
AuorsTis  William    Hake,   was  born  in   1792, 


558 


HARE 


HA  REM 


anil  ciliicateil  at  Wincliester  ami  New  College. 
(Ixfoiil,  whi'ie  lio  liecanie  a  Fellow  in  iliie  coursL'.  i 
He  was  a|i|ii.iiitf(l  in  IvJ!)  to  the  retiieil  living 
of  AlloM  It.iriie.s,  in  Wiltsliirc,  nianieil  in  l.S'.".l 
tlie  ;,'il'teil  Maria  Levcester  (1798-1870),  and  ilied 
inenialniely  at  Uonie  in  1834.  Besides  his  sliaie  i 
in  the  (tiiesses  at  Tnitli,  he  left  lifty-six  seiinons  j 
to  he  imhlislied  in  two  volumes  in  18.S7. — Alcil's- 
Tis  .Idhs  ('rniliKUr  Hauk,  neidiew  of  the  two 
preceilin^',  was  horn  at  Home  in  IS.'U,  ami  was 
eiliicated  at  Harrow  and  at  I'niversily  Collejjo.  Ox- 
ford, lie  has  written  a  series  of  -jood  descri|>tive 
books  revealinj;  line  artistic  taste  and  wide  know- 
le<lf;o  of  history  and  antiquities.  Amonj;st  these 
are  W'ltlhs  in  Ituiiie  (1871),  Wum/friiii/.i  in  S/tiiin 
(1S7.'{),  Diii/s  near  Jiotnr  (IS'J'y),  Cities  of  Xurt/irrn 
and  Cenlriil  Italif  (187G),  Wat/cs  in  Lomlun  (1878; 
new  ed.  1804),  Cities  of  Southern  Itali/  and  Hicily 
(1883),  Holland  and  Scandinavia  (1885),  Studies 
in  Hiissia  (1885),  Paris  and  Dai/s  near  Paris 
(1887),  South- Eastern  France  and  South- Western 
France  ( 1890),  Sussex  ( 1894),  &c.  Other  woiks  are 
liis  delifihtful  hiograi)hv  of  Maria  Hare,  Memorials 
of  a  Quiet  Life  (187'2-76);  the  Life  and  Letters  of 
jinronrss  Jlunsen  (1879),  Tuo  iVoWi;  Lives  (1893), 
anil  The  G'nrnei/s  of  Earl  ham  (1895).  See  his 
autoliio^'raphy  (1896). 

Ilarr.  lionicitT,  scientist,  was  hni-n  in  T'hila- 
<lrl|ihia,  I7lli  .lanuarv  1781,  and  (illed  the  chair  of 
Cliemistrv  in  the  University  of  Ponnsvlvania  there 
from  1818  to  1847.  He  died  Infli  May  1858.  In 
ISOl  Hare  doscrilied  his  discovery  of  the  oxy- 
hydrof;eti  lilowpipe  (see  IJi.owpiPE).  In  1816 
he  invented  the  j;nlvanio  calorimotor.  He  also 
devised  Improved  forms  of  the  volhiic  pile.  In 
his  later  years  he  lectured  on  spiritualism  and 
puhlished  Spiritualism  scientifically  demonstrated 
(New  York,  1855). 

Ilaro  :iii<l  Hounds.    See  ATni.ETic  Sports. 

liai'fhcll,  or   \\l.VV.\\^l.l,  {Campanula  rotundi- 

Jolia ),  the  most 
common  of  the 
IJritish  species  of 
IJeIll!o\ver  (see 
Camp  a  n  r  l  a  ), 
growin"  in  dry 
and  liilU'  pastures, 
on  waysides,  &c., 
is   found   in    most 

farts  of  Europe, 
t  is  a  perennial 
]!  1  a  n  t,  w  i  t  h  a 
slender  stem  G  to 
14  inches  hi^di, 
bearin{{  a  loose 
raceme  of  a  few 
drooping  flowers, 
on  very  slender 
stalks;  the 
floweis,  generally 
;  bright  blue,  but 
sometimes  \vhite, 
l)ell-sha|ied,  and 
about  half  an  inch 
.  long,  ajipear  in 
sum  m  er  an  il 
autumn.  The 
jnice  of  the  flowers  j'ields  a  fine  blue  colour,  and 
may  be  used  as  ink. 

Hareld  (llarelda),  a  genus  of  the  duck  family 
(Anatidje,  see  DuCK),  having  a  short  thick  bill, 
and  two  feathers  of  the  middle  of  the  tail,  in  the 
males,  greatly  elongated.  Two  species  are  known  ; 
the  best  known,  the  Long-tailed  Duck  or  Haield 
( //.  filncinlis).  inhabits  the  arctic  regions  both  of 
the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  its  winter  migrations  in 
America  extending  as  tar  south  as  the  Carolinas. 


Harebell  {Campanula  rotundifolia) 
a,  lower  stem-leaves. 


Ilarolip  is  the  name  applied  (from  its  re- 
semblance to  the  lip  of  the  Iiare)  to  a  congeidlal 
notch  or  cleft  in  the  upper  human  lip,  due  to  imper- 
fecl  union  at  ati  early  stage  of  ilcvclopment  of  the 
|>roces.ses  whose  formation  and  fusion  sei)arate  the 
mouth  fnmi  the  cavity  of  the  no.se.  The  ch-fl  is 
not  in  the  middle  line,  however,  as  in  the  hare; 
but  a  little  to  one  side  {.sini/lc  harelip),  or  theie  are 
two  clefts,  one  on  each  side  {duulilr  liarelip).  This 
ileformily,  especially  when  donble,  is  dftcn  a-soci- 
ated  witli  a  snuilar  clefect  in  the  niol  of  the  mouth 
(cleft  palate).  The  can.se  of  these  nrrest.s  of 
devcloimient  is  quite  unknown.  Harelip  is  not  at 
all  dangerous,  but  very  unsightly.  It  can  be 
remedied  by  a  surgical  operation,  which  most 
surgeons  prefer  to  perform  during  infancy. 

Ilai'<'lll  |.\rab.  E!-ttiiriui,  'the  inviolable')  is 
that  |)art  of  a  polygaudst's  house  w  liicli  is  set  apart 
for  the  use  of  his  wives  ami  their  attendants  ;  it 
al.so  denotes  this  collective  body  of  women.  In  all 
Mohammedan  countries  it  is  customary  for  wealthy 
men  lo  keep  a  liarein  :  for,  though  four  is  the 
number  of  wives  to  which  the  faithful  are  restricteil 
by  the  Koran,  there  is  no  lindt  to  the  number  of 
concubines  a  man  may  have  exceiit  his  ability  to 
maintain  tlieju.  Tlie  mention  of  a  liarem  niunrally 
suggests  to  most  ]ieople  the  female  portion  ol  the 
royal  houseludds  of  Turkey  and  I'ersia  and  Kgypt. 
In  the  sultan's  liarem  each  wife — he  alone  may 
have  seven— has  a  sejiaralc  suileof  apartments  and 
a  separate  trooji  of  female  slaves  to  wait  upon  her 
ami  do  her  bidding.  All  the  female  slaves  or 
odaliscpies  throughout  the  harem  are.  however,  at 
the  disjiosal  of  their  royal  master.  She  who  lirst 
gives  birth  to  an  heir,  whether  wife  or  slave,  is 
instantly  promoted  to  the  rank  of  chief  wife.  The 
title  sultana  is  home,  not  by  the  sultan's  wives, 
but  by  his  mother,  sistei-s,  and  claughters.  The 
real  ruler  of  the  harem  is  the  sultan's  mother,  but 
under  her  is  the  ladysuperintendeiit  of  the  |j;irem, 
usually  an  old  and  trusteil  favourite  of  the  sultan. 
The  duties  of  gufir<liiig  the  harem  or  seraglio  (  Ital. 
from  ijtilin  sera,  'a  bar;'  cf.  Turkish  ami  I'eisian 
serai  or  sarai/),  a.s  it  is  sometimes  called,  are 
entrusted  to  a  small  army  of  eunuchs,  the  chief 
oflicer  of  whom  generally  enjoys  considerable  polit- 
ical inlluence.  The  inmates  of  tin'  harem  bad  .i 
very  seiluded  life.  They  are  not  allowed  to  he 
seen  by  men.  exce|)t  their  nearest  relatives,  a-s 
father  and  brother.  Their  principal  occujiations  are 
needlework,  spinning,  and  embroiilery,  which  are 
relieved  by  the  'cult'  of  the  toilette,  and  such 
ainuseineuts  as  dancing,  singing,  and  games.  On 
the  death  of  the  sultan  those  women  who  have 
borne  daughters  to  him  are  at  liberty  lo  li'ave  the 
harem  and  many  again  :  the  mothers  of  nrinces  are 
transferred  to  the  'old  seraglio,'  and  Kept  there 
until  the.y  die.  In  the  harems  of  the  great  men 
of  Tnrke.v  and  Kgypt  a  good  deal  of  inoderii  Kuio- 
pean  luxury  lia.s  been  inlroduceil  of  late  yeare, 
and  the  lailies  now  dress  themselves  in  accordance 
with  fashions  ilerived  from  I'aris  or  London. 

Tin-  iu.-titutiiui  is  not,  however,  conlined  to 
Moliammedaii  countries,  but  flourishes  also,  or  did 
Hoiii'ish,  in  some  form  or  other,  amongst  the  Jews, 
liabylonians,  ancient  I'ei'siaiis,  Siamese,  &c.  In 
liangkok,  the  capital  of  Siaiii,  the  harem  of  the 
king  fmnis  .a  walleil  city  within  the  larger  city,  .so 
extensive  is  it. 

The  holy  cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina  are  to- 
gether called  the  harems  or  the  sacred  places,  and 
the  sacred  mosque  at  Mecca  is  designated  the 
me.y'id  cl-harim  or  '  the  inviolable  mo.sque.' 

During  the  18th  and  lltth  centuries  the  interiors 
of  oriental  harems  have  been  entered  and  the  lives 
of  their  inmates  studied  by  several  Kurojieaii  and 
.\meiican  l.idies,  .as  those  of  (  onstantinople  by 
L.idy   Mary  Woitley  Montagu  in   1710;    those  of 


HARE'S-EAR 


HARIRI 


559 


Cairo  ami  Damascus  by  Haniet  Mailineau  in  1847  : 
tliat  i)f  the  Khedive  at  Cairo  l)y  two  ladies  of  Mr 
\V.  H.  Sewards  American  iiarl'v  in  1.S71  ;  some  in 
TiirUey  liy  another  American  lady,  Mrs  Caroline 
I'aine  ;  and  the  royal  harem  at  Bangkok  by  yet 
another  lady  from  the  United  States,  Mrs  Leon- 
owens.      For  liarems  in  India,  see  ZUNANA. 

Ilarc's-Oiir  ( liiiplcnriint],  a  genus  of  jjlants  of 
the  order  Ihnbelliferfe,  having  eomponnd  umbels 
of  yellow  llowers,  and  generally  simple  leaves. 
The  leaves  of  the  most  common  IJritisli  species, 
I},  rotidulifulium,  are  iierfoliate.  This  i)lant, 
which  grows  in  cornlields  in  the  chalk  districts, 
is  the  Thoroufih-iccix  of  the  old  herbalists.  The 
species  of  hare's-ear  are  numerous,  and  are  natives 
of  temperate  climates  in  most  parts  of  the  world. 

Iliirnciir  (called  in  the  middle  .ages  HareJInt), 
A  town  in  the  French  department  of  Seine- 
Iid'erienre,  is  situated  on  the  estuary  of  the  \ 
.Seine,  4  miles  E.  of  Havre.  Formerly  Harfleur 
was  an  important  seaport  and  maritime  fortress, 
but  the  rise  of  Havre,  coupled  with  the  sanding  up 
of  its  harbour,  led  to  its  decay.  Pop.  -I'M'.  It 
was  taken  after  a  six  weeks'  siege  by  the  English 
uniler  Henry  V.  in  141.5,  and  during  the  ne.Kt 
twenty-live  years  changed  hands  three  times.  It 
was  pillaged  by  the  Huguenots  in  1jG'2. 

Ilargraves,  Edmuxii  H.vjimond,  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  goldlields  of  Australia,  was  born  at 
Gosport,  in  England,  in  1815.  When  eighteen 
ycai-s  of  age  he  settled  in  Australia.  Attracted  to 
C:ilifornia  in  1849,  he  there  tried  his  luck  as  a  gold- 
digger,  and  whilst  so  engaged  was  greatly  struck 
by  tlie  similarity  in  the  geological  formation  of 
California  .and  Australia,  and  suspected  tliat  gold 
would  be  founil  in  the  latter.  On  his  return  home 
he  ])roved  the  correctness  of  his  surmise  by  dis- 
<-overing  gold  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Blue 
Hills  in  New  South  Wales  in  18.51.  He  was 
a]ipiiinted  commissioner  of  crown-lands,  ami  re- 
ceived from  the  government  of  New  South  Wales 
a  reward  of  £10.000.  In  lS.i.5,  one  year  after  his 
return  to  England,  he  published  yl  »«<»•«//«  and  Us 
GohlJieUls.     He  died  in  October  1891. 

Ilarjrroaves,  J.vmks,  the  inventor  of  the 
spiiniiiig  ieuny.  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton, 
w.is  an  illiterate  weaver  and  carpenter  of  Stand- 
hill,  near  IJhudcburn.  in  Lancashire,  where  he  was 
born.  In  ITHO  he  helpeil  Robert  I'eel  (the  founder 
of  that  family)  in  the  construction  of  a  earding- 
machine  ;  and  half-a-dozen  years  later  he  invented 
the  s|iinning- jenny,  the  idea  of  which  is  said  to 
hav(^  been  suggested  to  him  by  seeing  a  spinning- 
wheel,  which  one  of  his  children  had  upset,  con- 
tinue to  revolve  horizontally,  whilst  the  .spindle 
revolved  vertically.  But  his  fellow-spinners,  im- 
bued with  strong  jirejuilices  against  machinery, 
broke  into  bis  house  and  destroyed  his  frame. 
He  then  removed  to  Nottingham  (17(17),  where  he 
erected  a  spinning-mill.  Three  years  l.-iter  he  took 
out  a  patent  for  his  invention ;  but,  as  it  was 
proved  that  he  had  sold  some  of  his  machines 
l>efore  the  patent  was  obtained,  it  was  thereby 
<lecl.ared  to  have  been  invalidated.  Hargreaves 
continued  to  carry  on  business  as  a  yarn  manu- 
facturer till  his  death  on  'J'Jd  .\pril  177S,  when 
his  share  in  the  nnll  was  bought  by  his  partner 
for  LliKi.  See  Francis  Espinasse's  Lanccushirc 
ir",7///,-,v(1874). 

Ilai-icot.     See  Be.\x. 

Ilai'i-kai'i  (rather  hara-kiri,  '  belly-cnt,'  also 
called  'happy  despatch'),  a  term  apjdied  to  the 
curious  .lapanese  system  of  ollicial  suicide,  obsolete 
since  ISlJS  (see  .I.\l'.\x).  The  .lapnnese  estimated 
the  number  of  such  suicides  at  .500  per  annum.  All 
military   men,    and   persons    holding    civil    ollices 


under  the  government,  were  held  bouml,  when 
they  had  committed  an  otlence,  to  disembowel 
themselves.  This  they  performed  in  a  solemn  and 
ilignilied  manner,  in  presence  of  otlicials  ;ind  other 
witnesses,  by  one  or  two  gaslies  with  a  short  sharp 
swonl  or  dagger  9i  inches  long.  Personal  honour 
having  been  s.aved  by  the  self-inllicteil  wound,  the 
execution  was  comjileled  by  a  superior  executioner 
(or  rather  the  victim's  second,  often  a  kinsman  or 
friend  of  gentleman's  r.ank),  who  gave  the  roup  dc 
qrdco  by  beheading  the  victim  with  one  swinging 
blow  from  a  long  sword.  .lapanese  gentlemen 
were  trained  to  reg.ard  the  hara-kiri  as  .an  honour- 
able expiation  of  crime  or  blotting  out  of  di.sgrace. 
See  articles  by  an  eye-witness  in  Vornhill  ( 18U9). 

niirillg;.  Georc!  Wii.iiki.m  HicixiticTt,  better 
known  under  the  name  of  \\  il.iiiAi.D  Ai.E.MS,  a 
German  novelist,  was  born  at  liicslau,  TM\  June 
1797.  He  at  first  studied  law  at  Berlin  and 
Breslau,  l)ut  abandoned  this  pursuit  for  a  literary 
career.  His  first  success  .o-s  a  writer  « .as  the  histori- 
cal rom.ance  IVolladniur  (1823-'24),  published  as  a 
work  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  a  fr.aud  that  found  belief 
.and  led  to  the  book  being  translated  into  several 
langu.ages  (into  English,  very  freely,  by  De  Quincey, 
1824).  This  was  followed  by  JJie  Gcitchtetcn  ( 1825) 
and  Schloss  Avalon  (1827).  Hiiring's  subsequent 
historical  romances,  the  clever  character-drawing, 
historical  verisimilitude,  .and  vigorous  dcscrijition  of 
which  entitle  them  to  a  high  rank,  .are  Cidjaiiis  (6 
vols.  18.32),  Roland  von  Jirrliii  (;}  vols.  1840),  Der 
falsc/ic  Woldcmar  (.3  vols.  1842),  Hans  Jiirijt'n 
iind  Hans  Joclicm  (2  vols.  1840),  Der  Wanrulf  ('i 
vols.  1848),  liuhc  ist  die  crsie Biirtjcrji/He/d  (5  vols. 
1854),  Isetp-imm  (.3  vols.  1854),  and  Dorothc  (3 
vols.  1856).  Besides  these,  he  wrote  books  of 
travel,  sketches,  dramas,  and  other  works.  His 
Gcsanimelte  Wcrl'c  were  ]iublislied  at  Berlin  in 
20  vols,  in  1874,  the  historical  romances  as  Vater- 
limdisrlie  Jioniane  in  8  vols,  in  1884.  He  died  16tU 
Decemlier  1871. 

Ilariiigtou.    See  Harrington. 

Hariri.  Anu  Mohammed  al  Kasiji  inN  An, 
surnamed  AL-H.\i;iltl  ('the  Silk-merchant '),  an 
Ar.abic  wiiter,  was  liorn  .at  Basra,  on  tlx;  Tigris,  in 
446  A. H.  (1054  A.D.),  spent  his  life  in  study  ami 
devotion  to  literary  worK,  and  died  at  Basra  about 
1121.  He  wrote  valuable  works  on  Arabic  gram- 
m.ar,  as  Molliat  el  Irtib,  a  work  on  syntax,  and 
Ihirrat  cl-Uhairiras,  on  common  faults  in  current 
language.  But  the  most  famous  of  bis  wiitings, 
indeed  one  of  the  most  famous  compositions  of  all 
times  .and  countries,  is  his  Maluiniat  (Literary 
(iatherings).  This  is  a  collection  of  rhymed  tales, 
the  central  char.acler  in  which  is  .a  certain  Abu  Seiil 
from  Seruj,  a  witty,  clever,  .amiable  rogue,  well 
re.ad  in  s.acrcd  and  profane  lore.  b\it  cunning  and 
unscrupulous,  \vlio  turns  up  under  .all  ijossible  dis- 
guises and  in  all  jios^ilde  ]placcs.  The  brilliancy  of 
im.agination  and  wit  displayed  in  these  adventures, 
their  striking  changes,  and  dramatic  situations, 
have  hardly  ever  been  eipialled  ;  but  more  W(mder- 
ful  still  is  the  poet's  jjowerof  l.-mguage.  The  whcde 
force  of  the  proverbial  fullness  of  exi>ression,  spirit, 
elegance,  and  grandeur  of  the  .\rabic  idiom  h.as 
been  brought  to  be.ar  on  the  subjecl.  Indeed,  .as 
f;tr  .as  language  is  conccrneil.  the  Mid.rrmat  is  looked 
upon  in  the  East  .as  the  highest  smirce  of  authority 
next  to  the  Koran.  The  hook  h.a-s  been  translateil, 
either  entirely  or  jiartially,  into  nearly  every 
Eastern  and  European  tongue,  .and  Invs  been  the 
prototype  of  innunu'rable  imitations,  the  most  suc- 
cessful being  one  in  llelirew,  Macldierotlt  HhicI,  by 
Vehudali  ben  Shelomidi  al-Kharizi.  The  best 
edition  of  the  MaKaiiial  is  that  by  Silvestre  de  Sacy, 
which  a|i]ieared  in  Paris,  18'22  (re-ediled  1847-5.3). 
Of  translations,  the  palm  is  due  to  Kiickert,  who 


560 


HARI-RUD 


HARLEY 


has  completely  repmiluoeil  tlie  si)iiit  ami  form  of 
tlie  work  in  liis  I  iiiriin<llniif/iii  t/es  Abu  .S'c/V/  rmi 
Scriifi,  lirst  pnlilislied  in  IS'iG.  Eii-jlish  transliitiotis 
(partial)  li.ive  liceii  miule  l>y  Preston  (1850)  and  by 
Clii'ncry  I  Isc;  ). 

Iliiri-itlHl,  "t  lli:i;i  Itil),  a  river  of  Asia,  wliicli 
rises  in  tlie  llimln  Kusli  abont  ir>()  miles  W.  from 
Kabul,  pursues  a  western  eourse  tlirou;^li  Af;;baMi- 
Stan  for  neiuly  '2.j0  miles  ;  then,  bemlinj;  smlilenly 
to  the  noiihw.ud,  it  forms  the  boundary  between 
Persia  and  Turkestan,  and,  after  a  further  coui'se  of 
about  -J-'iO  miles,  loses  it-self  in  several  arms  in  the 
Tekke  Turkoman  oasis. 

IIilI*iv:ills:i«  a  Sanskrit  epos,  whieh  professes 
to  hi'  part  of  iho  Mahabliarata,  but  may  be  more 
properly  elasseil  with  the  Punimus  (ipv.). 

Ilariailioir,  Ai.kxis,  a  Russian  artist,  born  at 
Saraloll'in  1.^44.  studieil  at  St  Petersbur;,'  Academy 
of  I'ine  Arts,  j;ained  several  medals,  became  a 
member  of  the  Acailemy  in  18(1!),  and  .soon  after- 
wards settled  in  I'.iris.  A  re;;ular  contributor  to 
the  Salon,  his  portraits  and  ]>ictnresof  children  an<l 
youn^  'XirU,  executed  with  feelin^j;  and  iiaiustakin^ 
care,  have  rendered  him  faniou.s.  .See  K.  Walkers 
article  in  (,%mh/  U'un/s  (188!)). 

Ilarlaw',  18  miles  \\V.  of  .Aberdeen,  the  site  of 
a  battle  fou^dit  on  '24lh  .luly  1411,  between  the 
lli^rhlandcrs  led  by  Don.ild.  Lord  of  the  Isles,  an<l 
the  Low  landei-s  of  Mar.  (lariocli,  Ituchan.  .\n^nis, 
and  -Mearris,  under  .Mexander  Stewart,  Karl  of  Mar. 
'The  battle  wa.s  lonj;  and  bloodv,  but  the  Hi;;li- 
lanilei-s  were  .at  last  ilriven  baidi,  leavinjr  niore  than 
901)  de:id  upon  the  lield.  For  lon^  after  '  the  red 
Harlaw  '  was  a  f.avonrite  theme  of  le};en<l  and  sonj;. 

Ilai'll'cll,  an  ancient   town  of  Merionethshire, 
North   Wales,  stands  on   the  co;ist,  10  miles  N.  of 
a  steep 
c,  whicli 

trians  in  the  Wars  of  the  Hoses,  anil  l;iler  for 
I'harles  1.  The  '.March  of  the  .Men  of  Harlech' 
commemorates  its  capture  by  the  Yorkists  in  1468. 
P'or  the  Harlech  series,  see  C.VMl!l!l.\N  .System. 

Ilai'l<-<|llill.  See  P.vntomink.  The  etymolo^'y 
of  ihi'  word  is  curious.  The  Fr.  is  arlc/iiiti,  froiii 
which  apparently  is  derived  the  Ital.  ar/ecc/iiiio. 
The  Olil  I'r.  phra-se  was  //  maisnic  hierlehiii  (Low 
I. at.  /I'lrft'/Kini  f(tiiii7i((s),  *  a  troop  of  demitus  that 
b.'iunti'd  lonely  places.'  This  Skeat  derives  from 
Old  Fries.  /ii//c  11/11,  Icel.  hijjur  Kyii — i.e.  the 
kindred  of  hell,  host  of  hell,  troop  of  demons.  The 
ch.-uii,'e  from  htlliqiiiii  to  harlcrjiiin  was  due  to  a 
mistaken  analof^.v  with  C/tarlcJS  Quint.  See  Max 
Miiller's  I. ci  lures,  ii.  p.  581. 

llai*l4M|uill    l>ll<"k   [Anns   [or  CInngnIa]  his- 

trimiii-ii  \.  a  sjiecies  ol  ( birrot  which  receives  its 
n.uuo  from  its  varie;,'ated  marking's,  white,  !,'ray, 
bl.uk,  and  brown.  It  inhabits  the  se,v.hore  .ami 
its  inlets  ami  river  mouths,  bein;;  seldom  .seen 
inland.  It  is  found  in  Kamchatka  and  (Jreen- 
land,  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  Sea  of 
.\ral,  and  Lake  liaikal.  In  .\merica  it  is  found  in 
Labrador,  Hudson  Hay,  Newfoundland,  .and  Hay 
of  Fumly,  and  a<lvances  in  winter  southwards  to 
the  I'liiteil  States.  It«  whole  length  is  about  17 
inches.     See  WlLD-Dl'CK. 

Ilarh'ss.  CoTTi.on  Chri.stoi'h  Adolf  von,  a 
t  iernian  Lutheran  theologian,  w.a-s  born  at  Nurem- 
bi-rg  in  1 800,  .ami  was  professor  of  Theology  at 
Krlangen  from  18.S6,  and  at  Leipzig  from  184.").  In 
18.)0  he  became  chief  court  ]n'eacher  at  Dresden, 
ami  exerci.sed  great  intluence  on  ecclesiastical  all'airs 
in  S.axony.  In  1S.V2  he  w,a.s  appointed  president 
of  the  Protestant  consistory  at  Munich,  and  sue- 
eeedeil  in  making  the  Lutheran  Cliun-h  in  Hav.aria 
strongly  orthodox.  He  dieil  5th  S('ptember  1879. 
His   most   important   works   were   his   Thculotjisrhc 


Harmouth.     On  a  steep  hill  overlooking  the  .sea  is 
its  massive  castle,  which  held  out  for  the  Lanc.as 


Enciiklopiitlic  unil  Mrf/ioi/'/lat/ir  (ls:t7)  and  I)ir 
cknstlirMc  Ktliik  (I84'.>;  Eng.'  trans.  ISG8).  His 
autobiogra|)hy  appeared  as  ISrurh.stucKx  nus  ilem 
Letiin  fines  Siitltliulsrhcn  Theuttifint  (187.3-75). 

Ilnrloy,    UoiiKiir,    E.viti,    ok    Oxkohu    and 

MoiniMKli,  the  son  of  Sir  Edward  llarley,  an  active 
l>artisan  of  the  Parliament  during  the  civil  wars, 
wius  born  in  London,  5th  December  KHil.  The 
politics  of  the  faniilv  weie  Whig,  and  as  such 
Hobcrt  Harlcy  entereil  parliameni  for  the  Cornish 
borough  of  'I'regony.  Hut  at  the  end  of  his  lirsl 
parliament  he  was  elected  for  New  Hadnor,  and 
this  constituency  he  continued  to  represent  until 
1711.  He  soon  acijuired  a  great  reputation  for  his 
knowledge  of  parhament.ary  law  ami  practice,  .and 
in  the  p.arli.ament  which  met  under  llie  chieftain 
ship  of  Hochester  and  Coilidphin,  in  February  1701, 
he  was  elected  speaker.  This  post  he  retained 
until  1705,  though  in  .\pril  1704  he  became  also 
Secretary  of  State.  Hut  shortly  after  this  time 
Harley  beg.an  to  intluence  the  i|Ueen's  mind  against 
the  ]iarty  of  .Marlborough  ami  (Joilolpbin  ;  for, 
apparently  from  motives  of  ])er.sonal  .ambition,  he 
now  began  to  intrigue  with  and  for  the  'Tories,  and 
he  fouml  a  most  useful  allv  in  his  cousin.  .Abigail 
Hill  (Mrs  M.asham).  (bnlolphin  faileil  not  to 
detect  what  wius  going  forw.ird,  and  in  February 
1708  the  conviction  of  Harley "s  secretary  for  trea- 
sonable corres]MMidence  with  Fr.ance  caused  his 
ni.aster  to  resign  otlice.  The  discardeil  minister 
then  set  to  work,  aided  by  his  c<uisin,  to  underuiine 
the  power  of  the  M'liigs.  and  in  .\iigust  1710 
Goilolphin  was  dismissed.  Hailey  being  appointed 
Chancellor  of  the  F,xche<(uer  and  made  head  of  the 
government.  In  1711  occurred  an  event  which 
r.ai.sed  Harley  to  the  acme  of  po]iularity.  A  I'rench 
priest  and  spy,  who  nssnmeil  the  title  of  Manjnis 
lie  (iuisc.ard,  being  brought  before  the  council  on 
tlie8tli  of  March  on  the  charge  of  treasomible  cor- 
rcs]>omIence  with  France,  suddenly  stabbed  Harley 
in  the  brea-st  with  a  penknife.  His  life  was  sai<l 
to  have  been  in  danger,  but  he  recovered,  ami  was 
created  Earl  of  Oxford  and  Mortimer,  nuide  a 
knight  of  the  (I.arter,  and  in  May  appointeil  Lord 
High  Tre.o-surer  of  (ireat  Hritain.  He  wa.s  the  l.ast 
to  bear  this  title;  hencef(Ulh  the  chief  adviser  of 
the  sovereign  was  known  as  the  lirsl  minister  to 
the  crown,  or  the  prime  minister.  'The  principal 
iict  of  Harley 's  ailministralion  wa-s  the  treaty  of 
L'trecht,  the  opposition  of  the  Whig  m.ajority  in 
the  I'pper  House  being  overcome  by  the  creation 
of  twelve  new  peers.  But  <  j.xford's  nopularity  wa.<i 
already  (m  the  wane ;  the  frien(lshi|i  between 
him  and  Holingbi(d<e  had  degenerated  into  bitter 
jealousy,  .and  was  fast  turning  to  lijvtrcd,  and  Mrs 
Alasham  siiled  with  liolingbroke.  Moreover,  Ox- 
ford estr.anged  the  .lacobites  by  his  irresolution  and 
want  of  a  decided  policy.  On  27th  .Inly  1714  he 
w.as  dismissed  from  ollice,  his  succes.sor  being  Holing- 
broke.  Five  days  later,  however,  the  ijueen  dieil, 
and  Ceorge  I.  w;is  pioclaimeil  king.  In  .luly  of  the 
following  year  Oxford  was  impeached  and  sent  to 
the  'Tower,  but  after  two  years'  imjuisonment  w.as 
acquitted  by  the  Peers,  and  relea.sed.  Hespi-ntthe 
renuiimler  of  his  life  in  retirement,  the  friend  of 
scholars  and  men  of  lettei-s,  especially  of  Swift,  .and 
the  founder  of  the  Harleian  collection  of  books  and 
MSS.  in  the  Hritish  .Museum  (i|.v.).  The  Harleian 
Society,  n.amed  from  him,  was  founded  in  1800  for 
the  publication  of  heraldic  visitations,  &c.  He  ilied 
M.ay  21.  1724.  Harley  w.as  not  .a  gre.at  statesman  ; 
the  fault  that  marred  his  career  w.as  indecision  of 
purpose,  a  desire  to  staml  well  with  all  parties. 
He  followed  no  decided  policy,  but  intrigued  .all 
round,  not  only  with  Whigs  and  with  'Tories,  but 
also  with  the  enemies  of  his  country.  Conse- 
quently he  was  <listrusted  by  all  p.arties  and  loved 
by  none.     See  the  Harlan  I'njicrs  ( 1S'J7). 


HARLINGEN 


HARMONICS 


561 


Harlillgen  (Fvisian  Harm),  a  seaport  of  the 
Netlieilaiids,  in  the  province  of  Frieslaml,  on  the 
Zuider  Zee,  14  miles  W.  by  S.  from  LeeiiwarJen. 
It  has  a  Kood  liarbour  (ISTo),  protected  from  the 
sea  liy  dyUes.  The  manufacture  of  linen  sacks  and 
machines  and  shipliuildinj;  are  the  chief  indus- 
tries. Butter  and  cattle  are  exported  to  England. 
Pop.  10,274. 

Ilarilinlill  is  a  vegetahle  base,  and  Hunnin 
another,  lioth  of  wliich  occur  in  the  husk  of  the 
seeds  of  I'li/atiinii  hannala,  or  Syrian  rue,  a  zygo- 
phyllaceous,  shrubby  plant  that  grows  abundantly 
in  the  steppes  of  s(mthern  Russia.  The  seeds  have 
Ijeen  used  in  dveing  silk,  to  which  they  impart 
various  .shades  of  red. 

Hnrinnttnil,  a  hot  desiccating  wind,  prevalent 
on  the  (luinea  coast  during  December,  January, 
and  February,  which  blows  from  the  interior  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  generally  preceded  by  clouds 
of  extromely  line  sand,  called  'smokes'  or  'fog,' 
which  penetrates  e^■ery^vhere  and  covers  every- 
thing. It  has  a  hurtful  effect  on  vegetation,  and 
on  the  human  body,  drying  up  the  eyes,  nostrils, 
and  moiilli,  and  even  causing  the  skin  to  peel  off. 
The  negroes  ])rotect  them.selves  against  it  by 
rubbing  the  lM)dy  with  fat  or  OTease.  It  has,  how- 
ever, the  good  effect  of  checking  epidemics,  and 
curing  dysentery,  fevers,  and  cutaneous  diseases. 
The  lianuattan  is  similar  to  the  Sirocco  (q.v.)  of 
Italy. 

Hariiiodiiis  and  Aristoseitoii,  two  Athe 
nians  strongly  attached  to  eacli  other,  Avho  in  514 
B.C.  murdered  Hipparchus,  the  younger  brother 
of  the  'tyrant'  Hii)[)ias,  partly  on  account  of  an 
insult  offered  by  him  to  the  sister  of  Harmodius, 
and  partly  with  a  view  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
Pisistratid:e.  They  meant  to  kill  Hippias  also, 
but  Harmodius  was  cut  down  by  the  bodyguard  of 
Hipiiiirclius,  whilst  Aristogeiton  iled,  but  was 
afterwards  taken  and  e.vecuted.  Subsequently 
they  came  to  be  regarded  as  patriotic  martyrs,  and 
received  divine  honours  from  the  Athenians,  and 
had  statues  raised  to  their  memory.  A  beautiful 
drinking-song  by  Callistratus  celebrates  their 
deed. 

llarillOllica.  a  musical  instrument,  invented 
in  1700  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  the  sounds  of  which 
were  ]iroduced  from  bell-shaped  glasses,  placed  on 
a  framework  that  revolved  on  its  centre,  while  the 
rims  were  touched  by  the  moistened  finger.  An 
instrument  of  the  kind  was  used  at  Nuremberg  in 
the  17tli  century.  In  1746  the  great  c<unposer 
tiluck,  and  in  1750  an  Irishman  named  Puckeridge, 
played  in  London  airs  on  a  row  of  glasses,  tuned  by 
putting  water  into  each.  When  Franklin  finished 
his  invention,  in  which  the  pitch  wa.s  regulated  by 
the  size  of  the  ghus.ses  alone,  he  found  an  excellent 
performer  in  ^liss  Marianne  Davies,  to  whom  he 
made  a  present  of  his  harmonica,  and  who  during 
17ti'2-7S  performed  on  it  with  great  effect  in  London, 
Paris,  Vienna,  Milan,  Naples,  I'^-c.  This  fa.scinating 
instrunu'ut  found  many  admirers,  but  none  of  them 
ever  succeeded  in  improving  it.  The  production  of 
the  sovinil  by  the  points  of  the  fingers  caused  such 
an  effect  on  the  nerves  of  the  performer  as  in  some 
instances  to  induce  fainting  fits.  All  attempts  to 
make  the  harmonica  easier  for  amateurs  through 
moans  of  keys  ended  in  failure,  since  no  .substance 
was  founil  to  act  as  a  substitute  for  the  human 
finger.  The  harmonica  gave  rise  to  a  host  of  similar 
instruments  by  Chladni,  Kaufinann,  and  others, 
which  were  not  particularly  successful.  Other 
instruments  of  no  merit  or  imp<M'tance  took  the 
same  or  a  similar  name,  but  hail  not  the  most 
remote  resemblance  to  the  original  —e.g.  steel  pegs 
or  strings  being  substituted  for  the  glasses  (see 
Hakmonicox).  The  original  harmonica,  for  which 
•244 


Mozart  and  Beethoven  composed,  was  the  instru- 
ment ]M)pularly  known  as  musical-glasses.  See 
Pohl,  Ziir  Uisc/tir/itc  tier  Glasharmonica  (1862). 

HarillOllioa,  Chejiical.  This  term  is  ap])lied 
to  the  musical  note  which  is  evolved  when  a  long 
dry  tube,  open  at  both  ends,  is  held  over  a  jet  of 
burning  hydrogen.  A  rapid  current  is  produced 
through  the  tube,  which  occasions  a  flickering,  and 
is  attendeil  by  a  series  of  snuvU  explosions,  that 
succeed  each  other  so  rapidly  and  at  such  regular 
intervals  as  to  give  rise  to  a  musical  note,  whose 
pitch  anil  quality  vary  with  the  length,  tliickne.ss, 
and  diameter  of  the  tube.     See  Fl.vmk. 

Harmonic  Elisilie,  an  invention  of  Edison's, 
in  which  the  energy  of  an  electric  current  is 
used,  by  means  of  two  small  electromagnets,  to 
keep  up  the  vibrathms  of  a  large  and  heavily 
weighted  tuning-fork.  The  arms  of  the  tuning-fork 
aie  connected  with  two  pistons  which  work  a 
miniature  pump,  and  this  may  compress  air,  which, 
in  its  turn,  can  drive  sewing-machines  or  do  other 
light  work. 

Harinoilicoil.  a  musical  instmment  consist- 
ing of  glass  or  metal  plates  supported  on  strings  at 
points  about  one-fourth  of  the  length  from  the  free 
ends.  The  plates  are  struck  by  soft  hammers  and 
enter  into  transversal  vibrations,  the  frequency  of 
which  varies  directly  as  the  thickness,  inversely 
as  the  square  of  the  length,  directly  as  the  square 
root  of  the  elasticity  of  the  vibrating  material,  and 
inversely  as  the  sijuare  root  of  its  density.  The 
points  of  support  become  nodal  points. 

HariUOIlic  Prouortion.  Three  number*  are 
said  to  be  in  harmonic  [iroportion  when  the  first  is 
to  the  third  as  the  difference  between  the  first 
and  second  is  to  the  diti'erence  between  the  second 
and  third  ;  otherwise,  hannonic  proportion  is  that 
which  subsists  between  the  reciprocals  of  num- 
bers which  are  in  arithmetical  proportion.  Thus, 
3,  5,  7,  &c.,  being  in  arithmetical  proportion,  \,  1,  I, 
&c. ,  are  in  harmonic  proportion.    In  geometry,  a  line 


A  C       B  D 

AB  is  said  to  be  harmonically  divided  when  two 
points  are  taken,  one  in  the  line  and  the  other 
in  the  line  produced,  as  C  and  D,  such  that 
AC  :  CB  :  :  AD  :  DB.  When  the  line  is  thus 
divided,  AD,  CD,  and  BD  are  in  hannonic  pro- 
portion. A  harmonic  progression  is  a  series  of 
numbers  in  harmonic  projiortion,  as  the  series 
formed  l)y  the  reciprocals  of  numbers  forming  an 
arithmetical  .series. 

HarillOIlics.  Every  musical  sound,  although 
to  the  untraineil  ear  it  appears  to  be  single,  will,  on 
close  observation,  lie  percei\'ed  to  consist  of  a  prin- 
cipal or  fundamental  tone  accompanied  by  hi"lier 
tones  or  harmonics  which  blend  and  generally  liar- 
monise  with  it.  The  existence  of  such  harmonics 
(or  partial  tones)  may  be  perceived  on  loudly 
sounding  a  low  note  on  a  pianoforte  with  the  loud 
pedal  held  down  :  as  the  sound  dies  away  the 
liarmonics  become  more  and  more  prominently 
audible,  especially  when  they  are  sinjjly  listened 
for  one  after  the  other  ;  and  the  more  tinkling  the 
quality  of  tone  of  the  instrument  the  more  readil.v 
they  are  heard.  In  fact,  in  a  tinkling  pianoforte 
they  are  at  all  times  louder  than  the  fundament.il 
tone,  though  they  are  masked  by  it,  as  all  high  tones 
appear  to  the  ear  to  be  masked  by  lower  tones  ; 
and  the  tinkling  quality  is  due  to  their  presence. 
The  peculiar  recognisable  character  of  all  sounds — 
diHerent  voices,  pianoforte,  organ,  violin,  iJto. — is 
due  to  the  presence  of  harm<uiics,  each  with  its 
own  intensity :  and  by  sounding  along  w  iih  a 
simjile  fundamental  sound  a  number  of  liarmonic 
tones,  each  with   varying  degrees  of  loudness,  an 


562 


HARMONISTS 


HAUMONIUM 


endless  range  of  (|iiiility  may  be  conferred  npon 

tlie  fuiiilaiiiental  tciiie. 

For  (U'lncinstiatioii  of  lianiioiiics  in  sounds  of  all 
kinds  a  sfiii's  of  resonatoi>  is  necessary.  When  a 
tuning-fork  is  vibrated  near  a  hollow  vessel  of 
suitable  rapacity  (say  a  lanip-chininey  sunk  in 
water  to  an  adjusted  depth),  the  air  within  the 
hollow  vessel  vibrates  in  unison  with  the  fork  and 
emits  a  loud  souml  ;  similarly,  when  the  capacity 
of  such  a  resonator  corresponds  to  the  pitch  of  a 
harnumic  tone  present  in  a  Ki^en  souml,  the  reson- 
ator sounds  out  that  harmonic,  liy  a  series  of 
such  observations  all  the  harmimics  can  tlius  be 
severally  rccoiiiiised.  The  physical  basis  of  har- 
mcmic  tones  is  the  fact  that  no  vibration  of  an 
elastic  body  is  ever  accomplished  wilhtmt  a  more  or 
less  wellinarked  division  of  the  vibratinj;  body 
into  se^'ments  which  vibrato  indepemlciitly  and 
simultaneously.  To  realise  this,  take  a  Ion;;  string 
stretcheil  between  two  points;  set  it  in  vibration 
by  means  of  a  violin-bow ;  the  cord  will  appear  to 


vibrate  as  a  whole.  Now,  bv  means  of  the  linger- 
nail  or  of  a  stretched  thread  fightlv  pressed  n|>on  it 
at  the  e.xact  mid-|>oint,  'stop' the  midpoint  and 
again  bow;  the  siring  will  ap|>ear  to  vibrate  in 
I  two  in<Ieiiendent  halves  or  loops,  with  .a  iiiMle  oi 
point  of  rest  between  Ihem  ;  the  vibrations  will  be 
twice  a-s  frecpient  as  at  Mist,  and  the  sound  pro- 
duced will  be  the  octave  of  that  originally  heard. 
Again,  stop  a  p<dnt  one-third  of  the  length  from 
either  end  and  again  set  in  vibration  ;  two  nodes 
and  three  loops  will  be  formed  ;  the  viluations  will 
be  three  times  lus  frei|iient,  .and  the  sound  will  be 
the  twelfth  above  the  original  fundamental.  In 
the  .same  way,  any  i>oint  cutting  oil'  one  aliipiot 
part  of  the  string  may  be  stoppecl  ;  the  string  will 
siioiitaneously  form  the  corresponding  number  of 
nodes  and  loojis  when  set,  in  any  fashimi,  into 
vibrati(m.  If  we  sn|ipo.se  the  original  sound  to  have 
been  (',  on  the  second  ledger  line  below  tlie  bass 
stall',  the  various  sounds  produced  by  treating  the 
string  in  this  way  will  resjiectively  l>e : 


Number  of  Loops,       1         2        .3        4        5        6        7        8        9        10      11       12       1.3       14       15       Hi 


Sonnds 
produced. 


^ 


^?=^ 


!        I 


m 


Ci      C       G        c        e        g       ...       c'      iV      e'       ...       g' 
The  unaided  ear  can  distinguish  harmonics  up  to  No.  6. 


c"      d" 


The  notes  marked  with  asterisks  are  not  notes  of 
the  natural  scale  ;  7  ami  14  are  a  tint  1!^  often  to  be 
Iieanl  in  tlie  sound  of  chime-bells;  11  is  nearer  Fft 
than  Ft ;  l.S  is  nearer  to  A  than  it  is  to  (it  Now, 
in  a  vibrating  string  all  these  vibrations  co-exist ; 
to  what  degree  any  one  shall  be  present  dei)en(ls  on 
the  way  in  which,  or  the  point  at  which,  the  string 

Notes  of  the  scale  of  C C 

Notes  of  any  diatonic  scale  in  general...     d 
Ratios 1 

For  the  modification  in  these  ratios  introduced  by 
the  system  of  temperament,  see  Ti;.mi'KH,\mknt. 
The  standard  work  (m  Harmimics  is  Helmholt/.'s 
Sensations  of  Tone  ( trans,  by  Mr  Ellis  ;  '2d  ed.  1885). 

llnrilioilists.     See  U.vpp. 

Harilioilillin,  a  musical  instrument,  for  the  in- 
vention of  which  many  claims  have  been  advanced. 
The  arrangement  by  which  the  .sounds  of  the 
harmonium  are  produced  is  calh^d  tlieyic*  ribruting 
riirl,  supposed  to  have  been  a  modern  discoveiy, 
but  now  ascertained  to  have  been  known  in  China 
long  before  it  was  ever  heard  of  in  Europe.  Its 
construction  is  as  follows  :  A  narrow  rectangular 
slit  being  maile  in  a  piece  of  brass-plate  of  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  thickness,  a  thin  elastic  spring  of  the 
same  metal,  and  of  nearly  the  exact  breadth  of  the 
slit,  is  fixed  at  one  end  by  two  small  rivets  to  the 
surface  of  the  (date,  close  to  one  end  of  the  slit, 
and  is  so  adjusted  that  it  fills  the  area  of  the  slit, 
and,  when  pre.ssed  into  it  at  the  free  end,  can 
pass  inwards  without  touching  tlie  end  or  the  sides 
of  the  slit,  and  when  left  to  it-self  it  can  return 
back  to  its  position  of  covering  the  slit.  The 
.sjiring  at  the  free  end  is  permanently  bent  a  very 
little  outwards.  When  a  current  of  air  is  forced 
through  the  slit,  the  spring  is  put  into  vibration, 
and  ])rodnces  a  continuous  musical  sound,  acute  or 
grave,  according  to  the  rapidity  or  slowness  of  the 
vibrations.     This  kind  of  leeil  is  termed  'free.' in 


is  bowed  or  struck  or  jdncked  :  and  the  quality  of 
the  resultant  note  varies  accordingly,  r'rom  the 
harmonics  the  true  ratios  of  the  members  of  the 
diatonic  scale  may  be  found — e.g.  Ii  has  a  fre- 
quency of  vibration  15  times  as  great  as  that  of 
C,;  wlience  15,  h.-us  a  frequency  ^  times  as  great; 
and  so  for  the  rest,  a.s  follows  : 


D 

E 

F 

G 

A 

IS 

c 

r 

in 

f 

s 

1 

t 

d' 

« 

A 
'4 

4 

1 

i 

V 

2 

contradistinction  to  the  reed  of  the  organ-pipe,  the 
spring  or  tongue  of  which  entirely  covers  an  idjiong 
slit,  in  the  side  of  a  brass  tube  closed  at  one  end, 
and  vibrates  against  the  cheeks  or  outside  of  the 
slit,  instead  of  within  it. 

After  many  attempts,  in  various  countries,  to 
construct  a  keyed  instrument  of  really  a  u.seful 
kind  with  the  free  reed,  Debain  of  Paris  pro- 
duced his  invention  (1840)  of  the  harmonium, 
which  became  more  or  less  the  model  of  all  the 
others  that  have  f<dIowed.  The  harmonium 
occupies  comparatively  little  s])ace,  being  only 
aUmt  3  feet  3  inches  high  and  4  feet  broad,  the 
depth  being  according  to  the  number  of  the  stops, 
usually  from  '20  to  23  inches.  It  has  a  compa.ss 
of  live  octaves  of  keys  from  C  to  C,  the  keyboard 
being  jdaced  on  the  top,  immediately  below  the 
li<l.  Lnder  the  key-board  is  the  bellows-board,  in 
which  are  valves  for  each  key  ;  while  above  the 
valves  are  the  different  rows  of  ree<ls.  The  sizes 
of  the  reeds  differ,  acconling  to  pitch,  from  about 
3J  inches  hmg  to  A  inch  :  ami  the  qualitv  of  sound 
is  all'ected  and  niodilied  by  the  breadth  of  the 
vibrating  jiart  of  the  reeil,  and  the  .shape  of  the 
aperture  in  the  bellows-boanl  covered  by  the  valve, 
'rtie  pressure  of  wind  is  from  a  bellows  with  two 
feeilei-s,  which  the  i)layer  moves  alternately  with 
his  feet,  filling  a  reservoir,  similar  to  the  bellows  of 
a  small  organ.  When  a  key  is  pressed  down,  the 
valve  o])ens,  and  the  wind,  whicli  has  access  from 


HARMONIUM 


HARMONY 


563 


tlie  Iiellows  to  the  wind-chest,  luslies  through  the 
slit  of  the  reed,  and  produces  a  sound  whicli  con- 
tinues as  long  as  the  valve  is  kept  open.  It  is  a 
peculiarity  iif  the  free  reed  that  an  increase  or  a 
<liininution  of  the  pressure  of  wind  does  not  alter 
the  pitch  of  the  sound,  but  nierelj'  increases  or 
diminishes  its  volume.  Advantage  may  lie  taken 
of  this  peculiarity  by  the  harmonium -player  to 
ell'ect  a  rrrsceiHlu  or  diminuexdu  by  gradually  aug- 
menting or  decreasing  the  pressure  of  the  wind. 
The  vibrations  of  the  spring  being  like  those  of  a 
pendulum,  isochronous,  remain  fixed  in  rapidity  or 
slowness,  according  to  the  length  and  elasticity  of 
tlji-  vilirating  sliji  of  metal,  .and  thus  regulate  the 
pitch  of  the  sound  without  reference  to  the  pressure 
of  wind.  For  the  deep  liass-notes  the  springs  are 
heavily  loaded  at  the  loose  end,  to  make  them 
vibrate  slowly  ;  while  in  the  higher  notes  they  are 
made  thinner  at  that  end. 

Harmoniums  are  made  of  various  sizes,  and 
from  one  row  of  reeds  (or  vibrators,  as  they 
are  now  called)  to  four  or  more  rows.  Each 
row  is  divided  near  the  middle,  between  an  E 
and  F ;  and  each  half  has  its  separate  draw- 
stop.  Knee-pedal.s  are  sometimes  added  for  jiro- 
<lucing  the  same  modifications  of  tone  as  the  swell 
on  the  organ.  Some  harmoniums  are  made  with 
two  rows  of  keys,  thus  attbrding  a  greater  variety 
in  playing  solo  with  an  accompaniment;  and  for 
more  skilful  performers,  pedals  for  the  feet,  similar 
to  organ-peilals,  are  attached.  The  manufacture 
of  the  harmonium  in  Paris  has,  of  late  years, 
increased  almost  incredibly.  The  various  parts  of 
the  harmonium  can  be  obtained  there  ready-made, 
from  a  sin<ile  reed  to  a  complete  set.  The  best- 
known  makers  are  the  Ale.xandres  and  Mustel  in 
France,  and  liauer  in  Eii'dand.  The  Semphiiie 
was  a  similar  but  much  inferior  instrument.  The 
Amcriruu  Orrjun,  introduced  in  1861  by  Messrs 
Mason  &  Handin,  is  a  kind  of  harmonium  which 
acts  by  wind  exhaustion  or  suction,  anil  instead 
of  force  bellows,  works  by  exhaustion  bellows.  Its 
tone  is  softer,  and  its  timbre  less  reedy  ;  it  is  also 
eiusier  to  play.  l!ut  the  true  harmonium  is  capable 
of  higher  treatment.  The  pcrrHSsion  adioii  for  the 
harmonium  is  ihie  to  a  small  hammer  like  that  of 
a  iiianoforte,  whidi  strikes  a  blow  on  the  vibratoi- 
the  moment  the  key  is  pressed  down,  and  sets  it 
instantly  into  vibration,  thus  assisting  the  action 
of  the  wind.  The  expression  stop — an  invention  of 
the  Alexandres,  father  and  son — is  used  almost 
continuously  by  the  best  players  on  the  instrument, 
but  is  very  dillicult  to  manage.  By  the  action  of 
this  stop,  the  air-reservoir  is  cut  oti',  and  the 
pressure  becomes  entirely  dependent  on  the 
management  of  the  bellows.  The  latest  invention 
of  im]iortance  is  the  mclodi/-cittiirhmc>it  of  Dawes 
— the  date  of  the  patent  was  1864 — which  gives  pre- 
dominance to  any  special  note  or  notes  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  harmony,  by  a  contrivance  which  siiuts 
oil'  all  notes  excei)t  tlie  highest,  in  certain  registers 
of  a  comliination.  Harmoniums  may  now  be  had 
of  \-arious  sizes  and  qualities,  at  prices  from  £5  to 
.£!'20.  A'aluable  for  accom])anying  psalmody,  they 
suitably  take  the  place  of  organs  in  tem|>orary 
lilaces  of  ptiblic  worship,  or  among  the  less  miulent 
class  of  congregations  ;  but  of  late  years  the  French 
school  of  players,  headed  by  M.  Lemmens,  have 
treated  the  harmonium  with  success  as  a  brilliant 
solo  instrument.  For  domestic  use,  harmoniums 
are  not  likely  to  supersede  the  pianoforte ;  but 
possessing  the  imjiortant  advjintage  of  not  going 
out  of  tune  through  humidity  of  atmosphere,  they 
will  be  found  available  in  climates  where  pianos 
ciinnot  properly  be  kept. 

IlarillOIiy,  paradoxical  as  it  may  seem  to  the 
lay  mind,  is  the  science  of  discord.  It  treats  of  the 
laws  whicli  control  the  relationship  of  one  chord  or 


set  of  chords  to  others,  and  which  decide  the 
relation  to  the  fundamental  concord  of  the  dLssonant 
elements  in  a  discord. 

Concords. — A  chord  or  combination  of  several 
tones  in  any  .scale  or  key  may  be  a  concord  or 
a  discord.  The  one  concord  in  a  key  consists  of 
the  tonic  or  keynote  and  the  notes  which  are 
respectively  a  major  third  and  a  fifth  al>ove  the 
keynote  : 

Key  C.  Key  F.     Key  G. 


-5- 


3^g=|E||pE||p^|^ 


*  and  t  are  respectively  the  fii'st  and  second  '  in- 
versions '  of  the  chord.  These  three  are  the 
notes  which  nature  gives  us  as  producing  a  per- 
fect sound  in  combination  (see  H.\RJioxics)  :  tliey 
are  therefore  called  '  con.sonances,' and  any  foreign 
element  is  a  'dissonance.'  This  ' conmion  chord ' 
or  'triad'  makes  a  starting-point  and  a  point 
of  finality  from  which  the  harmonies  proceed, 
round  v\hich  they  rally  from  time  to  time,  and 
into  which  finally  they  resolve  themselves.  It 
is  with  few  exceptions  tlie  first  and  invarialdy  the 
last  chord  in  any  composition.  One  dissonance 
suffices  to  change  a  concord  to  a  discord,  which 
can  be  effected  by  adding  to  the  notes  of  this 
common  chord,  or  by  changing  their  relationship 
to  each  other,  iSrc. ;  and  the  fundamental  law  of 
harmony  is  that  discord  ns  on  incomplete  idea  must 
give  place  to  concord  before  the  ear  can  be  satisfied. 
This  process  is  called  '  resolving '  the  discord.  Thus 
concords  stand  firm  like  the  straight  lines  or  out- 
standing features  in  a  landscape ;  while  discords 
supply  the  curved  lines  of  beauty,  the  effects  of 
perspective,  and  the  variety  which  gives  interest  to 
the  picture. 

Discords. — The  seventh  harmonic  of  nature  which 
is  a  minor  seventh  distant  from  the  root — i.e.  one 
semitone  less  than  the  seventh  consecutive  note  in 
an  ascending  major  scale — produces  a  <liscord  which, 
with  its  complementary  ox  fulfilling  concord,  is  the 
foundation  of  all  harmony.  This  discord  is  called 
the  DciMlx.VNT  Seventh  (its  sign  is  V..),  and  its 
'  resolution '  is  the  triad  of  the  key  to  which  it 
belongs — i.e.  the  chord  of  the  tonic  (I.). 

A  B 


7-\- 7i. — :eJ — 

— =t — "^ — n 

s — P — 

L_© — V- — U 

V-.     r. 


V-.      I. 


A  is  an  example  of  '  close,'  B  of  '  open  "  or  '  ex- 
tended '  harmony.  Because  the  discord  on  <i  seems 
thus  to  demanil  the  chord  of  C  as  its  resolution, 
the  note  tJ  (or  similarly  the  fifth  decree  in  any 
scale)  is  called  the  dominant  (V.)  of  that  key, 
and  the  chords  and  discords  built  on  it  constitute 
the  dominant  harmonies.  Position  H  is  the  most 
satisfact<uy  to  the  ear,  because  of  the  effect  of 
finality  induced  by  the  resolution  to  the  first 
position  of  the  triad  ;  and  the  two  chords  together 
form  the  dominant  or  anthentic  cadence — the  most 
important  of  those  terminal  phrases  whicli  serve  in 
music  much  the  same  end  as  commas,  semicolons, 
and  perioils  in  composition.  '  Goil  save  the  Queen  ' 
offers  examides  of  two  other  important  cadences, 
showing  at  the  same  time  how  the.se  mark  the  com- 
pletion of  more  or  le.'^s  final  musical  periods. 


664 


HARMONY 


->A 


\m 


J_L 


3^ 


m^^m^ 


IE 


^ 


zw:z-J=ZMz 


1 


zxtzi 


I.      V. 

The  first  periotl  is  cli>se<l  at  A  l)y  a  'lialf  or 
'imperfect'  cailence — i.e.  the  order  V. — I.  is  re- 
vereed ;  the  seconil  at  H  liv  a  '  false  '  or  '  (lece|itive  ' 
cadence — i.e.  tlie  ihtiiiiiiaiit  clionl.  instead  of  pro- 
ceeding to  the  tonic,  '<leceives'  the  ear  by  proceed- 
ing to  another  chonl ;  tlie  third  period  is  brought 
to  a  close  Itv  the  authentic  cadence  at  C. 

The  dominant  chord  can  also  liear  the  more 
elaborate  dissonances  of  the  ninth,  eleventh,  and 
tliirteenth,  lus  well  iis  the  seventh. 

Gounod's  Fauat. 


Key  F. 


V7. 


I. 


Root  C  (V.) Root  F  (I.) 

It  is  impossible  here  to  enter  into  the  varieties  of 
discord — 'suspensions,'  '  double-riwt  chords,'  &c., 
into  the  analogous  discords  wliicli  may  be  built 
on  the  tonic  sis  a  ground-note,  or  the  chords  be- 
longing to  tlie  minor  .scale.  Sutiice  it  to  say  the 
efl'ects  wliich  can  be  evolved  from  the  almost 
innumerable  invei>ions  and  involutions  of  single 
chords  and  combinations  of  chords  are  subject  t<) 
natural  laws  as  stringent  as  those  governing  the 
growth  of  Howers  and  trees,  and  the  po.ssibilitie.s  of 
variety  in  this  unity  are  as  infinite. 
Modulation. — One    branch   of   the    subject    can 

Authentic. 

Dorian.  Ltoian. 


V;.     Vi. 

hardly  be  left  without  mention — i.e.  iiiodiilalinii  or 
change  from  one  key  (or  'mode')  to  another.  Our 
modern  .scales  have  liad  the  relation  of  their 
intervals  so  modified  (see  Tkmper.xmknt)  as  to  be 
a]>proxiinately  alike.  I5y  the  addition  of  a  single 
sharp  or  Hat  any  melody  can  proceed  from  the  key 
of  C  to  (i  (with  Kjj),  K  (with  l!i»),  or  A  inin<)r 
(with  (JJ).  Tlie.se— the  (lominant,  subdoniinant 
(next  below  the  dominant),  and  the  minor  of 
the  sixth  degree — are  the  keys  of  X\\e  fmt  n/ntioii, 
as  out  of  the  seven  notes  wliich  constitute  each 
scale  six  are  present  in  the  .scale  of  C,  thus  orovid- 
ing  ,i.s  it  were  .six  more  or  less  convenient  l)ridgcs 
by  which  to  pass  from  one  key  to  the  other.  The 
conventionality  of  tlie.se  modulations  makes  them 
inadeipiate  to  ciinvey  the  more  j>a.ssionate  colouring 
of  inodern  music,  and  more  striking  clianges  to 
remoter  keys  are  necessary.  A  favcmrite  ilcvioe 
with  modern  coinposei-s  is  to  take  advantage  of  the 
'  tempered  '  system,  and  by  using  one  note  in  two 
significations  (e.g.  F  x  Ei)  to  secure  means  of  start- 
ling and  also  of  very  tender  eli'ects  in  modulation. 

Ili.sturij. — The  complete  (!reek  .scale  as  formu- 
late<l  by  l'ythag(U-as  is  reincsented  by  three  octaves 
of  our  scale  of  \  minor,  iK'ginning  at  the  \  in  the 
fii-st  space  of  the  ba.ss  clef,  and  using  no  black 
notes.  Various  sets  of  eight  notes  selected  from  this 
extensive  scale  were  called  after  districts  of  (Jreece, 
and  in  the  -Ith  century  St  Ambrose  adopted  four  of 
these  names  when  he  laid  the  foundation  of  modern 
music  in  what  are  calleil  the  (Jregorian  Modes. 
They  received  their  name  from  I'ope  (Jregory,  who 
added  four  others  beginning  on  the  resi)ective 
dominants,  and  called  them  jihigiil,  as  iiistinct 
from  the  authcntir  modes  of  St  Ambrose.  The 
most  important  of  these  are 

Plaijal. 

Hypodobiak  or  JBoliah. 


Hypoltoiak  or  Iomiah. 


Final. 


Dominant. 


Dominant 


Dominant.         Final. 


Dominant. 


The  Dorian  and  .Koli.an,  and  le.ss  frequently 
othei's  even  more  at  variance  with  our  conventional 
scale,  are  still  in  occasional  use  ;  and  peculiarly 
plaintive  efl'ects  can  be  obtained  from  the  absence 
of  the  '  sh.ai])  seventh  '  to  which  our  iiKxlern  ears  are 
so  accustomed. 

In  Counterpoint,  the  science  which  preceded 
harmony,  attention  was  given  altogether  to  the 
correct  progre.ssicm  of  the  individual  voices  or  part.s, 
while  the  combinations  made  by  the  voices  at  any 
moment  were  regarded  as  merely  accidental.  IJut 
unconsciously  the  ear  of  musicians  was  l>eing 
cultivated,  and  the  richness  of  Palestrina's  simjder 


writings  must  have  shown  the  iiossibility  of  obtain- 
ing undreamt-of  etlects  from  clionls  iis  integral 
units  in  a  march  of  harmonies,  rather  than 
accidental  combinations  of  independent  meloilies. 
One  of  the  fundamental  nilcs  of  counterpoint  was 
tliat  a  ili.s.sonance  must  either  be  'prepared' — i.e. 
it  must  appear  as  a  consonance  in  the  previous 
cliord — or  else  it  must  be  approached  veiy  giailu- 
ally.  This  rule  of  the  old  science  was  disregarded 
by'Monteverde  (1608),  who  used  unprej)ared  dis- 
cords, and  thus  at  one  blow  the  new  feeling  for 
chords  was  relea.sed  from  its  bondage  to  counter- 
point. 


EE 


5fe 


:tai: 


HARMONY 


HAROLD 


565 


The  chords  at  *  present  the  same  iliscord — tlie 
eleveiitli  and  seventh  on  A,  the  dmninant  of  I). 
The  first  is  carefully  prepareil,  and  so  has  a  smooth 
•ett'ect ;  the  second  is  rjuite  '  free '  in  its  entry,  and 
has  a  sudden  and  startling  efl'ect. 

( )nly  one  who  iindei'stands  counterpoint  and 
harmony  can  appreciate  the  full  importance  of  the 
new  departure.  It  meant  that  discords  were  no 
longer  mere  variations  of  concords,  but  individual 
creations  with  an  individual's  lights  and  d\ities. 
The  discord  most  easily  used  was  the  dominant 
seventh,  the  first  discord  jiroiluced  liy  nature's 
harmonics;  and  so  the  relation  of  ilominant  to 
tonic — the  central  idea  of  all  harmony — developed 
from  an  increasingly  general  temlency  into  a 
recognised  rule.  During  the  17th  century  many 
•experiments  were  made  by  ilonteierde's  followers, 
until  at  the  end  of  the  century  Kameau's  famous 
treatise  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  all  chords 
are  derived  fnjm  some  note  which  is  the  generator 
or  root,  and  the  relationships  of  these  roots  govern 
the  progressions  of  the  harmonies.  The  less  known, 
Imt  hardly  less  important,  researches  of  Tartini 
formed  a  good  supplement  to  Kameau's  theory  : 
and  the  basis  of  scientific  harmony  established  liy 
these  two  works  ha.s  not  been  seriously  disturbed 
even  by  the  thorough  investigation  and  the  astonish- 
ing discoveries  of  Helmholtz,  wlio  has  extended 
the  foundation  and  built  a  complete  superstructure 
thereon.  In  the  meantime,  while  theorists  fought 
each  other  with  great  fierceness  just  as  their  suc- 
cessors do  to-day,  the  science  made  extraonlinary 
progress  under  such  practical  harmonists  as  Bach, 
Mozart,  and  Beethoven.  Bach's  daring  but  unerr- 
ing feeling  for  harmony,  his  grasp  of  tlie  mysteries 
of  ehord-relationshi|),  and  his  unecpialled  skill  in 
part- writing  enal>leil  him  as  early  as  the  beginning 
of  last  century  to  transform  an  ordinary  progression 
of  simple  chords  into  such  a  passage  a.s 


The  accented  dissonances  (*),  so  smoothly 
introduced  and  yet  so  .striking,  are  extremely 
effective.  Haydn's  work,  and  Slozart's  also,  is 
considerably  softer :  their  use  of  discord  proved 
insullicient  for  the  expression  of  the  great  pa>ision 
which  is  the  feature  of  Beethoven's  later  work.  The 
romanticism  of  Schumann  required  still  fi'eer  sco|ie, 
and  Wagner,  who  handles  any  number  of  p.arts  as 
easily  as  did  15ai'h  Idm.self,  has  enlarged  tlie 
possibilities  of  harmony  so  far  that  it  is  dilHcult 
to  conceive  of  any  further  advance.  Theoretical 
h.'irinonists  have  followed  fast  in  tli(^  train  of  these 
great  composers,  and,  as  system  after  system  proved 
inadequate  for  the  analysis  of  new  liarmonies  or 
new  uses  of  old  harmonies,  the  revered  names  of 
each  generation  have  been  pushed  a-side  more  or 
less  contemptuously  by  succeeding  schools. 

Among  the  most  famous  works  on  harmony  are  those 
by  K.aiiicau,  Logier,  and  Dr  Day ;  Kicliter's  text-book — 
long  used  at  Leipzig  Conservatorium — is  a  very  good 
example  of  last  generation's  guide  :  and  it  is  England's 
proud  boast  to-day  that  the  attcm|it  to  reconcile  theory 
■witli  practice  is  most  successful  among  her  musicians. 
.Sir  (leorge  Macfarren's  Hannonti  is  founded  on  i")r  Day's 
system  ;  Sir  Frederick  Ouselcy's  is  even  more  scientific ; 
and  probably  the  most  successful,  as  well  as  certainly  the 
most  readable  of  all.  is  Sir  John  Stainer's  Theory  of  Har- 
.montf.     Sir  George  Macfarren's  six  LccfurcJ*^  delivered  at 


the  Royal  Institution,  give  an  exliaustive  and  popwlar 
account  of  the  progress  of  harmony  ;  and  more  technical 
readers  will  find  iimch  that  is  instructive  in  Dr  Parry's 
brilliant  article  in  Grove's  Dictitmary  of  Miigic. 

Hariiiony  of  Gospels.    See  Go.spel.s. 

Harms,  Clats,  (icrman  divine  (1778-18.55), 
whose  memorial  work,  />".v  .siiid  die  05  Theses  uiler 
Streitsutzc  Lidhers  (1!S17),  in  celebration  of  tlie  ter- 
centenary of  the  Keforniation,  ])roduced  a  sensation 
in  Germany. 

Harnaok,  Theodosius,  a  Lutheran  theologian, 
■was  born  at  St  Petersburg  in  1817,  ami  studied  at 
Dorpat,  where  he  was  jjrofessor  of  Theology  from 
1848  to  18.53.  next  till  18(56  at  Eiiangen,  ami"  again 
at  Dorpat  till  his  retirement  in  iHl'A.  He  died  in 
1889.  His  principal  works  are  his  J'r(i/:lische  Tlico- 
logic  (3  vols.  1877-82)  and  Katerhclik  uml  ErUa- 
riDif/  deskleincn  Katerhisniiis  Lntliers  (2  vols.  1882). 
— Uf  his  sons,  all  of  whom  have  attained  to  some 
distinction,  the  most  famous  is  AlioLF,  who  was 
born  7th  May  1851  at  Dorpat,  where  he  studied  from 
1.S69  to  1872.  He  was  ajipointed  jirirut-dDcnit  for 
church  histoiy  at  Leipzi''  (1874),  extraordinary 
professor  there  (1876),  and  ordinary  professor  suc- 
cessively at  Giessen  (1879),  Marburg  (1886),  and 
Berlin  ( 1888).  His  chief  writings  are  Zur  Quellen- 
l.iitik  der  Gcschichte  dcs  (Inostizismus  ( Leip.  1873 ) ; 
Die  Zcit  dcs  hjncdius  mid  die  rli  ronologie  der  (oitiuch- 
cnischeii  Bisehofe  (Leip.  1878);  Das  Monclituin, 
seine  Ideale  vnd  Gcschic/de  (2d  ed.  Giessen,  1SS2); 
Lehrhuch  der  Dor/iuciiijese/iickte  (3  vols.  18S(i-il(»; 
Eng.  trans.  1894-97);  Die  Oeschirhte  der  aUclni.st- 
lichcn  Litteratur  {vo\.  i.  1893).  'The  Oid/itirs  of  the 
History  ofDoiniia  ( trans.  1893 )  is  a  translation  of  the 
Gruiulrins  {2^  ed.  1893).  Prussian  orthodoxy  Wiis 
greatly  scandalised  by  liis  treatment  of  the  Apostles' 
Creed  in  Das  Ajmstolisehe  Gldiitienshclciintniss 
(1892),  and  agitated  for  his  removal  from  his  post. 
In  conjunction  with  Von  Gebbardt  and  Zahn  he 
edited  the  Pcdrum  apostoticoriun  opera  (3  parts, 
Leip.  1876-78);  and  with  Von  Gebhardt  alone  the 
Tcxte  mid  UntersiiehiiiKien  zur  Oeschirhte  der  cdt- 
ehristlichcn  litteratur  (\2  vols.  1882-94).  He  wiis 
also  joint-editor  of  the  Theolof/isehe  Litteratnr- 
zcitiiiii/  established  by  Schiirer  (1876).  —  AxiiL, 
Adolf's  twin  -  brother,  wlio  dieil  in  1888,  was  a 
distinguished  mathematician,  and  wrote  on  the 
calculus  ;  Ekich,  anotlier  brother,  became  a  ]uo- 
fessor  of  Physiology  at  Halle  ;  and  a  fourth,  Otto, 
wrote  on  Goethe. 

Hai'O.  a  town  of  Spain,  31  miles  by  rail  NW. 
of  Logrouo,  is  prettily  situated  on  the  iig;ht  bank 
of  the  Ebro.  Good  led  wine  is  grown  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood.     Pop.  7600. 

llai'O,  The  Ci;y  ui-,  an  old  f(n-m  of  appeal  in 
Normandy  and  the  t'hannel  Islands.  Tlie  word 
wa'^  anciently  understood  to  be  an  aiqieal  to  liolf, 
Kollo,  or  Ron,  the  first  Duke  of  Ncuniandv  ;  a 
better  derivation  seems  to  be  from  the  Old  High 
Cierman  hent  or  hara,  '  here,'  making  liaro  simply 
a  cry  for  aid. 

Haroi'ris,  the  elder  Horn.--,  son  of  Scli,  the 
Egyptian  .Saturn,  and  A'»,  or  Itlieiu  He  was  the 
hiothei,  and  not  the  son,  of  t>siris  ;  and  he  was 
ruler  over  tlie  heaven.  He  was  identified  with  the 
.sun  and  Apollo.     See  Eovi-T  (Vol.  IV.  p.  235). 

Harold  I>.  sumamed  Harefoot,  king  of  Eng 
land,  wa-s  the  younger  of  ("anute's  two  sons  by  his 
first  wife,  .Alfgiva.  On  the  death  of  Canute  in 
10.35,  the  witan  bestowed  upon  Harold  all  the 
provinces  north  of  the  Thames  ;  while  the  |>ossis- 
sion  of  Wessex  in  the  south  wa-s  given  uji  to 
Canutes  second  wife,  Emma,  for  her  son  Hardi- 
canute.  But  in  1037  Wes.sex  also  submitted  to 
Harold.  Beyond  a  ftitile  invasimi  of  the  country 
by  Alfred,  .son  of  Ethelred,  anil  raiiling  incursions 
by    the    Welsh    and    Scots,    Harold's    reign    was 


566 


HAROLD 


marked  bv  no  events  of  importance.     He  dieil  at 
Oxford  in  Miircli  1040. 

Harold    11.,   the   la.st  of   the   native   En^'lisli 
kinj,'s,  wii.-.  the  second  son  of  Earl  (Jodwin  hy  liis 
Manish  wife  (!\tha,  the  si.ster  of  Karl  llf,  uml  Wiis 
horn  ahoiit  102*2.     .'\t  an  early  ajie  he  was  made 
Karl  of  the  East  An^xles,  ami  lie  shared  his  father's 
onthiwrv  in  lO.")!,  Iintlin''a  refujie  in  Ireland.     Next 
.Year,  to;,'etlier  with  his  hrother  I.eofwin,  lie  erosseil 
the  Chaniiel  with  nine  ships,  defeated   the  men  of 
SonieiHet  and  Devon  at  I'orloek,  anil   iava;;ed  the 
conntrv,   next  joined   his  father  at   Portland,   and 
shared  the  triuiiiph  of  his  return.      Harold  was  at 
once  restored  to  liis  earldom,  and  next  year  ( 1 0.').S ) 
succeeded    to    his    father's    earldom   of'tlie    West 
Saxons.      IlenceforwarrI  he  was  the  liKht   liaml  of 
Kinx    KdwanI,   anil  still  more  after  the  deaths  of 
the  old   Kails  Leofric  and  Siwaid,   he  directed  the 
whole   all'aii-s   of   the   kingdom,    with    an    nnnsiial 
union    of    i^entleness     and    vijjoiir.       His    brother 
Tostij;   sncceeded    Siward    ivs    Karl    of    the   Nortli- 
nmbrians  in   10.").'>,  and   two  years  later  two  other 
brothers  were  r.iised  to  earldoms  :  (iiirtli  to  that  of 
the   Kast  An^dians,  Leofwin   to  one  formed  ont  of 
Essex,    Kent,    and    the   other  sliires    round    about 
London.      Meaiiliiiie   Harold  drove  back   the  Welsh 
marauders  of   Kin;;  (aillith   out  of   Herefoidsluie, 
and    added   that    post   of   dan^'er    to    his   earldom.   | 
The  death   in    1().")7   of  the  .Ethelin^'  Edward,   the  I 
son  of   Eilnmnd   Ironside,   who    had    been   bri)ii;;lit 
b;iek  from   Iliiii^aiy  as  heir  to  the  throne,  opened 
up  the  path  tor   Harold  s  ambition,  and  from  this 
time  men's  eyes  rested  on  him  .i^  their  future  kin;;. 
.\nil  nature  had  ei|ualleil   iortuiie  in   her  kindness, 
for  his  hanilsoine  and  stalwart  li;;uie  and  his  ;,'eiitle 
and  eoneiliatoiy  temper  were  kin;;ly  iptalities  tliat 
sat  well  upon  his  sa;,'acity,  his  military  skill,  ami 
his  personal  coura;,'e.      Harold's  policy" thiougliont 
was    till  iiou^thly     En;;lish.     contrary    to    the    pie- 
domiriaiit    Freneli     iullueiices    that    had    Ki'^'crned 
the  early  part  of  Edward's  rei;;ii.      He  was  Eii;;lisli  ' 
in  everylliin;;,  even  to   his  oiefereiice  fm-  secular 
priest-s   to   monks.     He    m.-ule   his    pil;;riiiia^'e    to 
Home  in   lO.IH,  and  after  his  return  completed  his 
church    at    AValtliam,    known     later    .-is    Wall  ham 
.'\)il)ey.      In  Klti:?,  provoked  liy  the  fresli   incursions 
of  •Millilh.  he  marched  .■t;,'ainst  him,  and  by  making 
his  men  put  oil'  their  heavy  armour  and  weapons, 
and  adopt  the  Welshmen's  own  tactics,  he  was  able 
to  travei-se  the  whole  country,  and  lieat  the  enemy 
at   every   ]ioint.     Crillitli    was    killed    liy    his   own 
people,  whereupon  Harold  ;,'.ave  the  ;,'overnnient  to 
the  de.ul  kind's  brothers,  Uleddyn  and   Khiwallon, 
who  swore  oaths  of  fealty  both  to  Kiii^'  Edward  and 
to  himself. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  exactly  at  what  date 
occurred  that  famous  visit  of  Haiidil  to  the  court 
of  puke  William  in  Normandy,  of  the  results  of 
which  the  Norman  writers  make  so  much,  althotij;li 
with  many  contradietions,  while  the  En;;lisli  writers 
with  the  most  marked  and  careful  unanimity  say 
nolhin;;  at  all.  It  seisms  most  likely  that  ilarolll 
did  make  some  kind  of  oath  to  William,  most  |iioli. 
aldy  under  compulsion,  when  he  had  fallen  into 
his  hands  after  being  sliiiiwreckeil  on  the  coa-st  of 
Pontliieu,  ami  imprisoned  by  its  Count  Guy.  Mr 
Freeman  thinks  the  most  i)rol>,abIe  date  to  lie  1064. 
It  is  at  least  certain  that  Harold  helped  William  in 
a  war  with  the  Bretons,  and  in  the  liayeux  tajiestry 
we  see  hi.s  stalwart  form  liflin;;  up  two  Normans  at 
once  wlien  they  were  in  dan;;er  of  bein;;  swejit  away 
by  the  river  Coesnon  wliieli  divides  Normandy  from 
I5rittany.  The  Norman  writei-s  make  Harold 
formally  swear  fealty  to  William,  promisinK  to 
marry  one  of  his  dan;;hters,  and  we  are  tohl  that 
additional  sanctity  w;us  j^ven  to  this  oath  by  its 
being  made  upon  a  chest  full  of  the  most  sacred 
relics. 


In  1005  the  NorthiimbrianH  rebelled  againnt  the 
rule  of  Tostitr,  and  Harold  found  him.self  compelled 
between  policy  and  a  .sense  of  justice  to  side  with 
them,  and  to  aciiniesce  in  their  choii'c  of  .Morear 
and  the  baiii..liment  of  Toslig.  At  the  begiiiiiin}; 
ol  lOtiG  King  Edward  died,  his  last  breath  being  to 

recoi end    that    Harold   should   be   chosen    king. 

He  was  crowned  on  .January  ti,  and  at  mice  set 
himself  with  steadf.ist  cmrgy  to  cmi.soliilale  his 
kingdom.  .\t  York  he  won  over  the  reluitant  men 
of  Northumbria,  and  he  next  married  Kaldgvth, 
Griltith's  willow,  in  order  to  .secure  the  alliance  of 
her  brothei-s,  .Moicar  and  Kdwin.  His  short  reign 
of  forty  weeks  and  one  day  wa.s  occupied  witli 
incessant  vigilance  against  "the  attacks  of  two 
formidable  enemies  at  once.  Duke  William  lost 
no  time  in   lieginning  his  preparations  for  the  iii- 

vasi if   Kngland,   and   Tostig,   after   Irving    the 

Normans  and  the  Scots,  and  lililiuslering  j'.|iii7g  liie 
coasts  on   his  own   account,  succeeded   in  drawing 
j  to  his  side  the  famous   Harold   llaidiada,   king  of 
Norway.     In    the    month    of    September   the    two 
reached  the  Huiiiber,  and  Harold  manlied  to  meet 
them,  resting  neither  day  nor  night.     The  Icelandic 
liistorian  Snorio   in   his  dramatic  narrative  of  the 
light   tells  how  Harold   rode  out  accompanied  with 
twenty  of  his  lionsecails  to  have  speech  with    Ivirl 
Tostig  and  oiler  liim  peace,  and  when  asked  what 
amends  King  Harold  .should  have  for  his  tionble  in 
coming,  replied,  'Seven  feet  of  the  ground  of  Eng- 
land,  or  more  perchance,  seeing  he  is  taller  than 
other  men.'     At  Stamfordbridge  Harold  overtook 
his   enemy,    and   after    a    bloody    struggle    won    a 
com)ilete     victory    (Seiitember  ' 'J."),     lotili),      both 
Tostig    and     Harold    Ilardiada   being    among    the 
slain.      Hut  four  days  later  Diike  William  landed 
at    I'evensey.      Harold    marcheil    .southwanls    with 
the  utmost   haste,   bringing  with   him  the  men  of 
Wessex  and   Ea.st  Aiiglia  and  the  earhloms  of  his 
brothels:  but  the  two  earls  Edwin  and  Morear  held 
aloof  and  kejit  back  the  men  of  the  north,  althuugli 
some  of   the   men   of  Meicia,    in    the  earldom   of 
Edwin,   followed   their  king  to  the  fatal   struggle 
which  was  fought  ont  from  nine  in  the  morning  till 
jiast  nightfall  on  the  14th  October  KXiO.      The  Eng- 
lish fought  with  the  most  slublioin  eouiage,  and  the 
liattle  was  only  lost  by  their  allowing  the  pretended 
llight   of   the   Normans   to   draw   them   from    their 
impregnable  position  on  the  crest  of  the  liill,  ringed 
with  an  unbroken  shield  wall.     On  its  slojie  riglit 
in   front  of   the  Norman   army   waved    the  gidden 
dragon  of  Wessex,  sus  well  as  the  king's  own  stand- 
aril,  a  lighting  man  wrouglit  upon  it  in  gold.     Here 
Harold  stood  with  his  mighty  two-handed  axe,  and 
hewed  down    the   Normans  .as  they  eanie.      liefore 
nightfall  he  fell  piereed   through  the  eye  with   an 
arrow.     His  housecarls  fought  where  they  stood  till 
they  fell  one  by  one;  his  brothersllurth  arid  Leofwin 
died    beside    liim.       The    king's   body    was    found 
upon   the   lield,   recognised   only  by  a   former  mis- 
tress, the  fair  Eadgylh  Swanneshais  ('  Edith  of  tlie 
swan's  neck').     At  liist  ^\■illianl  ordered  it  to  be 
buried  on  the  rocks  at  Hastings,  but  sii-ms  after  to 
have  iiermitted  it  to  be  removed  to  Harold's  own 
churcli  at    Walthain.     Than    Harold   no  braver  or 
more  heroic  figure  ever  filled  a  throne  ;  no  kingovi^r 
fought  more  heroicallv  for  his  crown.      If  he  failed, 
it  was  because  he  had  to  bow  his  head  to  fate,  ami 
in  his  death  he  saved  all  the  honour  of  his  family 
and  his  race.      His  tragic  story  ha.s  given  a  suliject 
for  a  romance  to  Lyttnn,  and  for  a  stately  drama  to 
Tennyson.     Tor  the  liistory,  see  vols.  ii.  and  iii.  of 
Freeman's  Ilixtury  of  the  Gorman  Cunquest. 

Harold  1.,  snrnamed  H.\,\1!IA(;er  ( '  Eatr- 
haired'),  the  (ii-st  king  of  all  Norway,  wa.s  the 
son  of  Halfdan  the  I'lack,  the  most  jioweiful  of 
the  jarls  or  jietty  kings  of  south-eastern  Norway. 
Aei-iiriling   to   the   popular  story,    he  loved   a  hii'ii- 


HAROLD 


HARP 


567 


boin  maiden  named  Oyda,  Imt  she  declared  slie 
would  not  be  liis  wife  until  lie  was  sole  king  of 
Norway  ;  lie  in  ills  turn  tli('ieu]ion  took  an  oath 
that  lie  would  iieitlicr  cut  nor  coiiili  his  hair  until 
he  had  accomiilished  her  liiildini;.  After  a  severe 
struggle  of  some  years'  duration  (863-872)  he  sub- 
dued, first  the  chiefs  between  Throndhiem  and  the 
Sogne  Fjord,  and  linally  tlie  kings  of  the  south- 
west, whom  he  defeated  in  a  naval  battle  near 
Stavanger.  The  ci)n(|uered  districts  he  placed 
under  the  rule  of  his  own  jarls,  or  such  as  were 
devoted  to  his  servii'e.  Tliis  led  many  of  the  old 
nobles  to  emigrate  to  the  Orkneys,  the  Hebrides, 
and  to  Iceland,  whence  they  conducted  a  series 
of  iiiratical  expeditions  against  Norway,  until  at 
length  Harold  was  constrained  to  sail  westwards 
and  chastise  them  in  their  own  seas.  In  his  old 
age  Harold  divided  his  territories  amongst  his  sons, 
and  died  at  Throndhjem,  which  he  had  made  his 
capital,  in  930,  leaving  the  supreme  power  to  his 
son  Eric,  surnamed  Bloodj'-Axe. 

Harold     III.,     surnamed     HaardrAADE     or 

HAKiutADA  ('stern  in  council'),  king  of  Norway, 
and  one  of  the  most  faiiioiis  of  the  old  Viking  cliie/s, 
was  a  descendant  of  Hariild  I.  Whilst  still  a  boy 
he  was  present  at  the  liattle  of  Stikklestad  (1030), 
in  which  his  brother,  St  Olaf,  king  of  Norway,  was 
slain.  Harold  himself  sought  an  asylum  at  the 
court  of  liis  relative,  Yaroslatt',  prince  of  Nov- 
goidil.  Thence,  going  on  to  Constantinople,  he 
became  captain  of  the  \'arangians  or  Scandinavian 
bodyguard  of  the  (!reek  emperors,  and  in  com- 
mand of  tliem  defeated  the  Saracens  in  several 
battles  in  Sicily  and  Italy.  On  his  return  to  Con- 
stantinople, he  drew  uiioii  himself  the  vengeance 
of  the  Eiiipress  Zoe,  whose  proffered  love  he 
rejected,  and  with  ditiiculty  made  good  his  escajie 
to  Russia,  where  be  married  the  daughter  of  Duke 
Yaroslair.  But  he  did  not  remain  in  Russia.  He 
returned  about  1045  to  Norwaj',  where  his  nephew, 
Magnus  (the  son  of  St  Olaf),  agreed  to  divide  the 
supreme  power  with  him,  in  exchange  for  a  share 
of  his  treasures.  The  death  of  Magnus  in  1047  left 
Handd  side  king  of  Norway,  and  Svend  king  of 
Denmark  ;  but  with  Svend  Harold  waged  unrelent- 
ing war  until  1004.  This  king  changed  the  capital 
of  Norway  from  Tlirondhjeui  to  Opslo,  now  a  suburb 
of  Christiania.  Two  years  later  he  landed  in  Eng- 
land, to  aid  Tostig  against  his  brother  Harold,  king 
of  England,  but  was  slain  in  battle  at  Stamford- 
bridge,  where  also  the  (lower  of  his  warriors  fell. 

Ilaroilll,  surnamed  Al-Ka.sohid  (more  pro- 
]ierly  Ilariin  er  Kashid,  'the  orthodox'),  the  most 
renowned  of  the  Abliasiile  califs,  was  born  in  7G3, 
and  succeeded  his  elder  lirother.  El  Hiidi,  in  the 
califate,  in  the  year  780.  He  owed  his  peaceful 
accession  to  the  sagacity  of  the  liarmecide  Yaliya, 
whom  be  at  once  made  his  grand-vizier.  To  him 
and  his  four  sons  he  left  the  entire  administration 
of  Ids  extensive  kingdom  ;  and  the  energy  of  their 
aihuinistration,  the  enforcement  of  order,  and  the 
general  pros|)erity  of  the  country  ju-oved  that  his 
confidence  was  not  misplaced.  Meantime  Haroun 
gave  himself  up  to  the  pleasures  of  life,  and  his 
own  taste  and  hospitality  ipiickly  made  his  court 
at  Bagdad  a  brilliant  centre  of  all  the  wit,  learn- 
ing, and  art  of  the  Moslem  world.  Himself  an 
accomplished  scholar  and  poet,  he  gathered  round 
him  the  liest  scliolais,  poets,  .and  musicians  of  his 
age,  and  heaped  rewards  ujion  them  with  lavish 
prodigality.  Towards  the  end  of  his  reign  a  strange 
and  dci'iijyrooted  hatred  towards  the  Barmecides 
((|.\.)  liiled  his  mind,  and  in  803  he  caused  the 
vizier,  lii.s  four  sons,  and  all  their  descendants 
save  one,  to  be  executed,  not  even  excepting 
his  favourite  Jaafer  (Ciafar),  who  had  been  his 
constant  com|ianion  in  his  famous  but  apocryphal 


nocturnal  rambles  through  the  streets  of  Bagdad. 
But  the  retribution  of  heaven  quickly  followed  ; 
his  atlairs  fell  into  irretrievable  confusion  ;  trea>on 
and  rebellion,  no  longer  dreading  the  far-reachiii;,' 
arm  of  the  able  vizier,  showed  themselves  in  every 
corner  of  the  empire;  and,  when  it  was  too  late, 
Haroun  repented  bitterly  his  ferocious  cruelty.  To 
quell  a  formidable  rising  in  Khoras.san,  in  the 
north-east  of  the  empire,  Haroun  marched  in  per- 
son against  the  rebels,  but  an  attack  of  apoplexy 
obliged  him  to  remain  behind  in  Tfls,  Aviiere  he 
soon  afterwards  died,  in  the  month  of  March  809. 
Haroun  the  ^Magnilicent  is  the  hero  of  many  of 
the  stories  in  the  Arahiuii  Niijhts,  which  have 
thrown  a  false  halo  round  his  memory  ;  for  with 
all  his  enlightenment,  there  was  room  in  his  heart 
for  the  most  merciless  and  blood-thirsty  ferocity. 
See  (iibbon's  Hlstriry,  Weil's  Gcsch.  cicr  Chalifen, 
and  Professor  E.  H.  Palmer's  sketch  in  the  '  New 
Plutarch'  series  (1880). 

Harp,  a  musical  stringed  instiiiment,  much 
esteemed  by  the  ancients.  In  Egypt  it  attained 
an  early  and  unequalled  maturity,  and  is  deline- 
ated in  the  sculptures  from  the  earliest  ages  in 
many  different  forms.  The  great  Egyptian  barji 
stood  nearly  7  feet  in  height,  and  carried  18 
sonorous  bass  and  tenor  strings.  Its  immense 
frame  shimmered  with  all  the  colours  of  the  rain- 
bow, and  was  further  ornamented  with  massive 
carvings,  gold,  and  precious  stones.  The  Assyrian 
anil  biblical  harp  was  a  small  instrument,  easily 
carried  in  the  hand,  and  resemliling  more  a  Lyre 
(q.v.)  than  a  true  harp.  The  harp  was  not  in  use 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans ;  but  the  kantcla, 
to  which  the  Finns  chanted  the  Kiilcratd,  was  a 
sort  of  primitive  harp.  The  Celtic  bards  held 
the  instrument  in  the  greatest  honour.  The  old 
Scottish  harp  was  about  3  feet  high,  a  foot  and 
a  half  broad,  and  carried  about  thirty  strings. 
Seven  harps  earlier  than  the  18th  century  are 
in  existence,  and  are  describeil  in  Hipkins'  Minsiml 
Iiistriiitieids,  Histon'r,  liitie,  and  li/>t/i(r  (1889). 
The  Welsh  triple  harp  is  a  large  instrument, 
furnished  with  three  rows  of  strings.  Of  these, 
two  rows  are  tuned  in  unison  and  in  the  diatonic 
scale,  the  remaining  one  in  the  sharps  and  Hats 
of  the  chromatic.  In  Ireland  the  harp  was  so 
celebrated  an  instrument  in  the  remotest  times 
that  the  Italians  of  the  middle  ages  believed  their 
harp  to  be  derived  from  Ireland.  The  most  familiar 
forms  of  harp  are  the  Italian,  the  medieval,  and  the 
pedal  harp.  The  first  is  strung  with  two  rows  of 
wire-strings,  separated  by  a  doulile  sound-lioard  ; 
this  kind  is  now  little  used,  being  very  imperfect. 
The  second  is  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  with  a 
sound-hoard  and  gut-strings  ;  it  is  always  tuned  in 
the  princiiial  key  of  the  music,  while  the  strings 
are  altered  to  suit  any  modulations  out  of  the  key, 
by  pres.sure  of  the  linger,  ov  turning  the  tuning-pins 
of  certain  notes.  The  ada]itatiim  of  the  harp  to  the 
modern  chromatic  scales  led  to  the  invention  of  the 
jiedal  harji,  which  has  seven  pedals,  by  which  each 
note  of  the  diatonic  scale,  in  all  the  different 
octaves,  can  be  made  a  semitone  higher.  The 
com]iass  of  the  pedal  harp  is  from  contra  F  to  1)  of 
the  sixth  octave  above.  In  order  to  have  the  B 
Hat,  it  must  be  tuned  in  the  key  of  E  Hat.  The 
music  for  the  harp  is  written  in  the  ha.ss  and  treble 
clef,  the  same  as  pianoforte  music.  A  celebrated 
harpist,  Hochlirucker,  in  Donauworth,  invented  the 
pedals  in  17'20;  others  say  they  were  invented  by 
J.  Paul  Verter,  in  Nuremberg,  in  1730,  who  at  least 
added  the  piano  and  forte  jiedal.  The  facility  of 
playing  chromatic  intervals,  and  in  ditt'erent  keys, 
was  still  more  completely  attained  by  the  inven- 
tion of  the  double-action  pedal  harp  by  Erard  in 
Paris,  in  1810.  By  means  of  Erard's  invention, 
each  string  can  be  sharpened  twice,  each  time  a 


r — 

HARPY 


568 


HAUPE 


Keiiiitone.  s<i  that  the  f  strin;-  iimy  l>e  <,'  lint  its 
full  len;;tli,  C  natural  tiy  tlie  lii-st  iiiovciiu-iit  of  the 
]ieilal,  anil  C  sharp  liy  the  next  nuivenieiit.  The 
iloulileaction  harp  is  tiineil  in  the  key  i>f  C  Hat. 

Ilarpe.  -'kan  Khancdis  de  la.  See  La 
Haihi:. 

llariH-r  and  Brothers,  a  well  known  lirm 

of  Ni«  York  pulpli>hiMs,  consisted  orij;inally  of 
James  ( 179-)-lSG<J),  John  (1797-1875),  Joseph 
Wesley  (1801-70),  ami  Fletcher  ( 1806-77).  James 
and  Jolin  oomnienceil  to  pulilish  in  1HI8,  ami, 
nniler  the  style  of  J.  iV  .1.  Hari>er,  issued  ahout 
2(K)  works.  The  firm  of  Harper  and  Brothers  was 
estalilished  in  IS."}."?,  and  is  now  carried  on  liy  the 
descendants  of  the  founders  ;  it  ha-s  large  jmlilishin;; 
premises  in  New  York  city.  Besides  hooks,  the 
linn  issues  I/arjirr's  Magazine  (monthly,  since 
ISoO),  Harper's  Weekly  (since  18.57),  Harper's 
]ia:ar  (fashions,  social  life,  <)cc. ;  since  lS(i7),  and 
Nrirjicr's  Yomuj  Peiijtlc  (since  1881).  The  lirm  was 
reorganised  in  ISUU. 

Harper's  Ferry,  a  post-villape  of  West 
Virginia,  situated  among  heautiful  .scenery  at 
the  coulluence  of  the  Shenaniloah  with  the 
Potomac,  where  the  latter  is  crossed  hy  a  hridge, 
81  miles  W.  of  Ualtimore  by  rail.  It  was  the  scene 
of  .lohn  Itrown's  aholition  raid  in  18.59;  and  here 
a  I'liion  anny  of  over  11, .500  men.  under  (General 
I).  H.  .Miles,  surrendered  to  Stonewall  Jackson  in 
18()'2.  The  arsenal  and  armoury  were  burned  in 
ISIil,  to  ]irevent  their  falling  into  the  liamls  of 
the  Confederates.      Pop.  7li4. 

Ilarpoerates,  the  name  given  by  Greek 
writers  to  the  younger  Horns,  the  hieroglyi>hical 
inscriptions  calling  him  liar  pa  l.liriit,  '  Horns  the 
child,'  the  sim  of  Osiris  and  Isis.  See  OsiKls, 
EciVlT  (Vol.  IV.  p.  --'.S.-)),  IsiS. 

Harpoon.    See  Whale. 

Ilarp-sliell  tifarpa),  a  genus  of  gasteropo<lous 
nu)lluscs  of  the  whelk 
family  (Huccinida-),  hav- 
ing the  last  whorl  of  the 
shell  large,  and  covered 
with  numerous  sharp 
smooth  rib.s,  resembling 
the  strings  of  a  harp. 
The  foot  is  large,  and 
there  is  no  operculum. 
These  shells  .are  elegantly 
marked,  and  much  pri/<-d 
for  their  beauty.  Nine 
species  are  known,  all  of 
tlieni  tr»])ical,  and  living 
in  deep  water,  on  soft, 
sandy,  or  muddy  bot- 
toms. 

Ilarpsieliord.    a 

keyed  musical  instrument,  formerly  in  extensive 
use,  but  now  little  known.  There  were  three 
shapes:  the  'grand'  form,  resembling  a  grand 
piano :  the  oblong,  often  called  spinet  or  virginal  : 
and  the  upright,  this  type  very  rare.  The  sound 
from  the  strings  was  pioduced  bv  a  small  ]iiece 
of  crowi(uill,  or  a  piece  of  hard  leather,  which 
projected  imt  of  a  slip  of  wood,  called  the  jack,  that 
stood  upright  between  the  strings,  and  wius  imshed 
upwards  by  the  key,  till  the  quill  or  leather 
twitched  the  string,  cau.sing  a  brilliant,  but  some- 
what harsh  sound,  entirely  deficient  of  any  means 
of  modilioation  in  respect  to  loudness  or  softness. 
Specimens  of  the  harpsichord,  although  now  becom- 
ing more  rare,  are  still  to  be  found  in  good  preserva 
tion,  but  are  regarded  rather  as  articles  of  vertu  (ir 
curiosity  than  as  usetid  musical  instruments.  Many 
Italian  and  Dutch  hnrpsichords  were  highly  orna- 
meuteil  bv  the  most  eminent  artists  with  valuable 


Harp-slifll 
{HitrjMi  imjjeri(ilU). 


panel  paintings  on  the  insiiU'  of  the  liil.  The  datfl 
of  the  invention  of  the  hariisichonl  is  uncertain. 
It  is  lii-st  mentioned  in  the  rules  of  the  Minnesingers 
by  Eberhard  I'ersne,  in  1404,  whi<li  places  its  in- 
vention in  the  preceding  century.  If  wius  known  in 
Kngland  in  the  l.")tli  century,  m*  mention  occurs  of 
it  in  a  MS.  dated  l.'J0'2,  where  it  is  alhuled  to  aa 
no  novelty.  The  Knckers  family  were  the  great 
makers  in  Antwerp  in  the  lUth  and  17th  centuries. 
In  the  ISth  century  KirknukU,  ami  later  Hroadwoml 
and  Shudi,  were  the  famous  makers  in  London.  The 
harpsichord  will  be  remend>ered  in  history  as  the 
instrument  <m  which  liacli  ami  Handel  played. 
-After  the  invention  of  the  pi.anoforte.  the  har]>si- 
cliord  in  all  its  varieties  was  gradually  snpei'seded 
by  the  new  instrument.     See  Piaxokiii;tk. 

Harpy,  a  fabulous  creature  in  Greek  myth- 
ologv,  considered  as  a  miidster  of  the  vengeance 
of  the  gods.  Various  accounts  are  given  of  the 
numbers  and  |iarentnge  of  the  Harpies.  Ht)mer 
mentions  but  one,  Podarge ;  Hesiod  enumerates 
two,  Aello  and  Okypete,  daughtei^  of  Thaunnu) 
by  the  Oceanid  Klectra.  fair  haired  and  winged 
maidens,  very  swift  of  (light.  Three  ari>  sinnetime-t 
recognised  by  later  writers,  who  call  tlieni  variously 
daughters  of  Po.seidon  or  of  Tyidmn,  and  describe 
them  as  hideous  monsters  with  wings,  of  fierce  and 
loathsome  aspect,  with  their  faces  pale  with  hunger, 
living  in  an  atmosphere  of  filth  and  stench,  and 
contaminating  everything  that  they  aiiproacheil. 
The  most  celebr.ated  tradition  regarding  tlie  Harjiies 
is  connected  with  the  blind  Phineus,  whose  meals 
thev  carrieil  off  as  s<H>n  a.s  they  were  .siiread  for  him, 
a  jilague  from  which  he  was  (ielivere<f  by  the  Argo- 
nauts, on  his  engaging  to  join  in  their  (piest.  The 
Horefids  Zetes  ancl  Calais  att.acked  the  Haques, 
but  spared  their  lives  on  their  prondsing  to  cea.se 
from  midesting  Phineus.  \'irgil  locates  them  in 
the  Strophatles. — A  harpy  in  herahlry  is  represented 
as  a  vulture,  with  the  head  and  breast  of  a  woman. 


rst^: 


V,7T/7 

Harpy  Eagle  ( Thratailiu  harpi/ia). 

The  name  harpy  Ls  also  amdied  to  a  raptorial  bird 
of  the  fannly  Kalconidie  (j/tra.iaitus  harpijia),  an 
inhabitant  of  the  great  tropical  forests,  where  it 
preys  upon  all  (|uadnipeds,  e.\cept  the  most  power- 
ful, chiefly,  however,  on  monkeys  and  sloths  ;  even 
children  are  said  to  liave  been  cairied  off  by  it.     It 


HARQUEBUS 


HARRIS 


569 


is  somewhat  lai^jer  than  the  goUlen  ea<;le  ( measur- 
inf;  38  inches  in  length  as  a;;ainst  32),  and  its  beak 
and  talons  are  exoeptionally  large,  giving  it  a 
ferocious  aspect;  but  its  wings  .'re  comparatively 
sliort,  and  its  Hight,  for  a  hawk,  if.  slow  and  heavy. 
Its  colour  on  the  back  ami  sides  oi  the  neck,  on  the 
back  and  on  the  wings,  is  lilack  ;  the  head  gi-ay  ; 
the  front  of  the  neck,  breast,  and  belly  white  ;  the 
tail  black  and  gray  above,  black  and  white  in 
transverse  bands  below.  Around  the  eyes  the 
feathers  are  disposed  in  a  radiating  fa.shion,  and 
form  a  crest  on  the  back  of  its  head,  increa-sing  the 
ferocity  of  its  aspect.  It  inhabits  the  tropical 
regions  of  South  America. 

Ilarqiu-biis.    See  Arcjuebus. 

Ilarrar.    See  Har.\r. 

Harrier,  a  breed  of  dog  used  to  hunt  the  hare 
by  scent.  The  liarrier  probably  owes  its  origin  to  the 
foxhound,  though  in  some  packs  the  strain  has  been 
kept  pure  for  many  generations.  In  appearance 
the  harrier  closely  resembles  the  foxhound  both  in 
shape  and  colour,  but  is  on  a  considerably  smaller 
scale.  The  harrier,  though  deficient  in  speed,  is 
able  to  hunt  a  much  colder  scent  than  the  fox- 
hound. They  hunt  in  packs  ;  and  the  sport  forms 
an  element  in  English  country  life  .similar  to  fox- 
hunting. 

Harrier  ( Circus ),  a  geniLs  of  non-arboreal 
Falconid;e,  of  slender  build,  with  a  somewhat  weak, 
unnotched  bill,  with  soft  plumage  and  a  slightly 
owl-like  rutt'on  the  face,  with  long  legs  and  wings, 
and  a  characteristic  gliiling  flight  along  the  ground. 


Hen-harrier  ( Circvui  cyaneus). 

They  live  in  the  open  country,  are  fond  of  marshy 
districts,  and  dexterously  catch  frogs,  birds,  and 
small  mammals.  The  females  are  usually  larger 
and  darker  than  the  males ;  the  young  are  like 
tlie  mother-birds ;  the  nest  is  almost  always  on 
tlie  ground,  and  the  eggs  (3  to  5)  are  white  or 
blotched.  The  British  species  of  harrier  are  ( 1 )  the 
Hen-harrier  (C.  rijauciis),  almost  exterminated  in 
England,  but  still  not  uncommon  in  some  parts  of 
Scotland;  (2)  the  Mai-sh-harrier  or  Moor-buzzard 
(  C.  (iiriifjinosiis),  all  but  exterminated  throughout 
Ihitain;  and(3)  Montagu's  Harrier(C  ciiierasccns), 
never  mure  than  an  occasional  visitor.  The 
marsh-harrier  is  abundant  in  many  parts  of  North 
America. 

Harriers.    See  Athletic  Sports. 

Harriilifton,  James,  author  of  the  Oceana,  a 
ccli'lirated  work,  half  romance,  half  treatise  on 
political  philosophy,  written  for  the  purpose  of  set- 
ting forth  the  best  form  of  government  for  a  com- 
monwealth. The  son  of  Sir  S.  Harrint'ton  of 
Exton,  in  Rutlandshire,  he  wai-  born  in  January 


1611,  studied  at  Oxford  under  Chillingworth,  and 
then  spent  some  years  on  the  Continent.  In  lt>4(;, 
although  a  republican  by  conviction,  Hiiirington 
was  appointed  one  of  the  pei-sonal  attemlants  of 
Charles  I.,  and  on  the  king's  execution  accom- 
panied him  to  the  .scatl'old.  It  was  after  this  event 
that  the  Ocainn  was  written  :  it  was  published  in 
16.56.  The  salient  points  of  the  political  doctrines 
therein  expounded  are  these :  the  real  basis  of 
power  is  property,  especially  landed  property  ; 
acc<ndingly  landed  property  should  be  distributed 
and  held  in  such  a  way  that  no  one  person  should 
derive  from  it  more  than  a  fixed  amount  of  rev- 
enue ;  the  rulers  of  the  commonwealth  should  be 
changed  every  three  years,  their  places  being  taken 
by  others,  elected  bj'  ballot.  After  the  Restora- 
tion Harrington  was  arrested  for  alleged  con- 
spiracy, and  during  a  severe  imprisonment  lost  his 
reason.  He  died  at  Westminster,  11th  September 
1677.  His  writings,  consisting,  besides  the  Oceana, 
principally  of  essays,  &c.  in  defence  of  his  inar/iium 
opus,  were  fii-st  edited  by  Toland  in  17(XJ.  The 
Oceana  was  reprinted  by  Henry  Morley  in  1887. 

Harrington,  Sir  John,  born  in  1561  at  his 
father  s  seat  of  Kelston,  near  Bath,  studied  at  Eton 
and  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  and  afterwards 
was  attached  to  the  court  of  t^ueen  Elizabeth,  who 
had  been  his  god-mother.  His  wit  brought  him 
into  much  favour,  which  he  endangered  by  the 
freedom  and  the  political  allusions  of  his  satires. 
In  1599  he  served  under  Essex  in  Ireland,  and  Mas 
knighted  by  him  on  the  field,  much  to  the  queen's 
displeasure.  To  fortify  his  application  to  King 
James  for  the  office  of  Chancellor-archbishop  of 
Ireland  he  composed,  in  1605,  A  Short  Virir  of  the 
Stale  of  Ireland,  a  most  interesting  and  singularly 
modern  essay  (first  edited  by  Rev.  W.  Dunn 
Macray,    1880).      He   died  of  dropsy  in  December 

1612.  He  is  now  remembered  chiefly  as  the  trans- 
lator of  Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso  ( 1591 )  into 
English  verse.  His  other  writings  were  some 
Rabelaisian  pamphlets,  a  number  of  fair  epi- 
grams, and  A  Brief  View  of  tlie  State  of  the  Church, 
written  for  the  Prince  of  VVales. 

Harris,  in  the  Hebrides,  comprises  the  southern 
portion  of  the  inland  of  Lewis  and  a  number  of 
adjacent  islets.     Pop.  4514.     See  Lewis. 

Harris,  Howel,  one  of  the  fathei-s  and 
founders  of  Wel.-h  Calvinistic  Methodism,  was 
born  in  1714  at  Trevecca,  in  the  county  of  Brecon. 
His  mind  was  first  seriously  awakened  to  religious 
f|uestions  in  1735,  and  for  seventeen  yeai-s  from 
that  date  he  spent  his  time  as  a  lay  itinerant 
preacher,  but  confined  his  ministrations  fiu'  the 
most  part  to  Wales  (see  Methodi.sts).  After  his 
retirement  to  Trevecca  in  1752  he  still  continued 
to  preach  daily  at  his  own  home  ;  and  in  order  to 
accommodate  those  who  oame  to  hear  him  he  built 
a  large  house,  the  inmates  of  which  led  a  kind 
of  monastic  life.  Harris  died  on  21st  July  1773. 
See  his  AutohioqrajilDj  (1791)  and  W.  Williams, 
Welsh  Calriiiistii-  Methoilixin  (1S72). 

Harris,  James,  a  prescientific  philologist,  was 
Imrn  at  Salisbury,  July  20,  1709.  His  mother  was 
a  sister  of  the  third  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  author 
of  the  Characteristics.  He  hail  his  education  in 
his  native  city  and  at  Wadhain  College,  Oxfonl, 
whence  he  pas-sed  to  the  study  of  law  at  Lincoln's 
Inn.  Finding  himself  at  twenty-four  on  his  father's 
death  ma.ster  of  an  ample  fortune,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  assiduous  study  of  the  classics,  but  in 
1761  he  entered  ]iarlianient,  an<l  later  became  Liud 
of  the  Admiralty,  of  the  Treasun-,  ami  secretary 
and  coini)troller  to  t^ueen  Charlotte.  In  1744  he 
published  ,a  volume  consisting  of  three  treati-M-s, 
on  art,  on  music,  ])ainting,  and  jioetry,  and  on 
happiness ;   and  in   1751   his  famous   Hermes,   an 


570 


HARRIS 


HARRISON 


interest iii)^  but  Kciiiee  piofitaljle  itii|iiiry  into  the 
pliilosiiphieal  l>a.siH  of  uiiivemiil  ((I'ainiiiur.  His 
incoiii|ilete  I'liilosuiihicul  Ariaiii/emiiil.i,  a  study  ol 
tlie  Aristotelian  l<if;ic,  was  i.ssueil  in  177o;  and  liis 
I'liiluliigiiiil  Jtiifiiin'rs  on  style  and  the  tnie  canons 
of  literary  i-ritiiisiii,  in  three  parts — the  last  writtiii 
in  Krenefi  (17S(t  H'J).  He  die<l  in  Deceiulier  17.S0. 
Harris's  works  were  collected,  with  a  short  life,  by 
his  son,  the  first  Karl  of  Malniesburv  (2  vols.  4to, 
isiil  ;  .-,  vols.  Svo,  1H03). 

Ilill'ris,  JoKi,  CiiA.NDl.EK,  an  American  author, 
Wiis  born  in  Katonton,  (ieorgia,  fStli  December  I.S4S, 
and  WHS  in  tnin  ]irinter,  lawyer,  and  journalist. 
His  deli^ditfnlly  orijjinal  ami  unexpected  1k>o1<, 
Viicle  Jt'tiiiKS,  /lis  Siiiii/s  anil  hit  Siii/iiirii :  t/ic  Fulh- 
loic  of  the  Old  I'liiiiliitiim  (New-  Vork,  ISSCI), 
Huickly  carried  his  name  even  to  the  Old  WorUI, 
at  once  to  children  and  to  scientilic  students  of 
folklore.  Later  works  are  yi<//it.s  m'th  Uncle  Hemiis 
(Boston,  I8S:)),  Miiiijo  anil  Otlirr  Sheti-hcs  (1883), 
and  Daddi/  Juke  the  liunawaij,  and  Short  Stories 
(1889). 

Harris,  Tmom.vs  L.\ke,  founder  of  tlie 
'  Brotherhood  of  the  New  Life,'  was  lM)ni  at 
Penny  Stratford,  in  l$uckinghainshire,  l">tli  .M.ay 
182.S,  accompanied  his  father  to  .Vmerica,  and  had 
in  turn  lieiMi  a  I'niversalist  i>a.stor,  ami  foundoil  an 
'  Independi'nt  Christian  Society,' when  in  ISoO  he 
was  drawn  into  the  s])iritualistic  movement.  He 
lectured  in  (Ircat  liritain  in  18.ys,  and  on  liis  return 
to  America  reorganised  his  society  as  the  '  Brotbcr- 
liood  of  the  New  Life.'  Pruperty  was  not  held  in 
I'ommon.  and  farming  and  imhistrial  occup.itinns 
were  engagi'd  in  liy  las  followers,  numbering  at  one 
time  about  2IHK)  in  America  and  Great  Britain, 
amongst  them  La<ly  (  Hiphant  and  her  son  Laurence 
()li])liant.  Harris  was  again  in  Europe  in  IHtiO. 
Latterly  he  settled  in  California.  His  community 
bail  no  written  creed  or  form  of  government. 
Harris  acted  as  the  inspired  head  of  the  brother- 
hood, hi>  system  comliining  the  doctrines  of  .Sweden- 
borg  and  of  Kourier,  while  maintaining  the  author- 
ity of  the  Scriptures  and  the  saeredne.ss  of  the 
marriage  tic.  He  also  taught  that  (mmI  is  two-in- 
(uie,  inlinite  in  fatherhood  ami  motherhood,  and 
that  all  who  Itecome  angels  liml  their  counterpart 
in  sex,  and  are  two-in-one  to  all  eternity.  Harris 
ha-s  published  many  works  in  prose  and  piMjtry, 
amongst  which  are  Wisdom  of  Anqels  (18oG): 
Aieana  o/  Christianili/  (1857);  Modern  Spiritual- 
ism  (IStiO),  \c.  The  inlluence  of  the  teiiching  of 
Harris  may  be  traceil  in  Laurence  tjliphant's  Si/m- 
pncinnalii  ( IHS.'))  and  his  Scicntijic  Ileli(jion  ( 1888) ; 
as  Jilso  in  I'ulsforil's  Monienrothe  (1881).  See 
William  Oxley's  Modern  Messiahs  and  Wondcr- 
worhers  (1889). 

Ilarrisbliri;.  the  capital  of  Pennsylvania,  is 
situateil  in  the  midst  ot  beautiful  scenery  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  .Susciuehanna  Kiver,  which  is  here 
crossed  by  several  long  briilges,  10(5  miles  W.  by 
X.  of  Philadelphia.  It  contains  the  eapitol,  a 
court-house,  the  state  arsenal,  the  .state  insane 
asylum,  ami  a  Homan  Catholic  cathedral  and 
some  forty  other  churches.  The  state  library  has 
some  6(t,(kK)  volumes.  The  city  h;vs  a  number  of 
blast  furnaces  anil  rolling-mills,  and  large  manu- 
factures of  steel  and  iron,  including  lx)ilers, 
machinery,  nails,  and  files ;  cotton  goods.  Hour, 
bricks,  shoes,  brooms,  &c.  are  also  produced,  anil 
there  is  a  l.irge  trade  in  lumber.  Founded  in 
178.'),  H.irrisburg  became  the  state  capital  in  1812. 
Po]).  ( 1.S70)  2;j,104  ;  ( 1880)  30,762  ;  ( 1890)  39,385. 

Harrison,  a  town  of  New  Jei-sey,  on  the  Pas- 
saic, opposite  Newark,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  a  bridge.  It  has  manufactures  of  oilcloth  and 
enamelled  cloth,  wire,  thread,  iVc.  Pop.  (1880) 
(!S9S:  (1890)  8:«8. 


Harrison.  IIk.nj.v.MIX,  twenty-lhinl  president 
of  I  111-  I  iiiti-d  States,  was  hinn  at  North  Bend, 
Hamilton  county,  <»hio,  August  CM>T>ight  lew  in  i-.s. 
20,  183.'J.  His  father,  the  third  I'r  i.  n  Uppincott 
son  of  President  William  Henry  c<.iiii«iij 
Harrison,  was  a  small  farmer,  who,  however, 
managed  to  educate  his  nine  children  :  and  Harri- 
son, after  two  years  at  a  school  called  I'armer's 
(.'ollege,  near  Cincinnati,  w-jis  transferred  to  Miami 
University,  at  (^)xf(Hd,  Ohio,  where  he  graduated 
in  1852.  In  18.')4  he  settled  as  a  lawyer  in  Imlian- 
a])olis,  where  bis  lii-st  earnings  were  as  a  crier  of 
the  I'ederal  court.  In  a  short  time  he  was  in 
full  |iractice  in  all  the  courts.  In  IStiO  be  became 
candiilati-  fur  supreme  coiirl  ri-porter  of  Indiana, 
by  niimination  of  the  Ucpublican  party,  iiiid  was 
elected.  Kntering  the  I  nion  army  |)cniling  the 
term,  the  otlice  Wivs  declared  vacant.  In  1804  his 
party  re-elected  liiin  with  a  largely  increa.sed 
majority.  He  remained  in  military  service,  how- 
ever, and  only  resumed  the  repoiti-iship  upon 
niusti'r  out  at  tin-  end  of  the  war.  He  began  his 
military  career  in  18U2  by  raising  a  company, 
in  which  his  fii-st  commission  was  of  second- 
lieutenant.  He  was  then  made  colonel  of  the  70th 
Uegimeut  Indiana  Volunteers,  and  ordered  to  Ken- 
tucky. Carrying  his  studious  habits  into  camp,  he 
liecame  a  ]iriilicient  drill  luaster.  .\s  colonel,  some 
times  brigade-commander,  in  the  lirst  division  lllh 
Army  Corps,  he  ]iartiiipatcil  in  Sherman's  AtLinta 
campaign,  distinguishing  himself  in  the  battles  of 
Hesaca  .-ind  Peach  Tree  Creek,  and  he  was  in  1S65 
commissioned  brevet -brifradier-general.  He  also 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Na.sliville,  under  Thomas, 
in  December  1804. 

Itetnriiing  to  the  law  in  Indiana,  Harrison  de- 
clined a  third  nomination  ii.ssu]ireme  court  reiiorter. 
He  took  an  active  jiart  in  the  Crant  campaigns 
of  1808  and  1872,  and  w;i.s  nomiinited  for  the 
governorship  of  the  state  in  187t);  but,  though  he 
polled  2000  votes  more  than  the  rest  of  his  party, 
lie  was  defeated.  Two  years  later  he  presided  over 
the  State  Convention,  and  in  1880  he  appeared  in 
the  Chicago  National  Convention  ;vs  chairman  of 
his  state  delegation.  He  then  dcilined  the  use  of 
his  name  for  the  presidential  nomination  ;  and  he 
afterwards  .also  declined  a  seat  in  the  cabinet  of 
President  Garlicld.  In  1884  he  wjis  again  delegale- 
at-large,  and  was  discus.sed  as  a  possible  mmiinee 
for  the  presidency.  In  1880  he  was  elected  I  nited 
States  senator  from  Indiana  :  but  at  the  end  of  his 
term  nf  six  years  he  was  defeated  fur  re-election, 
anil  returned  to  his  law  oflice.  At  the  National 
Hepublican  Convention  (1888)  in  Chicago  Harrison 
receiveil  the  presidential  nomination  ;  President 
Cleveland  being  the  DeimK-ratic  nonunee.  Harri- 
son's election  siguilied  the  triumph  of  jirotection  ; 
but  in  1892  he  was  defeated  by  Mr  Cleveland. 
He  was  chief  counsel  for  Venezuela  in  the 
boundary  disimte  with  British  Guiana.  See  the 
Life  by  Lew  Wallace  (1888),  and  U  KITED  States, 
p.  389." 

Harrison,  Fkederic,  was  bom  in  Lomlon, 
October  18.  1.S31,  and  was  educated  at  King's 
College  School,  I.,i)ndon,  and  Wadham  College, 
Oxford,  taking  a  cla-ssical  first-cla.ss  in  18.')3.  He 
became  Fellow  and  tutor  of  his  college,  but  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  18.58,  and  thereafter  practised 
conveyancing  and  in  the  Courts  of  Equity.  He  sat 
on  the  Royal  Commission  upon  Trades-unions  (1867- 
69),  served  as  secretary  to  that  for  the  Digest  of  the 
Law  (1869-^70),  and  'from  1877  till  1889  was  ino 
fessor  of  Jurisjirudence  and  International  Law  at 
Lincidn's  Inn  Hall.  A  Positivist  in  religion  and 
an  advanced  Lil)eral  in  politics,  he  has  argued  his 
opinions  in  many  vigorous  and  well-written  articles 
in  the  magazines  and  reviews,  .some  of  which  have 
been  reprinted  separately.     Of  his  works  the  chief 


HARRISON 


HARROGATE 


571 


are  The  Meaning  of  History  (1862),  Unkr  and 
Prof/rrss  (1875),  Lectures  on  Ediicntion  (1883),  On 
the  Choice  uf  Buuhs  (1886),  OUrer  Cromicell  (188S), 
The  Meanim)  <if  History  (1894),  Literary  Essays 
(1895),  Tennyson,  liuskin,  Mill,  &c.  (1900).  He 
eoiitesteil  London  University  in  1886  ajs  a  Hcinie- 
rnle  canJiclate,  but  withnut  siiccess.  In  1889-93 
lie  was  an  alilernian  in  tlie  Loudon  County  Council. 

Hai'I'isuiI.   .John,    tlie  inventor  of  the  cliron- 

onietiT  fur  determining  longitude  at  .sea,  was  liorn 
at  Foulliy,  near  Poutefract,  Yorkshire,  in  1693. 
His  mechanical  genius,  wliicli  sliowed  itself  at  an 
early  age,  led  him  to  study  the  construction  of 
clocks  and  watches,  with  a  view  to  diminish  as 
much  as  jiossiljle  their  errors  and  irregularities, 
and  liy  1726  he  had  constructeil  a  timekeeper  [iro- 
vided  with  compen.sating  .apparatus  for  correcting 
errors  due  to  variations  of  climate.  In  171-t  the 
government  had  ottered  prizes  of  £10,000,  fl.'j.OOO, 
and  £20.000  for  the  discovery  of  a  method  for 
determining  the  longitude  witliin  00,  40,  and  30 
miles  respectively.  After  a  long  peiiod  of  per- 
severing labour  Harrison  made  a  clnononieter 
wliich,  in  a  voyage  to  .Jamaica  in  1761-62,  was 
found  to  determine  the  longitude  within  18  miles. 
After  another  voyage  to  Jamaica,  and  further 
trials,  he  was  awarded  the  prize  of  £20,000  in  1765 
and  1767.  The  success  of  Harrison's  chronometer 
is  owing  to  the  application  of  the  compensation 
curl)  to  the  balance  wheel ;  and  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple he  invented  the  gridiron  pendulum  for  clocks. 
Besides  tliese,  he  invented  the  going  fusee  and  the 
remontoir  escapement  (see  HuROLOGV).  Harrison 
ilied  in  London,  24th  March  1776.  He  wrote  Dc- 
srription  uf  such  Mechanism  as  ivill  a/ford  a  N^ice 
or  True  Measurement  of  Times.  See  The  Principles 
of  Mr  Harrison's  Timekeeper  (1767). 

Harrison,  Thom.ls,  regicide,  was  born  at  New- 
castle-under-Lyme  in  1606,  and  joined  tlie  parlia- 
mentary army  at  the  opening  of  the  Civil  ^\'ar. 
He  commanded  the  guard  that  carried  the  king 
from  Hurst  Castle  to  London,  sat  among  his  ju<lges, 
and  signed  his  death-warrant.  He  did  good  service 
at  Worcester,  but  was  too  unconi|)romising  alike  in 
r(digion  and  politics  to  favour  Croni well's  tolerant 
ideas,  and  was  accordingly  deprived  of  his  com-  i 
mission,  and  later  imprisoned  for  his  share  in  some 
of  the  [dots  hatched  by  the  more  irreconcilable  j 
bigots.  With  characteristically  stubborn  heroism 
lie  would  not  tly  at  the  Kestoration,  and  was  soon 
seized,  tried,  and  condemned  to  death.  He  died 
bra\ely,  October  13,  1660,  with  the  words  on  his 
lips,  '  If  I  had  ten  thousand  lives,  I  could  freely 
and  cheerfully  lay  them  all  down  to  witne-ss  to  this 
matter.' 

Ilai'i'i.son,  William,  the  chief  of  Holinshed's 

coadjutors,  was  born  in  London,  educated  at 
St  Paul's  and  Westminster,  ami  studied  liist  at 
0.\ford,  next  at  Cambridge,  graduating  15.1).  at  the 
latter  in  1569.  He  became  household  chajdain  to 
William  Brooke,  Lord  Cobliam,  who  pre-sented  him 
to  the  rectory  of  Radwinter,  in  Essex,  which  he 
held  all  his  life,  together  for  ten  years  with  the 
vicarage  of  Wimbish  in  the  same  county.  In  15S6 
he  was  installed  canon  of  Windsor,  ami  died  in 
1593.  Almost  all  we  know  of  liini  lie  has  told  us 
himself,  even  to  his  gardening  and  his  brewing;  and 
he  inii>resses  his  readers  throughout  as  a  learned, 
honest,  and  singularly  open-eyed  although  un- 
travelled  man.  When  he  wrote  the  book  by  which 
his  name  is  remembered  one  Trinity  term  in 
London,  he  was  more  than  forty  miles  from  his 
books,  and  he  tells  us  further  that  till  recently, 
except  in  visits  to  the  universities  or  to  Lord 
Cobham's  house  in  Kent,  he  had  never  gone  a  forty 
miles'  journey  in  his  life.  But  at  tliat  time  he  hail 
the  .'idvantage  of  access  to  the  valuable  manuscripts 


of  Leland.  The  fruit  of  his  ajiplication  was  his 
famous  Description  of  Hnyland,  as  well  as  his 
JJcscription  of  Hritain,  written  for  Holinshed's 
Chronicle.  In  the  '  Epistle  Dedicatoiie '  he  tells 
us  he  had  an  '  especial  eye  unto  the  truth  of 
things;'  and  further  that  lie  was  -the  first  that 
hath  taken  upon  him  so  particnlarlv  to  describe 
this  He  of  Britain.'  The  former  'is  es]iecially 
interesting  to  us  as  a  vigorous  and  elaborate 
account  of  the  conditions  ot  life  in  the  England 
of  Shakespeare's  day,  treating  in  succession,  with 
some  fullness  of  detail,  subjects  .so  diverse  as 
the  church,  the  bishoprics,  the  nnivei-sities,  the 
navy,  the  food,  ajniarel,  armour,  the  beggars  and 
rogues,  laws,  punisliments,  buildings,  cities,  i>arks, 
gardens,  fairs,  and  markets.  The  second  and  third 
books  of  the  Dcscrijition  of  L'nr/land  were  edited 
by  Dr  Fumivall,  for  the  Isew  sliakespeare  Society 
(|)arts  i.-iii.  1877-81 ).  The  whole  work  is  of  course 
reprinted  in  all  editions  of  Holinshed. 

Harrison.  AVilliam  Henry,  ninth  president 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Charles  City 
count}-,  Virginia,  9tli  February  1773.  His  father, 
]ienjamin  Harrison  (1740-91),  was  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  declaration  of  indejiendence,  which, 
as  chairman  of  committee,  he  reported  to  congress 
on  4tli  July  1776.  There  is  a  popular  legend, 
seemingly  unfimnded,  that  makes  the  family  de- 
scended from  Harrison  the  regicide.  After  his 
father's  death,  William  joined  the  army  which 
Wayne  was  leading  against  the  North-western 
Indians,  and  showed  great  gallantry  at  the  battle  cm 
the  Miami  (1794).  He  left  the  ar'my  in  1798.  He 
rejiresented  the  North-west  Territory  as  a  delej^ate 
in  congress  in  1799-1800,  and  succeeded  in  passing 
a  valuable  law  relating  to  the  sale  of  the  feileial 
land  in  small  parcels  ;  and  when  Indi.'ina  Territory 
was  formed  (1800),  including  the  jJiesent  states  of 
Indiana,  Illinois,  ilichigan,  and  Wisconsin,  besides 
jiarts  of  Minnesota  and  (Jliio,  he  was  appointed  its 
governor.  He  laboured  courageously  to  avert 
war  with  the  Indians,  but  was  compelled  to  quell 
Tecuniseli's  outbreak,  and  beat  oil'  a  fierce  and 
treacherous  attack,  ending  in  an  imiiortant  battle 
at  Tippecanoe  (7th  Xovember  1811 ).  In  the  war  of 
1812-14  he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  commainl  in 
the  north-west,  repulsed  the  British  force  under 
Proctor,  and  by  the  ^■ietorv  of  Perry  on  Lake  Erie 
was  enabled  to  pursue  the  invaders  into  Canaila, 
where,  on  5th  Octolier  1813,  he  totally  routed  them 
in  the  battle  of  the  Thames.  In  1814  he  resigned 
his  commission.  In  1816  he  was  elected  to  congress, 
and  in  1824  became  a  United  States  senator.  In 
1828  he  went  as  ambassador  to  Colombia,  but  was 
recalleil  in  1829,  and  for  twelve  years  was  clerk  of 
a  county  court  in  Ohio.  He  received  73  electoral 
votes  for  the  presidency  of  the  United  States  in 
1836  against  Van  Buren's  170;  but  four  veai-s  later, 
the  Whig  party  having  united,  he  defeated  Van 
Buren,  obtaining  234  electoral  votes  to  the  latter's 
60.  The  contest  is  noteworthy  as  having  witnes-sed 
the  introduction  of  the  enormous  mass-meetings 
and  processions,  the  emblems  and  banners,  that 
have  since  lieen  part  of  every  presidential  campaign. 
H;urison  died  a  month  after  his  inauguration,  on 
4th  April  1841,  and  was  .succeeded  in  oliiee  by  the 
vice-president,  John  Tyler. 

Harrogate,  or  Harrowgate.  a  watering- 
|dace  in  the  West  Hiding  of  Yorkshire,  lies  among 
the  moors,  450  feet  above  sea-level,  and  bv  rail  is 
17  miles  X.  of  Leeds  and  20  WNW.  of  York. 
It  consists  of  two  parts,  High  and  Low,  and 
is  celcbr.ated  for  its  sul]>hureous,  saline,  and 
chalybeate  s]irings.  The  sulphureous  springs  are 
of  laxative  and  diuretic  quality,  while  the  chaly- 
beate are  tonic.  The  watei-s  are  used  both  ex- 
tern.illv  and  internally,   ami  are  in  great   repute 


ru-2 


HARROW 


HARRY 


in  iiiiiny  diseases  of  tlie  skin  ami  in  some  cases  of 
ilysjieptic  (lisonlers,  scrofula,  j;(mt,  janmlicc,  rlieu- 
nialisMi,  \'c.  The  siiriri^'s  were  iliscoveii'il  in  l.V.M!. 
Ilaini;,'ate  is  a  leniarKably  healthy  jilace,  tlie  death- 
rate  [ler  1000  ran^rin;,'  in  six  years  hetween  14">  and 
11".  It  wivs  incorporated  as  a  nmnici|ial  liorou;,'h 
in  ISS'i.  Smollett's  JItn/i/i/iiri/  ('//«/.<■;■  ( 1771 )  jrives 
a  livelv  account  of  Ilarro^'ate.  I'op.  ( 1 8.")  1 )  ■■J67.S  ; 
( issl  1  '<.)4S2  :  ( 1S!)1 )  13,917.  See  IJrainge's  llUlonj 
<:/  Itidi-uijatc  (1«71). 

Harrow,  an  a'^ricultural  implement  used  for 
smoothing'  and  pulverislnj,'  ploUf,'hed  land,  and  for 
coveriuf;  the  .seeils  previously  sown.  It  consists  of 
a  frame  of  a  square  or  rhomliic  form,  in  whicli  are 
lixcd  rows  of  teeth,  or  tines,  ]irojectin^'  downwards. 
The  harrow  is  a  very  ancient  implcMicnt,  having,' 
lieen  in  use  lieyond  the  dawn  of  liistory  ;  )iut  its  in 
early  times  only  the  li;;hter  soils  wi're  cultivateil, 
it  often  consisted  of  hushes,  or  liran<lu's  of  trees, 
which  merely  scratche<l  the  ;;ronnil.  Suliseijuently, 
we  lind  a  wooden  frame  and  wooilen  tines  in  use; 
next,  the  wooilen  frame  willi  iron  tines,  a  form  of 
the  instrument  still  in  use  in  many  parts,  especially 
upon  li;;ht  soils.  The  harrow  constructed  wholly 
ot  iron  is  now  most  lar;,'ely  employeil,  and  as  it  e:u\ 
lie  made  li^'hl  or  heavy,  works  more  cleanly,  and  is 
more  durahlc,  it  is  jireferable  to  the  <ild  wooden 
form.  Iron  harrows  are  usually  made  in  zigzafj 
form  as  shown  lielow.  The  Howard  harrow  Inus 
the  tines  so  arrani;ed  that  no  one  follows  in  the 
track  of  anothei-,  hut  each  has  a  sci>aratc  line  of 
action  which  ^;reatly  climiuishes  the  risk  of  any 


Howard's  Harrow. 

portion  of  the  surface  escajiinj,'  ]iulvensation.  Ex- 
ceiitionally  strong  liairows  witli  rank  teeth  are 
made  for  lueakin;.'  down  rou^di  or  hard  laml.  The 
'  chain  harrow,  which  is  a  con^feries  of  iron  rinj;s, 
is  useful  for  covering;  jirasssecils,  and  especially  for 
separating  weeds  from  the  earth  or  clods  in  whii:li 
tliey  are  enveloped.  l>rill  harrows  are  constnictcd 
to  scarify  the  soil  between  raised  drills  and  also  the 
raised  drills  thcuiselves. 

IlarroM',  or  IIauhow-on-tiik  Hii.i,,  a  town  of 
MiddlcMX,  li;,  milcsWNW.  of  St  i'anl's,  stands  on 
a  hill,  •iCK)  feel  hit,di,  that  looks  over  thirteen  shires. 
Its  'visihle  church.'  which  crowns  the  hilltop,  wivs 
foundeil  by  Lanfranc,  and  rebuilt  about  the  middle 
of  the  14th  century.  Exhibiting  every  style  of 
(iothie  architecture,  from  Norman  to  I'erpendic- 
nlar,  it  Inus  a  lofty  spire  and  eleven  br.'i-sses  (one 
of  them  to  .lohn  Lyon);  whilst  iu  the  church- 
yard    is   a   Hat    tombstone   on   which    livron   as   a 

sd Iboy  used   to  lie.      Pop.   (18H1)  55.58;    (1891) 

57'i5.  Tl\e  ilistrict  has  increased  even  more  raniilly 
(from  12,796  to  15,710),  owini,'  largely  to  building 
o|ierations  and  to  the  railway  improvements. 

HakhdW  SciiciDi,  w.is  founded  in  1571  by  ,Iohn 
Lyon,  a  wealthy  yeoman  of  Preston,  in  the  parish 
of  Harrow-ontiie-Hill,  who  died  in  1.592  ;  but  the 
original  redbrick  school-house  (now  the  name- 
becarved   Fourth  Form  School)  was  not  built  till 


1608-15.  New  bnihlings  have  been  added  since 
1819— the  chief  of  these  Ijeing  the  Second  jioinleil 
chapel  ( 1857 ),  with  it.s  tall  slender  spire  ami 
memiuial  ghuss  to  twenty-two  Crlmi'iin  olliccis; 
the  N'anghan  Memorial  Library  (1803),  similarly 
designed  l)y  Sir(!.  (i.  Scott;  and  the  .semicircular 
Speech  room  (1877).  The  school  wius  primarily 
intendeil  to  allbrd  a  free  education  to  thnty  jioor 
boys  of  the  ]iarish  ;  but  the  statutes,  drawn  up  by 
the  founder  two  years  before  his  ileath.  jiroviibMl 
also  for  the  admission  of  'so  many  forcigiuMs  as  the 
jdace  can  conveniently  contain;'  and  it  is  to  that 
provisicm  that  Harrow,  although  not  richly 
enilowed,  owes  its  proud  ]»>sition  among  the  great 
schools  of  England.  Still,  its  fortunes  have 
lluctnated  much,  tin-  mimber  of  boys  l«'ing  1-14 
in  1721,  .50  iu  1745,  ;i45  in  I80.S,  80  in  1845,  4:iS  iu 
18.59,  ,ind  now  njiwiirds  of  .5(K).  The  stuily  of 
mathematics  was  lii-st  introiluc<'it  in  1837,  of  modern 
languages  in  1851  .55;  and  all  the  other  br.Lnches 
of  a  ini«Iern  education  have  followed.  .Mu-ic  be- 
came a  s])ecialty  of  Harrow  education  under  Mr 
J.  Fanner,  wlio  was  music  master  here  from  IS(J2 
till  188.5.  Archery,  whieli  llourished  till  1776,  h;ts 
been  superseih'd  by  cricket,  football,  rackets,  \<'., 
the  Elcui  and  Harrow  cricket-nnitch  at  l.onl's 
dating  from  1818.  The  age  of  adnds.sion  is  twelve 
to  fourteen;  and  there  are  six  or  seven  entrance 
sclioIarshi]>s,  of  from  I'.'iO  to  t'80  iier  annum,  oflered 
every  Easter.  Of  leaving  scholaiships,  the  must 
valmible  are  liaiing's  three  of  t'KKl  a  year  for  live 
years  to  Hertford  College,  Oxfoid.  Inder  the 
I'nblic  Schools  Ai-t  of  1868  the  governing  body 
comnrises  six  members,  elected  resiiectively  by  the 
Loril  Chancellor,  the  universities  of  ()xford,  Cam- 
bridge, and  London,  the  Koyal  Society,  and  the 
under  masters.  Among  the  twenty  one  head- 
mxstei-s  have  been  Arclideaccm  Thackeray  (17-fli- 
60),  Dr  Sunnier  (1760  71),  Dean  (ieiuge  I'.uller 
(180.5-29),  Archbishoi,  Limgley  (1829-36),  liish.ip 
("liristo|>her  Wonlswoith  (  18.36-14),  Dean  Vaughan 
(1844-59),  Dr  Henry  Mimtiigu  JUitler  (1859  85), 
anil  the  Rev.  J.  E!  C.  Welldon.  Of  illustrious 
Harrovians  nniy  be  mentioned  Lord  Alierdeen, 
Brni'e  the  Abyssinian,  Charles  liuller.  Colonel 
Hurnaby,  Lord  Hyron,  Charles  .Stuart  Ciilvcrley, 
the  Mari|uis  of  Halhousie,  Lord  I)alliug,  Lord 
(ioderich,  the  Manjiiis  of  Hastings,  Lord  Herbert 
of  Lea,  "Theodore  Hook,  Sir  William  dimes.  Car- 
dinal .Manning,  Hermann  Merivale,  Dean  Merivale, 
Lord  I'almerston,  Dr  Sanniel  Parr  (a  native  also, 
and  an  under-master).  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Sjiencer 
Perceval,  Admir.il  Rodney,  Lord  Shaftesbury. 
Sheridan,  .1.  S.  Symonds,  Archliishoii  Trench, 
Anthony  Trollope,  and  Sir  George  rrevelyaii. 
'  Stet  fortuna  domus.' 

See  R.  Pitcaim,  Han- ow School {\9r!<i);  P.  M.  Thornton, 
Harvoio  School  anil  its  SnrroundiiKjs  (18S5);  IjUsIicH, 
Earl II  Harrow  Chiirtirs  (1893);  li  C.  Welch,  Harrino 
Srhi„,l  Keiiisttr,  l»Jl-'JJ  (1894);  Howson  it  Warner, 
Uarv.ir  School  (189S). 

Harry,  Blind,  a  Scottish  minstrel  of  the  15th 
century.  Scarcely  anything  is  known  of  his  life 
beyond  what  is  told  by  .lohn  Major  (or  Mair)  in 
his  /ti.itiiri/  uf  Sriitliiiiil,  published  in  1.521.  'When 
I  was  a  child,'  lie  says,  '  Henry,  a  man  blind  tmiu 
his  birth,  who  lived  1iy  telling  tales  liefore  |irinccs 
and  peel's,  wrote  a  whole  liook  of  William  Wallace, 
wejiving  the  common  stories  (which  1,  for  one,  only 
]>artly  lielieve)  into  vernacular  poetry,  in  which  he 
wiis  skilled.'  In  1490  92  liliiid  Harry  is  fonnd  at 
the  court  of  King  James  I\'.,  receiving  occasion.il 
giatnities  of  five,  niiii',  and  eighteen  shillings.  The 
Ijoeui  attiibnted  to  him,  The  Life  of  that  XdIiIc 
Chiinijiiijii  of  Sriitliinily  Sir  II  if/iinn  Wiillitec, 
Kiiiqht,  w.as  coni]ileteil  before  the  end  of  the  year 
1488,  when  it  wxs  copied  by  .lohn  Ramsay.  This 
cii)>y,   the  oldest  MS.   of  the  work  now  known   to 


HART 


HARTFORD 


573 


exist,  floes  not  ascribe  it  to  Blind  Harn',  nor  is  liLs 
name  given  to  it  in  the  earlier  printeil  editions. 
The  poem,  which  contains  U.Stil  lines,  of  ten 
syllables  each,  is  written  in  rhyming  couplets.  The 
language  is  frequently  obscure,  and  sometimes 
unintelligible,  but  the  work  as  a  whole  is  written 
witli  vigour ;  in  some  passages  it  kindles  into 
poetry  ;  and  it  is  altogether  a  surprising  perforni- 
anee,  it  we  regard  it  as  the  composition  of  one  who 
was  born  Idind.  The  author  .seems  to  have  been 
familiar  with  the  metrical  romances  which  were  the 
popular  literature  of  tlie  time,  and,  though  his  poem 
has  no  claim  to  be  regarded  as  history,  he  makes 
freijuent  references  to  original  authorities  which 
form  the  main  groundwork  of  the  narrative.  He 
represents  himself  as  deeply  indebted  to  the  life  of 
the  great  Scottish  patriot,  written  in  Latin  by  his 
schoolfellow  JIaster  .John  Blair,  the  chaplain  of 
Wallace,  and  to  another  Ijy  Sir  Thomas  Gray,  the 
parson  of  Liberton.  The  poem  was  at  one  time 
regarded  as  wholly  a  work  of  liction,  but  authentic 
documents  recently  brought  to  light  have  shown 
that  though  it  contains  a  great  number  of  mistakes 
or  misrepresentations  of  well-known  facts,  it  is  on 
the  whole  a  valuable  and  in  not  a  few  incidents  a 
trustworthy  narrative.  The  work  Is  belie^•e<l  to 
have  been  printed  in  the  Scottish  capital  as  early  as 
15'20,  but  no  perfect  copy  is  known  to  be  preserved 
of  any  earlier  edition  than  that  of  Edinl>urgh  in 
1570,  bearing  the  title  of  TIic  Actis  and  Deidis  of 
the  Maist  Illiister  and  Vailyeaml  Campioiin  Sc/iir 
Wiltium  Wallace,  Knicht  of  Ellerslie.  Tlie  work 
was  reprinteil  at  Edinburgli  in  1594,  1601,  1620, 
1648,  1673,  and  1758 ;  at  Glasgow,  in  1665  and 
1699 ;  also  at  Aberdeen  anil  at  Perth.  Good 
editions  are  that  by  .Jamieson  (Edinburgh,  1S20, 
4to)  anil  that  by  Moir  for  the  Scottish  Text  Society 
( 1885-H9 ).  The  work  was  for  about  200  years  one 
of  the  most  popular  in  Scotland,  but  gradually  fell 
into  neglect  as  its  language,  never  very  plain, 
ceased  to  be  understood  except  by  scholai-s.  Its 
place  was  supplied  by  a  modernised  version  by 
\Villiam  Hamilton  of  GilbertHeld,  published  at 
Glasgow  in  1722,  with  the  title  of  A  New  Edition 
of  the  Life  and  Heroic  Actions  of  the  Henoun'd  Sir 
William  Wallace.  This  is  a  poor  performance,  but 
it  continued  to  be  widely  circulated  among  the 
Scottish  people  almost  to  our  own  day. 

Hart,  the  name  given  to  the  .stag  or  male  deer, 
from  the  age  of  six  years,  when  the  crown  or  sur- 
royal  antler  begins  to  appear. 

Hart,  SoLOMOX  Alex.wder,  painter,  was  born 
at  Plymouth,  in  Ajiril  1806,  the  son  of  a  Jewish 
goldsmitli,  who  in  1820  removed  to  London.  Ap- 
)irouticed  fust  to  a  line  engraver,  in  182.3  young 
Hart  became  a  student  at  the  Koyal  Academy. 
Amongst  his  works  are  'The  Elevation  of  the 
Law'  (1830),  'Isaac  of  York'  (1830),  'English 
Nobility  receiving  the  Communion  '  ( 1831 ),  '  Henry 
I.  receiving  Intelligence  of  the  Death  of  his  Son ' 
(1840),  '  Milton  visiting  Galileo  in  Prison  '  (1847), 
'The  Tliree  Inventors  of  Printing'  (1852),  &c.  He 
also  painted  miniatures  and  portraits.  In  1840 
Hart  Ijccame  K.A.,  in  1854  professor  of  Paintinj;, 
and  in  1865  librarian  of  the  Hoyal  Academy.  He 
died  in  London,  11th  June  1881. 

Harte,  Francis  Bret,  was  bom  in  Albany, 
New  York,  August  25,  1839.  His  father,  a  teacher 
in  the  Female  Seminary,  died  copyright  isoo  id  r.s. 
early,  and  the  boy  received  only  't  j.  b.  Lippiuutt 
a  common  school  education.  He  Couiivuij. 
went  to  California  witli  his  mother  in  1854,  and 
oiieued  a  school  at  Sonora  :  but  he  w,as  not  success- 
ful in  this,  nor  in  mining,  which  he  tried  after- 
wards. He  next  became  a  compositor,  and  in  1857 
obtained  em|)loyment  in  the  oHice  of  the  Gulden 
Era,  in    San   Francisco.      His  experiences  among 


niinei's  and  the  rough  population  that  were  attracted 
by  the  '  gold-craze  '  had  made  a  powerful  impres- 
sion upon  his  mind,  and  his  lirst  literary  efforts 
were  sketches  of  the  peoiile  and  the  scenes  he  had 
observed.  These  sketches  attracted  much  atten- 
tion, and  as  a  result  the  author  became  one  of  the 
start'  of  the  paper.  His  Condensed  yorels  after- 
wards appeared  in  another  weekly,  the  CaliJ'ornian. 
He  was  secretary  of  the  L'nited  States  Mint  in 
San  Francisco  from  1864  to  1870,  and  during  this 
period  wrote  some  of  his  most  famous  poems, 
among  them  '.John  Burns  of  Gettysburg,'  'The 
Society  upon  the  Stanislau,'  \c.  He  founded  in 
1868  and  edited  the  Oeerland  Monthly,  to  which 
he  contributed  The  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp,  The 
Outcasts  of  Poker  Flat,  Miriqles,  Tennessee's  Partner, 
The  Idf/l  of  Red  Gulch,  and  Plain  Lant/uar/e  from 
Truthful  James  { 'The  Heathen  Chinee').  Return- 
ing to  the  East,  he  became  a  contributor  to  the 
Atlantic  Monthly,  and  from  time  to  time  delivered 
lectures  in  various  cities  upon  the  pioneers  of  Cali- 
fornia. In  1878  he  received  the  appointment  of 
United  States  consul  at  Crefeld.  After  two  years 
he  was  transferred  to  Glasgow,  and  held  that  post 
until  1885.  Since  that  time  he  has  resided  in 
London,  and  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits. 

Bret  Harte  has  been  a  prolific  writer,  and  almost 
everything  from  his  pen  bears  the  stamji  of  his 
oriirinal  genius.  This,  however,  is  truer  of  the 
eany  and  middle  period  than  of  the  later.  Gener- 
ally, he  is  strongest  in  the  field  of  which  he  was  the 
discoverer  ;  although  in  some  instances — notaldy 
in  Thankful  Blossom — he  has  produced  exquisite 
romances,  sometimes  with  a  pastoral  flavour,  wholly 
unlike  the  turbulence  of  the  lirst  eti'orts. 

The  mixture  of  southern  and  western  people  in 
the  early  rush  to  the  goldlields  seems  to  have  pro- 
duced a  new  dialect,  but  it  probably  had  a  brief 
existence.  At  least,  it  wouhl  be  wrong  to  suppose 
that  the  peculiar  j)hrases  in  the  mining  sketches 
(so  picturesque  and  shocking  at  once)  are  part  of 
the  daily  talk  of  the  people  to-day.  But  the  dialect 
was  not  all.  Harte  has  described  or  invented 
new  types  of  character,  and  has  portrayed  them  and 
their  surroundings  with  a  vivid  energy  that  has  no 
modern  counterpart.  It  is  ditiicult  to  say  whether 
he  has  been  more  successful  in  poetry  or  in  prose  ; 
for  the  same  virile  power  appeare  in  both,  and  he 
has  evidently  by  nature  a  strong  sense  of  melody 
and  great  facility  in  vei'se.  In  '  John  Bums  of 
Gettysburg '  and  '  Dickens  in  Camp '  there  is 
evidence  that  he  might  have  taken  a  higher  place 
among  poets  if  he  had  devoted  himself  to  serious 
work.  But  his  instinct  has  been  his  guide,  and  has 
led  him  in  the  path  of  fame.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  he  acquired  the  art  of  ert'ective  writing 
by  practice,  without  previous  discipline,  and  that 
for  him  there  was  no  model.  Since  he  has  shown 
the  way,  not  a  few  have  followed  him — afar. 

His  Complete  Worku,  collected  and  revised  by  himself, 
appeared  in  London  in  5  vols,  in  JSSI.  Since  then  his 
publications  have  included  /'/ip(1882);  In  the  Carquintz 
Woods  (1SS3);  B»  Shore  and  Sedge  (1885);  SnoK- 
hound  at  Eagle's  (1S8C) ;  A  Phvllis  of  the  Sierras  and  A 
Drift  from  Eedxcood  Camp  (1^8);  Crcssn  (1880);  The 
Heritage  of  Dedlow  Marsh  (1889);  A  Way  of  the 
Plains  {IS'M) ;  A  Ward  of  the  Golden  Gate  (1890);  A 
Sappho  of  Green  Springs  (1892);  Salht  Dovs  (1892); 
Susy  (1893):  The  Bell-Ringer  of  Angel's  (1894);  and 
Clarence  (1895). 

Hartebeost.    See  Antelope. 

Hartford,  the  capital  of  Connecticut,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  right  bank  of  the  Connecticut  River, 
,50  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  112  by  rail  NE.  of 
New  York,  with  which  it  is  also  in  daily  ciunmuni- 
cation  by  steamboat.  It  is  a  handsonie  city,  with 
streets  not  all  too  regular,  and  many  tasteful  private 
houses.     It  has  an  imposing  state  capitol  ot  white 


574 


HARTINGTON 


HARTLEY 


marble,  a  state  arsenal,  a  new  postotfice  and 
United  States  ooiirtliouse :  and  on  tlie  outskirts 
are  the  new  Imildin^'s  of  Tnnitv  ( 'olle;ie  (  Episoopal ), 
wliic-li  w.is  fiunide<l  on  the  present  site  of  the  i'apit<il 
in  IS'iS  (see  (ii.KN.M.MoND).  To  thenotulih"  imlilic 
hiiildinjrs,  l)esides  tlie  Wadsworth  Atheiwiiini  iiinl 
the  lii^'li  school,  must  lie  added  the  sulistantinl 
otlici's  of  the  Miany  ^'reat  insurance  coiiipanies  whose 
heaili|uarters  are  estalilished  here,  as  well  sus  a 
nuniUer  of  hanks.  Hartford  contains  a  Con^cre- 
gational  theolo;,'ical  seminary,  a  lar^e  hospital, 
asylums  for  or|>hans,  the  deaf  and  dunih,  and  the 
insane,  and  jmssesses  several  important  lilmiries  ; 
it  is  the  seat  of  a  Knnian  Catholic  liisho|i  also, 
and  li,as  two  nunneries.  There  are  extensive 
manufactures  of  Colt's  ]iistols,  Catlin;;  ^,'uns, 
eii^'ines,  lioih>rs,  ,aiid  machines,  hardware  and 
other  metal  ^'ooils,  stoneware,  and  wooden  wares. 
There  is  also  some  ]iuli!ishinL,',  and  a  very  consider- 
alile  trade  in  Connecticut  toliaceo.  The  site  of  a 
Dutch  fort  in  Wt^'.i,  and  of  acohmy  of  Massachusetts 
settlers  as  early  as  l():{.5-36,  Hartford  wa.s  incor- 
]icinited  as  a  city  in  17H4,  and  has  heen  sole  capital 
of  the  state  since  KS73.  It  was  the  seat  of  the 
Hartford  Convention  ((|.v.).  See  also  CoNNKCTI- 
CI"T.  In  jioint  of  population  the  city  stands  sec(md 
to  New  Iiaven,  winch  formerly  shared  with  Hart- 
ford the  rank  of  semi-capital.  '  I'op.  (1870)37,180; 
(  ISSO)  42,01.-) :  (  181I0)  .l;i,2.m  See  T/ic  Rim-  Toinis 
of  Cuiiiurtiritt,  hv  C  M.  Andrews  (Johns  Hopkins 
I'niversity  Stmlies,  1889). 

H.vRTroitn  Convention,  in  the  jiolitical  his- 
tory of  the  United  States,  was  an  assenihlage  of 
delegates  from  the  New  England  States,  at  Hart- 
ford, Connecticut,  December  IT),  1814.  This  con- 
vention was  proposed  hv  the  Ma.ssachusetts  legis- 
lature. The  war  with  "(Ireat  lirit.-un  in  1812-14 
had  heen  from  the  first  opposed  hy  tlie  majority  of 
the  ]ieople  of  New  Kngland,  who  were  Keileralists, 
and  looked  ujion  the  war  a-s  a  mere  party  mea-sure 
of  the  Democi.ats  ;  and  in  face  of  the  destruction  of 
the  commerce  and  tlie  fisheries,  the  chief  interests 
of  New  England,  this  conventiim  was  called  with 
the  ostensihlo  object  of  ilevising  means  of  security 
and  defence.  It  sat  twenty  days  with  closed  doors, 
and,  as  it  wa.s  supposed  to  he  of  a  trcasimable 
character,  it  was  watched  by  a  military  officer  of 
the  government.  The  convention  prepareil  a  report 
recommemling  the  adoption  of  measures  by  the  state 
legislatures  tliat  would  protect  their  citizens  from 
conscriptions  and  impressments,  and  the  militia 
from  forcible  ilrafts ;  the  report  also  proposed 
certain  anu'ndmcuts  to  the  federal  constitution. 
No  treasonable  act  w.os  committed,  and  no  trcjison- 
able  intention  [iroved  ;  yet  the  suspicion  of  dis- 
loyal tendencies  clung  to  the  convention,  and  com- 
pleted the  ruin  of  the  Federalist  party,  which  did 
not  survive  the  election  of  1816.  Some  ground  for 
the  public  suspicion  was  probably  atVorded  by  the 
fact  that  a  section  of  the  Federalist  leaders  known 
as  the  'Es.sex  .Junto,'  who  had  in  ls()4  and  1800 
seriously  iliscussed  the  ouestion  of  ilissolving  the 
Union  and  forming  an  Eastern  confederacy,  were 
fmemost  in  bringing  the  convention  about ;  and  the 
charge  of  aiming  at  a  kingdom  of  New  England 
would  therefore  make  no  serious  demainl  upon  the 
credulity  of  jiartisan  opponents.  Yet  the  conven- 
tion includeci  men  of  tlie  highest  iiiiblic  character, 
who  strenuously  ilefended  the  pure  purpose  of  its 
patriotism,  and  the  charges  of  trea-«onable  designs 
are  now  nearly  univei'sally  regarded  as  baseless. 

Ilnrtiiiaton,  I-mu).    See  Cavendish. 

Hartlepool,  a  municipal  Imrougli  and  seaport 
in  the  county  of  Durham,  is  situated  on  a  small 
peninsula  luirth  of  the  estuary  of  the  Tees,  12 
miles  XNE.  of  Stockton,  and  18  ESE.  of  Durham. 
It    formerly    attr.acted     many     visitoi-s     for    sea- 


bathing during  the  summer  months  :  but,  owing 
to  the  formation  of  railways  connecting  it  witli 
the  Durham  coal-mines,  it  is  no  longer  visited 
for  that  purpose.  Its  ancient  sea  lisliing  iiiilustry 
is  retained,  and  has  recently  e.xtended  in  conse- 
i|iience  of  the  demanil  from  Yorkshire.  It  is  the 
only  borough  in  the  county  founiled  by  myal  charter 
whose  charter  is  extant.  in  the  l.'itli  century 
Hartlepool  belonged  to  the  liiuccs  of  Annandale 
in  Scotland,  progenitors  of  the  royal  family  of  that 
name.  After  Bruce  ascended  the  Scottish  throne 
his  English  posse.ssions  were  forfeited,  and  Hartle- 
pool was  granted  to  the  ClilVords.  The  bound- 
aries of  the  ancient  borougli  were  in  I8S3  extended 
so  as  to  include  the  township  of  Throsloii  and 
part  of  the  townshiji  of  Stranton,  making  the 
southern  boundary  conterminous  with  the  modem 
borough  of  West  Hartlepool.  The  local  iniliistries 
of  Hartlepool  are  iron  slimbuihliiig.  marine  engin- 
eering, and  cement-manufacture.  Kormerly  there 
was  a  considerable  shiii]iing  trade,  but  that  is  now 
almost  entirely  transferred  to  \Vest  Hartlepool, 
where  the  chief  custom  house  and  other  f.icilities 
are  situated.  The  harbour  entrance  is  safe,  and 
communicates  by  a  channel  direct  to  the  more 
modern  jiort.  'I  he  ]mlilic  institutions  include  ex- 
cellent |inblic  schools,  a  public  hospital,  an  ancient 
jiarish  church,  and  thirteen  other  iilacesof  worship. 
A  snlistantial  sea-wall  and  ilcligtitful  proincnade, 
com|ileted  in  1880,  have  added  much  to  the  attr.ic- 
tive  apjiearance  of  the  town  on  the  seaward  side. 
I'op.  of  municipal  borough  (18.51)  9503;  (1871) 
13,16f):  (1881)  16,998;  (1891)  21,.->21. 

Wkst  Hahti.kI'OOL,  a  modern  municipal  borough 
and  .seaport,  is  situated  to  the  south  as  Iiartle|io(d  is 
to  the  north  of  Hartlejiool  liay,  and  inactically  forms 
one  town  with  Hartlepool.  It  was  founded  in  1847 
by  Italpli  \\anl  .l.ukson,  an  enterprising  railway 
speculatoi',  afterwards  M.l'.  for  the  Hartlepool.s. 
It  ))o.ssesses  a  theatre,  athen.-i-um,  and  mechanics' 
institute,  custom-house,  market-house,  exchange,  a 
municipal  hall  o|)ened  by  I'rince  Albert  Victfir  in 
1880,  a  school  of  art,  and  other  public  buihlings. 
The  first  harbour  wjis  constructed  here  in  1847,  of 
12  acres,  and  has  since  been  greatly  enlarged.  The 
dock  area  of  Hartlejiool  and  West  Hartlepool  to- 
gether, including  the  timber  .and  shipbuilding  y.ards, 
^c. ,  is  over  3(X)  acres  in  extent.  Extensive  iron 
shipliuildingyards,  cement- works,  wood -]iulp  works, 
and  marine  engine-building  establishments  have 
been  founded.  There  are  giavingdocks  lea.se<l 
by  the  North- Ea.stern  K.iilway  Company,  and  also 
one  extensive  graving  dock  ojien  to  public  use. 
Hesides  coal,  the  following  are  the  ]irincipal  im- 
ports :  Flax  and  hemp,  grain,  timber,  butter, 
cheese,  fruit,  cattle,  tallow,  yeast,  iron,  zinc,  &c. 
The  exports  consist  of  woollen  and  cotton  gocKis, 
co]iper,  cement,  dnigs,  machinery,  earthenware, 
yarn,  hides,  &c.  ;  the  tr.ade  being  carried  on  for  the 
most  part  with  the  Ualtic  ports,  Cionstadt,  St 
retersburg,  and  Danzig,  and  with  H.imbuig  and 
Kotterdam.  The  exjiort  of  coal  from  the  united 
port  is  about  1,500,000  t<ins  annually.  (Jovemed 
from  18,'54  by  a  local  commissiim,  tjie  town  was 
created  a  iiinnicip.al  borough  in  1887.  I'op.  of 
municipal  district  (1861)  12,603;  (1881)28,167; 
of  municipal  borough  ( 1891 )  42,492.  In  1867  '  The 
Hartlcpools'  were  ccmstituted  a  ]iarliamentary 
borougli,  returning  one  member.  Pop.  46,990. 
See  Sir  C.  Sliarpe  s  History  of  Hartlepool  ( 1816 ; 
new  ed.  1851 ). 

Hartley.  David,  philosopher,  was  bom  August 
30.  170.-1.  His  f.-vther  was  vicar  of  Armley,  in  York 
shire.  At  fifteen  he  entered  .(esns  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  became  a  Fellow  of  the  college.  He 
studied  at  first  for  the  church,  but,  dissenting  from 
some  points  in  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  he  aban- 
doned his  original  intention.     In  his  mature  years 


HARTLIB 


HARTMANN 


575 


he  impugned  the  eternity  of  liellimnishiiient,  main- 
taining the  ultimate  restoration  of  the  lost ;  in 
all  otlier  points  his  published  opinions  coincided 
with  the  Church  of  England,  and  he  continued  to 
the  last  a  menilier  of  the  church.  He  hnally  chose 
the  profession  of  medicine,  in  which  he  attained 
considerable  eminence.  He  practised  as  a  physician 
successively  at  Newark,  Bury  St  Edmunds,  in  Lon- 
don, and  at  Bath,  where  he  died  on  the  25tli  of 
August  1757,  at  the  age  of  lifty-two. 

His  work  on  the  mind,  entitled  Ohsermtinns  on. 
M((n  (1749),  on  which  his  fame  rests,  was  begun 
when  he  was  about  twenty-live,  and  occupied  his 
thoughts  for  sixteen  years.  The  lirst  |)art  relates 
to  the  constitution  of  the  human  mind  ;  the  second 
treats  of  religion  and  morals.  His  handling  of 
the  mind  turns  throughout  u])on  two  theories  or 
hypotheses,  which  have  very  different  merits.  The 
first  is  called  the  Doctrine  of  Vibrations,  or  a  theory 
of  nervous  action  analogous  to  the  pro])agation  of 
sound,  the  suggestion  of  which  he  owed  to  Newton, 
of  whose  writings  he  was  a  devoted  student.  His 
.second  and  most  valuable  innovation  consisted  in 
showing  that  the  faculties,  powers,  and  feelings  of 
the  mind  miglit  be  explained  to  a  very  wide  extent 
liy  the  principle  of  the  Association  of  Ideas  (q.v. ) ; 
and  it  should  be  said  that  he  was  certainly  the  first 
to  do  justice  to  the  applications  of  that  principle 
to  explain  the  phenomena  of  the  mind. 

The  doctrine  of  vibrations  supposed  that  when 
any  one  of  the  senses  is  affected  by  an  outward 
object  the  effect  was  to  set  the  particles  of  the 
nerve  in  a  vibratory  motion,  which  ran  along  to  the 
brain,  and  produced  corresponding  vibrations  in  the 
cerebral  substance.  In  like  mannfer,  when  an  active 
impulse  proceeded  outwards  to  the  muscles  the 
manner  of  communication  along  the  nerves  was  of 
the  same  kind.  He  even  e.xtended  these  molecular 
vibrations  to  the  other  tissues.  The  dislike  gener- 
ally entertained  towards  this  part  of  Hartley's 
speculations  arose  from  a  mistaken  notion  of  its 
involving  or  favouring  materialisni.  See  G.  S. 
Bower,  llrirUeij  rtnd  James  Mill  ( 1881 ). 

Hartlib,  Samuel,  was  bom  about  IGOO  at 
Elbing,  in  Prussia,  son  of  a  Polish  refugee  and  an 
English  mother.  Coming  to  England  about  1628, 
he  Imsied  himself  in  trade,  later  in  agriculture,  and, 
when  he  had  exhausted  his  fortune  in  his  experi- 
ments, projecte<l  a  school  to  be  conducted  on  new 
principles.  It  is  highly  proljable  that  liis  iilca  in- 
si>ired  his  friend  Milton's  famous  Tractate  on  Eiliiea- 
fion,  addressed  to  Hartlib  in  1644,  as  well  as  .Sir 
William  Petty 's  'Tiro  Let  I, rs  {Hi-ll  iim\  1648).  He 
was  granted  by  Cromwell  a  pension  of  £100,  in- 
■creased  later  to  £300,  which  after  the  Restoration 
he  petitioned  parliament  to  renew.  No  letters  of 
Hartlib's  are  extant  posterior  to  1662.  He  wrote 
on  education  and  on  husbandry.  See  Bior/rap/iical 
Memoir  of  Samuel  Hartlib  by  H.  Dircks  ( 1865). 

Ilartinaiin.  Karl  PiObert  Edfard  von, 
<5erman  philosopher,  born  at  Berlin  on  2.3d  Feb- 
rnary  1842.  From  1858  to  1865  he  served  as  an 
artillery  ottieer  in  the  Prussian  guards,  but  was 
compelled  to  abandon  his  calling  owing  to  an  affec- 
tion of  the  knee.  Since  1867  he  has  lived  in  Merlin, 
busieil  with  the  elaboration  of  a  comiirehensive 
system  of  philosophy.  His  activity  may  oe  divided 
into  two  periods  ;  iii  the  first,  froui  1868  to  1877,  he 
was  chieily  workin"  out  his  ideas  on  methodology-, 
the  philosophy  of  the  natural  sciences,  psychology, 
metaphysics,  and  the  theory  of  knowleilge  ( Erhcntit- 
iiisstheoric);  in  the  latter,  from  1878  onwards,  he 
has  been  chiefly  concerned  with  ethics,  the  philo- 
sophy of  religion,  and  aesthetics.  His  system  is  a 
synthesis  of  Hegel's  and  Schopenhauer's  sy  terns, 
which  he  has  reduced,  by  means  of  Schellings  con- 
ception of  the  Unconscious  and  his  doctrine  of  prin- 


ciples, to  a  concrete  monism  ;  and  his  substructure 
is  built  upon  an  empirical  basis  with  the  aid  of  the 
inductive  methods  employeil  in  the  natural  sciences 
and  history.  In  his  own  words — •  As  I  have  followed 
Schelling's  precedent  in  uniting  Hegel's  one-sided 
identification  of  the  worhl's  substance  with  the 
logical  Idea  with  Schopenhauer's  similarly  onesided 
identification  of  it  with  Will,  so  I  have  also  endea- 
voured to  effect  a  higher  unity  between  Hegel's 
coldne.ss  and  want  of  feeling,  whereby  the  individual 
is  degraded  to  an  insensitive  instrument  of  the  Idea, 
with  whose  fate,  with  whose  weal  or  woe,  philosophy 
does  not  concern  itself,  and  Schopeidiauer's  lack  of 
interest  in  the  process  of  the  All,  and  his  insistence 
on  the  redemption  of  self  from  an  individual  exist- 
ence of  pain  as  the  sole  end  of  life.  In  a  similar 
manner  I  have  corrected  Hegel's  idea  of  the  philo- 
sophy of  religion.  He  has  endeavoured  to  interpret 
Christianity  in  a  false  and  unhistorical  manner,  in 
that  speculatively  he  makes  it  the  absolute  religion 
of  the  intellect  (Geist).  This  faulty  conce|)tion  I 
have  amended  with  certain  elements  of  thought 
derived  from  Schopenhauer,  to  wit,  a  recognition  of 
the  deep  and  peculiar  significance  of  the  Indian 
religions,  of  which  Hegel  had  no  comprehension  and 
with  which  he  had  consequently  no  sympathy.  In 
my  ethics  I  have  assigned  to  Schopenlianer's  emo- 
tion morality  its  proper  place  beside  Hegel's  intellec- 
tual morality,  and  have  linked  Hegel's  demand  for 
the  subordination  of  the  individual  to  the  teleological 
end  of  the  absolute  Idea  to  Schopenhauer's  concep- 
tion that  the  ethical  subordination  of  the  individual 
is  conditioned  by  the  unity  of  subst.ance  which  ob- 
tains between  all  separate  individualities  and  the 
one  world-substance.  But  in  all  these  departments 
of  thinking  the  richer  and  more  inqiortant  factors 
were  contributed  bj'  Hegel's  philosophy,  whilst 
Schopenhauer's  less  elaborated  system  furnished 
me  with  comiilementary  elements.  In  aesthetics 
the  only  thin^  I  had  to  do  in  principle  was  to 
emphasise  still  more  sharply  than  Hegel  himself 
has  done  the  antithesis  between  his  concrete  ideal- 
ism and  the  abstract  idealism  of  Schelling  and  of 
Scho|ieidiauer. ' 

The  great  aim  Ed.  von  Hartmann  has  set  before 
himself  is  that  of  harmonising  and  reconciling 
jihilosophy  with  science,  by  gathering  up  the 
\aried  results  of  modern  scientific  investigation 
into  an  all-comprehensive  philosoi)liic  conception 
of  the  world  {]Velta/isc/iani(iiij).  His  speculative 
system  is  commonly  believed  to  be  pessimistic  in 
temper  ;  but  that  is  not  the  eiuse.  The  I'nconscious 
(the  universal  monistic  principle)  is  both  real  and 
ideal,  both  will  and  jnesentation — the  substantial 
and  intelligent  i)rinciples  respectively.  And  the 
world-process,  instead  of  being  negative,  is  a  pro- 
cess of  evolutionary  optimism.  The  substantial 
principle  involves  intrinsically  an  excess  of  pain 
over  pleasure  in  the  world  :  and  this  excess  of  pain 
can  only  be  abolished  by  the  annihilation  of  the 
substantial  principle,  Will,  and  its  s|iocilic  energj-, 
willing,  not,  however,  in  individual  beings,  but 
once  for  all  universally.  The  agency  by  which  this 
'  best  possible '  consummation  is  to  be  achieved  is 
the  intellectual  principle,  working  through  its  own 
creations,  consciousness  and  individuality,  along  the 
lines  of  progressionaldevelopnuMit.  And  this  strikes 
the  keynote  of  the  philosophic  temper  in  which 
Von  Hartmann  writes.  He  is  an  ardent  champion 
of  evolutionary  progress,  a  believer  in  the  mission 
of  western  energy  and  enlightenment,  and  in  it.s 
teleological  justification,  an  admirer  of  the  modern 
spirit  of  enterprise,  its  robust  vigour,  its  keen 
delight  in  struggle  and  conflict,  and  its  restless 
]iractical  activity.  Hence  he  proclaims  himself 
as  oiiposed  to  the  teaching  and  attitude  of  the 
))ropnets  of  the  IVrltsr/imrrz ;  hence  he  cimdemns  the 
temper  of  oriental  passivity,  the  unmanly  fashion  of 


67G 


HARTMANN    VON    AUE 


HARVARD    UNIVERSITY 


coweriiif;  ami  gliivering  before  tlie  Marcli  blasts 
of  misery,  and  despises  tliat  '  weariness  ere  even- 
tide '  wliicli  is  now  become  so  common  amon<;:st 
us. 

Ed.  von  Hiirtm.-mn  also  jrives  close  attention  to 
the  |inblic  ijucstions  of  the  day  in  (iermany,  and 
writes  ably  and  clearly  on  isiicli  mattci-s  as  e<luca- 
tion,  ]iolitics,  «.tc.  Tlie  results  of  his  activity  in 
these  departments  will  be  found  in  Ziir  llifniiii  ties 
ho/u:rcn  Scfttiliirsi'fis  (IST.^),  J^ii'  j/oh'tisrhcu  An/- 
galien  itnd  Ziistiinile  ties  Deittse/ini  llclflis  ( 18M1 ), 
Mtittcnie  Pruhlcme  (1885),  Gesiimiiie/lc  .Stiii/ieii  iiiitl 
Aiifstilzc  (1876) — this  last  containing  an  autobio- 
giaphy — and  Zivei  Jiihrzehiitc  Deiilsrher  I'ulitil; 
(1889),  l>esides  numerous  contributions  to  maga- 
zines, such  as  Die  (!ef/enif(iil,  &c. 

The  books  in  wtiich  his  phib>.so|>liical  creed  is  laid 
down  bear  the  following  titles :  I'liilosophie  des  Unbe- 
witsulcii  ( 1869 ;  10th  ed.  1890  ;  Eng.  trans,  by  Coupland, 
1884) ;  Phtinoiiieni)lo'jir  ties  gitOichrit  Iletciissitteiiis  (1878; 
2d  ed.  188(i) ;  Dtis  relif/iitsc  JliiensaUstiii  tier  Meiisckhcit 
im  Slttfeiit/anfj  geitici'  Kntiriclcihtnt/  (l>^'2) ;  Die  Rcliijion 
den  (ieistcs  (1882);  Die  Deiitjsehe  AcallietH:  seil  Kant 
(188G);  and  Die  Philosnpliie  ties  SehSiicn  (1887).  Hesides 
these,  lie  has  written  several  books  supplenientarj'  to  liis 
principal  Hnes  of  thou;;lit,  such  as  Arifiwlir  tirumlff- 
iiuivj  ties  Irtinscentlenttileii  Rmlismits  (Hil  oil.  188.")); 
Neukuntianismus^  Schnftetilttiueeittuismus,  uiitt  Jfet/cfiaii- 
igmus  (2d  ed.  1878) ;  Die  Selbstzeesetzttntj  ties  Ctirisleiitums 
untl  tlie  JRelifjitin  dcr  Zukunft  (2d  ed.  1874  ;  Eng.  trans. 
by  Dore,  188fi);  a  work  on  tlie  theory  of  knowledge 
(1889);  Kritisehe  Wantieniiit/eii  diieeh  tlie  J'/tifi>sup/tie 
der  Oetiemmrt  (18!X)),  ,'^c.  Useful  helps  to  the  study  of 
his  system  arc  Koeher's  excellent  condensation,  Dnit 
philosophisehe  System  H.  von  Hartmanns  (1884),  an<l 
Pluinacher's  Der  Pcssiinismits  in  Veiyantfenheit  iintl 
Gei/eiiiriti-t  (lis^i). 

Ilartlliailll  VOII  Alie  ranks  next  after  Wolf 
ram  von  Esehenburh  and  (iottfried  von  Stra-sljur^; 
as  a  iMiet  of  tlie  Miildle  Hij,'li  (lerni.'iii  [leiiod.  lie 
Wiis  iMirn  about  1170,  of  a  noble  Swabian  family, 
took  jiart  in  the  Crusade  of  1187,  and  died  between 
1210  and  12'20.  His  writings  consist  of  narrative 
poems  and  sonjp.  The  most  |)opular  of  the  former 
IS  Der  iiniic  Ileiiirie/i,  based  upon  a  Swabian  tradi- 
tionary story.  JCree,  which  relates  the  le;,'end  re- 
prodiiceil  in  Tennyson's  '  Knid  '  in  Ii/i/l/s  tiftlie  Kiinj, 
and  Itfciii,  are  both  drawn  from  the  Arthurian  cycle, 
and  closely  follow  French  poems  by  t'lnestien  de 
Troyes.  In  lliegur  vtjin  Steine,  the  plot  of  which  is 
of  a  repulsive  nature,  Hartniann  depicts  worldly 
pa-ssiim  subdued  and  purilieil  by  the  power  of  reli- 
gious faith,  (he  faith  of  the  ascetic  of  the  church 
at  that  date.  The  song's  belong  to  the  erotic  class 
and  are  marked  by  fresliness  and  naivete.  His 
longer  works  have  each  been  edited  several  times 
se|iarately.  F.  Hech  ])ublishcd  a  critical  edition 
of  Hartmann's  collected  writings  in  18(jG-()9  (2d 
ed.  1870-73). 

Ilartsliuril.  the  term  given  in  pharmacy  to  the 
antlers  of  the  lied  Deer  or  C'crfiis  eliiiihiis.  Its 
composition  is  very  diflerent  from  that  of  persistent 
horns,  lus  those  of  the  o.\,  for  exanijile,  and  is 
identical,  or  nearly  .so,  with  that  of  bone.  The 
products  of  its  ilistillation,  containing  among  other 
tilings,  ammonia,  were  formerly  much  u.sed  in 
medicine,  under  the  titles  of  oil  of  hartshorn, 
volatile  salt  of  hartshorn,  spirits  of  hartshorn,  iS;c.  ; 
but  they  are  now  lejilaced  by  a  solution  of  am- 
monia and  caibon.ate  of  ammonia,  the  sal  volatile 
of  the  shops.    See  Ammonia,  Liniments. 

Hart'S-tonsil6  ( SeulujieiK/iium  ),  a  genus  of 
widely  distributed  ferns,  of  which  one  species,  S. 
vtilgtire,  is  a  native  of  Britain,  and  is  comnum  in 
many  parts  of  the  country,  in  moist  woods,  shady 
banks,  caves  on  the  .seashore,  and  other  cold  and 
damp  situati(ms.  Its  fronds  are  in  general  un<li- 
vided — although  sometimes  forked — from  a  few 
inches  to  2  feet  in  length,  and  from  1  to  .3  inches  in 


breadth.      The  sori  are  in  transverse  lines  on  the 
lateral   veins.     Fine  jilants  of   this   fern  are  veiy 


Hart's-tonguc  { SetilopenJrium  vnlgare). 

omamental,  and  attain  their  greatest  luxuriance  in 
winter. 

Ilartz.     See  ll.utz. 

Ilart7.<-llblisfil,  .IfAN  Et^OKNIo,  a  Spanish 
dnimiitic  jioet  of  (lernian  extraction,  was  born  at 
Madriil,  September  G,  1800,  stmlied  under  the 
Jesuits,  and  iiroiluced  his  first  bonk,  the  drama 
Aiiititites  tie  Jeniel,  in  IS.SO.  His  principal  works, 
all  published  at  Madrid,  are  the  drama  Dui'iti 
Meneio  (1838),  the  comedies  Im  He/lnmti  Kiimii- 
ttieUi  (1839)  and  La  Visiomiria  (1840).  .and  the 
dramatic  poems  Alfonso  el  Casto  (1841),  El 
litie/iiller  Meiiiltin'fis  (1842),  La  Coin  i/  el  K>ieorfiili> 
(1843),  .and  others.  He  also  publislie<l  in  prose 
Ciieiilfis  II  Fiihiihis  ( 18G1  ),  Ohms  Ksetitjiiltis  (  180.")), 
and  Olirits  tic  Eiit-ttrt/o  (1864).  His  writings  are 
char.acterised  by  glowing  imagination,  vigorims 
diction,  and  sonorous  versification.  Besides  his 
original  works  he  issued  good  critical  editions  of 
the  jilays  of  Tii-so  de  Molina,  f'alderon,  and  Lojie 
de  Veg.a.  During  the  greater  part  of  his  life 
Hartzenbnscli  Wius  emiiloyed  in  the  nation.il  library 
.at  M.adrid,  of  which  he  became  director  in  1S62. 
He  died  at  Madrid,  .3d  August  1880. 

lIArAll.    See  Hauoux. 

IlarilspiOi'S  (Sanskrit /iiVrf,  'entrails;'  cf.  Gr. 
chtirilt-,  r/itjliit/es),  soothsjiyers  or  diviners  .among 
the  Etniscans,  and  from  them  adopted  by  the 
Kom.ans,  who  foretold  future  events  from  the 
inspection  of  the  entrails  of  animals  od'ereil  in  s.acri- 
lice  (hence  .also  called  c.rtis/iiers),  and  from  the 
(d).servation  of  other  circunist.ances  connected  with 
the  otlerings,  such  .as  the  willingness  or  unwilling- 
ne.ss  of  the  victim  to  come  to  the  altar,  ami  the 
llame  or  the  smoke.  They  took  indications  also 
from  earthquakes,  lightning,  and  all  other  extra- 
ordin.arv  phenomena  of  nature  called /wr/c/i/".  The 
hanispices  did  not  equal  the  augurs  in  dignity  and 
res])ect ;  they  were  regarded  r.ather  as  mediums  of 
communicati(m  with  heaven  than  iis  possessing 
any  iinlependent  religious  authoritv.  They  had  no 
organi.s,ation  like  the  augurs  ;  they  did  not,  in  earlier 
times  .at  le.ast,  form  a  collef/iiiM,  nor  had  they  a 
mm/istcr.  Their  art  fell  latterly  into  disie]iute,  im 
is  illustrated  by  the  well-known  s.aying  of  (ato  that 
'  he  wondered  that  one  haruspex  did  not  laugh  when 
he  saw  another.'    See  ArcuKiEs,  and  Divination. 

Harvard  I'lliverslty,  founded  .as  a  college  in 
16.38,  is  the  oldest,  richest,  and  best  pfpiipjied  of  the 
institutions  of  learning  in  the  United  States.  It 
is  located  at  Cambridge  (q.v. ),  copyright  ism  in  u.s. 
Miussachusetts,  and  its  numerous  by  j.  b.  Lippiumit 
buildings  (ne.arly  fifty)  are  the  Company 
chief  features  of  the  town.  It  w.as  naineil  in  honour 
of  the  Kev.  .John  H.arcard,  who  was  probably  bom 
in  Southw.ark  in  1607,  graduateil  in  163.5  at  Em- 
manuel College,  Cambridge,  came  to  New  England 


HARVARD    UNIVERSITY 


HARVEST-BUG 


577 


in  1637,  and,  ilyiiif,'  in  163S,  liefjueatheil  to  tlie  pro 
])ose(l  college  iiis  library  of  over  300  volumes  and 
£779.  DuriiijL;  the  colonial  period  the  avowed 
oljject  of  Harvard  College  was  '  the  education  of 
the  English  and  Indian  youth  in  knowleilge  and 
godliness,'  mainly  with  a  view  to  their  entering 
the  I'uritan  ministry  :  only  one  Indian  ever  gradu- 
ated (in  UUJ.')).  In  its  infancy  the  college  was 
supported  liy  voluntary  contributions  from  the 
churches,  and  by  grants  from  the  Massachusetts 
colony,  but  for  a  long  time  it  was  a  rather  ob- 
scure and  feeble  school.  Its  ex])anHion  into  a 
university,  its  deli\'erance  from  sectarian  control, 
and  its  inde|>endence  from  the  state  have  been 
accomiilished  duiiiig  the  lUth  century.  During 
the  same  period  its  resources  have  enormously 
increased,  and  almost  wholly  from  private  dona- 
tions. It  was  niaiidy  under  the  rule  of  the  state 
until  1865,  when  by  statute  the  government 
was  vested  in  a  board  of  thirty  overseers,  in  si.K 
classes  of  live  members  each,  chosen  l>y  the  alumni ; 
one  class  lieing  renewed  annually.  The  overseers 
direct  the  courses  of  studj-  and  general  manage- 
ment, lint  tlie  nominations  of  professors  and  other 
officers  are  made  by  the  '  corporation,'  consisting  of 
the  president  and  live  fellows,  a  self-perpetuating 
body,  originally  created  by  charter  in  1650,  and 
holding  all  the  property  of  the  university  as  trus- 
tees. The  nominations  made  by  the  '  corporation  ' 
reipiire  conlirmatinii  by  the  overseers. 

The  halls  for  'recitations'  and  lectures,  and  for 
students'  lodgings,  as  also  the  chapel,  library,  and 
law-school,  are  in  a  square  called  tlie  college  yard, 
containing  about  15  acres,  planted  with  beautiful 
elms.  The  other  buildings  are  in  other  parts  of 
tlie  town,  not  far  distant,  and  occupy  about  60 
acres.  The  Agassiz  nuiseum  of  comparative  zoology 
is  world-famous.  Tlie  I'ealiody  nmseum  of  Ameri- 
can archa'ology  and  ethnology  dates  from  1866; 
and  in  IS'JO  a  sum  of  .'JoO.OOO  was  given  to  found 
a  mu.seum  of  Semitic  antiipiities.  The  most  im- 
jiosing  edilice  is  Memorial  Hall,  built  in  honour 
of  the  alumni  wlio  fell  during  the  civil  war.  It 
is  310  feet  in  length,  and  115  in  breadth,  and 
has  a  tower  200  feet  high.  An  aniide  vestiliule 
contains  busts  and  mviral  tablets.  The  principal 
hall  is  164  by  60  feet,  and  80  feet  to  the  ceiling. 
This  lias  a  line  collection  of  historical  jiortraits.  It 
is  u.sed  as  a  dining-hall,  and  accommodates  nearly 
700  at  table.  At  the  eastern  end  is  a  beautiful 
theatre  for  public  exercises  on  ceremonial  occasions. 
Memorial  Hall,  built  of  liriclc  and  freestone,  in 
Norman  style,  richly  ornamented,  needs  only  the 
mellowing  touch  of  age  to  be  one  of  the  most 
imiiressive  collegiate  buildings  in  the  world. 

In  the  academic  department  the  re(|uirenients  for 
admission  are  high,  and  as  a  ciinsequeuce  few  stu- 
dents enter  before  the  age  of  eighteen.  There  is  a 
choice  of  two  lines  of  .study,  both  including  ancient 
classics,  mathematics,  and  other  sciences;  but  in 
one  line  the  classics  are  prominent,  in  tlie  other  tlie 
sciences.  There  an^  also  various  minor  elections 
of  study  ;  but  no  degree  is  given  without  some 
full  course,  thoroughly  carried  out.  As  the  univer- 
sity is  amply  endowed,  there  are  many  scholar- 
ships in  all  the  departments,  besides  jirizes  and 
aids  of  many  sorts,  amounting  to  about  §45,000 
per  annum.  .Morning  prayers  .-ue  conducteil  by 
clergymen  of  dill'crent  denominations  in  turn ; 
and  students  must  attend  Sunday  .services  at  the 
church  designated  by  their  parents.  The  general 
library  contains  above  250,000  volumes  ;  and  other 
libraries  raise  the  total  to  360,000  volumes.  There 
is  a  well-ei|uipped  observatory,  besides  a  botanic 
garilen  and  an  arboretum.  There  are  no  fees  \my- 
able  to  professors  ;  each  student  on  matriculation 
pays  a  general  fee,  and  may  attend  as  many 
courses  as  he  elects.  Expenses  varv  witli  the 
■U5 


habits  of  the  student,  liut  necessary  expenses  need 
not  exceed  SIOOO  ( t'JOO)  per  annum. 

The  following  are  the  departments  included  in 
the  university :  Harvard  College,  the  Divinity 
School,  the  Law  School,  the  Lawrence  Scientillc 
School,  the  Medical  Scliool,  the  Dental  School  (in 
Boston),  the  Bus.sey  Insritution  (a  school  of  agri- 
culture), the  School  of  Veterinary  Medicine  (in 
Boston  1,  and  the  Grailuate  Department.  Further, 
Kadclill'e  College  (formerly  called  Harvard  Annex) 
was  organised  in  187!)  for  the  collegiate  instruction 
of  women  by  professors  and  instructors  of  Harvard  ; 
a  four  years'  course  preparing  for  a  certilicate 
corresponding  to  the  B.A.  degree.  The  total 
strength  of  the  teaching  staff  in  189.5  was  close  on 
300  (about  100  being  professors  proper),  and  of  the 
students  near  3000,  of  whom  1700  were  at  the 
college  —  the  others  being  at  the  various  other 
connected  institutes  or  departments.  The  total 
income  is  considerably  more  than  §1,000,000  a 
year;  the  invested  funds  (exclusive  of  lamls,  build- 
ings, books,  and  apparatus)  amount  to  about 
§8,500,000.  Though  wholly  unsectarian,  the  col- 
lege has  largely  lieen  in  the  hands  of  Unitarians. 
.\niongst  the  alumni  have  been  the  Adamses,  the 
Danas,  Channing,  Tlieo.  Parker,  Motley,  Prescott, 
Bancroft,  Emerson,  AVeiulell  Phillips,  Oi.  Wendell 
Holmes,  Parkman,  Lowell,  Child,  and  Norton. 

8ee  J,  Quincy,  Histiyry  of  Harvard  Uniirrsitf/  { ISOO) ; 
Rendle's  monograph  on  John  Harvard  ( 18.^5  )  ;  Thayer, 
All,  Hiatorical  Skttdi  of  Harvard  Universiiii  (  1S!)1  )  ; 
Fiinr  Aiiicrimn  Colkycs  (19i'.)5) ;  liirkbeck  Hill,  Harvard 
C'ulle</v,  hij  an  Oxonian  (1895), 

Harvest-bllg,  the  larval  form  of  the  silky 
Trombidium  (TruiiiJiidium  Ixjlosvrivenm — Linn.)  of 
the  family  Trombidiida',  order  Acarina.  It  is  of 
minute  size,  scarcely  discernible  liy  the  n.aked  eye, 
and  of  a  bright  .scarlet  or  vivid  crimson  cidour.  In 
the  hot  months  of  summer  it  is  found  in  gardens 


a,  Trombidium  kolonericeiim,  female  (mag.  9  diameters); 
6,  larva,  full  grown  ( Harvest-bug ). 

and  on  wild  vegetation,  being  most  plentiful  in  hot 
dry  seasons  in  places  near  the  sea  and  in  cli.ilky 
districts.  It  specially  torments  people  with  delicate 
skins,  and  the  wound  it  produces  causes  a  good 
deal  of  local  irritation  and  also,  in  warmer  coun- 
tries, a  consideralile  amount  of  constitutional  dis- 
turbance. The  most  uiiiilcii-sant  symptoms  are 
only  observed  in  climates  warmer  than  Britain;  but 
the  mite  is  troublesome  enough  in  some  parts  of 
Scotland.  M.  P.  M6gnin  lias  investigated  the  life- 
history  of  the  harvest-bug,  or  ruityct,  -i^  it  is  called 
in  Prance  (see  Aiinitlcs  ties  Svienccs  Ndtarvlh-s, 
6tli  series,  vol.  iv.  1876).  He  found  the  silky  Trom- 
biilium  (T.  Iiiiliisvrivvani],  a  bright  scarlet  species, 
from  spring  till  .July  and  August,  when  it  suddenlv 
disappeared.  In  .Vpril  he  found  some  males  witli 
many  young  females,  in  the  end  of  May  and  in 
dune  only  gravid  females.  In  dune  and  July  egg>i 
were  laid,  which  hatched,  luoducing  the  roio/ct  or 
harvest-bug  formerly  described  as  I.cptiis  aiitinii- 
iKi/is,  an  almost  spiierical  six-legged  larva,  which 
soon  found  a  host  into  whose  skin  it  thrust  its 
sharp  mandibles.  K(U'tlnvith  its  abdomen  began 
to  swell  with  the  lluid  imbibed,  reaching  ultimately 


578 


HAKVEST-FLY 


HARWICH 


to  about  five  times  its  ori-^inal  bulk,  the  liead  and 
thorax  reinaiiiiiifiof  tlie  same  size  ivs  before.  Aft<|r 
hibernation,  ilurin';  which  it  ili},'este(l  and  assinii- 
lated  the  nutritive  jnieex  stored  up  ilurinj;  its  para- 
sitic existence,  it  became  the  eightle^;^'ed  nympha, 
exchisively  a  vej;etalile  feeder  an<l  sexually  com- 

1>Iete.  The  harvest-bu^  infests  not  only  human 
>einj;s,  lint  also  iloj,'s,  cats,  hares,  and  other  smnlli-r 
mammals,  and  even  insects.  The  ri-medy  employed 
for  its  bite  is  to  extract  tlie  animal  from  the  sUin 
liy  means  of  a  neeiUe,  and  to  allav  the  itching;  by 
rubliin^,'  the  part  all'erted  with  .some  essential  oil. 
The  ravajres  of  the  liarvestbu^'  appear  to  l>e  not 
conlined  to  Europe,  since  a  small  animal  found  in 
Mexico,  and  called  by  the  Indians  TlialsiiluKili', 
seems  to  be,  if  not  identical  with,  at  least  similar 
to  the  harvest  buj;  in  its  jirocesses  and  ell'ects. 

lliirvest-lly.  the  jiopular  name  in  the  United 
States  for  a  s]iecies  of  Cicada  (i|.v.). 

Ilai'vrst-iiiooii.    See  Moon. 

Ilarvoy,  Sn;  (Ikougk,  P. U.S.A.,  was  born  at 
St  Ninians,  near  Stirling,',  in  Kebruary  1806.  Ik- 
was  apprenticed  to  a  boidcseller  in  Stirlinj;,  but 
in  IS2.'J  removed  to  Kdinbur;(li,  and  entered  the 
Trustees'  Acailemy  there.  In  IS'iti,  when  the 
Koyal  Scottish  .Vcademy  wa.s  instituted,  he  wius 
elected  an  .Vssociate,  tliouf;li  only  in  his  twentieth 
year:  he  became  a  full  .Vcademii-ian  in  1S2!I,  jircsi- 
(lent  in  IStU,  and  was  kni^dited  in  I,s(i7.  He  died 
2'2d  .January  187(5.  Many  of  his  works  are  well 
known  throuj;h  the  medium  of  enf;ravin^'S.  The 
principal  are  'Covenanters'  Preaching;,'  'Battle  of 
Drumclo^,'  '.V  Hif,'hland  Funeral,'  'Children  blow- 
inu  liubliles  in  (llil  Creyfriars'  CImrchyard,'  '  I''irst 
Keadin),'  of  the  I'.ible  in  th(!  Crypt  of  St  Tanl's,' 
'  linnyan  in  liedford  (.iaol  '  and  '  IJunyan  and  his 
I)au;;hter  selling;  Laces,'  'Shakespeare  before  Sir 
T.  Lucy,'  'The  Curlers,'  and  '  Leavini^  the  Manse.' 
In  his  later  years  Harvey  devoted  much  time  to 
landscape-painting. 

Ilarvey.  Wh.i.i.vm,  the  discoverer  of  the  eir- 
cul.uion  of  the  lilood,  was  born  at  Folkestone,  in 
Kent,  on  the  1st  of  .\pril  l.'>78.  His  father  was 
a  yeoman  ;  and  his  brothers  were  merchants  of 
wei;,'lit  and  substance,  ntufini  ct  ropiosi,  in  the 
city  of  Lcmdon.  After  six  years  at  Canterbury 
grammar-school,  Harvey,  then  sixteen  years  of  a.>if, 
was  entered  at  Caius  Collej;e,  Camriridge.  He 
took  his  degree  in  arts  in  1597,  and,  after  live 
years'  study  at  the  university  of  I'adua  umler 
t'abricius  de  .\(|uapenilente,  .Julius  Casserins,  and 
other  eminent  men  who  then  adorned  that 
university,  he  obtained  his  ili]>l()nia  as  doctor  of 
medicine  in  l(i0'2.  He  returned  to  Kngland  in  the 
same  year  ;  and  after  receiving  his  doctor's  degree 
from  his  original  university,  Cambridge,  settled  in 
London  as  a  jihysician.  In  lliO!)  he  was  appointed 
physician  to  Si  liartholomew's  Hospital,  and  in  1()1."> 
Lundeian  Lecturer  at  the  College  of  Physicians  - 
an  oIKce  then  held  for  life  ;  and  it  is  generally  sup- 
poseil  that  in  his  lirst  course  of  lectures  (in  the 
spring  of  161(i)  he  expounded  those  oiiginal  and 
comidete  views  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  with 
which  his  name  is  imlelibly  associated.  It  was  not 
till  the  year  Iti'iS  that  he  gave  his  views  to  the 
world  at  large,  in  his  celebrated  treatise  entitled 
Ejcrritatio  Aiiiitoinica  de  Motit  Cordis  ct  Snnrjinitis, 
having  then,  as  he  states  in  the  preface,  for  nine 
years  or  more  gone  on  demonstrating  the  subject  in 
Ins  college  lectures,  illustrating  it  by  new  andaddi- 
ticmal  argunuuits,  and  freeing  it  from  the  objections 
raised  by  the  skilful  amongst  anatomists.  He  was 
ap|>ointed  successively  physician  to  James  I.  and 
Charles  I.  ;  and  in  \i\Xi  we  find  that  his  absence, 
'  by  reason  of  his  attendance  on  the  king's  majesty,' 
from  St  Bartholmnew's  Hospital  was  com)jtained 
of,  and  that  Dr  .Andrews  was  ajipointed  as  his  sub- 


stitute, '  but  without  prejudice  to  him  in  his  yearly 
fee  or  in  any  other  respect  '  -a  procedure  whidi 
shows  the  esteem  in  which  Harvey  was  held.  \Vc 
learn  from  Aubrey  that  he  acconi]ianied  Thonuut 
Howard,  Earl  of  .\runilel,  in  his  emba.ssy  to  the 
emjieror  in  Iti.'ifi  ;  an<l  during  this  journey  he  i)uh- 
lidy  <lemonslrateil  to  Caspar  Hofmann,  the  distin- 
guished jirofessiu'  of  Nuremberg,  and  one  of  the 
chief  opponents  of  his  views,  I  he  .inatomical  par- 
ticulars which  made  the  ciriulation  of  the  IiIimhI  a 
lu'cessary  conclusion — a  demonstration  which,  it  is 
reported,  was  satisfactory  to  all  present  save  Hof- 
mann himself,  who  still  continueil  to  urge  futile 
objections.  To  ap]ueciate  the  inr(iortan(i'  of 
Harvey's  discovery  and  the  nature  ol  the  objec- 
tions that  woulil  be  urged  against  it,  it  is  snilicicnt 
to  state  that  Harvey's  lii-st  steip  was  to  prove  that 
the  arteries  i-ontained  not  air  but  blood.  The 
whole  course  of  the  circulation  could  not  be  cle- 
monstrated,  as  Ilarvey  had  no  idea  of  a  system  of 
capillaries  uniting  arteries  ami  veins.  Thi'.se  were 
discovered  by  M.ilpighi  some  lifty  years  later.  He 
attended  the  king  in  his  various  I'xpeditions,  and 
was  present  with  him  at  tin'  battle  of  Edgehill 
(October  2."1,  1042).  'During  Ihi-  light,'  says 
Aubrey,  '  the  Prince  and  Duke  of  York  were  com- 
mitted to  his  eare.  He  told  me  that  he  withdrew 
with  them  under  a  hedge,  and  tooke  out  of  his 
])o(  kett  a  booke,  and  read.  IJut  he  had  not  read 
very  l(Uig  before  a  bullet  of  a  great  gun  grazed  on 
tbegrounil  ni'are  him.  which  niaile  him  remove  his 
station.'  He  accompanied  llie  king  after  the 
battle  to  Oxforil,  where  he  reside<l  nearly  fiuir 
years,  receiving  the  lioninary  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Physic,  and  being  elected  warden  of  Merton  Col- 
lege. On  the  surrender  of  ONfoid  to  the  Parlia- 
ment in  .luly  l(i4(),  he  left  the  universily  and 
returned  to  ^>onilon.  He  was  now  sixty  eight 
yeai-s  of  age,  and  seems  to  have  withdrawn  him- 
self fnuu  ]>ractice  and  from  all  further  participation 
in  the  fortunes  of  his  royal  master.  During  the 
ri'iuainder  of  his  life  he  was  iismilly  the  guest  of 
one  or  other  of  his  brothers,  now  nu'U  of  wealth 
anil  high  standing  in  the  city  ;  and  it  was  at  (he 
countryhouse  of  one  of  them  that  Dr  Ent  visili'd 
him  at  Christmas  Ki.'iO,  and  after  •  niany  ditli- 
culties'  obtained  frcun  him  the  MS.  of  his  work  on 
the  geiu'ration  of  animals,  which  was  iiublished  in 
the  following  year,  under  the  title  of  Exercitatiunes 
dc  Gcneratiotti'.  A)ii)nttliiiin. 

From  this  iieriod  to  the  time  of  bis  death  the 
chief  object  wliii'h  occn]iied  bis  ndnd  was  the  wel- 
fare and  imiirovement  of  the  College  of  Physicians. 
In  l().'j4  he  was  electeil  president  of  the  college, 
b\it  be  declined  the  ollice  (Ui  account  of  his  age 
and  inhrmities.  In  July  !(>.">(!  he  resigned  his 
Lnirdeian  lectnreshii),  which  he  had  held  for  more 
than  forty  years;  and  in  taking  leave  of  the  e<d- 
lege  presented  to  it  his  litlli?  palrii]iouial  estate  at/ 
liurwash,  in  Sussex.  He  clid  not  long  survive, 
but,  Avorn  out  by  repeated  attacks  of  gout,  died  at 
London  on  the  .'iil  June  1657,  an<l  was  buried  in  .a 
vault  at  H(uui)stead,  near  Sall'ron  Walden,  in 
Essex.  On  I8th  October  1883,  at  the  cost  of  the 
lioyal  College  of  Physicians,  his  remains  were 
removed  from  the  ililapidateil  vault,  and  with 
befitting  solemnity  reinterred  in  a  marble  sarco- 
phagus in  the  Harvey  Cha]>el  attached  to  the 
same  church. 

Harvey's  works  in  Latin  were  published  iir  17(j()  ;  a 
translation  by  Dr  Willis  in  1847  (new  ed.  1881);  and 
bis  PrnJtcti'nuA  Arniltmiar  by  a  conniiittcc  of  the  K<»yal 
College  of  Physicians  in  1887.  See  Willis's  Life  of 
Harvey  (1878),  Huxley  at  the  Tercentenary  {Nnfiire, 
1878),  and  D'Arcy  Power  ( 18'J7  ).  A  statue  of  Harvey 
was  erected  at  Folkestone  in  1881. 

Ilarwidla  a  municipal  borough,  seaport,  and 
niarkettown  of  E,s.sex,  is  situated  on  a  promontory 


HARZ    MOUNTAINS 


HASHISH 


579 


at  tlie  influx  iif  the  continent  Stonr  ami  Orwell  to 
the  sea,  71  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  London.  South- 
waril  of  Harwich  is  the  waterin''  ])lace  of  Dover- 
court,  with  a  sea-wall  2  miles  lon<,'.  The  chief 
iniUistries  are  shipbuilding,  tishinf;,  ami  the  manu- 
facture of  cement.  Steamers  run  daily  to  Ipswich, 
:inil  there  are  regular  lines  of  packets  to  Antwori), 
Kotterdam,  London,  iVc.  The  harbour  is  cai)a- 
cions,  safe,  and  commodious,  having  been  much 
iuijiroved  since  1844.  It  is  defended  by  a  battery, 
and,  on  the  Sult'olk  side,  by  Landguard  Fort,  which 
dates  from  the  reign  of  James  I.  So  great  have 
l)een  the  encroachments  made  by  the  sea  on  the 
promontory  on  which  Harwicli  stands  that  two 
jetties  or  groins,  1350  and  1000  feet  long  respec- 
tively, were  undertaken  in  180.3  to  bn^ak  the  force 
<if  the  waves,  and  these  have  proved  very  success- 
ful. From  the  14tli  century  till  1807  Harwich 
returned  two  members,  and  from  then  till  1885  one. 
Pop.  ( 18,-)1 )  4451  ;  ( 1881 )  7842  ;   ( 1891  )  8191. 

Ilnrz  lloillltains,  a  mountain-range  of  Ger- 
many, extending  between  the  rivers  Weser  and 
Elbe,  south  of  Brunswick,  with  a  length  of  57  miles, 
a  breadth  of  20,  and  a  superficial  area  of  784  si\. 
ni.  It  forms  an  elevated  plateau,  rising  on  most 
sides  somewhat  steeply  from  the  plains,  ami  riilgcd 
with  irregular  and  in  some  [lavts  forest-clad  moun- 
tains. The  range,  which  is  divided  into  Upper  and 
Lower  Harz,  the  average  elevations  of  which  are 
2100  and  1000  feet  respectively,  is  composed  for 
the  most  part  of  rocks  belonging  to  the  Devonian 
.and  Lo\\er  Carboniferous  formations,  and  broken 
through  in  a  few  places  by  granite,  as  in  the 
ISrockcn  (q.v. ),  the  highest  peak  (.S740  feet)  of 
central  Oermany.  The  Harz  are  e.xceedingly  rich 
in  metals  and  minerals,  as  silver,  iron,  lead,  copper, 
zinc,  marble,  alabaster,  ami  granite.  These  moun- 
tains form  a  natural  line  of  division  between  the  Low 
(lerman  and  the  High  German  races.  Industries 
coiniected  with  the  mines  and  the  forests,  as  well  as 
some  cattle-breeding  and  agriculture,  afford  em- 
ployment to  the  inhabitants.  The  rearing  of  sing- 
ing-birds is  also  a  source  of  profit.  The  Harz 
•Mountains  are  the  scenes  of  many  of  the  weird 
legendary  tales  of  German  literature. 

Ilnsdi'llbal  ('he  whose  help  is  Baal'),  the 
name  of  several  Carthaginian  generals,  of  whom 
the  most  famous  was  the  son-in-law  of  Hamilcar 
Barca(q.v.).  In  237  B.C.  he  accompanied  Hamil- 
car into  Spain,  and  gave  that  general  mostetl'ective 
aid  in  the  work  of  building  up  a  Carthagini;in 
donunion  in  the  Peninsula.  On  the  death  of 
Hamilcar  in  228  B.C.  the  task  of  administering  ami 
extending  the  new  empire  devolved  on  Hasdrubal, 
who  advanced  the  (.'arthaginian  frontier  from  the 
Ba'tis  ( the  Guadah[ni\ir )  to  the  Tagus,  and 
founiled  a  new  capital.  Nova  Carthago  (the  modern 
Cartagena),  a  city  with  the  best  harbour  on  the 
s(Mit,h-east  coast  of  Spain,  and  situated  in  the 
vicinity  of  rich  silver-mines,  Hasdrubal  proved 
himself  an  admirable  administrator.  He  was 
remarkably  successful  in  conciliating  the  Iberian 
tribes,  and  extended  his  rule  mainly  by  peaceful 
means.  So  independent  was  he  of  the  bonu' govern- 
ment that  the  Romans  made  a  treaty  in  which  the 
Eliro  was  lixeil  on  as  the  frontier  line,  not  with 
Carthage,  but  with  Hasdrubal.  In  the  eighth  year 
of  his  command,  221  li.C. ,  he  was  as.sa,ssinated  by  a 
<'(dtic  slave. — -Another  Hasdrubal  was  the  sou  of 
Hamilcar  Barca,  and  the  brother  of  Hannibal  (i].v.). 
He  defeated  Cneius  Scipio  in  Spain  in  212  U.C.,  and 
in  208  marched  through  Gaul,  to  join  his  brother 
Hannibal  in  Italy.  He  cro.ssed  the  .Mps  in  favour- 
.able  weather,  but,  instead  of  pushing  southward, 
made  a  fatal  delay  at  Placentia,  and  was  surprised 
and  sl.aiii  on  the  Metanrus  in  207  B.C. — A  third 
Hasdrubal  was  one  of  Hannibal's  principal   oHicers 


in  the  Italian  campaigns.  He  made  a  brilliant 
charge  at  the  battle  of  Cann;e,  which  contributed 
greatly  to  decide  the  fate  of  the  day. — A  fourth 
general  of  the  .same  name  defen<leil  ( 'arthage  against 
the  Romans  during  the  siege  which  ended  in  the 
city's  destruction  in  14(5  n.c.  He  is  accused  of 
cowardice  anil  cruelty,  and  of  having  starved  the 
citizens  while  himself  living  in  revelry. 

Hase,  K.\I!L  AriilsT  vox,  a  celebrated  German 
theologian,  was  born  at  Steiiibach,  in  Saxony,  25tli 
August  1800.  After  being  expelled  from  Erlangen 
University  for  his  connection  with  the  political 
students'  unions  called  the  *  Burschenschaften,'  he 
became  in  1823  a  university  tutor  at  Tiibingen,  but 
after  a  new  investigaticm  \v,as  imprisoned  for  ten 
months  in  the  fortress  of  Hohenaspcrg.  He  settled 
at  Leipzig  in  1829,  and  in  the  following  yeai-  wa-s 
called  to  Jena  as  professor  of  Theology.  Here  he 
remained  till  his  retirement  in  1883,  when,  after 
sixty  years  of  teaching,  he  was  ennobled,  an<l 
appointed  a  privy-councillor.  His  chief  writing's 
are  Des  a/tni  rfan-i'm  Tcstmiiciit  ( 1824) ;  I.rlirlnirh 
(ier  EvaiKjelisrhot  Thgwriti/.-  {\H'2ii  ;  tith  ed.  1870); 
Gnosis  (3  vols.  1820-28;  2d  ed.  1870);  11, titer  us 
rcdivivus  (1828;  12th  ed.  1883),  which  was  an 
able  attemiit  to  present  dogmatic  theology  in  the 
form  that  Hutter  would  have  chosen,  had  he  been 
living  in  the  present  century,  ,and  involved  him  in 
a  long  controversy  with  Rfihr,  the  exponent  of 
'vulgar-rationalism;'  Das  Lehrn  Jrsu  (1829:  oth 
ed.  1865);  Kirc/iair/csr/iic/ife  {]H3-i  :  llthed.  188()); 
Die  beiilen  Erzhischiife  (1839);  Nrne  I'rrijiheteH 
(1851  :  2d  ed.  1860);  a  life  of  St  Francis  (1850); 
a  handbook  of  Protestant  polemical  theology 
(1863);  a  life  of  St  Catharine  of  Siena  (1864); 
Gesehirlde  Jcsu  (1876);  Des  Kiiltin-]:iimpfes  Kudc 
(1879);  and  lectures  (m  church  history  (1880). 
He  suliseqnently  began  the  publication  of  a  clnirch 
history  based  on  his  university  lectjues  (1885 
ct  sen.).  His  autobiography  down  to  18.'<0  is  en- 
titled Ideale  loid  Int/ivme'r  (1872;  2(1  ed.  1873). 
Hase  was  called  the  Nestor  of  modern  scientific 
theology.  He  did  great  service  in  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  the  church's  faith  to  modern  thought,  and 
was  an  equally  resolute  and  eHective  opponent  of 
orthodoxy  on  the  one  band  and  rationalism  on  the 
otiier.     He  died  3d  January  1890. 

Haselrig  (otherwise  Hesii.ric.e  or  H.\zi.E- 
RIGG),  Sn!  Arthur,  one  of  the  Five  Members 
(ipv.),  commanded  a  noted  regiment  of  cuira>siers 
called  the  'Lobsters'  on  the  side  of  the  Parlia- 
ment, took  an  active  i)art  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  connection  with  the  militia  and  otiier 
bills,  and  was  governor  of  Newcastle.  In  lOiiO  he 
half  acquiesced  with  Monk  in  the  Restcuation.  I)ut 
died  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower,  7tli  January  16UI. 

Ilasllisll.  from  which  the  word  (issa.isiii  is  de- 
rived, is  an  Arabian  prep.aration  of  Indian  lienqi, 
known  in  India  as  li/itiiii/  nv  siddlii.  It  consists 
cbielly  of  the  leaves  ;in<l  stalks  of  ('iiiiiidhis  iiidini. 
The  medicinal  value  of  the  jueparations  of  Iinlian 
hemp  is  treated  in  another  article;  see  Hkmi- 
(  Iniii.vn  ).  It  is  the  jihysiological  action  which  will 
now  be  sjiecially  noticed.  The  drug  is  used  in  the 
East  in  various  w.ays.  Sometimes  it  is  smoketl 
alone  or  with  tobacco.  At  other  times  beverages 
are  prepareil  from  it,  or  it  is  taken  in  the  fcuui  of 
lozenges  or  electiiaries.  The  tiKi/ooii  of  Calcutta, 
the  tmipowhayi  of  Cairo,  and  the  diiinrines  or 
dfiirnmr.ic  of  the  Arabs  are  preparations  of  this 
kind.  The  elfeets  dill'er  according  to  the  dose  ami 
the  idio,syncrasy  of  the  individual.  Some  become 
imgnacious,  while  others  fall  into  a  state  of  reverie. 
After  small  doses  there  is  a  great  tendency  to  cause- 
less mcniment.  In  most  cases  there  is  an  extr.a- 
ordinary  snsceiitibility  to  hallucinations  of  various 
kinds,  their  nature  de]>en<ling  largely  on   the  cast 


580 


HASLAR    HOSPITAL 


HASTINGS 


of  iiiiiitl  of  tlie  iH-i-soii,  aiul  to  some  extent  on  Ins 
Bunonnilinjpt.  Time,  distance,  and  .souml  are  no 
lonfjer  correi'tly  iiul;,'e(l  of.  A  minute  may  have 
compressed  into  it  the  action  of  a  month,  a  hand- 
breaillh  may  stretch  ont  to  a  mih-,  anil  the  ripple 
of  a  brook  may  swell  inti>  the  roar  of  Niagara. 
Althoufjli  the  ilreains  proihieed  in  Urientals  by 
the  <lrug  are  often  of  a  voluptuous  nature,  this  is 
by  no  means  a  universal  etVect,  and  aniony  Euro- 

1  leans  they  have  not  this  ch.aracter.  The  stage  of 
uillucination  is  generally  succeeileil  by  a  stage  of 
dei'p  slumber  with  diminished  sensibility.  The 
unpleiusant  aflerellects  of  opium  seem  to  be 
absent ;  but  the  use  of  luusliish  ha-s  the  inevitable 
demoralising  elVects  of  all  such  indulgences.  See 
Moreau,  Du  Hachisch  et  ilc  V AIUimIivh  Mentalc 
(1845). 
na.slar  Hospital,  to  the  south  of  (Josport 

(q.v.),  between  fla-lar  Lake  and  the  sea,  is  an 
enormous  estalilisiiment  for  the  olHcej's  an<l  men  of 
the  navy,  dating  fiom  1746,  ami  capable  of  accom- 
modating ^(MK)  patients.  The  Hoyal  Na\al  Chapel 
is  also  here,  and  beyond  arc  the  Ilxslar  barracks. 

lIasIillK<ll'll.  >i  niunicipal  borou'di  (siru-e  I.S91  ) 
of  Lancashire,  19  miles  NW.  of  Mancliesier. 
Cotton,  silk,  and  woollen  manufactures  are  carried 
on.  In  the  vicinity  are  ironworks,  coal-mines,  and 
stone  and  slate  ipiarries.  Pop.  ( 18.)1 )  6104  ;  ( 1881 ) 
16,'.>>IH;   (1,S!I1)  18,225. 

llasiiHuit'aiis.    See  Macc.\dees. 

Ila.ssail-lH'll-Saball,  the  'Old  Man  of  the 
Mountain 'of  European  story,  was  founder  of  tlie 

Moslem  sect  of  the  A.ssassins  (i|.v.). 

Ila.ssc,  Jon.VNN  Alioi.K,  composer,  wjis  born  at 
Bergedorf,  near  Hamburg,  2.'Jlh  March  ItliHI,  and 
studied  in  Italy  under  I'orpora  and  Scarlatti.  He 
became  famous  lus  //  .SV/.v.vohc  ( '  the  Saxon  ')  through 
his  oiK'ra  iiimsfrate,  iirodnced  at  Najiles  (172.')); 
was  kiinellinei.s/cr  at  Dresden  ;  and  was  brought 
to  Ivomlon  in  17.S3  to  head  an  opposition  to  Handel 
as  representing  the  Italian  schoid.  Here  Artimi me 
was  prcxluccil  with  success  ;  but  Hasse  soon  left 
Lomlon,  and  in  1740  was  in  Dresden,  subse(|uently 
retiring  to  Vienna  and  to  Venice,  where  he  died 
2;M  Deceniber  178.S. 

Ilas.selt,  capital  of  the  Belgian  province  of 
Liniburg,  situateil  IS  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Miuis- 
triclit,  has  several  distilleries,  manufactures  linen 
fabrics,  lace,  and  tobacco,  and  cultivates  tobacco, 
madder,  and  chicory.     Pop.  l.'j,  194. 

IIAstiliauiir.  a  ruiiu^d  city  of  India,  on  the 
old  bed  of  the  ( langes,  22  miles  E.  of  Meenit.  It 
was  the  capital  of  the  great  Pandava  kingdom, 
freijuently  mentioned  in  the  Mahftbluirata. 

Ilastinu^S,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal 
borough  and  famous  watering-]>lace  of  Sussex,  is 
picturesipiely  situated  on  the  shore,  and  surrounded 
l>y  high  dills  on  all  sides  except  the  south,  which 
is  open  to  the  sea.  By  rail  it  is  33  miles  E.  of 
Brighton  and  62  miles  SSE.  of  London.  It  con- 
sisteil  formeily  of  only  two  streets,  intersected  by 
a  small  stream  calleil  the  Bourne,  but  is  now  a 
large  place,  whose  resident  pojiulation  is  doubled 
during  the  holiday  sea.s<m.  Since  the  middle  of 
the  19th  century  the  borough  lias  been  greatly 
e.>;tended,  and  some  portion  of  the  hills  wliicli 
shelter  the  town  contain  sineral  fine  streets  and 
terraces.  The  breezy  ami  nicely-p.tved  esplanaile, 
over  ;?  miles  in  lengtli,  forms  one  of  the  linest  .sea- 
walks  and  drives  in  the  kingdom.  The  climate  is 
dry  and  agreeable,  anil  the  bathing  very  good. 
Durin-;  cold  weather  in  winter  and  spring  the 
place  IS  a  commended  resort  for  puliiionarv  com- 
plaints, being  sheltered  by  the  hilU  inland  from 
ea-tcrly  and  northerly  winds.  It  is  famous  for  the 
mildness,   salubrity,   ami  evenness  of  its   climate, 


the  mean  daily  range  of  sliiule  tciii])eraliire  being 
ri'inarkably  small  (99)  as  compared  with  nearly 
all  other  stations  on  the  south  coast.  It  lia^  been 
said  to  oiler  a  choice  of  three  dimates-the  mild 
ol  tin-  sea  front,  the  more  bracing  of  the  inland, 
and  the  extremely  bracing  and  invigorating  of  the 
surrounding  hills,  500  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
sandy  soil  secures  a  dryness  of  soil  and  almo- 
spliere  not  usually  to  lie  lia<l  at  seaside  resorts. 
According  to  I)r  Paixons,  '  the  hottest  days  iu 
sniiimer  are  eight  degrees  cooler  than  London,  and, 
contrary  to  general  belief,  three  degrees  loolcr  thaii 
Eastbourne.'  The  drainage  is  good,  the  lirilish 
Mcdiiul  Jiiuniii/  stating  that  '  Hastings  is  one  of 
the  best  drained  and  ventilated  of  seaside  pliu;cs.' 
The  water-supply  is  pure  and  abundant ;  and  salt 
water  is  laid  lui  for  watering  the  streets,  and  can  be- 
snpidied  direct  from  the  main  to  piivate  housis  for 
bath  piirjioses.  The  corporation  have  piinlia.scil  for 
a  considerable  sum  the  Kiist  and  West  Hills,  line 
open  plateaus  eomnianding  beautiful  land  and  sea 
views,  and  admirably  adajited  for  golf  and  other 
outdoor  sports. 

The  East  Hill  Clitl's  present  great  interest  t» 
geologists,  and  are  part  of  the  properly  iiurclnised. 
They  descend  sheer  into  the  .sea,  and  are  remark- 
able for  their  rugged  beauty  iis  seen  from  the 
ocean.  There  are  three  large  [lublic  gardens, 
one  of  them  exceedingly  pretty,  and  an  exten- 
sive .\le.\andia  Park,  opened  by  the  Prince  anil 
Princess  of  Wales  in  1882.  The  amusements  of 
the  place  are  many  and  varied.  Hotels  are  plen- 
tiful, and  several  large  and  nourishing  schools 
have  been  established,  the  Hastings  centre  takin;' 
a  larj^e  jdace  in  the  Oxford  and  Cambndge  local 
examinations.  A  great  attraction  is  the  pier,  ex- 
tending 90t)  feet,  and  having  a  spacious  iiavilioii 
at  the  sea  end  giving  accommodation  for  lielweeii 
2000  and  .30<X)  peison.s.  A  similar  pier  was,  in 
1890,  in  course  of  construction  at  St  Leonards, 
about  a  mile  westwards.  The  'jiremier  ('imjiie 
port'  is  the  largest  and  richest  fishing  -  statmn 
on  the  south  coast,  (tn  16th  June  1897  Lord 
Dutlerin  laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  harbour 
of  27  acres.  The  ruined  castle  was  built  by  a 
follower  of  the  Conqueror.  Hastings  (since  1885) 
returns  only  one  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  of 
pari,  borough  ( IS.-)  1)  17,011  ;  ( 1881 )  42,2.-)8  ;  (1891) 
.52,.'!40.  See  W.  I).  (.'oi)|iers  Aolirrs  of  Ihtxiiiifjs 
(18U2J;  and  Montagu  Burrows' CVH</H<PoWi(lSS8). 

The  B.vttle  of  Ha.sti.nos  is  the  u.sual  name 
given  to  the  great  battle  at  Senlac,  near  Hastings, 
in  which  thelinglisli  under  King  Harold  were  com- 
pletely defeated  by  the  Norman  invadei-s  under 
\Villiani  the  ('oiii|ueror,  October  14,  1066.  Kroni 
that  fatal  day  until  now  the  place  luis  borne  the 
name  of  Battle  (q.v.).  Harold's  force  was  drawn 
chielly  from  the  southern  counties,  and  was  firmly 
posted  on  the  Hill  of  Senlac,  fortified  with  a  stockade- 
and  ditch.  The  Normans  were  arranged  in  three 
divisions,  the  centre  led  by  the  redoubtable  duke 
in  |)erson.  The  Norman  foot  began  the  battle,  and 
it  is  said  that  the  minstrel  Taillefer.  riding  in  front 
singing  the  Song  of  Uoland,  was  the  first  to  strike 
a  blow  and  the  first  to  fall.  The  Norman  foot 
spent  their  fury  in  vain  u])on  the  English  stockade, 
while  the  Bretons  on  the  Norman  left  wing  were 
ouickly  put  to  fiiglit.  A  cry  now  aro.se  tb.it  the 
iluke  was  slain,  and  o.^i-nic  quickly  sTircad  through 
out  the  army.  '1  live,'  shouted  Willi.-im,  as  he 
tore  oil  his  helmet,  '  and  by  (!od's  hcl|)  will  coiii|uer 
yet,"  and  led  on  his  men  anew  to  the  attai^k.  Not, 
however,  till  by  a  counterfeited  lliglit  he  had  drawn 
the  English  in  ea'ter  pursuit  from  their  strong 
position  was  he  able  to  ureak  their  line  and  obtain 
a  footing  on  the  high  ground  on  which  they  bad 
stood  so  stubbornly.  With  the  quick  eye  of  the 
true  soldier,  William  now  commanded  his  archers 


HASTINGS 


581 


to  slioiit  lii^'h  into  the  air  that  their  arrows 
rni<;ht  fall  from  above.  The  English  fell  quickly, 
their  shiehls  being  unable  to  protect  their  heads, 
and  the  king  was  soon  struck  down  by  an  arrow  in 
the  right  eye.  The  battle  was  now  lost,  but  the 
iiousecarls  fought  where  they  stood  till  the  last 
man  was  slain.  See  the  third  volume  of  Freeman's 
y<jrm(iH  Conquest. 

Hastings.  Francis  R awdox-Hastinos,  Mar- 
quis iiK,  (lovernorgeneral  of  India,  was  descended 
from  an  old  Anglo-Norman  family  settled  in  County 
Down,  Ireland,  and  was  born  on  9th  December  1754. 
Entering  the  army  in  1771,  he  was  engaged  in 
many  fif  the  chief  operations  of  the  w.ar  of  American 
independence,  lighting  at  Bunker  Hill,  in  Long 
Island  and  New  .lersey,  at  the  siege  of  Charleston, 
and  at  the  battles  of  Camden  and  Hobkirk's  Hill, 
and  attained  tlie  rank  of  adjutant-general  under 
Lord  Cornwall  is.  (Jn  his  leturn  home  he  wa.s 
created  (17)S3)  iiaron  Hawdon,  and  afterwards  be- 
came intimate  with  the  Prince  of  Wales.  A  year 
after  he  had  succeeded  his  father  as  Earl  of  Jloira  i 
he  carried  (1794)  an  army  corps  of  I0,()0<)  men 
across  to  Holland,  to  reinforce  the  Duke  of  York  ;  ; 
and  in  the  following  year  participated  in  the  attack 
fln  C^uiberon.  Under  the  Fox-Grenville  ministry 
lie  was  in  ISOfi  appointed  master-general  of  oi<j- 
nance  ;  and  he  tooK  an  active  part  in  politics  until 
his  appointment  to  the  governor-generalship  of 
Bengal  in  LSI.*?.  This  high  office  he  held  down  to 
lsi21.  The  most  nKUiientous  events  of  bis  adminis- 
tration were  the  w.'ir  against  the  brave  mountaineers 
of  Nepal,  tlie  tJoorkhas,  who  by  the  peace  of  1816 
were  converted  from  aggressive  enemies  into  the 
stauneliest  of  allies  ;  and  in  the  next  j'ear  the  wars 
ag.ainst  the  Pind^iris  and  the  Mahrattas,  both  of 
which  were  speedily  brought  to  a  successful  termin-  j 
ation,  with  the  result  that  a  large  addition  wa.s 
made  to  the  territories  of  the  East  India  Company. 
For  Ills  masterly  treatment  of  the  Goorkha  question 
Lord  Moira  was  created  .Marquis  of  Hastings  ( 1810). 
His  policy  in  India  included  the  encouragement  of 
native  education  and  of  the  freedom  of  the  press,  a 
reform  in  the  law  system,  and  the  elevation  of  the 
status  of  the  civil  service.  His  resignation  «'as 
caused  liy  imputations  levelled  against  his  public 
conduct  in  connection  with  tlie  att'airs  of  a  banking 
Mrm.  In  18'24,  the  year  after  his  return  home,  Lord 
Hastings  was  appointed  governor  of  Malta,  and  he 
lield  this  office  until  his  death,  at  Bai:e,  near  Naples, 
on  iSth  No\embcr  18'26.  See  his  Pru-ate  Journal, 
editeil  by  his  dangliter  (■2d  ed.  1858);  Prinsep's 
Adininistrritioti  of  the.  Marquis  of  Hasfiur/s  { 1825);  ' 
Asiatic  Journal  (I8'2.'Ji  ;  and  Ross's  monogi-ajih  in 
the  '  Rulers  of  India '  series  ( 1893). 

Hastings,  Warrex,  was  born  at  Churchill,  in 
Oxfordshire,  (itli  December  17.S2.  He  was  descended 
from  the  family  of  Il.istings  of  Daylesford,  but  the 
estate  liad  passed  out  of  tlie  family,  and  Hastings, 
who  was  early  left  an  orphan,  was  educated  at  tlie 
expense  of  an  uncle.  He  distinguished  himself  at 
Westminster  School,  where  he  was  contemporary  ' 
with  the  poets  Churchill  and  Cowper,  with  the 
future  Lord  Shelburiie,  and  with  Elijah  Impey 
(q.v. ).  [n  17.">0  he  went  out  in  the  Civil  Service 
of  the  East  India  Comiiany,  and  was  at  first  em- 
ployed in  the  secretariat  in  Calcutta.  Ho  was  up 
the  country  at  the  time  of  the  Black  Hole  aH'air, 
but  made  his  escape  and  joineil  the  refugees  at 
Falta  Chat,  where  he  marrieil  his  fii-st  wife:  she 
died  after  bearing  two  chililren,  who  lived  but  a 
few  years.  Ijcft  a  widower,  Hastings  returned  to 
England  in  1704,  where  he  spent  live  yeai's  an<I 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Dr  .Johnson.  In  1769 
he  returned  to  India  as  second-incouncil  at  Madras, 
and  in  177'2  proceeded  to  Bengal,  where  he  was 
liromoted    to    the   presidency    of    the    council.     A 


year  later  the  British  parliament  produced  the 
Regulating  Act,  under  which  Hastings  was  to  he 
governor-general  with  a  handsome  salary,  and  wa.s 
to  be  assisted  liy  a  council  of  four  members,  three 
appointed  from  home.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
trouble;  the  majority  in  council  led  by  Francis 
was  opposed  to  Hastings  from  the  first;  tlie  finances 
were  in  great  disorder,  the  ileniandsof  the  Company 
for  remittances  were  fre<iiient  and  urgent.  One  of 
Hastings'  first  tasks  was  to  bring  to  trial  the  chief 
fiscal  ministers  of  Bengal,  Riija  Sliatab  Rai  and 
Nawiib  Miihamad  Raza,  on  charges  of  malversa- 
tion and  embezzlement.  This,  though  done  under 
positive  orders  from  home,  proved  injurious  to 
Hastings'  popularity.  A  corrupt  and  treacherous 
official,  Nuncomar  (Raja  Nand  Kumar),  was  em- 
ployed in  conducting  the  ca,se;  and  when  it  broke 
down  all  three  became  his  enemies.  In  1775  Nun- 
comar was  tried,  sentenced, and  executed  forforgeiy, 
a  proceeding  which  threw  obloquy  on  Ha.stings  and 
on  the  chief-justice.  Sir  Elijah  Impey,  which  has 
been  much  dispelled  in  recent  times.  Among 
measures  of  domestic  reform,  Hastings  made  an 
appraisement  of  the  landed  estates  which  formed 
the  assets  of  a  great  portion  of  the  public  revenue, 
and  on  that  appraisement  based  a  revised  assess- 
ment. He  also  improved  the  administration  of 
justice  in  the  country  courts  and  organised  the 
opium  revenue.  In  his  external  policy  he  was  no 
less  energetic  and  original.  He  waged  vigorous 
war  with  the  Mahrattas,  and  made  the  Company's 
power  paramount  in  many  parts  of  India.  He  con- 
tractetl  advantageous  alliances  and  restored  the 
financial  position  of  the  Company.  All  this  was 
not  done  without  encountering  o]i]iosition  and 
censure.  In  1777  an  attempt  was  made  to  depose 
him,  on  the  strength  of  a  conditional  resignation 
which  he  had  sent  liome:  and  the  atteni|)t  was  only 
frustrated  by  the  action  of  the  Supreme  Court,  of 
which  Impey  was  still  chief-justice.  In  the  same 
year  Hastings  married  the  divorced  wife  of  Baron 
Iniholl,  a  German  officer.  In  1780  he  was  finally 
freed  from  emhanassment  by  the  oj)position  owing 
to  the  retirement  of  its  leader,  Philip  Francis,  whom 
he  wounded  in  a  duel. 

At  the  eiiil  of  1784  he  resigned  office  and  sailed 
for  England,  where  he  wjis  well  received  by  King 
<;eorge  III.,  but  soon  became  subject  to  a'parlia- 
nientary  inquiry,  Mith  a  view  to  impeachment. 
Into  the  details  of  the  charges  brought  against 
him  we  cannot  here  enter.  Among  the  chief  mis- 
deeds alleged  against  him  were  the  aid  that  he 
gave  to  his  ally  the  Nawab  of  Oudli  in  the  war 
agaiiist  the  Rohilla  Afghans,  his  punishment  of 
the  Zemindar  of  Benares  for  non-compliance  with  a 
demand  for  aid  in  the  fii-st  Mahratta  war,  and  his 
connivance  in  the  forfeiture  of  property — real  and 
personal — which  had  been  conferred  on  the  Begums 
or  dowager-|irincesses  of  dudli.  Charges  on  these 
subjects  were  preferred  by  the  Whig  opposition, 
and  Hastings,  being  deserted  by  Mr  Pitt,  was  im- 
peached at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords.  The 
trial  began  13th  February  1788  in  'Westminster 
Hall,  among  the  managers  for  the  Commons  being 
Edmund  Burke,  Fox,  Sheridan,  Elliott  (afterwards 
Lord  Minto),  and  Mr  (afterwards  Karl)Grey.  The 
early  sittings  were  numerously  attended,  and  the 
audience  was  rewarded  by  splendid  displays  of 
rhetoric;  but  the  ])ublic  interest  so(m  flagged.  It 
was  felt  by  those  persons  who  knew  or  eared  about 
the  matter  at  all  that  the  allegeil  errors  of  Hastings 
were  overbalanced  by  great  public  services.  He 
had  prevailed  in  war:  he  hail  left  Bengal  at  i>eace ; 
he  had  organised  the  ailministration  in  all  its 
branches ;  he  had  fostered  learning ;  above  all,  he 
had  founded  an  empire  which  no  one  thought  of 
abandoning.  The  trial  dragged  itself  through  more 
than  seven  yeai-s  and  nearly  150  sittings.     At  last, 


082 


HASTINGS    SANDS 


HAT 


on  the  '23cl  April  179o,  Hustings  was  ac(|uilte(l  <iii 
all  the  cliaijios,  ununiiiiDusly  «n  all  that  atlecteil 
Ills  |it'ix>iial  hoiiciiir.  Out  of  llic  i>ii;^'iiial  meniliuis 
who  had  ini-t  in  Westminster  Hall  when  Hastinj;s 
lirst  liowetl  his  knee  at  the  liar  hut  twentynine 
were  left  to  vote  for  the  linal  award  ;  the  remaining,' 
peers  stood  rouml  the  throne  its  spectators.  Hast- 
injrs  left  the  court  a  ruhicil  man,  the  small  fortune 
that  he  hron^'ht  from  India  having;  heen  quite  con- 
sumed in  the  expenses  of  the  cicfence.  Ihit  the 
Court  of  I)irectoi>i  came  to  his  aid  and  made  jiro- 
vision  for  his  declininj;  years.  Carryinj;  out  what 
is  said  to  have  liecn  an  iV«piration  of  his  youth, 
Hastin;,'s  lioii^ht  the  (dd  family  .seat  of  Daylesfoul, 
in  Worcestershire,  where  lie  passed  the  rest  of  his 
life  in  tlie  occupations  of  a  country  f;entlenian, 
v.iricil  hy  occasion.il  visits  to  Londoi;.  He  ^'avc 
evidence  heforc  parliamentary  commit  tees,  and  dined 
at  Carlton  House ;  the  princeregent  made  him  a 
privy-councillor  ;  and  he  received  honours  from  the 
city  and  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  He  died  at 
Daylesford,  '2"2il  Aufju.st  181S,  his  wife  survivinj; 
him.  In  his  hm;;  and  active  career  H.astin^'s 
showed  constant  ener;;y,  conrajje,  jud;,'ment,  and 
application.  In  his  private  life  he  was  jjentle  and 
unsellish.      He  left  no  children. 

See  01615*3  Memoirs  ( 3  vols.  1841 ) ;  Mill's  Historp  of 
India,  corrected  by  Wilson's  notes ;  Stephen's  Stojy  of 
X^uncumar :  Trotter's  liioiimjihii  (1878);  the  article  by 
the  present  writer  in  the  iJictionart/  of  Nutii'iKtl  Bio- 
l/rafihi/ ;  Lyall's  U'an'cn  Hnatiiiijs  (1889);  Strachey's 
Haslinija  and  Ihe  Rohila  ^Yar  (18'J2)  ;  Forrest's  Admin- 
istration of  Witrnn  Hastiwis  (18112);  Col.  Malluson's 
Life  of  Warren  Haatinya  (1894);  .-ind  Sir  C.  Lawson's 
PriicUc  Life  of  Warrin  Hustimjs  (1896);  Macaulay's 
cloiiuent  essay  is  untnistwortliy. 

Ilastins.S  Sands,  the  lower  division  of  the 
AVealden  beds,  part  of  the  Lower  Cretaceous  series. 
The  beils  consist  chielly  of  sand  and  sandsl(uie  with 
Euliordinate  layers  of  clay,  and  vary  in  thickness 
from  .jdO  to  1000  feet ;  and  the  gr<mp  embraces,  in 
descending  order:  (3)  Tunhridge  Wells  Sand,  (2) 
Waclhurst  Clay,  ( 1 )  Ashdown  Sand.  The  strata 
dill'er  very  little  from  those  of  the  overlying 
Weald  Clay,  except  in  being  more  arenaceou.s. 
The  beds  have  been  deposited  in  shallow  fresh 
water.  The  sand  often  exhibits  line  specimens  of 
ripple-marks,  and  the  clay  which  .separates  the 
saml-beds  sometimes  contains  cracks  that  have  been 
produced  by  the  drying  of  the  surface  on  ex])osure. 
The  strata  are  highly  fossiliferous.  There  are 
numerous  saurian  reptiles,  including  the  huge 
iguanodon  and  the  Hying  pteroilactyle.  The  re- 
mains of  several  chelonians  also  occur.  The  fish 
belong  chielly  to  the  ganoid  or  placoid  orders,  the 
nmst  remarkable  being  the  Icpidotus,  whose  conical 
palate  teeth  and  thick  souare  enamelled  scales  are 
very  freciuent.  The  shells  belong  to  genera  which 
inhabit  fresh  water,  such  as  Paludina,  Cvclas,  and 
L  nio. 

Ilsit,  the  principal  head-covering  of  the  human 
family,  distinguished  from  the  cap  m  bonnet  by 
having  a  brim  around  it.  The  history  of  the  hat  is 
of  necessity  intimately  mixed  up  with  that  of  head- 
coverings  generall.v,  the  distinctions  of  bonnets, 
hats,  and  caps  being  arbitrary  and  suliject  to  many 
variations  with  changing  fashion  (see  illustrations 
in  article  l''.vsiili>N' ).  The  hat,  as  a  rwiiny  brimmed 
head-covering,  is  th'' direct  descendant  of  tlie//('?o.v»A 
of  the  ancient  ( Jreeks,  which  was  distinguished  from 
the  other  CSrei^k  head-gear,  the  pilriis,  by  the  pos- 
.session  of  a  brim,  useful  for  ])rotecting  its  wearer 
from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  These  Greek  hats  were 
niaile  of  felt,  the  material  of  which  the  head-gear  of 
early  times  a|>pears  to  have  been  princijially  fabri- 
cated. The  Use  of  felted  hats  became  known  in 
Kngland  about  the  periml  of  the  Ncunian  conquest. 
The  merchant  in  Chaucer's  Prologue  to  the  Cuiitci- 


biiri/  Titles  is  described  as  having  'on  his  hcil  a 
tlauinlrish  bever  hat.'  About  the  period  of  t^ueen 
Kli/abeth  lieaver  felts  in  many  shapes  became 
common,  and  for  three  ciMituiies  thereafter  line 
beaver  hats,  mostly  tlyed  black,  formed  the  henil- 
covering  of  the  higher  clas-ses  in  (Ireat  Hritain. 
Hut  now,  thmigh  felt  hats  are  the  everyday  wear 
of  the  community,  there  is  no  longer  such  a  thing 
as  a  genuine  beaver  hat.     See  I'.KAVKli,  I'Kl.T. 

Hats  at  the  present  day  are  fashioneil  of  an  end- 
less variety  of  materials,  and,  es]ieciallv  in  the  ca.se 
of  those  worn  by  ladies,  thev  are  so  iliversilied  in 
foiin  that  they  defy  all  delinition.  Itut  with  all 
their  variations  three  principal  classes  of  Imtnninn- 
facture  may  be  distinguished,  comprised  uniler  the 
felt-bat,  the  silk-hat.  and  the  straw  hat  trades.  In 
the  felt-hat  traile,  the  materials  now  piincipally 
eni]doycil  are  the  fur  or  hair  of  rabbits,  with  smaller 
proportions  of  hare,  beaver,  musk-rat,  vicuna,  and 
camel  for  the  liner  felts;  and  sheep's  woid  for  the 
commoner  felted  hats.  Felt  hats  of  inferior  (piality 
are  also  made  with  wool  mixed  with  cotton  and 
other  vegetable  libres — not  in  reality  felted,  but 
cemented  by  varnish  which  is  used  at  once  to  hold 
together  the  llbrcs  and  to  stillen  the  hat  body.  In 
the  felting  of  rabbit,  hare,  and  other  fui's,  a  'bat' 
is  first  formed,  which  consists  of  an  expandeil  cone 
of  equally  distributed  hbres  in  quantitv  sullicient 
to  form  the  desired  hat.  To  make  this  'bat,'  a 
]ierforated  cone  of  sheet  co|>pir  is  caused  to  revolve 
slowly  over  a  funnel  under  whiih  there  is  a  pinver- 
ful  blast  drawing  air  inwards  tlirough  the  holes  in 
the  copper  cone.  I'ur  is  fed  towards  and  drawn 
over  the  surface  of  the  cone  in  an  equal  manner  by 
the  suction,  and  is  so  held  in  position  till  a  siiMi- 
cieiit  ((uantity  to  form  the  hat  is  uniforiiily  distrib- 
uted over  it.  A  wet  cloth  is  then  wrapped  .iroiind 
the  imuss,  over  which  an  outer  cone  is  >lip|>id,  ,iiid 
the  whole  then  dipped  into  an  aciilulated  bath  of 
hot  water,  and  by  pressure  the  lirst  stajre  of  felting — 
making  the  bat  cohere — is  secured.  The  subsequent 
operations  are  the  same  in  making  both  fur  and 
woollen  felts.  In  the  felting  of  wool  for  hats  the 
bat  is  formed  from  carded  wool  wound  diagon- 
ally round  a  double  cone,  which  gives  two  bats. 
These  are  subjected  to  the  usual  operations  of  felt- 
ing till  a  sullicient  consistency  of  felt  is  obtained. 
The  hats  are  thereafter  roughly  blocked  on  a  iiKUild 
to  .something  of  their  ultimate  f<u'ni,  then  dyeil, 
and  when  hard  felts  are  to  be  made  they  are  stitf- 
ened  with  a  varnish  of  shellac.  They  are  then 
shaped  on  a  block,  smoothed  with  sand-iiaper, 
bound,  lined,  and  linished.  The  principal  supply 
of  rabbit  fur  tor  felting  is  obtained  in  Fnince  anil 
IJelgium  from  ilomestic  rabbits,  hundreds  of  millions 
being  in  these  countries  annually  killed  as  articles 
of  food  and  for  the  fur  they  yield. 

The  manufacture  of  silk  iiats  as  a  substitute  for 
piled  beavers  Wius  lirst  attempted  about  1810,  but  it 
was  not  till  bS.'iO  that  silk  plush  hats  were  success- 
fully made  in  France.  The  silk  hat  consists  of  a 
body  and  rini,  usually  made  of  two  or  three  layers 
of  cotton  cloth  saturated  with  varnishes,  to  give  the 
fabric  stillness  and  make  it  waterproof.  Tliese  are 
moulded  on  wooden  blocks  according  to  the  fiishion 
of  the  day  ;  and  when  the  desired  shape  is  prorluced 
the  whole  is  carefully  varnished  over  with  lac  and 
dammar  varnish,  and  befrue  <lr,v  the  tine  silk  plush 
is  ajiplied  with  great  nicety,  so  as  to  luevent  the 
seams  lieing  perceived.  It  is  then  trimine<l  with 
silk  braid  on  the  edge  of  the  brim,  and  a  silken  band 
round  the  junction  of  the  body  with  the  brim  :  and 
the  lining  of  leather  and  thin  silk  being  put  in,  it 
is  complete.  (Jpera-hats  or  crush-hats  consist  of  a 
covering  of  merino  stretched  over  a  sjiiral  steel 
frame,  which  by  pressure  flattens  down,  .so  that 
thev  can  be  easily  carried. 

The  manufacture  of  straw  hats,  which  forms  an 


HATCH 


HATTO 


583 


entirely  distinct  branch  of  the  liat  trade,  will  be 
dealt  with  under  Straw-plait  (q.v.).  In  the  United 
Kin^'iloni  the  felt-hat  trade  is  princiiially  centred 
at  Denton  and  other  villages  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Manchester.  In  the  year  1888  there  were  ex- 
porteil  from  the  United  Kingdom  1,331,6'27  dozen 
hats  of  all  kinds,  valued  at  £1,'25'2,017. 

Hat<*ll«  Edwin,  a  learned  theologian,  born  at 
Derby,  4th  September  1835.  He  was  eclucate<l  at 
King"  Edward's  School,  Birmingham,  and  at  Fern- 
broke  College,  Oxford,  and  took  a  second-class  in 
classies  in  18.57-  After  some  years  of  teaching  as 
lirofe.ssor  of  Classics  at  Trinity  College,  Toronto, 
and  rector  of  Quebec  High  Scliool,  he  returned 
to  O.Kford  as  vice-principal  of  St  Mary  Hall  in 
1867,  a  post  which  lie  held  till  his  resignation  in 
188o.  He  was  appointed  rector  of  Purlei^h,  Essex, 
in  1883,  and  next  year  reader  in  Ecclesiastical 
History  at  Oxford.  The  GrinlieUl  lectureship  on 
the  Septuagint  he  held  from  1880  to  1884.  His 
articles  on  such  heads  as  '  Ordination,"  '  Priest,'  &c., 
in  Smith  and  Cheetham's  Dictionary  of  Christian 
Antiquities,  had  already  attracted  wide  attention, 
when  his  profoundly  learned  and  admirably  argued 
Hampton  Lectures,  in  1880,  on  The  Organisation 
of  the  Early  Christian  Churches,  Hrmly  establislied 
his  reputation  both  in  Englanil  and  (Jermany  as 
one  of  the  ablest  and  best-equipped  theologians  of 
the  time.  The  book  struck  a  blow  at  the  roots  of 
High  Church  claims,  and  proved  to  be  more  easily 
denounced  than  answered.  It  had  the  honour  to 
be  translateil  by  Harnack.  In  1888  he  delivered  a 
course  of  Hiljbert  Lectures  on  Greek  Influence  on 
Chri.stiunitii.  Hatch  was  made  D.D.  I)y  Edinburgh 
in  ISS.'i;  published  in  1887  The  Urou-'th  of  Church 
Institutions,  a  profoundly  learned  book,  though 
written  in  a  bright  and  popular  style ;  Essays  in 
Biblical  Greek  in  1889  ;  and  had  made  considerable 
progress  with  his  projected  Concordance  to  the  Sc/i- 
tuayint  when  his  career  was  cut  short  by  untimely 
death,  at  Oxford,  10th  November  1889.  A  collection 
of  noble  religious  poetry,  Toicards  Fields  of  Lirjht 
(1889),  and  a  volume  of  striking  sermons,  the  God 
of  Hope  (1890),  appeared  posthumously,  the  latter 
with  a  brief  biographical  sketch  by  his  brother. 
See  Dr  Sanday  in  the  Expositor  for  February  1890. 

Hatdiiiig.    See  Incubation,  Poultry. 

Hatcliinent,  Achievement,  or  Funer.\l 
EscuTciiEUN,  the  arms  of  a  deceased  person  within 
a  black  lozenge-shaped  frame  meant  to  be  placed 
on  the  front  of  his  house.  If  the  decease<l  was 
unmarrieil  or  a  widower  or  widow  the  whole  field 
of  the  escutcheon  is  black.     In  the  hatchment  of  a 

married  jjerson  only 
that  part  is  black 
which  adjoins  the 
side  of  it  occupied  by 
the  arms  of  the  de- 
ceaseil.  Thus,  in  the 
hatchment  of  a  hus- 
liand  the  dexter  side 
is  black,  the  sinister 
white  ;  in  that  of  a 
wife  the  reverse. 
The  olil  funeral  es- 
cutcheon of  Scotland, 
similarly  to  that  of 
Germany,  liad  the 
seize  quartiers  of  the 
decea.sed  arranged 
round  his  personal  amis,  and  in  strictness  no 
one,  unless  his  ancestore  on  even'  side  uj)  to  four 
generations  had  armorial  ri>dits,  was  entitled  to  a 
funeral  escutcheon.  Escutcheons  of  this  kind  are 
now  selilom  seen  even  in  Scotland.  The  black 
frame  is  sometimes  powdered  «ith  drops  to  repre- 


Hatchment  of  Husband. 


sent  tears,  and  the  skull  and  cross-bone.s  at  the 
corners  are  hardly  out  of  use. 

Hatfield,  or  Bishoi'.s  Hatfield,  a  market- 
town  of  Hertfordshire,  18  miles  NNW.  of  London 
by  rail.  There  exist  a  few  scanty  remains  of  the 
I'ith-century  palace,  once  the  property  of  the 
bishops  of  Ely,  but,  together  with  the  manor, 
seized  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  successively  tlie  resi- 
dence of  that  king,  of  Edward  VI.  and  Queen  Eliza- 
lieth  before  their  accession,  and  of  James  I.  Hat- 
field House,  the  seat  of  the  Maripiis  of  SalisbuiT, 
was  built  by  Sir  Robert  Cecil  in  1611,  and  is  a  fine 
specimen  of  Jacobean  architecture,  rich  in  portraits 
and  historical  manuscripts.  Pop.  of  parisli  ( 1851 ) 
3862 ;  ( 1891 )  4330.  See  a  fine  account  of  its  history 
in  Brewer's  English  Studies  ( 1881 ). 

Hatfield  Cha.se,  a  fenny  tract  of  land  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  lying  between  the  Trent 
and  Doncaster,  some  180,000  acres  in  extent, 
which  has  been  drained,  and  is  now  cultivated. 
See  The  Level  of  Hatfield  Chace,  by  John  Tomlin- 
son  (1882). 

Hatlierler,  SirAVilliam  Pace  Wood,  Baron, 
Lord  Chancellor  of  Great  Britain,  was  born  in 
London  in  1801,  and  educated  at  AA'inchester, 
ami  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  subsequently 
called  to  the  bar.  He  was  returned  in  1847  as 
Liljeral  member  for  (Jxford,  in  18,')1  was  appointed 
solicitor-general  and  knighted,  in  1853  became 
vice-chancellor,  in  1868  a  lord  justice  in  the 
.-Vppeal  Court  and  lord  chancellor,  lieing  at  the 
same  time  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Hatherley. 
His  name  is  associated  with  a  Bankruptcy  Act  of 
1869.  He  resigned  oflice  in  187"2  in  ccmsequence 
of  failing  eyesight,  and  died  on  10th  July  1881. 
From  his  pen  came  Truth  and  its  Counterfeits 
(1857)  and  The  Continuity  of  Scripture  (1867-69). 
See  Memoir  hyV:.  R.  W.  Stephens  ( 1882). 

Hattaor,  the  name  of  an  Egyptian  goddess, 
ranked  among  the  second  class  of  tleities,  wlio  was 
tlie  daughter  of  Ra,  the  sun.     See  Egypt. 

Hatlira.S,  a  well-built  town  of  India,  in  the 
North-west  Provinces,  21  miles  S.  of  .Aligarh.  It 
is  the  commercial  centre  for  the  Upjier  Doab,  and 
has  a  large  export  trade  in  sugar,  grain,  cotton,  oil- 
seeds, and  ghi,  and  imports  iron  and  metal-wares, 
cloth,  \c.  The  delicate  carved  work  of  the  town 
is  famous.     Pop.  ( 1891 )  39,181. 

H^tilU  et-Ta"i  was  chief  of  the  Arabian  tribe 
of  Tai,  ami  flourished  shortly  before  the  advent 
of  Mohammed.  He  was  renowned  for  his  extra- 
ordinary liberality,  and  his  name  is  at  the  present 
day  synonymous  throughout  the  Moslem  world 
with  all  that  is  open-handed  and  generous.  No 
greater  compliment,  indeed,  can  be  paid  to  an 
.Asiatic  prince  or  noble  than  to  style  him  '  a  second 
H;itim.'  Many  anecdotes  of  his  liberality  and 
magnanimity  are  recounted  by  poets  ;  thus  Sa'di 
.says  :  '  Hatim  Tai  no  longer  exists,  but  his  exalted 
name  will  remain  famous  iov  virtue  to  eternity. 
Distribute  a  tithe  of  your  wealth  in  alms,  for  when 
the  husbandman  lops  off  the  exuberant  branches 
from  the  vine  it  produces  an  increase  of  grapes.' 
See  Clouston's  Group  of  Eastern  liomanees  ( 1889). 

Hattcras,  Cape,  a  low  noint  of  North  Caro- 
lina, forming  part  of  a  -sandbank,  in  35^  15'  N. 
lat.  and  75"  31'  W.  long.  The  coast-line  here 
turns  from  the  direction  of  north-ea-st  to  tluit  of 
due  north  ;  \iolent  storms  are  frequent  and  render 
navigation  dangerous,  and  the  island  is  marked  by 
a  light  raised  190  feet  above  the  sea. 

Hatti  Sherif.    See  Fhimax. 

HattO,  the  name  of  two  archbishops  of  Mainz, 
who  have  a  somewhat  conspicuous  jdace  in  the 
history  of  (Jermany.  The  first  of  these  Wiis  chosen 
.Vrchbishop  of  Mainz  in  891,  and  died  in  913. — The 


684 


HATTON 


HAUNTED    HOUSES 


Rccoiiil  airlilii-ilioii  of  tliat  name  >vas  a  monk  of  tlic 
monastcrv  of  Kulila,  ami  sviccoeilol  the  celetirateil 
Haliaiiiis  Maiiius,  well  known  in  the  history  of  the 
eiicliari>^tir  controversies,  as  alihot  of  the  nionivstery 
of  St  IJonifare,  about  the  year  i)4"2.  In  the  second 
expeilition  of  the  Kinperor  t)tho  I.  into  Italy  in  9G1 
Hatto  w.Ls  sent  as  his  anihassailor  from  1  avia  to 
Koine  ;  ami  after  his  return,  on  the  ilealh  of  Arch- 
liishop  AVilliam,  he  was  raiseil  to  the  see  of  Mainz, 
anil  continue<I  one  of  the  chief  ilirectoi's  of  the 
imi)erial  ccninsels.  Of  his  afterlife  and  of  his 
pei^sonal  character  the  most  opposite  accounts  have 
tieen  {fiven.  I!y  some  he  is  represented  as  a  zealous 
reformer,  and  an  upri^dit  and  successful  adminis- 
trator; liy  others  as  a  seKisli  and  hard-liearteil 
opjiressor  of  the  poiu' ;  and  the  stran},'e  Icj^end  of 
Ills  lieinj;  devoured  liy  rats,  which  Southey  has 
perpetuateil  in  his  wellkin)wn  ballail,  is  represented 
as  an  eviilence  of  the  estimate  that  was  popularly 
formed  re^'anlin;;  him.  It  is  by  no  means  iniiirob- 
able,  however,  tiiat  this  le^'end  is  of  a  much  later 
date,  and  that  its  real  origin  is  to  be  traced  to  tlic^ 
equivocal  desij^nation  of  the  tower  on  the  Uhine, 
Alaiisethurm,  near  15inj,'en,  which  liius  been  selected 
as  the  scene  of  the  occurrence.  Miiiixethurm, 
'  Mouse-tower,'  is  possilily  only  a  corrupted  form  of 
Maiithtliiiiiii,  '  Toll-tower,'asulliciently  descriptive 
name;  but  the  modilieil  form  of  the  wonl  mi'dit 
readily  suKf,'cst  a  le^'etnl  of  mice  or  rats.  AnotTier 
etynioloj:y  is  from  iiiiiseric,  an  old  word  fcu'  ord- 
nance. The  ilate  at  which  the  Maiisethurm  was 
built  is  unknown,  and  it  is  far  from  certain  that 
it  is  not  much  later  than  the  time  of  Hatto.  It 
was  stormed  by  the  Swedes  in  16:J5.  Archbishop 
Hatto  died  in'  !l6n  or  970.  See  RariuK-Ciould, 
Citrious  .Mi/thx  uflhr  Miihllc  Af/r.s  (1S09),  and  Max 
Heheim,  />/<■  M:iiisrtl,iinn-s(i<jc  '(18S,S). 

Ilnttoil,  dcilix  I.iiTROT,  a  self-educated  musi- 
cal comjio-scr,  wivs  born  at  Liverpool  in  1,S()9,  and, 
settlin}^  in  London  in  1832,  soon  made  his  name 
known  as  a  ooni])oser.  From  ISo.'J  to  1S.')9  he 
was  nnisical  director  of  the  I'rince-ss's  Theatre. 
He  composed  numerous  operas,  c;intatas,  overtures, 
entr'actes,  i"Cc. ,  but  is  remendjered  chielly  for  his 
musical  settings  of  Kurdish  son'^s,  such  as  '(iood- 
bye,  .Sweetheart,'  "The  Tar's  Soii^','  'When  Even- 
ing's Twili^dit,' '  The  liait,'  'To  .\nlhea,'&c.  He 
died  at  Margate  on  'iOlh  Seiitember  IS,S6. 

Ilatzrdd  (Hung,  y.somhohja),  a.  town  of  Hun- 
gary, 211  ndles  by  rail  W.  of  Temesvar.     I'op.  8621. 

llaillH'i'k.     See  .VliMOfR. 

Ilillich.  Il.vxs  (:.\u.sTi:x,  Danish  poet,  was  born 
at  Freilerikshald,  in  Norway,  I2tli  >lay  17!K).  His 
fii'st  attempts  in  literature  being  unsuccessful,  he 
began  to  study  natural  history;  but  in  1841!  w;us 
appointed  to  th(?  chair  of  Northern  Literature  in 
the  university  of  Kiel.  Two  years  later  the  II(d- 
stein  revolution  drove  him  back  to  Copenh.igen  ; 
and  on  the  death  of  his  friend  Oehlenschliiger,  in 
1850,  he  succeeded  him  in  the  chair  of  .Ksthetics  at 
the  university  there,  and  held  it  down  to  his  <leath, 
at  Home,  4th  .M.irch  1872.  Hauch's  ri|ier  and  more 
successful  works  end)race  nine  historical  tragedies, 
all  written  between  IS2S  and  18.">0,  in  which  he 
exhibits  great  powers  of  individualising  character 
and  portraying  the  local  colouring  of  Ids  scenes  ; 
Lyri.sl.c  Dif/tc  (  1S42.  I8(i2,  and  18t;9),  some  of  which 
are  extremely  beautiful,  ami  enjoy  an  undisputed 
popularity  in  Denmark;  and  nlany  tales  and 
romances,  \c.  His  eiiic  ilramatic  ]»ieni  Jfamrir/i;/- 
adeii  (I8;{1()  met  with  warm  apjireciatiiui  in  (ier- 
niany.  At  Copenhagen  there  appeared  in  1873-75 
Haucli  s  .'imiiliilr  Umiunirr  ixi  Viiriiillinrfrr. 

llailfT,  WlI.HKl.M.  (Jernian  writer,  was  born  at 
Stuttgart,  29tli  Noveiidier  1802,  and  wa-s  eilucated 
at  Tiibingen.  He  acted  for  a  couple  of  years  as 
private  tutor,  and  had  been  editor  of  the  .1/orjfc«- 


hhitt  for  about  tliree-i|uartei-s  of  a  year  when  he 
dieil,  18th  November  1827.  Although'  only  twenty- 
live  at  the  time  of  his  death,  HauMlias  left  behind 
him  works  which  have  taken  a  permanent  place 
in  Ciernnin  literature;  he  has  even  become  well 
kiKiwn  of  late  years,  through  several  translatiims 
and  editions  of  his  best  books,  in  (Jreat  Britain. 
This  reputation  is  due  to  his  Miinhot  or  fairy- 
tales (1S2()28)  and  his  Tiihs  (1828),  all  alike 
admirable  for  their  frcshne.ss,  siinjdicity,  ami  ]>lay- 
ful  fancy.  Two  of  the  latter,  tiie  lirlllniii  vom 
J'iDit  (A'.v  Ait.i  and  Ikrs  liilil  tics  Kiiiscrs,  may 
be  regarded  as  his  masterpieces.  The  greatest 
etfort  of  his  playful  fancv  was,  however,  the  exhil- 
arating I'lidiitiisini  iiii  lireinrii  Ji(it/ix/.r/li  r  {\S-2~ ). 
Some  of  his  poems,  of  which  he  only  wrote  a  few, 
have  become  rolk.ilieder.  All  these  works  were 
but  short;  his  longest  productions  were  none  of 
them  .so  succcssfid.  The  romance  of  I.lrlitcii.slcin 
( 1826),  although  popular  in  (iernuiny,  owing  to  its 
local  fidelity  and  its  being  almost  the  lirst  historical 
novel  written  in  (n'rinan  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  style, 
reveals  several  defects  when  tested  as  ji  work  of  art. 
His  earliest  lengthy  work,  Mniiiiirni  (/r.t  .Siilaiis 
(1826-27),  is  an  incomplete  and  immature  produc- 
tion, but  full  of  promi.se  as  an  example  of  satiric 
humour.  In  the  same  vein  Haull'  wrote  a  parody 
of  Clauren  in  Dcr  Miimi  iin  Mmitlr  (182(>),  and 
an  earnest  satire  against  him  in  Kniilrunrsjiii  iliijt 
(l82ti).  W\s  Sdmiiitliilic  Wtrhf  were  ]>ublislied  by 
(!.  Schwab  in  5  vols,  in  I8.-J0  ( 18tli  ed.  1882). 

Hail!;.  M.MtTIX,  S.anskrilist,  born  .'fOih  .lanuary 
1820,  near  Italingen,  in  Wiirtemberg,  was  professor 
at  I'oona  fnuii  18.')9  to  1800,  and  iit  Mniuch  from 
1868  till  his  death,  3d  .Mine  1870.  He  wrote  on  the 
I'ehlevi  language,  and  (Ui  the  Itig-veda,  and  Essays 
on  the  Stiirctl  Laiii/uaf/c,  H'ntinf/.i,  mid  lieliqion  of 
l/ic  Pdisccs  {\S62). 
IlailksiMM'.  See  ILwvKsrtEE. 
llaiill><»wliiir.  See  Cork. 
Ilaillltod  lloiisrs  in  former  times  were  very 
common  in  every  corner  of  Kngl.iml  and  Scothind, 
and  many  persistent  traditions  desi'emled  of  uni|uiet 
spirits  who  were  doomeil  to  haunt  for  ever  the  spot 
on  which  they  h.ad  wrought  or  sutl'ereil  some  deed 
of  blood.  Dim  shadows  of  earthly  fcuins,  they  con- 
tinued into  their  ghostly  existence  the  f<uiu  and 
as]iect  that  they  wore  in  life,  and  the  gaping  and 
bleciling  wounds  of  murder  froze  the  heart  of  the 
beholder  from  age  to  age.  Shrieks,  waitings, 
wringing  of  the  hands,  kiiockings,  infernal  curses 
and  blasphemies  — such  were  some  of  the  .accessory 
hornu-s  that  the  popular  imagination  cast  around 
these  ghostly  creations,  of  whom  many  continued  to 
possess,  but  in  intensified  form,  all  the  power  and 
disposition  to  evil  which  had  belonged  to  them  in 
life.  These  unquiet  spirits  could  s(uni'times  be 
/iiif/,  or  coniiielled  to  rest  finally  in  thinr  graves, 
lU'  the  lied  Se;i,  liy  the  exercitalions  of  clergymen 
of  pre-eminent  piety,  who  often  contrived  to  exor- 
ci.se  them  by  p.ossing  a  night  of  se\ere  religious 
exercises  alone  in  the  haunted  chamber  or  house. 
I  The  inevitable  decline  of  belief  in  the  supernatural 
hiis  sweid  away  almost  all  onr  ilome-lic  ghosts, 
'  s|)ite  of  the  I'special  proneness  of  the  piqiular  imag- 
'  ination  to  this  kind  of  belief.  Of  the  haunted 
,  houses  of  Scotland,  past  or  jiresent,  none  are  more 
famous  than  (Jlamis  Ca.stle,  Cortachy  Castle,  and 
S])edlins  Tower;  no  local  ghosts  were  more  |ier- 
sistent  than  those  that  haunted  Newton  Castle, 
Huntingtower,  Allanbank,  AVoodliousidee.  and  Kin- 
haven.  In  England,  among  the  most  striking  cases 
are  Corby  Castle  with  its  'radiant  boy,'  I'eel  Castle 
with  its  '  .M.authe  Dog,'  Ashley  Hall,  Skipsea 
Castle,  Hilton  Castle  with  its  '  Cauld  Lad,'  Hol- 
land House,  Hainham  Hall  with  its  •  (Jray  Ladv,' 
Thai-ston   Hall,    Newstead   Abbey,    Powis   Castle, 


HAUPT 


HA  USER 


ySo 


ami  Caistor  Castle,  roiind  the  couityanl  of  which 
drives  every  year  a  ghostly  caniage  drawn  liy  four 
headless  horses.  No  less  rich  in  stories  of  haunted 
houses  are  Ireland,  Wales,  Brittany,  and  (u-rniany, 
and  no  stories  of  this  class  are  more  weird  and 
gruesome  than  the  examples  in  tlie  folklore  of 
llussia.  JSpectral  animals  as  well  !is  men  and 
strange  lights  were  seen  at  some  i)la<'.es,  and  there 
are  authentic  stories  of  undignified  a]>])aritions  of 
whose  presence  mortals  were  made  aware  by  their 
sense  of  smell.  The  'Shuck  Dog'  of  Norfolk  is  of 
large  size  and  black  colour,  \nth  great  yellow 
eyes,  anil  brings  .sure  death  to  any  one  be  meets. 
Sometimes,  however,  he  is  hea<lless,  or  with  but 
one  blazing  eve  in  the  centre  of  his  forehead..  In- 
deed, the  wliole  subject  of  spectral  aiii)aritions 
opens  up  a  large  chapter  in  po|>ular  demonology, 
which  has  been  somewhat  grotesquely  overlaid  with 
the  theological  conception  of  the  devil. 

Countless  stories,  old  and  new,  are  told  of  spirits 
that  have  at  various  times  infested  houses  to  the 
terror  of  their  earthly  inmates.  Of  these  classical 
e.vamples  are  those  connected  with  Tedwortli,  testi- 
fied to  by  Joseph  Glanvill,  and  with  Epworth 
Rectory,  on  the  still  less  impeachable  evidence  of 
.lobn  Wesley.  An  interesting  modem  e.xanjple  of 
bow  stories  of  this  kind  can  be  manufactured  even 
in  our  day,  out  of  hearsay  and  third-hand  state- 
ments, is  that  of  the  haunted  house  in  Berkeley 
Square,  which  seeius  to  have  received  its  poi)U- 
larity  and  fame  from  being  identified  through  some 
accidental  circumstances  as  the  scene  of  a  similar 
story  related  in  Temple  Bar  for  1868  by  Khoila 
IJroughton  of  a  house  in  the  country.  Tho.se  who 
are  sutliciently  interested  can  follow  the  growth, 
if  not  the  actual  genesis,  of  the  story  in  a  series 
of  communications  to  iVo^cs  and  Queries,  sixth 
series,  vols.  ii.  and  iii. 

See  the  article  App.VRITIONS  and  the  books  enumerated 
there  ;  and  particularly  Joliu  H.  Ingram'.s  HatinUd  Homcf! 
of  tjriuit  Britaitt  (18S4),  and  the  Proce€i.linii»  of  the 
hiocioty  for  Psychical  -Research,  instituted  in  1882. 

Ilaiipt*  MoRlTZ,  a  Germanist  and  cla.ssical 
.scholar,  was  born  at  Zittau,  '27th  July  1808,  was 
professor  at  Leipzig  from  1843  to  I8.i0,  and  from 
18.1.S  in  Berlin.  He  was  secretaiy  to  the  academy 
there,  and  died  5th  Febniary  1874.  He  edited 
sever.d  Latin  cla.ssics  (Ovid,  Horace,  iV'c. ),  and 
many  Middle  High  German  poems. 

Haiipur.  a  town  of  India,  in  the  North-west 
Provinces,  IS  miles  S.  of  Meerut.     Pop.  13,000. 

Ilaiiraki.  a  gulf  and  a  gold-bearing  peninsula 
of  New  Zealand,  opposite  Auckland  (q.v.). 

Ilaiircin  (anc  Auranitis),  a  large  district  in 
Syria,  east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  The  name  is 
sometimes  restricted  to  one  fertile  plain  there. 
See  B.V.SHAN  ;  and  works  by  Schumacher  (1886), 
Conder,  I'almcr,  Stubel,  and  Heber-Percy  (189.")). 

llaur«'-ail.  Je.v.n-  B.^rthelemv  (181'2-96),  his- 
torian, was  born  in  Paris,  ami  held  posts  in  the 
National  Library  and  the  National  Printing  Ollice. 
He  wrote  on  i'oland,  Francis  I.,  Charlemagne, 
St  Victor,  &c.,  but  is  best  known  by  his  great 
Nix/oire  fie  Id  Philosophic  Scolnsfique  ( 1872-81  I. 

Ilaiiscr<  K.\SP.\R,  a  German  youth,  whose  his- 
tory, enshrouded  in  many  elements  of  mystery, 
excited  the  attention  of  all  Europe  and  especially 
of  Cermany.  On  the  afternoon  of  '26th  M.av  1828 
a  citizen  of  Nuremberg  observed  a  youth,  a))par- 
ently  .-ibout  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  of  age, 
dresseil  as  a  pea-sant,  leaning  against  a  wall  in  tlie 
market-pl.ace,  and  evidently  in  distre-^s.  But  he 
was  unable  to  give  any  account  of  himself;  he 
could  only  utter,  parrot-like,  a  few  incoherent 
words,  to  the  eti'ect  that  be  want<>d  to  be  a  cavalry 
soldier.  In  his  hand  he  bore  a  letter  addressed  to 
an  oliicer  in  the  town.     The  letter  purported  to  be 


written  liy  an  illiterate  workman,  who  said  that 
the  boy  had  been  deposited  at  his  door  an  infant 
by  some  one  unknown,  and  that  he  had  brought 
him  up,  but  in  strict  seclusion.  Enclosed  in  the 
letter  was  another,  pretending  to  have  been  i)enned 
by  the  mother  of  the  youtli,  but  written  by  the 
same  hand  and  at  the  same  time,  stating  that  she, 
a  poor  gdrl,  had  given  birth  t<i  a  babe  on  30tb  April 
1812,  that  his  name  was  Kaspar,  and  that  his 
father,  then  ilead,  bad  been  a  soldier.  The  youth's 
mind  was  totally  blank,  not  from  idiotcy,  but 
because  he  had  had  no  education  whatever,  and  be 
was  utterly  ignorant  of  the  commonest  experiences 
of  everyday  life.  His  behaviour  wa.s  that  of  a  little 
child.  He  loathed  all  food  except  bread  and  water. 
The  sounds,  sights,  and  odours  of  the  common 
world  about  him  all  caused  him  great  pain.  His 
sen.ses  were  altogether  unu.seil  to  them,  or  rather 
they  were  such  only  as  would  be  foun<l  in  one 
who  bad  lived  without  using  them,  or  had  lived 
as  he  had  done  in  a  state  of  complete  darkness  and 
complete  solitude. 

Some  time  afterwards,  when  his  senses  and 
liLs  mind  began  to  he  schooled,  he  was  able  to 
give  the  following  account  of  his  former  existence. 
As  long  as  he  cotild  remember  he  had  lieen  in 
a  hole  or  cage,  too  small  for  him  to  re.st  in  any 
other  posture  than  seated  on  the  ground  witli 
his  legs  stretched  straight  out  before  him.  His 
only  clothing  had  been  a  pair  of  trousers  and  a 
shirt.  He  had  never  seen  the  stin  nor  heard  sound 
of  the  outer  world.  Food — bread  and  water — was 
always  supplied  to  him  whilst  he  shqit,  and  some- 
times he  was  made  to  sleep  by  'nasty  stull'  (laud- 
an\im)put  in  the  water.  He  had  spent  his  time 
playing  with  two  toy  horses.  He  was  attended  to 
by  'a  man,'  who  at  last  taught  him  to  write  a 
little,  and  to  stand  and  to  walk  ;  and  tinally  'the 
man "  had  put  shoes  on  his  feet  and  hail  brought 
him  to  Nuremberg  by  night,  and,  ]dacing  the  letter 
in  his  hand,  had  disappeared.  The  town  author- 
ities eventually  decided  to  adopt  this  strange  and 
forlorn  being  thus  nivsteriously  brought  to  them. 
But  ab(mt  lifteen  months  later,  on  17th  October 
18'29,  he  was  found  bleeding  from  a  wound  in  the 
forehead,  which,  he  said,  had  been  inflicted  by 
'  the  man.'  But  this  iiulividual  could  not  be  found, 
nor  even  any  trace  of  him.  Meanwhile  attempts 
were  being  made  to  educate  the  untutored  youth, 
and  to  civilise  hint.  At  first  he  showed  a  keen 
thirst  for  knowledge,  marvellous  powers  of  memory, 
and  wonderful  quickness  in  apprehension  ;  hut  ius 
his  body  began  to  grow  rapidly,  his  mind,  which 
had  apparently  been  early  checked  in  its  growth, 
soon  reached  the  full  measure  of  its  expansion  and 
development.  Crowds  of  the  curious  iiad  at  lirst 
flocked  to  .see  the  strange  boy,  and  visitors  to  the 
city  still  came  to  visit  him.  .\niongst  these  was 
the  eccentric  Lord  Stanhope,  who  conceive<l  a 
sudden  fancy  for  Kasjiar  and  adopted  him,  sending 
him  to  .\nsbach  to  be  educated.  But,  as  his 
mental  development  had  snflered  an  arrest,  so  now 
his  moral  character  began  to  deteriiuate  :  and  he 
was  being  gradually  forgotten,  when  <ui  Uth 
December  1833  he  sudilenly  burst  into  the  house, 
bleeding  from  a  woun<l  in  his  side,  which  he  said 
had  been  dealt  him  by  '  the  man,'  who  on  this 
occasion  too  conhl  not  be  discovered.  Three  days 
later  Kasjiar  Hauser  died.  Beyond  these  facts 
nothing  more  is  known  about  him.  Owing  to  the 
many  inconsistencies  in  his  story  and  the  mystery 
surrounding  him,  many  have  regarded  him  as  an  art- 
ful iiupostm-,  and  believe  that  he  died  an  involun- 
tary suicide.  Others,  again,  h.oked  upon  him  a-s 
the  victim  of  a  hideous  crime,  and  believed  that  he 
was  of  noble  birth,  .some  indeed  (since  18.34)  mak- 
ing him  out  to  have  been  heir  to  the  throne  of 
Baden.     But   in    1875   the  government   of    Baden 


58(J 


HAUSSA 


HAVEL 


tlispioN eil  the  iiii|iiilali(m  l).v  clocuini-iitiiiy  evidence. 
Set-  Eliz.  li.  Evmiss  monojjiapli  (1892). 

Ilaiis.sa.  or  IIoi'ssA,  a  people  of  the  Soinlan, 
wliii  have  licen  eoiKiuered  by  tlie  Fiillir,  ami  iiiiw 
cimslitute  the  lai;,'er  part  of  the  population  in 
SoUoto,  Ailainaiva.  anil  (ianilo  (i^.v.).  Whether 
they  are  of  pure  Ne^no  raee,  or  an  ininii^^'rajit  wave 
of  aneient  Haniitie  .stock,  now  imlisiinxui'-hahle 
from  the  Ne^;ro(>s,  is  not  vet  fully  clcteniiiiicil. 
Tlirir  laM;;ua;;i'  is  allieil  in  its  ),'rainMialical  forms 
with  the  Uamitic  ton^'ue.s  to  the  east  ami  north, 
whilst  its  vcK'almiary  resembles  in  many  points 
that  of  the  nei^hliouriiig  Ner;ri>  tribes.  .\t  any- 
rate  the  Haussa  lan;,'na;;e  is  the  common  meilinni 
of  communication  in  the  commercial  worlil  of  cen- 
tral Sonclaii,  and  is  spoUen  by  l.'i.OOO,!!!!!)  bc^tween 
the  Mcditcnanean  and  the  (Jnlf  of  tlnini'a.  An 
a.ssociation  for  the  study  of  Hauss.v  in  Kn^l.aml  was 
founded  in  189,5.  The  Haus.sa  themselves  aie  keen 
traders,  occupy  themselves  with  a<:riculture  and 
iiKlustrial  pin-snits,  and  are  great  slave  ■  traders. 
They  have  adopteil  Isl.ain  from  their  con(|uerors. 
Many  of  them  are  employed  as  armed  constabulary 
in  the  (lold  Coast  culonies.  See  Itobinsou's //(/hs((- 
to;i(/ ( ISIHJ) ;  .\i-i:icA,  Fllahs,  Uoknu,  K.VKO. 

Ilaiissniailll.  (iliOllGE  Ecgene,  who  as  pre- 
fect of  the  Seine  did  so  much  for  the  improvement 
and  embellishmenl  of  I'aris  lietween  1S.");{  and 
1870,  w.os  born  in  that  city  on  'iTtli  .March  18(19. 
Knlerin;;  the  jiublie  service  under  Louis-l'liilippe, 
he  distiiignisliod  himself  in  various  parts  of 
Fiance,  and  under  Napoleon  111.  rose  to  be  pre- 
fect of  the  Seine  (18j3).  Then  it  wjus  that  lie 
be^tau  bis  ta.sk  of  improving;  the  outward  a|>pear- 
ance  of  I'aris  by  widening  streets,  laying  out 
boulevards  and  parks,  buililing  sewers,  barracks, 
bridges,  and  similar  public  works.  For  these 
great  services  he  was  made  liaroii  and  .senator. 
But  the  heavy  liuancial  burdens  ( i;:i.),(HHJ,(MM))  which 

L'se  impri 

use  of  III 
111  the  following  year  he  was,  howevi'r,  appoiiiteil 
director  of  the  t'rct/il  Mobilicr,  and  in  ISSl  wjis 
elected  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
'  Haussiuanniziug '  has  become  a  term  for  the  reck- 
less destruction  of  ancient  buildiiij;s  to  make  way 
for  new  streets.  See  his  MiMoirat  bv  Havard 
(4  vols.  1890  ,:t  se(/.).     He  died  Utli  January  1891. 

Il.iiithois.    See  Oboe. 

Ilaiit  <;ar»iiiH;.    See  Gai!Onxi:  (  IIacte). 

Ilaiit  Kliiii.    See  Belfout,  KiiiXK. 

Ilaliy.  Kene  JisT,  a  French  mineralogist,  was 
born  at  St  Just,  denartment  Oise,  28lh  February 
174:i,  stndie<l  for  ttie  church,  ami  took  priest's 
orders.  His  attention  was  lirst  turnecl  to  botany, 
anil  it  was  not  until  middle  life  that  be  commenced 
the  stuily  of  mineralogy.  He  is  the  di.scoverer  of 
the  geometrical  law  of  crystallisation,  and  be  also 
considerably  enriched  our  knowledge  of  pyro-elec- 
tricity. After  occupying  several  important  i>osts, 
such  .as  commissiom'r  of  weights  and  measures, 
curator  of  the  cabinet  of  mines,  and  [uofe-ssor  of 
mineralogy,  be  died  on  3d  June  1822.  His  most 
important' works,  besides  an  essay  on  crystals  and 
a  treatise  on  electricity,  are  Traiti  dc  Miiieralui/ic 
(2  vols.  1801),  Traiti  ^Kmeiilaiie  tie  Physique 
(2  vols.  1803),  Traiti  des  Caractires  I'/i  i/sifj iics  des 
Pierres  Pricieuses  (1817),  and  Traiti  de  Cristultu- 

?ra/>hie  (2  vols.  1H22).— His  brother  Valentin 
lAfV  ( 174.T-1822)  devoted  liis  life  to  the  education 
of  the  Hlind  (q.v. ).  He  wrote  £ssaisur I' Education 
des  Arciujlcs  ( 178(i). 

II  any  no,  a  rock-forming  mineral,  having 
ai)proximately  the  same  composition  a-s  Nosciin. 
The  two  are  probably  only  varieties  of  one  and 
the  same  mineral.     They  .are  anhydrous  silicates  of 


these  improvements  laid  njion  the  citizens  was  the 
cause  of  Ilaussmann's  dismissal  from  ollice  in  1870. 


alumina  and  soda,  or  alumina  and  lime,  with 
sodium  and  calcium  sulphate.  They  crystallise  in 
isometric  forms,  and  have  a  hardness  =  5-5'.'),  and 
a  specilie  gravity  =  2'2-2'5.  Hauyne  is  usually 
bright  blue  to  bluish. green,  while  Nosean  is  gener- 
ally gray,  but  .sometimes  greenish  or  even  dark 
brown.  They  are  essentially  of  volcanic  origin, 
occurring  lus  constituents  of  many  recent  lavas. 

Havana,  or  IIaVAXNAII  (imvjierly  '  Sau  Chris- 
tubal  dc  la  Il.ibana '),  the  capital  of  the  island 
of  Cuba,  and  the  |>rincipal  centre  of  commerce  in 
the  West  Indies,  is  situated  on  the  north  side  of  the 
island,  .\ccess  is  obtained  to  its  magnillcent  well- 
sheltered  harbour  by  a  channel  3,'iO  yards  wide,  the 
entrance  to  which  is  defended  by  several  forts. 
The  streets  of  the  oliler  part  of  t1ic  town,  which 
until  Isii.'i  was  cMcloscd  within  walls,  are  nanow 
ami  dirty,  and  the  harlmnr  has  been  for  generations 
polluted  by  the  town  sewage.  With  this  older  part 
the  more  modern  portion  lying  to  the  west  is  con- 
nected by  broad  tree-shadeil  avenues  and  gardens. 
The  houses,  which  are  low,  are  solidly  built  of 
stone,  have  Hat  roofs,  verandas,  and  barred  windows 
reaching  down  to  the  ground,  .and  arc  gay  with 
l)aint  and  white  marlile  decorations.  The  most 
noteworthy  of  the  public  buildings  are  the  cathedral, 
built  in  the  old  Spanish  style  in  1724,  whence  the 
bones  of  Columbus  (i|.v. )  were  removed  to  Spain 
after  the  loss  of  the  island  iu  the  war  with  the 
I'nited  Stales  in  1898,  .-ind  the  hospital  '  lieneli- 
cencia,'  with  orphan  and  lunatic  asylums  and  a 
]ioorhou.se.  The  i>nblie  institutions  include  an 
arsenal,  a  bot.inical  garden,  a  university,  a  tech- 
nical school,   and   Ihealre.s.      It  is  the  seat  of  the 

governor  of  the  island  and  of  a  bishop.  Yellow 
fever  is  prevalent  during  the  summer  months.  The 
population  in  1897  was  over  200,000.  The  staple 
industry  of  the  i>lace  is  cigar-making;  sugar  and 
tobacco  are  the  staple  products ;  molasses,  rum, 
wax,  and  honey  are  also  exported,  liefore  the 
ruinous  war  of  l'S0.'i-98  the  exjiorls  had  an  annn.al 
vain-'  of  €12,000,000,  the  imports  of  £10,INKMNHI. 
The  chief  imports  are  rice,  lard.  Hour,  jerked  beef, 
cod  lish,  and  coal.  The  Initeil  States  take  90  per 
cent,  of  the  CNport-s,  bring  20  per  cent,  of  the 
imports,  and  jnovide  vessels  for  one-third  of  the 
carrying  trade.     .Another  third  of  the  vessels  that 

i  enter     Havana    Uy   the    Spanish    Hag,     and    the 

I  remaining  third  is  divided  between  Holland, 
(Ireat  lirilain,  and  Fiance.  Havana  wius  origin- 
ally founded  on  the  south  coast,  near  the  modern 
IJaracoa,  by  Diego  \cliusi|uez  in  1.515,  but  four 
years  later  wius  transferred  to  its  present  site.  In 
the  course  of  its  unfortunate  history  it  was  burned 
to  the  ground  by  buccaneers  in  ir)28,  plundered  by 
another  band  in  l,"),')."),  and  cajitured  liy  a  third  in 
l.")6.3,  and  ag.aiii  by  the  Knglish  in  17()2.  In  the 
17th    century,    however,    it    Wiis    made    the    chief 

I  emporinm  of  Spanish  trade  in  the  West  Indies  and 
the  point  of  rendezvous  for  the  .Sjianish  gold  lleets. 
Il.'ivant,  a  market  town  of  Hampshire,  8  miles 
NE.  of  rortsmoutli.     Tanning  and  matting  are  the 
chief  industrie-s.      I'op.  of  parish,  30.S2. 

Ilava.S  Agoncy,  an  organisation  in  Paris, 
fmimled  liy  a  rich  nicrchant,  Charles  Hav.-us,  in  the 
reign  of  Louis- I'hililipe,  for  the  purpose  of  gathering 
telegraphic  news  and  supplying  it  to  newspapers. 
It  was  m  1879  converted  into  a  company. 

Ilav«'l,  a  tributary  of  the  Elbe,  which  has  its 
origin  in  a  small  lake  in  Mecklenburg,  Hows  south- 
ward past  Spandau  to  Totsdam,  ami  thence  west 
to  r.randenburg.  and  linally  northwest  to  its 
juni'lion  with  the  Elbe,  opposite  the  town  of 
Werben.  It  passes  through  several  lakes  and 
canals  on  its  way.  Its  entire  length  is  220  miles  ; 
it  is  n.avigable  to  within  I.")  miles  of  its  source  ;  its 
drainage   basin   measures   10,100  .sq.  m.      Its  most 


HAVELOCK 


HAVRE 


notable  tributarj'  is   the  Spree,  on  which    Ueiliu 
stands. 

Ilavelock,  Sir  Henry,  one  of  the  heroes  of 
the  Inilian  mutiny,  was  born  April  5,  1795,  at 
BishopWearniouth,  in  Durham,  where  his  father 
was  a  merchant  and  shipbuilder.  He  was  educated 
at  the  ('harterhouse,  and  was  at  first  inteiuled  for 
the  law,  l)Ut,  following  his  elder  brother's  exam|)le, 
entered  the  army  a  mouth  after  Waterloo,  and  went 
out  t(j  India  in  1823.  It  was  durinj;  the  voyage  that 
that  conversion  occurred  which  coloured  all  his  after- 
life. Ilavelock  distinguished  liiniself  in  the  Afglian 
and  Sikh  wars,  but  was  still  a  lieutenant  after 
23  years' service.  In  185G  he  commanded  a  division 
of  the  army  that  invaded  Persia.  News  of  the 
Indian  mutiny  hastened  his  return  to  Calcutta,  and 
ere  hmg  he  had  organised  a  small  movable  column 
at  Allahabad  with  which  to  push  on  to  the  lelief  of  \ 
the  Britisli  at  Cawnpore  and  Lucknow.  A  forced  j 
march  brought  his  2000  men  to  Fateh])ur,  >\-here 
lie  engaged  and  broke  the  rebels.  He  continued 
his  march  upon  Cawnpore,  driving  the  enemy 
before  him.  The  cowardly  miscreants  at  the 
suggestion  of  the  infamous  Nana  Sahil)  revenged 
their  defeats  before  abandoning  Cawnjtore  by  the 
atrocious  massacre  of  all  the  European  women  and 
children  in  their  hands.  At  Aliirwa  Havelock 
found  the  rebels  strongly  entrenched,  but  turned 
their  left,  and  carried  the  village  by  a  splendid 
charge  of  tlie  78th  Highlanders.  He  now  entered 
Cawnpore,  and  saw  with  his  own  eyes  the  horrors 
of  the  massacre.  The  sight  steeleil  tlie  hearts  of 
his  handful  of  heroes,  who  quitted  Cawnpore  to 
advance  upon  Lucknow.  Crossing  the  Ganges,  he 
repulsed  the  rebels  at  Unao,  but  after  fighting 
eight  victorious  battles  he  found  his  little  army  so 
thinned  by  fatigue  and  sickness  that  he  was  reluc- 
tantly compellecl  to  retire  upon  Cawnpore.  Early 
in  Septemljer  General  Outrani  arrived  with  rein- 
forcements, and  Havelock  again  advanced  to  the 
relief  of  Lucknow;  Outram,  with  a  chivalrous 
generosity  characteiistic  of  that  heroic  time,  waiv- 
ing his  superior  rank,  and  serving  under  Havelock 
as  a  volunteer  until  Lucknow  was  saved.  The 
relieving  force,  wliich  mustered  2500  men  and  17 
guns,  after  a  sharp  brush  with  the  enemy  engaged 
them  at  the  Alum-Bagh,  an  isolated  building  about 
three  miles  from  the  Residency  of  Lucknow.  Next 
with  des])erate  bravery  they  fought  their  way 
through  streets  of  houses,  each  a  separate  fortress, 
until  they  gained  the  Residency,  to  the  indescrib- 
able joy  of  the  beleaguered  garrison.  The  victori- 
ous army  were  now  in  turn  besieged,  but  held  their 
own  until  November,  when  Sir  Colin  Campbell  in 
liis  turu  forced  his  way  to  their  rescue.  After 
the  relief  of  Lucknow  Havelock  was  attacked  by 
dysentery,  died  November  22,  1857,  and  was  buried 
in  the  Alum-liagh.  Before  his  death  news  arrived 
of  his  elevation  to  the  distinction  of  K.C.B.  Other 
honours  were  in  store  for  him,  but  they  came  too 
late.  He  was  made  major-general  ;  ajipointed  to 
the  colonelcy  of  the  3d  Foot,  and  a  baronet,  with  a 
])roposed  pension  of  £1000  a  year.  The  rank  and 
the  pension  were  given  to  his  widow,  daughter  of 
the  Baptist  missionary,  Dr  Marshuum ;  a  new 
jiatent  of  baronetcy  issued  in  favour  of  the  eldest 
son,  as  bis  father's  was  sealed  only  the  day  after 
his  death ;  and  a  statue  Wiis  erected  by  public 
subscription  in  Trafalgar  Square.  Havelock  was 
strict  in  his  religion,  and  severe  in  his  discipline, 
soniew  hat  after  the  type  of  the  grave  and  fearless 
I'uritans  who  fought  and  conquered  under  Crom- 
well. '  For  more  than  forty  yeai-s,'  he  said  to  Sir 
James  Outram  in  his  last  moments,  '  I  have  so 
ruled  my  life  that  when  death  came  I  might  face 
it  without  fear."  This  he  ilid,  and  among  her 
noblest  soldiers  England  will  never  cease  to  re- 
member the   Christian   hero.  Sir  Henrv  Havelock. 


See  lives  of  him  by  W.  Brock  (1858),  Miss  Mamli- 
man  ( 18(50),  and  A.  Forbes  (1890). 

Havelok  the  Dane.  See  the  article  on 
Enullsh  LiTKK.vriKE,  Vol.  IV.  p.  307,  and  the 
edition  of  the  romance  by  Professor  Skeat  (Early 
English  Text  Society,  Extra  Series,  1808). 

Haven.    See  H.\rbol'r. 

Haver,  a  term  used  in  Scotch  law  to  denote 
the  person  in  whose  custody  a  document  is. 

HaverfoiHlwest  (Welsh  Hu-lffurdd),  a  par- 
liamentary and  municipal  borough,  seaport,  and 
market-town  of  Wales,  capital  of  the  county  of 
Pembroke,  and  a  county  of  itself,  occnides  a 
l)icturesque  situation  on  the  river  Cleddau,  10 
miles  NNE.  of  Milford  by  rail  and  1G2  \V.  of 
Gloucester.  A  body  of  Flemings  was  settled  in  the 
district  by  Henry  I.  in  1107.  The  castle,  the  keep 
of  which  is  now  used  as  tlie  county  gaol,  was  erected 
by  Gilbert  de  Clare,  first  Earl  of  Pembroke,  in 
the  14th  centuiy.  There  are  also  remains  of  a 
12th-century  Augustinian  priory.  Paper-making 
is  the  chief  industry.  Since  1885  Haverfordwest 
has  been  included  in  the  Pembroke  boroughs,  which 
return  one  member  to  the  House  of  Commons. 
Pop.  ( 1S61 )  7019  ;  ( 1881 )  6398  ;  ( 1891 )  6179. 

Havei'gal.  Fr.vxces  Ridley,  a  popular  hymn- 
writer,  youngest  child  of  Rev.  W.  II.  Havergal, 
musical  composer,  and  lion,  canon  of  Worcester 
cathedral,  was  born  14th  December  1836  at  Astley, 
AVorcestershire.  A  talented  child,  she  familiarised 
herself  with  moilern  languages,  tried  CJreek  and 
Hebrew,  and,  developing  her  jioetical  gift,  she 
gave  utteiance  from  time  to  time  to  many  sweet 
and  delicate  religious  strains  of  song.  Her  writ- 
ings in  poetry  and  prose  have  been  popular  with 
the  religious  public.  Some  of  her  hymns  have 
found  their  way  into  church  collections.  She 
issued  many  such  volumes  as  Mhiistrij  of  Smiij, 
Under  the  Surface,  &c.  She  died  at  Caswell 
Bay,  Swansea,  3<1  June  1879.  Her  collected 
Poetical  ]i'orks  appeared  in  1884,  and  Uev  Letters, 
&c.  in  1885.  See  Jleiitoriuls  of  Frances  liidlctf 
Harcryal  {\iiSO). 

Haverhill,  an  ancient  market-town  in  the 
south-west  corner  of  Suffidk,  18  miles  SE.  of  Cam- 
bridge.    Pop.  of  parish,  3G85. 

Haverhill,  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  at  the 
head  of  navigation  on  the  Merrimac  River,  33 
miles  N.  of  Boston  by  rail.  Its  chief  industry  is 
the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  which  employs 
aliout  0000  men  in  200  factories ;  and  there  are 
manufactures  also  of  iron,  hats,  glass,  &c.  Po]). 
(1870)  1.3,092;  (1890)27,412. 

Havers,  Cloptox  (1655-1702),  anatomist  and 
physician,  after  studying  at  Cambridge  .-uid  I'trecht, 
where  he  graduated,  .settled  in  London  in  1687. 
His  Osteoluijia  Nura,  or  Some  Xeic  Observations  of 
the  Bones  and  the  Parts  bc/oni/i>i(j  to  them  (Loud. 
1691),  was  long  a  standard  work;  and  his  name 
is  perpetuated  as  the  discoverer  of  the  Ilavei-sian 
canals  in  Bone  (q. v.).  Other  details  of  his  life  are 
not  known. 

Havildar,  the  highest  rank  of  non-commis- 
sioned officer  among  native  troops  in  India  and 
Ceylon. 

Havre,  Le  (a  contraction  of  the  original  name, 
Le  H.vvre  pe  Notrk  D.\me  de  Gk.U'E),  a  sea- 
port in  the  French  department  of  Seine-Inferieure, 
ami,  next  to  Marseilles,  the  chief  commercial  em- 
porium of  the  ccmntry,  is  situated  on  the  north 
side  of  the  estuary  of  the  Seine,  143  miles  NW. 
of  Paris  bv  rail.  The  (lort  w.as  entered  in  1886 
by  2.-)80  vessels  of  2,0t)3.983  tons,  and  in  1888 
by  2717  vessels  of  2,341,023  tons,  of  which  1210 
vessels  of  825,892  tons  were  British  and  645  vessels 
of  779,237   tons  were  French.      These  figures  are 


!5P8 


HAVRE 


HAWAII 


exflusive  of  3112  (I'rencli)  vessels  of  370.777  tons 
mill  34r>C  (if  "iM.Dll  tons,  in  ISHti  and  ISSS  lesiiec- 
tively,  en-jafieil  in  the  coasting;  traile.  The  eliief 
inijioits  are  eoals,  wheat,  cotton,  ilyewoods,  ciitl'ee, 
iiiiles,  iietroleniii,  wool,  palm  nil,  alcohol,  cocoa, 
anil  siifjar.  The  exiiorts  consist  principally  of 
woiillen  ami  cotton  fiooils,  potat<ies,  salt,  lintter, 
pajier,  silks  ami  rililions.  china-ware,  f^iis,  ami 
ochre,  in  aililition  to  U  million  S'l"""^  of  wine 
anil  nearly  €'JSO,fK)0  worth  of  inillineiy.  The 
customs  duties  levied  amounted  to  fj.  l2.">.(>fM!  in 
ISHS.  Havre  possesses  excellent  harhoiir  accom- 
niodation,  having  nine  separate  dock  hasiiis  (the 
ninth  comiilcted  in  1SS7),  with  an  area  of  174  acres 
ami  .'!(), 4(«)  feet  of  ipi.-iys.  The  port  is  very  ^.'really 
hamlicappeil  in  the  striij;i;le  for  cmiimercial  success 
hy  the  paucity  of  railway  connection  and  the 
heif;ht  of  the  haihonr  dues.  Hut  the  greatest 
drawliack  is  the  didicult  approach  to  the  h.irliour 
from  the  sea,  owing  to  the  shifting  sandlianks  that 
lie  in  the  estuarv.  .V  verj'  comprehensive  scheme 
for  improving  tlie  harbour  and  its  approaches, 
and  the  lower  course  of  the  Seine,  was  ]iut  for- 
ward in  ISS'.I,  It  eiiihraced  the  construction  of 
a  capacious  outer  harhoiir,  protected  liy  break- 
waters, and  provided  with  a  new  entrance  from 
deep  water,  the  building  of  ^uoteetive  dykes  in 
the  estuary,  and  very  extensive  dredging  opera- 
tions for  the  puriiose  of  deepening  the  Seine  np  to 
Houen.  Meanwiiile  dredging  is  going  on  on  a 
large  scale  just  outside  the  harbour.  Two  new 
dry-docks  were  opened  in  ISS9.  Havre  does  not 
pos.sess  a  lishing  lleet.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  ]iorts 
in  France  from  which  emigrants  set  sail.  The 
average  of  .SO.tHK)  rose  in  KSSM  to  .SS.tHH),  nearly 
one-third  being  French,  with  abdut  the  same 
number  of  Italians  and  one-fifth  Swiss.  Two- 
thirds  were  bound  for  the  I'uited  States,  the  re.st 
for  the  Argentine  Itcpublie.  Amongst  the  local 
industries  the  lirst  place  is  <iccupied  by  ship- 
building. Next  come  machine-factories,  cannon- 
foundries,  tlonr-niills,  petroleum  and  sugar  re- 
(ineries,  and  dye-works.  Havre  ha-s  a  hydro- 
graphical,  an  industrial,  .and  a  commercial  school, 
an  inllucntial  chamber  of  commerce,  and  a  tribunal 
of  commerce.  Its  notalile  buildings  include  the 
Kith-century  church  of  Notre  Dame,  a  museum, 
a  Uenaissance  town-house,  a  marine  arsenal,  \c. 
There  arc  statues  to  Heinardin  de  St  I'ierre  and 
Cisimir  Delavigne,  both  natives  of  Havre.  The 
sanitary  condition  of  the  town  is  not  so  good  as  it 
should  be.  Nevertheless  Havre  is  visited  for  its 
sea  bathing.      Poji.  ( 1S76)  85,407  :  (15^01  )  1 10,369. 

Down  to  1516  Havre  was  only  a  fishing-xillage. 
Its  history  .a.s  a  seaport  dates  from  the  reign  of 
Francis  I.,  who  built  the  harbimr  and  fortilied  it. 
Havre  w;i.«  held  for  some  months  in  l.'56'2  by  the 
English,  who  were  expelleil  by  Charles  IX.  after 
a  hilt  siege.  Louis  XIV.  made  it  a  strong  cit.adel. 
and  it  was  several  times  bombarded  by  the  Knglish 
in  the  17th  .and  IStli  centuries.  The  town  walls 
were  demolished  in  the  middle  of  the  I9th  century. 
Mdlle.  de  Sciiderv  wa-s  liorn  at  Havre.  See  his- 
tories by  .\Iorient  ■(  1825)  and  Horely  ( 1883). 

Hawaii.  H.wv.vii.vs  Isl.xxd.s,  or  S.vxn- 
wicii  IsiAMis,  a  small  archipelago  in  the  North 
Pacilic,  till  1S98  forming  the  kingdom  of  Hawaii 
(so  callei!    fidiii    Hawaii,    the   chief  island   of    the 

froiip),  and  named  Sandwich  Islands  hy  Captain 
'ook  afli'r  Lord  Sandwich,  then  First  Lord  of 
the  Admiralty.  The  islands,  twelve  in  number, 
form  a  rich,  beautiful,  and  interesting  chain  which 
niiis  from  south-eiust  to  north-west,  and  lies  in 
Ifl-  to  22  N.  hit.  and  l.i.V  to  100"  W.  long.  Their 
total  area  is  aliont  7tMX)  .sij.  m.,  or  abmit  that  of 
Wales.  The  names  and  areas  of  the  eight  princi- 
pal islands  (the  other  four  being  merely  barren 
rocks)  .are  a-s  follows:  Hawaii  (the  'Owliyhee'of 


Captain  Cookl  4210  sii.  m.  ;  Maui,  700;  Oaliu, 
600;  Kauai,  590  ;  Molokai  (the  '  Lepers'  IslamI '), 
270;     Lanai,     150;     Kaliulani,    63;     Niihau,    97. 


iM"'' 


C.Halaau] 


.si' 

I.in.il^2l-^,*.,jf„„„a//a(rafca/a 
KihuUui 


Uptylu  C. 


Up  all 


Mauna  Hualalal  • 
K.ii 
HAWAII 

olali-J",'... 


lii.Cliili  Mil'5 
'    j.i    J..   6.>   So  1*^0 


(C.,"-' 


PC 


Hawaii  is  the  southernmost  of  the  group ;  it  is  in 
shape  a  rough  triangle,  with  the  apex  pointing 
north-west. 

Gcoqid/ilni,  Mninifninx,  Rivers,  d-r. — The  Ha- 
waiian Islands  are  situateil  on  the  coiii-se  of  ships 
jiassing  from  San  Francisco  and  Vancouver  Island 
to  China  and  Jaiian,  as  well  as  to  New  Zealand 
and  Australia.  I'hey  lie  in  niid-occan,  between 
the  coasts  of  Asia  .and  America,  but  are  nearer  to 
the  .\meriian  coast,  from  which  they  are  aliout 
21(K)  miles  distant;  they  conscc|Hcntly  form  a  con- 
venient station  for  the  coaling  ami  repairing  of 
vessels  on  their  way  across  the  I'acilic.  The 
islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  with  coral  leefs 
partly  lining  most  of  them,  but  entirely  encircling 
none.  Tliey  siiU'er  from  want  of  good  harbnurs, 
the  best  being  the  hailumr  of  Honolulu,  situated 
on  the  island  of  Oahu,  with  22'.  feet  of  water 
in  its  shallowest  parts.  This  harbour,  which  is 
entered  through  a  narrow  channel  in  the  reef,  is 
the  only  really  well  protected  harbour  in  the  group  ; 
during  the  time  of  tlie  trade- winds,  however,  which 
blow  from  northeast  to  south-west  for  about  nine 
months  in  the  year,  the  roadsteads  on  the  south 
shores  of  the  islamls  atl'ord  safe  anchorage  almost 
anywhere.  The  larger  islands  are  mountainous, 
and  contain  some  of  the  largest  volcanoes,  both 
active  and  extinct,  in  the  world.  The  two  highest 
mountains,  Mauna-Kea  and  Mauna-Loa,  are  in 
the  island  of  Hawaii,  ami  are  13,805  and  13,675 
feet  high  respectively.  This  island  is  also  traversed 
by  other  mountains,  which  give  it  a  rugged  and 
picturesf|ue  ajipearance,  and  in  places  bold  clilfs 
Irom  1000  to  30(K)  feet  high  front  the  sea.  Sjieak- 
ing  generally,  however,  the  high  ground  in  each 
of  the  islands  is  in  the  centre,  and  the  mountains 
are  divided  hy  rich  valleys  leading  down  to  a 
sandy  shore.  i)n  the  eastern  slope  of  .Mauna-Loa, 
in  Hawaii,  is  the  far-famed  Kilanca,  the  largest 
active  volcano  in  the  world.  It  is  over  4000  feet 
above  sea-level.  Its  crater  is  of  oval  shape,  9 
miles  in  circumference,  boundcil  hy  a  range  of 
elifls,  and  containing  within  it  a  (iery  lake  of 
molten  lava  rising  and  falling  like  the  waves  of  the 
sea.  Mauna-Loa  itself  is  an  active  volcano,  the 
scene  of  various  eruiitions,  notably  of  one  in 
Fcbru.aiy  1877,  when  the  glare  caused  by  the  fiery 
outbiii'st  is  said  to  have  been  plainly  visible  on 
the  island  of  Maui,  80  miles  distant.  On  Maui  is 
the  crater  of  Haleakala  ('house  of  the  sun'), 
by  far  the  largest  known  in  the  world.  It  is 
from  25  to  .'iO  miles  in  circumference,  from  2000 
to  .'iOOO  feet  dei-11,  and  is  10.032  feet  .above  sea- 
level.  Within  this  huge  gulf  are  about  sixteen 
basins  of  old  volcanoes,  whose  ridges  form  con- 
centric circles.  Several  of  the  islands,  especially 
Hawaii  and   Kauai,  are  well  supplied  with  rivers. 


HAWAII 


589 


Tliese  ufl'oiil  gieat  facilities  for  iniKatii)ii,  but 
owiii;,'  to  the  small  size  and  the  conformation  of 
the  islanils  they  are  in  no  case  navijjable. 

CUiiuitc,  Siiil,  iL-Q. — Lying  as  they  do  in  the 
middle  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
thou;,di  witliin  the  tropics,  enjoy  a  fairly  temperate 
climate.  In  the  hot  season  the  temperature  seldom 
rises  alic)ve  90"  F.,  while  in  the  cool  season  it 
seldom  falls  below  oi'  F.,  the  average  temperature 
for  tlie  year  being  7-t'3^  F.  Kains,  brought  by  the 
north-east  trade-wind,  are  frequent  on  the  side  of 
the  mountains  which  faces  that  quarter,  but  on 
the  other  parts  of  the  islands  little  rain  falls,  and 
the  sky  is  geuerallj-  cloudless.  The  yearly  rainfall 
at  Honolulu,  lieing  on  the  leeward  side  of  Oahu,  is 
under  40  inches  ;  that  of  the  islands  generally 
about  j4  inches.  The  soil,  whose  constituent  parts 
are  mainly  scoriae,  decomposed  lava,  and  sand,  is 
generally  thin  aiul  poor,  but  at  the  bases  of  the 
mountains  .and  in  tlie  valleys  there  are  extensive 
tracts  as  fertile  as  they  are  beautiful.  In  Hawaii 
alone,  on  the  Waimea  plains,  thousands  of  sheep 
of  llie  merino  breed  find  grazing  ground  ;  and  on 
most  of  the  Islands,  while  the  upland  slopes  of 
the  mountains  are  clothed  with  dense  forests,  the 
lower  levels  spread  into  grassy  plains  rich  with 
sugar  and  rice  plantations. 

Niitiircd  Hisiunj,  Proiliirts,  tL'C. — The  islands  are 
separated  from  other  lands  by  a  broad  expanse 
and  great  depth  of  sea,  consequently  their  natural 
lustory  has  many  special  features  of  its  own.  In 
the  high  mountains  there  are  some  species  of 
jilants  akin  to  tho.se  of  the  American  continent. 
The  forest-trees  are  mainly  to  be  found  on  the 
windward,  being  the  rainy  side  of  the  mountain- 
ranges.  Tropical  fruits  are  numerous.  There  are 
now,  as  has  been  stated,  numerous  sugar  and  rice 
plantations  on  the  islands.  The  staple  food  of 
the  natives  consists  of  poi,  a  kind  of  thick  paste 
made  from  the  root  of  the  taro  plant  {Anim  e.^caleii- 
^(»t)and  raw  or  dried  fish.  The  only  indigenous 
animals  are  rats,  mice,  bats,  dogs,  and  hogs,  but 
othei-s  have  been  added  since  white  men  came  to  the 
islanils;  cattle,  .sheep,  &c.  having  been  introduced 
by  \'ancouver  and  other  na\igators.  There  are 
largi-  numbers  of  semi- wild  horses  in  the  kingdom, 
and  in  some  parts  of  the  mountains  wild  dogs  are 
also  to  be  found.  Ke|)tiles  are  few,  including  on 
land  one  species  of  lizard  and  a  few  of  the  gecko  ; 
and  the  native  birds,  of  which  there  were  nineteen 
spi'cies,  are  rapidly  disappearing,  though  foreign 
imiMirtations  more  than  supply  their  |dace.  The 
archipelago  has  unfortunately  no  mineral  resources. 
I 'oral  rock  is  the  material  chiefly  used  for  building 
purposes,  and  to  a  less  extent  ba.salt,  compact 
lava,  and  sandstone.  There  is  a  large  variety  of 
sea-shells,  some  of  which  are  of  exquisite  beauty. 

Trade,  Finniice,  d-c. — The  commerce  of  the  islands 
is  gradually  increasing.  I'p  to  the  year  1.S7G 
the  most  important  trade  was  that  of  the  ves.sels 
engageil  in  the  whale-fisheries  of  the  Pacific,  which 
now  are  almost  extinct.  In  1876  a  Keciprocity 
Treaty  was  con(duded  with  the  United  States,  and 
since  that  date  there  has  been  an  enormous  develop- 
ment of  tlie  sugar  e.xport  trade.  Over  '2(X»,(K)0,Ono 
lb.  of  sugar,  being  eight-niuths  of  tlie  total  value  of 
the  exjports,  were  grown  and  ex]iorted  in  .some 
years,  the  other  chief  articles  of  export  being  rice, 
wool,  molasses,  coffee,  hides,  tallow,  and  bananas. 
The  total  value  of  produce  exportttd  from  the 
islands  ranges  from  §8,000.000  to  .sls.OOU.ooo  ;innu- 
ally.  The  imports,  which  consist  priiiciiially  of 
dry  goods,  reach  about  half  that  amount.  Nine- 
tenths  of  the  trade  is  with  the  liiited  States.  In 
the  foreign  carrying  traffic  some  300  vessels  were 
employeil  in  ISlio,  while  about  (iO  Hawaiian  ships 
jily  between  the  dillerent  islands.  On  the  larger 
islands  there  are  good  roads,  and  iu  the  islands  of 


!  Hawaii  and  Maui  there  are  about  75  miles  of  rail- 
way, the  first  line  having  been  opened  iu  1879. 
Telegraphs  have  been  established  in  these  two 
islands,  and  in  Honolulu  the  telephone  is  in  com- 
mon use.  The  coins  current  in  the  islands  are 
American  dimes,  quarter-dollars,  half  dollars,  and 
dollars.  The  estimateil  revenue  of  the  kingilom 
fell  between  1890  and  1895  fiom  over  §4,400,000  to 
under  .S;?,7(X),000,  the  expenditure  being  calculated 
annually  at  a  little  less  than  the  income.  The  chief 
sources  of  revenue  are  customs  and  internal  taxes. 
The  public  debt  in  1895  was  .S3, .590,000. 

History,  Constitution,  d;c. — The  islands  are  said 
to  have  been  discovereil  by  (iai^tano  in  1542,  and 
rediscovereil  by  Captain  Cook  in  the  year  1778. 
Cook  met  his  death  at  the  hands  of  the  natives  in 
Kealakekua  (Karakakoa)  Bay  in  the  year  1779. 
In  early  times  each  island  had  a  king,  but  under 
Kamehameha  I.  the  islands  were  formed  into  <me 
kingdom.  He  died  in  1819,  and  was  succeede<I 
by  Liholiho,  who  adopted  on  his  accession  the 
name  of  Kamehameha  II.,  and  whose  reign  wits 
famous  for  the  abolition  of  idolatry  simultane- 
ously throughout  all  the  islands.  A'ancouver,  w  ho 
arrived  with  Cook  in  1778,  and  returned  in  1792 
and  again  in  1794,  had  made  sincere  attenqits 
to  enlighten  the  islanders,  and  succeeded  so 
far  that  he  was  requested  by  the  king  and  his 
chiefs  to  send  out  religious  teachers  to  them  from 
England.  The  first  missionaries,  however,  who 
visited  the  islands  came  from  the  nearer  shores  of 
America.  On  their  anival  in  1S"20  they  witnessed 
the  singular  phenomenon  of  a  nation  without  a 
religion.  The  instructions  of  Vancouver  had,  it 
would  .seem,  not  been  forgotten,  and  had  opened 
the  eyes  of  the  idol-worshipping  natives  to  the 
grotesque  absurdities  of  their  system.  But  the 
spontaneous  movement  of  1819-20  'was  no  triumph 
of  ChrLstianity — for  Christianity  had  not  yet  claimi'd 
or  even  approaclieil  the  Hawaiian  Islands.'  The 
nation  had  voluntarily  cast  off  the  religion  of  their 
ancestors,  and  had  not  yet  adopted — were  not  even 
acquainted  with — any  other  system.  The  mission- 
aries were  well  received,  and  the  work  of  instruc- 
tion was  at  once  bei'un.  In  less  than  forty  veai-s 
they  taught  the  whole  Hawaiian  people  to  read  and 
write,  to  cipher  and  sew.  Kamehameha  II.  and 
his  queen  visited  England,  and  both  died  in 
London  in  July  1824.  Prior  to  the  year  1838  the 
government  was  a  simple  despotism,  but  in  1840 
Kamehameha  III.  granted  a  constitution  consist- 
ing of  king,  a.ssembly  of  nobles,  and  representative 
council.  In  1843  the  independence  of  the  Hawaiian 
kingdom  was  formally  guaranteed  by  the  French 
an<l  English  governments.  Kamehameha  IV. 
(1854-63)  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Kame- 
hameha v.,  with  whose  death  in  1873  the  line  of 
the  Kameliamehas  became  extinct,  a  high  chief, 
Lunalilo,  being  elected  to  the  vacant  throne.  On 
his  death  in  1874  another  iiigli  diief,  Kalakaua, 
was  elected  king.  About  1886  the  unsatisfactory 
state  of  the  public  finances  under  the  existing 
system  demanded  some  measure  of  reform,  and  in 
1887  the  king  was  called  upon  .to  dismiss  his 
cabinet  and  constrained  to  grant  a  iiMue  popular 
oonslitution.  In  .lanuaiy  1893  the  queen  Liliuo- 
kalani,  sister  of  Kalakaua  I.,  who  h.ad  reigned  for 
two  years,  was  dethnmed  by  a  revolution.  An- 
ne.xation  to  the  United  St.ates  failing  through 
the  opposition  of  President  Clevelainl,  a  Uepublic 
was  inaugurated  in  1894.  In  1898,  however,  the 
islands  were  formally  annexed  to  the  Unileil 
States,  and  iu  1900  the  territory  of  Hawaii  was 
organised. 

Population  and  Condition  of  the  People. — The 
total  population  i>f  all  th"  islands  amounted  in 
1890  to  89,990,  of  whom  .58,714  were  males  .and 
31,276  females.     Of  this  total  34,436  were  natives. 


590 


HAWARDEN 


HAWKE 


and  anions  the  foreij;!!  meiiiliers  of  tlie  coniiiiun- 
ity  llif  most  nniiiormis  element  wiis  tlie  Cliinese, 
niiiiil)eiiii;i  l."),:t(ll,  mainly  em)ilciy<Ml  in  «i)ikin}; 
the  suj,'ar-]>lantations  ;  next  to  the  Chinese,  anion',' 
forei;;n  residents,  came  l'i)itut;ucse,  Americans. 
(Jermans,  En;,'lish,  in  the  order  j^iven.  The  natives 
of  the  Hawaiian  .\rchii)ela^'o  lielon-;  to  the  lirown 
Tolvnesian  stock,  and  are  akin  to  the  New  Zea- 
land Maoris  in  race  and  lan^ua^'e.  They  were 
once  far  more  numerous  than  at  jiresent.  havinj;, 
it  is  said,  at  the  time  of  C'aptam  Cook's  visit 
numliereil  prohahlv  some  2(H),t)00.  There  is  no 
donlit  tliat  they  )iave  rapidly  decreased,  while 
the  nnmlier  of  forei^'ners  in  the  islands  is  con 
timi.illy  increasing.  Physically  the  llawaiians  are 
a  lem.irkalply  line  anrl  handsome  race.  In  char- 
acter they  are  imlolcnt,  joyous,  and  contented. 
The  dress  of  tlie  native  men,  where  they  have  not 
ailopteil  '  civilised  '  attire,  consists  merely  of  a  wide 
strip  of  cloth  round  the  loins,  while  the  native 
women  ilress  in  a  lon^' unj^'irdled  j;own  ('lioloku') 
reachint;  from  the  neck  to  the  ankles.  Excellent 
day-schools  have  heen  estahlislieil  all  over  the 
islJmds,  ami  there  are  very  few  natives  who  cannot 
reail  ami  write  in  their  own  lan;,'uaj;e. 

The  decrease  of  the  population  is  probably  due 
in   part  at  anyrate  to  the  introduction   of  foreign 
diseiuses.     At  the  present  time,  however,  the  disease 
most   rife  amon^'   the   people   is   leprosy.     It   was 
not  till   the  year  lH(i5  that  the  Hawaiian  "govern- 
iiient  set  iuside  the  island  of  Molokai  f<ir  the  se<,'re^'a- 
tiim  of   lepers  in  order  to  prevent  to  some  extent 
the  further  spread  of  this  terrible  mala<ly.      Here  ! 
they   lived   in   a  state  of  abject   misery   until   the  ' 
arrival  of  Father  Damien  (ij.v.),  whose  wcuk  was  | 
taken  up  by  otiiei-s  after  his  death   in   ISSS).     The 
pieventii>n  of  leprosy  is  now  attracting;  the  serious  j 
atleutiiiri   of  the    ll.iwaiian  ),'overnment   and   their 
board    of    health  ;    large   numbei-s   of    lepers   have 
lieen   removed   to   the  Molokai  settlement,  where 
over  l(M)0  live. 

See  Mrs  Bishop,  Six  ^f07tllls  in  the  Samltvich  Islanils 
{ 1875) ;  Miss  Gordon  Cuimning,  Fire  Mountains  (  1.**H:5 ) ; 
J,  !->.  Dan.i,  Hawaiian  Voleaiioes  ( 181tO ) ;  Sauvin,  Un 
Roiianmc  Potiinesien  (l.S93\;  Guilleinard,  Malai/xin  and 
the  Pacific  Arehiprla'joes  (in  Stanford's  'Conipcndiuin/ 
2d  cd.  1811.'));  Staley,  Fiie  Years'  Church  Work  in 
ffatoaii ;  Manley  Hopkins,  Haicaiian  Isleinds ;  Thrum. 
Hawaiian  Almanac  and  Annual ;  the  Narrative  of  the 
Cruise  of  tfic  Challewjer ;  tlie  Statesman's   Year-book^  &c. 

IlsiWSirdoil  (pronounced  Harden),  a  small 
market -town  of  Klintsliire,  North  Wales,  7  miles 
\V.  of  Chester.  There  are  some  manufactures  of 
tiles,  pottery,  &c.  Lady  Hamilton  passed  her 
Lnrlhood  here.  The  church,  almost  destroyed  by 
tire  in  1857,  was  restored  from  desif^ns  by  Sir 
G.  G.  Scott.  Hawanlen  Castle,  Mr  Cl.'idstone's 
seat,  dates  from  17.i'2.  The  jiaik  contains  the 
ruined  keep  of  a  I Stii  century  ciistle  coiiimamHlig 
a  line  view  of  the  Dee.     Pop.  of  jiari-sh,  7057. 

Il;nvash,  a  river  of  Abyssinia  (q.v.). 

Ilawes,  StkI'IIKN,  bom  pndiably  in  Suflblk, 
was  ;,'room  of  tlie  chamber  to  Henry  VII.,  and  wrote, 
besides  some  half-dozen  other  works  in  prose  an<l 
vei'se  (now  biblio','rai>liical  rarities),  The  I'lisseti/iiic 
of  Ptcitsiirc  (first  printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde  in 
1509),  a  prolix  poem  not  without  fine  stanzas, 
which  douljtless  helped  to  inspire  Spenser.  There 
have  lieen  reprints  in  1831,  1845,  &c.  Hawes  died 
probably  in  1523. 

ttlXwRnvXl  {Corrothravsfe^  viil/fnn'.i).  a  bird  of 
the  (Irosbcak  (<i.v. )  genus  and  the  Finch  family 
(  Frin;,'illid:e  ).  It  is  considerably  Larger  than  the 
chathnch  ;  the  adult  male  has  the  crown  and  b.ack 
chestnut-brown,  the  neck  and  brea.st  pale  brown, 
the  neck  crossed  at  the  back  by  a  broad  band  of 
ash  colour,  wings  partly  black,  greater  wing-coverts 


grayish-white,  le.s.ser  wing-coverts  black  or  blaikish- 
brown.  The  liawlincli  is  a  very  shy  bird,  perching 
on  the  topmost  branches  of  trees,  or  on  open  lioiighs 
where  it  can  commami  a  good  lookout,  and  avoid- 
ing man  unless  subiliieil  by  the  etVects  of  hunger  or 
colli.  It  is  gregarious.  It  feeds  on  the  fruit  of  the 
hornbeam,  plum,  pine,  idierry,  laurel,  holly,  haw- 
thorn, \c.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  some  parts  of 
England,  but  is  rare  in  Scotland.  It  is  widely 
distributed  over  Europe  and  the  temperate  parts  of 
.Asia,  and  is  saiil  to  1h?  fouml  in  Egypt. 

Ilawirk,  a  manufacturing  tiiwn  of  Hoxbiirgh- 
shire,  al  the  iniillucnce  of  the  Slitrig  with  the 
Teviot,  .Vi  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Edinburgh  and  45 
NNE.  of  Carlisle,  liiiilt  in  ami  round  a  hollow,  with 
vill.'is  and  mansions  above,  it  is  a  place  ol  hoar 
antii'iuity.  but  bears  few  traces  thereof  bevond  the 
Moat,  ail  artilicial  earthen  mound  30  feet  liigh  ami 
312  in  circumference,  and  part  of  the  Tower  Hotel, 
which,  once  the  peel-tower  of  the  Drumlaiiiig 
Douglases,  and  later  a  residence  of  Monmnuth's 
widowed  duchess,  wa.s  the  only  buililing  not  liiii  iieil 
by  the  Earl  of  Sussex  in  1570.  In  the  iieigliliour- 
hood  are  Itranxholm  and  Harden,  olil  homes  of  the 
Scotts  ;  and.  idder  than  either,  there  is  the  refrain 
of  the  .lune  Common  riding  song,  '  Terilms  ye  Teri 
( tdiii,'  which  carries  us  back  to  days  of  heatliemlom. 
Else,  all  is  modern — the  handsome  munici|ial 
buililing  ( 18S5) :  the  churches,  more  than  a  dozen 
in  number,  and  the  oldest  (1214)  rebuilt  in  1703; 
the  splendid  water-supply  (l.s(i5  82):  and  the 
hosiery  and  tweeil  mills,  to  which,  with  dye-works, 
tanneries,  \c,,  Hawick  owes  its  prosperity.  The 
hosiery  manufacture  dates  from  1771,  and  thai  of 
slie]>herds'  plaids,  tweeds,  blankets,  &c.  from  18.'i0. 
The  ancient  municipal  constitution  of  the  Imrgh, 
based  on  a  charter  granted  by  Sir  .lames  Douglas 
of  Drumlaiirig  in  l.">37.  and  continued  by  l^Mieen 
Mary  in  1545.  was  reformed  by  special  act  of  p.ar- 
iiaiiieiit  in  ISOl  ;  and  since  1807  Hawick,  Selkirk, 
and  (ialashiels  ( the  Holder  burghs)  have  returned 
one  member.  Pop.  (1861)  10,401;  (1881)  l(i.ls4; 
(1891)  19,204.  See  two  works  by  .James  AVilson 
(IS.50-58),  and  Mrs  Oliver's  Upper  2'cciotdaU  and 
the  Hcutts  of  liucclc  licit  ( 1887). 

HaM'k.  a  n.anie  often  given  to  almost  all  the  Fal- 
coiiiihe,  except  the  largest  eagles,  but  also  iimiI  in 
a  more  restricted  sense  to  designate  the  Acripitrine 
section  of  the  family,  and  for  the  most  part  refer- 
able either  to  the  goshawks  (Astur)  or  the  sparrow- 
liawks  (Accipiter).  Vnlike  the  true  falcons,  they 
have  an  nntoothed  bill.  The  wings  are  sliiut, 
somewhat  rounded,  and  very  concave  beneath,  and 
while  the  Might  is  rapiil  it  is  without  much  power 
of  soaring  or  gliding.  See  FalcuNIH.i:,  Cnsil.vWK, 
Sl'Al!i;iiw  HAWK. 

llawkbit  (Lcoiitodon),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
weedy  aspect  belonging  to  the  iiatur.al  order  Com- 
positic,  closely  related  to  and  formerly  united 
with  Dandelion  (i|.v. ),  from  which  it  lia-s  been 
seiiarated  on  .account  of  the  feathery  pappus.  The 
name  is  due  to  the  deep  tooth-like  lacer.ations  of 
the  leaves.  Sever.al  species  are  natives  of  liritain, 
and  these,  along  with  a  few  othei's  comprised  in 
the  genus,  are  widely  distributed  in  Europe  and 
I{ussian  .Vsia. 

Ila>vk«'.  Siu  ErtWAHi),  Lorij  Hawke  of 
TiiwroN  (1705-81),  was  the  son  of  a  lawyer  of 
good  middle-cla-ss  stock.  He  was  born  in  1705 
in  Lomhm.  and  entered  the  navy  while  very 
voung.  The  long  f^niet  which  followed  the  peace 
i)f  Ctreclit  gave  him  no  opporliinity  of  seeing 
active  service.  He,  however,  all.aiiied  the  rank  of 
coiuni.anilpr  in  17.33.  In  1744  he  comiiiamled  the 
Bcnrick  (70  guns)  in  the  lleet  umler  Ailmiral 
Mathews  which  was  lying  at  Hyeres  I'.ay  to  watch 
the  combined  French  and  Spanish  fleets  in  Toulon. 


HAWKE 


HAWKKU 


591 


In  tlie  clisjiracefiilly-conducted  battle  of  tlie  lltli 
Feliruary  of  that  year  tlie  lirnrirk  was  one  of  the 
few  sliips  which  were  handled  with  spirit.  HawU(^ 
followed  his  admiral  in  hearing;  down  ont  of  the 
line  of  battle  to  attack  the  Sjianish  ships  which 
formed  the  rear  of  the  allied  tleet.  This  movement 
was  considered  irrej,'iilar  according'  to  the  pedantic 
tactical  rules  of  the  time,  and.  conjoined  witli  his 
own  violent  conduct  to  his  subordinate  Lestock, 
])roved  ruinous  to  Admiral  Mathews,  lint  Hawke 
establislied  his  reputati(m  as  a  daring'  oliieer. 
The  Sjianish  line-of-battle  ship,  the  I'oilr.r,  the 
only  vessel  captured,  surrendered  to  the  Berwick; 
ami  it  was  not  Hawke's  fault  that  she  was  re- 
taken by  the  enemy.  In  1747  he  was  made  rear- 
admiral  of  the  white  squadron,  and  the  .same  year 
was  despatched  with  a  Heet  of  fourteen  sail  to 
intercept  a  French  convoy  of  'l^^i  merchant  ships 
known  to  be  leaving  for  the  West  Indies.  ()n 
the  14th  October  Hawke  caught  the  convoy  oti' 
Cape  Finisterre.  It  was  guarded  by  a  s(|uadron 
of  nine  ships  of  war  under  M.  L'Etenduere.  The 
French  admiral  formed  line  of  battle,  and  fought 
heroically  to  save  his  charge.  The  odds  were 
great — fourteen  English  shijis  with  7S4  guns  to 
nine  F'rench  with  556 — and  after  desperate  lighting 
six  of  L'Etenduere's  ships  struck.  Hut  he  saved 
his  convoy,  wliich  fled  during  the  battle.  In  the 
same  year  Hawke  became  member  of  jiarlianient 
for  Bristol.  By  1755  he  had  attained  the  rank  of 
full  admiral.  In  the  following  year  he  was  sent 
out  to  supersede  the  unhappy  Byng,  who  had  just 
disgraced  himself  and  his  country  at  Minorca. 
There  was,  however,  nothing  to  do  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. During  1757  and  1758  he  was  in  command 
in  the  Channel  directing  the  naval  half  of  the 
combined  operati(ms  on  the  French  coast  sent  out 
by  the  elder  Pitt.  His  great  feat — one  of  the 
greatest  ever  performed  by  a  British  admiral — 
came  in  1759.  During  that  year  the  French  were 
preparing  fleets  at  Brest  and  Kochefort  to  cover  an 
invasion  of  England.  The  Brest  fleet,  the  more 
powerful  of  the  two,  under  the  command  of  M.  de 
CimHans,  consisted  of  twenty  shijis  carrying  1412 
guns.  It  was  watched  by  Hawke  with  a  fleet  of 
twenty-three  ships  carrying  Kitili  guns.  On  the 
14th  November  the  English  fleet  was  driven  oft'  its 
station  by  a  succession  of  furious  gales,  and  .M.  de 
Contlans  seized  the  chance  to  slip  to  sea.  Hawke, 
who  h.-vd  anchored  at  Torbay,  liad,  however,  left 
lookout  frigates,  by  whom  he  w.as  informed  of  the 
sailing  of  the  French  admiral.  Coiududing  at  once 
that  M.  de  Conllans  would  make  for  Kochefort, 
Hawke  steered  to  cut  him  ofV  at  tj'nilieron.  His 
calculation  proved  accurate.  ( >ii  the  '20th  November 
he  caught  the  French,  and,  .although  it  w,as  blowing 
a  fre.sh  gale,  attacked  at  once.  The  battle  wa-s  one 
of  the  most  heroic  ever  fought  on  sea.  In  a  gale 
of  wind,  on  tlie  afternoon  of  a  November  day,  and 
with  one  of  the  most  terrible  coasts  in  the  worlil 
under  his  lee,  Hawke  forced  on  a  close  action.  A 
famous  story  tells  how  his  sailing  master  e.\]iostu- 
lated  at  the  order  to  take  the  flagsliip,  the  Ruijtil 
George  of  100  guns,  into  the  dangerous  Bay  of 
Quiberon  in  such  a  gale  and  in  the  dark,  and 
how  Hiiwke  replied  :  'Mr  Robinson,  you  have  done 
your  iluty  in  jiointing  out  the  danger  ;  you  are  now 
to  oliey  my  orders,  and  lay  me  alongside  the  French 
admiral.'  The  result  was  the  destruction  of  the 
French  fleet,  and  the  collapse  of  the  invasion 
scheme.  It  is  curious  that  Hawke,  who  had  been 
made  a  knight  for  the  eajiture  of  1/  Etendu^re■s 
squadron,  did  not  receive  the  jieerage  this  victory 
so  well  deserved  till  1776,  when  he  was  made 
Baron  Hawke  of  Towton.  It  is  just  possible  that 
the  freedom  with  wliich  he  rebuked  the  .Admiralty 
lor  its  management  of  the  Heet  may  have  had  some- 
thing to  do  with  the  delay.     He  was  Fii-st  Lord 


himself  in  the  administration  of  1765,  but  had  no 
further  chance  of  ilistinguished  sea  service.  He 
died  at  .Sliepperton,  Midille.se.x,  17th  October  17S1. 
See  the  e.xicllent  Life  by  Professor  Captain  Mon- 
tagu Burrows  (1883). 

Iln>vk«'r,  KiiBERT  StepHEX,  the  Cornish  poet, 
was  born  at  Plymouth,  December  3,  1.803.  His 
father,  then  a  physician,  afterwarils  t<iok  orders  ; 
his  grandfather,  the  Kev.  lUdiert  Hawker,  D.  D. 
(1753-1827),  the  author  of  the  well-known  Morn- 
i>iij  iind  Ereiiiiiri  I'urlloji.i,  was  for  fifty  years  a 
vicar  in  Plymouth.  He  was  a  bright  boy,  notable 
especially  for  high  sjiirits  and  an  inveterate  love 
for  practical  jokes.  He  had  his  education  at 
Liskeard  and  Cheltenham  graminar-school,  and 
entered  Pembroke  College,  O.xfoid,  in  1823  ;  Imt 
his  father,  now  a  curate,  soon  found  himself  unable 
to  keep  liim  at  Oxford.  Fortunately  this  ditli- 
culty  was  obviated  by  the  lad's  own  marriage 
( November  1824)  to  a  la<ly  of  some  fortune.  He 
was  not  yet  twenty-one,  while  his  wife.  Miss 
Charlotte  I'Ans,  wlio  had  been  his  godmother, 
was  forty-one.  With  her  he  returned  to  Oxford, 
migrating  to  Magdalen  Hall.  He  carried  off  the 
Newdigate  in  1827,  took  his  B.A.  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  was  ordained  priest  in  1831,  and  was 
presented  by  Bishop  Philljiotts  in  18.34  to  the  vicar- 
age of  Morwenstow,  a  small  village  on  the  wild 
north  Cornish  coast,  6 miles  N.  of  Biule  Haven.  Heie 
he  laboured  with  devotedness  for  forty  years,  lavish- 
ing charity  from  his  slender  means  upon  sliipwieckeil 
mariners  and  his  own  jioor  alike.  There  had  been 
no  resident  vicar  for  a  hundred  years,  the  (|Uiiint  oM 
church  and  the  vicarage  were  in  ruins,  and  the  par- 
ishioners were  demoralised  by  generations  of  wreck- 
ing, smuggling,  and  spiritual  ignorance.  Hawker 
rebuilt  his  vicarage,  restored  his  church,  roofing  it 
anew  with  shingles  in  spite  of  all  advice  and  o]ipo- 
sition  ;  built  and  maintained  a  schoid  ;  introduced 
the  strange  innovations  of  a  weekly  offertory  and 
a  harvest-thanksgiving,  as  well  as  a  striking  cere- 
monial largely  of  his  own  devising,  and  more  often 
suggesting  the  usages  of  the  Eastern  than  the 
Western  Church.  "S'et  he  never  felt  any  affinity 
with  the  modern  Bitualists,  but  indeed  lie  was  in 
every  sense  a  man  difficult  to  clas.s.  His  zeal  was 
hot  against  Wesleyanism  and  every  form  of  di.s-.cnt, 
for  his  sympathies  did  not  range  wider  than  his 
knowledge.  He  himself  shared  many  of  the  sujier- 
stitions  of  his  people,  believing  in  the  manifesta- 
tions of  spirits  and  in  the  influence  of  the  evil  eye. 
The  s])iritual  world  was  very  near  and  real  to  him  : 
.St  Morwenna  was  no  mere  member  of  the  choir 
invisible,  but  an  influence  that  could  still  affect  his 
everyday  life.  All  his  eccentricities  were  redeemed 
by  his  humanity,  his  humour,  and  his  tender  love 
for  children  and  for  animals.  His  manner  in 
preaching  is  described  as  rajit  and  awe-ins]iiring: 
but  his  theology  .sadly  l.-icked  logic  and  consistency. 
The  theologian  cannot  afford  to  allow  his  judgment 
to  lie  dominated  by  fancy,  but  in  |ioetry  the  ciuse  is 
altogether  different.  Here  Hawker  is  absolutely 
delightful,  with  simple  un.sought  pathos  and  ex- 
quisite imagery  mouhled  into  faultlessly  graceful 
form.  He  lias  both  the  gifts  of  sweetness  and 
sonority,  and  withal  manly  strengtli  and  vigorous 
phra-se  at  will.  His  Tendrils  bi/  liciibcii,  published 
at  seventeen,  he  had  the  good  sense  not  to  reprint  : 
but  by  his  Cornish  ballails  in  lUiurils  of  the  M  extern 
.S'// <«•(,(  1 8.32  ;  a  second  series  in  1836)  he  stamped 
himself  unmistakably  a  jioet.  The.se  were  repub- 
lished in  £o7i'jv'«  (1840);  with  some  additions,  as 
ReedA'  A'/uiKen  bi/ tlie  l(7Hrf(1843;  a  second  cluster 
in  1844);  and  vet  again,  along  with  Ocnorcni,  in 
Er/ioe.i  of  Old  Coriiirtdl  (1846).  In  1869  he  reiuib- 
lished  his  earlier  poems  in  Curiiis/i  BidUids,  anil  the 
(,hie.st  of  tlie  Saiigrml — the  latter  had  already 
appeared  in   1863.     His  Footprints  of  Former  Men 


692 


HAWKERS 


HAWKINS 


in  Contwidl  ( 1870)  wiu*  a  colU'Ctii)ii  of  Illi^<Cl■llaIR•l)ll^. 
papers  on  local  traditions.  None  of  Hawkfr's 
poems  is  lietter  known  than  liis  spirited  ballad  liaseil 
on  the  ol<I  Cornish  refrain  'And  shall  Trehnvney 
die?'  which  liolh  Sir  Waller  Seotl  and  Loril  .Mac- 
aulay  took  at  lirst  for  a  j^'cnuine  aiitii|ue. 

Hawker's  wife  died  in  Kehniary  IHti.'i— a  Mow 
which  drove  him  to  melancholy  ami  opinm,  from 
which  he  was  saved  only  hv  his  marria^'e  (  Deceni 
ber  I.S(>-l)to  Miss  I'anline  Ivuczynski,  daiiKhter  of 
a  I'olish  refiijiee  by  an  Kn;;lisli  mother,  and  then  a 
governess  in  a  clerical  friend's  house.  Slie  bore 
liini  three  danghtei-s,  and  nurseil  his  ileclinin^' 
yeai"s  with  rare  devotion.  Hawker  ilied  at  I'ly 
moiilh.  I.'itli  Au^;iist  IST."",  liavin;;  been  admitted 
less  than  twelve  liours  before  to  the  Koinan  Cath- 
olic eonimunion. 

Tlio  biography  by  the  Rev.  S.  Baring-Gould  (1876;  4th 
ed.  IK'.I'.I ),  was  severely  attacked  by  some  critics,  and  cer- 
tainly contains  irrelevances  enout^li ;  much  less  satisfac- 
tor)',  however,  is  tho  Memorials,  by  the  Kcv.  F.  G.  I.eo 
(1S7(;).  A  compute  edition  of  Hawker's  poems  was 
edited  in  \!<i'J,  with  a  sensible  short  life,  by  liis  friend 
J.  G.  Godwin,  who  also  edited  his  prose  works  (IS'JS). 

llawkoi'S,  also  called  l*i;i)I,.\H.S,  or  PeTTV 
ClI.M'MKX,  persons  who  ;^o  from  town  to  town,  or 
door  to  door,  selling;  jjoods,  wares,  or  merchandise, 
or  exercising  their  skill  in  handicraft.  A  consider- 
able change  hits  been  made  by  recent  legislation  in 
regard  to  this  cliuss.  Tlio-se  pedlars  e.\erei.sing 
their  calling  entirely  on  foot  have  been  se]iaratcly 
dealt  with  fnnn  haw  kers  who  enii>lov  one  or  mole 
beasts  of  bnrilen  in  their  business.  Tliefoot-peillars 
are  placed  under  the  surveillance  of  the  police, 
ami  are  exemjit  from  excise  duty.  Under  the 
Peillai-s  .\ct,  1S71,  any  pei-son  whatever  who  can 
satisfy  the  chief  ollicer  of  pidiee  of  the  police 
district  in  which  he  resides  that  he  is  of  good 
character,  is  above  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  has 
resideil  during  the  previous  inimth  in  the  district, 
will  receive,  on  due  application,  a  certilicate  valid 
for  a  year,  on  payment  of  live  shillings.  The 
I'edlars  Act,  1881,  provides  that  such  a  certilicate 
.shall  entitle  the  liohler  to  exercise  his  calling  in 
any  jiart  of  the  I'liited  Kingilom.  The  police  liave 
power  at  any  time  to  open  ami  search  the  jiacks, 
&c.  of  any  certilicated  pedlar,  with  a  view  to  jire- 
vent  ilishonesty  and  smuggling,  \e. ,  for  which 
tlie.v  have  much  opportunity.  They  have  an  ajipeal 
to  the  local  Justice  of  Peace  and  other  courts 
against  oppression  by  the  police. 

Ilawkci's  who  use  beasts  of  burden,  aiul  hawkei-s 
who  go  from  place  to  jilaee,  hiring  rooms  or  booths 
for  the  exhibition  of  their  wares,  are  in  .a  dill'erent 
category.  The  Hawkers  Act,  1888,  retiuires  them 
to  take  out  an  annual  or  half-yearly  license  from 
the  excise,  which  is  valid  all  over  the  kingdom. 
The,se  licenses  are  at  the  rate  of  £2  per  annum  ;  in'w 
licen.ses  are  granted  oiil.v  on  a  certilicate  of  good 
character.  A  hawker  is  in  no  c;use  entitled  to 
sell  s|iirits,  Imt  he  may  sell  tea  and  cotl'ee.  He 
must  not  sell  plated  goods  without  taking  out  a 
plate  license,  nor  must  he  sell  b.v  auction  withcml 
an  auctioneer's  license.  Any  person  hawking  un- 
provided with  a  license,  or  who  refuses  to  produce 
the  license  to  any  iierson  who  calls  for  it,  Ls  liable 
to  penalties  under  the  Act  of  1888.  Cominereial 
travellers,  book-agents,  sellers  of  fruit,  tisli,  victuals, 
or  coal,  also  sellers  in  fairs  or  markets  legally 
established,  do  not  require  either  licenses  or  certi- 
tieates,  though  it  must  be  sometimes  ditlicult  to 
define  whether  a  seller  comes  within  the  category 
of  a  pedlar  or  hawker. 

In  the  I'nited  St.ates  hawkers  are  generally 
re(piired  to  take  out  licenses,  under  the  local  laws 
of  the  several  states,  the  charges  of  course  varying. 
Moreover,  in  some  states  and  territories,  a-s  Florida 
and    Ariiioua,   and   in   the   District   of    Columbia, 


'drummers'  or  commercial  travellers  must  iiay  a 
license  of  from  .?'J.')  to  S'2(X» ;  while  in  Pennsylvania 
it  is  a  misdemeanour  to  sell  goods  unless  either 
the  agent  or  his  principal  be  a  taxnaycr  of  the 
state.  Put  in  many  states  no  such  law  has  ever 
been  enacted,  and  in  others,  as  in  .Montana  ami 
Nevada,  similar  acts,  although  on  the  statute  book, 
are  held  to  be  unconstitutional  and  are  not  enforced. 

Ilawko'.s  ltay«  a  provincial  district  of  New 
Xeahind.  on  the  east  coa-st,  between  Auckland 
and  Wellington.  Area,  476")  sq.  m.  ;  iioji.  (188()) 
'24,.')()8.  It  presents  rich  alluvial  plains  and  undulal 
ing  hills,  with  enormous  fmests.  The  bay  known 
as  Hawkc's  Pay  was  lii'st  entered  by  Captain  Coidi 
on  8tli  ( )ctobcr  \lti'.),  and  wius  so  naiucil  ;iftcr  Sir 
Kdward  Ilawke,  then  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 
It  is  almost  all  suitable  for  farming,  ami  the  fiuests 
are  of  enormous  extent.  Napier  (q. v.)  Ls  the  port 
and  chief  city. 

Ilawkesbliry,  a  river  of  New  South  Wales, 
rises  in  the  Cullarin  Paiige,  and  under  the  names 
of  Wollondilly  and  Ncpcan  Hows  NIC,  then  luiiis 
as  the  Hawkesliury  SR.,  and  enters  the  Pacilic  at 
Ih-oken  Pay,  aliout'JO  miles  NE.  of  Sydne^v.  Il  li:ui 
a  total  length  of  H.'tU  miles,  and  is  navigable  for 
vessels  of  100  tons  us  high  a-s  Windsor.  The 
Hawkesbury  is  crossed  by  a  steel  girder  briilge 
(188(>-89)  on  the  railway  between  Sy<lney  ami 
Newcjustle.  It  carries  a  double  line  of  rails,  and  is 
one  of  the  largest  structures  of  its  kind  in  the 
wcuhl,  having  seven  spans  of  from  410  to  41(1  fed, 
and  a  total  length  between  abutments  of  'JOOO  iVct. 
The  bridge  completes  the  system  of  railway  eoin- 
munication  between  llrLsbane  and  Adelaide. 

lla>vk«'S\V4>rtlli  .IhHN,  miscellaneous  writer, 
was  liorii  in  Koiulon,  |irobably  in  I7ir),  but  accord- 
ing to  another  account  in  171!).  Little  is  known  of 
his  early  life,  but  he  is  said  to  have  been  ajiprcnticcd 
successively  to  a  clockmaker  and  to  jin  attorney  ; 
and  for  his  eilucation  he  was  mainly  indebted  to  his 
own  pei'severance.  In  1744  he  suceeeded  I)r  .lohn- 
son  on  the  (•'intlcmaii's  Mdiiiiziiic ;  and  in  17.'>'i  he 
started,  with  .Jidinson  and  others,  a  successful 
l>eriodical  called  The  Adrciitiinr,  half  of  whose  140 
numbers  were  from  Hawkesworth'sow  n  pen.  .\sa 
reward  for  its  services  in  the  eau.se  of  morality  he 
received  from  the  Aichbislio|i  of  Canterbury  the 
degree  of  LL.  I ).  He  afterwards  ]mblislied  a  vidume 
of  fairy  tales  ( 17G1 ),  and  an  edition  of  Sw  ift's  works 
and  letters,  with  a  Life  that  .lohiison  praised  highly  ; 
and  he  wjus  chosen  by  Captain  Cook  to  prepare  the 
account  of  his  lii-st  voy.ige,  which  formed  vols.  ii. 
and  iii.  of  Hawkcsworth's  Vui/iu/cs  {'.i  vols.  177.'{), 
for  which  work  the  editor  received  lltiOOO  from 
governinenl.  He  died  mi  17th  Novemlier  177.'1. 
Hawkesworth  wiis  t<io  ardent  an  admirer  of  .John 
son  to  attemjit  consciously  to  imitate  him  m-  to 
avoid  doing  so  unconsciously.  Yet  his  chief  service 
to  literature  was  that  he  introduced  into  the 
popular  oriental  fictions  of  the  I8tli  century  the 
eiuse  of  familiar  writing,  ami  .so  put  an  end  to  the 
long  succession  of  dreary  and  liomli:ustic  narratives 
that  strutted  far  behind  in  the  track  of  Jiassclit^. 

llawkiii<;.    See  FALco.Mtv. 

Hawkins.  Siij  John,  an  Knglish  navigator, 
was  burn  at  Plymouth  about  \i>'.V2.  He  has  the 
unhappy  distinction  of  being  the  first  Englishman 
that  trafficked  in  slaves  (I.^O'i).  His  '  commercial ' 
career  closed  with  his  disastrous  third  voyage 
(1.567),  after  which  we  find  him  more  honouralily 
employed.  He  wjus  ajipointeil  treasurer  of  the  navy 
in  l.it.3,  knighted  for  his  services  against  the 
Sjianisli  Armada  in  loS8,  and  f(M-  the  rest  of  his  life 
was  engaged  in  making  havoc  of  the  Spanish  West 
Indian  trade.  In  loOi'i,  along  with  liis  kinsman 
Drake,  he  comnianiled  an  expedition  directed 
against  the  settlements  in  the  Spanish  Main,  but 


HAWKINS 


HAWKSBEE 


593 


die<l  at  Porto  l!ic<>,  Noveiiibei'  21,  in  the  same  year. 
See  Hakliiyt's  Voyurjcs  (iii. )  aud  Purclias's  Pil- 
(jrtmcs  ( iv. ). 

Hawkins  Sm  John,  author  (if  tlie  Histiirij  of 
MuJiic,  was  horn  at  London,  30th  March  1719,  the 
son  of  a  surveyor,  and  a  descendant  of  the  famous 
admiral.  Mred  an  attorney,  he  a<'i]uired  a  fortune 
tliroujih  liis  wife,  ami  withdri'W  from  firofefsional 
Work  ;  and,  beeoniiny;  an  active  magistrate,  was 
knij,dited  for  his  services  in  connection  with  riots  in 
ITtiS  and  1769.  He  collected  a  most  valuable  musi- 
cal library,  and  after  si,\teen  years  of  laborious 
research  produced  in  1770  his  (ieiienil  IH.slnrif  <if 
the  Science  nnil  I'mrtirr  ttf  Mnsii\  in  T^  vols,  (ju.arto 
— a,  work  of  admiltcdly  gnvit  and  accurate  scholar- 
ship, somewh.it  unsystematic  ami  tedious,  .and  as  a 
literary  performance  decidedly  inferior  to  IJurney's 
History  (which  bewail  to  ,a|)pear  at  the  same  time). 
It  was  much  abused  and  ridiculed,  but  is  a  work  of 
permanent  value,  and  was  reprinted  in  2  vols, 
in  1876.  Im  1760  Hawkins  issued  an  edition  of 
WaltonV  Aiiijirr.  Aiiorijiimil  memlierof  Dr. John- 
son's Ivy-lane  Club,  Hawkiu>  became  on  .Jolm 
son's  death  his  literary  e.xecutor,  and  iiublished  in 
1787  a  Life  of  I)r  Jolinson  and  an  edition  of  his 
works.  lie  died  21st  May  1780.— His  son,  John 
Sidney,  published  a  history  of  (iotbie  architecture; 
his  daughter,  L;etitia.  her  own  Jlcmoi/s,  with  many 
anecdotes  of  Dr  .lohnsou. 

Uawk-IllOth  (S/i/iiiii/ii/dj,  a  family  of  lepidop- 
terous  insects,  formin;;  along  with  the  clear-wijiged 
moths  (.Egeriiihc)  and  the  burnets  and  foresters 
(Zyga'nida')  the  tribe  Sidiinge.s.  They  have  stout 
bodie.s,  large  heads  with  prominent  eyes,  and  stout 
short  antenna'.  Tlie  wings  are  long,  narrow,  more 
or  less  pointed,  and  have  always  a  retin.icuhim. 
They  are  insects  gener- 
ally of  rapid  tiight,  and 
fly  about  in  the  twi- 
light ;  .some  species  also 
during  the  day.  Their 
caterpillars  aresixteen- 
legged,  fiat,  smooth. 
often  green,  with  trans 
verse  stripes  on  the 
sides  and  nearly  alw  ays 
a  horn  on  the  liack  of 
the  second  last  seg- 
ment. They  change 
to  pupiB  either  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground 
or  in  a  cell  under- 
ground which  they  form  for  the  purpose.  The 
common  species  of  the  Humming-bird  Hawk-moth 
[Macrofjlossii  ■stellatnnuii)  in  Britain  has  brown 
fore  wings  and  reddish  l.iwny  hind  wings,  and, 
unlike  all  other  hawk-moths  except  the  Bee  Hawk- 
moths  {Heinari.1  or  Sesia  fiiriformis  and  boinbijli- 
funiiis),  has  a  s])reading  tuft  of  hairs  at  the  end  of 
the  body.  Most  of  the  foreign  species  are  similarly 
coloured  ;  ,and  some  of  the  S^iuth  American  species 
resemble  humming-birds  so  closely  that  they  cannot 
on  the  wing  be  distinguished  froiu  them,  the  natives 
there  and  even  educated  whites  lirmly  believing  that 
tlie  one  is  transmutable  into  the  other.  Smerintliiis 
is  the  (mly  genus  of  the  British  hawk-moth  with 
dentated  wings.  One  of  the  most  remarkalile  hawk- 
moths  is  the  Death'.s-liead  (ij.v.)  (Arlirrotttiri 
utri>/)os),  the  largest  moth  found  in  Britain.  It 
sometimes  nieasuri'.s  nearly  si.\  inches  acro.ss  the  ! 
wings;  the  fore  wings  are  brown,  the  hinil  wings  ' 
pale  brown  with  black  b;inds  ;  and  on  the  back  of 
the  thorax  is  a  pattern  in  gray  and  black  having 
a  certain  resemblance  to  a  skull.  The  Privet 
Hawk-moth  {Sji/iinx  liijustri),  the  type  of  the 
family,  measures  about  four  inches  across  the 
lore  wings,  which  are  of  .a  pale  brown  colour 
•i-tii 


with  darker  markings ;  the  hind  wings  are  pale 
pink  crossed  by  three  black  bands.  Its  green 
caterpillar,  with  white  and  lilac  streaks  cm  the 
sides  and   a   black    horn   on   the   back,   feeds    on 


( 'att-qiilhii-  of  Hunniiing-bird 
Hawk-moth  ( Macrotjluasa 
stclli(tarum). 


HunmiinK-bird  and  Humming-bird  Hawk-moth 

{Macfo'jfn.i.^a  stiilatarum  )  (after  Bates). 

jirivet  and  lilac,  and  the  jjosition  it  assumes  when 
resting  suggested  that  of  the  mythidogical  Sphinx 
to  the  old  naturalists,  who  applied  this  name  to  the 
insect. 

Hawks,  Francis  Lister,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  at  New  Berne,  North  Carolina.  lOtli 
June  17t)S,  |uactiscd  law  for  a  time  with  success, 
liut  ill  1S27  was  ordained  to  the  Episcopal  ministr>-. 
He  was  professor  of  Divinitv  at  Washington  (now 
Trinity)  College,  Hartfoiil.' in  18.30-.31.  and  after- 
wards rector  of  churches  in  New  York,  New  Orleans, 
and  Baltimore.  He  died  in  New  \'ork,  Sejitember 
26,  1866.  In  18.36  he  went  to  England,  and  there 
obtained  18  fidio  vols,  of  MSS.  relating  to  the  Epis- 
copal Church  in  America,  of  which  he  had  been 
appointed  historiographer.  In  18.36-39  he  published 
2  vols,  of  Cuiitrihiitions  tn  f/ic  Ecclesiaslii-nl  Histonj 
of  the  Uiiitifl  States,  dealing  with  A'irginia  anil 
Maryland.  Among  his  other  works  are  a  Com- 
mrtilari/  (in  the  Constitution  and  Canons  { 1841  ),  and, 
with  Bishop  Ferry,  Docnnientari/  llislonj  of  the 
Protestant  Kpijicopal  Ch  iirch  (  vols.  i.  and  ii.  186.3-64  ); 
and  he  edited  Alexander  Hamilton's  state-pa|iers 
(1842),  Commodore  Perry's  Ex/iedition  to  Ja/Min 
(  1852  .■)4).  and  Appletons  Cyclopiedia  of  Bioaraphy 
(1856). 

HaMksbeard  (Cre/iis).  .a  genus  of  annual  and 
biennial  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Couiposita',  so  closely  related  to  Hawkweed 
(Hieracium)  that  some  of  the  sjiecies  are  referred 
to  the  one  genus  or  the  other  according  to  the 
peculiar  views  of  individual  botanists.  The.si)ecies 
are  widely  distributed  through  Europe  and  .Asi.o. 

Ilawksb»'e.  or  Haiksbek',  Fk.vnti.s,  physicist, 
wa--  already  a  well-known  experimentalist  when 
in  170.-)  he  was  admitted  a  I-'ellow  of  the  Hoyal 
Society,  and  he  died  .soon  after  1713.  (Not  to 
be  confuseil  with  him  is  Fraiu'is  Hawksbee  the 
younger,  1687-1763,  apparently  his  son,  who  wa> 
also  an  electriei.an  ami  -.killed  lustrument-maker, 
ami  was  in  1723  apiioinled  clerk  and  housekeeper 
to  the  Koval  Society.)  Hawksbee  the  elder 
carrieil  furtlier  the  tentative  observations  by  Dr 
(Jilbert  and  Boyle  on  the  subject  of  electricity,  and 
by  his  experiments  laid  the  scientilie  foundations  of 
that  Ijranch  of  knowledge.  He  contributed  forty 
three  meimiirs  to  the  Phitosofihieot  'I'ransaetion\. 
chiefly  on  chemistry  and  electricity,  between  1704 
aiul  1713.  His  chief  independent  work,  published  in 
1709,  w;is  entitled  Physico-Merhaniral  E.rfirriments 
on  i?orioiis  Sultjeels  :  toiirhintj  I.iqht  anil  Electricity 
j/ror/ncil>le  on  the  Attrition  of  hor/irx.  He  is  also 
well  known  as  the  improver  oi  the  earlier  air-pumps 


594 


HAWKWKKD 


IIAWTHOHNE 


Orange  Hawk  weed 
{Hierarimn  aurantiacinn) 


of  Boyle,  Papin,  ami  Hooke,  and  as  the  lintt  who 
used  -.'Inss  in  the  elwtrieal  iiiachine. 

lla>vk>V«'*'d  ( lliiritriiiiii ),  a  ^."•inis  "f  plants  i>S 
the  natural  urder  CoiuposiUe,  submclcr  C'iclioraceji'. 

The  species  are 
|>ereiinial  herlis 
of  no  popular 
Interest  with 
the  exception 
of  the  <  >ran;;i" 
Hawkweed  (  J/. 
II  u  rmttitii'iiiit ). 
a  native  of  the 
.-.outli  of  V.\\- 
rope,  which  on 
account  of  its 
h  a  n  d  s  o  ni  c 
orange  flowers 
is  freiiiientlv 
cultivateil  in 
garilens.  The 
jiopular  name 
IS  founilcd  on 
an  ancient  he 
lief  that  hirds 
of  i)rey  used 
the  juice  of 
the  species 
to  strenj^then 
their  vision. 
The  En>;lish  name  Hawkirecd,  the  fJcrnian 
Habirht.slriiiil,  and  the  l-"ic>ncli  f^pern'i'rr  all 
testify  to  this  curious  helief  having  beeu  formerly 
universally  entertained. 

Hawkwood.  Sih.Iohn,  Italianised  LAciToor 
L'A<;rTi>,  an  English  captain  w  lio  won  j;reat  renown 
and  much  riches  as  a  condottiere  in  Italy  in  the 
wars  of  the  14th  century,  was  the  son  of  a  well-to- 
do  tanner  of  Sihlc  lledin^diani,  in  Es.sex.  Havinj' 
embraced  the  calling  of  arms,  he  distin),'uished 
himself  at  the  battles  of  Crci-y  and  I'oitiei-s. 
thereby  winning  the  favour  of  the  IJlack  I'rincc  ; 
he  was  knighted  by  Edward  111.  After  peace 
wa-s  sigiieil  at  Bretigny  ( ISliO)  he  gathered  a  band 
of  mercenary  soldiers  and  led  them  to  Italy,  where 
he  at  hrst  took  .service  with  Pisa  against  Florence. 
Then,  after  fighting  in  most  of  the  petty  Italian 
wars  of  the  period,  notably  for  the  Visconti  and  for 
Pope  (hegory  XI.,  he  agreed  to  light  the  battles 
of  Florence  in  return  for  an  annual  iiension.  Hi> 
last  years  were  spent  in  the  neigldiourhood  of 
Florence,  and  there  he  died  in  i:?!14,  and  wa.s 
honoured  with  a  magnihcent  public  funeral.  See 
Nichols  Jiibl.  To/iiiif.  Ilrit.,  vol.  vi. ;  T<Mniile  Leader 
and  Marcotti's  Lifi  ( Eng.  trans,  by  .\Irs  Leader 
Scott,  1SS9);  and  l,hiiiiiti/i/  Jteneir  {.\a.u.  1890). 

Hawortb<  a  moorland  village  in  the  West 
Hiding  of  Yorkshire,  4  nnle.s  SSW.  of  Keighley  by 
a  branch-line.  The  old  church  ha-s  lieen  ruthlessly 
demolished,  but  in  the  churchyard  are  the  graves 
of  Charlotte  and  Emilv  Hrontc.  Pop.  3816.  See 
Havorth,  I'aM  nml  Present  (Bradford,  1889). 

Hawse  (akin  to  Icel.  hah,  '  the  neck  '),  ]>art  of 
a  ves.sers  bow,  in  which  the  linir.sr  Imles  are  cut. 
Through  the  hawse-holes  the  cables  jias-s  which  hold 
a  ve.s.sel  when  she  is  niooretl  with  two  anchors  out 
forward — one  on  the  starboaril,  the  other  on  the 
port  bow.  —Hoirser  is  a  small  cable  or  a  large  rope. 
Hawtliurn  ((-'riitiripi.i  ox-yncaiithd  :  see  Cra- 
TjKiil's),  a  shrub  or  small  tree,  a  native  of  Euro)ie. 
Siberia,  and  the  ncu-tli  of  Africa,  common  in 
Britain,  and  much  planted  iMitli  for  hedges  and 
for  ornament.  It  varies  in  height  from  B  or  8 
to  20  or  25  feet.  It  has  roundish  obovate  thrcc- 
to  five-lolwd  deciduous  leaves,  and  corymbs,  gener 
ally  of  white,  rose-ccdoureil  or  sonietinu's  deep 
crimson   Mowers,   succeedeil   by   a  small   red  fruit 


(hairs)  with  yellow  pulp,  the  central  stony  part 
Iwaring  a  very  large  proportion  to  the  pulp.  Tliere 
are  many  varieties  of  hawthorn,  an<l,  curiously 
enough,  siune  have  only  one  stvle,  whilst  some 
have  several.  The  variety  calleil  Cla-stonbury 
Thorn— becanse  supposed  to  have  originated  at 
(ilaslonbury  (<i.v.)  is  remarkable  for  il»  early 
llowering,  whicli  often  takes  jilacc  in  the  ndddle 
of  winter,  whilst  the  common  kind  is  not  in  flower 
till  .May  or  .liini-.  The  wintiM  flowers  of  the 
(Ihuslonoury  variety  are,  hi>wever,  nol  gencriilly 
followed  by  fruit,  ami  a  secoml  flowering  often 
lakes  place  in  the  same  year.  The  coiiinion  haw- 
thorn is  often  popularly  called  .l/m/,  from  the 
sea.son  of  its  flowering  in  Englaml.  It  is  also  called 
Wliililliiirii,  in  contrailislinction  to  Ibe  Sloe  m 
Blackthorn.  The  perfume  of  the  lilosMims  is 
strong  but  delicious.  The  use  of  the  hawthorn  for 
hedges  is  almost  universal  in  Britain.  It  has  al.so 
sometimes  been  employed  as  a  stock  on  which  to 
graft  ap|des  and  other  Pomacea'.  Several  double- 
flowered  and  select  single-flowered  varieties  are 
propagated  by  budding  ami  grafting  for  the  adorn- 
ment of  lawns  and  plcjusnre  grounds.  .\  I'lrmcnted 
liquor,  which  is  very  intoxicating,  is  made  fnun 
the  fruit  in  many  parts  of  France.  For  the  Cock- 
sjiur  Thorn  of  North  .-Vmerica,  and  the  Pyracantli 
Thorn,  see  C'RA'i'.-EtiUS. 

The  hawthorn  is  particularly  valuable  a--  a 
hedge  plant,  in  consequence  of  its  strong  :ind 
l)lentifnl  ^jiines,  its  long  life,  and  its  reaily  adapla- 
tiim  to  very  various  soils.  F<U'  this  i)uriiose  it 
is  ]iropagateil  by  seed  :  the  haws  are  lahl  in  a  heap 
to  rot,  with  a  nnxtiire  of  saml  or  fine  mould,  .'Uid, 
in  a  vear  or  sixteen  nmnths  after,  the  seeds  are 
sown  in  ground  carefully  prepared.  The  young 
plants  are  kept  clear  of  weeils,  and  often  grow  to 
the  height  of  a  foot  or  two  feet  in  the  lirst  season 
(see  llEDM-:).  Hawthorn  hedges  bear  trimming 
very  well.  Young  hawthorn  plants  arc  called 
fjiiirLs  or  ijiiic/.scts,  because  used  to  make  li\ing 
(ijiiirl.)  fence.s. 

.An  <dd  English  tradition  regards  Christ's  crown 
of  tlnuns  a-s  made  of  hawthorn  :  for  the  same  reason 
the  French  call  it  '  I'cpine  noble.'  In  south  (ler- 
many  the  tradition  pointed  to  blackthorn,  as  eUe- 
where  to  some  kind  of  buckthorn.  Whitethorn 
was  much  favoured  by  fairies,  old  and  lonely  thorn- 
trees  l«'ing  regarded  as  their  trysting-places. 

Hawthorne.  Nathaniel,  American  author, 
born  duly  4,  I8ft4,  at  Salem,  Mas-sjichusetts.  He 
was  desceniled  from  English  Separ-  co|>)-rigiit  imio  in  r.it. 
atist  stock,  and  the  character  of  i)  .i  b.  lippUk-ou 
his  ancestry  seems  to  have  made  cmpany 
an  early  and  enduring  impression  on  his  thoughts. 
This  impressicm  <lid  not  lead  him  to  follow  out 
.and  exemplify  in  his  own  career  their  ukhIcs  of 
action,  but  rather  cause<l  him  to  turn  and  reflect 
upon  the  nature  of  his  preilecessors  and  the 
1  conditions  anjid  which  they  liveil.  Probably  we 
owe  to  this  inclination  the  singular  interest  and 
!  penetrating  i|uality  of  vividness  with  which  he  im- 
bued his  scenes  from  early  New  England  life  ;  and 
the  intensity  of  concentration  which  he  ap|>lieil  in 
dealing  with  moral  problems  in  his  romances 
reveals  in  him  the  character  of  the  modernised 
Puritan.  The  lirst  .American  Hawthorne  (or.  iis 
the  name  was  then  spelled,  Hathornc)  wjis 
William,  who  migiateil  from  Englaml  (  Wiltshirer), 
in  1630,  to  Salem  in  New  England,  where  he 
became  a  leader  of  the  coloni.al  soldierv'  and  a 
magistrate,  ilistingnishol  for  both  bravery  and 
eliM|uence.  'The  figure  of  that  first  ancestor,' 
wrote  Hawthome,  in  his  sketch  of  TIk-  Custom- 
house. ■  invested  by  family  tradition  with  a  dim 
and  ilusky  grandeur,  was  present  to  my  boyish 
iiiiagiriation  as  far  back  as  I  can  remendicr. ' 
William   Hawthome  tiiok  part  in  the  persecution 


HAWTHORNE 


595 


of  the  Quakers.  His  sou  John,  also  a  iiiilitary 
officer  and  magistrate,  presided  at  the  faiimiis 
trials  of  the  Sali-in  witchciaft  cases.  Daniel,  the 
author's  ^'landfather,  was  a  nieniher  of  an  .Vmeri- 
can  regiment,  and  also  commanded  a  jirivateer,  in 
the  war  of  the  Kevohition  against  Great  Ihitain. 

Daniel's  son  Nathaniel,  a  silent,  reserved, 
severe  man,  of  an  athletic  and  rather  slender 
huild,  and  hahitnally  of  a  rather  melancholy  cast 
of  thought.'  became  a  I'aptain  in  the  merchant 
marine;  the  family  having  suH'ered  a  de(dine  of 
fortune,  and  the  male  memhers  njostly  following 
the  sea.  He  died  when  his  s(m  Nathaniel,  the 
suhject  of  this  article,  was  hut  four  years  old.  His 
widow,  a  woman  of  great  relinement  and  religious 
sensibility,  lived  always  afterwards  in  close  retire- 
nient  and  straitenifd  circumstances,  with  her  two 
daughters  and  her  son  Nathaniel,  who,  from  his 
ninth  to  his  thirteenth  year,  was  somewhat  con- 
tined  by  an  accidental  lameness.  His  intense  love 
of  reading  was  doubtless  fostereil  by  the.se  condi- 
tions. .\t  fourteen  he  went  with  his  nmther  to  a 
lonely  farm  in  the  woods  of  Kayniond,  Maine ; 
forming  theie,  as  he  thought,  that  habit  of  soli- 
tude which  became  one  of  his  permanent  traits, 
but  was  probably  inherited  in  part  from  his  father. 
He  was,  however,  a  healthy,  happy  lad,  given  to 
outdoor  sports  and  e.vercise,  and  quite  free  from 
morbidness  in  spite  of  his  fomlness  for  solitude. 
In  Raymond  he  began  to  keep  note-books,  record- 
ing his  observations  ;  a  practice  which  he  resumed 
in  later  life  and  continued  through  the  greater 
part  of  his  career.  .At  Bow-doin  College,  where  he 
graduated  in  the  class  of  IS'25,  with  the  ]ioet  Long- 
fellow, he  took  a  good  rank,  and  gave  iironounced 
signs  of  his  tendency  to  authorship,  having  begun 
his  lirst  novel  during  his  undergraduate  course. 
I'ut  the  conditions  in  the  United  States  were  at 
that  perioil  unfavourable  to  authorship  as  a  pro- 
fession, and  his  progress  was  slow.  After  his  re- 
turn to  Salem  he  shut  himself  up  for  twelve  years 
'in  a  heavy  seclusion,'  writing  tales  and  verses. 
Of  the  latter  few  have  survived.  In  1828  he  pulj- 
lished  anonymously  his  tirst  novel,  Fiiiishnire, 
which  was  unsuccessful.  Continuing  to  contribute 
to  aimuals  and  magazines,  under  various  pseu- 
donyms that  made  it  still  more  ditticult  for  him  to 
become  known,  he  edited  in  1830  a  short-lived 
periodical  for  S.  G.  Goodrich,  for  whom  also  he 
wrote  Peter  Pur/ei/s  Utiirernid  Historij,  an  enor- 
mously prolitalile  publication,  of  which  (Goodrich 
figured  as  the  author  and  took  the  proceeds,  while 
Hawthorne  received  only  one  hundred  dollars. 

Meanwhile  some  of  his  short  fictions  h.ad  gained 
such  favourable  notice  from  the  London  At/nii'i'iim 
that  in  IS.ST  a  group  of  them,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  Tin'crto/i/  Tiilcn,  was  issued  in  one  volume, 
the  risk  of  which  was  assumed,  without  the  know- 
ledge of  Hawthorne,  by  his  frienil  and  classmate, 
H.  N.  Bridge.  This  book,  which  an  inqiartial  and 
competent  critic  has  said  '  marked  a  distinct  epoch 
in  American  literature,'  was  reviewed  with  liigh 
praise  by  Longfellow,  and  substantially  made  the 
i>eginning  of  Hawthorne's  fame.  Yet  he  still  had 
long  to  wait  for  its  fullilment.     The   full  force  of 


the  new  author's  genius  w.is  by  no  means  appre- 
ciateil  in  his  own  country  ;  and  diligent  though  he 
was  with  his  ])cii,  he  was  still  unable  to  live  by  it. 
In  danuary  18;W  the  historian  Bancroft,  then  col- 
lector of  the  piu-t  of  Boston,  appointed  him  weigher 
and  ganger  in  the  customhouse,  which  post  he 
held  until  early  in  1S41.  In  .\pril  he  allied  him 
self  with  an  industrial  as.sociation  at  Brook  Farm 
(ij.v.),  near  Boston,  fouiuled  by  Dr  (Jeorge  Bipley 
(afterwards  .-i  distinuuisbi'd  critic),  with  a  number 
of  highly  cultivated  nu-n  and  women,  among  whom 
were  (Jeorge  William  Curtis,  Charles  .\.  Dana,  and 
Margaret  Fuller.     The  object  was  to  establish  an 


idyllic,  semi-socialistic  community,  in  which  every 
member  should  do  manual  labour  and  share  profits 
in  common,  while  carrying  on  his  or  her  chosen 
intellectual  work,  and  maintaining  in  the  commu- 
nity a  separate  single  <M-  family  life.  Hawthorne, 
who  was  about  to  marry,  had  some  hope  of  making 
his  home  here,  lint  linding  the  experiment  unsatis- 
factory he  withdrew.  Sleanwhile  he  wrote  and 
published  in  three  parts  a  series  of  simple  stories 
for  children,  from  New  Englanil  hi.story — viz. 
I iniiiil father's  Vlioir,  Fiiiiiuiis  Old  I'eaple,  and 
LHteriy  Tree  (18-H).  In  July  1842  he  wedded 
Sophia  .Amelia  Peabody,  of  Salem,  his  union  with 
whom  became  one  of  the  rarest  ami  most  beauti- 
ful chapters  in  the  annals  of  ha])|)y  marriages.  No 
account  of  Hawthorne  wo\ild  be  complete  which 
failed  to  lay  stress  upon  his  marria;^e  to  this  lady, 
who,  as  their  son  Julian  has  written.  •  was  a  bless- 
ing and  an  illumination  wherever  she  went  :  and 
no  one  ever  knew  her  without  leceiving  from  her 
far  more  than  could  be  given  in  return.' 

Removing  to  Concord,  .Massachusetts,  he  issued 
Biutirajtliinil  Sturies  (1842)  for  children,  brought 
out  an  enlarged  two-volume  edition  of  the  'lun-e- 
told  Tiden  (1842),  and  lived  for  four  years  in  the 
old  colonial  manse,  previously  occupied  by  the 
ancestors  of  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  and  by  Emer- 
s(m  himself,  overlooking  the  held  of  the  hrst  battle 
of  the  Kevohition.  Here  he  ilwelt  hapiuly,  preserv- 
ing his  old  custom  of  comparative  isolation,  and, 
seeing  but  little  of  his  famous  neighbours  Emer- 
son and  Thoreau.  He  wrote  many  sketches  and 
studies  for  the  Demorratir  llericir.  These  formed 
the  Mosses  f rum  tin  Old  Manse  ( 1846).  But  he  was 
(loorly  paid,  or  not  at  all.  The  A'c/cfc  failed  :  and, 
as  he  had  lost  all  his  previous  savings  invested  at 
Brook  Farm,  he  was  forced  to  leave  tliis  himie,  and 
accept  a  jdace  in  the  custom-house  again— this 
time  as  surveyor,  in  his  native  town.  Salem.  The 
jdace  was  uncongenial,  and  for  nearly  four  years 
he  renuiined  silent  as  an  author.  But  by  the 
expiration  of  his  term  he  had  com])leted  (  February 
1850)  T/ie  Searlet  Letter,  which  at  once  gained  great 
renown,  and  still  remains  ])erhaps  the  best  known 
of  his  works.  It  did  not.  however,  bring  him 
pecuniary  ease.  Hiring  a  small  house  at  Lenox, 
3lassachusetts,  be  entered  upon  a  ]diase  of  remark- 
able productivity,  showing  that  he  had  needed 
only  encouragement  and  recogniticm  to  bring  his 
powers  into  full  play.  At  Lenox  he  wrote  The 
Ildtise  of  the  Seren  Galiles  ( 1851 ),  which  added  to 
his  celebrity  and  po]>ularity  ;  also  The  Wonder 
liool:,  a  recast  of  classic  legends  for  children 
(1851):  and  pre|>ared  The  Snoie  Imatje.  \\\\\i;\i  was 
not  imblisheil  until  1852.  In  the  winter  he  wrote 
at  A\  est  Newton  Tlie  lilithedale  Itonianee,  v\hich 
incidentally  drew  colouring  fr<UM  the  Brook  Farm 
episode,  though  in  no  way  attem|)ting  to  depict  it 
as  a  fact.  Having  bought  at  Concord  a  small 
house,  w  Inch  he  christened  "The  Waysi<le,'  he  settled 
there  in  the  summer  of  I8.'i2.  ami  wiote  a  Life  of 
tieneral  Franklin  I'ierce,  his  old  college  friend, 
who  had  been  nominated  for  the  presidencv  of  the 
Inited  States.  Immediately  afterwanls  lie  com- 
pleted Tan<ileu-ood  Tides,  a  contintiation  of  I'he 
Wonder  Book  ;  hut  this  appeared  first  in  I8.i3. 

Pierce,  on  his  inauguration  as  ]iresidenl  in  March 
KS.").'),  named  Hawthorne  to  be  consul  at  Liverpi>ol, 
a  lucrative  office  which  his  experience  in  the 
custom-house  qualilied  him  to  fill.  The  appoint- 
ment was  conlirmed  by  the  senate  :  and  although 
Hawtlnnne  had  resolveil  to  accejit  nothing  from 
the  president,  and  much  pei-suash)n  had  to  be  used 
to  change  his  mind,  he  linally  took  the  appoint- 
ment, and  saileil  for  Liverpool,  midsummer.  18.)3. 
He  held  the  consulate  until  near  the  close  of  18.">7, 
attending  closely  to  his  duties,  but  spending  part 
of  the  time  in  London,  and  visiting  various  portions  , 


59(; 


II  AW  IIIOKNK 


IIAV 


of  Eii<;lHnil  mill  Soutlaiwl.  A  >>ojuiirn  uf  a  year  and 
a  half  ill  Kiniir  iiml  KIi>reiu-c,  iK-niiiiiirif;  .laniiiiry 
ISoS,  suip|ilii'(l  iiiiii  with  llif  iiiattiiaU  loi  ii  iiiw 
Miiiaiu-i-,  Till  Miiihli  Fiiiiii,  lii-ttcr  known  in 
Kni-lHiiil  as  Till iisfuniiiit inn,  whitOi  hi-  wnitf  al 
Keih-ar.  Voiksliin-,  in  tin'  aiitiiiiin  of  1S,V.1.  ami  piili 
lisliod  in  IStH).  In  .lnni'  "f  this  year  he  letnriicil 
t<i  ('oncDi'il.  wIh'Ii-  apiiriiarhiiif;  illhealtli.  ami  the 
nu'iilal  ilcpn-ssiiin  ranseil  liy  the  iinthn-ak  of  civil 
war  in  tlii'  I'liitcil  States,  iniiiciled  his  etlorts  al 
liteiaiy  coniposilion.  He  wrote,  however,  a  nnniUer 
of  liriiliaiit  papers  eiiihoilyin^'  ohservations  anil 
ex|H'rienees  in  Kn^lainl.  wliieli  were  printed  in  the 
Atluiilir  Mmillilit,  and  then  issnetl  in  the  voliiine 
Our  Olil  Hoiiie  (  l,S6:M.  He  also  he'.'an  a  new 
roniJinee.  fonmleil  on  the  idea  of  an  elixir  ol 
iniinorlality.  It  reinained  nnlinished  at  his  death, 
wliieh  oeenrred  in  the  ni;.'lit  of  May  IS,  18()4,  at 
I'lynionth.  Ni'W  Ilani|ishire.  whillier  lie  had  ^'oiie 
on  a  jonniey  in  scanh  of  health,  with  his  friend 
ex-president  I'ieiee.  He  was  Imried  at  Concord, 
Mas-sachnsetts.  May  '24,  in  a  spot  near  which  are 
the  f^iaves  of  Knieison  anil  Thoreau. 

In  his  style  he  early  developed  that  maturity  of 
dij;iiilieil  roniposme,  free  from  roiistraint  or  ad'ecta- 
tioii.  and  that  lurid  ivpression,  whiih  are  anioiif; 
its  most  ehaiarleiistie  traits.  With  little  faculty 
for  the  harmonies  of  verse,  he  hail  a  sin^'nlar  com- 
mand over  the  iiinsical  qnalities  of  prose,  enahlinjr 
him  to  produce  periods  lemarkatile  for  their  sonorous 
richness  ami  delicate  cadences,  that  sometimes  raise 
them  almost  to  the  plane  of  poetry,  yet  never  destroy 
their  character  as  prose  liy  interjcctin^f  tlicaclnal 
rliytlims  of  verse.  .Mthim^jh  exceptionally  titled 
for  conveying;  siilitleties  of  thou;.'ht  and  fanta.sy, 
his  style  is  eipially  adapted  to  the  comprehension 
of  children,  liein^  invariahl.v  clear,  and  stron^dy 
marked  li.v  common  sense.  Another  noticeahle 
peculiarity  is  that,  in  the  entire  ran^;e  of  his 
writinj,'s.  i|iiotation  is  almost  never  lesorted  to; 
the  author's  mind  liein;,'  apparently  so  self ceiitreil 
that  its  originality  felt  no  need  of  aid  or  illustra- 
tion from  other  writers.  The  superlative  merits  of 
Hawthorne's  style  were  hut  slowly  reco^rnised  in 
his  own  country  :  hut  his  fame  has  rapidly  and 
steadilv  increased  since  his  death.  Several  of  his 
works  liave  heeii  translated  into  lorei;;ii  lan;;ua^'es  : 
and  he  is  now  ^eneiallv  estceiiicd  jis  one  of  the 
greatest  ima^rinalive  minds  of  the  century,  holdin;^' 
a  place  in  the  liist  laiik  among  masters  of  modern 
English  prose. 

The  personal  appearance  of  Hawthorne  was  tall, 
vigorous,  and  cominanding.  rowerfnl  physically, 
and  ill  every  way  a  strong  specimen  of  manhood, 
he  yet  in  his  manner  and  presence  showed  the 
geiilleiiess  of  a  woman.  His  intimates  were  few. 
hut  with  them  he  Wiis  a  genial  comrade.  ;is  he  wiis 
also  a  delightful  companion  in  his  household.  The 
union  in  him  of  strength  and  sensitiveness  has 
Iwen  well  descrilied  l>y  James  Uiissell  Lowell  : 

t'irsl.  lie  from  syiiiiwtli.v  still  ln'Iit  aimrt 
IJ.v  sliriiikin^,  over-i-a^emciw  of  lieart- 
Xew  Eii;;t-iii<I's  |M)*ft,  soul  resorviKi  and  deep, 
Xovi-inlMT  nature  witti  a  name  of  May. 

The  hest  extant  jiortraits  of  llawthorne  are  the 
photographs  taken  hy  Mayall  of  London  in  May 
IStiO.  One  of  these  w.is  engniveil  in  HnrpciK 
Mmiiizliie  for  .Inly  1SS(!:  another  in  the  Centurij 
Miiij'iziiii-  for  .May'  1SS7. 

A  preliminary  version  of  the  unHuislied  romance  was 
edited  liy  his  daughter  riui,  liis  eldc-^t  child,  with  the  aid 
of  Robert  Brownin;:,  and  was  published  under  the  title 
o{  Septiniiii!*  Filtoii  (  1S72).  Anntlier  version,  edited  V»y 
his  son  -Jidi.in,  appeared  as  Dr  frriinshairn  Sfcret  I188S). 
Both  these  forms  liaii  been  abamluncH  by  the  author, 
who  left  in  SIS.  portions  of  the  work  .-vs  he  meant  to 
complete  it,  T/if  Doffinr  Romance  (1-**'6I.  His  widow 
(who  died  in  London,  February  2(>,  1S71)  edited  and 
|.ublished  his  American  A'ole-lxtuk*  (IStiS),  Kiigliah  Note- 


books  (1870),  and  French  oiu/  Italian  Nolc-bookt  (1871 ) ; 
Itesides  bringing  out  a  volume  of  her  own  Notrg  in  Knijfand 
mill  Itiihi  ( l.stis).  Cleorge  l*arsons  l.jtthrop,  wbo  married 
Hawthoriie's  younger  daughtiT  Hose,  pidili^hed  A  Stmly 
uf  JJiiirtlmnii  (lf*7ti),  eoiitainiiig  iimny  biographical 
details,  and  edited  the  Hiverside  edition  of  the  cuitiplete 
works,  with  notes-  and  a  sketch  of  the  author's  life 
(11  vols.  18«3).  Kose,  the  second  daughter  niid  youngest 
child  (bom  in  lx."il,  married  1871 ),  has  also  iiiiide  niiiner- 
oils  contributions  to  periodicals  in  prose  and  verse,  and 
pubhshed  in  ls.'*8  u  volnine  of  iioeins  entitled  Alimfi 
lilt  Short.  Vna,  the  eldest  child,  born  in  1H44,  died  in 
London  in  1^77.  Julian  Hawthorne  issued  a  complete 
memoir  of  his  father,  Natltanirl  Hairtlmrne  anil  hi* 
Wifr  (2  vols.  18.S3).  Ilenrj'  James,  junior,  published  a 
brilliant  but  unsympathetic  iiionogniph  on  Hawtlionic 
(187y):  James  Uussell  I^well  a  short  life  (1890);  and 
Moncure  Conway  one  in  181X1.  See  also  the  Fertonal  He- 
collecliims  of  Horatio  Bridge  (18'J3). 

.Ifl-IAN  H AWTlliiHNK.  his  son,  was  horn  at 
Huston,  Massachusetts,  .luiie  22.  I84t).  After  his 
studies  at  Harvard  he  devoted  liimself  to  engineer 
iiig  at  Dresden;  next  workeil  under  Ceneral 
M'Clellan  in  the  New  York  Docks,  leiiirning  to 
Dresden  to  pursue  a  life  of  letters,  contiiiucil  later 
in  London  ( IS7.'>-82 )  and  in  New  ^'mk.  He  suli 
sei|ueiitlv  settled  on  a  Jamaica  farm.  His  tirst 
novels,  Brissiiiil  (187."i)and  Jilolalri/  (1874),  were 
.veil  followed  hv  (liirth  (187.'>),  Sihiislian  SI  nunc 
(1880),  Fiirtiiiii's  Fool  (188;{),  and  Ilii.sl  (1N84|: 
and,  not  so  well,  by  an  innumerahle  series  of  shorter 
stories,  some  -not  overgood  —  of  the  detective  cla.ss, 
such  as  Ihiriil  I'liiiiilejier'.s  iJixiijijiCininiir  (1888) 
and  Siiliou  55S ;  or  Tlie  Fatal  Letter  (1888). 

Hay  (from  the  same  root  as  lieu;  Imr),  the  stems 
anil  leaves  of  giii.s.ses  or  other  jilaiits  dried  for 
l''odder  (q.v.)  of  cattle.  Throughout  the  grazing 
and  dairy  distiicts  of  Ireland  and  Kngland  a  large 
breadth  of  old  pasture  is  annually  cut.  In  Scot- 
land, however,  little  of  this  old  natiiial  grass  is 
converted  into  liay,  and  the  croii  consists  mainlv 
of  clover  and  sown  gras.ses  in  which  ryegrass  InilkH 
largely.  This  rei|uires  less  turning  and  lalionr 
than  the  closer  succulent  natural  grits,ses,  and  with 
twice  turning,  and  a  week  or  ten  days'  drying, 
will  generally  he  lit  for  the  rick,  into  which  the 
Knglish  farmer  at  once  jdaces  it.  In  Scotland  the 
weather  is  seldom  suHiciently  line  to  lit  the  hay, 
within  a  moderate  time,  for  a  large  rick,  and  the 
practice  here,  as  in  the  moister  parts  of  Kngland 
anil  in  Irelaml,  is  to  put  it,  after  a  few  davs,  into 
lorku,  containing  one  or  two  hiindredweiglit,  and 
thence,  after  another  week,  into  what  are  techni- 
cally called  tramp-ricks,  containing  from  one  to 
two  tons.  l-'roni  these  it  is  transferred  at  any 
convenient  time  to  the  rick-yard.  This  practice, 
although  very  jirevaleiit  in  tin-  north,  is  attended 
with  loss  of  time  iind  labour,  ami.  moreover, 
bleaches  and  dries  u]i  the  hay,  giving  it  the  appear- 
ance of  straw,  and  preventing  that  gentle  heating 
which  English  farinei^  de.sire  ImiiIi  in  their  clover 
and  griLSs  hay.  In  the  I'niteil  States  timothy  is 
the  liest  haymaking  grass :  next  come  redtop, 
orchard  gnuss,  and  blue  grass  or  .Iiiiie  gra.ss. 

The  management  of  tin-  natural  gras.ses  of  which 
most  English  hay  consists  is  somewhat  diMerent, 
and  the  process  is  seen  in  perfection  in  .Middlesex 
and  various  of  the  counties  alHiut  London.  The 
great  matter — too  generally  overlooked  in  Scot- 
land—is to  preserve  the  colour  and  flavour  of  the 
gnuss.  This  niav  be  done  by  frei|ueiit  turning,  so 
as  to  have  it  rapidly  dried,  and  if  jiossilde  without 
the  deteriorating  washing  of  re))eateil  rains.  Arti- 
licial  drying  best  attains  this  end,  but  is  of  coni-se 
impracticable  on  the  large  scale.  In  the  hest  style 
of  English  haymaking  the  gr.a.ss,  after  being  cut 
with  the  scytlie  or  machine,  and  as  soon  .o  the 
dew  is  oir,  is  shaken  and  spread  out  by  means  of 
forks  or  of  a  tcdtling-meuehmc  drawn  by  a  horse. 


HAY 


HAYDN 


597 


It  IS  not  allowed  to  lie  long  ex])oseil  to  the  sun, 
Itiit  before  evening  is  drawn  together  l)y  rakes 
into  iclnd-roius,  which,  it  there  is  any  prospect  of 
rain,  are  made  up  into  small  heaps  or  cocks.  It  is 
.again  spread  iHit  next  morning,  or  on  the  return  of 
tavoural)le  weather;  and  wlien  the  operations  are 
expedited  by  wind  and  sun,  the  hay  will  be  ready 
tor  the  rick  liy  the  second  or  thinl  ilay.  There  is. 
however,  much  ditierence  in  the  time  during  which 
the  hay  reipiires  to  lie  out:  the  liulk  of  the  crop 
and  the  ipiality  of  the  land  must  be  especially  con- 
sidered. When  the  grasses  are  cut  in  bloom,  as 
they  should  be,  and  before  their  seed  riiiens  and 
their  stems  get  tough  and  hard,  they  contain  the 
largest  amount  of  moisture,  ami  rei|uirf  careful 
making.  Imt  produce  then  tiie  most  nutritive  and 
palatalile  hay.  As  soon  as  it  is  tli<noughly  ilrv  it 
sliould  be  put  at  once  into  the  stack  or  rick,  and 
well  trodden  down.  A  certain  amount  of  heating 
improves  the  flavour,  .and  renders  the  hay  more 
pal.atable  to  every  kind  of  stock.  When,  as  is 
sometimes  the  ca.se,  it  is  imperfectly  made,  in- 
picked  up  too  soon,  it  gets  overheated,  and 
becomes  dark  brown  or  black,  while  its  nutritive 
properties  are  diminished  ;  it  is,  moreover,  apt  to 
disagree  with  both  holies  and  cattle,  and  can  be 
prolitably  useil  only  when  mixed  with  straw  and 
cut  into  cliatf.  Indeed  it  h;us  been  proved  by 
ex])eriTiients  that  hay  may  be  so  <lamaged  by  bad 
weatlier  in  tlie  process  of  making  as  to  be  unable 
tr)  maintain,  not  to  spe.ak  of  increasing,  the  con- 
dition of  animals  fed  upon  it.  H,ay  imt  together 
when  damp  from  rain  or  dew  does  n<it  heat,  .is  it 
does  when  it  contains  an  undue  amount  of  natural 
moisture,  but  speedily  moulds.  When  hay  has 
l)een  weathered  and  injureil  by  repeated  rains,  it 
mav  be  remlered  more  palatable  by  scattering  a 
little  commoM  salt  or  specially  prepared  spire  over 
the  rick  whilst  it  is  being  built.  In  Scotland, 
eight  or  ten  i>ounds  of  salt  to  the  t<ni  is  used  alike 
for  the  clover  and  gra-ss  hav.  In  mid  ami  southern 
England  the  best  iiay  is  generally  got  up  in  .June, 
in  Scotland  not  until  the  middle  of  .July.  The 
crop  averages  from  one  to  two  tons  ])er  acre.  Hay 
that  has  stood  for  seed  is  tougher  and  less  nutritive 
than  that  cut  earlier,  for  the  sugar,  gum,  and 
gluten  of  the  matured  seed  have  been  al)stracted 
from  the  stems.     See  also  SlL.AGE. 

Iliiy,  John,  an  American  author,  was  born  at 
Salem,  Indiana,  Sth  October  IS38,  graduated  at 
Brown  I'liiversity  in  IS.W,  .and  was  .admitted  to 
the  Illinois  bar  in  I8bl.  .Vlmost  immediately  after 
he  became  assistant  private  secretar.v  to  President 
Lincoln  ;  and  iluring  the  war  he  served  for  some 
months  in  the  field,  retiring  witli  the  brevet  of 
<!olonel.  He  was  afterwards  fii-st  secretarv  of 
legation  at  Paris  ( lSlj.5  IJ7 )  and  M.adrid  (lS(JS-70), 
and  •■hd.riii:  d'uffaircs  at  Vienna  (  1867-68):  and  in 
187U-7o  he  was  on  the  staff  of  the  Sen-  YurU 
Tribune.  In  1870-SI  he  was  first  .a.s.sistant-secre- 
tarv  of  state.  His  I'lhc  County  Bullatl.i  (  IS71  1 
incluile  'Little  Breeches'  and  'Jim  Bluilso : '  he 
h.as  also  published  Castiliun  Dm/s,  and,  with  .1.  (I. 
Xicohay,  a  Life  of  Lincoln  (ISOIi.  In  1897  he 
was  Tnited  States  aniliiussador  to  Britain,  from 
1898  secretary  of  state  to  President  McKinley. 

Ila.vdcii,    Kkkdis.vxi)    V.vndkveer,    LL.D., 

geologist,  was  born  at  Westlield.  Ma.ssj»chusetts, 
7th  September  18'29,  studieil  at  the  .\lbany  medical 
i-ollege,  and  iluring  the  greater  ]iart  of  l8.")S-li'2  w;is 
employed  in  surveys  in  the  north-Mcsl.  He  served 
.as  surgeon  in  the  I'nion  army  during  the  war,  and 

tilled    tl hair  of   Mineralogy  .and  <  Jeology  in   the 

I'nivcrsity  of  I'ennsylvani.a  from  Isii.'i  to  1872.  In 
18fi7~B9  he  carrieil  out  the  geological  survey  of 
Nebraska,  and  afterwards  w.as  director  of  the 
geological  survey  of  the  territories  of  the  I'liiteil 


States,  until  in  1879  the  various  nation.al  surveys 
were  combined  in  the  geological  survey  of  tlie 
Liiited  State.s.  Till  188G  l)r  Hayilen  remained 
at  the  head  of  the  Montana  division.  He  died  I8tli 
January  1888.  He  published  many  papers,  liesides 
numerous  and  valuable  government  rejiort.s. 

Haydn.  Joski-ii.  a  tlerman  composer,  w;is  born 
at  the  village  of  I'.ohrau,  on  the  coidines  of  Hun- 
gary and  Austria,  1st  Apiil  M'.i'l.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  poor  wheelwright  :  and  tnanifesting  great 
musical  talent,  he  was  receivi-d  .at  the  age  of  eight 
into  the  choir  of  the  cathedral  of  St  Stephen  s,  at 
Vienn.a.  Here  he  remained  till  his  eighteenth 
year,  acquiring  a  practical  rather  than  a  theoreti- 
cal knowledge  of  his  art.  by  singing  the  music  of 
the  best  Italian  and  (lerman  religious  composers. 
In  that  year,  however,  his  voice  broke,  and  he  lost 
his  place  as  a  chorister.  He  wandered  about  the 
streets  of  Vienna,  .and  earned  a  jirecaricms  liveli- 
hood by  playing  the  violin  in  serenading  partie.s 
and  at  dances.  A  charitable  singer  offered  him  a 
lodginj',  which  for  a  short  while  he  availed  himself 
of.  Ultimately,  by  the  exercise  of  great  thrift,  he 
was  enabled  to  hire  an  attic  and  a  piano;  then  he 
devoted  all  his  leisure  time  to  study.  He  bought  by 
accident  the  six  sonatas  of  C  P.  E.  Bach  at  a  cheap 
bookstall,  and  the  indefatigable  study  of  them 
revealed  to  him  the  possibility  of  new  form  in 
music — form  which  shotild  be  tlie  reaction  .against 
the  old  contr.apuntal  style  of  .1.  S.  Bach  and 
Handel,  and  which  it  Iiecame  thenceforward  his 
mission  to  inaugurate.  The  main  essentials  of 
this  reaction  were  the  abandonment  of  the  fugue 
form  as  the  basis  of  musical  composition,  and  the 
substitution  in  its  room  of  two  free  melodies  as 
themes  for  treatment,  not  necessarily  constructed 
in  double  counterpoint  to  one  another.  During 
this  period  of  assiduous  study  Haydn  still  kept  uji 
his  connection  with  the  serenaders  and  dance- 
players  of  Vienna,  for  whom  he  often  now  wrote 
the  music.  One  evening  as  he  was  playing  a 
serenade  of  his  composition,  along  with  other  in- 
strumentalists, under  the  window  of  prau  Kurz, 
the  wife  of  the  theatrical  man.ager  of  that  name, 
her  husband  w.as  very  much  struck  by  the  music, 
and  calling  H.aydn  up,  commissioned  him  to  wiite 
an  opera  as  melodious  as  the  serenadr.  Tliis  wjts 
the  beginning  of  his  fortunes.  His  ojiera  made 
him  acquainted  with  the  poet  Melastasio,  at  that 
time  a  tutor  in  Vienna,  by  whom  he  Wiis  intro- 
duced to  the  composer  Porpora,  and  enal)le.l  to 
remedy  the  deficiencies  of  an  education  jirincipally 
obtiiin'ed  hitherto  tlirough  private  study. 

In  the  later  part  of  n-V  he  comiiosed  his  first 
quartet  for  stringed  instrnnniits.  In  17.">9  fount 
Morzin  engaged  liim  as  capellmeister.  Kor  Count 
.Morzin's  orchestra  Haydn  wrote  his  First  Sym- 
lihony  in  I).  The  once  obscure  musician  was  now 
a  popular  music-master  in  Vienna.  He  m.arried  at 
this  time  Maiia  .\nna  Keller,  the  daughter  of  a 
wig-maker,  who  had  been  kind  to  him  in  his  djiys 
of  peiniry.  This  union  did  not  jirove  a  happy  one. 
The  circumstances  of  it  were  singular :  he  ha<l 
designed  to  marry  the  younger  sister,  luit  she  had 
determined  to  retire  into  a  convent,  and  H.aydn 
was  iiersmidcd  by  the  f.ither  to  take  the  elder  one 
instead,  for  whom  he  had  always  entertaineil  an 
objection.  ■  It  is  nothing  to  ln-r.'  said  Haydn  near 
the  dose  of  his  life,  'whether  her  husband  be  a  cob- 
bler or  an  artist.'  Her  sole  andiilioii  was  to  squan- 
der Haydn's  earning'S.  In  17l'>ii  Prince  Esterhazy 
offered  him  the  Jiost  of  vice-ca|>ellmeister.  His 
duties  in  this  new  situation  were  to  conduct  two 
operas  a  week,  for  which  he  sometimes  had  to  com- 
pose the  music,  to  conduct  and  coni)uise  for  an 
orchestral  concert  every  afternoon,  lo  have  a  fresh 
conijiosiiion  for  the  princes  '  rece)ition '  every 
nuirning,  besides  supplying  the  music  for  incidental 


598 


II  \^  itt>\ 


HAYES 


water-parties,  ilancex,  &c.  Many  of  Hayiln'K  iiiort 
lH*Hiitiliil  K\  iii|ilii>iii<"f  were  writtfii  here,  itml  tlie 
i;reiiler  iiiiiiitier  (if  lii>  iiiHK"ili<i'iit  i|iiiirtets.  'I'lie 
exee»i\'<*  ilmiaiKU  on  liis  iin'ention  itn  not  seem  tn 
have  ini|i:tiii>(l  its  fertility  in  the  !.|iyhtest.  After 
tlieili'iiih  of  I'rinee  Ksterhii/v  in  IT'.K)  lliiviln  iioeoni 
panieil  Salomon  the  violinist  to  Kii^xlaml,  where,  in 
IT'JI-it'i.  lie  |iro<lni'eil  six  of  liis  'I'ln/n-  (liiiiiil  ^i/iii- 
/i/iuiiics.  Ills  rei-e|ition  was  lirillianl  in  the  lii;,'liest 
ilejjree.  On  liis  return  to  \'ieMiia  he  hail  lli'etho\eii 
for  a  |ill|>il.  Ill  17!t4  he  iiiaile  a  second  i'n;;a^'eiiieiit 
with  Saloiiion  for  Kii;;laiiil.  ami  iliiriii^'  tliis  perioil 
liroii;;lit  out  the  reniainiii;.'  six  syiii|ilioiiies.  In 
Enjrlanil  he  lii-st  ohtaineil  that  leeoKiiition  which 
afterwards  fell  to  his  share  in  his  own  coiintiy.  <  Mi 
his  return  to  Austria  he  |piircliased  a  small  house 
with  a  "jarilen  in  one  of  the  suliiirlis  of  \'ieiiiia. 
Here  he  eoiii|ioseil  his  oratorios  tlic>  ('rinlinii  and 
the  Sriixiiii.s.  The  former  work,  the  haiiiioiiies  of 
wliieli  are  jieivadeil  with  the  lire  of  youth,  was 
written  in  liis  sixty-liftli  year;  the  Senxons  (com- 
pleteil  in  eleven  months)  was  almost  liin  last  work. 
He  ilied  at  Vienna,  .•fist  .May  1H(«». 

In  person  llaydii  was  helow  the  niiiliUe  stature. 
His  features  wen-  re;,'iilar,  and  the  i;eneral  cast  of 
his  countenance  a  stern  lUie,  He  had  the  pcculi- 
arity  of  never  laii^hiiix  ahiud.  He  wiis  vimv  neat 
and  methodical  in  his  haliits— composing' a  certain 
iiumlier  of  horn's  daily,  and  wearinj;  full  court  dress 
when  so  en;,'a;;cd.  His  musieal  style  is  marked  liy 
the  |iredomiiiaiice  of  melody — melody  in  its  tender- 
ness, melody  in  it-  power,  melody  iiii'cssant.  His 
works  have  therefore  more  sjMUit.uicoiisiiess  and 
eliarni  than  the  elder  sclioid  of  Itaeh  and  Handid, 
bnt  less  niassiveness,  siililimity,  and  majesty.  He 
clearly  realised  and  pursued  his  aim,  hiyiii;;  down 
the  prin<-iple  that  "  melody  is  the  eliarin  of  music, 
anil  the  invention  of  a  fine  air  is  a  work  of  ^'enius.' 
He  is  the  f.ither  of  the  symphony,  and  coiidiKcil 
more  than  any  other  man  to  that  scjiaration  of 
iiistruiiiental  music  from  vocal,  iiiikiiowii  or  little 
l>ractiseil  liefore  his  day,  which  has  ^;i\eii  an  iiide- 
penilent  life  to  instruiiiciital  music  up  to  the  present 
time. 

Haydn's  works  are  exeeedin;;ly  iiiiiiicioiis,  com- 
piisin;,'  12.')  symjilioiiies,  S.'?  ipiartets,  ."W  trios,  14 
operas,  H  oratorios.  IT")  pieces  for  the  liaritone,  24 
concertos  for  dill'eieiit  instniments,  14  masses,  1 
Staliat  -Mater,  1(1  smaller  clmrcli  pieces,  44  sonatas 
for  the  pianoforte,  with  and  without  accoiii|iaiii- 
inents  ;  12  tlernian  and  Italian  soiijis.  ,'{9  canzonets, 
1.3  hymns  in  three  and  four  parts,  the  liariiioiiy  and 
aecompaniment  to  :{(j4  old  Scottish  soiif^s,  hesides 
a  prodisiou-  niimlicr  of  divertissements  and  jiieces 
for  various  iiistiiiment.s. 

Compare  CurpaniV  I^  Hamtiitr  ('Jil  c-d.  Padua,  1.S23); 
Haydn's  autuhiographical  sketch,  first  published  in  the 
Wiener  ZeiUchvift  ftiy  Kunst  (IHiiti);  Karajan's  Jnscjth 
Httiidn  in  ioi/rfo/i  ( Vienna,  ISIil ) ;  l'oh\,  Jagijjh  Nii ml ii 
(:i  vols.  1S7.5  1)0);  .Miss  Townsend's  Life  of  Hamiii 
(Lond.  1S»4). 

Haydoil.  Ukn.i.v.mi.n  Komkut,  histmical 
painter,  whose  hio^^raphy  forms  om:  of  the  sadclest 
pai,'es  in  the  record  of  British  art,  was  horn  lit 
Plyinouth  on  2.>tli  danuary  ITSti.  He  attended  the 
Kiainmar-sehixd  of  IMymptoii,  where  Sir  dosliua 
Heynolds  had  lieen  educated  ;  and  his  father,  a 
l)iM)kseller,  heiii;;  desirous  that  his  son  should 
follow  his  own  trade,  ]ilaced  him  in  his  shop.  ISiit, 
in  spite  of  delicate  eyesij^ht,  the  hoy  was  resolved 
to  liecomu  a  painter,  and  in  May  1804  he  was 
admitted  a  student  of  the  Koyal  .Academy,  where 
he  was  liefriended  and  influenced  hy  Ku.seli,  the 
keeper.  Three  years  later  he  exliiliitcd  his  first 
picture,  'Joseph  and  Mary  restinj;  on  the  Hoad 
to  Ei;ypt,'  and  after  studyiuf;  assiduously  for 
three  months  the  Kl>;in  marliles,  wlio.se  purchase 
by  the  nation  lie  afterwards  enthusiasticallv  advo- 


cated, lie  produred  liis  '  Dentatiis,'  u  oiiiiiiiisKion 
from  Lord  Miil>;riive.  The  wiirk  was  coldly  re- 
ceived liy  the  .\caileiiiy  in  IStJlt.  and  liun;^'  ill  the 
.'iiiterooiii  ;  and  this  treatment  was  the  liefiiiiniii^; 
of  the  painter's  iiipliiie  with  that  lioily.  which 
emiiittered  his  life  and  damaged  his  prosiii'ct-.  In 
the  followin;;  year  lie  bewail  a  lar;,'e  suliject  from 
Miiiljil/i,  which  had  lieen  commissioned  liv  Sir 
(;eor;,'e  Iti-aumont,  liut  was  afterwards  declined. 
He  was  more  successful  with  his  '.liid^'meiit  of 
Solomon,'  prohalily  his  lincsi  production,  now  in 
the  collection  of  Lord  .Vshliiirton.  which  he  sold  for 
7tM);.'iiineas.  It  piiiied  a  luize  of  KHI  ^.-uiiieas  from 
the  lioyal  Institution,  wliicli  had  awarded  a  like 
sum  for  the  •Dentatiis.'  Ilaviii;;  x  isited  the  Con- 
tinent with  Wilkic  in  1H14.  and  stinlied  the  old 
miusteis  in  the  l.oiivic.  lla\don  lie^'an  his  'Christ's 
Kntrv  into  .Icriisalein.'  which  was  com|i|eted  in 
1S2(),'  and  realised  tITtHI  hy  exhihitioii  in  the 
K;,'yptiaii  Hall.  London.  It  is  now  in  the  art- 
{jallery  of  I'hiladelphia.  .\notlier  immense  reli- 
^;ious  suliject,  'The  liaisin;;  of  Lazarus,' was  coiii- 
pleteil  in  I.S'2.'i,  in  the  midst  of  j;reat  ilillicullieK. 
The  artist  h.-id  lii'eii  arrested  for  ilelit  iluriii;.'  its 
pidfircss.  and  dm  in;.'  the  rest  of  his  life  he  wa.s 
never  aide  to  free  hiiiiscll  from  linaniial  eiiiliarra.ss- 
nients,  tliouj.di  it  was  proved  that  during;  six  veain, 
from  ls:j|  to  l.s:it),  he  had  earned  £4<il7  liy  his 
art.  His  'Mock  Klection.'  purchased  hy  (leorge 
I\'.  for  ")()()  ;.'iiiiieius,  was  founded  upon  a  scene 
witnessed  liy  the  painter  while  a  prisoner  in  Kin^j's 
Heneli.  He  resorted  t<i  evi'iy  kind  of  expedient  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  moment,  (ireatly  ;i;:ainst 
his  will  he  took  to  portrait  paiiitiii;; :  a  piilillc  siili- 
scription  was  raised  on  his  helialf;  lie  rallied  his 
'  Kucles'  anil  '  Xeiiophoii's  First  Si;.dit  of  the  Sea;' 
he  delivered  a  popular  series  of  lectures  on  paintin;.' 
and  ilesi;;ii  in  IM.'tli.  |iiililislie<l  in  two  volumes  in 
IH44.  In  IS.'Vi  Lord  Cray  commissioned  the  well- 
known  picture  of  'The  Itefiiiiic  l!ani|Mel,'  and  in 
1«.'{4  the  Duke  of  .Sutherland  ^'ave  4(MJ  ;;iiiiieiu-  for  a 
'  Cas.sandra. '  Haydon  had  never  wearied  of  ur^rinp 
upon  ;;oveiniiieiit  and  pei>iiiis  of  inlliience  the 
necessity  for  the  national  eiicoura};eiiient  of  art, 
and  it  was  a  liitter  ili.sa|ipiiiiitiiient  when  he  failed 
to  olitain  employment  hy  the  commissioners  for 
the  decoration  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  He 
was  further  crushed  liy  the  entire  want  of  success 
which  attended  his  exhihitioii  of  two  completed 
pictures  from  the  desijjns  which  lie  had  prepared 
for  the  cartoon  competition  ;  his  mind  jrave  way, 
and  on  20tli  •luiie  IH4)i  he  shot  himself  in  his 
studio  liefore  his  iinlinished  )iaintin;.'  of  '.Alfred's 
First  Parliament.'  The  wmUs  of  Haydon  are 
elevated  in  aim  ami  suliject,  and  .Mr  C.  I'.  Watts, 
H..A.,  lias  ]ironoiiiiced  that  'his  expression  of 
anatomy  and  ^;eiier.al  perceiition  of  form  are  the 
liest  liy  far  that  can  he  found  iu  the  Kn;;lish  school, 
and  I  feel  even  a  direction  towards  something;  that 
is  only  to  lie  found  in  Phidias.  His  works,  how- 
ever, are  very  iiiii'i{iial  in  their  several  parts  ;  his 
execution  was  siddoiii  eipial  tliioii;.dioiii  to  his  con- 
ception ;  and  most  of  his  productions  hear  only  too 
evident  traces  of  the  haste  and  the  untoward  cir- 
cumstances amid  which  they  were  executed.  See 
the  J.ijf  of  llinit/inty  from  Itis  A  ntohiofirfiphif  (tnft 
■liiiiniiil.s,  edited  liy  Tom  Taylor  ('A  vols.  lHo3); 
and  his  ('orrrsjiiDiitnirr  iiml  Tiihle  'J'lilk,  with  a 
.\renioir  liy  his  .son  ( 187lJ). 

Hayo,  \.\.    See  Hague. 

Hayes.  Acfiisrus  Allen,  chemist,  was  horn 

at  Windsor,  Vermont,  in  ISOti,  siiidieil  chemistry 
under  Profe.s.sor  Dana,  and  settled  in  I'oston  in 
18'28.  He  discovered  the  or;,'anic  alk.iloid  san;;uin- 
aria,  carried  tliiou;;li  experiments  which  led  to  the 
constntction    in    IS."}**   of    improved    furnaces   and 


hoil 


ers, 


experiii 
of    im 
nested   the  process  of   reducini;  pig  to 


HAYES 


HAYNAU 


599 


iiiallealile  iron  without  loss  by  the  use  of  the  oxiiles 
of  iiou,  as  well  as  new  processes  in  copiier-snielt- 
iny.  the  decomposition  of  alcohol,  anil  the  forma- 
tion of  cliloroform,  and  made  ini[)ortant  iinesti- 
;,'ations  into  the  i)roperties  of  guano.  He  also 
i'\aiiiined  the  constitution  of  sea-water  and  fresh 
water  at  various  depths,  )irepared  a  repoit  for  the 
navy  department  on  the  c-opper-slieathing  of  vessels, 
and  su])pUed  a  novel  ]>rocess  for  tlie  manufacture 
of  salt|ietre.  Hayes  was  for  many  years  state 
assaver  of  Massachusetts,  and  <lied  in  Brookline 
there,  "ilst  June  1882. 

Hayes,  Isaac  I.si!ael,  Aic-iic  explorer,  was 
liorn  in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  ^th  March 
1832,  graduated  in  medicine  at  the  I'niversity  of 
Pennsylvania  in  18.53,  and  sailed  as  surgeon  in  the 
Kane  expedition  in  search  of  Franklin.  The  story 
of  Ids  attempt  to  reach  UperniviU  in  1854  is  told 
in  All  An-tif  Bi)iif-Joiiniii/  i\S(iU).  In  1800-61  \u'. 
conducted  a  second  exjiedition  to  the  Arctic 
regions ;  and  in  18G9  he  again  visite<l  (Jreeuland. 
His  third  voyage  is  descriljed  in  77ii'  Liitid  of 
Disiilatioii  (1871).  He  was  surgeon  of  volunteers 
fnnn  1862  to  186.5,  letiring  with  the  brevet  rank  of 
lii-ntenant-colonel  ;  and  he  .served  in  the  New 
York  assemltly  fm-  five  years.  His  Arctic  work 
was  recognised  Ijy  medals  from  the  London  and 
Paris  geographical  societies.  He  died  17tli  Decem- 
ber 1881. 

Ila.ves.  RuTHERl'ORD  BiRCHARl),  nineteenth 
president  of  the  United  States,  was  liorn  at  Dela- 
ware, Oliio,  4th  October  1822.  He  graduated  at 
Kenyon  College,  Ohio,  in  1842 ;  and,  having 
stuilied  law  at  Harvard,  he  practised  as  a  lawyer 
at  Cincinnati,  1849-61.  In  the  civil  war  Hayes 
served  with  distinction  as  an  officer  of  volunteers, 
being  once  severely  wounded,  and  ultimately 
attained  the  rank  of  brevet  major-general.  He  was 
returned  to  congress  from  Ohio  in  1865  and  1866, 
chosen  governor  of  his  state  in  1867,  and  re-elected 
in  1S6'.I  and  again  in  1875.  In  1876  he  was  selected 
as  tlie  Itepubliean  candidate  for  the  jnesidency  of 
the  I'niti'il  States,  the  Democratic  candidate  being 
Samuel  .1.  Tilden  ((|.v.).  The  election  which  fol- 
lowed was  notable  for  the  exciting  comi)lications 
and  the  period  of  tension  and  suspicion  that  en- 
sueil.  In  Louisiana  two  electoral  boards  were  com- 
missioned by  rival  claimants  to  the  governorship, 
■and  ill  some  of  the  other  states  i[uestions  arose 
toncldng  the  legality  of  the  return  of  the  Hepub- 
lican  presidctitial  electors.  Kinally,  an  electoral 
commission  was  created  by  act  of  congress,  consist- 
ing of  live  judges  of  the  supreme  court,  live 
senators,  and  five  representatives.  This  body, 
made  up  of  eight  Republicans  and  seven  Demo- 
crats, gave  the  disputeil  votes  to  Hayes,  by  a 
majority  of  eight  to  seven.  The  electoral  vote 
was  thus  returned  at  185  for  Hayes  against  184 
for  Tilden  :  the  popular  vote,  as  counted,  stood 
4.284,265  for  Tilden  ami  4,n:W,2i)5  for  Hayes.  'I'liis 
dei'ision  was  gem^rally  aci|uiesci'd  in,  although  the 
conviction  of  the  Democratic  party  that  their  candi- 
date had  been  unjustly  deprive<l  of  office  remained 
unshaken  ;  and  as  late  as  1878  the  Democratic 
majorit>'  of  a  congi'essional  committee  itf  in\"estiga- 
tion  issued  a  report  declaring  the  action  of  the 
returning  boards  in  l>ouisiana  and  I'loriila  to  have 
been  fraudulent.  I'nderthe  Hayes  adndnistration 
the  country  recovered  nnich  of  its  commercial  pros- 
|ieritv,  which  had  sull'ered  severely  in  the  llnancial 
crash  of  1873.  Two  features  in  Hayes's  policy 
were  ref<nni  of  the  civil  servicM"  (in  pursuance  of 
wliii'li  he  remove{|  from  the  civllcctorship  of  customs 
at  New  York  Chester  Alan  .\rthur,  i|.v. )  and  the 
conciliation  of  the  southern  states,  lie  was  also 
active  in  pressing  forwanl  the  resumption  of  s]iecie 
p.ayments  ;    but  the  bill   for   the   monetisation  of 


silver  was  carried  against  his  veto.  He  died  at 
Fremont,  Ohio,  16tli  January  1893.  See  Life  by 
Stoddaril  (1889). 

Hayesiiie,  also  called  Borate  of  Limk  and 

L'lexite,  is  a  double  salt  of  sodium  and  calcium, 
and  a  source  of  Boracic  Acid  (f|.v.|. 

Hay-fever,  also  calleil  Hav-asthma  and 
Sf.M.MEK-c.VT.VRRH,  a  disease  mostly  met  with  in 
early  summer,  has  as  symptoms  tliose  of  a  common 
catarrh— viz.  redness  and  swelling  of  the  nasal 
mucous  membrane,  with  a  copious  watery  dis- 
charge and  repeated  paroxysms  of  sneezing,  irri- 
tation of  the  eyes,  and  intense  headache.  There 
are  also  present  general  malaise,  loss  of  ajipetite, 
and  more  or  less  feverishness ;  and  difficulty  of 
breathing  is  added  when  the  bronchial  mucous 
membrane  is  ati'ected.  Hay-fever  is  most  com- 
mimly  a  disease  of  adult  life,  but  it  may  occur  at 
all  ages.  It  usually  returns  annually  when  the 
patient  is  subjected  to  the  exciting  cause,  which  is 
oftenest  in  the  form  of  tloating  pollen  of  dill'erent 
gras.ses,  although  other  things  such  as  dust  or 
bright  .sunlight  may  set  up  an  attack.  Three 
factors  essential  to  the  production  of  hay-fever  are 
a  nerv(ms  con.stitution  or  idiosyncrasy,  a  local 
irritability,  and  an  external  exciting  cause.  The 
treatment  to  be  successful  must  be  directeil  to 
these:  (1)  improve  the  health  by  (|uinine,  iir.senie, 
or  other  tonics,  and  soothe  the  nervous  state  by 
bromide  of  potassium  or  antipyrin  ;  (2)  act  locally 
by  pungent  inhalations,  as  iodine,  or  by  the  thermo- 
cautery ;  (3)  finally  remove  the  patient  from  the 
cause  by  sending  him  to  the  seasiile  or  for  a 
x'oyage.  See  Hay  Fcccr,  by  Sir  Morell  Mackenzie 
(4th  ed.  1887). 

Hayley,  Williaii,  Cowper's  biographer,  was 
born  at  Chichester,  9th  Novend)er  1745,  but 
abandoned  legal  studies  for  a  life  of  lettered  leisure, 
living  in  Londcm,  at  Eartham  in  Sus.sex,  and  lastly 
at  Feltliam,  where  he  died  2(lth  November  ]S2(». 
Among  his  works  are  ilidactic  Essniis  in  verse  lUi 
painting,  on  history,  on  ejiic  poetry.  The  Triiaii/i/ix 
(if  Tfiiijicr:  n  Poem,  some  plays,  a  l.,ife  of  Milton, 
a  lyife  of  Komney,  and  his  most  memorable  monu- 
ment. The  Life' of  Coir/ier  (1803;  see  Cowi'ER). 
Meniiiir.-i  of  and  by  himself  were  jiublished  in  1823. 

HayiU,  KtnoLF,  philoso])her  and  writer,  was 
born  at  Grunberg  in  Silesia  on  5th  October  1821. 
In  1848  he  sat  in  the  natiimal  assembly  at  I'rMid^ 
fort;  but  in  1851  he  began  to  lecture  on  philosophy 
and  (Jerman  literature  at  Halle,  and  was  eventu- 
all\'  appointed  professor  there  in  1868.  He  has 
written  biographies  of  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt 
(18.56),  Hegel  (1857),  Schopeidiauer  (1864),  and 
Herder  ( 1877-85),  as  well  as  a  useful  monograph, 
Die  Boimiiitlsehe  Sehiilc  ( 1870). 

Uayiian.   Jti.iis   Jakoi-,,    b.midn    vox,   an 

Austrian  general,  was  born  at  Casscl,  in  Cermany, 
I4th  October  1786.  Entering  the  .\ustrian  service 
in  1801,  he  signalised  himself  during  the  Italian 
caui]iaigns  of  1848-49  by  his  ruthless  severity, 
especially-  at  the  capture  of  Brescia,  where  his 
(logging  of  women  and  other  atrocities  gaine<l  him 
the  iiame  of  the  '  Hyana  of  Brescia.'  Haynau 
was  (^ngageil  in  the  siege  of  Venice,  when  he  Wiis 
summoned  by  the  emperor  to  Hungary,  in  May 
1849,  to  take  the  supreme  comm.uul  of  the  forces 
in  that  country.  The  stcuining  of  Haab,  hi.s 
victory  at  Komorn,  his  occui>ation  of  Szegedin, 
ami  his  vict<nies  on  the  Tlieiss  contributeil 
nuiterially  lo  the  final  success  of  the  imperialists. 
But  Haynau's  atrocious  severity  towards  the 
defeated  Hungarians  excited  the  detestation  of 
Europe.  .Mtliough  a]iiiointed  dictatin- of  Hungary 
after  its  pncilication,  he  was  nevertheless  dismissed 
in  18.50  on  account  of  the  intractability  of  his 
character.     In  the  same  year,   when  visiting  the 


000 


1 1 A  ^"  N  !•: 


HAYTI 


brewery  of  Mestsi-s  liarclay  &  Perkins,  in  London. 

he  was  iu<s:iiill4vl  liy  the  <liiiyiiiiMi.  dm  .i<Tiiiiiit  of 
his  riiielly,  ami  I'.TapiMl  with  his  life,  hilt  the  lo-s 
of  his  iiioiistaohc.  lianiii  Sclicijihals,  in  a  hio 
jjraphy  of  his  iiii-nd  llayiiaii  (tlrutz,  ls,").S),  tries  to 
exonerate  his  charaeKT,  ami  iLsserts  that  lie  only 
acted  in  ohedii'iice  to  tlie  ordei's  of  liis  inaHters. 
Haynaii  died  at  N'ieiina,  .March  14,  18.">;{. 

Ha.VIM*.  KiiUKitT  ^'^l|•^■l;,  an  American  states 
man.  Iioni  in  Soiitli  t'arolina  in  1701.  wa-s  ailiiiitted 
to  the  har  in  1SI2,  served  in  the  war  with  (Jreat 
Britain,  and  .it  its  close  retiirneil  to  his  pru'tire 
in  Cliarleston.  lie  was  a  iiii-inher  of  the  state 
lej;islatnre  in  IS  14  iH,  and  heranie  speaker,  was 
attorney  ;;eneral  of  the  state  in  ISl.S  'i'J.  ami  sat 
in  the  I'niteil  States  senate  from  lS-i;t  to  KS.'i'J. 
He  was  a  vi;;oions  upponent  of  protection,  and  in 
1h:{*2  lioldly  sM)tported  in  conj^ress  the  doctrine  <if 
Nnllilicatiim  (ir. V.  I.  Itaniel  Welister's  reply  ranks 
anions  his  aldesl  >peeidies.  In  Novemher  l.S.S'i 
South  Carolina  adopte{|  an  ordinance  of  nnllilica- 
tion.  in  Deeenilier  llayne  was  idei'ted  ^'overnor, 
and  the  stati-  prepared  to  resist  the  federal  power 
by  force  of  arms.  .\  eoniproinise,  however,  wjw* 
aj^reed  to  i  sim*  J.v<'Ksoni.  and  the  onlinance  w«is 
repealed.      Hayne  ilied  •24tli  Septenilier  l.s:{!». 

Hm.V   RIvor.  a  f Icr  of  Cleat   Slave  Lake  in 

the  Canadian  North  west.  In  its  conrsp.  north- 
east to  the  siinllieni  shore  of  the  lake,  it  descends 
the  two  .\lexaiidra  Kails,  ahnnt  '2.J0  fei't  lii;;li  and 
.t(W  yards  wide. 

HsiytU  or  II  Mil  I  '  Mionntainoiis  eonntiy,' other- 
wise llisi' VNIDI.  \.  or  Santo  Dominiju),  is,  after 
Onlia,  the  lar;;esi  of  the  West  Indian  Islands,  now 
diviileil  into  the  indepeinlent  states  of  Hayti  .and 
the  Dominican  Itepnlmc  (q.v. ).  Kor  the  maji.  see 
West  Ixdiks.  It  is  nearly  equidistant  from 
I'orto  Uico  on  the  K. ,  and  from  Cnha  ami  .l.-imaica 
on  ilu'  W..  willi  the  Carililieaii  Se.a  on  the  S.. 
and  with  the  liahamas  ami  the  open  ocean  on  the 
N.  Hayti  lies  hetwi-en  17  .•{7'  .and  iO'  N.  lat..  and 
hetween  tiS'  2()'  and  74  -is'  W.  hni;;.  It  l)elonj;s 
to  the  ^Toup  of  till'  (Jieater  .\ntilles.  and.  like  all 
the  ])rincipal  memhers  of  its  series,  its  c;reatest 
leni;tli  (ahonl  4(M»  miles)  is  in  the  direction  from 
west  tf>  east  of  the  ch:un  of  wliich  it  forms  a  part  : 
it.s  greatest  hreadth  is  lt;(l  miles.  .Area,  inclinlin^' 
the  islands  of  Tortiif,'a.  Conaive.  &c.,  alvoiit  2S.,S2I) 
sq.  ni.,  or  nearly  that  of  Scotland.  The  eonntry  is 
mountainous,  hein;;  traverseil  lon;,dtndinally  l>y 
northern,  central,  .ami  sontliern  rid;;es.  terminating,' 
in  headlands  on  either  coa-t  :  lint  hi'tween  these 
ran^'es  are  wide  and  fertile  plains.  There  are  no 
active  volcanoes  in  the  island.  Imt  earthipiaki's  .-ue 
frerinent.  The  lii^rhe-t  peak  is  Lom.i  Tina  (  I()..'!IH) 
feet  1.  and  in  the  middle  section  of  the  Sierra  del 
Ciliao  the  average  liei;,'ht  is  7lll)0feet.  The  climate 
is  hot  ami  moist  in  the  lowlands,  the  temper.atnre 
at  Port  an- Prince  ran^'in<;  from  ti7'  to  MM"  K.  ;  the 
mean  i.in);e  in  the  lii;;hlands  is  from  till'  to  76'  K. 
The  heaviest  r.iins  are  in  .May  and  .lime,  ami  occa- 
sional hurricanes  visit  the  islaml.  .\;;riciiltnre  is 
very  haekward.  althoii^di  Hayti  is  one  of  the  most 
fertile  spots  in  the  Wi'st  Indies  ;  while  its  e\cp|lenl 
harbours,  more  I'spciially  those  in  the  Ciilf  of 
Conaive  on  the  west,  otter  consideralile  facilities  to 
foreign  trade.  The  mountains  are  clothed  with 
forests  of  pine  and  oak.  and  the  island  is  rich  in 
niahoj;any.  salinwood.  rosewoiMl.  and  other  valnalilc 
timbers.  Cotton,  rice.  iii;ii/e.  cocoa,  j^in^er.  .arrow- 
root, yams,  tobacco,  and  nniiierons  fruits  are  imii- 
jjjenous  :  and  the  man;;o,  bre.ad-friiit.  suj^ar.  coffee, 
and  inilii;o  are  also  produced.  The  minerals  are 
now  little  worked.  thoi|i;h  some  ^'ohl-w.osliin;;  is  still 
carried  on  in  the  streams  descending;  the  northei-n 
■.h»pe  of  the  ( 'ibao.  The  ri\ers  are  inconsider- 
able, and  useles.s  for  navi^'.ation.     The  largest  lake. 


Iiesidcs  several  bo<Ue8  of  fresh  water,  in  llie  Bait  lake 
of  Knri>|iiillo.  2.'i  miles  inlaml  fr<iiii  the  south  shore. 
I'loth  rivers  anil  lakes  abniind  in  caymans  as  well  as 
lish.  liirds  are  few.  but  reiitilis  ami  insects  are 
niimeions  ;   the  a^'onti  is  the  lar^;i  st  wild  mamnial. 

Hayti  was  discovered  in  14!t2  li\  Coliinibns.  « bo 
landed  here  on  (itii  llecember:  ami  within  Utile 
more  than  one  generation  the  aborifrines  had  been 
swept  away  by  the  remorseless  cruelties  of  the 
Spaniards.  Their  place  wiis  lilled  with  negro  shaves, 
who  were  introduced  as  early  as  l."i(l."i.  Next  came 
the  Hiiccaneers  (i|.v. ).  who  settled  in  the  island  of 
Tortuga.  and  ultimately  gained  a  footing  on  the 
mainland  :  and.  as  Ihnse  marauders  were  chietly 
I'lencb.  the  western  portion  of  Hayti.  which  was 
their  favourite  baiiiit.  was  in  1097  ceded  to  France 
by  the  peace  of  Ityswick.  thus  prisinting  the  first 
important  break  in  the  unity  of  Spanish  .America, 
lor  nearly  a  Imndri'd  years  the  intrmlers  imported 
vast  reinforci-mciits  of  .Africans;  while  the  iiinlal 
toes,  who  were  a  natural  incident  of  the  concomi- 
tant license,  rapidly  grew,  both  socially  and  politi- 
callv,  into  an  intermediate  caste,  being  at  once 
uniformly  eNclmled  from  citizenship  and  generally 
exempted  fidiii  biiiidage.  In  17!tl.  under  the  inttn- 
eiice  of  the  I'leneli  Kcvidntion.  the  mntn.il  aii- 
ti^iatliies  of  the  three  clas.-es  white,  black,  and 
mi.xeil — lini-st  lortli  into  what  may  well  be  charac- 
terised a.s  the  most  vindictive  struggle  on  record — 
a,  struggle  which,  before  the  close  of  the  IStb  cen- 
tury, led  to  the  cNterniination  of  the  once  doniiiiant 
Knropeans,  ami  the  indeiiemlence  of  the  ciilnnii-d 
insnrgents.  Tliiis,  as  the  emamipated  bomlnien 
mostly  belonged,  at  least  in  form,  to  the  Chinch  of 
Home,  Hayti  now  exbibiled  the  only  Christian 
comninnitN  of  negro  blood  on  either  side  oi  the 
.Atlantic.  In  1801  France  sent  out  a  powerful 
.'irniament  to  recover  her  revolted  deiiendency. 
tieaiheroiisly  seizing  ami  deporting  the  deliverer 
of  bis  biet  liien,  Toiissaiiit  rOiixeilnre  <ij.\".).  In 
ISO.S,  however,  she  was  constrained  to  relinquish 
lier  attempt  :  and  in  1K(>4  Dcssalines.  aping  the 
example  of  N<apoleon.  proclaimed  himself  Kni|ieror 
of  Hayti.  I  bus  reviving  the  imiigenoiis  name  of  the 
island,  which  had  been  in  disuse  for  njiwards  of 
three  hundred  years. 

This  great  change  was  fatal  t<i  the  coniniercial 
prosperity  of  French  Hayti.  decideilly  the  more 
valuable  section  of  the  island.  In  its  progress  it 
had  destroyed  ca|iital  in  every  shaiie  :  and  in  it» 
issue  it  could  not  fail  to  p.aralyse  lalioni  under  cir- 
cumstances where  contiinions  exertion  of  any  kind 
was  eciually  irksome  and  siiperlliious.      Nor  was  the 

political  exjieiiem f  the  lately  servile  popiilaliim 

more  s;iiisfaciory  than  its  economical  eimdition. 
Smiielimes  consiilidated  into  one  state,  .and  some- 
times divided  into  two.  the  country  alternated, 
through  the  instrumentality  of  one  revolution  after 
another,  between  des|iotism  and  anaridiy.  between 
monarchy  (more  or  less  constitutional  or  imperial) 
ami  republicanism.  Its  only  trainjiiil  period  of  any 
duration  eoincideil  with  the  ruleol  President  lioyer 
(i|.v.),  which  subsisted  from  |sO|i  |,>  lS4:i  its  la.st 
twenty  one  years  com|irisiMg  not  menlv  thewliide 
of  French  or  Western  Hayti,  but  likewise  the  Span- 
ish or  eastern  portion  of  the  islaml,  whose  inhabit- 
ants in  l,S4.'l  formed  themselves  into  the  Dominican 
liepiiblic  (i|.v.).  H.ayti.  thus  united,  was  in  lSo.j 
recfignised  e\en  l>y  France,  on  condition  of  paying 
l.MI  million  francs,  or  fti.lMlO.iHMi.  as  .-i  compensation 
to  the  former  planters  a  -iim  leilmed  in  IS.SS  to 
sixty  millions.  The  western  portion  of  the  island 
remained  reiniblican  in  its  fonu  of  government  until 
IH40.  when  its  former  president,  the  negro  (Jeneral 
Sonloiii|iie.  ]iioclaimed  an  empire,  .-iml  assiuiied  the 
title  of  Fmperor  Faiistin  1.  In  IH.'i!!.  Iinwever,  a 
republic  w;is  again  jiroclaimed  and  a  new  eoristitn- 
tion  adoptcil.   which  was  niodiiied  in   1S(>7.     Few 


HAYWARD 


HAZEL 


601 


|)iesirli-iils  nave  since  lireii  i)eriiiilliMl  ii>  riiiiii>lHte 
their  term  of  nrtice  ( seven  years ),  wliicli  lias  usually 
been  cut  short  hy  revoiutiiiiis.  In  1889  (ieneral 
Hippolyte  sui  L-eeilecl  in  the  cliief-niagistr:icy  General 
l,i';,'itini<',  whom  he  hail  ilriven  out  of  the  country. 
Sir  S[)enst'r  St  Jcilm's  //'/////.  ur  tin:  lilnrh  lifjtiihlir^ 
^i\es  a  truthful  ]>icture,  at  on<'e  melancholy  and 
hulicrous.  ol  the  utter  sava;4erv  that  is  liomi- 
uant  in  ilie  western  state.  Otlicial  peculation, 
judicial  munler.  ami  utter  i'orru|itiori  of  every  kind 
underlie  the  forms  and  titles  of  civilised  govern- 
ment ;  the  religion,  iioiuiiially  Christian,  is  largely 
n((i)il<m.r  or  serpent  worsliiii,  in  which  actual  and 
hoirihle  ••fiiniihnlisni  is  even  now  a  most  iuiportanl 
element.  Instead  of  progressing',  the  nei;ro  repuli- 
licatis  have  gone  back  to  the  lowest  type  of  African 
barbarism. 

The  area  of  the  western  portion  of  the  island,  the 
negro  republic  of  Hayti,  is  about  H'2(H)  sq.  ni.  ;  the 
]iopulation  was  stateil  in  1S8H,  somewhat  e.\trava- 
gautly.  ,at  nHO,Of)0  :  it  is  probably  umler  fiOO.WKl. 
The  capital,  I'ort-au-Prince,  is  reported  to  hax- 
a),00()  inhabitants,  .and  perhaps  h,-us •20,()0().  I'nder 
the  ])resident  are  a  senate  and  house  of  represertta- 
tives,  anil  four  heads  of  departments.  The  returns 
of  inioiui^  and  expenditure  are  merely  estimates, 
anil  the  disorders  of  civil  war  have  in  recent  years 
rendered  these  more  than  usu.ally  valueless.  There 
is  a  large  Ho.iting  debt,  chielly  resulting  from  the 
issue  of  paper  money  by  successive  governments. 
The  total  delit  amounts  to  between  i":j,00n,()00  and 
£4.()0l),()(M).  The  aiiiiual  revenue  is,  since  I8!)4, 
stilted  at  £l,2.3(),0('().  a  sum  generall.v  exceeded  by 
the  expenditure.  The  army  consists  nondnally  of 
6828  men,  mostly  infantry  ;  .some  half-dozen  small 
vessels  constitute  the  navy.  The  dialect  of  the 
|ieople  is  ii  debased  French.  The  e.xports  of  Hayti 
may  have  a  value  of  abont  £1.000,000  .a  yiai  :  the 
chief  articles  are  cotl'ee.  cacao,  logwood,  mahogany, 
and  cotton.  Of  the  imports,  valued  at  about 
tTOO.lWO  annually,  over  two-thirds  come  from  the 
United  States,  the  re.st  mainly  fiom  (lermany, 
I'rance,  and  Britain. 

See  St  .Tohn,  H'niil.  or  the  lHark  Repiihlii-  (  l.S.M  ;  2d 
ed.  b8Sl));  works  by  Maidoii  ibS47).  .\rdouin  (I'.-iris. 
(bs.")3-(il  I,  Linslant-hradine  (Paris,  ls.il-(j.5),  .lanvier 
(P.-vris,  1.S8.S-.8.V8G),  La  Selve  ( IKTO-Nl ).  Nan  (Paris, 
18S(!),  Knrtimat  ( 1888  ),  Rouzier  (1892).  Marcchn  (1893), 
Ju.stin  I  1.S94I.  and  Tipiienli.iuer  (Leipz.  Isii.Si. 

Hit.vwnrd.  .\I!I:ah.\m.  essayist  and  talker,  was 
born  at  Wishford,  in  Wiltshire',  .•JUt  October  1802. 
He  had  neither  ])ublic  school  nor  university  educa 
lion,  but  after  keeping  terms  al  the  Inner  Temple 
was  called  to  the  har  in  1832.  His  leanings  were, 
however,  more  to  letters  than  to  law.  yet  he  founded 
and  edited  the  Lmi'  Maiiaziiir.  and  to  every  one  s 
surprise  was  inadi'  t^.C.  by  Lord  Lyndhiirst  in  1.S4."). 
He  published  in  l,S."!3  his  excellent  prose  translation 
of  tile  lirst  part  of  Fnn.st,  and  soon  became  a  bus> 
contributor  to  the  news|)apers  and  magazines, 
especially  the  l,>iirirtrr/)/  lirfifir.  in  which  reailers 
soon  leariu'd  to  recognise  his  personality  in  an  un- 
usual combination  of  vivacity,  enigrammatic  verve, 
and  critical  acumen.  I!y  his  brilliant  convers,ation, 
liis  wealth  of  anecdotes,  his  whist-playing,  and  his 
artistii-  interest  in  the  art  of  dining'  he  delighted 
society  almost  down  to  his  death,  at  Loudon.  Keli- 
ruary  2.  1884.  Many  of  his  best  aiticles  were  re- 
printed in  his  lii'Hfriifthiritt  itint  Criiinil  Ks\ni/.s 
(2  vols.  18.)8),  the  second  series  (2  vols.  187:}),  aiid 
the  third  ( 1  vol.  187;!)  :  and  in  S/.rtr/ies  nf  Kiiioirnt 

:itati:xiiiiii  (iiiil  \V,ili-rs  (2  vol.s.  18.S0).     Otherl ks 

were  Aiitiihiiifjiiijilni  aiirl  liemnitis  of  Mm  I'iitz-i 
(2  vols.  18(il),  Srlrrtiniix  from  llir  Diari/  iif  ii  Lad,'/ 
vft^iiaf  it)/ ^Hir  Walkin  Wynnes  daughter  (18(54  1. 
and  a  somewhat  perfunctory  book  on  (Inrtlir.  in 
'  Koreign  Classics  for  Engiisli  Readers'  (1S77). 
His  little  books^7'Ae  Art  of  Dlnhuj  (18.-)2),  l.ord 


Chesferjie/ti  null  (ieorye  Si'/tri/n  (l)otli  in  l8.jtj),  and 
Short  liiiles  of  Morlrni  Il7i/.v<  ( 1878) — were  widely 
circulated.  In  1878  lie  imblished  in  two  volumes 
\n>i  Srlirtrd  Esmiiis.  Hia  Se/rrt  Vorreii/iom/ence  was 
gi\en  to  the  world  in  two  volumes  in  1886. 

Hazard,  a  game  with  two  dice.  The  rnnfer ca.\]3 
.5,  6,  7,  8,  or  9  for  the  main.  He  then  throws.  If 
he  throws  the  number  called,  or  if  he  throws  12 
when  6  or  8  is  the  m.ain,  or  1 1  when  7  is  the  main, 
he  «/<7.-.v,  and  wins  of  his  op|ioiient  ( iiiimed  the 
.\rltcr).  If  he  throws  2,  '.i,  11,  or  12  when  .'i  or  9  is 
the  main,  or  2,  3,  or  11  when  6  or  8  is  the  main,  or 
2,  3,  or  12  Avlien  7  is  the  main,  he  loses.  If  he 
throws  anv  other  number — thus,  when  7  is  the  main, 
if  he  throws  4.  .">,  ti,  8,  9,  or  10— it  is  called  his 
i-lirinrr.  He  then  continues  to  throw  until  either 
the  main  or  the  chance  is  thrown.  If  the  main  is 
iirst  thrown,  the  setter  wins  ;  if  the  chance  is  lirst 
thrown,  the  caster  wins. 

Hazaribagb.  chief  town  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name  in  the  division  of  Chota  Nagpore, 
IJiiigal.  It  is  really  .a  cluster  of  hamlets,  which 
s|irung  up  round  the  former  military  bazaar,  with 
tilled  lields  between:  the  European  troops  have 
now  for  some  years  lieen  withdrawn.  Pop.  I.'>,306. 
—  Hazaiibagh  dixtrirt  h.is  .an  area  of  7021  sip  m., 
and  a  population  of  .a  million  .and  .a  quarter. 

Hazt'broiick.  a  town  in  the  French  depart- 
ment of  Nord,  28  miles  WXW.  of  Lille  by  mil. 
The  parish  church  (1493-1520)  is  surmounted  by 
a  spire  of  open  work.  260  feet  high.  There  are 
some  linen  and  tobacco  manufactures.      I'op.  7680. 

Hazel  (Coriiliis).  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
Older  Cupulifera',  of  whicli  the  fniit  is  a  nut  in  .a 
leafy  and  laciniated  cup,  the  enlarged  involucre  of 
the  female  (lower.  The  male  Howers  are  in  cylin- 
diical  catkins  ;  the  feni.ale  Mowers  .appear  .as  mere 
clusters  of  coloured  styles  at  the  extremities  of 
buds. — The  Common   Hazel  if.  Arrllnnn)  is  a  low 


Cuiiiiuon  Hazel  (  Vori/lu^  AitUaiui ) : 
ti,  male  anil  b,  female  flowera :  c,  fVuit, 

tree,  a  native  of  Britain,  and  of  all  the  teniperat€ 
parts  of  Euro|ie  and  Asia:  it  is  common  .also  in 
North  America.  There  are  ten  or  twelve  improved 
varieties  cultivated  extensively  in  Kent,  especially 
.around  Maidstone  and  in  some  other  p.arts  of  Eng- 
land. Of  these  there  .are  two  tyjici — one  with 
round  nuts,  named  eoO.i :  the  other  with  elongated 
nuts,  namei\f/ hrrtx.  The  cup  or  involucre  of  the 
former  is  shorter,  more  open,  and  not  so  much  lacer- 
ated as  that  of  the  latter.  Of  either  type  there  is  a 
variety  in  which   the  jiellicle  enclosing  the  kernel 


602 


HAZLETON 


IW'/AATT 


in  deep  re<l :  iiiiil  liotli  of  these  aiv  higlilv  estbeiiieil. 
These  jmrtii-uhir  vuiieties  are  |>iii]>iif;(iteil  by  snckers 
which  are  mini'  or  lets  freely  |>rii(liieeil,  liy  hiyers, 
and  hy  hiiililiii^'   ami    jtraltiiij;.      The  tree  is  exleii- 
sivelv  ^[rowii  in  sniiii'  parts  iil'  Kii^'laiul  for  copiiice 
wooil,  lieiiiK  reared  foi   this  |iur|iose  from  seed.      The 
youii;;  straijjlit  stems  ami  hraiiehes  are  employed  for 
making  erates,  haskets,  hiinlles,  hoops,  stakes,  \c. ; 
and  the  lar^'er  wooil  for  ehare<ial,  whieh   is  in  ^'reat 
rei|Uest    for   forges,  for    the    nianufaitiirc'    of   ;,'iin 
nowiler  and  artists' crayons.      Chips  of  the  wood  are 
in  Italy  sometimes  put  in   turhid  wine  for  the  inn- 
pose  of  linin;,'  it  ;  and  the  roots  are  used  liy  cahinet 
makers  for  veneering.     Ma^.dcal  properties  have  heen 
ascrihed  to  ha/el  roils  liy  the  credulous,  as  it   was  , 
of  them  the  Diriiiiiiii-rnil  (i|.v.)  w;i,s  formed  for  the  | 
purpose    of  discoverinj;    water,    ijiineials,  or   inirieil 
treasure.      Kroni    the  wood  an   enipyreuMiali<'  oil  is 
extracted,  which  is  a  vermifu^'e,  and  alle;;ed  to  lie  a 
cure  for  toothaidie.      Hazel  nuts  yield,  on  pressuie, 
ahout  half  their  wei;;ht  of  a  hland   tixi-d  oil,  often 
called  iiiii'dil  m  Britain,  the  hazel-nut  heiuf;  popu 
larly  known  hy  the  term  /'"/  alone  ;  hut  in  (Jermany 
it    is   walnut -oil    which    is    usually   calleil    nut  oil. 
Hazel-nut  oil    has  drying  properties,  and   is  much  ! 
useil  hy  painters  ;  it  is  also  used  hy  perfumers  ,a.s  a 
hasis  with  which   to   mix   expensive   fragrant  oils  : 
and  it  has  heen  employeil  mediein.illy  in  ecmghs. 

The  larva  of  a  weevil  { lln/iniiiDis  »»(•»»()  feeds 
on  the  kernels  of  hazel-nuts.  The  parent  female 
niake.s  a  hole  into  the  nut  hy  means  of  her  long 
snout,  ami  there  deposits  an  egg.  Great  nuinhers 
of  nuts  ale  thus  destroyed. 

The  Heakeil  Hazel  (C.  /ftvirate ),  a  species  having 
a  very  hairy  fruit-cup  prohuigeil  into  a  long  heak, 
is  a  native  of  the  northern  parts  of  .\nierica.  Its 
kernel  is  sweet.  -Tlie  ('(mstantinojile  Hazel  (('. 
cii/iini'i ).  the  nuts  of  which  are  considerahly  larger 
than  those  of  the  ecunmon  hazel,  is  a  n.itive  of  the 
Levant,  froin  wliich  the  fruit  is  imported  into 
Britain.  It  is  much  used  for  expressing  oil,  hut  is 
a  less  oleasant  fruit  than  many  kinds  of  eidj-nut 
and  lilliert.  A  Himalay.an  species  of  hazel  (('. 
/mil)  has  a  spiny  fruit-cup,  ami  an  excessively 
hard  nut.  —  Itniiilitiut  mils  are  tin?  nuts  of  a  variety 
of  the  common  hazel,  kiln-drieil  lief(u'e  their  expor- 
tation from  Spain.  Hazel-nuts  not  suhjectcil  to 
this  process  liinnot  he  kept  long  without  losing  in 
|iart  their  agreeable  flavour,  and  eonlraeting  n 
sensible  rancidity,  except  in  air-tight  vessels,  in 
whicli  they  are  said  to  remain  fresh  even  for  years. 

IlitZlotOII,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania,  .SO  nules 
NNW.  of  I'hiladelphia,  has  ironworks,  lumber- 
mills,  and  railwav-car  sho|ps,  but  is  of  importaiu'e 
mainly  as  the  chief  business  centre  of  the  rich 
Lehigh  coalfield.      Pop.  "Kjl. 

Ilazlitt.  Wll,l,l.\M,  was  born  at  Maidstone  on 
.Vpril  10.  \'~S.  His  fiither  was  a  I'uitariau  clergy- 
man who  belonged  to  the  county  of  .\ntrim.  In  his 
fifteenth  year  he  began  to  study  in  tin'  t'nitarian 
College  at  Hackney,  with  the  view  of  becoming  a 
ilisseuting  minister,  a  design  which  he  early  aban- 
doned. In  17!)S  he  formed  the  aci|Uaintanee  of 
Coleridge,  who  encounageil  him  to  compose  his 
EsMii/  oil  the  Priiici/i/is  iif  Hiiuiiiii  Aclinii  \ '  the 
oidy  thing,'  he  said,  '  which  I  ever  pir|in'il  my.self 
upiui  writing'),  whicli  w.os  not  published,  however, 
until  lHO."i.  For  s(nne  time  he  endeavoured  to  earn 
a_  living  as  a  portrait-painter;  and,  according  to 
Northcote,  would  have  become  a  great  artist  had 
he  not  foisaken  his  easel  for  his  desk.  In  18(»6  he 
published  his  /'/v.-  7'/iiiiii//il.s  on  Piihlir  Affnir.s,  and 
in  ISO';  his  Hiiihi  I,,  till-  Essai/  nii  Piiiniliitioii  In/  llir  \ 
Jti'c.  T.  It.  Miilthns.  After  his  marriage  with  .Miss 
Stoddarl  in  isos  he  lived  at  the  vill.ige  of  Winters- 
low,  in  Wiltshire,  until  1812,  when  lie  removed  to  ' 
York  Street,  Westminster,  and  found  eniphiyment  I 


as  a  writer  im  the  Moiniiiij  Vliioiiiilc  and  JCj-amiiici: 
From  1814  to  18.S0  lie  contrilmteil  to  the  Kdinbmiili 

lii-rini'.  His  Jiiiiiiif/  Tiililf :  n  t  'n/tirfinn  of  Essm/it 
oil  l.iliidhin.  Mill,  ami  Mini  mix,  and  the  most 
|iopular  of  his  works,  h\r<  Vliainrln-.s  u/ i^/iii/.ixjiciiir'.i 
/V(///.v,  appi-ared  in  1SI7.  lietwceii"  1818  and  1.S21 
he  ilelivered  lec-tiiies  at  the  Surrey  Institute,  which 
were  afterwards  published  under  the  titles  l.rrliircx 
mi  llir  V.iiijlixli  I'liilx,  on  \\w  Einjlisli  I'miiir  W'rilerx, 
anil  on  the  Ihiininlif  l.ilniitiiri  nf  llu-  Ai/r  of  Elhii- 
liilli.  His  marriage  pr<neil  an  unlia|ipv  one,  and, 
after  living  for  some  time  apart,  llazlitt  and  his 
wife  were  divorced  in  1H22.  He  was  fond  of  retir- 
ing to  Winterslow  Hut,  a  eoaehiiig-house  on  the 
high-road  fnuii  London  to  Salisbury.  At  this  huiely 
inn,  which  stainls  amid  bleak  wohls  on  the  \erge 
of  Salisbury  Plain,  he  w  roti'  most  of  the  essays 
which  he  contributed  to  the  l.niiiluii  Mniiir.nii-,  and 
which  were  afterwards  republished  in  his  Tiililr  Talk 
(  IS21  )  ami  Phiiii  S/uiil.ir  \  IS2ti).  An  nnfortunate 
passion  for  the  d.'inghtcr  of  a  tailor  with  whom 
he  lodged  found  expression  in  the  l.ihrr  Aiimrix, 
or  llir  .\rir  J'l/i/iiiiitioii  (1.S2.'}),  a  bo(d<  of  a  sticmg 
though  iJainfui  interest,  in  1824  he  marricil  a  lady 
of  some  mi'aiis,  who  liaMdIeil  with  liiiii  to  Italy, 
but  left  liim,  for  causes  which  can  only  be  conjec- 
tured, iliiring  the  return  journey,  and  never  joined 
him  again.  His  Svlriliinm  Jiom  I  he  Eiii/lish  I'octs 
and  Shrtrhcs  of  Ihr  J'riiiri/ifil  Pivltirr  (jiillprii's  in 
Eiii/liiiiil  appeared  in  1824:  his  S/iiril  nf  Ihr  Ai/r, 
or  Coiitriii/ioriirif  Porlniilx,  which  some  critics 
con.siiler  the  ripest  in  thought  and  most  felicitous 
in  style  of  all  his  works,  in  1S2.">:  and  his  l.ifr  of 
Xiiliohoii  lioiiiiiiiirlr  in  182s  :iO.  His  last  \rars 
were  darkened  by  ill-health  ami  monev  dlllicnltics. 
He  died  on  Si'ptember  18,  IS.'jO. 

Wayward    and    irasiible.   a   piey   to   melanchcdy, 

anil  t fteii  the  victim  of  a  rash  and  haughty  sejf- 

conlidence,  llazlitt  was  at  boltoni  generous,  ardent, 
and  sincere.  Hut  his  defects  were  sharpened  by 
unsuccess.  and  above  all  by  thescimilous  malignity 
with  which  his  character  and  his  writings  were 
traduced  by  hired  libellei>  of  adverse  polities.  The 
scope  of  his  powers  w;is  never  recognised  by  his 
contenii)oraries,  though,  as  Thackeray  has  said, 
there  were  probably  not  in  all  Kiiglaud  twelve  men 
with  )iowers  so  varied.  His  genius  had  many 
facets.  He  excelled  in  description  and  in  narra- 
tive, in  rellection  and  in  critical  analysis.  He 
wrote  of  nature  and  of  art  and  the  characters  of 
men  ;  as  a  critic  of  the  drama  he  has  never  been 
c<|ualleil.  He  was  one  of  the  deiulliest  contro- 
versialists. ,a  master  of  e]iigiam  and  burning  in 
vective  and  withering  irony.  His  letter  to  W  illiam 
(lilloid  stands  unsurpassed  as  an  example  of  polished 
vitu|ieration.  His  judgment  was  at  times  clouded 
by  iirejudice  and  distorted  by  his  love  of  para- 
dox. 15ut  of  all  the  (Jeorgian  critics  he  was 
the  most  eloi|uent,  the  most  catholic,  the  most 
thoroughly  ei|nippeil.  He  never  w lote  in  cold 
blood  ;  he  welcoiiicil  excellence  every  where.  He  did 
justice  alike  to  the  Lakers  and  to  the  (jliieen  Anne 
men.  He  was  not  less  discriminating  than  en- 
thusiastic His  style  ranges  from  lively  gossip  to 
glowing  rhapsody  ;  at  its  best  it  touches  one  of  the 
high-wiitir  marks  of  Knglish.  it  is  at  once  so  vigor- 
ous and  so  graci'ful.  so  lucid  :inil  so  rich,  so  e.x- 
(|iiisilely  apt  are  the  ejiithets,  so  lirmly  built  are 
the  sentences,  so  noble  is  the  rhylhni  of  the  periods. 
His  antoliiographic  essays  are  perhaps  of  all  his 
works  the  most  delightful  — stamped  with  the  seal 
of  truth,  tremulous  with  pathos,  and  bathed  in  the 
light  of  poetic  imagination.  His  writings  have 
never  gained  the  recognition  they  iiiirit  :  \ct.  with 
■all  his  defects,  it  would  be  hard  to  point  to  Hazlitt's 
master  in  all  the  ranks  of  Knglish  critics. 

See    O.  Saiiitsbur>*'.i   article  in  M(tcmHUiiC»  Mnyazitie 
for    1887;    Leslie    Stephen's    Hours   in   a   Lilirarj/   (2d 


HEAD 


HEALTH-RESORTS 


603 


series,  1877);  and  Bulwer  Lytton's  Qnui-tfrhi  Ksmiji 
( 1875 ).  A  collection  of  Hazlitt's  works  in  7  vols. — 
exclusive  of  the  Liff  of  Nupuh:oii — lias  been  edited  by  his 
grandson,  W.  C.  Hazlitt,  who  also  wrote  Mt-nioirs  of  him 
(2  vols.  18G7).  .Uexamler  Ireland  Lssucd  an  annotated 
List  of  his  writings  (ISfiHf,  and  an  a<Unirable  selection 
from  his  Avritin^-s.  with  a  brief  essay  on  his  life  and 
characteristics  as  an  author  1 1889). 

Head.  Sec  1!i:.vin,  Coxcv.ssion,  E.\h,  Eve, 
Skii.!,,  Tektu,  \c. 

Head.  Sik  Ehmind  Walkei;.  llart.,  };(ivern<)i- 
ueneral  of  Canada,  was  the  sou  of  the  Kev.  SirJ<jlin 
Head,  and  was  linni  in  ISO.j.  near  Maidstone,  Kent, 
i'roni  \Vinclif~ler  he  passed  to  Oriel  Colle^'e,  0.\- 
t'ord,  where  lie  took  a  lir>t  in  classies  in  IS'27,  and 
became  a  Fellow  of  Morton  :  in  18:W  lie  .succeeded 
his  father,  tlie  seventh  baronet,  .\fter  serving;  as 
poor-law  commissioner,  he  became  in  1847  lieu- 
tenantgovernor  of  Xew  IJruiiswick,  and  held  this 
liost  until  Sejitember  1854,  when  lie  succeeded  the 
Earl  of  El^iii  as  governor-general  of  Canada.  He 
retired  in  1S61,  wa-s  nia<le  a  civil-service  commis- 
sioner in  l8liS.  and  pnvv-eonnrillor  in  1867.  He 
wrote  a  HiikiIIujuI:  of  iS/yinii.t/i  I''iui/iiit/,  ami  other 
poimlar  books  on  art,  and  published  liiilldila  and 
othrr  I'luiiis,  orlii'iiiitl  and  translated  (1808).  He 
die<l  -28111  January  1868. 

Head.  SllJ  Fr.vxcis  Buxd,  Hart.,  author,  .and 
governor  of  Upper  Cana<la,  was  born  at  Hermitage, 
near  Kocliester,  1st  .lanuarv  1793.  He  entered  the 
corps  of  Royal  Engineers,  served  at  Waterloo  and 
elsewhere,  and  hail  attained  the  rank  of  major  when 
he  retired  from  the  service.  In  18l'.".  he  accepted 
an  engagement  from  a  private  company  to  work 
some  goM  and  silver  mines  on  the  river  I'late  ;  and 
his  spirited  UoikjIi  Sofi'ji  of  his  travels  across  the 
panipjis  an<l  over  the  Andes  gained  for  him  the 
name  of  'Calloping  Head.'  In  183.")  he  became 
governor  of  Tpjier  Canaila,  where,  at  the  head  of 
the  militia,  he  succeeded  in  supi>iessing  an  insur- 
rection, which  had  its  cnigin,  as  it  was  said,  in  liLs 
injiidlcicms  measures  ;  but  this  charge  he  may  fairly 
be  held  to  have  refuted  in  his  Stirnitirr  (1830) 
of  the.se  events.  In  1837  he  resigned  his  i)ost,  and 
wa.s  created  a  b,aronet  in  1838.  After  his  retire- 
ment he  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits,  and 
for  some  yeai-s  enjoyed  a  pension  of  t'lOO  'for  his 
services  to  literature.'  His  b(»d<s  include  liiilihirs 
fiuin  tlir  Bniii/icii  of  Xassaii,  A  Fnijijot  of  Frciicli 
Stii-ks,  Stokers  and  Pokers,  A  ]'isil  to  Ireland,  The 
Einifjrant,  The  Horse  and  his  liider,  Ttie  Royal 
Enqinerr.  ami  Lives  of  Unice,  the  traveller,  and 
Sir  .luliM  I'.iiigoyne.      He  dieil  20th  .July  187."). 

Headaeiie  can  scarcely  e\  er  be  called  a  disease, 
but  it  is  a  common  symiitom  of  many  ailments.  It 
is  sometimes  caused  by  .serious  mischief  within  the 
cranium,  but  far  more  frei|Uently  it  ile]iends  ujion 
an  alteration  in  the  ijuality  of  the  blood,  or  in  a 
deficient  or  excessive  supply  of  it  to  the  head.  The 
deterioration  in  (piality  may  be  cau.sed  by  fevei's, 
by  inflammations  of  various  organs— e.g.  the  kid- 
neys, or  even  by  breathing  the  air  of  .a  crowded 
room.  The  congestive  form  of  licaikache  is  often 
produced  by  mere  meclianical  obstruction  to  the 
return  of  blood  from  the  head.  .\  tight  collar  or 
an  awkward  po.sition  of  the  neck  during  rest  m.ay 
cause  it.  This  form  of  he.ad.aclie  is  aggravated  by 
stooping.  On  tin'  other  hand  the  aiiainic  variety 
is  often  relieved  by  lying  ilowii.  I'he  neuralgic 
headache  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  .all,  ami  is 
es])ecially  associated  with  the  hysterical  tendency. 
.\notlier  variety  which  is  on  tlie  increase  in  this 
hurried  and  hard-drixen  generation  is  that  caused 
by  excessive  Ijiain-work.  Lastly,  there  is  the  sick 
headache,  megrim  or  migraine,  which  comes  on 
periodically  in  paroxysms,  often  a.ssociated  with 
liilious  vomiting. 


The  great  rule  for  the  treatment  of  headache  is 
first  of  all  to  correct  the  general  morbid  condition 
on  whicli  it  depends.  Witliout  this,  local  treatment 
is  usually  of  little  avail,  and  at  best  Is  only  of  tem- 
porary benefit.  Except  in  an;emic  ca.ses  the  patient 
should  have  the  head  and  shoulders  well  raised 
during  sleep.  .Vperieuts  give  relief  in  nearly  everj* 
form  except  the  neuralgic.  If  the  blood  is  deterio- 
rated it  must  be  improved  by  iron,  1.5  to  '20  drops 
of  the  tincture  of  the  percliloride,  three  times  a  day. 
Quinine  Is  of  use  in  periodic  headaches  in  doses 
of  2  or  .3  grains,  three  or  four  times  ,a  day.  In  neu- 
ralgic pain  about  the  forehead  menthol  nibbed  on 
often  gives  speedy  relief.  (Jelsemium  and  In<li,an 
hemp  are  u.setul  internal  remedies,  but  opium  is  of 
doubtful  value.  Bromide  of  potassium  in  .30-giain 
doses  may  be  given  with  the  Indian  hemp,  if  there 
is  much  re.stle.s.snes.s.  Of  local  applications  chloro- 
form and  mustard  are  ])erhaps  tlie  most  lienerally 
serviceable.  In  all  ca-ses  the  diet  anil  habits  of  life 
should  be  carefully  regulated. 

Head  Borough,  an  old  term  for  the  head  of  a 
borough,  or  high  constable.     See  Constable. 

Head-liiinting.    See  Dvaks. 

Head-money.    See  Poll  tax. 

Headoii  Beds.    See  Oligocene  Sv.stem. 

Health.    See  Hygiene. 

Health.  Bill  of,  in  Shipping,  is  a  document 
carried  by  every  British  ship,  unless  engaged  in  the 
coasting  trade,  or  specially  exempted.  It  is  granted 
at  home  by  the  customs,  and  abruad  by  the  British 
consular  agent,  or,  if  there  is  no  such  person,  by  a 
British  merchant  or  foreign  consul.  When  no  con- 
tagious or  infectious  disease  is  known  to  exist  at 
the  place  of  departure,  the  bill  is  'clean;'  when 
there  is  reason  to  fear  the  appearance  of  such  dis- 
ease, the  bill  Is, '  suspected  ;  when  such  disease 
.actually  exists,  the  bill  is  'foul.'  The  ])ractice  of 
other  countries  is  identical.     See  t^r.MiAXTIXE. 

Health.  Board  of.     See  Privv-coixlil. 

Health-resorts,    frequenteil     for    combating 

disease  or  invigorating  the  conijiaratively  healthy, 
fall  into  several  well-marked  groups.  ( 1 )  Sea- 
bathing quarters  have  long  been  in  vogue  amongst 
civilised  nations,  though  the  periodical  exodus  from 
cities  is  of  modern  origin.  (2)  The  remedial  .and 
invigorating  agency  of  mountain  air  has  been 
more  recently  recognised,  but  is  now  fully  estab- 
lished. Hence  the  ])o]iularity  of  many  inland 
highland  districts  in  Scotland.  Switzerland,  and 
Norway.  (3)  Curative  wells — thermal,  muriated, 
alkaline,  sulphated,  chalybeate,  sulphureous,  cal- 
careous— have  been  fre(|uented  from  the  earliest 
times,  and  are  found  in  many  countries.  The 
various  kinds  of  water  and  their  lienelicial  i|Ualilies 
are  ilealt  with  in  the  article  MiXKRAL  W.viKKS. 
I  4)  Climatic  health  resorts  at  a  high  altitu<le,  such 
as  Davos  Platz.  Aiidermatt,  Meian,  \c..  have  of 
late  come  into  favnur  because  of  their  value  for 
persons  recovering  from  acute  illness,  .and  Avho  are 
able  to  take  active  outdoor  exercise  ;  and  .sjieclally 
for  tliose  in  the  early  stages  of  phthisis,  or  in 
chronic  phthisis  unaccompanied  by  fever  or  blooil- 
spitting.  When  there  is  h.i-moptysi>.  such  a  climate 
is  disadvantageous  or  dangerous  as  it  is  also  in 
cases  of  beartdise,a.se,  chronic  bronchitis,  and 
clironic  rheumatism.  (.'))  Kesideiice  for  longer  or 
shorter  times  in  exceptionally  temperate,  nnid,  or 
warm  climates  is  recoinmendeil  for  pulmonary 
disea.ses,  particularly  phthisis.  Such  favoured 
rc'ions  are  Bournemouth.  Tori|nav,  ami  other, 
places  on  the  south  coast  of  Englami  and  the  Isle 
of  Wight,  the  Biviera  ( Mentone,  Nice,  Sic), 
Hyeres,  I'ozzmdi  and  other  sheltered  places  in 
south  Italy,  Palermo,  .M.adeira,  .Vlgners,  and  Upper 
Egypt.      Florida,    southern    California,    and    the 


604 


HEALTHS 


HEART 


piiie-\v(><>(ls  i)f  (iporf^a  ari;  in  favour  with  Aiiiei-i- 
oans.  The  cliinatc  "f  Culorailo,  hiacin;.'  Ihi>iij;h 
iidt  altoj;otlier  iiiilil.  is  also  iR-neHi-ial  to  lironchial 
ami  |iiiliiioiiary  weakness.  In  hot  oouiitries  the 
saMitariuiiis  are  nsnally  cool  hillslatioiis-  tluis,  in 
Inilla.  Simla,  Darjiliii;;,  Naiiii  Tal.  I'takaniaml, 
I'atluiiarlii.  (li)  Cliiiiatic  resort- where  .ulililioiial 
help  i-.  olilaineil  tor  s]>eeial  treatment  -luii  .i-  the 
•;ra]ie  cure  in  phthisis  (Mcran),  wliev  iiire  (dais 
in  eanton  Appen/.ell ),  and  the  ;;oal's milk,  ewe- 
milk,  or  cows-milk  cure.  The  inllnenee  of  the 
pinewooils  at  Areaelion  is  supposed  to  he  favour 
ahle  to  eonsuniptive  patients.  .\lso  such  special 
devices  as  warm  mud  li.ilhs.  or  the  sun  hath  <'ure 
(e.xposure  of  the  uinnvered  pel-son  to  the  sun's 
lieat  and  livilit),  as  iiractised  at  Vcldes  in  t'ar- 
inthia.  (71  Ilyilropathic  estahlishnient.s  ;;enerally. 
(,S)  Seavoya^'es  may  also  he  here  noted,  .is  suit 
ahle  for  persons  in  tiie  early  sta;,'es  of  phthisis,  .nnd 
in  cjv.sesof  nervous  exhaustion.  See  liATll,  llviilto 
1".\T1IY,  MlNKl:\l.  W.VTKlt.s :  the  articles  on  the 
most  notahle  health-resorts  :  and  ("liarteris.  Ilriilth 
lie.soilx  III  Home  and  Ahroiiil  (IHS.I);  .1.  liurney 
Yeo,  Climnte  iiiifl  lliiilth  7?f-«(j;7.v  ( 1 885 )  ;  I'lHJOt 
(iill's  Dirliiniiiiii  of  If'ti/iiiiKj  /'/iiici  (188.->l:  and 
Kraser  Kae's  Ati-^frinn  Ift'tf/t/i-iTsurfs  (1888). 
lloalUlS.  l>l!lXKINi;   OF.      See   To.VSTS. 

Ilcariiiu:.    See  Eah. 

llcitriK'.  TiioMA.s,  an  eminent  Kn^lish  ami 
quary.  was  horn  in  1678  in  the  parish  of  Whili' 
Waltliam,  IJerksliire,  and  hail  his  eilueation  at  St 
Edmund  Mall,  (>.\foril,  where  he  j;radual(il  lt..\. 
in  KiM'.l.  I' wo  years  later  he  was  apiioiiiteil  to  a 
post  in  the  Uodleiaii  l,il>rary,  of  wliicli  in  171"2  he 
liecanie  secouil  kecpi'r.  I'liis  ollice  he  was  olilif;ed 
to  resifjn  in  I7ltj  from  liis  inaliility  to  take  the 
oaths  to  the  "jovernment.  hut  hecontinueil  to  live 
at  Oxforil  occn]>ied  entirely  with  his  stmlies.  Me 
died  lOtli  .lune  I7."{r).  Mcariie  ciunpiled  and  editi'd 
no  less  than  forty-one  works,  all  stamped  hv  pain 
fill  anil  l.itiorious  learning;.  altliou;,di  poor  in  style 
and  somcwiial  rumlilin;,'  in  mcllioil.  I'liev  are 
iisuallv  marred  liy  the  iiilrusioii  of  irrelevant  matter 
— even  his  .Jacoliitism  crept  into  his  prefaces  :  yet 
thev  remain  sidid  contrilintions  to  liililioj;raphy.  and 
their  author  deserved  hetter  than  to  lie  ^'ililieted  in 
the  hiiiirinri  .is  a  dull  and  dusty  pedant. 

Hi.s  iiiii.st  iiiipurtaiit  hooks  were  Rftifptia:  BfttOt  itfittv 
(17(W).  I-elamra  Itinera,!)  (••  vols.  1710  12).  Lelanil's 
Colltrlinira  ( (i  vols.  1715),  A  Cnlhcti'ni  •>(  Ciiri'iiin  Din- 
cotn'urx  it/ttin  Kntjl'ith  Aitlir/iiilieji  (17-0);  and  tlie 
uditioii8  of  t'aniden's  AtmnU  (3  vols.  1717),  .Vlured  of 
Bfvcrley  (1711)  i.  William  i.f  Nc»)iiirgli  (1719).  Fordun's 
Scnfir/n-nnirini  (17'J2),  Uoln-rt  of  Gloucester's  Cltronirtf 
( 17-'-4 ),  and  that  of  IVtcr  l.uiigtoft  (1725).  'Ihc  Bihlio- 
thtctt  Ihay/tiami  was  published  in  I84,S  ;  Rflii/iiitr  Hftir- 
iiiaiiir,  \>y  I'liilip  Blis.s,  in  \X'>7.  The  third  volume  of 
Jtentiirku  'inil  < 'otlectitniv  "f  ThomaA  //came  :\]>\te!ircd  in 
l.S8n,  edited  liy  C.  K.  Uoiilc  for  the  Oxford  Historical 
Society.  See  Itnjmrlial  Metnorinltt  of  liis  life  )iy  several 
lianils  (17;{tJ),  and  the  Lives  of  Ldand,  Htarne,  anil 
»ro.W(  Oxford,  1772). 

Il«-ai-sa.v.    See  EviDKxci:. 

Ilcai'se.  or  Mer^E  (through  I''r.  from  l,at. 
hiijjcj:,  a  harrow'),  the  carriage  in  which  the 
dead  are  conveyed  to  the  grave,  hut  orioinally  the 
teriii  applied  to  a  triangular  har  or  framework 
with  uiiright  -pikes  for  holding  candle-  at  a  church 
service,  and  e-pecially  at  funeral  services.  It  w,us 
oriinnally  very  simple  in  form,  hut  in  the  l.Mli 
aiiiT  16th  centuries  hearses  of  great  sjilendour  came 
into  use,  and  were  erected  in  the  churches  over 
the  hodies  of  distinguished  pei-sonage,«.  The  frame- 
work was  of  iron  or  hnuss,  soiiielimes  of  heautiful 
woikiiianship,  si|uare,  octagonal,  \c.  in  plan,  with 
pillars  at  the  angles,  and  arched  framework  ahove 
forming  a  canopy.  The  whole  w.os  hung  over  with 
rich   cloths  and   embroidery,  and   lighted  up  with 


hunilreds  of  wax  candles,  and  decorated  with  wax 
images.  From  this  the  transition  to  the  modern 
funeral  heai-se  can  he  ea.silv  iraceil.  In  Catliolic 
churches  the  old  hearse  still  exists  as  a  triangle 
with  spikes,  on  which  candles  are  placed. 

Heart,  the  central  organ  of  the  circulatory 
system,  acting  as  a  force  and  suction  pump  in  rela- 
tion to  the  lilood-vessels.  It  always  lie-  dorsally 
in  Inverlelirates.  ventr:illv  in  \  citeluates.  and 
arisi's  from  the  strong  ileviOopmiiil  of  one  or  more 
hlooilM'ssels.  In  \  eitelirates,  the  icsiiltiiig  cylin 
cler,  lying  in  the  throat  region  of  the  emhryo. 
is  divided  into  receiving  and  ex]ielling  portions, 
iinrirlr  and  rrnlrirli-  respectively,  and  the  whole 
is  enclosed  in  a  more  or  less  marked  cavity 
or  ensheathing  ilouhle  hag,  the  iininirilinni. 
Ity  curvatuie  .inil  folding.  l>y  formation  of  parti 
tions  and  ingrowth  of  lahi-.  the  three  or  four 
chaniliered  hearts  of  the  higher  vertebrates  arise. 
It  will  be  enough  to  describe  the  general  structure 
and  function  of  the  heart  in  man. 

The  human  heart  lies  veiitially  in  the  chest, 
between  the  two  lungs;  it  has  a  bro.iil  eiiil  or 
■  bjL-e "  directed  n|iwards  and  backwards.  ;inil  a 
pointed  end  or  'apex,  turned  ilownwiirils.  for- 
wards, and  to  the  left:  it  is  kept  in  position  by 
the  .attachment  of  the  enswathing  pericardium  to 
the  upper  surface  of  the  Diaphragm  (i|.\.),  and  by 
the  large  blood-ve.ssels  which  enter  or  leavi'  its  four 
ch.imbei-s :  its  total  size  is  ;ippioxiniately  ef|ual 
III  llml  of  its  owner's  closed  list.  Theie  ale  two 
receiving  chambers  or  .iiiricles,  of  which  the  right 
receives  all  the  impuie  blood  brought  by  the 
iTHfC  riira-  from   head  and   iKiily  and   by  the  mnin- 

'  iini     rein      from 

!  the  substance  of 

'  the  heart  itself, 
while  the  left 
is  lilled  with 
purilied  blood 
liroiight  by  t  Ill- 
pulmonary  veins 
lioni  the  lungs. 
The  auricles  jia-ss 
their  contents  to 
the  two  driving 
chambers  or  m-ii- 
t rides,   of  whii-li 

I  the  right  pumps 
the  impure  blood 

I  to  the  lungs,  and 

I  the  left  semis  the 
pure  blood  to  the 
liead  and  body. 
The  ventricles 
are  linger  than 
the  auricles,  and 
have  strong 
inuscnlar      walls 

I  propmtionate  to 
their  harder 
work.  The  left 
ventricle  is 
stronger  than, 
and  partially  sur- 
rounded by.  the  thinner  light  chamber.  The 
light    auricle   oi>ens   into -the   right    ventricle    hv 

I  an     aperture     guarded      by      a      triple     ilririis/ml) 

I  valve,     whose     three     membranous     lappets     are 

j  attached  to  tendinous  cords  {elmiilir  trnt/incn) 
•arising    from    muscular   jirocesses    {niusrnli  ]iiii>il- 

\  /hits)  on  the  walls  of  the  ventrii-le.  The  open- 
ing from  the  left  auricle  into  the  left  ventricle 
is  similarly  guarded  by  a  double  {mil ml  or 
hiiiix/iitl)  valve.  These  valves  on  each  side  pre- 
vent the  pa-ssage  of  blood  from  ventricle  to  auricle. 
.\t  the  base  of  the  |iulnionan-  artery  on  the  right 
and  of  the  .aorta  on  the  left,  there  are  three  jiocket- 


Kig.  1.— Sictli  II  ul  tin  lluiuall 
Heart  (after  His) : 
•A,  riiilit  .-uiricJe ;  H,  rii,'tit  ventricle ; 
C,  li-n  \ .iilricle ;  I),  left  iiiiriele ;  E. 
jiailition  iK-twcen  the  two  ventricles. 
Itetwei'ii  tlie  auricles  am)  ventricles  on 
rijilit  ainl  left,  the  triciis)iiil  anil  niitml 
valves  Willi  their  enrils  aiiit  as^oeialeil 
iniisele.s  are  sliown 


HEART 


605 


-;  -X'iJi!^ 


like   [seiiiiluiKir)   valves,    « liicli    prevent   backHow 
from  vessels  to  ventricles. 

When  tlie  heart  is  at  work,  the  siiniiltaneons  com 
traction  of  the  two  auricles  ( i.e.  of  tlie  niuscle  lilires 
i>n  their  walls)  is  followed  liy  a  similar  contraction 
of  the  ventricles,  aM<l  this  hy  a  pause  or  passiic 
interval  of  re-exjiansion,  aftei-  wliieli  the  rhythm 
of  contraction  recommences.  In  the  contraction  of 
the  auricles,  the  nni-ss  of  hlooil  in  the  large  veins 
will  not  perjuit  of  a  hacktlow  in  a  i)eripheral  direc 
tion.  so  that  virtually  all  the  contents  of  the 
auricles  pass  into  the  respective  ventricles,  which 
at  that  moment  are  llaccid  and  nncontracted.  As 
the  ventricles  fill,  the  valves  helween  them  anil  the 
auricles  are  partly  closed,  and  this  is  perfectly 
accomplished  w  hen  the  contraction  of  the  ventricle 

sets  in.  As 
no  blood  can 
then  pass  back 
from  ventricle 
to  auricle,  the 
enerjiy  of  ven- 
tricular con- 
traction is 
directed  to 
overcomin  j; 
the  resUtance 
of  the  semi- 
lunar valves 
guarding  the 
entrance  to 
the  pulmon- 
ary artery  and 
the  aorta, 
which  are 
m  o  r  cove  r 
elastic  vessels 
full  of  blood. 
The  state  of 
contra<'tion  in 
auricle  or  ven 
Iricle  is  called 
the  ni/stulc  : 
the  state  of 
the    (/iiiHo/c, 


Fig.  2.— Di.igrani  of  Heart  halved  and 
laid  open  ( after  Uebierre ) : 
A.  B,  C,  D.  as  ill  lij;.  1.  n,  ]iart  of  triciisiii'l 
valve ;  b,  part  of  mitral ;  c,  seinilunars  at 
Itasc  of  pulniouarj'  artery.  a\a\  inferior 
and  superior  vena;  cavse  entering  A  ;  h\U'. 
pulmonary  arteries  proceeding  Irom  li ; 
(/.r',  aorta  proceeding  from  C ;  d',ft'.  pul- 
monary veins  entering  1>. 

relaxation    and    expansion 


pcissiv 

and  it  is  evident  that  by  the  systole  of  the 
auricles  the  ventricles  are  filled,  and  that  by  the 
systole  of  the  ventricles  their  contents  are  for  tlie 
most  part  forced  into  the  arterial  systems  of  lungs 
and  body.  As  the  heart  usually  beats  about 
seventy-two  times  a  minute,  the  cycle  of  events 
just  noted  lasts  about  ."(.ths  of  a  .second,  of  which 
the  systole  of  the  ventricle  busts  about  v.t'"*'  that 
of  the  auricle  perhaps  ,',-,th.  and  the  pa-ssive  interval 
about  i'„ths  of  a  secoml. 

The  activity  of  the  heart  has  several  external 
indices,  such  as  the  lientitiii,  seen  and  fell  between 
the  fifth  and  si.xth  rib  on  the  left  side,  due  to  con- 
traction of  the  ventricles,  which  makes  the  '  ape.x  ' 
of  the  heart  strike  against  the  pericardium,  and 
through  this  on  tht?  wall  of  the  chest.  There  are 
also  sounds  produced  liy  the  heart  :  («)  the  longish 
dull  sound  probably  caused  by  the  contraction  of 
the  muscular  fibres  of  the  ventricles  and  tlie  ten- 
sion of  the  valves  between  these  chambers  and  the 
auricle;  (6)  the  sharp  sound  due  to  the  sudden 
closure  of  the  semilunar  valves  when  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  ventricles  ceases.  The  heart  sounds 
are  of  great  iinpintauce  in  the  diagnosis  of  ilisease 
of  the  heart.  They  may  undergo  various  changes 
and  may  in  some  cuses  disa]ipear  or  be  replaced  by 
or  accompanied  liy  Diiirmnrs.  These  murmurs  are 
caused  by  the  blood  How  ing  through  the  oriliees  of 
the  heart  which  have  become  changed  by  disea.s«^ 
At  a  distance  from  the  heart,  the  /)«/.vc  or  reguliir 
dilatation  of  an  elastic  arteiy  is  a  familiar  index. 
The  heart  is  under  the  control  of  three  sets  of 
nerves:    (n)   from  ganglia   in   its  own  substance. 


apjiarently  e.s.sential  to  the  regular  rhythm  of  con- 
traction :  ('))  from  the  sympathetic  system,  appar- 
ently aH'ecting  rapidity  of  action  ;  (<)  from  the 
pneumogastric  or  vagus  neivc,  coming  directly 
from  the  brain,  apparently  with  arresting  jiower. 
See  AoKlA.  .\hti;kv,  Hlouu,  Cikcii-.vtio.n  :  text- 
books of  Anatomy  by  Quain,  Turner,  Mivart, 
Macalistei-,  \c.  ;  of  Physiology  by  Foster,  Huxley, 
Landois  and  Stirling,  &c. 

DisE.vsEs  OF  THE  HiOAUT  are  either  those  affect- 
ing the  various  tissues  comjiosing  the  heart,  or  the 
nervous  arrangements  governing  the  heart. 

( 1 )  Di.seuxcs  of  Struct II rex  cmnposing  Heart  may 
be  primary  or  secondary. 

(«)  Primarii Di.serise.s. — AJl  the  various  tissues  of 
the  heart  may  be  ]irimarily  aflected.  The  I'cri- 
111  id  ill  III  (sac  surrounding  heart)  may  be  affected 
with  inllammation  i pericarditis).  This  is  by  no 
means  an  uncommon  condition  in  rheumatic  fever, 
while  it  also  occurs  in  connection  with  some  of  the 
acute  exanthemata.  Fluid  tends  to  be  ellused  into 
the  sac,  and  this  produces  great  impairment  of  the 
heart "s  action.  The  condition  frequently  leads  to  a 
fatal  termination.  Various  tmiioiiri  may  occur  in 
connection  with  the  pericardium. 

The  Mi/(iriirdiiiiii  (muscular  w;ill  of  heart)  may 
also  be  affected  with  intlamniation  leading  to  very 
irregular  and  im]iaired  action  of  the  heart,  and 
often  to  death.  This  is  know  n  ivs  myucarditix.  and 
if  the  fatal  termination  does  not  ensue  in  the  acute 
stage  of  the  disease,  the  wall  of  the  heart  is  a|it  to 
be  left  in  a  weakened  condition  due  t<i  the  patho- 
logical changes  .set  up  in  the  course  of  the  iuHatn- 
nnition.  The  myocardium  may  occasionally  lie  the 
seat  of  tumours.  The  muscular  substance  of  the 
heart  may  undergo  a  Jatti/  def/ciierotiDii,  which 
may  produce  death  either  from  failure  of  the  heart, 
or  more  rarely  by  rujiture  of  the  wall. 

The  KiidiiiariliiiiH  (lining  membrane  of  heart: 
also  forms  the  valves  of  the  heart)  is  the  most 
common  seat  of  inllanniiation  in  rheumatic  sub- 
jects and  in  individuals  sullering  from  scarlet  fever 
or  from  .some  other  of  the  exanthemata.  This 
ciiducarditis  is  sjiecially  ajit  to  attack  the  valves  of 
the  left  side  of  the  heart,  and  to  lead  to  defomiity 
and  the  imperfect  action  of  these  important  struc- 
tures. When  this  occurs  the  well-known  train  of 
symptoms  commonly  associated  with  heart  disea.se 
are  apt  to  a|ipear — breathle.ssness.  iial|iitations. 
irregular  heart's  action,  dropsy,  albuminuria.  vVc.  : 
while  the  various  signs  of  valvular  disease,  among 
the  most  imiiortant  of  which  is  the  alterati<in  in  the 
.sounds  of  the  heart,  and  the  development  of  mur- 
mui-s  may  also  be  iletermined.  In  many  ca.ses, 
however,  in  spite  of  disease  of  the  valves,  the  heart 
may  continue  to  act  satisfact<irily.  l>ut  there  is 
always  a  great  ilanger  of  its  pro\ing  inade<|nate  to 
the  additional  work  thus  put  upon  it.  and  of  its 
suddenly  failing  under  any  extra  strain. 

There  is  one  |iecnliar  form  of  inflammation  of  the 
endocardium  known  as('<«/t'  idccratiir  eni/ocart/ilis 
whi<h  is  exceedingly  fatal,  and  which  is  ilue  to  the 
development  of  micro-organisms  in  the  heart. 
Ceitain  slow  degenerative  changes  may  also  afl'ect 
!  the  endocarilium,  more  especially  where  it  com- 
poses the  aortic  valves  (Atlirruina). 

In  all  inllammatoiA  allections  of  the  heart  there 
is  a  tendency  for  all  the  structures  to  be  involved 
at  one  and  the  same  time. 

(/()  Scruiiilarii  DiictiM-s.—Ax  the  result  of  various 
nmrbid  slates  of  other  parts  of  the  body,  the  heart, 
and  more  especially  its  muscular  wall,  in.ay 
become  .secondarily  affected.  Thus  in  fever  tlie 
muscular  substance  of  the  heart  manifests  the  con- 
dition of  cloiidji  sirclliiHi.  and  thus  becoming  weak- 
ened tends  to  yield  to  the  pressure  of  blood  inside 
the  heart,  and  to  undergo  dilatation.  This  state  of 
the  organ  is  frequently  accompanied  by  the  develop- 


606 


HEART 


in: A  I' 


nu'iit  ol  iiuiniiui>  <liie  to  tlie  iiiiperfeot  nrtioii  nf  tlic 
valves  lietwecn  the  aiiiiolcs  iiiiil  veiilrirli>>  ullnwin;; 
the  hlfXMl  to  How  iiiu'kwiirils  thi'<>u;,'h  the  oritioes. 
At  the  same  time  the  various  syiii)itoiii!<  of  ilis- 
tuilK'il  eiroiilation  are  ilevelojieil. 

Ill  the  various  forms  of  iiiiirmia  ( blooillessneai ), 
wlieliier  primarv  or  seconilary  to  other  <lisea.ses,  the 
miisele  of  the  heart  Ijecomes  ileliililated,  ami  a 
similar  series  of  si;;iis  ami  symiitoms  to  those  jiist 
ileseriheil  make  their  apiiearaiice. 

Ill  oertaiti  iliseases  in  whioh  the  hlood  pressiiie  is 
raiseil  ( l$iij;lit's  ltisea.se).  or  when  any  eomlition 
throws  o\tra  work  on  the  heart  for  a  ronsiileralile 
peiioil.  the  organ  heeomes  Inunrlroitlilid — i.e.  in 
ereiuseil  in  size  ami  »tr<'ni;th.  This  is  well  seen 
when  the  valves  are  ilisea-seil,  ami  the  muscular 
substance  is  well  nourished. 

{'!)  Deniiiiji mints  of  Neri-oiis  Mrrfiaiiixm  of 
Jleiiit. — As  a  result  of  many  totally  dillerent  con- 
ditions the  sensory  nervous  mechanism  of  the  heart 
may  he  atl'ecteil.  and  jrive  rise  to  |iain  or  to  various 
sensations  in  the  re;;ion  of  the  heart.  Thi'-e  sensa. 
tions  are  not,  however,  always  indicative  of  oijjanic 
disea.se  of  the  organ. 

A  |ieculiar  set  of  symptoms,  known  as  aiigiiia 
aertorin,  are  treated  more  fully  under  a  separate 
head.  The  patient  suH'ei's  from  attacks,  the  chief 
symptom  of  which  is  a  <lieadful  feeling  of  iiii- 
penning  cleath,  usually  with  cardiac  pain.  \\  hen 
occurring  as  the  result  of  organic  heart  disease 
lhe.se  symptoms  are  most  comimmly  connecteil  with 
disejuse  of  the  aortic  valves. 

The  various  nervons  arrangements  presiding  over 
the  niovenienis  of  the  heart  may  also  lieconie 
derangeil,  ami  lead  to  increa-setl  or  diminished 
heart's  action  or  to  irregular  action.  The  last  is 
the  most  frecjuent.  and  is  a  very  common  aicompiini 
iiient  of  organic  disease,  though  it  frei|Ui'iilly  ncciii-s 
in  iinlividnals  entirely  free  of  any  siicii  I'nndition. 
Nervous  an<l  gimty  individuals  and  those  aihUcteil 
to  the  exces.sivc  use  of  tobacco  are  eonimon  sullerei's 
from  such  />iil/>itntio>i.s. 

The  words  '  broken  heart '  seem  to  suggest  a  fomi 
of  heart  disease.  Hut  of  course  the  expre.s,sioii  arose 
out  of  the  long  prevalent  and  now  wholly  obsolete 
view  that  the  heart  is  in  some  way  the  seat  of  the 
allections — a  view  inevitably  suggested  by  the 
quickening  of  the  pulse  iimler  emotion,  <u'  its 
temporary  stoppage  from  a  sudilen  shock. 

Iloart.  S.\citKii.    .See  S.\ciii:i)  Hk.\1!T. 

Ilfiirt-luirial.  or  the  burial  of  the  heart  in  a 
l)lace  .separate  from  that  in  which  the  body  is  laiil. 
seems  to  have  been  once  jiractised  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  In  European  countries  it  was  most 
common  in  the  l'2th  and  l.Sth  centuries,  though 
instaiii'es  have  occurred  in  all  centuries  ilown  to 
and  including  the  lltth.  The  practice  undoubteilly 
arose  out  of  the  special  veiiei'.ation  in  which  the 
heart  wa.s  held  as  the  seat  of  the  atl'ecticuis  ami  of 
certain  of  the  higher  virtues,  ,is  courage,  piety. 
Ik-sides  the  heart,  other  i)arts  of  the  ImhIv,  such  as 
the  viscera,  were  soiiietinies  hommred  with  separate 
burial.  It  has  lieen  siiggeste<l  that  this  distribu- 
tion of  the  ImxIv  for  sepulture  w,a.s  luompteil  by  n. 
wi-li  to  secure  (lie  pr.ayers  of  more  than  one  congre- 
gation for  the  soul  of  the  dece:i-sed.  In  other 
instances,  where  the  deceased  has  died  abroarl  and 
his  heart  has  been  caiTied  home  for  burial,  the 
motive  is  simpler  to  undei'stand.  The  persons  who 
li.ave  been  honoured  with  separate  burial  for  the 
heart  have  been  for  the  most  jiart  men  and  women 
of  royal  birth  and  e<'clesi,astics  of  high  rank. 
Amongst  roval  i)ei-sonages  may  be  enumerated 
Henry  I.  ami  Hich.niil  T.  of  Engj.and,  whose  hearts 
were  interred  at  liouen  :  Henry  III.,  whose  heart 
wius  buried  at  Konteviaml  in  Normamly  :  Eleanor, 
wife  of  Edward  I.,  at  Lincoln  ;  Edwanl  I.  himself. 


whose  heart  wassent  to.lerusah-m  for  burial,  as  was 
that  of  liid>ert  Ihuce  (i|.v.):  the  Kreneh  kings,  Louis 
.\lI.,.\m.,an.l.\IV.,  Francis  I.  and  1 1.  and  Henry 
II.  and  III.  :  the  Emperor  Leonohl  of  .Austria  :  ami 
James  II.  of  England,  whose  liearl  was  entomln'd 
in  St  .Mary  of  Chaillot  near  I'aiis.  Tin-  heart  of 
.\nne  de  .Monlmoieney,  conslal>le  of  Erance.  was 
inleried  at  Les  Cidestins  ;  that  of  Lonl  Eilwanl 
Ihiice  at  Ciilross  .\bbey  in  I'erthshiii',  his  body  in 
Bergen -op  Zoom    in     Holland  ;     ami     that    of    Sir 

.  William  Temple  at  Moor  I'ark  near  Eanihaiii. 
The  vLscera  of  ihe  popes  from  Sixlus  \'.  i  l.-iWl) 
onwards  were  interred  in  SS.  \'iiu'eii/.o  and  .Amis 
tasio,  the  parish  church  of  tiie  l^niriiial.  I>aniel 
(I'CoMueirs  heart  is  buried  at  Uome  :  Shell,  k', 
('(■»)•  <oiy//»hi ')  at  Uournemonlh  :  and  that  of  ihe 
Eieiieh  mai'shal.  Kellerniaiin,  on  the  battlelieid  of 
Valmv.  The  practice  was  ]irohibiteil  by  I'ope 
Itonifiire  Vlll.  (  rj(t4  i:{ii:tl:  bnl  llie  i>roiiibilioii 
was  lemoved  by  I5eiiedii-l  XL,  at  all  events  so  l:ir 
as  llie  French  royal  family  was  I'onci'ined.  The 
.Maniiiis  of  Ihite's  heart  was  carried  to  .lerusalem 
and   hiiiieil  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  in  November 

I  HK)ii.  Si-e  rellijrew,  C/i ion ir/ex  of  the  Tombs 
(1S.">7),  pp.  IV.)  rt  '.1,;,. 

I      llrart-lMii-ii.    See  Iniuckstiun. 

Heart ll-IIIOIU-y.  an  unpojiular  lax  of  t«o  shil- 
lings U'vied  on  every  hearth  in  all  houses  'paying 
to  church   and    poor;'    liist   imposed   in    IGti;},  and 

,  alHilished  in  ICiS'i. 

II<-art's  4'oiltCllt.  a  poit  of  Newfmindland, 
on  the  east  side  of  Trinity  Itay.  with  !KK)  inhabit- 
ants.     Two  Atlantic  cabli's  land  here. 

Ileart's-easo.    See  \iiu.Kr. 

Il«'at.  llic  cause  rif  the  sensation  of  warmth,  and 
of  a  iiiultiluiie  of  common  phenomena  in  nature 
ami  art.  In  consiilering  this  subject  scienlilically 
it  is  necessary  from  thi'  outset  to  di.scard  the  iilexs 
conveyed  by  the  popular  use  of  such  words  as  hot 
and  c(dd.  A  number  of  bodies,  however  dili'erent, 
left  for  a  long  enough  time  in  the  same  riKun,  must, 
as  we  shall  .see  further  lUi,  aci|uire  the  sanu?  Irnijii  in- 
tun.  or  In-come  in  ri-alily  ei|Uall\  wtuni.  Act  in 
popular  language  somi-.  as  metals,  stones,  \c. .  are 
pronoiiiK'eil  to  be  iidil.  and  others.  asllannel,aiid  fur, 
warm.     The  touch,  then,  is  not  n  me.ins  by  which 

I  we  can  aci|iiire  any  delinite  idea  of  the  temperature 
of  a  body. 

I  Xaliire  of  Heal. — A  heated  body  is  n<i  heavier 
than  it  was  before  it  wius  heateil  :  if,  therefore.  ln-at 
be  a  material  siilistanee,  as  it  was  long  considered, 
it  must  be  /h//io;»/(T«Wc.  Ami,  in  lad,  under  the 
name  of  caloric,  it  is  chussed  in  almost  all  but 
modern  treatises  as  one  of  the  family  of  imponder- 
ahle.s.      Hut   if  it   were  niiillir,  in  any  sense  of  the 

'  word,  its  c|uantitv  would  l>e  unchangeable  by 
human  ageia-y.  Now  we  lind  that  there  are  cases 
in  which  lii-at  is  proilnced  in  an\  ipiantity  wilhimt 
llaiiie,  combustion,  \'c. .  as  in  melting  two  pieces  of 
ice  by  rubbing  them  together,  and  also  cases  in 
which  a  i|uantity  of  heat  totally  di.sai)pears.  This 
is  utterly  inconsistent  with  the  iilea  of  the  mate- 
riality of  heat.  The  only  hypothesis  that  at  all 
accords  with  the  idienomemi  is  that  /mit  ilipcnits 
njton  motion  of  tfif  jtortir/i's  of  o  Itoilif,  being  in 
f.ict  Em-rgy  (ipv.),  not  matter:  and  with  this  iilea 
we  shall  start. 

Trmjirrntiiiv. — AVhen   two   h<Mlie-s  are   jilaced    in 

1  contact,  lie.at  will  in  gener.-il  )ia.ss  fnuii  one  to  the 

'  other,  with  the  ell'ect  of  c(Mding  the  lirst  and  ■warm- 
ing the  second.  This  ]ir<K-ess  goes  on  until  the  two 
aicpiiie  the  same  tem)ierature.  Thus  tempeialuie 
is  a  condition  of  a  body,  determining,  as  it  were, 
the  lirnri  ni  the  heat  which  the  body  contains — to 
take  the  obvious  analogy  of  w.ater  in  a  cistern  or  a 
niill.]iond.      In  this  sense  it  is  analogous  also  to  the 

1  pressure  of  gas  in  a  receiver,  or  to  the  potential  in 


HEAT 


607 


an  electiilii-il  idinhictor.  By  the  Iih1|>(i|  the  'specilic 
heat '  of  bodies  (  h  liich  will  he  tieatecl  later)  we  can 
iletennine  from  their  change  of  teinjierature  how 
much  heat  they  ;^ain  or  lose.  The  scientitic  or 
iibsnliiti'  measureuient  of  teiiiiii-ralurc  ran  only  he 
alhuleil  to  here.  It  ilejiencls  m|ii)ii  theoreliral  con- 
siderations, for  wliii'h  see  TllKltMciDVXAMIcs. 

Miitxiire  of  Ili'iit. — Whether  it  be  a  viliration, 
sncli  a-s  li;;lit  and  soiunl  i  ;i.s  in  some  cjuses  it  cer- 
tainly is),  or  cimsist  in  independent  nmtiims  of  the 
particles  of  a  body,  leailin^'  to  a  sticcessicm  of 
imnitrtu  on  each  otlier  and  on  the  walls  of  the  con- 
taining vessel  (as  is  almost  certainly  the  case  in 
gases),  it  is  none  the  less  certain  that  the  niiiniint 
of  heat  in  a  body  is  to  be  measured  by  the  energy 
of  moving  particles.  But  a-s  we  cannot  observe  [ 
those  i)articles  so  as  to  ascertain  their  vis-viva,  we 
must  have  a-s  a  preliminary  some  artilii'ial  unit  in 
terms  of  which  to  measure  heat.  This  will  be 
descril)ed  later.  But  in  order  that  this  process  may 
be  a])plied  we  must  have  some  means  of  meiusuring 
the  temperature  of  a  body,  ilepemling  upon  an  ijf'crt 
of  heat.  Whatever  that  etiect  may  l)e,  it  is  olivions 
that,  a-s  the  laws  of  nature  are  \inif<M'm.  it  will 
aH'ord  us  a  rcprothiriblc  standanl,  liy  which  we  can 
estimate  at  any  time  and  at  any  place  an  amount 
of  heat,  and  compare  that  amount  with  another 
observed  somewhere  else  ;  just  as  the  French  Metre 
(([.v.)  is  reproducible  at  any  time,  being  (at  least 
In  its  oiiginal  definition)  the  ten-millionth  part  of 
a  fiuadrant  of  the  meridian. 

Di/affttioii  or  E.r/iKii-^ioii. — Now,  one  of  the  most 
general  and  notable  etl'ects  which  heat  produces  on 
matter  is  to  r.r/miirl  it.  The  length  of  a  metallic 
bar  varies  with  even*  change  of  temperature,  ami 
is  ever  the  same  at  the  same  temjierature.  The 
fixing  of  the  tire  of  a  cart-wheel  is  a  very  good 
Instance.  No  hammering  could  Ht  an  iron  hoop  so 
tightly  on  the  wood-work  of  the  wheel  as  does  the 
simple  enlarging  of  the  tire  by  heat,  ami  its  subse- 
quent contraction  by  cold.  It  is  thus  possible  to 
x/i/t  it  on,  and  an  enormous  force  is  secured  to  bind 
the  pieces  together.  In  almost  every  kind  of  struc- 
ture the  exi)ansion  and  contraction  from  changes 
of  temperature  leipiire  to  be  guariled  against.  In 
the  huge  iron  tubes  of  the  Britannia  I'ridge  the 
mere  change  of  the  seasons  would  have  proiluced 
sufficient  changes  of  length  to  tear  the  piei-s  asunder, 
ha<l  each  end  of  a  tube  been  fixed  to  nia.sonry. 
Watches  and  clocks,  when  not  conqiensated  (see 
I'liXIULlM  ).  go  fxster  in  cold  weather,  and  slower 
in  hot,  an  immediate  consequence  of  the  expansion 
or  contraction  of  their  balance-wheels  and  pendu- 
lums. { 

If  a  fliisk  /■"//  of  water  or  of  alcohol  be  ilipped  | 
into  hot  water  or  held  over  a  lamji,  the  llasU  is 
heateil  lirst,  and  for  a  moment  appears  not  quite 
full,  but  as  heat  reaches  the  liquid  it  exiiands  in 
turn,  auil  to  a  greater  degree  than  the  llask,  .so  that 
a  portion  of  the  liquid  nms  over  ;  a  glass  shell 
which  just  tloats  in  a  vessel  of  water,  sinks  to  the 
bottom  when  the  water  is  heated  ;  and  Jis  water  is 
gra<lually  heated  from  below,  the  hotter  water  con- 
tinually rises  to  the  surface.  Indeed,  if  this  were 
not  the  co-se,  it  would  be  impossible  to  prevent 
explosions  every  time  we  attempted  to  boil  water 
or  any  other  fluid.  If  a  bla<lder,  partly  filled  with 
air.  and  tightly  tied  at  the  neck,  be  heated  before  a 
fire,  the  contained  air  will  expanil,  and  the  bladder 
will  br?  distended.  As  it  cools  it  becomes  flaccid 
again  by  degrees. 

These  and  like  inst.ances  are  sufficient  to  show  us 
that  1)1  (jeiin-dl  all  bodies  ex]iaud  by  heat.  In  order, 
then,  to  prepare  a  reproducible  means  of  measuring 
temperature,  all  we  have  to  do  is  to  fix  upon  a  sub- 
stance (mercury  is  that  most  comnmnly  used)  by 
whose  changes  of  vohinie  it  is  to  be  measureil,  and  a 
reproducible  temperature,  or  rather  two  rei>roducible 


temperatures,  at  which  to  measure  the  volume. 
Those  usually  selected  are— that  at  wliicli  water 
freezes,  or  ice  melts,  and  that  at  « liicli  water  boils. 
In  both  of  these  cases  the  water  must  lie  piiiT,  as 
any  adilition  of  foreign  matter  in  general  changes 
the  temperature  at  « liich  freezing  or  boiling  takes 
lilace.  Another  important  circumstance  is  the 
III  iijlit  iif  the  huioiiii:ter  (.see  Boil.lNi; ).  The  second 
reproducible  temperatvue  is  therefore  defined  a.s 
that  of  water  boiling  in  an  open  ves.sel  when  the 
barometer  stands  at  30  inches.  In  absolute  strict- 
ness, tlil-^  should  also  be  said  of  the  freezing-])oint, 
l>ut  the  effect  on  the  latter  of  a  change  of  baro- 
metric pres.sure  is  )iractically  insensible.  The 
practical  constriiction  of  a  heat-measurer  or  thrr- 
iiiometer  on  these  principles,  the  various  ways  of 
graduating  it,  and  how  to  convert  the  rea<lings 
of  one  thermometer  into  those  of  another,  are 
described  in  the  article  Theiimometer.  In  the 
present  article  we  supjiose  the  f'entigrade  thenno- 
meter  to  be  the  one  used. 

If  we  make  a  nundier  of  thermometer  tulie>.  fill 
them  with  ilitierent  liquids,  and  graduate  as  in  the 
Centigrade,  we  shall  find  that,  though  they  all  give 
0"  in  freezing  and  100'  in  boiling  water,  no  two  in 
general  agree  when  placed  in  water  between  those 
states.  Retire  the  rate  of  expansion  is  not  generally 
uniform  for  equal  inrrenienfs  of  feni/trraiitre.  It 
has  been  found,  however,  Itv  very  <lelicate  experi- 
ments, which  cannot  be  more  than  alluded  to  here, 
that  mercury  expands  neiirlij  uniforndy  for  e(|ual 
increments  of  temperature.  However,  what  we 
sought  was  not  an  absolute  standard,  but  a  re- 
prudueible  one  ;  and  merctirv,  in  addition  to  fur- 
nishing this,  may  he  assumed  also  to  gi\e  us 
approximately  the  ratios  of  ditl'erent  increments 
of  temperature. 

We  must  next  look  a  little  more  closely  into  the 
nature  of  dilatation  by  he.at.  And  first,  of  its 
Measure.  A  metallic  rod  of  length  /at  0'  increases 
at  t'  by  a  quantity  which  is  proporticmal  to  /  and 
to  /.  Hence,  /.  being  some  numerical  quantitv.  the 
expauiled  length  /'  =  /(!+/./).  Here  /.  is  called 
the  coefficient  of  linear  dilatation.  For  instance,  a 
brass  roil  of  length  1  foot  at  0  liecomes  at  t' 
(I  -  -OOOOISTO  feet;  and  here  k,  or  the  coetticient 
of  linear  dilatati<m  for  one  degree  (('entigra»le),  is 
•(KJ(MJ187  :  or  a  bra.ss  rod  has  its  length  increased  by 
about  one  fifty-three  thousandth  part  for  each 
degree  of  temperature. 

If  we  consider  a  liar  (of  brass,  for  instance  i  whose 
length,  breadth,  and  ilejith  are  /,  b,  il — then,  when 
heated,  these  increase  jnopoitionally.     Hence 
r  =  l(\  +  kt), 
b'  =«(!-(-  It), 
il'  =  f/(l  +  /.<), 
ami  therefore  the  volume  of,  or  space  occupied  b.v, 
the  bar  increases  from  V  or  UhI  to  V  or  I'h'd'. 

Hence  V  =  V(1 -r/.0% 

=  V(  1  -r  Sid)  nearly,  since  /.■  is  i-ery  small. 

Therefore  we  may  write  V  =  V(  1  +  Kt ),  where  we 
shall  have  as  before  K,  the  coefficient  of  rubiral 
ililatation  for  1  of  temperature.  And,  as  K  =  3/.-, 
we  see  that,  for  the  same  sulistance,  the  eoeffirient 
of  rubiral  dilatation  is  three  times  that  of  linear 
dilatation. 

In  the  following  table  these  coefficients  are 
increased  a  humlredfold,  as  it  gives  the  propor 
tional  increase  of  length  for  a  rise  of  tenqieratun' 
from  0°  to  100=  Centigrade.  It  must  also  be 
remarked  that,  while  the  linear  dilatati(ui  of  scdids 
is  given,  it  is  the  cubical  dilatation  of  liquids  and 
gases  which  is  necessarily  given.  Moreo\er,  a.-  the 
latter  are  always  measured  in  gla.ss,  which  itself 
dilates,  the  results  are  only  apparent ;  they  are  too 
small,  and  require  correction  for  the  cubical  dilata- 
tion of  glass.     This,  however,  is  com]iaratively  very 


608 

small,  and  n  ri>ii< 
usually  Mitliuifiit. 


HEAT 


illi|>lii\llii:ili.iii    t.i   il^   viilllr   l> 


GUuw -OUOSB 

Iron •OOV^i 

Zinc ■OOi.ln 

Mercury vltm 


WBt<T iMSj 

Aiciiiiui •lie 

Air -seoS 

Ilyilrugoii -aoos 


There  is  one  s|ieciiillv  rciimrkabli'  exception  tu 
the  law  thai  liculii-.s  expainl  in  lieal— \i/.  that  of 
watiT  under  certain  circumstances.  Kroni  <l  ( Centi- 
t'raile ),  at  which  it  melts,  it  roiitrarls  a-*  the  teiii|iera 
ture  is  raised,  iiii  to  ahout  4°  <'.,  after  which  il 
Iwgins  to  ex|.anil  like  other  Ixidies.  We  cannot 
here  enter  into  speculations  jus  to  the  cause  of  this 
very  sin;;ular  phenomenon,  liul  we  will  say  a  few 
words  ahout  its  practical  ulilitv.  Water,  then, 
is  i/nixi:\t  or  /ii:ncu\s/  at  4  L'.  Hence,  in  cohl 
weather,  iis  the  surface  water  of  a  lake  cools  to 
near  V,  it  becomes  heavier  than  the  hotter  water 
lielow.  and  sinks  to  the  bottom.  This  f,'oes  on  till 
the  whole  lake  has  the  temperature  4'.  As  the 
siirface-coolinj;  proceeds  further,  the  water  beciunes 
lighter,  and  therefore  remains  on  the  surface  till  it 
is  frozen.  Did  w.iter  not  possess  this  property,  a 
severe  winter  mij;ht  freeze  a  lake  to  tin  L.ll;,„.\md 
the  heat  of  summer  mi^ht  be  insuthcieut  to 
remelt  it  all. 

Specific   Heiit. —T\te   tliermc ter   in.licates   the 

temjicidtiiir  of  a  body,  but  ^'ives  us  no  direct  infor- 
m.ation  as  to  the  ninunitt  of  heat  it  contains.  Vet 
this  is  meiisurable,  for  we  may  take  as  our  I'nit 
the  amount  of  heat  re<|uired  to  raise  a  (lound  of 
water  from  0'  to  T,  which  is  of  coui-se  a  delinite 
standard.  A.s  an  instance  of  the  question  now- 
raised — Is  mure  heat  (and  if  so,  koir  miic/i  mare) 
reipiireil  to  heat  a  jiound  of  water  from  zero  to  10' 
than  to  lu'at  a  ])ound  of  mercury  between  the  .same 
limits?  We  liinl  l)y  experiment  that  bodies  diM'er 
extensively  in  the  amount  of  heat  (measured  in  llie 
units  before  mentioned)  required  to  produce  equal 
cliant;es  of  temperature  in  them. 

It  is  a  result  of  experimcMit  (sutticieiitlv  accurate 
for  all  ordinary  purp(wes)  that,  if  e(|uarwei},'hts  of 
water  at  dillerent  temperatures  be  mixed,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  mixture  will  be  the  arithmetic  mean 
of  the  ori;,'inaI  temperatures.  I'rom  this  it  follows, 
with  the  same  dej,'rec  of  ap|>roxiMuition,  that  equal 
successive  amounts  of  heat  are  re(|uired  to  raise  the 
same  nia-ss  of  water  throuj,'h  successive  degrees  of 
temperature.  As  an  instance,  supjMise  one  pound 
of  water  at  .">()"  to  be  mixed  with  two  pounds  at  20  . 
the  resultin-;  temiieratiire  of  the  mixture  is  :«)' ;  for 
the  pound  at  .)()-  li;is  lost  20  beat  units,  while  each 
of  the  other  two  pounds  h:ts  •,'ained  10  such  units, 
transferred  of  course  from  the  hotter  water.  Gener- 
ally, if  III  pounds  of  wiiter  at  t  decrees  l>e  mixed 
with  .M  pounds  at  T  dej,'rees  ( the  latter  beinj;  the 
colder),  ami  if  0  be  the  temperature  of  the  mixture 
—the  number  of  units  lost  by  the  Hrst  is  iii{t  -  0}, 
since  one  is  lost  for  riir/i  pound  which  cools  by  one 
ilegree  ;  and  that  gained  bv  the  second  Ls  M(e  '-  T), 
and  these  must  l>e  equal.  Hence  »«(<  -9)  =  \I(S  -  T) : 
whence,  at  once, 


e  = 


mt  +  MT 

m  +  M 

But  if  we  mix  water  and  mercury  aX  dillerent  tem- 
peratures, the  resulting  temperature  is  found  not  to 
agree  with  the  above  law.  Hence  it  api)ears  that 
to  raise  ci/iial  iivii]IU.i  of  iliffereiit  lioc/irx  through  the 
same  number  of  degrees  of  teiii/K'rature  rojuiiT.t 
different  amounts  offieal.  And  we  may  then  deline 
the  sperijic  heat  of  a  substance  as  tlie  number  of 
units  of  hejit  (as  above  detined)  required  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  one  pcmnd  of  it  by  one  degree. 

From  the  definition  of  a  unit  of  heat  it  is  at 
once  seen  that  our  numerical  system  is  such  that 
the  specilic  heat  of  water  is  unity  ;  and,  in  general, 
the  speciUc  heats  of  other  bodies  are  less,  and  are 


therefore  to  be  exprusseil  as  jiroper  fractions.  l'"or 
example,  if  ei|ual  weights  ol  water  and  nn-reuiy 
be  mixed,  the  lirst  at  0,  the  second  at  100,  the 
resulting  tenqii'rature  will  not  be  M  (as  it  wmild 
have  been  had  both  bodies  been  water),  but  .'J  23 
nearly  :  in  other  words,  the  amount  of  heat  wliieh 
rai.ses  the  tenqieralure  of  one  pound  of  water  .T  -2:1  is 
that  which  wouM  raise  that  ol  one  pound  of  mercury 
i  !I0  77,  or  Ihe  specilic  heat  <if  mer(Ui.\  is  ,'„th  of 
that  of  water.  The  following  may  be  given  as 
instances  of  the  great  dillerences  which  experiment 
has  shown  to  exist  ammig  bodies  in  respect  of  spe 
cilic  heat  ;  Water,  IIKK) ;  turpenline.  -420;  snlidiui. 
•20:f  :  iron,    114:  nieiciiry,  UTf. 

It  is  mainly  to  the  great  specihe  heat  of  water 
that  we  are  imlebteil  for  the  comparatively  small 
amount  of  it  re(|Uired  to  cool  a  hot  boily  dropped 
intuit  :  for  its  compaiatively  snnill  loss  of  tempeia- 
ture  when  it  is  |iouied  into  a  cidd  vessel  ;  and  for 
the  enonuous  etle.is  of  the  water  of  the  ocean  in 
modifying  climale.  as  by  the  (;ulf  Stream. 

It  li.is  been  found  Generally  that  the  spe<'i(ie 
heats  of  elementary  .soliils  are  nearly  ineeisely  an 
their  Atomic  Weighis  (q.v.).  Ilenn  their  at't/ins 
require  the  saim  amount  of  heJit  to  /'rodiiee  the 
same  r/iange  in  their  tenijierature.  Thus,  forsimple 
bodies,  we  have  at<unic  weight  of  mercury,  100  ; 
its  specific  heat.  (I.'a  :  pro<luol,  .•{•:} :  atomic"  weight 
of  iron,  2S:  its  specilic  heat,  -114;  product,  :{-2. 
A  siiiiilar  remark  may  be  made,  it  appeal's,  w-ilh 
reference  to  compound  iKjdies  of  any  one  type: 
bul.  in  general,  ihi'  product  of  the  specilic  heat 
and  the  atomic  weight  didei-s  from  one  type  to 
another. 

/.all  III  Uriil.  Fusion,  Solution,  anil  Vaiiorisulion. 
—  We  are  now  prepared  to  consider  the  .somewhat 
complex  elii'cts  produced  by  heat  on  the  molecular 
consliiution  of  bodies:  and,  ci>nver.sely,  tin'  rela- 
tions of  solidity,  lliiidity,  iVc.  to  heat.  All  solid 
bodies  (except  carbon,  which  has  been  soflnicil 
[  only )  have  been  melted  by  exposure  to  a  sufliciently 
liigli  temperature.     The  ia«s  of  this  fusion  are  : 

(  1  )  Ererif  liot/i/ hasailejinite  meltiiigjioint,  assign- 
able on  the  tlierinoiiietricseale,  if  the  pressure  to  xvhirh 
it  is  subjerteil  be  the  same. 

(2)  l(7/f/(  II  boilif  is  melting,  it  retains  that  Jijeil 
tenijierature,  houeeer  miieh  heat  may  be  sujijilial, 
until  the  last  particle  is  melteil.  The  last  result  is 
most  remarkable.  The  heat  supidied  does  not 
raise  the  temperature,  but  proilnees  the  ehange  vf 
state.  Hence  it  seemed  to  di-sajipear,  as  far  .-is  the 
thermometer  is  cimcerned,  and  w:is  therefore  called 
latent  heat. 

A  iiound  of  water  at  79'  C.  ailded  to  a  pound  of 
water  at  0'  C.  jiroduces,  of  course,  two  pounils  of 
water  at  ."{9  -,5.  I:ut  a  pound  of  water  at  79'  C. 
added  to  a  pound  of  ice  at  0  ( '.  produces  two  pounds 
of  water  at  0°.  Heat,  then,  has  tlisaji/ieured  in  the 
]iroducti<m  of  a  change  from  solidity  to  lluidily. 
And  this  we  might  expect  from  the  conservation 
of  Energy  (<|.v.),  for  energy  in  the  shajie  of  heat 
mu.sl  l)e  consumed  in  i)roducing  the  potential 
energy  of  the  molecular  actions  of  the  sejiarate 
particles  in  the  fluid.  For  every  pound  of  ice 
melted,  without  change  of  temperature,  79  units  of 
heat  .are  thus  converted  into  potential  energy  of 
molecular  separation. 

^^'e  give  a  few  instances  of  latent  hejit  of  fusion  : 
Water  (a-s  almve),  79  0;  zinc,  28-1  ;  sulphur,  9-4; 
lead,  J5'4  ;  mercury,  2'.S. 

In  law  1  it  is  mentioned  that  constancy  of  pres- 
sure is  nece.s.sary.  In  fact,  the  freezing  (or  melt- 
ing) point  of  water  is  loitered  by  inc-rciise  of  ])res- 
sure,  while  those  of  sulphur  or  «ax  .are  rai.ied ; 
but  these  etlects,  thongb  extremely  remarkable, 
are  very  small.  Most  bodies  contract  on  solidify- 
ing; but  some,  as  water,  cast-iron,  certain  alloys, 
\"c.,  ejpand.     Thus  a  .severe  frost,  selling  in  after 


HEAT 


609 


copious  vain,  splits  loclcs,  &c.,  ]>y  tlie  exjiaiisioii  of 
free/.in;.'  water  ;  and  thus  also  we  obtain  in  iron  the 
most  ili'licate  ami  faithful  copy  of  a  mould,  and  in 
the  fusilile  alloy  a  clear-cut  copy  of  a  type.  The 
iriodeiu  dynamical  theory  of  heat  (tliermo-dynaniics) 
enahles  us  to  see  that  a  perpetual  motion  would  be 
procurable  if  bodies  which  contract  on  solidifying 
iiad  nut  tlieir  nieltiny  point  raised  by  pressure,  and 
rice  rersu. 

Analoi,'ous  to  the  fusion  of  a  solid  is  its  soliitiuii 
in  a  lii|uid,  or  the  mutual  conversion  into  licpiids  of 
two  solids  which  are  intimately  mixeil  in  jHiwder. 
Here,  also,  we  should  expect  kinetic  ener;;y,  in  the 
shape  of  heat,  to  be  used  up  in  producin]L;  the  poten- 
tial energy  of  the  lir|uid  state  ;  and,  indeed,  such 
is  always  the  case.  Such  changes  of  arrangement 
ilestroy  heat  or  produce  cold  ;  but  tliis  in  many 
cases  is  not  the  effect  observed,  as  there  is  gener- 
ally heat  developed  by  the  lo.is  of  potential  energy 
if  there  be  clicmical  action  between  the  two  sul)- 
stances.  Hence,  in  general,  the  observed  ell'ect 
will  be  due  to  the  ditl'erence  of  the  lieat  r/eiicrntcd 
by  chemical  action  and  that  tibmrbcd  in  cliange  of 
stati,'. 

If  a  (|Uantity  of  pounded  nitrate  of  ammonia  (a 
very  siduble  salt)  be  placed  in  ,a  vessel,  an  etpial 
weight  of  water  added,  and  the  whole  stirred  for  a 
minute  or  two  with  a  test-tube  containing  wtiter, 
tlie.  heat  required  for  the  solution  of  the  salt  \\\\\ 
be  abstracted  from  all  bodies  in  contact  with  the 
solution,  and  the  water  in  the  test-tube  will  be 
frozen.  In  this  .sense  the  arrangement  is  called  a 
friiziiKj  ini.rtiire.  For  adilitional  illustrations  of 
heat  becoming  latent,  see  FREEZING  MiXTUliES. 

(Jf  course  the  converse  of  this  may  be  e.xpected 
to  hold,  and  latent  heat  to  become  sensible  when 
a  li(piid  becomes  solid.  As  an  example,  when  a 
supersaturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda  begins 
to  deposit  crystals  of  the  salt  with  gi-eat  rapidity 
the  temperature  rises  very  considerably  ;  and  it  is 
the  dLsengagement  of  latent  heat  that  rumlers  the 
freezing  of  a  pond  a  slow  process,  even  after  the 
whole  of  the  water  has  been  reduced  nearly  to  the 
freezing-point. 

Viipoiinidiuii. — Almost  all  that  has  been  said  on 
the  subject  of  fusion  is  true  of  vajiorisation,  with 
the  change  of  a  word  or  two.  Thus,  however 
nnicb  licat  we  supply  to  a  liquid,  the  temjierature 
does  not  rise  above  the  boiling-point.  Heat,  then, 
becomes  httciit  in  the  act  of  vaporisation,  or  rather 
is  concerted  into  the  potential  energy  involved 
in  the  change  of  state.  It  is  found  by  experi- 
ment that  540  units  of  heat  (each  sutticient  to 
heat  a  pound  of  water  1"  C. )  disappear  in  the  con- 
version of  a  pound  of  water  into  steam.  Hence 
a  pounil  of  steam  at  100°  C.  is  sufficient  to 
raise  5  4  poun<ls  of  water  from  zero  to  the  boiling- 
point. 

CiiMMr.Nlf.VTKix  OF  He.vt. — There  are  at  least 
three  distinct  ways  in  which  this  occurs,  and  the.se 
we  will  take  in  order. 

Conduction. — Wiiy  is  it  that,  if  one  end  of  a 
poker  anil  of  a  glass  or  wooden  lod  lie  put  into 
a  lire,  we  can  keep  hold  of  the  other  end  of  the 
latter  nnich  longer  than  we  can  of  the  former? 
The  reason  is  that  heat  is  more  readily  transmitteil 
in  the  iron  from  particle  to  particle  than  it  is  in 
gla-ss  or  wood.  This  is  conduction.  It  is  to  he 
noticed,  however,  that  in  this  exiieriment  a  great 
portion  of  the  heat  which  passes  along  each  rod  is 
given  oil'  into  the  air  by  the  surface.  The  mathe- 
matical theory  of  conduction  has  been  most  e.x- 
i|uisitely  investigated  by  Fourier,  hut  on  the 
supposition  that  the  rate  at  which  heat  passes  from 
a  warmer  to  a  colder  portion  of  a  body  is  propor- 
tional to  the  difference  of  temperature.  As  most 
of  the  experiments  which  have  been  made  with 
the  object  of  ascertaining  the  condiicticiti/  (nut 
247 


conduetibility,  the  ernmeous  word  too  commoidy 
in  use)  of  ditlerent  bodies  have  been  made  in  this 
way,  it  is  not  surpri-sing  that  our  knowledge  on 
this  point  is  very  meagre  indeed.  We  know  that 
.silver  and  copper  cimdnct  better  than  most  other 
metals,  and  that  the  metals  in  general  condnct 
better  than  other  solids;  but  our  further  informa- 
tion is  neither  very  extensive  nor  very  delinile. 
The  first  determinations  of  conductivity  which  are 
at  all  trustworthy  are  those  of  Forbes.  His 
method  was  immensely  superior  to  those  of  his 
jjredecessors.  Before  we  give  one  or  two  numer- 
ical data,  we  must  explain  what  the  numlicrs 
mean.  The  following  delinilion  Is  virtually  that 
of  Fourier : 

The  thermal  conductivity  of  a  substance  is 
the  numlier  of  units  of  heat  which  pa.ss  per  unit  of 
surface  per  unit  of  time,  through  a  slab  of  unit 
thickness,  whose  sides  are  ke|it  at  temperatures 
differing  by  1'  C.  Taking  the  unit  of  heat  as  above 
desciibed,  a  foot  as  unit  of  length  and  a  minute  as 
unit  of  time,  the  conductivity  of  iron  is  about 
OS,  while  that  of  cojiper  varies  from  4  to  little 
more  than  2.  (Very  slight  imjiurities  afi'ect  to  a 
great  extent  both  the  thermal  and  tlie  electric 
conducti^ity  of  copper.)  Contrasted  with  these 
we  find  that  the  conductivity  of  rocks  is  very 
small,  ranging  from  O'Olo  to  0()4. 

In  conjunction  with  their  radiating  power  (.see 
next  section),  the  conductivity  of  bodies  is  most 
important  as  regards  their  suitableness  as  articles 
of  clothing  for  hot  or  cold  climates,  or  as  materials 
for  building  or  furnishing  dwelling-hou.ses.  We 
need  but  refer  to  the  ditrerence  between  linen  and 
woollen  clothing,  or  to  the  difference  (in  cold 
weather)  of  sensation  between  a  carpet  and  a  bare 
lloor,  in  order  to  show  how  essential  the  greater  or 
less  conducting  power  of  bodies  is  to  our  everyday 
comfort. 

lUulidtion. — By  this  is  understood  the  passage 
of  lieat,  not  from  particle  to  particle  of  one  body, 
but  through  air  or  vacuum,  and  even  through  solid 
bodies  (in  a  manner  and  with  a  velocity  quite 
different  from  those  of  conduction)  from  one  body 
to  anotlier.  There  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  as 
to  radiant  heat  being  identical  with  light,  dili'er- 
ing  from  red  light,  for  instance,  as  red  light  differs 
from  blue — i.e.  having  (see  Light)  longer  waves 
than  tho.se  corresponding  to  red  light.  This  idea 
might  easily  have  arisen  during  the  contemplation 
of  a  body  gradually  heated.  At  lirst  it  remains 
dark,  giving  off' only  rays  of  heat;  as  its  tempera- 
ture increases  it  "ives  us,  along  with  the  heat,  a  low 
red  light,  which,  by  the  increase  of  the  temperature, 
is  gradually  accompanied  by  yellow,  blue.  iVc.  raxs, 
and  the  incandescent  body  (a  lime-ball,  for  in- 
stance) linally  gives  oil'  a  light  as  white  as  that 
of  the  sun,  and  which  therefore  contains  all  the 
colours  of  sunlight  in  their  usual  proportions.  In 
fact  there  is  great  reason  to  believe  that  the  sun 
is  merely  a  mass  of  incandescent  matter,  probably 
in  the  main  gaseous,  and  that  the  radi;itions  it 
emits,  whether  called  heat  or  light,  merely  dill'er 
in  iiiinlitji,  not  in  kind.  Taking  this  view  of  the 
subject  at  the  outset,  it  will  be  instructive  to 
compare  the  properties  of  radiant  heat  with  those 

of  light  throughout.     It  must  be  uiulerst 1  when 

we  make  this  ccnnparison  that  the  term  hc(d  is 
im])ropcrly  used  in  this  connection.  K;idiant  heat 
is  not  heat  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word.  It 
is  a  form  of  energy,  a  trans/orniution  of  the  lieat 
of  a  hot  body,  and  can  be  transformed  into  heat 
again  when  it  is  absorbed,  hut  on  its  |iassage  it  is 
not  what  we  ordinarily  understand  by  the  word 
heat. 

Lif/ht,  then,  moves  (generally)  in  straight  lines. 
This  is  easily  verified  in  the  case  of  heat  by  the 
use   of   the  thermo-electric   pile  and   its  galvano 


610 


HEAT 


meter.  I'laeins  the  |>ile  mil  of  llie  line  from  a 
BOiiroe  of  heat  to  an  aperture  in  a  wreen,  no  elleet 
is  ol>servpil ;  but  dellcction  of  the  neeille  at  onee 
occurs  wlien  the  pile  is  placed  in  the  line  which 
light  would  have  followed  if  substituteil  for  the 
heat. 

A  concave  niiiior,  wliich  would  lirin;;  rays  of 
li;.'ht  proceeding;  from  a  ;.'iven  point  to  a  focus  at 
another  ;.'iven  point,  does  the  same  with  heat,  the 
hot  body  bcin^'  substituted  for  the  luminous  one, 
and  tlie  pile  placeil  at  the  focus.  Heat,  then,  is 
rrfhclid  accorilinf;  to  the  siime  /iiir.s  a.s  li;;lit.  A 
hurninj;  lens  j;ives  a  cajiital  proof  of  the  sun's  heat 
and  li;;ht  Ix'inj;  suliject  to  the  same  laws  of  rtfiiit- 
tio/i.  When  the  scdar  Sjiectrnm  (ipv.)  is  fiu'med 
by  means  of  .i  prism  of  rock-salt  (the  reiu<(ms  for 
the  choice  of  this  material  will  afterwards  appear), 
the  thermo-electric  pile  proves  the  existence  of 
he.at  in  all  the  coloured  spaces,  increasing;,  how- 
ever, downi  to  the  rial  end  of  the  spectrum,  ami 
attaininj;  it.s  maximuiii  l>c>/on<t  the  visible  lij:;ht, 
just  a.s  if  railiant  heat  were  (a.s  it  mi(st  be)  light 
with  longer  waves. 

Some  bodies,  a.s  glass,  water,  &c.,  transmit, 
when  in  thin  plates,  most  of  the  light  which  falls 
on  them  ;  others,  a-s  wood,  metal,  coloured  gla.ss, 
\"c.,  transmit  none  or  little.  A  plate  of  rock-salt, 
half  an  inch  thick,  transmits  Otj  iier  cent,  of  the 
rays  of  heat  which  fall  on  it;  while  glass,  even  of 
a  thickness  of  one-tenth  of  an  inch,  transmits  very 
little.  In  this  sense,  rock-salt  is  said  to  \n-  (li<()lii'r- 
inniKiii.s,  while  glass  is  said  to  be  adiathermanous, 
or  imly  partially  iliathernianous.  Most  of  the 
simple  ga.ses,  such  as  oxygen,  hydrogen,  \c.,  and 
Miitiiici  of  these,  such  as  air,  oppose  very  little 
resistance  to  the  passage  of  radiant  heat:  but  the 
revei-se  is  in  general  the  case  with  ciunpound  gases. 
It  has  recently  been  asserted  that  w;iter-vapour  in 
particular  is  exceedingly  a<liatherMianons.  The 
question  is  one  of  very  eonsiilerable  ililliculty, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  almost  im|H)ssible  to 
experiment  upon  vapour  alone.  The  presence  of 
dust  particles  always  proiluces  deposition  of  water, 
which  is  a  very  good  absorlier  of  radiant  heat. 

Hut  there  are  other  remarkalile  phenomena  of 
radiant  heat  which  are  easily  observed,  and  which 
have  their  analogy  in  the  case  of  light.  (1)  Un- 
stained glass  seems  ecpially  transparent  to  all  kinds 
of  light.  Such  is  the  case  with  rock-salt  and  heat. 
(2)  Light  whi<:h  li.as  pas.sed  through  a  blue  gla.ss 
(for  instance)  lo.ses  far  less  per  cent,  when  it  ]ia.sses 
through  a  .sec<m<l  plate  of  blue  gl.ass.  Similarly 
heat  loses  (say)  75  per  cent,  in  (lassing  through  one 
]ilate  of  crown-glass,  ami  only  10  per  cent,  of  the 
remainder  (say )  in  ]i,%ssing  thriuigh  a  .second.  (3) 
Blue  light  pas.ses  easily  through  a  h/nc  glass,  which 
almost  entirely  arrests  red  light.  So  dark  heat 
passes  far  less  easily  through  glass  than  bright  heat 
does.  These  analogies,  mostly  due  to  Melloni,  are 
very  remarkable. 

.-\gain,  light  can  l)e  doubly  rcfrwfct/,  plane 
piilarixerl,  rirrnftiih/  jmtariserl.  All  these  pro- 
])erties  have  been  found  in  radiant  lieat  by  Prin- 
cipal Forbes. 

The  beautiful  investigations  of  Stokes,  Balfour 
Stewart,  and  Kircliholf  have  shown  us  that  boilies 
which  most  easily  ah.mrh  light  of  a  particular 
colour  give  otl'  most  freely,  when  heated,  light  of 
that  colour  ;  and  it  is  easily  shown  by  experiment 
that  those  surfaces  which  absorb  beat  most  readily 
also  radiate  it  most  readily.  Thus,  it  was  found 
by  Leslie  that  when  a  tinneil-iron  cube  full  of  boil- 
ing water  had  one  side  polished,  another  rough- 
ened, a  third  covered  with  lamplil.ack,  iVe.,  the 
I>olished  side  r.adiated  little  beat,  the  roughened 
more,  while  the  bl;ickened  side  radiated  a  very 
great  quantity  indeed.  And  again,  that  if  we 
have  (say)  three  similar  thermometers,  and  if  the 


bulbs  be  (1)  gilded,  (2)  covered  with  roughened 
metal,  (.'<)  smokeil,  and  all  be  exposed  to  the  same 
radiation  of  heat,  their  sensibility  will  be  in  the 
oilier  'A,  2,  1.  A  practical  illustration  of  this  is 
seen  in  the  fact  that  a  hlnekeiied  kettle  is  that  in 
which  water  is  most  speedily  made  to  boil,  while  a 
polisheil  one  keeps  the  water  Icmgest  warm  when 
ri-movei|  from  the  lire,  .\gaiii,  if  a  willow  paltc'in 
plate  be  heateil  white-boi  in  the  lire,  ami  then 
examined  in  a  dark  room,  the  ])attern  will  be 
revei-sed^a  white  pattern  In-ing  seen  on  a  ilark 
ground.  It  is  this  law  of  ei|uality  of  radiating  an<l 
alwoibing  powers  that  mainly  gives  rise  to  the 
superior  comfort  of  white  clothing  to  black  in 
winter  as  well  as  in  summer:  radiating  le.ss  in 
winter,  it  aKsorbs  less  in  summer. 

Much  has  been  argued  about  the  separate  exist- 
ence of  n/A/,  from  such  facts  as  the.se:  A  jiiece  of 
ice  held  before  the  thermo-electric  pile  i)ro(luces  an 
o])posite  deflection  of  the  galvanometer  to  that  l)io- 
diiced  by  a  hot  ball.  If  a  freezing  mixture  be 
plaied  at  one  focus  of  a  spheroidal  mirror,  ami  a 
thermometer  with  .a  blackeneil  biilli  at  the  conju- 
gate focus,  the  hitler  will  fall  speedily,  though 
very  far  off  from  the  mixture.  Now,  the  true 
expliination  of  such  observations  is  to  be  found  in 
what  is  called  the  'Theory  of  Exchanges,'  lirst 
enunciated  by  Frevost,  and  since  greatly  extended 
and  carefully  verilied  by  Stewart,  which  is  to  this 
ell'cct  :  '  Kvery  boily  is  continually  railialing  heat 
in  ;ill  directions,  the  amoniit  radiated  being  gre:il<'r 
as  the  temperature  is  higher.'  Thus  the  radiation 
from  a  body  de|>ends  on  itxe/f  ahme,  the  amount 
absiubed  ilei)en<ls  on  the  radiation  which  reaches  it. 
Hence  the  a])imrent  radiation  of  cold  in  the  expeii 
nients  above  mentioned  is  due  to  the  fact  of  the 
pile  or  thermometer  rtiiliuftiif]  off  mure  hint  flifin  it 
rereires,  as  its  temperature  is  higher  than  that  of 
the  freezing  mixture  to  which  it  is  opposed.  Krom 
this  it  is  evident  tluit  any  number  of  IkxHcs  left 
near  each  other  tend  grailuallv  to  assume  a  com- 
mon temperature.  Hy  this  theory  of  exchanges 
we  expliiin  the  colil  felt  in  sitting  opiposite  an 
o|)eu  window  in  a  frosty  day,  even  when  tliere  is  no 
draught. 

Vdiieeetlon. — A  hot  body  cools  faster  iu  a  current 
of  air  than  in  a  still 
atmosphere  of  the  same 
temperature,  evidently  be- 
cause fresh  supplies  of  the 
coldi'i  air  are  c(Uitiiiit- 
ally  brought  into  contact 
with  it.  This  carrying 
oil' of  its  heat  by  a  stream 
of  air  is  an  example  of 
convection.  It  is  by  con- 
vection mainly  that  heat 
is  conveyed  throughout 
liquids  and  gases.  Thus, 
when  a  lamp  is  applieil 
to  the  bottom  of  a  ve.ssel 
of  water  the  heat  does  not 
ditl'iise  itself  in  the  water 
as  it  would  (by  conduc- 
tion) in  a  mass  of  metal, 
but  the  exjiansion  of  the 
heated  water  at  the  Iwt- 
tom  rendering  it  lighter, 
bulk  f<U'  bulk,  than  the 
superincumbent  fluid, 

causes  it  to  ri.se  to  the  surface;  and  thus,  by  con 
vection,  the  heat  is  dill'used  through  the  mass. 
Conduction,  properly  so  called,  can  scarcely  be 
shown,  though  it  really  exist,  in  lii|uiils  or  gases, 
on  this  account.  The  tremulous  appearance  of  any 
object  as  seen  by  light  which  passes  near  a  hot 
surface,  as  that  of  a  boiler  or  a  red-hot  ])oker,  is 
due  to  the  convecticm  of  heat  in  the  air,  the  warm 


HEATH 


HEAVEX 


«11 


current  refracting  light  less  than  does  the  cold  air. 
See  Ventilation. 

For  the  mechanical  applications  of  heat,  see 
AlR-ENClNE,  Ste.\M-engine,  &c.,  and  for  their 
theory,  see  Thermo-dyn.^mics. 

St^iirre.s-  of  Heat. — They  may  l)e,  so  far  as  we 
know,  ultimately  reduced  to  two — chemical  eom- 
liiiiation  and  mechanical  euerj;v  ;  and,  indeed,  in 
all  i>r()l)aljility  the  former  is  only  a  variety  of  the 
immensely  different  forms  in  which  the  latter  is 
manifested.  A  more  full  examination  of  this 
point,  and  a  general  statement  of  the  ultimate 
nature  of  the  various  sources  of  heat,  will  he  found 
in  the  article  Energy  above  referred  to.  See  also 
Combustion,  Fuel  ;  and  for  heating  apparatus, 
see  AV.VRMINC. 

Ueatll  (Erica),  a  genus  of  small  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  Erice^,  distinguished  bj'  a  caly.\ 
of  four  leaves,  a  bell-shaped  or  ovate — often 
ventricose  —  condla,  and  a  4-celled,  4-8-vaIved 
ca])sule.  The  leaves  are  small,  linear,  and  ever- 
green.    The  genus  consists  of  about  400  species, 


Hoaths. 

besides  innuuierable  hybrids  and  varieties  raised  in 
gardens.  The  home  of  the  genus  is  in  the  western 
])art  of  South  .\frica,  but  a  few  species  are  dis- 
tributed over  western  and  northern  Europe.  E. 
ritlijitris — now  generally  named  by  botanists  Cal- 
litna  vidijfiris  ( fig.  1 ) — is  the  most  widely  distrib- 
uted of  all  heaths,  extending  as  it  <loes  over 
cential  and  northern  Europe  to  the  Arctic  Circle. 
It  is  the  ling,  heath,  or  heather  of  British  moors 
and  mountains.  The  genus  is  not  fouml  in  Asia, 
.\nierica — except  in  I,abra<lor.  Cape  Breton,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  parts  of  New  England,  where  the 
common  heath  occurs — nor  in  Australia.  Six 
species,  including  the  ling,  are  foun<l  in  the  I'ritish 
Isles. 

Cross-leaved  Heather  {E.  tctralij-)  (fig.  2)  and 
Fine-leaved  Heather  {E.  rinercn)  (fig.  3)  are  com- 
mon plants  in  most  parts  of  Britain,  and.  like  most 
of  the  genus,  are. very  beautiful  when  in  tlower. 
The  heiithcr-helh  of  Scottish  song  are  the  Howers 
of  one  or  lioth  of  these  species.  A  sprig  of  E. 
riiirrca  was  the  badge  of  the  Macdonalds  at  the 
time  when  they  existed  as  a  distinct  clan.  E. 
'■itnira,  common  in  the  southern  parts  of  Europe, 
is  a  ven'  freciuent  ornament  of  liritish  llower- 
borders.  Many  species,  remarkable  for  the  size 
and  beauty  of  their  fiowers.  are  nnudi  cultivated 
in  greenhouses.  Some  of  the  south  .Vfrican  or 
Cape  heaths  attain  in  their  native  region  a  much 
greater  size  than  any  European  heath  except  E. 


firborea,  which  in  the  Pyrenees  sometimes  giows  to 
the  height  of  20  feet."  The  so-called  Briar-root 
(q.v. )  of  which  tobacco-pipes  are  made  Ls  a  heath. 
In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  the  common  heath 
served  in  former  times  a  great  variety  of  purposes. 
The  poorer  folks  formed  walls  for  their  cottages 
with  alternate  layers  of  heath  and  a  kind  of  mortar 
[  nia<le  of  earth  and  straw,  and  they  made  comfort- 
able if  not  luxurious  beds  of  it,  placing  the  roots 
downwards,  and  laying  the  plants  in  a  sloping 
direction.  Witli  heath  cottages  are  also  thatclied, 
besoms  are  made,  and  faggots  are  formed  to  burn 
in  ovens.  In  the  island  of  Islay  ale  was  made  by 
Ijrewing  one  part  of  malt  with  two  of  the  young 
tops  of  the  commim  heath,  and  this  lirjuor,  accord- 
ing to  Boece,  was  used  by  the  Picts.  Sheep  and 
goats  sometimes  browse  on  the  tender  shoots,  Imt 
they  do  not  like  them.  The  young  tops  form 
almost  exclusively  the  food  of  grouse.  From  the 
fiowers  bees  extract  a  great  quantity  of  Ijoney, 
which  is  of  a  very  deep  colour. 

Heatlifield. George  .Augustus  Eliott,  Lord. 
the  heroic  defender  of  Gibraltar,  was  the  tenth  son 
of  Sir  Gilbert  Eliott,  third  Bart,  of  Stobs,  and  was 
born  at  AVells  House  in  Koxburghshire,  on  Christ- 
mas-day 1717.  Ha>ing  been  educated  at  the  uni- 
vei'sity  of  Leyden,  and  at  the  French  nnlitary 
college  of  La  Fere  and  at  Woolwich,  he  had  his 
first  experience  of  actual  warfare  in  the  war  of 
the  Austrian  succession,  in  which  he  was  wounded 
at  Dettingen  and  fought  at  Fontenoy.  Having 
been  gazetted  colonel  of  a  regiment  of  light  horse 
in  1759,  he  sened  at  its  head  with  the  English  con- 
tingent that  assisted  Frederick  the  Great  against 
Austria  in  the  years  17.59  to  1761.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  went  out  to  Cuba  as  second  in  com- 
mand under  the  Earl  of  Albemarle,  and  returned 
home  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant  general.  AVhen, 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  the  .Vmerican 
colonies.  Great  Britain  became  involved  in  hostili- 
ties with  Spain  as  well,  Eliott  wa.s  sent  out  to  )>ut 
Gibraltar  in  a  state  of  defence.  His  obstinate  and 
heroic  defence  of  this  stronghold,  from  June  1779 
to  Febniarj'  1783,  against  all  the  pf>wer  of  Spain, 
ranks  as  one  of  the  most  memorable  achievements 
of  British  arms  (see  Gibr.\lt.\r).  On  his  return 
home  he  wa.s  in  1787  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord 
Heathfielil,  BarOn  of  Gibraltar — Heatlifield  being 
a  Sussex  estate  which  he  had  purcha-sed  in  1 703. 
He  died  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  6th  July  1790.  Drink- 
water's  Misfori/  of  the  Sii'i/e  uf  Gibrtdtar  is  one  of 
the  best  accounts  of  military  lieroism  ever  written. 

Heaven,  in  its  theological  sense,  is  that  por- 
tion of  the  infinite  space  in  which  the  Lord  of  all 
things,  though  present  througlumt  all,  is  supposed 
to  give  more  immediate  manifestations  of  his  glory. 
It  is  also  the  place,  or  the  state  or  condition,  of  the 
blessed  spirits,  and  of  the  souls  of  just  men  made 
perfect  who  are  admitted  into  the  participation  or 
the  contemplation  of  the  divine  beatitude.  It  is 
the  special  seat  of  the  glory  of  the  Most  Hii;li,  in 
which  his  angels  minister  to  him,  and  the  blessed 
spirits  abide  iii  perpetual  praise  and  adoration.  In 
tfie  Scriptures  the  word  is  used  in  various  senses  : 
( 1 )  for  the  region  of  the  atmosphere  :  (2)  scunetimes 
for  the  region  of  the  stars — the  hosts  of  heaven  ; 
(3)  as  a  state  of  blessedness  attainable  even  here, 
as  in  Eph.  ii.  6,  where  it  is  said  '  God  hath  raised 
us  up  together  ( with  Christ ),  and  made  us  sit  to- 
gether in  heavenly  places  ; '  and  also  in  Phil.  iii.  20, 
where  the  conversation  of  the  saints  while  yet  on 
earth  is  said  to  be  'in  heaven;'  (4)  .as  the  place 
where  God  dwells,  where  the  angels  and  the 
spirits  of  the  saints  are  congregated,  whence 
ChiTst  came  and  whither  he  has  returned  (.John, 
xiv.  2,  &C. ).  Many  of  the  saints  of  Christendom 
in   moments  of  ecstatic   elevation   of   spirit  have 


61: 


HEUBEL 


HEBERT 


)ielieve<l  timt  ;;Iiiii|ises  into  lieavfri  Imvv  been 
vduolisafed  to  iIkmii,  Imt  tlieir  iiccoiint>  of  tliesi- 
viviiiiis  liiive  usiinlly  lieen  Imt  inconfrnious  ami 
contnulietorv.  Tlie  ti^iiiitive  lan>(iia;;e  in  wliicli 
it«  unseen  ^'lories  are  <le^c^ill«•^l  in  Si'rii>ture  lixs 
ina<l(>  siucli  an  excitation  of  fancy  tlie  more  easy 
for  ilevout  souls  rapt  in  |>rofounil  meilitation  alNiut 
what  it  liiis  not  lioen  f^iven  to  the  eye  of  man  to  see 
nor  the  heart  to  conceive. 

Aristotle  declares  that  all  men  have  a  conception 
of  ;,'o<ls,  and  that  all  a;;ree  in  placing  their  hahitu- 
tion  in  the  nu>st  elevated  re^'ion  of  the  univei-se. 
The  K^ryptian,  the  Scandinavian,  the  Assyrian,  ami 
all  primitive  religions  maintain  the  existence  of  a 
heaven  as  the  place  of  rewanl  after  death  for  virtn- 
ous  lives  live<i  on  earth  :  and  indeeil  it  may  lie 
taken  as  the  universal  corollary  to  the  univensally 
helil  liclicf  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  even 
thou^'h  it  may  be  only  under  the  form  of  the  final 
sta;;e  in  a  cycle  of  pnrilicatory  traiismi;,'rations. 
itut  anion;,' primitive  pi-oples  it  is  little  mine  than 
a  dim  and  shadowy  i-ontinnation  of  this  [iresent 
worlil,  the  pale  ;,'hosts  that  inhaliil  it  wearing;  the 
form  and  fa-'hion  that  they  wore  in  life.  The  idea 
of  future  retrihution  enters  early  into  the  moral 
consciousness  of  man,  but  it  would  hardly  be  true 
to  say  that  it  is  everywhere  present.  The  Teutonic 
warrior  had  his  war-horse  ami  his  armour  laiil  in 
Ids  barrow  that  he  mi^dit  continue  into  the  spirit 
world  the  joys  of  life,  his  Valhalla  bein;;  but  a 
;,dorilicd  extension  of  the  warrior's  life,  just  as  the 
Ked  Indian's  parailise  is  but  a  richer  and  more 
extensive  liuntinj,'j,'round.  Yet  the  unseen  life  is 
often  but  poor  and  cheerless  compared  with  the 
warm  and  actual  world — even  in  the  Elysian  lields 
the  sliiule  of  Achilles  would  gladly  chanjie  places 
with  the  meanest  .sohlier  in  the  <  Grecian  host. 

The  Koran  adopts  the  Cabbalistic  notion  of  seven 
heavens,  which  rise  above  each  other  like  the  stages 
<if  a  building  ;  and  it  places  the  chief  happiness  of 
heaven  in  the  unrestricted  and  inexhaustible  joys 
of  sense.  The  Cabbalistic  writers  diviile  tliese 
seven  heavens  according  to  tlie  sncc&ssive  degrees 
of  glory  which  they  imply.  The  seveuth  is  the 
abiMie  of  (mmI  and  of  tlie  highest  order  of  angels; 
the  sixth,  liftli,  fourth,  and  third  are  the  succes 
sive  abodes  of  the  various  grailes  of  angels,  arrange<l 
according  to  the  degrees  of  dignity.  The  second  is 
the  region  of  the  clouds,  and  the  first  the  space 
between  the  clouds  and  the  earth. 

For  the  devfIo]»Uient  of  Jewish  and  Clirirttian  Kscha- 
tology,  and  the  signiticaiice  of  the  conception  of  heaven, 
see  the  article  Hki.i.,  under  wliich  tlie  subject  of  future 
rewards  and  puuishiuents  is  discussed  with  some  fullness. 

Hcbbcl.  FrieokU'II,  lyrical  and  ilramatic  iioet, 
was  horn  at  Wesselburen,  in  Ditniarsh,  ISth  >larcli 
181:}.  After  travelling  in  (lermany,  France,  and 
Italy,  he  settle<l  at  Vienna  in  IS4(>,  where  he  mar- 
ried the  actress  Christine  Enghau.s.  He  died  at 
Vienna,  l.'Jth  Uecemlier  IS(>3.  His  principal  works 
are  his  dcdichte  (2  vols.  1841-48),  and  several 
dramas,  the  l>est  among  them  lieing  Jndith  ( 1S40), 
Muria  Magda/eita  {\Hi4),  Aijncs  Ikniuucr  (IS."),')), 
'ri/ffen  iiiid  sein  Ring  (18.")6),  ami  his  master- 
piece. Die  Xibelum/en  (1862).  Hebl)el  had  strong 
dramatic  talent,  skill  in  drawing  character,  and 
command  of  vigorous  language,  but  no  feeling 
for  beauty.  His  drannus  are  destitute  of  love  and 
joyousness  ;  they  clepict  the  revolt  of  passionate 
natures,  the  fienzieil  riot  of  evil  ilesires,  and  arc 
characteri.sed  by  an  almost  d:riiionic  vigour  of 
action.  His  collected  works  appeared  in  12  \ols. 
(Hamburg)  in  1866-68.  See  IJiographies  bv  Knli 
(1S77)  ami  P'raukI  (1884),  and  Hebbels  Tagebiichcr 
(2  vols.  1887). 

He  be,  the  godde.ss  of  youth,  the  daughter  of 
Zeus  and  Hera,  was  the  wife  of  Hercules  after  he  I 


had  Iieen  dcilieil.  She  was  the  eupliearer  in  (tlyiu- 
piis,  before  Zens  conferretl  that  oHice  upon  (laiiy- 
niede ;  but  she  always  retained  the  power  iif 
restoring  the  aged  to  the  bliMim  of  youth  ami 
beauty.  According  to  A|Hillodoriis,  she  became  the 
inother  of  two  sons  by  Hercules — Alexiaies  ami 
Aniketos.  In  Homer  she  always  appears  as  a 
virgin.  In  Athens  altaix  were  erected  to  her  con- 
jointly with  Hercules.  In  lidine  slie  wa-s  wor- 
shipped iimler  the  name  of  JiiventjLs,  and  a  temple 
in  her  honour  existeil  on  the  Cai)ilolim-  llill  at  the 
time  of  Servius  Tulliu.s.  Statues  of  Hebe  are  ex- 
tremely rare  ;  she  is  t4)  lie  re<-ogni.sed  only  by  the 
nectar-cnp.  All  the  world  knows  the  masterpiece 
of  Canova. 

Heber,  Ki:i;in.\1-1),  an  English  iioet,  ami  secmul 
liishop  of  Calcutta,  was  liorn  at  .\lalpas,  Cheshire, 
21st  April  178S.  It  w;is  as  a  student  of  Hrasenos*- 
College,  Oxford,  that  he  |ir<Hluced  liis  prize  poem 
I'alcjiliin-  ( 180.3),  the  only  (ni/e  poem  iierliaps  w liich 
liidils  a  idace  in  Knglisli  literature.  In  1807  he  wii* 
imluctea  into  the  family-living  at  Hodiict,  in  Shrop- 
shire. He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
Quiirtcrlji  lierieu;  bis  political  views  being  tliose  of 
a  Toiy  anil  High  Churchman,  and  in  1812  he  pub- 
lished a  volniiie  of  Jfi/mns.  He  was  aj>poiiited 
ltaiiii)ton  lecturer  in  181  o,  a  prebendary  of  St  -Vsajdi 
in  1817,  and  in  1822  was  elected  preacher  of  Lin- 
coln's Inn.  In  the  following  January  he  accepte<l 
the  see  of  Calcutta.  The  apostolic  zeal  with  wiiich 
he  conducted  his  episcopacy  was  siiddenly  ter- 
minated by  his  death,  of  apoplexy,  at  Tiichinopoly, 
oil  :jil  -April  1826.  He  was  a  voluniiiiuus  writer, 
and  published  sermons,  .1  Joiinicii  Ihruiufh  Jiidiii, 
kVc,  and  he  edited  Jeremy  Taylor's  \Vurl;s  (1822). 
As  a  poet,  Ills  fame  rests  upon  I'lilatlnc  and 
his  Jliiinnii  (new  ed.  1878),  which  include  such 
well-known  favmirites  as  '  Lord  of  Mercy  and 
of  Might,'  '  From  Greenland's  lev  Mountains,' 
'Holy,  Holy,  Holy.  Lord  God  Aliiiiglity  !'  'The 
Sou  of  God  goes  forth  to  War,'  iV:c.  See  Lives  bv 
his  widow  (18;W)  and  (i.  Sniilli  (  ISUo).  — KRllAl:ii 
HeiiKI!,  his  half-brother,  was  bmn  in  Westminster 
in  1774,  and  dieil  in  I83.'i.  He  wils  a  famous  biblio- 
maniac. L>ibdiii  estiiiiatetl  his  collection  in  Kngl.-md 
at  10,'),iK)0  vuls.,  ill  addition  to  which  he  pi>sse.s.sed 
many  thousands  of  liooks  on  the  Continent,  the 
whole  having  cost  him  £180,000. 

Il«'l»ert,  Jacvve-s  Rene,  commonly  known  an 
Pill-  JiiiiJitxiic,  one  of  tlie  most  despicable  cliar- 
aclei-s  of  the  French  Revolution,  was  born  at 
-Alencon,  in  l~o.\  At  an  early  age  he  went  to 
Paris  as  a  servant,  but  was  disiiii.s.sed  from  more 
than  one  situation  for  embezzling  money.  Soon 
after  the  cominencement  of  the  Revolution  he 
l>eeame  one  of  the  most  pnnninent  nienibei-s  of 
the  extreme  Jacobins :  and  when  this  group 
established  /.<  /'<;•<•  Uiirlicxiie  newspaper,  for 
the  i>iirpose  of  crashing  the  constitutional  pajier 
edited  liy  Lemaire  and  bearing  the  same  title, 
Hidiert  wa-s  made  editor  of  it.  And  he  conducted 
his  paper  with  such  reckless  ribaldry  a.s  to  make 
himself  a  darling  of  the  mob.  In  consequence  of 
the  events  of  the  loth  August  he  liecanie  a  menilier 
of  the  revolutionary  council,  an<l  )dayed  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  ma.ssacres  of  Sc|)teinber.  He 
was  one  of  the  coniiiiis.sion  appointed  to  examine 
.Marie  .Antoinette,  and  his  name  will  sunive  in 
unending  infamy  for  one  foul  and  baseless  charge 
he  brought  against  lier.  He  and  his  a-ssociates, 
called  Hebertists  or  Enrar/es,  were  mainly  instm- 
niental  in  converting  the  church  of  Notre  Dame 
into  a  temple  of  Rea-son.  But  he  went  too  fast 
for  Rolies|derre,  who  got  rid  of  him  through  the 
guillotine,  24th  March  1794.  His  whining  coward- 
ice on  the  scaffold  earned  him  the  jeers  and  insulta 
of  the  Hckle  mob. 


HEBREW    LANGUAGE 


G13 


Hebrew  Language.  The  wonl  Hebrew 
{'ihri)  is  an  adjective,  formed,  according;  to  the 
Old  Testament,  from  Heber  ('ijljer),  a  descendant 
of  Shem  ( ( ;en.  x.  '22-24 ),  who  was  the  ancestor  of 
Abraham  (den.  xi.  12-26).  The  Septnajont,  how- 
ever, already  renders  Gen.  xiv.  13,  '  Abraham  the 
crosser'  (i.e.  of  'the  river,'  thou{;h  Origen  explain.s 
the  name  from  "cro.ssing'  Mesopotamia  towards 
Can.aan).  and  Ai|uila  translates  'the  dweller  on 
the  other  siile."  probably  of  the  Euidnates,  thout;h  it 
mi^lit  be  the  .Inrdan.  The  wonl  '  Hebrew'  is  ii.seil 
both  of  individuals  and  the  people  when  antithesis 
to  other  nationalities  is  expres.sed  ( Jon.  i.  !l ; 
Phil.  iii.  5;  Gen.  xxxi.x.  14;  xl.  1.5;  Exod.  i.  16; 
ii.  6,  \"c. ),  '  Israel '  being  more  a  domestic  name, 
often  having'  religious  significance.  As  a  national 
name,  Israel  belonged  specially  to  the  northern  king- 
dom, of  which  it  is  used  freely  in  the  Moabite 
Inscription  (e.g.  lines  5,  11,  14). 

The  phr.ase  '  Hebiew  language  '  does  not  occur  in 
the  Olil  Testament.  In  the  earliest  reference  to 
the  speech  ( Isa.  xix.  18)  it  is  called  the  'language 
of  Canaan,'  and  in  another  p.a.s,sage,  referring  to 
events  of  the  same  period,  '.In(lean'  or  Jewish 
(2  Kings,  x^-iii.  26.  28;  Isa.  xxxvi.  11,  1.3  ;  cf.  Xeh. 
xiii.  '24).  This  passage  is  interesting  a-s  .showing 
the  linguistic  att.ainments  of  the  Assyrian  oflicials 
anil  others  of  this  age.  The  Rabshakeh  could 
spe.ak  Hebrew,  and  Hezekiah's  officers  undei"stood 
.Aramaic,  which  appears  to  have  been  the  language 
of  diploni.icy  and  commerce  at  this  time,  a  position 
to  which  it  would  naturally  .attain,  from  the  fact 
that  the  Aramean  peoples  lay  along  the  great 
trade  routes  between  east  and  west.  The  name 
'  Hebrew '  is  first  used  of  the  lanjniai'e  of  the 
Old  Testament  in  the  prologue  to  EccTesiasticus 
{<:  1.30  B.C.),  and  then  in  the  New  Testament 
(Kev.  ix.  11).  After  the  dissolution  of  the  Jewish 
state  Aramaic  more  and  more  made  encroachment 
in  Palestine,  Dan.  ii.  4-vii.  28.  Ezra,  iv.  8-vi.  18, 
and  Jer.  .x.  11  being  ^\■Titten  in  that  dialect,  to 
which  also  belong  the  words  Jcgar-Snhndutha, 
'heap  of  witness'  (Gen.  xxxi.  47).  Gr.adually  it 
superseded  Hebrew  as  the  spoken  language,  and, 
though  mixed  with  elements  of  Hebrew,  was  the 
dialect  in  use  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  a.s  it  had 
l>een  for  ,a  long  time  previously.  .All  the  words 
reported  a.s  spoken  by  him  (such  as  laUtlia  hoinni 
or  hoinn,  Irmi'i  shebrihtitni)  are  Aramaic.  The 
name  Hebrew  was  thus  given  to  two  languages, 
the  ancient  Hebrew,  and  the  more  modern  .Aramaic 
in  actual  use,  though  chielly  to  the  latter  (John 
V.  2):  'their  proper  tongue,'  to  which  Akeldama 
belongs  (Acts,  i.  19),  is  Aramaic.  Which  of  the 
two  languages  is  meant.  Acts,  xxi.  40,  xxii.  2, 
xxvi.  14,  may  be  doubtful. 

The  Hebrew  language  is  one  of  the  family  of 
speeches  since  Eichliorn's  time  usually  called  Shem- 
itic  or  Semitic,  the  peoples  speaking  them  being 
in  the  m.ain  descendants  of  Shem.  The  family 
has  four  great  divisions:  (1)  the  Northern  or 
Aramaic  (Syriac  or  Eastern,  and  socalleil  Ghaldee 
or  Western  Aramaic  and  Samaritan);  (2)  Middle 
or  Hebrew  (including  Phcenician  and  Moabite): 
(3)  So\ithern  or  Arabic  (embracing  Sahean  or 
South  Arabic,  and  Ethiopic);  (4)  To  these  must 
now  be  added  an  Eastern  or  As.syro-l{aby Ionian 
division  (see  Semitic  LvN"(:r.\("iKs).  Hebrew 
shares  with  its  sister-languages  these  .and  other 
jieculi,arities  :  roots  with  three  conson.ants  ;  vowels 
liaving  no  significance  as  stem-letters ;  two  verbal 
forms  for  the  expression  of  tense  ;  two  genders  : 
the  attachment  of  the  oblinue  c.ises  of  jioi-sonal 
pronouns  to  nouns  .and  verbs  in  the  fonn  of 
sntlixes;  an  inability,  except  in  jiroper  names, 
to  form  comjiounds,  whether  verbal  or  nominal ; 
and  a  syntax  ilistinguished  by  simple  co-ordina- 
tion   of   clauses    bv    means   of    aiitl,    where   other 


languages  suljordinate  with  a  multiplicity  of  con- 
junctions. At  a  remote  period  we  must  supiM)se 
primitive  Semitic  spoken  by  a  united,  homo- 
geneous peo])le,  which  afterwards  separated  in 
various  directions,  each  section  retaining  and 
developing  some  of  the  originally  coninum  ele- 
ments of  the  tongue,  until  gratlually,  under 
many  iuHuence.s  of  climate  and  conditions  of  life, 
the  great  ilialects  acquired  distinctness  from  one 
another.  In  this  way  some  primitive  elements 
would  be  retained  by  one  family  and  othei-s  by 
another,  while  each  woulil  move  along  new  lines  of 
ilevelopment,  due  to  its  idiosyncracies  and  circum- 
stances, as  Hebrew,  for  exam|>le,  expresses  '  west ' 
by  'sea.'  Even  in  the  earliest  form  in  which  we 
observe  Hebrew  it  shows  marks  of  lingtiistic  ilecad- 
ence.  It  has  almost  entirely  renounced  nominal 
ca.se-endings  ;  given  up  the  use  of  the  dual,  except 
in  a  few  nouns;  is  in  process  of  substituting  the 
refle.xive  for  the  pa.ssive  (a  process  com])leteil  in 
Aramaic  and  Ethiopic) ;  and  has  lost  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  strict  sense  of  its  elementarj'  moods.  In 
short,  literarv  Hebiew  is  already  nearly  at  the  same 
level  as  vulgar  Arabic,  a.s  distinguished  from 
inHected  Arabic,  or  as  modern  English  is  compared 
with  Anglo-Saxon.  On  the  other  hand  it  has  some 
peculiar  excellences,  as  the  greater  freedom  in 
regard  to  the  place  of  words  in  the  .sentence,  an<l 
the  singular  tense  usage  known  as  vav  coiiverxive, 
of  which,  however,  it  is  now  known  to  have  no 
monopoly,  but  to  share  it  with  the  langujige  of 
Moab. 

Beyond  difTerences  of  pronunciation  and  usages 
peculiar  to  separate  localities,  '  dialects  '  can  hardly 
have  existed  in  Hebrew.  In  the  north  a  sh<u-t«;r 
form  of  the  relative  appears,  she  or  s/in  ( Ass. 
.s/in ) — e.g.  Judges,  v.  7.  This  is  common  in  the 
Canticles  (of  disputed  date),  and  in  later  books,  as 
Ecclesiastes,  and  usual  in  post-biblical  Hebrew. 
The  Ephrairaites  api>ear  to  have  shared  the  usual 
Sheniitic  tendency  to  confuse  xh  and  .?  (Judges, 
xii.  6);  and  in  the  south  Amos  (vi.  8  ;  viii.  8)shows 
another  common  failing,  that  of  confusing  the 
gutturals,  a  thing  said  to  have  gone  to  an  extreme 
in  Galilee  in  the  age  of  Christ,  and  abundantly 
exemi)lified  in  Assyrian.  So  far  as  the  literature 
of  the  language  is  concerned,  only  two  perioils  can 
be  distinguished  :  ( 1 )  from  the  earliest  tniies  to  the 
restoration  from  exile  (5.38),  and  (2)  from  the 
restoration  to  our  era  (see  Bible).  It  is  true  that 
writers  on  the  Inirders  of  the  exile,  such  as  .Jeremiah 
and  Ezekiel,  show  a  tendency  to  employ  Aramaic 
words  and  forms  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  writings 
of  the  exile  period,  as  Isa.  xl.-lxvi.  and  much 
else,  are  splendid  examples  of  Hebrew  composition. 
The  restored  community  in  Juilah  would  of  course 
still  speak  and  Avrite  Hebrew.  In  the  north  of  the 
country,  however,  the  policy  of  As.syria  had  long 
ago  settled  a  number  of  colonists,  speaking  mainly 
-Aram.aic.  When  Palestine  came  under  the  intlu- 
ence  of  the  Syro-Greek  kingdom  the  Aramaic 
pressure  would  liecome  greater.  And  thus  grailu 
ally  Hebrew  receded  before  the  Aramaic,  until  by 
the  time  of  the  Maccal>ees,  or  considerably  earlier, 
the  hatter  had  beccune  the  spoken  language. 
Among  the  learned,  however,  the  ancient  tongue 
was  still  cnltivated  .and  written,  though  naturally 
not  in  its  ancient  purity,  nor  without  many  new 
developments.  These  new  elements  .are  of  several 
kinds :  Hi-st,  nominal  and  verb,al  forms,  partly 
absolutely  novel,  but  mostly  a  great  extension  of 
forms  occurring  rarely  in  the  classical  language ; 
and  secondly,  a  considerably  altered  vocal>ulary, 
drawn  partly  perhaps  from  .a  lower  stratum  of 
popular  speech  than  that  touched  by  the  biblical 
writers,  but  gre.atly  from  the  Ar.amaic.  Kxamples 
of  this  new  liter.ary,  though  degenerate,  Hebrew 
may  be  seen  in  its   e.arliest    form  in    Ecclesiastes, 


G14 


HEliKEW    LANGUAGE 


and   in  a  much   more  advanced  condition  in  the 
Mishna  (c.  2(H)  a.d.). 

The  cliaiaoter  in  whieli  Hclirew  wius  wriltvu 
«;us  till!  ancii'iit  Si'iiiitic  aljilialiet,  ooiiinion  over 
nuu'h  of  thf  Kitst,  the  origin  of  whii'h  is  tract'd 
l>y  some  to  ICgvptian  liicroglyphs,  and  liy  oiIkts 
to  diU'oient  Niiiices  (see  AH'HAIiKr).  Tlie  oldest 
and  most  beautifnl  example  of  this  character  is 
the  Moahiti!  Iiiseiiption  (c.  iMX)  li.f.  ;  see  MoAl!)  ; 
a  somewhat  indcr  torm  a|>iieai"s  in  the  inscription 
from  the  iSiloaiii  tunnel,  |irol>ahly  of  theajjeof  Ahaz 
or  Ilezekiah  (74(1-700  H.c.  ;  found  in  18S0;  see 
rroi:  f!nr.  lull.  An-hiri,!.  18H2).  The  hitter  was 
executed  at  their  own  hand  liy  the  workmen  who 
cut  the  tunnel,  and  is  naturally  less  artist  ie,  thougli 
extremely  interestiii};,  as  showing;  liow  extended 
the  art  of  writing  was  at  so  early  a  time  ( Isa.  x. 
lit).  In  the  Moahite  monument  the  same  letter 
a|>pears  in  several  forms,  whiili  suggests  either 
great  ]iractic'e  on  the  jiart  of  the  sculidor,  or  else 
that  he  faithluliy  copied  a  moilel  supnlied  him  hy 
the  pen,  in  this  ease  a  facile  one.  The  character 
aj>peai-»  in  a  higger,  more  rohust  form  in  the  I'lmni 
Clan  inscriptions — e.g.  of  Kshmunauir.  Somewhat 
modilied  it  is  Samaritan  ;  in  south  Arabia  it  is 
Himyaritic  or  Saliean  :  an<l  from  there  it  i)assed  to 
Aliyssinia,  and  is  lithiopic.  The  Syriac  and  Arabic 
are  the  same  letter  in  cursive  forms.  The  Aramean 
iidluence  on  southern  Palestine  introduced  not 
oidy  its  dialect  but  also  its  script.  The  present 
Helirew  square  character  is  in  a  somewhat  orna- 
mental sliajie  a  cursive  form  of  the  ancient 
alphabet  adoiited  by  the  Arariieans  ;  the  article 
Al,l'II.\liE'l'  shows  both  the  I'iio'iiician  ,iud  the 
later  square  Hebrew  character.  The  monuments 
show  this  Aramean  cursive  in  various  forms 
of  development.  Jewish  trailition  a.scribes  its  in- 
troduction to  Ezra,  a  tradition  which  expre.s.ses 
merely  the  facts  that  a  change  took  place  in  the 
letter  employed,  and  that  this  change  was  nosterior 
to  the  return  from  exile.  The  use  of  the  letter  no 
doubt  crept  in  gradually,  just  as  the  use  of  the 
Aramaic  dialect  did.  The  ancient  letter  is  still 
seen  <m  coins  of  the  later  Maecabean  i)rinces.  Some 
deviations  of  the  Sei)tua>'int  from  our  present 
Helirew  text  seem  explainaljle  from  the  supposition 
that  their  MSS.  ■were  written  in  the  ancient  char- 
acter; while,  on  the  other  hand,  sume  discrejiancies 
rather  suggest  MSS.  in  the  square  letter.  The 
words  of  Christ,  'one  jot  or  tittle,'  have  been 
thought  to  show  that  the  square  character,  in  which 
y  (>  or  yo<t)  is  miich  the  smallest  letter  of  the 
alphabet,  had  long  been  in  use. 

The  history  of  the  language  would  not  be  coni- 

iilele  without  one  or  two  additional  facts.  (1) 
n  Semitic  languages  the  consDuants  alone  are 
usually  written.  Of  course,  no  language  could  be 
spoken,  and  no  writing  read  without  vowel-sounds, 
but  no  signs  for  these  sounds  existetl.  Certain 
weak  consonants,  however — viz.  A,  «■,  y,  were  early 
used  to  indicate  the  place  of  long  vowels,  jiarticn- 
larly  at  the  end  of  words,  and  also  of  diphthongal 
sounds  {fit  ~  r.  iiti  ~  u)  in  the  middle  of  words. 
Already  in  the  Moabite  stone  linal  vowels  are  so 
marked,  and  occasionally  iliphlhongs  within  words, 
I'ho-nician,  on  the  contrary,  uses  such  signs  very 
little.  Ancient  Hebrew  agreed  with  Moabite  in  its 
prai'tice,  as  appears  from  the  Siloam  iu.scriiition. 
The  use  of  these  so-called  vowel-letters  was  jirob- 
ably  scanty  and  lluctuating  in  early  times,  but 
became  more  regular  afterwards.  Lnfortunately. 
we  have  no  guarantee  that  transcribers  were  careful 
to  preserve  the  antiijue  spelling.  Our  jire-sent  text 
is  too  uniform  to  be  supposed  to  have  preserved  the 
varieties  of  dillerent  ages,  and  it  is  evident  that  the 
MSS.  of  the  Septnagiut  translatoi-s  in  a  multituile 
of  Cfuses  were  without  the  medial  vowels,  and  in 
some  case-s  without  the  linal  VDwels,  now  present 


in  the  Hebrew  text.  In  the  end  of  the  Ist  or  early 
in  tlie  2il  century  a  stamlard  text  was  adopted,  and 
modernising  of    the   spelling   in    the  m.ain   ceased. 

I  Vculiaritics  were  henceforth  registered,  not  e(lace<l. 
This  perioil  during  which  the  consonantal  text  was 

I I  rated  extends  to  the  er.a  of  the  Talmud  ( c.  ,'j00  A.  U. ). 
During  its  coui-se  a  multitude  of  works  were  pro- 
duced— e.g.  MiilriLihim,  or  honiilctical  expositions, 
especially  of  the  books  of  the  I'lMitatcuch  ;  the 
.Mishna  "(200  A. P.),  a  co<le  of  Iradition.il  law  ;  and 
the  tracts  composing  the  Tahnud,  which  are  com- 
mentaries on  the  Mishnic  law,  Iml  containing  much 
liaggadic  or  edifying  matter.  (2)  Neither  .Icronie 
(d.  420)  nor  the  TaTnnid  knows  anything  but  the 
consonantal  text.  The  example  of  .Syrian  scholaix 
and  necessity  led,  however,  to  the  invention  of  a 
very  couipleto  system  of  external  signs  for  the 
vowel-sounds  of  the  language.  This  is  the  Mius- 
.soretic  system  of  iioints,  now  printed  in  our  Bibles. 
Its  authors  are  unknown,  and  aLso  the  age  .it  which 
it  was  completed.  Minute  as  it  is,  it  can  make 
little  ]iretension  to  represent  the  prommcialion  of 
the  ancient  liiing  language.  The  ]ironnnciation  of 
a  language  during  a  period  of  nearly  a  thousand 
years  in  di.su.se  must  h.ive  undergone  changes  ;  the 
Septnagiut  pronounces  in  njany  cases  dillcicntly 
from  tlie  ]uesent  text  :  and,  in  point  of  fact,  the 
vocalisation  represents  not  the  inonunciation  of  a 
si>oken  language,  but  that  of  the  solemn  intimeJ 
reading  in  the  .service  of  the  synagogue. 

About  the  lotli  century  a  new  impulse  was  given 
to  the  study  of  Hebrew  by  the  example  of  the 
Arabic  grammarians.  The  interest  of  the  latter 
was  to  begin  with  a  purely  religious  one — i.e.  to 
explain  the  Koran.  Even  the  earliest  colle<'tions  of 
poetry  had  this  religious  object.  The  poetry  of  the 
desert  was  accepted  as  the  ]>urest  Arabic,  and  it 
was  collected  and  studied  with  the  view  of  illus- 
trating the  syntax  of  the  Koran.  l!y-and-by  giaiii- 
niar  came  to  be  cultivated  for  its  own  sake,  and  the 
ancient  poetry  studied  for  the  sake  of  its  intrinsic 
charms.  In  emulaticui  of  their  Arabic  confieres,  a 
schixd  of  Hebrew  grammarians  arose,  to  which  be- 
long such  names  as  Sa'dia  of  the  Kayyiim,  Chayyuj 
(1000),  Abu'l-Walid  Merwan  ibn.laiiiich,  Abeiiezra 
(d.  llt)7),  I)av.  Kinichi  (d.  12:!.j).  Where  Arabic 
was  not  used  a  neo-Hebraic  language  was  employed 
by  these  scludars,  greatly  a  return  to  biblical 
Hebrew,  ami  in  this  many  commentaries  were 
composed,  as  by  Abenezra,  Kimchi,  and  Kashi  of 
Troyes(d.  llOo).  At  the  revival  of  letters  Chris- 
tian scholai-s  became  apt  pupils  of  the  .lews — e.g. 
John  Keiichlin  (il.  1.122).  In  the  next  century  the 
chief  seat  of  Hebrew  learning  was  Switzerland, 
where  tlourished  Ihixtorf  the  Kldcr  (d.  1029);  and 
in  the  century  follnw  ing  Holland,  the  most  famous 
representative  of  the  Dutch  school  being  Alb. 
Schnltens.  In  the  l!)th  century  the  most  distin- 
guished promoters  of  Hel)rew  learning  have  been 
(iesenius  of  Halle  and  Ewald  of  Cottingen. 

The  following  is  (Jen.  i.  1-3  in  Hebrew  : 

nm  Dinn  ':s-^i'  Tic'm  ^nbi  inn  nn'n  "nxni 
-iis-\n;  D'.ii's  npx']  :  D^Dn  ^isrhy  nsn-ip  D'n^x 

:  "liK-'n''? 

See  Gcseniuii,  (lescli.  tier  Heb.  isprache  (181.5);  Kenan, 
Hint.  (Jen.  (Ics  Laiujucts  iV»(i(i</«fa  (4th  ed.  lS(i3). 

MolJEKN  HKliiil-;w.— A  few  ob.servations  may 
be  added,  in  conclusion,  on  the  use  of  Hebrew 
as  a  .spoken  and  written  language  among  modern 
Jews.  Hebrew  has  continued  ilown  to  the  present 
day  as  the  language  of  the  synagogue.  Except 
in  the  Reform  communities  of  (ieriiiaiiy  and 
America,    public    and     even     private    worship    is 


HEBREW    LANGUAGE 


HEBREWS 


615 


almost  entirely  coiiihicted  in  'the  ^^acl•e(l  tongue.' 
Altlii)u;rli  the  nuijority  of  western  Jews,  particu- 
larly aiiioiig  the  npper  and  n)iclille  classes,  possess 
hut  an  imperfect  acquaintance  with  it,  the  author- 
ities manifest  a  stronj;  disinclination  to  cease  pray- 
ing in  a  language  which,  it  is  urged,  constitutes 
a  |)Owerful  link  Ijetween  Israel's  present  and  past, 
and  serves  as  a  bond  of  union  between  .lews  all  the 
worUl  over.  Uutside  the  synagogue,  Hebrew  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  have  survived  as  a  spoken  lan- 
guage, e.\cept  that  in  .Jerusalem  and  other  eastern 
cities  it  forms  a  sort  of  Liiujiitt  Fniiica  among  the 
Jews  of  various  nationalities  settled  there.  A.s  a 
trrittoi  and  pn'/itnl  language,  however,  the  employ- 
ment of  Hebrew  is  far  more  general.  It  serves  as  a 
universal  medium  of  correspondence,  both  private 
and  otiici.al,  among  Jews  in  various  jiarts  of  the 
world,  and  particularly  between  the  E.ast  and  th(! 
\\'est.  \'arious  weekly  journals  are  also  written  in 
it,  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  Palestine.  Added  to 
this,  numerous  Hebrew  works  on  all  subjects  con- 
tiiine  to  be  compo.sed  by  learned  Jews.  The  Hebrew 
thus  used  for  modern  purposes  is  usually  not  the 
pure  Hebrew  of  the  Bible  and  synagogue,  but  the 
rabbinical  dialect  in  which  Jewish  doctors  of  the 
law  have  studied  and  commented,  written  and  dis- 
puted since  the  age  of  the  Mishna,  and  which  h;i.s 
been  developed  and  amplified  by  Jewish  philo- 
sophers, poets,  and  granunarians  throughout  the 
miildle  ages.  Both  kinds  of  Hel>rew — bililical  an<l 
labliinical — nuist  lie  carefully  distingnisheil  from 
the  jMdoia  dialects  atl'eeted  by  Jews  in  coimtries 
where  they  have  not  yet  been  fully  emanciiiated  or 
modernised.  In  Russia  and  the  adjacent  parts  of 
(iermany  and  Austria  they  speak  a  jargon  eompose<l 
of  Hebrew  and  corruiit  German,  called  Jiidisrli- 
Diiitsi-Ji,  while  in  parts  of  the  East  a  Jud:eo-Spanisli 
dialect  nourishes  by  its  side.  The  (ironunciation 
of  Hebrew  differs  among  the  two  geographical 
sections  into  which  Jews  are  divided,  and  which  are 
know  n  as  Asltkcnriziin  or  '  Germans,'  and  Sephariliin 
or  '  Portuguese,"  the  former  being  of  Gernum  and 
Polish  origin,  and  the  latter  having  migrated  from 
the  south  of  Europe  or  being  still  distril)uted  there. 
The  origin  of  this  ditl'erence  is  not  exactly  known, 
but  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  '  Portuguese'  mode 
of  reading  originally  came  from  Palestine,  where 
the  vocalisation  and  ])ronuneiation  of  Hebrew 
were  li.xed  by  the  Massorites  of  Tilierias,  and  that 
the  tlernuin  Hebrew  originated  in  the  academies  of 
Babylon  under  the  intiuence  of  the  E.astern-!^yrian 
grammarians.  The  Sephardic  system  is  hence  sup- 
posed to  be  purer  than  the  Ashkenazic. 

Il«'brews,  Epistle  to  thk.  The  title  of  the 
e|iistle  in  the  earliest  MSS.  issimply  '  To  Hebrews.' 
This  title  is  probably  not  from  tlie  hand  of  the 
writer,  but  due  to  some  eopyi.st  who  embodied  the 
writing  among  others.  The  term  '  Hebrews  '  is  a 
national  title  given  to  all  tho.se  desceiulcd  from 
Abraham,  in  opposition  to  Gentiles  or  tireeks 
(2  Cor.  xi.  'I'l ;  Phil.  iii.  .5  :  cf.  lleb.  ii.  10) ;  or  in  a 
narrower  sense  it  is  applied  to  Jews  .still  speaking 
a  Semitic  language,  in  opjiosition  to  Hellenists 
or  Greek-speaking  Jews  (Acts,  vi.  1).  It  is  prob- 
ably used  in  the  more  general  sense  here,  and  the 
title  merely  suggests,  what  is  evident,  that  the 
epistle  was  addressed  to  jjersons  of  Jewish  descent. 
The  opinion  that  the  letter  was  adilressed  to 
Hebrews  in  general,  wherever  they  might  be,  can- 
not well  be  maintained,  owing  to  the  many  local 
and  personal  references,  and  the  details  of  history 
given  by  the  author.  He  hoped  to  see  the  Hebrews 
soon,  as  he  had  been  with  them  before  (xiii.  1!),  "23). 
In  their  earlier  history  they  bad  suffered  jjersecu- 
tion  and  the  spoiling  of  their  goods  (x.  .'ii),  .some  of 
them  had  been  or  were  in  bonils(xiii.  3,  x.  34), 
although  their  altlictions  had  not  yet  gone  so  far  as 
martyrdom  (xii.   4),  unless  it  may  be  that  some  of 


those  having  the  rule  over  them  had  so  sull'ered 
( xiii.  7 ).  Their  circumstances  and  the  lapse  of 
time,  and  probably  also  the  disappointment  of  their 
hopes  of  the  coming  ;igain  of  Christ  ( x.  37 ),  had  not 
been  without  a  wearing  effect  ujjcui  them  ;  their 
Chnsti.an  enthusiasm  had  grown  cold  (x.  2o),  and 
they  had  not  a<lvanced,  or  rather  luid  f.allen  back, 
in  their  Christian  knowledge  and  ex|ierience  (v.  11- 
14) ;  and  though  distinguished  by  liberality  to  their 
poorer  brethren,  as  they  had  always  been  (vi.  10), 
they  were  wavering  in  their  faith,  and  in  danger  of 
falling  away  from  it  (ii.  1-3,  iii.  12.  vi.  4,  x.  AVSO); 
they  liad  neeil  of  patient  endurance  ( x.  3G,  xii.  1  et 
sc'j.)  and  fear  lest  any  of  them  should  seem  to  come 
short  of  the  rest  of  God  (iv.  1,  .\ii.  1,")).  Terrible 
warnings  are  uttered  by  the  author  in  regard  to  the 
sin  of  aposta.sy  and  the  impossibility  of  recoverinj; 
to  the  faith  those  who  fall  away  after  being 
enlightened  (vi.  4-8,  x.  26-31,  xii.  15-17),  although 
that  for  which  they  were  in  danger  of  renouncing 
their  Christian  faith  is  nowhere  distinctly  stated. 
From  the  geneial  drift  of  the  e]iistle,  however,  it 
may  be  inferred  that  what  the  author  feared  wa-s  a 
relapse  into  Judaism,  and  hence  he  exhorts  them  to 
break  conclusively  with  tlieold  dispensation  and  go 
forth  without  the  camii  (xiii.  9-14). 

The  question  of  the  locality  where  persons  having 
such  a  history  and  living  in  such  circumstances 
must  be  sought  has  been  very  dillerently  answered. 
The  traditional  view  has  lieen,  under  the  a.ssumption 
of  the  Pauline  authorship  of  the  epistle,  that  the 
church  in  Jerusalem  was  addressed.  And  perhaps 
this  is  still  the  prevailing  opinion.  There  are,  how- 
ever, serious  obstacles  in  the  way  of  this  o]>inion. 
The  church  in  Jerusalem  must  have  still  contained 
many  who  had  seen  and  heard  the  Lord,  while  tlio.se 
here  addressed  had  only  been  evangelised  by  those 
who  heard  him  (ii.  3).  Such  facts  as  these  :  that  the 
epistle  is  in  tireek,  and  by  a  writer  who  knows  the 
Scriptures  only  in  Greek,  and  w  ho,  tliouKh  hardly 
a  native  of  I'alestine,  stands  in  such  relations  to 
the  Hebrews  as  he  does  ;  that  they  are  interested 
in  Timothy,  the  devoted  minister  of  St  Paul 
(xiii.  23) :  tliat  the  church,  so  far  from  being  poor, 
is  able  to  minister  to  the  necessities  of  the  saints 
(vi.  10)  ;  and  that  the  aullnu  seems  to  count  upon 
the  sympathy  of  his  readei's  with  his  advanced 
views — these  facts  are  rather  against  Jerusalem. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  idea  that  the  Hebrews  must 
have  been  exposed  to  the  seductions  of  an  imposing 
ritual,  which  could  only  be  the  Teni|>le  service,  has 
little  support  in  the  epistle.  The  author's  refer- 
ences to  the  tUd  Testament  ritual  are  purely 
theoretical,  and  have  no  bearing  on  the  existing 
practices  ;  he  reasons  entirely  on  the  written  scrip- 
ture, on  Judaism  as  founded  by  Moses,  and  his 
'  arguments  woiild  be  understood  by  Jews  every- 
(  where,  as  the  system  of  thought  and  the  feelings 
!  against  which  he  directs  them  were  common  to 
!  them  in  all  places.  Others  have  thought  of  Alex- 
aniliia.  The  author  is  certainly  a  man  of  Alex- 
andrian culture,  and  the  line  of  tliought  he  pursues 
would  be  very  natural  if  addressed  to  Alexamlrian 
Jews.  It  is  almost  a  fatal  objection  to  this  view, 
however,  that,  though  the  epistle  wa*  early  known 
and  highly  valued  in  the  church  of  Alexandria,  not 
a  trace  of  a  tradition  appears  that  they  were  the 
reciiiients  of  it.  Clement  believed  that  the  epistle 
was  written  in  Hebrew,  and  addressed  to  Jerusalem 
by  St  Paul.  In  modern  times  some  have  advocated 
the  claiius  of  Home.  The  lii-st  references  to  the 
epistle  are  found  in  the  letter  of  the  l!(unan  Clement 
to  the  C(ninthians  (c.  Oli  .\.l>. ).  The  ciuisistent 
tradition  in  Rome,  too.  is  that  the  epistle  is  not  by 
St  Paul  :  and  the  reference  to  Timothy,  and  to 
those  of  Italy  (xiii.  24)  would,  on  this  \  lew,  find  a 
natural  explanation,  anil  also,  [lerhaps,  some  re- 
;  nuvrkable  coincidences  between  the  epistle  and  that 


616 


HKBREW.S 


HEBRIDES 


to  the  Koiiians.     The  Church  of  Home,  liowever, 

niiist  h)iv<>  always  liocii  ;;icatly  (ientilo,  and  refi-r- 
enci's  like  xiii.  7.  17  I'lcoliulc  tlic  idea  that  a. Jewish 
section  of  a  clinich  wivs  addiesseil. 

The  autlioi-ship  of  the  epistle  is  involved  in 
equal  oUscnrity.  In  the  earliest  times  opinion 
was  divided.  In  Home  and  the  West  the  roiisistent 
tradition  is  that  the  opistlf  is  not  Pauline.  In 
Africa  Tortullian  refers  to  it  lus  liy  liarnabas  (/><■ 
Piiilir.,  c.  20).  In  Alexandria  and  the  Ea.st,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  regarded  as  I'auline,  either 
inimediatoly,  or  mediately  tliroutrli  a  translator 
(Clement),  or  some  one  who  liad  driven  the  I'anliMe 
thou;;hts  form  ami  expression  (Urijjen).  Au;;ustiiie 
gave  in  to  the  Alexandrian  view,  anil  since  his 
time  the  I'auline  authorship  w.os  accepted  in  the 
West.  .\t  the  Keformation  Luther  su;,'^'csteil 
Apollos  as  the  author:  and  Calvin  cither  Luke  or 
Clemi'Ut  of  Home.  Modern  scholarship  is  virtually 
unanimous  in  the  opinion  that  the  episile  is 
not  from  the  hand  of  St  Paul.  This  view  is  JHused 
on  many  thinprs,  as  upon  the  lan^uafie,  wliich  is 
purer  (Jreek  than  any  other  New  Testament  writ- 
m^' ;  upon  the  rlicloriiiil.  rhythmical,  and  (lowinj; 
style,  .and  the  carefully  ]il!iiincd  and  systematic 
form  of  the  treatise,  wliich  has  none  of  the  alnnpl- 
ne.ss  and  smlden  transitions  characteristic  ot  the 
Pauline  writings  ;  ujion  the  fact  that  the  author 
appears  to  he  ijinorant  of  Melirew,  (juotin;;  .always 
tlie  Sei)tua;rint,  and  Iiasin^  his  re;i.soninf;  on  its 
renderings,  even  when  it  clevi.ates  from  the  Hebrew; 
npim  the  diflereiit  foniiiilas  emjiloyccl  in  citin;; 
Scripture:  and  iiarticularly  upon  the  authors 
system  of  thou^'lit,  which  rcllcets  Alexandrian 
Jewish  philosophv  in  some  |)laees,  ,and  which, 
thon^'h  rcichinf;  tlie  same  conclusion  with  St  Paul 
that  Christianity  has  fuHilled  and  superseded  the 
old  economy,  reaches  it  hy  .a  ilillercnt  road.  The 
place  of  St  Paul's  iir<de  of  le^'al  ideivs— suilt,  .satis- 
faction, imputation,  jtistiUcation  I >y  faith — is  taken 
hy  a  circle?  of  ideas  havinj;  reference  to  worsliiji  of 
God  :  sill  is  uncleanness  hinderiiif;  the  sinner  from 
drawing  nightotJod:  the  lilood  of  Christ  piirilics 
the  conscience  so  a.s  to  serve  the  livint;  (jod  (ix. 
14);  hence  redemption  is  conceived  as  the  work  of 
a  ])erfect  Hi<;li-priest.  Kaitli  is  fiener.aliseil  into  ,a 
re.alisiiij;  of  the  unseen  (chap,  xi.)  :  and  the  Spirit 
does  not  .ajipear  to  occii|iy  the  ]ilace  he  li.as  in  the 
Pauline  writings  as  the  source  of  the  new  (.'hrislian 
life.  Modern  scholarship  has  not  succeeiled  in 
.sUfTfjestinj;  any  new  name  .as  author  of  the  epistle, 
opinions  lieing  divided  in  favour  of  Apollos,  Harna- 
has,  Clement,  Luke,  and  Sil.os. 

It  li.as  heen  thou^jlit  that  if  .leru.salem  had  fallen 
before  the  .author  wrote  he  woulil  certainly  have 
used  this  fact  to  support  his  te.ichinj;  that  .Imlaism 
had  heen  translij;iired  into  Christianity,  and  con- 
sequently that  the  epistle  datfls  before  70  A.U., 
probably  abcrat  the  beginnin;;;  of  the  .lewish  war 
(67  \.\t.).  It  must  be  acknowled;;ed  lli.at  owin;; 
to  the  authors  theoretical  method  of  reasonin<,'  on 
.ludaism,  which  woiihl  apply  ti>  it  whether  the 
temple  and  litual  remained  or  not,  this  ar;:ument 
is  not  very  strong,  .and  others  prefer  a  Later  date. 
The  ejiistle  is  largely  used  in  Clement's  Epistle, 
which  is  nsti.ally  assigned  to  about  96  A.D. 

The  jiersons  to  whom  the  epistle  is  addres.sed 
being  such  as  above  described,  its  theme  is,  the 
finality  of  Christianity  as  a  religion.  This  finality 
is  shown  by  a  continuous  contr.ast  with  .Judaism. 
The  contrast  has  three  main  steps,  which  move,  .so 
to  speak,  baekw.ards  or  inwards,  accomiianied  always 
by  earnest  exhortation.  ( 1 )  Chan,  i.-ii..  Christ,  tiie 
Son.  exalted  because  of  death  to  lie  lie.ad  of  the  new 
world  of  redemption.  Contrast  with  angels.  (2) 
Chap,  iii.-iv.  1."?,  Christ,  the  Son.  the  f.aithful  leader 
into  the  rest  of  (jod.  Contrast  with  Moses  ami 
.loshiLi.      I  .'f  i  Chap.  iv.    14— x.   IH.  .Ichus,  tin- Son  of 


God,  the  heavenly  High-priest,  and  true  sacrifice. 
C(mtrast  with  Aaron,  with  the  earthly  tabernacle, 
and  with  llie  sacriliccs  of  bulls  anil  goats.  On  this 
follows  a  splendid  pa.s,sage  of  evlim  talioii  (chap.  X. 
19 — xii.  2!t)  on  the  application  and  personal  appio- 
priatiim  of  the  truths  just  taught.  .And  linally 
(chap,  xiii.),  a  more  pei-sonal  conclusion. 

See  the  coiniiicntarics  by  Blcck  (3  vols.  1S28-40),  the 
same,  Coiiimcntun,-  (1  vol.  IWW);  Tlinliick  [M  oil.  IM.'iO) ; 
]  lelitracli  ( 1X.">7.  trans.  Clark ) :  .M.  .Stuart  1  mw  td.  l«7ti ) ; 
liicsi'iitlial  (1«7«):  Ansun  (l.'^S);  Lowrie  1  X.  Y.  IW-t); 
A.  \i.  Davidson,  (Clark,  HamllH>i>ks);  Kcil  (IHS.'i);  Liiiie- 
iiiann  (in  Mover,  Eni;.  trans.);  Weiss  (in  ,Miytr,  1WK.S) ; 
Kendall  (1S.HS);  Kdwanls  (188S,  E.xiiiisitors  Bible); 
Wtstcott  (IKSil);  IjiiiKi-  (Kiig.  trans.);  also  Kiehni, /,,/,)•■ 
lc(iriffitt>  IlthrnirbriiU  (185y).  I'll"  literature  in  Laiige's 
Coiimicntary  ( Clark ). 

II«'l»rOWS,  (iO.SPEI,  OF  THE.      See  ArOCRVPHA. 

Ilohrnlos,  or  WK.sTF.nx  Isi.Axns,  the  name 
a]n>lii'd  in  a  general  sense  to  all  the  islands 
on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland.  To  the  tinier 
Hebrides,  the  geological  substratum  of  which 
is  almost  exclusively  gneiss,  licloiig  Lewis  with 
Harris  (Long  Isl.aiiil ),  North  I  ist,  Uenbecnl.a, 
South  I'ist.  liana,  and  the  remote  gioup  of  St 
Kilda,  (iO  miles  to  the  west.  The  principal  of  the 
Inner  Islands,  composed  chietly  of  trap  .and  .slate, 
aie  Skye.  Kigg,  Cull.  Tiiee,  iMtill.  lona.  Stafl'a, 
riva,  Lismore.  Kcrreia.  Colmi'^ay,  ( hoiisay,  .Jura, 
and  Islay.  ISiite,  the  Ciimlirai--.  and  .\rian,  are 
usually  counted  amongst  the  Hebrides  ;  and  to  the 
same  gioiip  were  anciently  .assigned  the  iieninsiila 
of  Kintyre,  the  island  of  Hathlin,  and  the  Isle  of 
Man.  The  total  number  of  islands  of  any  size 
is  about  .500,  lint  of  these  oidy  one  tifth  are 
inhabited.  The  poimlation  w.as  100.021  in  ISSl. 
(If  the  whole  surface  only  about  2(Ki,0(KI  acres 
are  arable;  the  rest  is  jiasl  in  eland  of  little 
value,  niora.sses,  peatmosses,  lakes,  and  barren 
s.ands  and  rocks.  Owing  to  the  inHuence  of  the 
(liilf  Stream,  the  llebrides  have  a  mild  though 
Inimid  climate.  Politically  the  Hebridean  i>.|es 
.are  distributed  among  the  Scottish  counties  of  Huss. 
Inverness,  .\rgyll.and  liute.  Tin' hnmbliT  class  of 
natives  for  the  most  iiarl  speak  i;:ulic.  The  people 
are  much  occupied  in  lishing  ami  fowling  (.see 
Cliiil-rKIt  )•  A  large  proportion  of  the  area  lia.s 
been  converted  into  sheep-walks,  whilst  extensive 
tracts  are  let  to  sportsmen. 

The  Hebrides  are  the  F.hiidif  of  Ptolemy  and 
Pliny's  lli},ri(lrs  (of  which  '  Hebrides'  is  a  corrup- 
tion, due  oii'Tn.ally  to  .a  misprint ).  .and  Sinhrindr 
(Sottthern  Islands)  of  the  Norwegians.  This  last 
name  w.as  Latinised  as  Soiloii'n>es,  wliicli  survives 
in  the  title  '  Hishop  of  Sodor  and  Man.'  The 
early  Celtic  inhabitants  were  converted  to  Christi- 
anity by  St  Colnmba  in  the  (ith  century.  Some 
three  centuries  hater  several  of  the  islands  were 
colonised  by  Norwegians,  who  came  hither  to 
csca])e  the  iron  rule  of  Harold  Il.aarf.ager  (q.v.). 
Hut  ill  consequence  of  the  severe  depredations 
which  these  sea-rovei-s  afterwards  committed  on 
the  coast  of  Norwav.  Harold  sent  an  expedition 
westw.ards,  which  siilidiieil  all  the  Western  Islands 
as  f.ar  south  .as  Man.  To  Norway  they  remained 
.subject  till  1266,  when  they  were  tiansfened  to 
Scotl.and.  From  that  time  the  islainls  were 
governed  Iiy  native  chiefs,  until  in  LStl!  the  head 
of  the  M.acdonalds  reduced  the  whole  under  his 
.authority,  and  took  the  title  of  Loid  of  the  Isles 
(q.v.).  Hut  from  the  beginning  of  the  16tli  century 
they  were  gr.adiially  .annexed  to  the  Scottish  crown. 
In  the  10th  century  the  Hebrides  have  liecomc 
widely  known  through  Scott's  ]ioi'ni  'Jin  l.nril  (if 
the  Islr.s  and  Mr  William  lilack's  ch.arming  novels. 

The  more  imi>ortant  works  on  the  Hebrides  are 
.Martin's /''.«di;)f/o7i  (170.'ii ;  Pennant's  '/"..i;,- i  1774) ;  Dr 


HEBRIDES 


HECKMONDWIKE 


617 


.lolinson's  Journey  (1775);  Gregory's  Historii  (1836); 
MaccuUoch's  Description  (l.slH);  ]iuclianan's  Jfebrid 
Igles  { 1883 ) ;  and  Gordon-L'umniing's  In  the  Hebrides 
(1883). 

Hebrides,  New.     See  New  Hebrides. 

Ilohron*  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  Palestine, 
I)el()n),ang  to  the  tribe  of  Jiulah,  21  miles  SSW.  of 
Jenisaleni.  It  was  aiifiently  called  Kiijathaiha, 
and  at  a  later  period  was  the  seven  yeai-s'  resilience 
of  Kin;,'  Daviil  liefore  he  conquered  Jerusalem. 
Tlie  MiDilern  town,  El  Khalil  ( '  the  friend  ' — of  God, 
Atirahani ),  is  a  poor  jilace,  inhaliited  liy  some  10,000 
peo]ile.  It  lies  low  down  in  a  naiTow  and  ])ictur- 
esque  valley — the  Valley  of  Eshcol,  famous  now,  as 
of  old,  for  its  thick  clnsterin;.'^'rapes,  its  olives,  and 
other  fruits.  The  church  erected  liy  the  Empress 
Helena,  the  mother  of  Constantine,  on  the  .spot 
where  Abraham  is  said  to  lia\e  been  buried,  lia.s 
1)een  converted  into  a  mosrpie  called  Kl-Hnmm 
( '  sanctuary  ' ).  built  to  enclose  the  cave  wliicli  is 
the  traditional  Imrial-place  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob  anil  their  wives.  See  an  article  by  Conder 
in  the  Palestine  Exploration  Quarterly,  October 
1882. 

HecataPlIS  of  Miletus,  an  early  Greek  historian 
.and  geo^Tapher,  usually  stvled  'the  li>gO},'r;i])lior,' 
flourished  most  probably  about  500  B.C.  He  seems 
t<i  have  visited  Greece.  Thrace,  the  countries 
borderinjr  on  the  Eu.xine,  and  many  of  the  ]uo- 
vinces  of  the  Persian  empire,  with  ])arts  of  Italy, 
Spain,  and  Africa,  and  the  results  of  his  observa- 
tions were  {rfven  in  two  great  works — his  To^ir  of 
the  World,  and  his  Histories  or  Genealogies  ;  the 
latter,  however,  is  little  more  than  a  prose  version 
of  the  poetical  legends  of  the  (Jreeks,  (_)nly  frag- 
ments now  remain,  which  have  been  edited  by 
Creuzer,  Klausen,  and  Miiller.  xVt  the  revolt  of 
the  lonians  against  Persia  he  dissuaded  its  ring- 
leader, Aristagoras,  from  an  attempt  so  far  above 
the  means  of  his  countiymen ;  and  when  that 
counsel  wa.s  despised,  urged  the  formation  of  .a 
fleet,  but  in  vain,  Hecata»us  afterwards  went  as 
ambassador  to  the  Persian  satrap  Arta]ihenies,  and 
induced  him  to  treat  the  lonians  with  leniency. 

Hecate,  a  mysterious  goddess  who  was  appar- 
ently unknown  to  the  Greeks  of  Homeric  times 
and  may  be  of  oriental  origin.  She  makes  her 
first  appearance  in  Hesiod  as  a  goddess  having 
power  over  earth,  heaven,  .and  sea.  This  tri]ilc 
power  mav  perhaps  give  the  clue  to  the  fact  that  in 
art  she  is  occasionally  represented  .a-s  a  triple  figure. 
It  also  e.\-|dains  the  fact  that  ultimately,  and 
especially  in  Orphic  literature,  she  came  to  be 
identified  with  many  other  godde.s.^os,  such  as  Ar- 
temis, Eileithyia,  Selene.  Iris,  Pei-sepiiime,  .Aphro- 
dite, (iai.a,  Hestia,  Isis,  Physis,  and  tiie  Hon.a  Dea, 
Owing  to  the  extent  of  her  domain  .she  w.as  espcci- 
.allv  .able  to  grant  tlie  wishes  of  her  vot.aries  and  to 
give  them  the  fulfilment  of  their  de.sire  in  battle, 
in  atldetic  and  other  contests,  in  the  popul.ar 
assembly,  and  in  the  law-courts.  Hut  her  power 
w;is  above  all  displ.ayed  in  the  matter  of  ghosts 
and  bogeys ;  she  was  able  not  only  to  ward  ot!  the 
visits  of  such  h.ags  but  also  to  send  them.  Indeed, 
besides  sending  an  Empus.a  or  an  .\nt;ea,  she  also 
herself  ,ap])e.ared  .o-s  ,a  bogey,  with  torch  .and  sword, 
and  snakes  for  ii.air  :  or  she  might  ajqiear  .a.s  a  dog, 
•a  m.are,  .a  lioness,  or  .a  cow,  .As  her  ap|iear.ance 
was  the  sign  for  dogs  to  bark,  so  she  w.as  supposed 
to  be  accom]ianieil  liy  a  train  of  Stygian  dogs.  The 
origin  of  this  figure  is  uncertain  ;  she  is  claimed  .as 
.a  moon  goddess,  .and  her  name  is  interpreted  in 
accordance  with  this  view  .as  indicating  the  .action 
of  light  at  a  distance.  It  makes  against  this  theory, 
however,  that  the  lunar  functions  of  Hecate  ,are 
not  mentioned  by  any  .author  e.arlicr  than  So]>hocles, 
and    that   they   do  not   become  prominent    in    her 


worship  until  post-cla.ssical  times,  and  then  onl,v  'in 
the  systems  of  the  later  mythologists'  (see  Class. 
Her.  .lune  1S88).  Her  intimate  connection  with 
the  spirits  of  the  dead  would  rather  point  to  her 
having  originally  been  a  goddess  of^  the  nether 
world,  for  the  earth  is  regarded  .as  the  .abode  of  the 
sjiirits  of  the  departed.  This  would  explain  her 
connection  with  the  mysteries,  and  the  ]ni)iiitiatorv 
otlerings  made  to  her  in  atonement  for  sin.  Einally, 
the  unsatisfactoiT  explanation  of  her  name  just 
given  7nay  be  safely  set  .aside,  as  too  .abstr.act,  in 
favour  of  the  inter|iretation  of  the  name  .as  mean- 
ing 'dog'  (Hecate  :  Ger.  hxnd  :  Eng.  ho>n>il  :  :  dr. 
hekaton:  Hmid-\-e<\.  See  Class.  7.'.--.  Nov.  1889). 
This  harmonises  with  v.arions  jKiints  in  the  ritual 
of  Hecate  ;  dogs  ^\ere  offered  to  her  .at  cross- wavs 
(which  are  favourite  haunts  for  ghosts),  .she  herself 
is  termed  fond  of  dog's,  and  sometimes  appeared 
leading  Cerberus. 

Hecatomb,  in  the  worship  of  the  Greeks,  and 
in  other  ancient  religions,  .a  sacrilice  of  a  large 
number  of  victims,  properly,  although  by  no  nie.ans 
necessarily,  one  hundred.  As  early  as  the  time  of 
Homer  it  was  usual  only  to  lium  the  legs  wrapped 
up  in  the  fat  and  certain  jiarts  of  the  intestines, 
the  rest  of  the  victim  being  eaten  at  the  festive 
meal  alter  the  sacrilice.  In  Athens  the  hecatomb 
was  a  most  po))ular  fomi  of  sacrifice  ;  while  the 
thrifty  Spartans  on  the  contrary  limited  the  num- 
ber both  of  the  victims  and  of  the  sacrilices.  In 
the  hecatomb,  strictly  so  called,  the  sacrifice  was 
supposed  to  consist  of  one  hundred  bulls  ;  but  other 
.animals  were  frequently  substituted. 

Hecker.  Feiedrich  K.\ui,  Fi!.\nz,  a  leader  of 
the  democratic  party  in  the  Germ.an  revolution  of 
1848,  was  born  at  Eichtersheim,  Baden,  September 
28,  1811.  After  studying  law  in  Heidelberg,  he 
became  in  18.S8  advocate  of  the  supreme  court  in 
Mannheim.  But  in  1842  he  .abandoned  his  ]>ro- 
fessiim  for  political  life,  joining  the  democratic  and 
I  socialistic  party,  of  w  hich  he  s])eedily  became  one 
of  the  recognised  heads.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  in  1848  he  endeavoured  to  convert  the 
preliminan'  convention  (  Das  Vrirparlametit )  into  a 
permanent  republican  assemblv.  But,  fnistrated 
in  this  attempt,  he  jiut  himself  at  the  he.ad  of  a 
i  bjind  of  revolutionists,  and  invaded  Baden  from  the 
south :  he  was.  however,  defeated  at  Kandern 
( '20111  Ajuil ),  .and  fled  to  Switzerl.aml.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  settled  in  America  .as  .a  farmer  near 
lielleville,  in  Illinois.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
civil  w.ar  he  raised  a  regiment  of  (lermans,  and 
.afterw.ards  for  .a  time  commanded  a  briga<le.  He 
died  at  St  Louis,  24tb  .March  1881. 

Hecker.  .UsTts  EniEDRirn  Karl,  medical 
.author,  was  born  ."ith  .January  170."i.  and  became 
]irofessor  of  Medicine  .at  Berlin.  He  died  11th 
.M.ay  1S.50.  Among  his  writings  are  ,a  history  of 
medicine  (18'29),  books  on  the  Bl.ack  Death,  &c., 
and  the  great  work,  the  E/iidcmirs  of  the  Middle 
Ages  (trans,  for  Sydenham  Si>ciety,  1846). 

Heckles  ( Mid.  Eng.  hel.elc,  from  the  Putcli 
helcel.  hank,  'a  hook:'  cf.  Ger.  haien  :  another 
English  form  is  harl.lr)  .are  ver>'  important  ]iarts  of 
various  m.achines  employed  in  the  piep.aration  of 
animal  and  vegetable  libres  for  spinning.  They  con- 
sist of  a  series  of  long  niet.al lie  teeth,  through  which 
the  ni.aterial  is  drawn,  .so  th.at  the  fibres  may  be 
comlied  out  straight  and  so  fitted  for  the  subse- 
quent operations.  Gills  are  heckles  with  liner  teeth 
(see  Si'ixNixr. ). — Herhling  is  also  now  the  received 
term  (first  used  in  Scotland)  for  the  rough  .and 
trying  process  of  catechisjition  to  which  ]iarli.a- 
mentaiy  candidates  and  menibei's  are  subjected  by 
their  constituencies. 

Heckinoildwike.  a  market-town  in  the  West 
Kidim;  of  Yorkshire,  8  miles   N  E,    of   II  uddcrsfield. 


61» 


H£CLA 


HEDGEBOTE 


It  is  tlie  chief  seat  of  the  car|)et  ami  blanket  manu- 
factures in  the  West  Killing,  and  also  makes  rn;;s, 
pihit-eliitli,  and  llnsliin^'s.  There  are  ironworks, 
miu'hiiieshops,  ami  coal-mines  in  the  neij;hlH)ur- 
liooil.  Here  wn-s  Innn  .lolin  C'urwen,  the  inventor 
of  the  Tonic  Solfa  system.  Pop.  (ISJl)  -4040; 
( |S!i|  )  '.1709. 

llcrliU  or  Hkkl.v.  a  volcanic  mountain  in 
Icelaiiil,  stanils  isolateil  alMMit  20  miles  from  the 
south-west  coast  and  liS  miles  K.  from  llevkjavik. 
Its  snow-clad  summit  is  .3102  feet  lii^ili,  and  li;us 
hve  craters.  The  siiles  of  the  nionntain  arc 
seaineil  hy  numerous  deep  ravines.  The  princiiial 
rocks  are  lava  ami  tulV.  '  Fanta.stic  groups  of  hills, 
craters,  and  lava,  leading;  the  eye  to  <listant  snow- 
covered  jiikuls  :  the  mist  rising'  from  a  waterfall  : 
lakes  emhosomcil  amiil  bare  lileak  mountains  ;  an 
:iwlul  and  profound  slumber:  lowerin;;  clouils  : 
marks  all  aroumi  of  the  furious  actiim  of  the  most 
destructive  of  the  elements,  i^ve  to  the  re^'ion  a 
character  of  desolation  .scarcely  to  Iw  parallele<l.' 
A  record  of  the  eruptions  has  been  kept  since  the 
S>»li  century,  ilurini^  winch  time  there  have  l>een 
eijthteen  outbreaks.  These  have  jjenerally  been 
very  violent,  and  have  often  continued  lor  a  con- 
siilerable  time.  In  September  1*S45  a  tcrrihc  out- 
break i«-curred  and  lasted  for  more  than  a  year. 
.\  line  dust  from  this  eruption  was  scattered  over 
the  Orkney  Islands,  a  distance  of  500  miles  from 
Hecla.  Indeed,  the  ;;reat  quantities  of  line  ilust 
ejected,  and  the  immense  distances  to  which  it  liius 
Ixjen  carried,  have  jienerally  been  noted  ;is  chaiiicter- 
istic  of  the  Icelandic  eruptions. 

Hortare.    See  .Vre. 

Ilootic  Fever  (fir.  /le/.Hkon,  'habitual;'  see 
Kkvki;)  is  the  name  j^'iven  to  the  fever  which 
occurs  in  connection  with  certain  wasting  disea.ses 
of  Ion-;  duration.  It  is  one  of  the  most  seritms  and 
constant  symptoms  of  Consumption  (q.v. ),  and 
seems  to  Ih?  tlirectly  related  to  the  pro;,'ressive 
emaciation  which  marks  the  course  of  that  nialadv. 
In  the  mornin;;  the  patient's  temperature  may  be 
normal.  He  may  even  feel  chilly.  But  towarils 
evening'  or  after  eatin;;  he  grows  hot  anil  tliishetl  ; 
and  there  Is  a  preternatural  vividness  of  e.\pres.sion, 
which,  with  the  heijihtened  colour,  sometimes  jrives 
a  very  fallacious  impression  of  health.  The  patient 
retires  to  bed,  has  tossing  and  uneasy  sleep,  and 
wakens  in  the  niidilleof  the  night,  or  towards  early 
morning,  bathed  in  cold  iierspiratinn.  and  in  a  state 
of  extreme  languor.  Tiie  same  exhausting  cycle 
rejieat-s  it-self  day  after  day.  The  only  radical  way 
of  treating  the  fever  is  to  cure  the  disea.se  on  wliicli 
it  ilepends.  When  the  .symptom  itself  must  !>«■ 
combated,  a  pill  containing  a  grain  of  sulphate  ol 
ijuinine.  with  half  a  grain  of  digitalis  and  as  much  of 
Oovers  powder,  taken  three  times  a  day,  is  often 
serviceable. 

Hector,  the  eldest  .son  of  King  I'riam  and 
Hecuba,  husband  of  .Androniiwhe,  and  father  of 
Astyanax  (Scamandrius),  appears  in  Homer's 
I/inf/  as  the  ideal  of  a  warlike  hero,  brave  to  the 
last  degree,  yet  faithful  and  tender  alike  as  hus- 
l»and,  father,  and  son.  One  of  the  noblest  passages 
in  the  J/iatf  desciiljes  his  parting  with  .Vndromaelie. 
He  holds  the  s,ame  raiilc  among  the  Trojans  as 
.\chilles  among  the  tJreeks,  and,  after  bearing  the 
main  burden  of  the  war,  falls  at  length  by  the 
hand  of  .-Vchilles  enraged  at  the  de.atli  of  his  Iwloved 
I'Oinpanion  Fatroclus.  His  body  was  dragged  in 
triumph  by  the  conqueror  rmind  the  tomb  of 
I'atroilus,  but  was  afterwards  ransomed  by  Priam, 
who  caused  it  to  be  burned  with  great  pomp. 

Hee'llba  (Or.  Hcktlhc),  the  second  wifeof  Priam, 
king  of  Troy.  During  the  Trojan  war  she  witne-sseil 
the  destruction  of  all  her  sons,  with  the  exception 
of  Helenus,  ami  at  last  saw  her  husband  murdered 


Ix-fore  her  eyes  by  the  savage  Pyrrhus.  .-Vfter  the 
destruction  of  Troy  she  fell  into  the  lianils  of  the 
Oreeks  as  a  slave,  luid.  acconling  to  one  form  of 
the  legend,  threw  herself  in  desiiair  into  the  sea. 
Kuripidcs  (in  his  tragedy  of  llernlit)  anil  other 
ancient  tragedians  de.siribe  her  <i.s  a  tender  mother, 
a  noble  princess,  and  a  virtuous  wife,  expi>sed  by 
fate  to  the  most  cruel  sulVerings, 

Meddles.    See  WK.vyiM;. 

Iledjie  I  -V.S.  liege,  another  form  of  hnr/ii,  whence 
moilern  linir:  cf.  Oer.  hnif.  The  Kr.  Iiuie  Ls  of 
Teutiinic  origin),  a  living  or  growing  fence,  in 
contriulistinction  to  wall,  paling,  \c.,  use<l  for 
the  purjmses  of  enclosure,  shelter,  and  orna- 
ment in  connection  with  agriculture,  forestry, 
and  gardening.  Hedges  are  very  nincii  used 
in  .some  parts  of  the  world,  whilst  others, 
eiiually  cultivated,  are  almost  ilestitnte  of  them. 
Tims,  whilst  they  are  very  conniion  in  many 
iiarts  of  Britain,  they  are  comparatively  rare 
in  France  and  (iermany,  as  well  as  in  .America. 
They  are  formed  of  many  kinds  of  trees  and 
shrulw  .iccording  to  the  purpose  in  view,  the 
nature  of  the  ex])osure,  the  elevatiim  of  the  site, 
and  the  soil  in  which  they  arc  to  be  planted.  It 
is  essential,  whatever  plant  may  Im?  used,  that  it 
should  bear  without  injury  the  degree  of  annual 
pruning  ncccs.sary  to  keep  it  trim  and  within  the 
proper  limits  of  a  fence. 

I'or  the  pur|>oses  of  agriculture  and  forestry 
Hawthorn  (q.v.)  is  almost  universally  employed  in 
Britain  wherever  the  conditions  of  soil  and  situation 
are  favourable  to  its  growth.  When  properly 
attended  U>,  especially  in  rcsiiectof  annual  pruning, 
it  is  the  most  elVcctual  feni'c  for  domestic  animals, 
and  also  an  excellent  shelter.  On  elevated  sites, 
those  exceeding  1000  feet  above  sea-level,  it  does 
not  succeetl  well.  In  .such  positions  elder,  mountain 
ash,  itc.  are  jdanted  for  shelter  in  the  form  of 
hedges,  but  are  dehcient  in  the  other  qualities  of  a 
fence.  Beech-hedges  are  familiar  in  some  districts. 
Substitutes  for  hawthorn  in  providing  shelter  by 
the  seaside  are  found  in  sea- buck  thorn,  snowbeny, 
scarlet  dogwood,  sloe,  wild-pear,  \c.,  lint  none  of 
thetn  are  of  value  in  repelling  cattle.  Orna- 
mental hedges  are  formed  of  holly,  yew — the 
latter  is  regarded  as  poisonous  when  eaten  by 
cattle,  horses  especially,  and  should  therefore  lie 
selecteil  oidy  for  positions  which  they  cannot 
approiU'll — arbor  vitic.  laurel,  i)rivet,  barberry,  both 
evergreen  and  deciduous  ;  beech,  hornbeam,  iVe. 
In  some  parts  of  the  west  of  Scotland  and  Wales, 
I  and  in  the  .south  of  KnglamI  and  many  jiarts  of  the 
coast  of  Ireland,  jiirmanent  heilges  of  fuchsia, 
arbutus,  and  other  ficaulilnl  evergreen  or  llowering 
shrnlis  are  to  be  found,  though  they  will  not  endure 
I  the  cold  of  inland  and  east  coast  districts  in  the 
I  same  latitudes. 

I  In  the  Inited  States  the  English  hawthorn  is 
i  u.sele.s»  as  a  hedge-plant,  as  the  foliage  Ls  late,  is 
\  destroyed  by  the  heat,  and  Ls  much  infested  by 
I  insects;  the  native  thorns  are  little  better.  In 
I  various  parts  of  the  states  where  hedges  are  em- 
;  jiloyed  serviceable  ]dants  are  Ixjdock  (sec  Bois 
'  l)'.\l{C),  honey  locust,  pyricauth,  the  Macartney 
rose,  buckthorn,  barberry,  &c. 

Hedges  were  in  use  among  the  ancient  Uonians, 
chiefly  for  the  enclosure  of  vineyards  and  gardens. 
It  is  probable  that  tliev  have  existed  in  England 
since  the  times  of  the  Itomv.;.-*,  although  not  very 
common  till  the  end  of  the  17th  century  :  but  they 
are  supoosed  to  have  been  lirst  introduced  into 
Scotland  and  Ireland  by  the  olliccrs  of  CromweH's 
armies. 

Iledgebote,  an  old  word  for  the  right  of  a 
tenant  to  cut  wood  on  the  farm  or  land  for  repair- 
ing the  hedges  or  fences. 


HEDGEHOG 


HEFELE 


619 


Common  Hedgehog 
[EHnaceus  euro/Keus). 


Hedgehog*  tlie  European  lejiiesentative  of  the 
genus  Kiinaceus,  the  type  of  the  family  Eiinaceiihi', 
oilier  Insectivora  (q.v. ).  The  chief  characteristics 
of  the  genus  are  :  ImmIv  capable  of  being  rolled  up 
into  a  hall  by  the  action  of  a  powerful  muscle 
arising  from  the  head  and  neck  on  either  siile,  and 
forming  a  loop  around  the  posterior  extremity  ; 
ears  distinct ;  teeth,  three  incisoi-s  on  each  side  in 
either  jaw,  the  central  pair  long  and  prominent, 
molai-s,  seven  on  each  sitle  above,  live  below,  with 
rounded  tubercles ;  zygomatic  arch  of  the  skull 
conijilete ;  legs  short,  with  live  toes  on  each  foot ; 
the  two  leg  bimes  ankylosed  :  tail  short;  back 
covered  with  spines,  the  remainder  of  the  body 
with  liaii's  and  bristles. 
There  are  fourteen  species,  none  of  which  occur 

in  the  New 
World  or 
Australia. 
The  Common 
Hedgehog 
(  Erinni:ev.s 
c  iiropceiis  ) 
has  a  .sharp- 
ly pointed 
muzzle  and 
ears  le.ss  than 
half  the 
length  of  the 
head.  The 
eyes  are  small 
and  black. 
The  animal 
is  at  most 
abo)it  a  foot 
long,  and  some  si.\  inches  high.  The  spines  wldcli 
cover  its  back  attain  a  maxinnim  length  of  about 
an  inch  ;  they  are  sharply  pointed  and  remarkably 
lirm  and  elastic,  so  much  so  that  they  constitute 
a  cushion  ujion  which  the  animal  will  allow  him- 
self to  fall  fiom  a  considerable  height  with  im- 
punity. They  are  linely  grooved  along  the  sides, 
and  liave  a  pin  heail-like  rixjt  so  attached  to  the 
muscle  of  the  back  that  when  the  latter  contracts 
they  radiate  outwards  in  all  directions. 

The  animal  e.its  small  vertebrates,  such  as  mice, 
young  birds,  ami  frogs,  insects,  worms,  and  some- 
times vegetable  matters.  It  is  very  useful  in  a 
garden  or  in  a  house  infested  by  cockroaches.  It 
has  even  been  known  to  attack  and  devour  snakes, 
seeming  to  have  some  special  power  of  resisting  not 
only  the  poison  of  the  viper,  but  also  other  no.xious 
substances.  It  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and 
hibernates  throughout  the  winter,  and,  according 
to  the  Gypsies,  with  whom  it  is  a  special  delicacy, 
it  does  store  up  birds,  mice,  crab-apples,  &c.  It 
inliabits  hollows  of  trees  or  crevices  In  the  rocks, 
but  in  default  of  these  will  excavate  itself  a  burrow. 
The  pairing  sea-son  is  from  the  end  of  March  to 
the  beginning  of  June  ;  and  the  period  of  gestation 
is  seven  weeks.  Three  to  six  ( rarely  eight )  young 
are  born  at  once ;  they  have  both  the  eyes  and 
earn  closed.  The  spines  are  at  first  quite  white  anil 
soft,  and  since  they  point  backwards  and  the  young 
are  born  head  lirst  tliere  is  no  risk  of  injury  to  the 
mother  during  parturition. 

Its  area  of  ilistribution  e.xteniLs  over  the  whole  of 
temperate  Europe  and  the  greater  part  of  Asia 
nortli  of  the  Himalayiis.  Fo.ssil  hedgehogs  have 
IpccM  found  in  the  Tertiary  fornuitions. 

Iletlgehog  Plant,  a  name  given  to  those 
species  of  medick  (Medicago)  which  have  the  pods 
spirally  twisteil  and  roUeil  u])  into  a  ball  be.set  with 
spines.  They  are  particularly  plentiful  on  sandy 
grounds  near  the  sea  in  England,  ami  in  some  parts 
of  South  America  :  and  their  pmls  are  too  plentiful 
in  the  Soutli  Aujerican  wool  imported  into  I'ritain. 
They  atlorJ  excellent  food  for  sheep  and  cattle. 


Hedge-mustard  (Sisymbriuin),  a.  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Crucifera-,  annual  or 
rarely  perennial  herbs,  with  very  various  foliage, 
small  yellow  or  white  Howei-s,  and  a  long  roundish 
or  six-angled  pod  (silique).  Several  species  are 
natives  of  IJritain,  of  which  one,  the  Common 
Hetlge-mustard  (S.  (jjfiiiiutle),  was  once  employed 
in  medicine  for  catarrhs  and  other  ailment.s.  It  is 
an  annual  plant,  plentiful  in  waste  places  and  by 
waysides,  sometimes  two  feet  high,  branched,  with 
runcinate  or  <leeply-lobed  leaves,  stem  and  leaves 
hairy. 

Hedge-uettle.    See  Stachys. 

Hedge-sparrow  {Armitor  moduloris)  is 
really  a  small  European  Warbler  (q.v.)  resembling 
a  sparrow  in  colouring. 

Hedjaz.    SeeAK.\Bi.\. 

Hedjrah.    See  Hegir.\. 

Hedley.  William  (1779-1843),  bom  at  New- 
burn  near  Newcastle,  the  inijirover  of  Trevithick's 
locomotive.     See  R.\iLW.\vs. 

Hedouism.    See  Ethics. 

Heeill.  'T-VX  DAVID.SZ  van,  the  greatest  Dutch 
painter  of  still  life,'  was  born  at  Ltrecht  in  1606. 
In  163.5  he  enrolled  hini.self  in  the  Antwerp  guild  of 
painters;  and  in  that  city  he  dieil  in  1683  or  1684. 
lleem's  pictures  represent  for  the  most  part  fruits 
and  Howei's.  insects  and  creeping  things,  and  drink- 
ing CHjis,  bottles,  &c.  Masterpieces  In'  his  hand  are 
hung  in  the  galleries  of  Amsterdam,  A  ienna,  Berlin, 
Munich,  St  Petersburg,  and  other  places.  HLs 
drawing  and  colouring  are  e.xquisite,  and  his  use  of 
chiaroscuro  unsurjiassable. 

Heeren.  Ap.xold  Hermann  Lrinvio,  German 
historian,  was  bom  •25th  October  1760,  at  Arbergen, 
near  Bremen.  He  first  made  himself  known  by  an 
edition  of  Menanders  Dc  EiKumiis  (178o),  and  in 
1787  was  apijointed  professor  of  Philosoi)hy,  and  in 
1801  profes.sor  of  History,  at  Giittingen.  He 
married  in  1797  a  daughter  of  Heyne,  and  died  7th 
March  1842.  The  striking  feature  about  his  teach- 
ing and  writing  was  that  he  studied  the  peoples  of 
classic  antiquity  from  the  modern  standpoint,  as 
the  title  of  his  princijial  work  shows— /(/c<«  U}>cr 
Politii.deii  Verkehr  niiddeii  Handel  der  vornehmsten 
J'olker  der  alteti  Welt  (1793  96:  4th  ed.  1824-26; 
Eng.  trans.  1833).  Besides  this  he  wrote  Gesthichtc 
dcs  Studium^  der  ctnssisc/ien  Litcndtir  acit  dint 
Wicdemiiflcben  der  Wissensiltaftin  (2  vols.  1797- 
1802),  Gcschiihte  der  Slaaten  (fev  Altei-thiims  { 1799  ; 
5th  ed.  1828;  Eng.  trans.  1840),  and  Geschichte  de^ 
etiropdisc/icn  Staateiisi/steins  tiiid  seiner  Coloiiien 
(1800:  5th  ed.  1830;  Eng.  trans.  1834),  which 
abounded  in  new  views  and  acute  expositions.  His 
Vntersnrhnnijrn  itber  die  KrenzziKje  won  a  prize 
ottered  by  the  National  Institute  of  France.  His 
K/eine  historise/ie  Srhriftcn  (3  vols.  1803-8)  contain 
some  very  interesting  treatises  and  a  biography 
of  Heyne"  In  1821-26  he  published  an  edition  of 
all  his  historical  works  in  !.">  vols. 

Hefele,  K.vel  Jo.skph  vhn,  an  eminent  Cath- 
olic church  historian,  was  born  at  I'nterkochen  in 
Wiirtemberg,  15th  March  1809.  He  studied  at 
Tubingen,  and  became  in  1H.S6  priratdorent,  and 
in  1840  professor  of  Church  History  and  Christian 
Archteology,  in  the  Catholic  theological  faculty 
of  that  univei-sity.  He  showed  himself  a  danger- 
ous enemy  to  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility  even 
after  liis  consecration  as  Bishop  of  Hottenburg 
in  1869,  by  his  weighty  contributions  to  the 
Honorius  controversy  :  Honoriiis  und  das  sec/iste 
(dli/enieine  Kunzil  (Till).  1870).  and  Cansa  Honorii 
jMi/KV  (Naples.  1870).  But  after  his  return  from 
Home,  in  a  jpastoral  epistle  in  1871  he  gave  in  his 
adhesion  to  the  dogma,  with  the  exiilanation  that 
the  infallibility  of  the  pope,  ivs  well  as  that  of  the 


620 


HEFELE 


HEGEL 


1  ! 


clmrcli,  refenoil  only  to  <liictiiiii'  ;;ivoii  forth  iv 
dillifilrft,  anil  tlu'it-iii  to  tlic  (U-liiiitioiis  |iro|icr  only, 
Imt  not  to  its  |ii'ool.i  or  apiiliciitions.  Of  Hefele's 
wntinj.'s  nuiy  lie  nanu-il  un  eilition  of  the  Aiiostolic 
Kathi'rs{  1h;«I:  4th  cil.  IS55):  t7ii!/.m.sfomii.sJ'(isli//r, 
a  transhiiion  (  1S4.">:  3(1  eil.  18,57):  Die  Khifiihiiiiii] 
ill's  I'hristi-ittiiiiis  nil  sitthrfstlirhfn  lirntsfhliimi 
(IS.*??);  l>iT  Kiirtlimil  Ximnir.i  inn/  tlir  hirrhtlrlicn 
Zii.itiniilf  ,S/>riiiinis  im  I'ttcn  •hihrh\inilcrt  (1S44; 
2(1  e<l.  IHol  ;  Kn^.  trans.  Iiy  Canon  Dalton,  ISOO); 
lirHfiicfe  ziir  Kirrluiiijf-.irhirhtf,  ArclmoliKjic  iiiirl 
Litiiiffih-  (1S64-05);  anil  espcrially  his  nia;;istral 
Kiiii:illnif]cirhiehte  (Freiliur^,  7  vols.  18.').>-74  ;  "Ji 
eil.  lS7."t-73;  the  lirst  part — to  the  Council  of  Nice 
— translated  bv  Clark,  1871).  He  <lie(l  olh  June 
180.3. 

llOUel.  (iKDIifJ  WlI.HKLM  Krikdricii,  wa-s  the 
last  in  a  sueoossion  of  four  ^reat  wnt<'i-s,  who 
<lnrinK  the  later  part  of  the  J8th  ami  the  first 
<|Uarter  of  the  HIth  centuri-  ileveloiied  the  idealistic 
philosophy  of  (Iprmany:  the  otlicr  three  lieiii;,' 
Kant,  Kiclite,  and  Sciudlinj;.  lie  was  horn  at 
Stutt^'art  on  the  27th  .\nj;ust  177(t,  and  educalcil 
at  the  university  of  'rii)>inj.'en,  where  he  foriTied  an 
intimate  friendshi])  with  Schelliu;;,  his  |ihiloso]>hi 
eal  predecessor.  Seliellinj;  wa.s  five  yeai's  yonnj,'er 
than  HcKel.  l>nt  very  precocious.  His  rapiil 
intuitive  ^^enins  nrfred  iiiui  to  express  his  tliouKiits 
almost  liefore  they  were  ripe  for  expression,  and  he 
liad  he^'un  to  pul)lish  important  contriliutions  to 
philosophy  even  liefore  his  student-life  h.id  come  to 
an  end.  Heu'i-j.  on  the  other  h.aud,  wits  slow  in 
his  intellectual  devidojinient,  ami  from  a,  desire  for 
systematic  completeness  and  consistencv  he  was 
nnwilliuK  to  utter  his  thonf;hts  till  he  li.ad  made  all 
their  relatiiins  ele.ar  to  himself.  Consequently  he 
]i.issed  through  thi'  university  without  any  speci.al 
distinction,  and  it  w.os  not  till  six  years  after  he 
left  it — years  durin;;  which  he  maintained  himself 
liy  aetinj;  .'us  a  private  tutor — that  he  liej;an  to  seek 
academic  work  and  to  lirinj,'  his  views  upon  philo 
sopliical  ipiestions  hefore  the  ])ulilie. 

In  ISOl,  however,  he  entered  upon  his  schola.itie 
career  at  the  university  of  .Jena,  imhlishin;;  at 
till!  same  time  an  essay  on  the  dill'erence  he 
tween  the  philosophies  of  l''ichte  and  Scliellint;, 
in  which  he  on  the  whole  jilaced  himself  cm  the 
side  of  the  latter,  thou;;h  not  without  indicating,' 
some  diver^'ences  of  view.  From  1801  to  ISOti 
he  continueil  to  teach  in  the  university  of  Jena, 
first  its  a  iirii-iitiliirriit  (or  licensed  lecturer),  and 
then  a.s  a  professor  extraordinary,  ami  in  the  early 
part  of  that  period  he  joineil  with  Schellinj,' 
m  writing;  a  philosophical  periodical  called  the 
Criliiitl  Jniininl  nf  Pliiliixiijiliii.  .\t  this  time  the 
two  philosophers  were  so  closely  identilied  in  their 
views  that  there  has  heen  considerahle  ilispnte  as 
to  the  authorship  of  some  of  the  .articles.  In  one 
of  Hciiel's  latest  contriliutions,  however,  the 
re.osons  for  his  sulisequent  separation  from  Scliel- 
lin^'  are  clearly  indicateil.  It  w.-is  not  till  1S(I7 
that  He;;el  pulilished  the  Pltiriiiiinrnnln'fii  of  llir 
Sjiiril.  the  lirst  work  in  which  he  fully  exhibited 
the  depth  and  independence  of  his  philosophic 
{renins.  Ry  this  time,  mainly  in  consequence  of 
Napoleon's  victory  over  the  I'nissians,  the  uni- 
versity of  .Tena  was  for  a  time  broken  up.  ami 
Hej.'el  was  forceil  to  tind  employment  as  the  editor 
of  a  newspaper  at  liamber;:.  In  the  following;  ye.ar 
he  \ya.s  appointed  director  of  the  ;.'\'ninasium  or 
public  school  of  Xureniber<;,  where  he  rem.ained 
durin;.' the  next  nine  yeai-s.  In  ISll  he  married, 
anil  in  the  followin;;  year  he  published  the  first 
volume  of  his  ^n-eatesf  work,  the  Loqii'.  a  treatise 
which  treats  of  what  is  ordinarily  called  Loj.'ic  in 
connectiim  with  Metaphysic.  It  was  not  till  ISIfi 
that  his  jirowin;;  fame  as  a  writer  secured  his 
nomination  to  a  professorship  in  Heidelber-: ;  this. 


two  years  after,  he  exchan^'ed  for  the  chair  of 
riiilosopliy  at  lierlin  formerly  occupied  by  Kiclite. 
There  he  continued  to  teach  till  the  14th  Nnvcmber 
18;!1,  when  he  wa.s  carried  oil'  by  a  sudden  attack  of 
cholera.  During'  lhe.se  years  he  published  several 
works,  of  which  the  most  important  is  the  miu- 
siipliji  nf  lliiiht.  and  contributed  several  articles  to 
the  I'hilitsiiiiliiiiil  Yriii--liiiiil.,  a  journal  which  was 
mainly,  thou;;h  not  exclusively,  tlw  or^'an  of  his 
disci|dc.s.  His  iidluence  during'  this  |>eriod  was  mi 
;.'reat  that  he  mi;,'ht  also  be  said  to  have  been  the 
philosophical  dictator  of  (iermany.     M  his  death  a 


number  of  his  friends  eondiined  to  prepare  a  com- 
lilete  edition  of  his  works,  in  which  they  included 
not  ludy  the  books  he  had  published  ilurins;  his 
lifetime,  but  also  reports  of  courses  of  leilures 
delivered  by  him  upon  many  departments  nf  |iliilo 
Sophy.  Anumj;  these  may  be  mentioned  specially 
his  lectures  upon  the  I'Uihisnjthti  nf  llrliijKin,  the 
I'hilnsophy  of  Art,  the  Ulstori/  uf  i'hiloaoiiliy,  and 
the  l'hiUis<i]))iy  nf  Hisiorii. 

It  is  impossible  within  onr  limits  to  characterise 
adequately  the  work  of  such  an  encyclop.Tilic  mind 
as  IIe;,'ers,  but  it  is  possible  in  a  few  words  to 
indicate  the  luain  tendencies  of  his  philosophy.  In 
the  lirst  ]ilace,  Hegel  was  an  Idcalixt.  liy  this  it  is 
meant,  however,  not  that  he  reduced  the  facts  of 
the  outward  world  to  idea.s,  or  held  that  there 
are  no  facts  but  the  iilea.s  of  the  imlividu.il  nuud. 
It  is  meant  only  that  he  held  that  we  must 
ultimately  explain  the  world  as  the  manifestation 
of  a  rational  luimiple.  Kant  had  shown  that  all 
known  or  kimwalile  objects  are  relative  to  a 
conscious  subject,  and  that  therefore  W(>  cannot 
lefritimately  treat  them  as  t/ii)ii/.i  in  Ihrmselrrs— 
i.e.  as  thiiifrs  that  mii,dit  exist  by  themselves  even 
if  there  were  no  intellii;ent  principle  in  existence  t<i 
know  them.  He  had  shown,  in  other  words,  that 
existence  means  notbin;,'  unless  it  means  existence 
for  a  self.  lle;,'el  carried  the  ar{,niment  a  step 
further,  and  maintained  that  the  world  of  objects 
is  not  only  rel.ated  to  an  intellijience.  but  tli.at  it 
can  be  nothing'  but  the  revelation  or  manifestation 
of  intelli;,'eme.  In  this  w,ay  he  sou;:lit  not  only 
«ith  Kant  to  show  the  impossibility  of  a  nuiterial- 
istie  explanation  of  tbiufjs,  hut  to  prove  the 
necessity  of  an  idealistic  explanation  of  them.  He 
did  not  therefore  deny  the  reality  of  the  material 
world,  but  maintained  it  to  be  an  imperfect  or 
incomplete  reality  which  could  not  exist  by  itself 
withotit  soniethini;  else  t<i  supplement  it!  He 
attempted  to  prove  that  ni.atter  is  the  m-cessary 
object  and  counterpart  of  sjiiiit,  ii]  which  spirit 
reveals,  and  tlirou;;ii  which  it  realises,  itself;  and 
that  indeed  the  material  world  only  shows  its 
ultimate  nieaninj;,  when  we  regard  it  as  the 
natural  environment  and  basis  for  the  life  of 
spiritual  beinjjs. 

In  the  second  ]ilace,  Hefrel  connected  this  idealistic 
or  spiritu.ilistic  view  of  thinfrs  with  the  preat 
moileru  idea  of  Ki-nl iitifni  or  Th'rrlojiiiiciit.  That  idea 
is  often  supposed  to  involve  that  the  hijjhest  and 
most  com]dex  existences  may  he  traced  back  to  the 
lowest  and  simplest — that,  for  examjde,  we  may 
hope  ultimately  to  explain  the  |ihenomena  of  life 
by  mechanics  and  chemistry,  and  the  phenomena  of 
thou^dit  .and  will  by  the  ]iowers  of  nulritinn  and 
sens.ation  which  are  manifested  in  the  lowest 
forms  of  animal  life.  And  in  a  .similar  way  the 
idea  of  evolution  is  supposed  to  imply  that  we  can 
explain  the  hijrhe.st  forms  of  relifjion  as  iiothin;^ 
more  than  relined  reproductions  of  the  crude 
superstitions  of  .savages.  Hegel,  on  the  other 
hand,  maintains  that,  as  it  is  the  developed  form 
that  lirst  tells  us  what  w.'is  in  the  germ,  .as  it  is 
only  the  life  of  the  man  that  shows  what  was  latent 
in  the  child,  so  under  the  idea  of  evolution  we  must 
take  the   man  as  exjilaining  the   animal,  and  the 


HEGEL 


HEGESIPPUS 


621 


organic  as  exhibiting  what  is  latent  antl  obscure 
in  the  inorjjanjc.  Not,  indeed,  as  if  tlie  special 
sciences  uf  mechanics,  chemistry,  biology,  i*i:c.  were 
not  right  in  keeping  to  tlieir  own  si>ecial  principles. 
But,  in  the  last  resort,  when  we  attempt,  as  it  is 
the  l>usiness  of  i)liilosopliy  to  atteMi[it,  to  see  all 
these  spheres  of  existence  in  their  relation  to  each 
other,  as  well  as  to  the  intelligence  that  knows 
them,  we  must  regard  nature  as  becoming  self- 
conscious — i.e.  as  revealing  its  secret  meaning  only 
to  and  //(  man  ;  and  we  must  lind  the  key  to  the 
secret  of  man's  nature  in  the  highest  energies  of 
his  moral  and  intellectual  life. 

Finally,  in  attempting  to  work  out  this  idea  of 
evolution  Hegel  teaches  us  to  regard  it  a.s  a 
progress  hi/  aiitiif/onisin.  While,  therefore,  there  is 
a  unity  of  principle  in  all  things  that  exist,  yet,  in 
order  to  develop,  this  ])rinciple  must  differentiate 
itself,  must  manifest  itself  in  different  foinis,  and 
these  forms  must  inevitably  come  into  contlict  with 
each  other.  In  truth,  however,  the  forms  which  ha\e 
thus  come  to  be  opposed  are  really  complementary 
or  necessary  to  each  other,  and  therefore  their  con- 
flict is  linuted  by  the  unity  which  they  express, 
and  which  ultimately  must  subordinate  them  all  to 
itself.  This  idea  may  be  most  easily  illustrateil  by 
reference  to  the  uiuty  of  the  social  organism,  which 
manifests  itself  in  a  ilivision  of  labour  between 
its  members.  In  developing  their  ]>owers  the.se 
members  are  brought  into  antagonism  with  each 
other ;  but  if  their  contlict  and  competition  is  not 
to  destroy  the  societ.v,  it  must  be  subordinated  to 
their  co-operation.  That  the  organic  unity  of  the 
society  should  maintain  itself  means,  therefore,  that 
there  should  be  such  community  between  its 
members  that  all  their  conflict  and  competition 
should  only  lead  to  a  better  distribution  of  functions 
between  them,  and  should  thus  contrilmte  to 
direct  and  improve  the  life  of  the  society  as  a 
whole.  This  illustration  may  give  some  clue  to 
the  principle  which  Hegel  works  out  in  application 
to  all  spheres  of  the  life  of  nature  and  of  man.  t»n 
it  is  based  Hegel's  ultimate  division  of  philoso[phy 
into  the  three  departments — logic,  or  the  science 
of  thought  in  its  pure  unity  with  itself  :  the  |>hilo- 
sophy  of  nature,  in  which  the  ideal  principle,  which 
is  supposed  to  exist  in  all  things,  is  shown  to  under- 
lie even  the  externality  of  the  material  world  ;  and 
the  philosopliy  of  spirit — i.e.  of  the  life  of  man  as 
a  .self-conscious  being,  standing  in  relation  to  a 
material  world,  which  seems  to  be  altogether 
external  to  him,  and  yet  subordinating  it  to  his 
own  life.  But  these  words  are  the  indication  of 
ideas  which  it  would  take  many  pages  fully  to 
explain. 

Heiiel's  collected  works,  edited  by  a  number  of  friends 
and  disciples,  appeared  after  his  death  in  18  vols.  (1832- 
4.5).  On  Ids  life  and  pliUosopliy,  see  Rosenkranz,  Htyeh 
Leben  (1844),  Apolof/ie  Ht'fieh  (1858),  and  Heyel  cUs 
De'itschcr  NatioiuUpkUosopk  (1870);  Hayui,  H&jel  und 
seine  Zi:it  (18.57);  KiistUn,  Hnirl  (1870);  the  histories 
of  this  period  of  German  philosophy  by  Micbelet  (1838), 
(Jhalybiius  (5th  ed.  1800),  and  especially  Enhnann  (vol. 
iii.  184tS-53)  ;  Hutchison  Stirling,  Secret  of  Her/el  (2  vols. 
1805);  Wallace,  translation  of  the  Lo'jic  from  the  En- 
Cjidopddie^  witli  prolegomena  (1874) ;  E.  Caird,  Heijel 
(in  'Philos.  Classics'  series,  1883);  Setli,  The  Iferelop- 
ineiit  front  Kiint  to  HeijeJ  (1882);  HeijeVs  ^-Esthetic,  by 
Kedncy.  He'iel's  Loijic,  by  W.  T.  Harris,  ffiocfx  I'hiln- 
sofj/if/  of  Rtliijion^  l)y  A.  M,  Fairbairn,  H';ief*:<  Fhiloxophii 
of  History  and  the  State,  by  G.  S.  Morris  (Chicago, 
1880-90).  There  are  translations  of  Hegel's  Philosophy 
of  History,  by  Sibree  (1857  I,  of  tlie  Philosophy  of  liiijht, 
liy  Dyde,  of  the  Philoso/Jiy  of  Art,  by  Hastie  and  by 
Bosanquet,  of  the  Philosofihy  of  Jietiition,  by  Speirs  and 
Sanderson,  and  of  the  History  of  Philosophy  (3  vols. 
1892-»;),  by  Miss  Haldane. 

At  the  time  of  Hegel's  death  his  philosophy  was 
dominant  in  Germany  ;  and  at  tliat  time  there  seemed 
to  be  a  consensus  among  his  pupils  as  to  its  inteqiretation. 


But  division  soon  arose  between  those  who,  following 
the  ap]iarent  tendency  of  their  master,  interpreted  the 
principles  of  Hegelian  philosophy  in  an  orthodo.\  and 
conservative  spirit,  and  those  who  emphasised  its  nega- 
tive dialectic,  and  used  it  as  a  weapon  of  attack  against 
the  existing  order  of  church  and  state.  After  the  appear- 
ance of  Strauss's  Leheii  Jesu  (1835)  the  school  may  \k 
regarded  as  having  broken  up  into  "Old  Hegelian.%'  or 
'the  Kight '— Hotho,  Gabler,  Erdniaim,  Daub,  Marhein- 
eke,  Goschel ;  '  the  Centre  ' — Kosenkranz,  Oans,  Vatke, 
Conradi;  and  'the  Left,'  the  'Young  Hegelians'— 
Strauss,  Michelet,  Feuerbach,  Bruno  Bauer.  Huge,  Karl 
Marx — of  whom  some  even  maintained  that  the  legiti- 
mate development  of  the  philoso|diy  was  found  in 
atheism,  materialism,  antl  communism.  Tlie  result  of 
these  controversies  was  tliat  the  Hegelians  almost  ceased 
to  exist  as  a  definite  school ;  but  the  ideas  of  Hegel  still 
retain  their  power,  and  form  one  of  the  must  important 
elements  in  modern  culture.  Many  who  cannot  be 
regarded  as  in  any  strict  .sen>e  Hegelian^  have  owed 
their  main  philosophic  stimulus  to  Hegel — such  as  F. 
C.  Baur,  Schwegler.  Zeller,  Kuno  Fischer ;  and  the  so- 
called  '  itseudo-Hegelians ' — I.  H.  Fichte,  \Vei.sse,  Chaly- 
biius.  Ulrici,  Carriere.  Hegeliaiiism  is  the  most  import- 
ant element  in  the  philosophy  of  the  popular  pes&imist 
Von  Hartmann.  Out  of  Uennany,  Hegeliaiiisui  is  re- 
presented more  or  less  directly  by  Heiberg  and  Martensen 
in  Denmark  ;  in  France,  by  Leroux,  Prevost,  and  otliers  ; 
in  Italy,  by  Vera  and  Mariano;  in  Britam,  by  Hutchis^jn 
Stirling,  J.  Caird,  E.  Caird,  Wallace,  Green,  and  Bi-adley  ; 
in  America,  by  W.  T.  Harris  and  others. — Hegel's  eldest 
son,  Karl  (born  1813),  became  distinguished  as  an  his- 
torian, and  was  professor  of  History  successively  at 
Rostock  and  Erlangen. — Another  son,  Immanuel  ( 1814- 
91 ),  helcl  high  administrative  offices  under  the  Prussian 
government,  and  was  leader  of  the  Conservative  and 
High  Chuixh  pai"ty. 

Hegesippil.S,  the  earliest  of  the  Cliiisiiaii 
church  historians ;  of  his  life  we  know  nothing 
save  that  he  was  almost  certainly  a  Jewish  coinert 
and  that  he  tlourislied  about  the  middle  of  the  2il 
century.  Fnun  a  statement  of  his  own,  preserved 
in  Eu.sebius  (iv.  22),  we  learn  that  he  made  a  jour- 
ney to  Rome,  vLsiting  Corinth  u]>oii  the  way.  and 
when  at  Koine  compiled  a  list  of  the  bislK)ps  of 
the  Koman  see  down  to  Auicetus  ( ISti-tiT  .v. D. ). 
Further,  he  is  represented  a-s  aildiiig  '  to  Anicetus 
succeeds  Soter ;  and  to  Soter,  Eleutlierus '  (175- 
89).  Hegesippus  must  thus  have  written  most  of 
his  history  previous  to  107  .\.L).,  and  he  most  luob- 
ably  jmblished  it  early  in  the  episcopate  of  Eleu- 
tlierus. This  agrees  well  with  the  statement  of  .St 
Jerome  that  Hegesippus  bad  bordered  on  the 
apostolic  age  {viriHan  ajioslo/icori(iii  tcnipontm  j, 
for  if  born  .so  early  as  1'20  he  came  very  near  the 
age  of  St  .lolin.  His  work  was  entitled  Fire 
Memorials  of  Kcclesiasticul  Affairs,  and  appears 
not  to  have  been  a,  complete  and  continuous  his- 
tory, although  extending  from  the  death  of  Christ 
to  tlie  writer's  own  age.  Inhappily  it  survives 
only  in  a  few  fragincnts  which  Eusebius  had  em- 
bodied in  his  own  liistory,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  his  account  of  the  martyrilom  of  St 
James  and  also  of  St  Simeon  of  Jerusalem.  Euse- 
bius commends  his  doctrinal  hdelity,  and  St  Jerome 
the  simplicity  and  unpretentiousne.ss  of  his  style. 
The  (]uesti(in  luis  been  much  discussetl  whether 
Hegesippus  belonged  to  the  .Imlaising  Christian 
jiarty  or  not.  Baur  went  so  far  as  to  pronounce 
him  a  declared  enemy  to  St  Paul,  relying  mainly 
upon  a  pas.sage  preserved  in  I'hotius,  in  which 
Hegesippus  <leclares  that  an  opinion  of  niany, 
corresponding  exactly  to  what  is  said  in  I  Cor. 
ii.  9,  is  contradictory  to  the  express  word  of  the 
Lord  him.self  in  Matt.  xiii.  10.  But  it  is  much  more 
likely  that  Hegesippus  is  here  aiming  at  the  ( Jnostic 
misconception  of  these  words  rather  than  that  of 
St  Paul,  for  the  reference  is  obviously  to  tlieir 
claims  to  special  spiritual  insight;  while  a  further 
pa.s.sage  nreserveil,  u.sed  by  the  Tiibiiigen  sclioid  to 
fortify  their  inference — viz.   that  those  who  «ere 


622 


HEGIRA 


HKILSBKONN 


1 


tn  iiiX  l"  ilfstiDV  (lie  soiiiul  rule  of  saviuy  tluctrino 
lis  \  rt  liici  tliemselve.s  in  holes  of  (larkiiew  —can  liy 
no  |iossil)ility  he  un(ler!<t<«Kl  lis  a  referenee  to  the 
feailess  am)  vehement  apostle  of  the  (lenliles. 

TIiu  fra^nents  uf  Hcgesippus  will  W*  found  in  vol.  i.  of 
Koiith's  /WKyHiVe  Sacnc  (1S47),  ami  in  vol.  ii.  of  Grabe's 

ll('Kil"U  Hl':.JIi.\,  or  Hi.iu.v  ( an  .Vrah  wonl  H-liieh 
ineiuis  •  •,'(iin',' away ').  the  term  commonly  n.seil  to 
inilieate  .Mohainmeirs  lli^'ht  from  Mecca,  With  Sep- 
t.-Miher  (i-i-i  .\.1>.  In  tiSQ  or  t>40  the  Talif  dmar 
in--tituteil  a  new  Moslem  ealenilar,  to  lie^'in  with 
the  lii^it  (lay  of  the  lirst  month  of  the  year  in  which 
the  lli;;lit  took  plai-e.  The  .Molianimeilan  year,  ius 
a  Innar  year,  is  shorter  than  oui-s  hy  10  days,  21 
lionrs,  anil  143  secomls.  A  riin;,'h  ami  reaily 
niethml  for  lindiii},'  the  year  in  our  I'alcMilar  corre- 
sponilin^'  to  a  fjiven  year  in  the  .MohaMMiicdan  is  to 
suhtraet  from  the  latter  ,',  of  itself  and  add  622 
to  the  renniinder.  To  lind  the  precise  year  and 
ilay,  ninltiply  the  year  of  the  Ilejiira  hy  970224, 
strike  otlfnini  the  proilnct  six  decimal  lij^ures,  and 
add  ()2r.')774 ;  this  will  jjive  the  year  of  the 
<'hrislian  era;  and  the  day  of  the  year  i.s  "^ot  liy 
ninltiply inx  the  ilecinial  lij;ures  liy  .'iG.'). 

ll«'ilM'ru.  till'  nanii!  of  two  Danish  authors. 
Sci.  1)i:n.m.vi;k,  Vol.  111.  p.  759. 

Ill'ide,  the  chief  town  of  northern  Ditmarsh, 
in  ihr  Prussian  province  of  Sleswickllolstein,  oS 
miles  liy  rail  \VS\V.  of  Kiel.  Chief  inilnstries  are 
slioeniakin^,'.  paper  niakinj;,  and  hrewin;;.  Heitle 
is  the  liirthphice  of  Klaus  tiroth.      I'op.  ~',ii}5. 

lll'UlellX'I'if,  an  ancient  <-ity  of  Ormany,  iti 
the  j^randiliichy  of  liailen,  extends  for  about  ;i 
miles  alon;,'  the  left  hank  of  the  river  Xeckar,  in 
one  of  the  most  heantifnl  districts  in  tin;  country, 
1.'!  miles  hy  rail  SK.  of  Mannheim  anil  .")4  S.  of 
I'rankfort-onthe-.Main.  It  lie.s  .'WO  feet  aliove  sea- 
level,  at  the  l)a.se  of  the  Kiinigsstuhl  (1863  feet). 
.Anionj;  it.s  most  important  hnildiiif,'*  are  the 
•  ■hurcli  of  the  Ifcdy  (Ihost,  ii  splendid  ex.'imple  of 
l.ate  (iothic  .inhitecture,  in  which  scrvici^  accord- 
ing' to  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  rituals  is  simul- 
taneously carried  on  ;  the  chuich  of  St  I'eter's. 
on  the  door  of  which  .Jerome  of  I'ia;;ue  nailed  his 
cclehrated  t/ii:.\i:i ;  .iinl  the  ina;,'Hilicent  ruins  of  the 
ejustle,  which  stand  on  a  hill  .S.'?l)  feet  ahove  the 
town.  Hej;un  at  the  close  of  the  l.Sth  century,  and 
adiled  to  in  1410,  l.V)9,  ami  1607,  it  w;us  formerly 
the  residence  of  the  Electors  Palatine,  .and  was  in 
^'reat  part  destroyed  hy  the  French  in  KiSiland  H!93, 
and  further  injured  hy  li^rhtnin;;  in  1764.  In  the 
cellar  under  the  castle  is  the  famous  Heiilelher;; 
Tun,  once  capable  of  containing  ."iO,IKlO  gallons  of 
wine,  lleidelhcr^  is  celelirated  for  its  university, 
which  was  founded  by  the  Electfir  Kiipert  I.  in  13S6, 
and  continued  to  tlourish  until  the  period  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  when  it  be^'an  to  ilecline.  In 
|N02,  however,  when  the  town  with  the  surround- 
itifj;  territm-y  was  a.ssij;ned  to  the  (irand-duke  of 
Itaden,  a  new  era  commenced  for  the  university, 
and  it  rapidly  l)ecaiiie  famous.  It  comprises 
faculti&s  of  tlie<do^'y,  law,  medicine,  ami  philo- 
sophy, has  about  110  )>rofessors  and  lecturers, 
and  is  attended  by  abont  SIM)  stuilcnts.  Its  librarv 
consists  of  some  .JIX),000  volumes  and  4700  .MSS. 
Many  of  the  most  f.inioiis  (ierman  scholars  h.ave 
been  profe.s,sors  here — Reuehlin,  (Ecolampadins, 
Sp.inheim,  Puflenilorf,  Voss,  Schlos.ser,  Creuzer, 
( iervinus.  Paulus,  Kuno  Kischer,  Helniholt/. 
P.unsen.  Hliintschli,  \c.  The  (|uincentenar\'  of 
the  university  w;is  celebrateil  with  elaborate 
ceremonial  in  1H«6.  Heidelber;;,  orifnnally  an 
appana^'e  of  the  bishopric  of  Worms,  became  in 
the  end  of  the  12th  century  the  seat  of  the  Counts 
P.ilatine,  and  continued  to  be  so  for  nearly  six 
centuries.      After  the   Heforniation   Heidelber"  was 


lonj;  the  lieadi|uarters  of  (Ierman  Calvinism,  and 
^ave  its  name  to  a  famous  Calvinistic  Catechism 
(<|.v.).  The  trade  is  cliielly  in  books,  tobacco, 
beer,  and  wine.  The  town  sutlered  much  during 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  wa.s  sava^'ely  treated  by 
the  Frencli  in  I6.S9,  and  wius  in  169.'{  almost  tot.Jly 
destroyed  by  them.  Pop.  (  1S71  )  I9,9S«;  (  I.S90) 
.')1,739,  of  whom  a  thiiil  ai'*  Catholics  and  .about 
H(K)  .lews.  See  winks  by  tlncken  (.'td  cd.  IH85), 
Drum  (1884),  and  Tliorbecke  (1886);  also  T/ic 
<'iiitiir<i  Muijiiziiic,  August  1880. 

IlcifflltS  nniy  be  iletermined  by  four  methods  : 
by  Tii;,'onometry  (ipv.),  by  lA-vidlin;;  ('(.v.),  by 
.•iscertainin;;  ami  comparing;  the  atmospheric  pres- 
sure at  top  and  bottom  of  the  liei;;lit  by  the  IJaro- 
ineter  ((|.v.),  or  by  asccrtaininj;  anil  comparing'  the 
boilin^'poiiit  of  water  at  the  top  and  bottom  by 
the  Thcniicinieter  (i|.v.).     See  also  St'KVEYiNi:. 

Iloijn.  <u-  Hkvx,  Piet,  a  famous  Dutch 
admiial,  was  born  in  1570  at  Delftshaven,  near 
i'ottcrdam.  After  an  adventurous  career,  he 
became  vice-admiral  under  the  Dutch  K.ast  India 
Company.  In  1624  he  sailed  to  South  America 
ami  defeated  the  Sjianianls  near  San  Salv.olor 
(Brazil),  and  a^;ain  in  l(i26  in  .All  Saints'  liay 
(Bahia),  when  he  toidc  .above  twenty  of  their  ships, 
returniii;,'  to  Holland  with  an  innneiise  booty. 
Two  years  later  he  captured  the  Spanish  silver 
tlotilla,  the  value  of  which  was  estimated  at 
16,00(J,(KM)  Dutch  <;uilders.  As  a  rewaid  for  this 
success  he  was  in  1629  named  .-Vdmiral  of  Holland. 
()n20tli  August  of  the  same  year  he  met  his  death 
in  !i  sea-liglit  ajj;ainst  the  ]iri\atccis  of  Dunkirk 
oil' that  town.  .\  marble  motnimcnt  is  erected  to 
his  mi'iiiory  in  the  old  chvirch  at  Delft. 

ll4>ilbroniK  a  town  of  WiirtemberK,  situated 
on  the  ri;,dil  bank  of  the  Xeckar.  in  a  beautiful 
and  fei  tile  rej.'ion,  28  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Stutt;;art. 
The  streets  of  the  old  medieval  town  are  narrow, 
and  the  houses  have  quaintly  ornamented  gable- 
ends  and  tapering  pinnacles.  The  church  of  St 
Kilian,  partly  (lotliic  and  partly  Kenais.sance ;  the 
old  town-hall;  the  /^/i/wMi/chi  (' Thief's  Tower'), 
in  which  Gritz  von  lierlichingen  wa.s  conlined  ;  and 
the  liou.se  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  now  a  barrack, 
are  the  principal  buildings.  The  chief  industries 
include  the  niaiiuf;ictnre  of  silver-plate,  paper, 
sugar,  salt,  chicory,  and  chemicals,  and  there  are 
irou  anil  other  metal  fonndries  and  macliine-shops. 
Kruit  and  wine  arc  largely  grown.  Commercially 
the  importauceof  Heilbronn  rlepcnds  u]pon  its  tr.aile 
in  groceries,  corn,  and  wood,  and  upon  its  fairs  for 
cattle,  leather,  wool,  and  fruit.  In  the  vicinity 
gypsum  and  sandstone  are  (|uarried.  Heilbronn 
is  lirst  mentioned  in  741  ;  in  1.360  it  became  an 
imperial  town;  it  suHeied  during  the  Pe.isants' 
A\'ar  :inil  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  in  1802  it 
fell  into  the  hands  "of  Wiirteuiherg.  Pop.  ^1S75) 
21,2(W:  (1890)  29,941. 

Heiligoiistadt.  a  Catholic  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  situated  on  the  Leine,  32  miles  EXE.  of 
Cas-sel  by  rail,  has  manufactures  of  cotton,  cigars, 
Jiaper,  and  ]iiiis.      Pop.  5861. 

Ileilsbcr;:.  a  town  of  Pm.ssia,  40  miles  S.  of 
Konigsberg.  It  w.-i-s  originally  the  chief  town 
of  Ermeland,  one  of  the  old  divisions  of  Poland, 
and  received  town  rights  in  1.308.  Here  the  allied 
Kussians  and  Prussians  under  Hennigsen  defeated 
the  French  under  Soult  and  Murat  on  lOtli  June 
1807.      Pop.  5705. 

Ileilsbroiin.  a  Bavaiian  village  of  middle 
Franconia,  16  miles  SW.  of  X'urembcrg  by  rail,  was 
the  seat  of  a  celebrated  Cistercian  niona.ster>',  ; 
which  owed  its  origin  to  Bishop  Otlio  of  Bamberg 
in  11.32.  Nearly  all  the  burgTaves  of  Xuremlierg 
were  buried  here  till  the  eml  of  the  15tli  century, 


HEIMSKRINGLA 


HEINE 


623 


wlieii  it  lieeaine  the  Imiialpluee  of  the  Franconian 
l)iaiioh  of  the  Hohenzolleriis.  Although  the  iiion- 
Jisterv  was  suppressed  in  1555,  the  churcli  still 
retains  a  large  number  of  highly-interesting  sepul- 
chral monuments  and  other  examples  of  medieval 
<ierman  art.  See  works  hy  Stillfrieil  (1877)  and 
Mm-k  (.-{  vols.  1S79-S0). 

Iloiniskriiigla.    See  Sxorri  Sturl.vsox. 

lI^ilK'.  Hkinrich,  the  most  prominent  figure 
in  lierman  literature  since  Goetlie  and  Schiller, 
wa^  Ijorn  of  Jewish  parents  on  IStli  December 
I7!I7,  in  Diisseldorfon  Kliiiie.  His  boyish  heroes 
were  Napoleon  and  Napoleons  stalwart  grenailiers 
and  drummers.  At  a  Koiiian  Catholic  school  in 
Diisseldorf  he  learned  what  it  was  to  be  jeered  at 
and  ill-treated  on  account  of  his  race  and  creed. 
.\t  sixteen  he  was  sent  to  Frankfort  to  learn  bank- 
ing, but  he  soon  gave  it  up ;  routine  work  was 
wholly  re|iugnaut  to  him.  S'ext  he  tried  trading 
on  his  own  account  in  Hamburg,  but  soon  failed. 
.\l)out  the  same  time  he  fell  in  love  with  a  daughter 
of  his  rich  uncle,  Solomon  Heine  of  Hamburg  ;  and 
his  grief  at  her  non-requital  of  his  passion,  jealously 
nursed  as  it  was,  formed  a  stimulus  to  poetic  crea- 
tion. At  length  in  1819  liis  uncle  gratified  the 
desire  of  his  heart  by  sending  him  to  tlie  viniversity 
of  Bonn.  There,  and  subsequently  at  Berlin  and 
(Jiittingen,  he  studied  law,  taking  his  doctor's  de- 
gree at  ( Jottingen  in  1S25.  But  his  thoughts  were 
more  given  to  poetri'  and  kindred  subjects  than 
to  legal  studies.  At  Bonn  A.  W.  Schlegel  helpeil 
him  to  master  the  technique  of  his  art.  At 
Berlin,  in  the  circle  over  which  Rahel,  the  wife  of 
\  arnliagen  von  Ense,  presided,  he  found  himself 
for  the  lirst  time  in  a  wholly  congenial  atmosphere  : 
and  the  close  friendship  formed  between  them 
lasted  till  Kahel's  death.  In  the  ettbrts  then  being 
made  in  Berlin  by  Ganz  and  othei-s  to  inspire  the 
.lews  with  a  sense  of  the  value  of  European  culture 
Heine  also  took  an  active  share.  In  1S21  he  ])ub- 
lished  hLs  first  volume  of  Oeclichte,  which  at  once 
arrested  the  attention  of  the  observant.  After 
unsuccessful  essays  in  tragedy-writing,  a  second 
collection  of  poems,  eutitleil  Li/risches  Iiitermezzu, 
his  Sapphic  love-plaint,  ai>peared  in  1823.  But 
the  general  public  only  became  aware  that  a  new 
writer  of  the  first  magnitude  had  risen  in  the 
heavens  of  literature  when  in  I8"2(>-27  the  lii-st  ami 
second  volumes  of  the  Hii.srljilder  came  into  their 
hands,  in  the  latter  year  Heine  likewise  celebrated 
his  triumph  as  conqueror  of  a  new  poetic  province 
in  Uris  Buck  (ler  Lieder,  which,  though  consisting 
almost  entirely  of  poems  already  published,  created 
throughout  ( Germany  such  excitement  as  had  not 
liceii  since  Schiller's  Kintber  came  (mt.  .Many  of 
Heine's  Ijcst  songs  are  as  much  loved  for  the 
beautiful  melodies  to  which  they  were  sot  by 
Schumann  and  Mendelssohn  as  for  their  own  in- 
trinsic merit. 

These  two  works  are  Heine's  masterpieces  ;  he 
never  wrote  anything  to  excel  them.  Nearly  all 
his  writings  are  of  an  occasional  nature,  either 
lyrical,  or  autobiographical,  or  journalistic,  or 
poleiiiical.  But  the  genius  in  them  is  permanent, 
and  in  many  respects  of  the  highest  quality.  The 
great  charm  of  his  Avork  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
he  w.os  a  sunerb  literary  artist,  a  consummate 
nuister  of  style  in  both  \ei-se  and  prose.  He  was 
essentially  a  lyrist  :  his  song  has  the  spontaneity 
and  melody  of  a  skylark's  burst,  or  the  quaint 
naivete,  the  pathos,  the  simple  sweetness  of  the 
l)est  Vulkslicder.  His  wii-s  a  very  complex  and 
paradoxical  nature :  he  united  in  himself  the 
passionate  energy  of  a  Hebrew  prophet,  the  sensu- 
ous feeling  of  a  pagan  Greek,  aad  the  dreamy 
sentimentalism  of  a  meilieval  Gerni,an.  The  siui- 
lilicrty  of  a  pure  child  of  nature  is  blended  with 


the  keenest  wit,  with  an  irony  that  is  apt  to 
grow  bitterest  when  his  lyric  nmwl  is  sweetest, 
and  a  power  of  mocking  sarcasm  that  cuts  sliarjj 
and  deep.  His  mastery  in  the  art  of  self-torture 
taught  him  how  to  lash  the  follies  and  absurdities 
of  the  conventional  world  with  the  roughest  raw- 
liide  of  Mephistoi>helean  scorn.  HLs  writing  is  full 
of  surjirises,  as  capricious  as  the  sea  he  loved  so 
I>a.ssionately.  His  intellect  has  the  supplene.ss 
and  grace  and  sinewy  strength  of  a  highly-trained 
athlete,  but  it  neither  walks  nor  glides ;  it  leai>s, 
and  turns  and  doubles  with  the  glancing  swiftne.ss 
of  a  swallow  on  wing.  He  pa.sse.s  from  exquisite 
tenderness  to  sardonic  cynicism,  from  melancholy 
satlness  to  sly  insidious  humour,  in  the  twinkling 
of  an  eye.  Nor  is  sweet  dreamy  sentiment  in  him 
any  hindiance  to  remarkable  precision  of  thought. 
But  ])erhaps  his  strangest  quality  is  an  audacity 
of  intellect  that  hesitates  at  no  utterance,  that 
recoils  from  no  jest  on  things  even  the  most  sacred. 
His  language  Ls  terse,  clear,  and  rich  in  wor<l- 
pictures,  mostly  original,  seldom  glittering  with  the 
tinsel  of  mere  conventional  irnageiy.  One  of  his 
favourite  devices  is  to  mingle  the  images  of  dream- 
land, unearthly  and  weird,  with  images  of  tnie 
]ioetic  beavity  forged  from  the  r.aw  cue  of  commonest 
reality.  But,  notwithstanding  his  delicate  poetic 
sensibility,  and  the  depth  and  sincerity  of  his 
feeling,  liis  poetry  had  its  origin  in  di.-sonance 
of  soul ;  the  Weltschmerz  had  eaten  deeply  into 
his  heart.  The  prophet  of  poetic  jiain,  he 
scruples  not  to  lay  bare  liLs  soul  to  us  without 
reserie  ;  we  .see  the  man  jnst  as  he  is,  with  all  his 
beauties,  \vith  all  his  faults.  And  these  last  are 
neither  few  nor  venial.  His  sensuousne.ss  often 
degenerates  into  obs(!enlty  and  coarseness,  his  wit 
into  vulgarity  and  attectation,  his  irony  into  malice 
and  pereiflage.  He  becomes  cynical,  frivolous,  a 
mocker.  Not  only  does  he  sliow  no  sense  of  rever- 
ence himself,  he  wantonly  outrages  the  revtient 
feelings  of  his  readers.  And  he  has  just  'feminity' 
enough  in  his  constitution  to  find  pleasure  in 
spiteful  pei'sonalities. 

In  June  1S25  he  had  himself  ba])tised  a  Christian, 
exchanging  his  original  name  Harry  for  Christian 
Joliann  Heinrich,  though  he  used  only  the  hu-t 
of  the  three.  This  steji,  which  proved  to  be  one  of 
the  most  unfortunate  of  his  life,  was  not  taken 
from  conviction,  but  simply  to  secure  for  himself 
the  common  rights  of  German  citizenship,  ami  to 
give  himself  a  respectable  standing  in  tiie  world. 
Heine,  however,  by  this  act  only  alienated  from 
him  the  esteem  of  the  orthodox  among  his  own 
peo[)le.  His  revolutionary  opinions,  and  his  tren- 
chant and  (mtspoken  criticism  of  the  governments 
of  the  day,  always  remained  insu|)erable  hindrances 
to  his  appointment  to  any  orticial  cmi)loymcnt  in 
Prussia,  and  even  in  Germany.  During  the  yeai"s 
of  early  manhood,  from  1823  onwards,  he  w,i.s 
racked  by  excruciating  headaches,  which  reacted 
upon  his  temper  and  liis  mood.  Then  ajjain,  he 
lived  on  a  strained  footing  with  his  Hamburg 
relatives;  they  were  shrewd  bu-iiness  folk,  and 
could  see  no  virtue  in  poetship,  and  nothing 
'divine'  in  the  poet  himself — and  Heine  was  in- 
clined to  presume  upon  his  success.  He  «;is 
always  greatly  hara-ssed  by  the  unscriii)ulous 
tyranny  of  the  |)ublic  censor :  his  wmks  came 
from  the  press  grievously  maltreated,  and  against 
this  injustice  he  could  get  no  remedy.  .More 
over,  he  felt  himself  coming  perilously  near  to 
the  doors  of  a  German  fortress-prison.  No  woniler 
then  that,  when  his  enthusiasm  nv.ts  louseil  by  the 
July  revolution  in  Paris,  he  turned  his  back  upon 
Germany  and  hastened  thither,  going  into  ■.; 
voluntaiy  exile  from  which  he  never  returned. 
But  he  had  not  been  altogether  idle  during  the 
six  unhappy  years  since   18'25.     He  had  travelle<l 


624 


HEINE 


!  iiersi'cutud  peuple 
Nor  was    this    l)V 


to  Kii;;liiii<l  itiiil  Italy  :  lie  liuU  woiki-il  uii  tlie 
eilituiial  >luti'  of  Cuttu's  uewspuiwi-s  in  Idivaria : 
uikI,  Uesiilus  Ihi.s  UinK  tier  Lmler,  lie  wrote  tour 
voliiiiifs  ill  all  uf  Die  lieUebililci;  llie  la«t  two 
( IS.'!0-:il ),  liuwever,  inferior  to  tlie  otliei-s. 

In  l'aii>  llfiiu-,  wliosi-  inlellei-liial  cliiiiiicler 
uml  iiili'lleitiial  >\  iii|>atliie»  wi'ie  always  more 
French  tliaii  (ieriiian,  Mion  iiiiule  liiin:self  at  lioiiie. 
He  secured  a  patron  in  the  minister  Tliiei>,  ami 
consorteil  with  the  jrreatest  writers  ami  chief 
celeliiitics  then  livinj,'  in  Paris  ;  aiiJ  yet  he  often 
loiij;e<l  lo  return  to  the  I'hilistiiies  of  lu-riiiany. 
For,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  ho  railcil  at  liis.lcwish 
•lescent  ami  poured  scorn  upon   his  tieruian  coni- 

1>atriots,  he  wius  always  a  tierinan  at  heart  ami 
latl  a  secret  ailiiiiralion  for  the 
from  whom  he  »a.s  sprun 
any  means  the  only  inccmsistency  in  his  nature. 
Though  he  scoffed  at  ieli;,'ion,  yet  was  there  a 
deeply  reli;,'ious  vein  in  his  composition — the  IJilile 
Wiis  always  a  favourite  book  with  him  ;  though 
he  was  deploraUly  lax  in  his  ideas  and  practices 
of  morality,  he  wius  not  insensihle  to  the  heauty 
i)f  ))iirity  ;  and  thou^'h  he  ridiculed  the  vaiiaries  of 
the  romantic  school,  he  cherished  a.  lingering  fond- 
ness for  its  ideals. 

The  .inly  revolution  seems  to  have  awakened  in 
Heine  the  lirst  slirrinjjs  of  manly  seriousness.  He 
turncil  from  (loetry  to  politics,  with  which  he  hail 
always  co<iuetted  ever  since  he  bejjaii  to  write. 
He  eutereii  Paris  ^'owinj;  with  the  inspiration  of 
the  revolution.  He  assumeil  the  role  ol  a  tribune 
of  the  people,  a  leader  of  the  cosmopolitan  demo- 
cratic movement,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
etl'ect  the  union  of  the  peoples  of  all  nations  in  a 
brotherliood  of  liberty  and  pro;;iess.  It  Wius  under 
the  inspiration  of  this  ideal  that  he  •,'reeted  with 
acclamation  the  socialistic  doctrines  of  the  ht 
.Simonists,  at  all  events  in  so  far  ivs  economics 
and  reli^'ion  were  concenied.  Uiie  of  the  chief 
aims  of  his  life  wa-s  to  make  the  French  and  the 
Cierinaiis  ac<|iiaiiited  with  one  another's  intellectual 
ami  artistic  achievements.  This  was  the  jtronml 
out  of  which  sprang'  the  Franzuxisikc  Zii.stain/c 
(IM38I,  a  collectiim  of  papers  on  atlairs  in  France, 
first  printed  in  the  .1  iir/il/iinur  Altrfemeiiic  Zcitinnj  : 
Ui:  I  AlUinuijHe  (1S3.5),  the  French  version  of  />«: 
Ronutntixclic  Schiilc  (ISW) — of  Germany,  that  is; 
and  P/ti/u!io/>hie  uml  Lilciutiir  in  iJenturlilniiil, 
forminj,'  |>art  of  the  secoiul  of  the  four  volumes  of 
iiilscellancous  writinffs  entitled  Der  Salon  ( IS-'J-V 
40).  Heine  was  always  an  Islimael,  not  only  of 
literature  but  also  of  ])olitics — he  would  lijjht 
under  noliody's  Hag  but  his  own  ;  and  hence,  with 
his  aristocratic  instincts  and  relined  taste,  he 
refuseil  to  make  common  caii.se  with  the  revolu- 
tionary fugitives  from  Germany  who  found  an 
a.syluiii  in  Paris.  Yet  he  seems  not  to  have  been 
altogether  alnive  the  suspicion,  if  not  of  insincerity, 
at  least  of  desiring  to  win  the  crown  of  the 
political  martyr  witliout  undergoing  the  pains  of 
political  martyrdom.  At  all  events,  his  ambigu- 
ous attitude  brought  dowu  upon  him  the  spiteful 
enmity  of  his  revolutionary  compatriots  ;  and  their 
hostility  was  greatly  embittered  by  the  publica- 
tion of  Heine's  ungenerous  attack  upon  his  former 
friend  and  political  as.sociate  Borne  (1840).  Nor 
did  he  enjoy  any  lietter  savour  of  grace  from  the 
governments  of  (ierinany  because  of  his  personal 
aversion  to  their  dreaded  enemies.  In  IS.3.1  his 
writings,  past  and  prospective  together,  had  Iweii 
condemned,  along  with  tliose  of  the  Young  (iermany 
school,  by  the  I'onfeileration  parliament  at  Frank- 
fort, antl  this  measure  was  not  repealed  until 
1842. 

Although  Heine  loved  liberty  with  lii.s  whole 
soul,  anil  lived  and  suffered  for  it,  it  seems  never 
to    have    lieen    anvthing    more    to    him    than     a 


romantic  ideal.  The  truth  is  he  slooil  on  the  con- 
tinental watershed  of  two  wholly  dillerent  WilUtii- 
si'liiiitninjen  ('world-conceptions'),  the  old  world  of 
romantic  feudalism  and  the  new  world  of  scientilic 
im|uiry  and  imiividiial  freedom.  He  had  nothing 
but  scorn  for  the  tyrannous  era  of  prieslcralt  and 
aristocracy,  and  nothing  Inn  sarcasm  and  ridicule 
for  the  inert  ma-ss  of  commoiiiilaee  Philistines,  with 
their  intellectual  apathy  and  self-sjitislicil  .somno- 
lence, liespecliug  the  future  he  cherished  the  most 
.sanguine  hopes.  He  foresaw  in  iiiia;:inatioii  the 
glorious  regeneration  of  the  peoples;  and  (teniiany 
was,  he  believed,  the  agent  of  pnuiii.se  destined  to 
ellect  this  great  change.  Nor  must  it  be  imputed 
to  bini  for  blame  that  he  never  graspeil  the  problem 
of  the  practical  realisation  of  his  ideal,  that  lie 
never  thought  of  the  means  and  forms  by  and  in 
which  this  ronianticisiii  of  the  revolution  of  pro- 
gress wiis  to  be  converted  into  the  concrete  realism 
of  accomplished  fact.  For,  though  he  criticised 
the  jiast  and  iirojecleil  his  hopes  into  the  future, 
his  heart  was  knit  to  the  past  with  the  tendeicst 
iussociations  of  feeling,  and  his  scejitical  intellect 
would  not  allow  him  to  remain  blind  to  the  iiii|ier- 
fections  of  his  |)rospicient  dreams.  It  need  not 
therefore  e.xcite  surprise  to  lind  traces  of  the  seiiti- 
luental  declaiiiier  in  Heine's  warsong  of  liberty, 
despite  his  evident  earneslne.ss  in  the  cause.  For, 
after  all,  his  love  for  humanity  was  bevond  all 
suspicion  warm  and  deep,  and  his  /.eal  lor  intel- 
lectual freedom  uiii|uestionably  sincere. 

His  last  years,  from  1S44  onwards,  were  years  of 
great  Jiaiii  and  suffering.  His  book  on  Itbrne  Jiro- 
voked  a  kind  of  hornets  nest  about  his  ears.  On 
the  eve  of  a  duel,  which  it  ultimately  cost  him.  he 
iiiarricd  in  due  legal  form  .Matliilde  .Miiat,  a  Paris 
grisette,  with  whom  lie  had  been  living  some  years 
in  free  love.  Then  came  his  uncle  Solomon's 
death,  and  a  <|uarrel  with  the  family,  liecau.se  of 
their  refusal  to  continue  the  annuity  he  liiul  re- 
ceived from  his  uncle  from  the  year  be  settled  in 
Paris.  Aconiiiromi.se  wius  etlecled  early  in  1S47  : 
the  payment  of  the  uiiniiity  wiis  rer-nmed.  Heine 
pledging  himself  not  to  publish  anything  rellecting 
on  the  family.  For  this  retuson  his  Miinuiren,  w liicli 
he  anticipated  would  be  his  greatest  work,  wivs 
withheld  from  jiublication.  The  fate  of  the  manu- 
script is  a  mystery.  Heine  speaks  of  having 
destroyed  it.  Yet  it  is  both  asserted  and  denied 
that  it  piussed  into  the  posse.ssion  of  his  brother 
(Justav.  At  all  events  the  fragmenlarv  Miiiiuiriii 
published  in  1SS4  can  scarcely  be  part  of  the 
original  work  ;  it  is  in  all  probability  a  portion  of 
the  new  version  begun  by  Heine.  The  revolution 
of  1H4,S,  unlike  that  of  ISSO,  failed  lo  awaken  any 
enthusiiisni  in  him.  .Since  1S.37  his  eyes  had  caused 
him  much  pain,  and  since  IS-W  he  had  been  con- 
liueil  to  his  bed  by  spinal  paralysis.  He  lingered 
on  in  excruciating  ]iaiii,  borne  with  heroic  patience 
and  endurance,  until  ITtli  F'ebruary  1850.  But 
no  amount  or  intensity  of  Itodily  suffering  could 
break  bis  spirit  or  impair  his  creative  power ;  be 
jested  anil  wrote  to  the  last.  During  these  years 
he  published  \iiic  Uciliv/ilf  and  JJi  iiLic/ilaiii/,  a 
satirical  political  poem,  in  1844;  Attn  Trull,  the 
■  swan -.song  of  romanticism.'  in  1847:  a  collection 
of  poems,  Honuiiirnij,  in  1851  ;  and  three  volumes 
of  Vermischle  Schrifteii,  in  1854. 

Complete  editions  of  Heine's  work<i  have  been  edited 
by  .Strodtinann  (21  vols.  IHfil-fiC).  Kan'eles  112  vols. 
188.5  and  9  vols.  lSKt>-87),  and  Elster  (.")  vols.  18871,  ami 
in  French  by  himself,  assisted  by  Gerard  de  Nerval  and 
others  ( 14  vols.  1852  d  mqX  The  best  bioKraidiies  of 
Heine  are  those  by  Proelss  (188fi)  and  Strodtinann  (8d 
ed.  2  vr»Is.  1884^.  See  also  Htinin  Aiitolifx/rajthip  i& 
mosaic)  by  Karpeks  (1888),  and  Lives  by  \V.  sliarii  (1888) 
and  .Stigand  (1875).  Heine's  poetry  has  a  fatal  fascina- 
tion   for   translators.      Versions   have   been   essaved  Vtv 


HEINECCIUS 


HEIR 


C25 


Ackerlos  (185i),  WaUis  (1^56),  Bowring  (laiO),  Lord 
Lytton,  Sir  Theodore  Martin  (1«79),  J.  Geikie  (1887), 
anrl  others.  Heine's  works  liave  been  translated  by 
Leland  ( vol.  i.  1891 ),  and  parts  of  the  prose  by  Stern 
(1873),  Snodgrass  (1882),  Storr(1887),  Havelock  EUis 
(18.SS),  R.  MClintock  (1890),  &c.  Wit,  Wisd'>„i,  and  , 
PaWjO",  extracts  from  Heine's  prose,  translated  by  Snod- 
grass  (1879;  2d  ed.  1888),  may  also  be  consulted. 

Heineroius,  Johans  Gottlieb,  a  jurist  of 
Geiiiiaiiy,  lioiii  lltli  Septenil)er  1681  at  Eisenber^, 
was  priitessDr  of  Philosophy  at  Halle  from  17KJ,  and 
from  1720  professor  of  Law.  In  the  latter  capacity 
he  went  in  17'23  to  Franeker,  and  in  1727  to  trank- 
fort-on-the-Oder  ;  hut  in  173.3  returned,  as  ])rofessor 
of  Law  and  Philosophy,  to  Halle,  wliere  he  died  31st 
Aujiust  17-il.  Heiiieccius  belonged  to  the  school 
of  those  who  treat  law  in  dependence  upon  pliilo- 
sophical  iirinciples.  His  chief  works  were  Antir/ui- 
tatma  Ririnniioruin  Jiirixfirudciitinni  Illitstrantium 
Si/iifai/ma  (1718);  Historia  Juris  Civilis  Roman/ 
(17.33);  Elemfiitd  JurU  Gernuiiiici  (17.35);  and 
Eliincnia  Juris  Xiiturm  et  Gentium  ( 1737  ;  Eng. 
trans.  1763).  His  Opera  Omnia  (9  vols.)  were 
edited  by  his  son  in  1771. — Heineccius's  brother, 
Johann'Michaelis  Heiseccil-s  (1674-17'22),  was 
a  celebrated  pulpit  orator  in  Halle,  and  the  fii-st 
who  studied  seals  scientifically.  On  this  latter 
subject  he  wrote  De  Veteribus  Gernutnorum  alia- 
rumijiii:  Satiunum  Sigillis  ( 1709). 

Heinsins,  Axthosy,  Dutch  statesman,  bom  at 
Delft,  22il  December  1641,  studied  law  at  Leyden, 
in  1688  became  Grand  Pensionary  of  Holland,  and 
iis  the  close  friend  of  William  IIL  (of  England) 
guided  Dutch  politics  till  his  death,  30th  August 
17-20. 

Heinsins,  D.\niel,  a  Dutch  cla.ssical  scholar, 
was  horn  at  Ghent,  9th  June  1580 ;  was  educated 
at  Franeker  and  Leyden  (becoming  the  favourite 
pupil  of  Scaliger),  and  became  professor  at  Leyden. 
He  died  25tli  Februan,'  1655.  He  edited  many 
Latin  classics,  and  published  Latin  poems  and 
orations  of  his  own. — His  son,  Nicolaus  ( 16'20-Sl ), 
obtained  distinction  both  as  a  diplomatic  agent 
and  as  a  cla-ssical  scholar. 

Heir.  In  primitive  systems  of  law  the  lieir  is 
the  person  who  performs  the  sacred  rites  on  the 
death  of  his  ancestor,  and  to  whom,  as  repre- 
senting his  ancestor,  the  property  of  the  deceased 
is  transferred.  There  are  traces  of  this  primi- 
tive conception  in  the  histoiy  of  Roman  law. 
The  later  Roman  law  regards  the  heir  as  an 
univei-sal  successor,  on  whom  all  the  rights 
and  liabilities  of  the  ancestor  devolve.  An  heir 
might  be  named  by  will  ;  in  case  of  intestacy,  the 
law  pointed  out  the  line  of  succession  ;  in  some 
cases  ei|uity  gave  possession  to  a  person  who  was 
permitted  by  a  fiction  to  call  himself  heir,  thcmgli 
not  legally  entitled  to  inherit.  The  liabilities  of 
an  heir  were  restricted  by  rules  which  enabled  him 
to  separate  his  own  estate  from  that  of  the  de- 
ceased ;  after  Justinian's  time  this  was  done  by 
'  making  an  inventory  ; '  and  this  '  benefit  of  in- 
ventory "  is  a  feature  of  modern  codes  foumled 
on  the  civil  law.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the 
Roman  heir  united  in  himself  the  rights  of  the  heir, 
e.\ecutor,  and  devisee  of  English  law. 

In  English  law  the  heir  is  not  the  univei-sal  suc- 
cessor, but  the  person  who  succeeils  to  the  real 
property  of  a  deceased  pei-son  not  disposed  of  by 
will.  He  is  bound  by  covenants,  &c.  which  have 
l>e(^n  made  binding  on  the  land  ;  the  property  which 
descends  to  him  has  been  made  assets  for  payment 
of  debt  generally  ;  but  if  the  personal  estate  be  sutli- 
cient,  the  executor  is  the  person  by  whom  debts 
should  be  paid.  The  heir  is  a.scertained  at  the 
moment  of  death  ;  thus  it  is  not  technically  correct 
to  speak  of  the  eldest  son  of  a  living  person  as  his 
248 


heir  :  the  son  is  heir-apparent — i.e.  it  Ls  evident  that 
he  will  l>e  the  heir  if  he  survives.  If  a  father  or 
brother  is  nearest  in  succession  to  a  living  pei>on, 
we  call  him  heir-presumptive  :  he  will  l;e  the  heir  if 
he  surviv&s,  and  if  no  nearer  heir  is  bom.  An  heir 
must  be  sought  among  persons  related  by  consan- 
guinity to  the  decea.sed,  males  being  preferred.  Of 
males  in  the  same  degree,  the  elde.st  is  .sole  heir ; 
females  in  the  same  degree  succeed  a-s  coheiresses 
or  coparceners.  By  the  Inheritance  Act  of  1833  it 
is  directed  that  descent  is  to  Ije  traced  from  the  last 
purchaser — i.e.  the  last  person  who  acijuired  the 
land  otherwise  than  by  descent.  Formerly  an 
estate  could  not  ascend  from  son  to  father ;  but  the 
act  places  the  father  next  in  succession  after  chil- 
dren and  other  descendants.  For  a  tabular  view  of 
the  order  of  succession,  see  Williams,  On  Real 
Property,  or  Patereon's  Compendium  of  Enqtish 
anil  Sruteh  Law.  The  heirs-r/encral  are  the  lieirs 
ascertaine<l  according  to  the  foregoing  niles,  as 
distinguished  from  the  restricted  class  (heirs  of 
the  body,  heirs-male,  heirs-female,  &c. )  pointed  out 
by  the  terms  of  an  entail.  Wliere  no  heir  can  be 
found,  the  land  is  escheated  to  the  feudal  superior 
to  whom  it  is  held — i.e.  usually  to  the  crown. 
When  a  pereon  dies  intestate,  his  real  estate  vests 
at  once  in  the  heir  ;  the  heir  becomes  seised  in  law 
without  entry  on  the  estate  or  other  formality. 
The  rule  which  permits  an  heir  to  shift  the  liability 
for  ('.ebts  to  the  pei"sonal  estate  was  formerly  applied 
even  to  mortgages  ;  but  Locke  King's  Act,  pa.ssed 
in  1854,  makes  a  mortgage  debt  a  charge  on  the 
land,  unless  a  contrary  intention  is  expresse<l. 

The  law  of  succession  in  Ireland  is  the  same  as 
in  England. 

In  Scotch  laAv  the  temi  heir  is  less  strictly  defined 
than  in  English  law.  It  is  used  to  include  persons 
who  succeed  to  movables.  It  also  includes  persons 
who  take,  not  by  descent,  but  by  gift  :  thus,  for 
example,  '  heirs  of  destination  '  or  '  heirs  of  i)ro- 
vLsion  '  would  be  described  as  devisees  or  donees  in 
English  law.  '  Heir-apparent,' in  Scots  law,  means 
an  heir  who  has  not  made  up  his  titles,  the  heir- 
apparent  of  English  law  being  iuclmled  under  the 
name  of  heir-presumptive ;  but  since  the  Convey- 
ancing (Scotland)  Act  of  1874  the  inheritance  vests 
on  the  death  of  the  owner,  and  the  heir  is  not  re- 
quired to  make  up  titles.  By  the  same  act  it  is 
provided  that  an  heir  shall  not  be  liable  for  the 
debts  of  his  ancestor  beyond  the  value  of  the  estate. 
When  heritable  property  luis  not  been  settled  or 
disposed  of  by  the  owner,  the  heir  of  line  is 
sought  among  the  legitimate  kin  of  the  deceased. 
As  in  England,  males  are  preferred  :  of  males  in  the 
same  degree,  the  eldest  is  sole  heir ;  females  inherit 
together  as  '  heirs-porticmcrs.'  But  in  Scotch,  as 
compared  with  English  law,  cert.ain  points  of  differ- 
ence are  to  be  observed.  (1)  After  descendants  are 
exhausted,  it  is  not  the  father,  but  the  next 
younger  brother  who  is  next  in  succession  ;  then  the 
next  younger  again,  and  so  on  to  the  youngest 
brother,  after  whom  and  his  descendants  comes  the 
next  elder  brother,  and  so  on  up  to  the  eldest  brother. 
Formerly  'fee  of  conquest' — i.e.  land  purclia.sed  by 
the  deceased — went  to  the  next  elder  brother,  ami 
so  on,  in  preference  to  the  next  younger  ;  but  the 
distinctiim  between  conquest  and  heritage  was 
abolished  in  1874.  (2)  The  mother  never  succeeds 
in  Scotland,  nor  any  relatives  who  trace  through 
her,  except  brothers  and  sisters  gemian.  ( 3 )  Per- 
sons born  illegitimate,  but  rendered  legitimate  by 
the  subsequent  marriage  of  their  parents,  are  per- 
mitted to  succeed.  See  the  comparative  tabular 
view  in  Patei-son's  Compendium. 

In  England  the  term  '  hereditaments  '  is  used  to 
denote  tliose  parts  of  a  man's  property  which  will, 
if  not  disposed  of,  descend  to  the  heir.  In  Scotland 
heritable   property   includes   leaseholds,    which  in 


626 


HEIRLOOM 


HELEN 


Kiifiliiiiil  (lie  lioatcil  lu-i  iii-rsdnal  m<p|ieity  ;  rfitaiii 
rlassoM  iif  aniiiiities  arc  alsu  lieritalile,  which  woiiUl 
ill  Eiif^'Utiid  lie  |ic'isiiiial. 

IlEllisiMiKTiDNKlis,  ill  Sootrli  law,  mean  either 
two  or  more  fi-malc^,  hciiig  sisters,  or  sisters 
uiul  the  ehihlieii,  male  ami  female,  of  ileceivsed 
sisters,  who  are  eiititleil  to  siiceeoil  to  heritalilo 
estate  when  tln-ir  aiK'estor  ilies  without  leaviii;; 
male  issue.  'riiiis,  if  A  dies  leaviii;;  three 
<Iaii;;hteis,  all  three  siieceed  eipially  if  alive;  or  if 
some  have  alreailv  died  leaving,'  ehildren,  then  the 
ehildren  represent  the  jiarent,  and  sueoeed  to  the 
parent's  share  aloiij;  with  the  surviving  sistei-s,  all 
iieiii;;  ealled  heirs  portioniM's.  In  sueli  eases  the 
ehlist  heir  portioner  is  entitled  to  the  mansion- 
house  of  an  estate  in  the  country  over  and  aViove 
her  erjmvl  share  of  the  rest.  Hut  she  ha.s  no  such 
iiKlit  to  a  house  in  town,  or  to  a  eonntry  villa.  She 
alone  also  takes  a  peerage  or  dijjnity,  if  there  is  any 
in  the  family.  In  England  coparceners,  tliou^jh  re- 
semlilJMj;  hcirsportioners,  have  not  identical  ri^dit.s. 

llt'iHooill  Icompoundeil  of  heir  and  loom, 
orixiiially  a  "piece  of  property,'  'furniture'),  in 
!'.ii;;lisli  hiw,  means  a  cliattcl,  or  movalile  thinj;, 
which  j,'oes  to  the  heir-at-law  l>y  special  custom. 
l!ut  the  rijiht  is  obscure.  The  word  is  more  fre- 
i|Uently  used  now  to  designate  chattels  l>e>|iieatlied 
or  settled  so  as  to  he  enjoyed  hy  the  person  for  the 
time  lieini;  in  possession  of  a  family  estate  or  man- 
sion. In  Scotland  a  somewhat  similar  hut  hy 
no  means  identical  phiiise  is  used  -viz.  /icirs/ii/> 
iiioriihlis,  which  is  a  wider  ri;,'ht,  ami  includes  the 
hest  articles  of  furniture  in  the  house  of  a  pei'son 
who  left  heritable  property.  The  e.\tent  of  thi.s 
ri^'lit  is  also  not  clearly  settled. 

Ilejr<i.    See  Hi;(iiK.\. 

Ili'l.  in  Northern  Mytholojiy,  the  };od(Iess  of  the 
(lead,  the  sister  of  the  wolf  l''enrir,  and  daughter 
of  the  evil-hearted  Loki  (<|.v. ),  hy  the  (,'iantess 
Aiifxurboda.  The  All  father  hurled  her  down  into 
Nillheini,  ami  j,'ave  her  authority  over  the  lower 
worhl,  where  she  received  all  w  ho  ilied  of  sickness 
and  old  aj,'e.  She  was  of  tierce  aspect,  and  had  a 
h.ilf  black,  half  tiesh-coloured  skill.  To  her  were 
assigned  the  characteristics  of  insatiable  greed  and 
pitilessnes-s.  After  the  introduction  and  ditlusion 
of  Christianity  the  ideas  personitied  in  Hel  gradu- 
ally merged,  among  all  tlie  races  of  Scandinavian 
anil  (ieniian  ilescent.  in  the  local  conception  of  a 
Hell  (<|.v.),  or  d.'irk  abode  of  the  dead. 

IIoUKt.  Till-:,  a  thriving  seaport  and  strongly- 
fortilied  town  in  the  Dutch  province  of  North 
Ilollaml,  ,"il  miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  Amsterdam.  It 
stands  on  the  Marsdie|i,  which  connects  the  Zuider 
Zee  and  the  (lerinan  t>c<'an,  and  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  North  H(dland  ("anal,  by  which, 
too,  it  has  connection  with  .Amsterdam.  It  is  one 
of  the  strongest  fiutresses  in  Hollaml,  having  been 
lii-st  fmtitied  by  Napoleon  in  ISJl,  and  Inis  several 
nav.al  establishments,  including  an  arsenal  ami  a 
C(dlege,  and  an  excellent  harbour.  I'op.  (1895) 
2."),"_'o4.  Nieuwe  Diep,  half  a  mile  east,  is  the  port 
at  the  main  outlet  of  the  Ncntli  Holland  Canal. 

lIcIderlM'I'U  F(>I*lliatioil.    In  North  .\merica 

a  (livi>ioii  1)1  the  Silurian  strata  is  called  (after  the 
llelilerberg  Uaiige,  in  the  eiust  of  New  York  state) 
the  Lower  Helderherg  formation.  It  appears  to  he 
on  the  hori/on  of  the  English  Lmllow  beds.  The 
I'plier  Helderberg  formation  of  Noitli  America  is 
a  member  of  the  Lower  Devonian  strata. 

Ilcloil*  the  most  romantic  ligure  of  antiquity, 
famous  for  her  beauty  and  the  misfortiineji  that 
followed  in  her  train.  She  wa-s  the  daught^er  of 
Zi'us  and  Leda.  wife  of  the  Spartan  king  Tyn- 
dareus,  and  owcil  her  more  than  mortal  loveliness 
to  her  tlivine  origin.     At  the  age  of  ten  she  wck 


eanieil  oil' by  Theseus  and  I'irithoiis,  but  wo-s  soon 
lecovereil  by  her  brothei-s  Castor  and  I'olliix,  of 
whom  the  latter  wits  hall  an  immortal  like  herself. 
She  was  sought  in  marriage  by  all  the  nohle.st 
Greek  princes,  whom  her  I'athi'r  bound  by  an 
oath  to  respect  the  clniii-e  which  Helen  hi-rself 
should  make.  She  chose  Menelaus,  :uid  bore  to 
him  the  fair  Hermione.  When  she  was  carried  oil' 
hy  Paris,  son  of  I'riani  of  Troy,  through  the  con- 
nivance of  Aphroilite,  Menidaus  musti'ied  all  the 
(ireek  princes  to  revenge  the  wrong,  ami  thus  the 
famous  ten  years'  Trojan  war  began.  .After  the 
death  of  Paris,  not  long  before  the  fall  of  the  city, 
Helen  was  married  to  his  brother  Deiphobns.  and 
she  is  saiil  to  liav<>  betraved  him  to  Mcncbiiis  and 
so  regained  her  husbanil's  lo\e.  \\  ith  him  she 
returned  to  Sparta,  and  there  lived  the  rest  of  her 
life  in  <iuiet  happiness.  The  iiair  were  at  last 
burieil  together  at  Therapna-  in  L.iconia.  .although, 
according  to  the  projihecy  of  Proteus  in  the  Oi/i/sxri/, 
they  were  not  to  die,  but  to  be  tianslati'd  to  Ely- 
sium. Another  story  makes  Helen  survive  Mene- 
laus, and  be  driven  out  of  the  Peloponnesus  by  his 
sons.  She  th^l  to  Uliodes,  and  was  there  tied  to 
a  tree  and  strangled  by  Polyxo — a  crime  expiated 
(Uily  by  the  Khodians  biiihling  a  temple  to  her, 
!  under  the  name  of  Ililniii  I)iii(lrili.s.  Vet  another 
tradition  makes  her  many  .\iliilles  on  the  island 
of  Leuce,  ami  bear  him  a  son.  Kupboiioii. 
i  In  the  Homeric  poems  Helen  survives  as  the 
))eisonilication  of  all  grace  and  loveliness.  She  is 
the  ilaughler  of  Zens,  although  there  is  no  mention 
i  as  yet  of  the  swan  st<iiv  of  her  mother's  wooing  by 
j  the  god.  Into  the  conception  of  her  character  in 
the  Iliiiil  there  enters  but  little  sense  of  moral 
i  responsiliility,  perhaps  because  she  is  a  personage 
j  that  hius  come  into  history  from  the  world  of 
I  mythology,  which  is  ever  innocent  of  inmals.  In 
I  the  Oi/i/asii/,  again,  we  liml  an  incipient  .sense  of 
I  moral  responsibility,  the  burden  of  which  i.s,  how- 
'  ever,  shitted  from  the  shoulders  of  Helen  on  to 
those  of  some  god  {()i/.  xxiii.  '2'2'2j.  It  is  true, 
however,  that  IliuU  ii.  .'i.iG  and  .")!)(J  may  fairly  he 
interpreted  to  convey  the  m<'aiiiiig  that  Helen  was 
carried  away  by  force,  an  unwilling  victim  of  .'\|iliro- 
(lite.  Still  the  fa<-t  nMiiains  that  there  exists  a 
notable  ilid'erence  of  tone  about  this  ijuestion,  and 
this  is  not  unfairly  advanced  as  one  of  their 
strongest  arguments  by  those  who  claim  a  later 
date  for  the  Ot/i/ssei/  than  tiie  Iliiiil.  Others,  again, 
conteiKl  that  in  the  Iliml  there  is  a  no  less  distinct 
sense  of  moral  responsibility,  pointing  out  that  in 
iii.  104  and  vi.  .'{.")7  tluMe  is  blame  distinctly  im- 
|)uted  to  the  gods,  and  that  in  iii.  IT.'t  ITOaiid  vi. 
.■i44  Helen  takes  the  burden  of  the  guilt  upon  her- 
self. Among  her  warmest  apologists  are  Mr  Clad- 
stone  and  Mr  Andrew  Lang.  Indeed  the  former 
makes  hold  to  say  that  '  her  self-abasing  and  si-lf- 
renouncing  humility  come  nearer,  perhaps,  than 
any  other  heathen  exaiiijile  to  the  type  of  Christian 
penitence.' 

Pausanias  tells  ns  that  on  the  chest  of  Cypseliis, 
a  Wink  of  the  7th  century  li.c,  Menelaus  wa.s 
represented  a-s  rushing  on  to  kill  Helen  ;  and, 
acciniling  to  a  statenieiif  attributed  to  Slesicliorus, 
the  .-Xcha-.tn  host  were  about  to  kill  her  when  their 
hands  were  stayed  by  the  power  of  her  beauty.  In 
his  Troiiile.i  Euripides  makes  Heli'n  pleail  her 
cause  to  Menelaus  with  sophistical  rhetoric  ;  in 
the  Helena  he  makes  her  remain  in  Egyjit,  the 
(Sleeks  and  Trojans  (ighting  merely  for  a  shadow 
formed  by  the  gods  out  of  cloud  and  winil.  Again, 
in  his  Viirlt/jis  the  giant  speaks  of  Helen  in  a 
manner  far  removed  from  the  high  chivjilry  and 
tenderness  of  Priam  and  of  Hector.  In  the  .Kiieid 
we  are  invited  to  behcdd  the  hero  about  to  slay 
Helen  crouchin''  in  terror  in  the  temple  of  Vesta, 
and   only   saved   from   this  infamy  by   the   inter- 


HELENA 


HELIGOLAND 


627 


positiun  of  Venus.  '  Hundreds  of  years  later,'  savs 
Mr  Lang,  '  Helen  fouml  a  worthier  poet  in  Quintus 
Smyrnieus,  who  in  a  later  age  sang  the  swaiisong 
of  (Jieek  epic  minstrelsy.'  As  the  personification 
of  all  feminine  loveliness,  she  was  conjured  up  t<i 
play  a  part  in  the  dream  of  Faust,  whose  words  of 
wonder  at  the  \ision  of  her  lieanty  in  Marlowe's 
tragedy  are  almost  worthy  of  their  theme  : 

Was  this  the  lace  tliat  launched  a  thousand  ships, 
And  burnt  the  t^ipless  towers  of  Iliunt !    .    .    . 
Oh,  thou  art  fairer  than  the  evening  air 
Clad  in  the  beauty  of  a  thousand  stars. 

The  loves  of  Faustus  and  Helen  in  the  second  part 
of  Goethe's  Fau.st  typify  the  union  of  the  cl;i.ssical 
and  romantic  spirit.  She  is  its  spiritual  heroine 
throughout,  and  by  his  union  with  her  in  the  fourth 
;ict  Faust  is  raised  intinitely  rather  than  degraded  in 
character.  Last  among  the  greater  poets  who  have 
felt  across  the  centuries  the  spell  of  Helen's  loveli- 
ness are  Walter  Savage  Landor  and  Tennv.son  ; 
the  former  in  some  of  the  finest  lines  in  his  HdUni-cs 
I'omineiiiorates  the  ]iower  of  her  heauty  to  ilisarm 
the  anger  of  Menelaiis  :  the  latter  lias  painted  for 
us  this  'daughter  of  the  gods,  divinely  tall  and 
most  divinely  fair,"  in  his  sidendiil  poem,  ^-1  Drram 
of  Fair  Women.  Poets  and  poetasters  since  have 
touched  the  theme,  hut  de.serve  not  even  to  be 
named  together  with  these. 

Helen  will  remain  to  posterity  what  she  is  in  the 
Iliad,  one  of  the  most  splendid  creations  in  the 
whole  world  of  art — a  i|Ueen  of  beauty  supreme 
over  tlie  human  imagination,  as  she  w.is  when  she 
went  at  the  summons  of  Iris,  all  draped  in  silvery 
white,  with  her  three  maidens,  to  the  walls  of  Troy. 
There  above  the  g.ate  sat  the  venerable  King 
Priam  among  his  counsellors,  and  all  marvelled 
greatly  at  her  beauty.  'No  marvel  is  it  that 
Trojans  and  Acha'ans  suffer  long  ami  weary  toils 
for  such  a  woman,  so  wondrous  like  to  tiie  im- 
mortal goddesses'  {Iliad,  iii.  1.J6-1.5S). 

See  the  delightful  essay  appemleil  to  Andrew 
Lang's  line  poem,  Helen  uf  Truy  ( 1882). 

Helena  (pronounced,  contrary  to  the  classical 
quantity,  Helena;  as  is  also  the  island  iSt  Helena), 
capital  of  Montana,  is  situated  among  foothills 
in  the  Prickly  Pear  Valley,  about  14  miles  from 
the  Missouri  Kiver,  with  the  Rocky  Mountains 
rising  behind  the  city  to  the  south.  It  is  the 
commercial  and  railway  centre  of  the  state,  con- 
nected with  the  .Manitoba  and  Northern  I'acilic 
railway.s,  and  by  branch-lines  with  .several  iriining 
camps.  Many  of  the  streets  are  wide  and  straight, 
shaded  with  rows  of  cottoiiwootl-trees.  and  faced 
with  handsome  residences  and  busine.ss  premises  ; 
and  the  city  has  now  electric  lights  and  hoise- 
tramways.  The  most  prominent  buililing  is  the 
county  court-house,  containing  the  Montana  govern- 
ment offices:  tiiere  are  also  a  government  assay 
office,  several  churches,  schools,  and  libraries,  and 
a  Catholic  academy  and  cimvent,  hospital,  and 
asylum  for  the  insane,  besiilcs  quartz.  Hour,  and 
lumber  mills.  .\  boanl  of  trade  was  organised  in 
1887.  Gobi  was  found  bcie  in  .Inly  1864,  the  liist 
log-cabins  were  erected  in  September,  and  the 
camp  was  known  as  Last  Chance  (uilch  until 
Decenilier,  wlien  it  received  its  present  name. 
Pom.  (1880)  mii  ;  (I8W))  13,834.— There  is  another 
Helena  in  Arkansas  ;  pop.  5185. 

Ilereiia,  the  name  of  .several  female  saints  of 
the  (alholic  Church,  the  most  celebrated  of  whom 
is  the  Kmpress  Helena,  wife  of  Constanlius  Chlorus, 
and  mother  of  Constantine  the  Great.  Whether 
born  in  Bithynia,  liritain.  or  at  Treves,  she  became 
a  Christian  during  the  youth  of  Constantine.  but  it 
wits  not  till  after  the  defeat  of  Ma.\entius  that  she 
formally  received  baptism.  The  few  reniiiining 
years  of  her  life  she  gave  to  works  of  benevolence. 


In  .326,  according  to  almost  contemporary  tratli- 
tion,  she  visited  Jenisaleni,  and  there,  with  Bishop 
Macarius,  discovered  the  Holy  Se|>ulchre  and  the 
cros.s  of  Our  Lord.  Along  with  it  were  the  cro.sscs 
of  the  two  thieves,  but  which  was  the  true  cro.s3 
w-as  shown  by  its  touch  restoring  a  sick  lady  to 
health.  St  Helena  died,  it  is  .said,  a  nun,  at  the  age 
of  eighty.  Her  festival  falls  on  18th  August.  See 
Cro.ss,  and  works  cited  there. — Two  other  women 
of  the  same  name  are  honoured  as  saints.  The 
first,  whose  cult  is  confined  to  the  Kussian 
Church,  was  the  wife  of  the  (Jrand-duke  Igor,  ami 
at  her  baptism  in  Constantinojde  (9.35)  changed 
her  original  name,  Olga,  into  Helena;  the  other 
was  a  native  of  West  tJothland,  and  lived  in  the 
12th  century. 

Helensburgh,   a  favourite  watering-place  of 

Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Dumbarton,  is  plea.«antly 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde, 
at  the  entrance  to  the  ( iareloch,  4  miles  N.  of 
(ireenock  by  water,  and  23  miles  NW.  of  Cila-sj^ow 
by  a  railway  opened  in  IS.iS,  and  extended  to  Fort 
Willi.im  in  1894.  It  was  founded  in  1777  by  Sir 
.lames  Colquhoun,  and  named  after  his  wife  Helen. 
Tlieie  is  an  obelisk  to  Henry  Bell  (ipv.).  Poji. 
(1871)  5975;  <1881)  7693;  ('1891)  8409;  but  in 
summer  the  numbers  are  nearly  doubled. 

Hi'Iiacal  (Gr.  helio.t,  '  the  sun  '),  emerging  from 
the  light  of  the  sun  or  |>assing  into  it.  A  star's 
heliaeal  rising  is  when  it  rises  just  before  the  sun. 

Heliand,  the  name  of  an  Old  Saxon  poem, 
dating  from  the  9th  century.  Its  subject  is  the 
life  anil  work  of  Christ,  con.stnicted  as  a  harmony 
of  the  four  gospels.  The  )ioem  is  written  in  alli- 
terative verse,  in  the  s]iirit  of  the  old  Low  German 
popular  poetry.  Besides  being  the  most  imyiortant 
relic  of  the  Old  Saxon  dialect,  it  is  not  without 
intrinsic  literary  merit.  Of  two  extant  MSS.  one 
is  in  the  British  Museum  ;  the  other  is  at  Munich. 
Heyne  has  issued  a  critical  edition  of  the  te.xt  (.3<1 
ed.  1883),  and  there  is  a  translation  into  modem 
High  German  by  Simrock  (3il  ed.  1882). 


Heliantlius. 

and  SlNKI.ilWER. 


See   JERf.s.vLEM  Artichoke, 


Helifidie  (Gr.  hcli.e.  'a  spiral '),  a  large  family 
of  terrestrial  air-breathing  (pulmonate)  gastero- 
poils,  of  which  Snails  (i|.v. )  are  familiar  examples. 

Helieon<  a  mountain-range  (5736  feet)  in  the 
southwest  of  Bteotia.  in  ancient  (Greece,  wa.s  cele- 
brated as  the  favourite  seat  of  the  .Muses.  At  the 
foot  of  the  range  stood  the  village  of  Ascra,  the 
residence  of  He.siod.  and  the  seat  of  the  earliest 
school  of  poetry  in  Greece.  On  the  slopes  «ere  the 
famous  fountains  of  .Vganippe  and  Hi|ipociene, 
whose  waters  were  reputed  to  give  jioetic  iusjiira- 
tion. 

Heligoland  (Ger.  Helgoland :  native  name, 
del  Lunn,  ■  the  Land  ' ),  a  small  island  in  the  North 
Sea,  belonging  since  1890  to  (Jeriiianv,  is  situated 
about  36  miles  NW.  of  the  mouthof  the  Kibe, 
in  ."i4'  ir  N.  lat.  and  7°  51'  E.  long.  It  is  about  a 
mile  long  from  north  to  south,  and  one-third  of  a 
mile  from  e.ost  to  west,  and  t  hree-fonrths  of  a  square 
mile  in  suiierHcial  areii.  The  Ohrelnml  is  a  rock 
206  feet  in  height,  on  which  stands  a  town  of  400 
houses,  and  access  to  which  is  obtained  by  192 
steps  or  by  a  steam-lift  ;  while  the  Vnterlanil  is 
a  patch  of  .shore  with  70  houses  south-east  of  the 
dill'.  The  resident  population  w.as  (I860)  2172 
and  (1890)  '2086:  though  in  the  bathing  sea.sori 
Heligoland  is  visited  by  upwards  of  12,000  snnimer 
visitors  —attracted  by  the  admirable  bathing  facili- 
ties olfered.  not  by  Heligoland  itself,  but  by  the 
'Sandy  Island,' or  Diine,  a.  small  sandbank  with 
scrubby  vegetation,  separated  from  the  main  island 
by  a  channel  about  a  mile  wide.    Samlv  Island  was 


628 


HELIGOLAND 


HELIOGRAPHY 


funnei'ly  connected  by  land,  liut  tlio  inniiids  of  the 
»oa  Imve  fjradually  isolated  it.  Tlie  same  ayent, 
together  with  the  heavy  rainfall,  the  variation.-)  in 
the  weather,  and  the  liislntegraliiig  power  of  the 
frost,  i-  still  reiliK'in^  the  size  of  lleli;.'olaiid 
it.self.  The  we.'stern  clill  lia.«,  according  to  l^inde- 
niann,  receded  7  feet  in  the  forty  yeans  precedint; 
188S.      The   soil    on    the   Hat    toji   of   the   nK^k   of 


Htjijguialid, 

Heligoland  suttices  for  a  little  pa.sture-laiid,  and 
for  jjrowin^i  potatoes  and  cahha^'es.  There  are 
.some  sheep  on  the  island,  and  .a  few  cows.  Wheel- 
h.urows  are  the  oidy  wheeled  vehiele.s.  The  spit 
of  the  I  nterland  ".'ives  |ia]tial  shelter  to  two  har- 
horn's,  one  to  the  north,  the  other  to  the  south. 
The  inhaliitants  are  sni)ported  chielly  l>y  the  lohster 
aii<l  other  lisheries,  and  hy  the  summer  visitors, 
pilota^'e  having  almost  ceased,  and  the  puhlic 
gamingtahles,  estahlished  in  IS.'JO,  having  been 
suppres.sed  in  1871.  There  is  pr.aetically  no  ])overty, 
disease,  or  crime,  and  the  people  are  very  long 
lived.  A  lighthouse  stands  on  the  clilV  near  the 
village.  The  island,  which  was  taken  hy  the  Brit- 
ish from  the  Danes  in  l.S()7,  ami  was  formally  ceded 
to  Kngland  in  1H14.  was  ceded  to  Germany,  l.st 
.Iiilv  ISiM).  in  return  for  concessions  made  to  Itritain 
in  Kast  .\frica.  Heligolamlish,  a  dialect  of  North 
Frisian,  Ls  the  native  tongue,  hut  tierman  is 
currently  spoken.  Steamboats  run  to  and  from 
the  North  Frisian  i.slands  of  8ylt  anil  Fiihr,  and 
Hamburg. — Heligoland  was  anciently  sacred  to 
the  goddess  Hertha.  According  to  tradition,  the 
island  wius  once  vastly  larger,  great  tracts  of 
country  having  been  swallowed  up  by  the  sea 
Iwtween  7lK)  .\.l).  and  the  eiul  of  the  17tli  century. 
Christianity  wivs  lirst  preached  here  by  St  Willi- 
brod  in  the  7th  century,  after  whose  time  the 
island  received  its  jiresent  name  of  Holy  Land. 
The  iidiabitants  of  Heligoland  are  divi<led  into 
two  chus.ses,  dill'ering  lK)th  in  race  and  oeeuiiation — 
the  one  being  (ishei-s.  the  other  tradespeople,  small 
shopkeepers,  \c.  The  li|-st  are  Frisians,  a  tall  ami 
muscular  r.ace  of  hardy  seamen,  simple  and  primi 
tive  in  their  habits,  ami  holding  land  labour  and 
soldiers  in  contempt.  The  merchant  cla.ss  consi.sts 
of  immigrants  from  Hamburg  and  other  places  on  the 
ni.iinl.and,  or  their  ile.scendants.  There  is  a  curious 
and  picturesque  church,  on  the  roof  of  which  is  still 
the  I)annebrog  painted  by  the  Danish  authorities 
when  the  island  belonged  to  Denmark.  The 
people,  though  they  hacl  been  very  loy.al  to  Great 
Hritain,  accejited  without  opposition  the  annexa- 
tion   to   Germany :    and    after    a   visit   from    the 


A.u. 
but 
high 
hal. 


Fniperor,  Heligoland  was  formally  incorporated 
with  the  kingdom  of  I'mssiu  and  the  j)rovinic 
of  Sleswick-llolstein.  See  IJlack's  Jlt/iiiu/iiiu/ 
(1HS8);  (iciinan  books  by  Lindemann  (1889)  and 
Lipsius  (1892);  and  H.  Giitke,  Jltlifjulaiid  as  an 
Oriiit/iiilufiiiii/  Ohserralonj  (trans.  1895). — I'niler 
the  early  kings  of  Norway  (  loth  century  onwards) 
the  name  Hcliichtnd  was  given   to  a  district  north 

of  Throndlijem,  extending  from  about  Kt  N. 

lat.  tothe  neighliourhood  of  Svarti.sen  glacier. 

IIolio<'<'Iltri<*,  in  Astronomy,  having 
ihe  sun  (Gr,  Ar/Ztii)  as  centre  of  reference; 
the  heliocentric  jilace  of  a  planet  being 
op|)osed  to  its  ffeocfiiliic  (iir.  ge,  'earth'), 
its  pl.ice  !us  seen  from  the  earth. 

Ilt'liodorilS.  the  earliest  and  best  of 
ihe  tireck  romance  writers,  Wius  born  at 
Kme.sa,  in  Syria.  He  wiis  a  .sophist  of  the 
-econd  half  of  the  3d  century  A.u.,  but  has 
-ometimes  been  ((Uifounilcd  with  a  bishop 
■  if  Trikka,  in  Thcssaly  (rirni  3y0).  The 
work  hy  which  he  is  known  is  entitled 
y.thiojiica,  in  ten  hooks,  narrating  in 
I'lietic  prose,    at    times   with    almost    epic 

■  .luty  and  simjilicity,  the  loves  of  Thea 

■  lies  and  Chanclea.  The  work  is  distin 
^iiisheil  from  the  later  ti reek  ronuinces  by 
Its  vigour  and  its  pure  morality.  Set- 
Kohde,  Dcr  Gn'cc/iisifie  liumaii  (1870). 
I'here  are  editions  by  15ekker  (18.55)  ami 
Hirschig  in  Sciijiloics  Eiutici  (1856). 

Ilclioua'ltalllS.  or  ELAtiAUALUS,  em- 
peror of  Kome,  wius  born  at  Emesa  in  204 
His  real  name  wjus  Varius  Avitus  liiissianus, 
having,  when  a  mere  chilil,  been  appointed 
luiest  of  the  Syro-Plionician  sun  god  Elaga 
he  a.^sunied  the  name  of  that  <lcity.  Soon 
ifter  the  death  of  his  cousin  Caracalla,  Helioga 
balus  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  soldiei's,  in 
ojiposition  to  the  legitimate  sovereign,  Macrinus, 
who  had  become  obno,\ious  to  the  troops  from 
his  ])arsimony  ami  the  severity  of  his  discijiline. 
The  rivals  met  in  battle  on  the  bonlers  of  Syria 
and  I'hicnicia  in  '218  A.D.  Macrinus  was  defeated, 
and  Heliogabalus,  proceeding  to  Kome,  fjuietly 
assumed  the  purple.  His  reign,  which  lasted 
rather  more  than  three  veai-s  ami  idne  months, 
was  infamous  for  the  gluttony  ami  the  nearly 
unparalleled  debaucheries  of  eveiT  kiml  in  whicli 
he  indulged.  He  wa.s  munlered  in  an  insurrec- 
tion of  the  imetorians  in  'I'l'l  A.l>.,  and  Avas  sue 
ceeded  by  his  ciuisin  and  adopted  son,  Alexander 
Severus. 

Ill'liosrrapliy,  a  method  of  communicating 
swiftly  between  distant  points  hy  means  of  the 
sun's  rays  reHected  from  nnrrors.  Either  successive 
lliLshes  or  obscurations  of  a  continuous  reflection 
of  the  sun's  light  may  be  combined  so  a.s  to  read 
like  Mor.se's  telegraphic  system  (see  TfxegraI'H). 
Heliography  may  be  used  for  geodetic  measure 
ment,  or  for  military  and  other  signalling.  Thi;- 
instniinents  which  contain  the  mirrors  are  vari- 
ously called  heliuijruph  and  hcliostut.  The  iustni- 
nients  have  been  so  perfectly  contrived  as  to  he 
available  at  a  distance  of  over  190  miles  (in 
Califoiiiia)  ;  French  engineers  in  Algeria  have 
found  the  signals  serviceable  at  a  distance  of  170 
mile.s.  As  early  as  the  11th  century  A.u.  Algeria 
|>os.ses.sed  a  .system  of  heliogiaphs  :  ■  At  the  summit 
of  this  tower  wius  an  ajiparatus  of  nnrrors,  corre- 
sponding to  sinnlar  ones  e.stahlislie<l  in  ditlerent- 
directions,  by  aid  of  which  one  could  communicate 
rapidly  with  all  the  towns  from  one  end  of  the 
em])ire  to  the  other'  {Athenmim,  28th  January 
1882).  Recently  there  has  been  a  great  tlevelop- 
nient  in  heliography,  or  sun-telegraphy,  for  signal- 
ling messages  between  the  sections  of  an  anny  in  the 


HELIOGRAVURE 


HELIOTROPISM 


629 


field,  as  during  the  British  campaign  in  Afghan- 
istan in  1880.  Dnmnnondsand  Begl)ie's  heliostats, 
and  the  heliographs  (differing  in  details)  of  Mance 
and  Anderson,  are  favourahly  known.  The  name 
heliostat  was  originally  used  of  an  Equatorial 
(q.v.)  revolving  on  its  polar  axis. — Uchotrojie -was 
the  name  given  to  a  miiTor  placed  at  the  distant 
station,  and  adjusted  Vjy  clockwoik,  so  tliat  at  a 
particular  hour  of  the  day  (arranged  beforehand) 
the  liglit  of  tlie  sun  shall  be  reflected  from  the 
mirror  directly  to  the  surveyor's  station.  See 
Skinallint;. 

Heliogravure.    See  Photoc.r.wt-pe. 

Heliouieter  ('sun-measurer')  is  an  instru- 
ment invented  by  Savery  and  Bouguer  in  1743-48, 
Vjy  means  of  which  tlie  diameters  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  can  be  measured  with  great  accuracy.  As 
improved  by  Dollond,  the  object-lens  of  the  instru- 
ment is  in  two  halves,  eacli  of  which  will  form  a 
perfect  image  in  the  focus  of  the  eyepiece  ;  and  the 
images  may  be  made  to  diverge,  coincide,  or  over- 
lap each  other,  by  varying  the  distance  between  the 
half-lenses.  If  the  diameter  of  the  sun  is  to  be 
measured,  the  two  lenses  are  adjusted  so  that  the 
images  may  touch  each  other ;  then  the  distance 
between  the  centres  of  the  two  object-glasses 
measured  in  seconds  gives  the  diameter  of  the 
sun.  Fraunhofer  made  many  remarkable  improve- 
ments on  the  heliometer. 

Heliopolis  ( '  city  of  the  sun ' ),  the  Greek 
name  of  tlie  city  called  by  the  Egyptians  On,  An, 
stood  on  the  east  side  of  the  Pelusiac  liranch  of  the 
Nile,  near  the  apex  of  the  Delta,  and  was  one  of 
the  most  ancient  and  important  of  Egyptian  cities. 
It  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians, 
and  Thales,  Plato,  and  Solon  are  reported  to  have 
learnt  from  its  priests.  Manetho,  the  historio- 
grapher of  Egypt,  was  chief-priest  here,  an  otHce 
filled  centuries  earlier  by  the  father-in-law  of  the 
Hebrew  Joseph.  One  of  the  red  granite  obelisks 
long  famous  as  Pharaoh's  Needles  is  still  standing 
near  the  handet  of  JIatareieh,  8  miles  N.  of  Cairo. 
It  is  70  feet  high,  and  bears  the  name  of  Usurtesen 
I.,  the  second  king  of  the  twelfth  ily nasty.  The 
obelisk  called  'Cleopatra's  needle,'  brought  in  1878 
to  England,  and  that  taken  to  New  York  in  1880, 
were  originally  brought  to  Alexandria  from  this 
city.     For  the  Syrian  Heliopolis,  see  BA.\LliEK. 

Helios,  the  (ireek  name  of  the  sun  (the  Koman 
Sot),  who  was  worshipped  as  a  god.  According  to 
Homer,  he  was  a  son  of  the  Titan  Hyperion  and 
of  Tiieia,  and  a  brother  of  Selene  or  Eos.  He  is 
described  by  the  same  poet  as  giving  light  both  to 
gods  and  men.  He  rises  in  the  east,  from  the 
marsliy  l)ordei-s  of  Oceanus,  into  whose  dark  ab\-sses 
he  also  sinks  at  evening.  The  later  poets,  \unv- 
ever,  gave  him  a  splendid  palace  in  the  east,  some- 
where below  Colchis,  and  descrilie  him  ,-is  being 
conveyed,  after  the  termination  of  tlie  burning 
lalxmrs  of  the  day,  in  a  winged  boat  of  gold,  alimg 
the  northern  coasts  of  the  sea  back  to  Colchis. 
After  the  time  of  .Eschylus,  he  began  to  be  identi- 
lied  with  Apollo  or  Plio'bus,  but  the  i<lentilication 
was  never  complete.  His  worship  was  widely 
spiead.  He  had  temples  in  Corinth,  Argos,  Tne- 
zene,  Elis,  and  manv  other  cities,  but  his  principal 
seat  was  Rhodes,  wlicre  a  four-team  was  annually 
sacriliced  to  him.  The  islaml  of  Trinacria  (Sicily) 
was  also  sacred  to  Helios,  and  here  his  daughters, 
PlHctu.sa  and  Lampetia.  kept  his  Hocks  of  sheep 
and  oxen.  It  wa.s  customary  to  offer  up  white 
lanilis  or  boars  on  his  altai-s.  The  animals  sacred 
to  him  were  horses,  wolves,  cocks,  and  eagles. 

Helioscope,  a  telescope  for  observing  the  sun 
without  injury  to  the  eyes,  by  means  of  blackened 
glass  or  mirrors  that  reflect  only  a  part  of  the 
fight. 


Heliotrope  (Heliotrnpium),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Boragineie  (q.v.);  of  the 
section,  sometimes  made  a  distinct  order,  Ehret- 
iacea',  the  fruit  separating  only  when  ripe  into 
four  carpels.  Many  of  the  species  have  flagrant 
flowers.  The  Penivian  Heliotrope  {H.  Pcruvi- 
anum),  a  shrub  with  oblong-lanceolate  wrinkled 


Common  Heliotrope  {Helivtropiani  EiiTojxeum), 

leaves  and  small  lilac-blue  flowere,  is  in  almost 
universal  cultivation  for  its  fragrance,  which  re- 
sembles that  of  vanilla  or  cherr^'  ]>ie.  Many  seminal 
varieties  of  this  species  are  cultivated  in  gardens. 
They  delight  in  rich  light  soil,  and  are  propagated 
by  cuttings  of  the  young  growing  shoots  in  a  moist 
warm  atmosphere.  The  European  or  Common 
Heliotrope  {H.  Enropirum),  a  native  of  the  south 
and  west  of  Europe,  is  an  annual  with  small  white, 
or  rarely  pale  red,  ttowei's.  Large  quantities  of 
the  flowers  are  used  by  perfumers  for  making 
scents. — Classical  fable  accounts  for  the  name 
heliotrope  (Gr.  helios,  'the  sun,'  and  trejiO,  'I 
turn')  by  representing  Clytia  as  turned  into  this 
flower  through  gazing  at  Apollo. 

Heliotrope,  or  Bloodstone,  a  variety  of 
chalcedony  or  of  jasper,  of  a  green  colour  with  red 
spots.  The  finest  heliotropes  consist  of  chalcedony, 
and  are  translucent,  at  least  at  the  edges ;  the 
jtisper  bloodstones  are  opaque.  Heliotrope  is  found 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  as  in  Scotland,  but  the 
linest  specimens  of  this  mineral  are  brought  from 
the  southern  parts  of  Asi.v.  It  was  well  known  to 
tlie  ancients,  who  obtained  it  chiefly  from  Ethiopia 
and  Cypru.s.  It  is  much  useil  for  boxes,  seals,  &c. ; 
and  those  specimens  are  most  valued  which  possess 
most  translucency,  and  in  which  the  red  spots  are 
bright  and  well  distributed.  It  wivs  much  used  in 
the  early  a"es  of  the  Christian  church  for  the 
engraving  of  sacred  subjects,  the  figures  being  so 
managed  that  the  red  spots  should  represent  drops 
of  blood.  The  name  heliotrope  (Gr.  /iciios,  'the 
sun  : '  trupe,  '  a  turning')  seems  to  have  lieen  given 
to  this  mineral  because  when  immerseil  in  water  in 
the  face  of  the  sun  it  was  .said  to  make  the  image 
of  that  luminary  in  it  appear  of  a  blood-red  colour. 
The  heliotrope,  thus  described  by  Pliny,  must  have 
shown  very  large  spots  or  veins  of  red. 

Heliotrope*    an    instrument.       See    Helio- 

GRATHY. 

Heliotropisin  ('turning  towards  the  sun'). 
When  a  seedling  plant  is  placeil  in  a  transi)arent 
vessel  of  w.ater  within  reach  of  the  light  of  a  window, 
the  stem  and  leaves  giaduallv  bend  towards,  and  the 


630 


HELIOTYPE 


nVAA. 


riiots  from,  the  lij^lit.     The  former  phenomenon  is 

tormeil  iiii.iitive,  iinil  the  latter  ini/iiliir,  hi'liotn>|i' 
ism.  Till"  shoots  and  leaves  of  nearly  all  i)lants 
turn  towarils  the  li^^ht,  ami  the  tnrnin^  of  the  sun- 
ll.iwer  towards  the  sun  is  familiar  to  every  one.  In 
the  oa.se  of  orf,'ans  which  are  iiositively  heliotropie 
the  firowlh  of  the  side  next  the  lifjht  is  retarded, 
and  that  iif  the  iippiisite  side  inorejused  ;  the  result 
oi  these  eomhined  actions  is  a  concavity  on  the 
former,  and  a  convexity  on  the  latter,  thus  causin;,' 
a  curvature  towards  the  lijjht.  In  the  case  of  roots 
tliese  actions  are  reversed.  That  these  results  are 
l>roiij,'lit  ahout  hy  the  a<'tion  of  lij;ht  is  evident  : 
the  cells  on  the  ciuicave  side  hecoine  les.«,  while 
tlio.se  on  the  conve.x  side  lieconie  more,  turjjid, 
thus  forcing  the  oi;;an  to  liend  ;  hut  the  cause  of 
tur^;escence  is  unknown. 

Ileliotype.    See  I'hotdcr.vpiiv. 

Il*'li<>x<»a.  or  'sun-animalcules,"  a  cla.«s  of 
rniio/ci.i  nf  the  Hliizo])od  type— i.e.  provided  with 
protriidiii;,'  processes  of  living;  matter.  These 
proc("sses  are  unlike  those  of  the  .VinoOce  (i|.v. ) 
m  liein^  .slender  and  radiant,  unlike  those  of 
Foramiiiifera  (q.v. )  in  heing  stahle  and  rarely 
interlaced.  Tlie  unit-nia.ss  or  cell  of  which  the 
Heliozoon  consists  is  glohnl.ar  and  stahle,  with  one 
nucleus  or  with  iiianv,  and  usually  with  vacuoles 
lioth  contractile  and  non-contractile.  There  is 
generally  a  'skeletcm,'  gelatinous  or  siliceous,  and 
in  the  latter  ca.se  either  continuous  or  conijiosed 
of  loose  spicules.  Multiplication  is  effected  hy 
rlivision  of  the  cell  into  two,  or  l>y  Imdding,  or  liy 
that  internal  fission  known  as  spore  formation.  In 
some  cases  the  spores  or  .voung  Ileliozoa  are  flagel- 
late, anil  thus  very  unlike  the  comparatively  slow 
and  passive  adults.  In  a  few  instances  Heliozoa 
have  lieen  seen  united  in  cidonies.  The  majority 
live  in  fresh  water,  hut  some  are  marine.  Common 
examples  are  Actinosplnerium,  Actinophrys,  Ka- 
phiiliophrys,  ami  Clathrulina.  See  r*KOTOZO.\ ; 
Tiiii^chli's  Protozoa  in  Mionn's  I'hicrrcick. 

llelilllll.     See  Aui;o.\,  Sus. 

Helix  (Gr.,  'a  snail'),  a  term  used  for  a  genus 
of  midluscs,  including  the  land-snails;  for  part  of 
the  human  ear  (see  E.\K);  and  for  a  small  volute 
or  twist  in  the  caj>ital  of  a  Corinthian  column. 

Hell,  the  place  of  torment,  an<l  the  comlition  to 
which  the  finally  im|>enitent  are  consigned  after 
death,  located  hy  all  the  Fiithers  in  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  although  St  Thomas  says  no  one,  without  a 
special  revelation  on  the  point,  can  say  where  it  is. 
I  nfortunatelv  for  clearness  of  ide,i.s  on  the  suhject 
the  word  lia.s  Ijeen  from  the  heginiiing  employe<l 
in  the  most  various  .senses,  and  the  confusion 
has  heen  only  deepened  hy  the  fact  that  in  our 
Authorised  Versicm  it  has  heen  ('luiiloved  to  render 
three  wholly  dill'erent  wonls,  Slieol  or  H.ides, 
Gehenna,  .and  once  Tartarus  (2  I'eter,  ii.  4).  The 
word  Sheol  occurs  in  the  t)ld  Testament  si.xty-live 
times,  and  is  rendered  'hell  thirty-one  times, 
'grave'  thirty -one  times,  and  'pit'  three  times. 
Its  original  meaning  .seems  strictly  to  have  implied 
merely  the  shadowy  underworld,  a  deep  and 
gloomy  cavern  considered  as  the  ahode  of  the  souls 
of  the  dead,  the  common  receptacle  for  all  man- 
kind, not  yet  definitely  diH'erentiat<?d  into  two  dis- 
tinct cla-sses  with  the  more  rigorous  logic  of  a  later 
age  and  a  fuller  revelation.  The  Hehrew  concep- 
tion of  .Sheol  w  as  nierely  a  kind  i>f  vague  sluadow 
of  pa.st  life,  in  which  the  soul  w.as  shut  off  from  any 
communion  with  the  living,  although  we  see  in  its 
loftier  expressions  of  religious  aspiration  the  impas- 
sioned desire  for  an  unhroken  continuit.v  of  union 
with  (Jod  ri.singintoa  vision  so  vivid  that  it  almost 
realises  itself  (.Joh,  .\iv.  1,"?  15  ;  cf.  also  I's.  xvi.  10, 
xlix.  I."),  Ixxiii.  24  ).  In  these  passages  the  Psalmists, 
in  the  heights  of  spiritual  elevation  and  coiis<ioii<- 


ne88  of  living  comniunion  with  God,  leap  in  vision 

across  the  separating  grave  into  a  real  conviction  of 
living  continuity  of  fellow!,hii>  that  rises  into  the 
region  of  true  immortality  ;  .(oh,  in  the  perplexity 
of  despair  lietween  his  present  calamities  and  the 
immeiliate  expectation  of  death  In'fore  (;o<rs 
favour  is  renewe<l  to  him,  yet  ahsorhed  with  the 
idea  that  G<kI  cannot  lielie  himself  hy  finally  for 
getting  his  righteous  .-ervaiit  and  his  former  fellow- 
ship,  grasps  the  notion  of  iiiini<u'tality  as  a  neces- 
sity of  (iod's  inherent  righteousness,  ami  thus 
reaches  the  loftiest  s])iritiial  conception  of  Chri.s- 
tianitv— a  living  iiiiicm  po.ssilile  hetween  man  and 
(Jod,  W  a  process  of  pure  religious  ahstraetion. 

The  hope  of  a  future  life,  in  Old  Testament  pro- 
])liecy,  hardly  extended  heyoml  the  perfected  glory 
of  the  Isr.aelitic  theocracy  under  conditions  whidi 
were  e.s.sentially  earthly,  hut  yet  already  |iartly 
elevated  into  the  su|)ernatiiial.  The  condition  of 
the  dead  continued  to  he  reiiiesented  .as  a  shailowv 
existence  in  Sheol— an  existence  without  special 
religious  significance  and  value. 

In  post -exilic  .ludaism,  on  the  contrary,  the  faith 
in  the  irsiinrrtioii  of  the  pious  dead  (in  connection 
with  the  Messianic  time  of  salv.ation)  ilevelope<l 
itself  out  of  these  two  elements  ;  {<i}  from  the  more 
indiviilu.al  conception  of  the  covenant-relation  and 
from  the  |)Ostiilate  of  retiiliution  in  the  kingdom  of 
the  Messiah,  and  (//)  from  the  inlluences  of  the 
I'ei-sian  faith  in  the  re.siirrecticm,  which  cooperated 
with  the  former  and  furnisheil  to  them  a  oelinite 
form.  While  this  faith,  through  the  I'/iniixres, 
hec.ame  .a  ]iopular  element  of  the  Messianic  hope, 
the  SdfMiiciis  held  f.ost  to  the  ohl  Hehrew  con- 
ceptiim  of  Sheol,  and  the  /■'nsciicn  .a.s.sumed  the 
Hellenistic  iloctrine  of  the  incorporeal  immort.ilitv 
of  souls  in  a  higher  state  of  heing,  a  doctrine  whicli 
litte<l  in  with  the  Esseiie  sidritualisni. 

In  consec|uence  of  this  developeil  eschatology, 
there  then  enteieil  also  into  the  eonception  of 
.Sheol  the  distinction  of  ilitiercnt  mor.al  retrihiitive 
states  :  («)  for  the  righteous  in  I'unu/inc  or  Ahra- 
liam's  hosoiii  :  (/<)  for  the  giMlless  in  Gc/iciina. 

The  Sejituagint  efjuivalent  for  Sheol  is  limtes,  a 
word  which  occurs  in  the  New  Testament  eleven 
times,  and  in  ti-n  of  these  is  rendered  'hell,'  the 
sole  exception  heing  1  ('<»:  xv.  55.  Again,  'hell' 
is  used  as  the  rendering  for  (iehenna  twelve  times, 
(higin.ally  as  in  the  tJld  Testament  usage  the  latter 
word  sini]ily  signified  the  Valley  of  Ilinnom  near 
the  city,  which  hail  heen  defiled  hy  the  ahomina- 
tions  of  liunian  sacrifice  in  the  Moloch  worship  of 
Aliaz  and  Maiia.s.seli.  It  hecame  later  a  kind  of  re- 
cept.acle  for  filth,  the  eonihiistihle  portions  of  which, 
.according  to  some  .authorities,  were  consuineil  with 
fire.  Hence  in  later  times  it  hecame  an  image  of 
the  place  of  jiunishiiicnt,  '  where  their  worm  dieth 
not,  and  the  fire  is  not  oiiencheil. '  The  word 
Topliet  occurs  in  the  Old  Testament  nine  times, 
and  apparently  meant  originally  a  grove  or  garden 
in  Hinnoni ;  afterwards  ilefileil  and  i>olliited  hy 
idolatries,  it  hecame  to  the  Hahhis  a  fit  symhol 
for  all  ahomin.ations,  the  very  gate  or  ]iit  <pf  hell. 
.Almost  all  the  p.assages  in  which  the  term  (Jeheniia 
oecurs  are  hopelessly  met.apli(uical  in  character, 
on  which  it  seems  unsafe  to  hiiild  too  rigorous  dog- 
matic definitions :  in  such  investigations  should 
never  lie  forgotten  the  saving  caution,  '  Theologia 
paralxdica  non  est  demonstrativa.'  No  less  dillieult 
IS  the  Greek  word  aiijtiios  (ninti.  Hehrew  o/ioii), 
v.ariously  rendered  hy  'everlasting'  and  'eternal.' 
It  occurs  seventy-one  times  in  the  New  Test.ament, 
ami  in  some  of  these  cases  it  is  certainly  employed 
of  ])eriods  limited  in  duration.  The  word  aioii  doe.s 
not  nece.s.sarily  connote  what  is  understood  hy 
'eternity'  either  in  classical  or  Hellenistic  (ireek, 
and  in  the  Oxford  Lihrary  of  the  Fathers  we  find 
its  adjective  lendered  very  properly  hy   'sectil.ir.' 


HELL 


C31 


So  that  St  Aui^istine's  famous  arfpinient  (De  Civ. 
fki,  xxi.  23),  liesiiles  its  unworthiiiess,  is  strictly  a 
lion  sapiilur — that  because  amnios  Z'jc  is  assumed 
to  mean  'endless  life,'  therefore  aionios  kolasis 
must  mean  'endless  punishment.'  As  Haupt  says, 
'  eternal  life '  is  not  to  St  John  a  mere  temi  for  un- 
broken continuance  in  being,  as  though  it  were 
simply  equivalent  to  the  indissoluble  life  (zot  ukata- 
liitos)  of  Heb.  V.  6  ;  it  does  not  define  the  form  of 
this  life  so  much  as  the  nature  and  meaning  of  it ; 
zoe  aiOiiius  is,  in  other  words,  a  description  of 
divine  life,  of  the  life  which  is  in  God,  and  which 
1)V  God  is  communicated.  At  the  same  time  the 
plain  exegesis  of  the  greater  numl)er  of  relevant 
|).a.ssages  in  the  New  Testament  i)oints  rather  to 
ei'ei/dsfiiiff  than  to  merely  rronian  rewards  and 
punishments,  and  indeeil  it  is  difficult  to  resist 
the  conviction  that  such  phrases  as  the  olethros 
aiOnios  ( '  de.struction ' )  of  1  Tliess.  v.  3,  and  2 
Tliess.  i.  9,  and  the  tclos  of  Philijiitians,  iii.  19,  refer 
to  endless,  hopeless,  irremediable  doom. 

The  same  uncertainty  is  reproduced  in  the 
Authorised  Version  in  the  words  used  to  express 
the  fact  of  judgment  p:usse<l  upon  the  souls  of  men. 
The  W(U"ds  krinOj  krisis,  and  krima  occur  in  the 
New  Testament  .some  190  times  ;  the  words  kata- 
kiiiKj,  kdtnkilsis,  katakrimu,  '2\  times.  In  all  but 
fifteen  places  these  words  are  properly  enough 
rendered  by  'judge'  and  'condemn,'  and  their 
derivatives;  in  the  rest  'damn'  and  'damnation' 
have  been  employe<l,  sometimes  as  incongniously 
as  in  1  Cor.  xi.  "29 ;  1  Tim.  v.  12  ;  ami  Rom.  xiv.  '2.3. 

Enough  has  been  .said  to  show  the  diHiculties  in 
the  exegesis  of  the  passages  on  which  the  dogmas 
of  the  church  about  the  future  punishment  of  the 
impenitent  are  based,  and  it  only  remains  to  stat« 
liere  the  chief  views  of  eschatology  now  prevalent, 
and  to  sketch  briefiy  the  development  of  these  in 
the  history  of  dogma.  It  does  not  belong  to  us  to 
discuss  the  abstract  theory  of  future  retribution — a 
postulate  of  all  religions  whether  rudimentary  or 
advanced — nor  to  attempt  to  justify  anew  the  ways 
of  tJod  to  man  by  distinguishing  ex  ruthcdm  what 
is  of  faith  ami  what  is  mere  human  speculation. 

I.  Tlie  orthodox  theory,  both  in  the  Eastern 
and  Western  chuiches,  is  that  at  death  there  is 
pa.s.sed  upon  every  impenitent  sinner  an  irreversible 
sentence  to  torture  of  both  his  moral  and  physical 
nature,  endless  in  duration,  and  inconceivably 
dreadful  in  intensity,  yet  proportioned  in  degree 
to  the  depths  of  the  ini(iuity  of  the  individual, 
whose  suti'erings  include  witliin  them  both  the 
'pain  of  lo.ss '  and  the  'pain  of  sense.'  The  former 
implies  the  renuu'seful  consciousness  of  the  loss  of 
all  good  ;  the  latter  embraces  all  forms  of  physical 
torment,  as  by  material  fire,  utter  ab.annonment 
and  alienation  from  God,  and  the  perpetual 
society  of  lost  men  and  devils.  The  pains  of 
hell  for  ever  without  any  mitigation  or  hope 
of  escape  are  the  fate  of  all  whose  faith  during 
their  lire  on  earth  has  not  come  u])  to  the  minimum 
requireil  by  the  rigorous  justice  of  {Joil.  Such  has 
been  the  orthodox  belief  of  almost  the  entire 
Christian  church  until  now,  and  its  fathers  and 
theologians,  from  St  Augustine  ami  St  Thomas 
-Viiuinas  down  to  Jeremy  Taylor.  Thomas  lioston, 
and  .Jonathan  Edwards,  have  lavished  all  the  wealth 
of  impa-ssioncd  rhetoric  ujion  the  description  of  its 
horrors.  Medieval  paintei-s  like  Orcagna  devoted 
all  the  riches  of  a  grotesque  imagination  to  the 
portrayal  of  its  material  torments  infinite  in  variety 
as  well  as  awful  in  intensity,  and  the  famous  fresco 
in  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pi.sa  shows  what  a  really 
great  artist  could  make  of  such  a  theme.  Inilee<i, 
the  words  which  Dante  saw  in  his  vision  above 
the  gloomy  portals  of  hell,  'AH  hope  .abandon 
ye  who  enter  here,'  merely  describe  with  literal 
truth  the  traditional  belief  of  the  Christian  church. 


St  Augustine  even  found  himself,  in  accordance 
with  Ills  views  of  predestination,  compelled  to 
postulate  the  eternal  damnation  of  unbapti.se<l 
infants.  Although  he  is  disposed  to  look  upon 
this  condemnation  as  mitissimtt  and  tolerabilior, 
lie  opposed  the  doctrine  condenine<l  by  the  synod 
of  Carthage  (419  A.D. )  of  an  inteniiediate  state  in 
which  unbaptised  infants  were  .said  to  be  (IJmhits 
infantum ).  Dante  .sees  these  hapless  victims  of 
fate  in  the  first  circle  of  the  Inferno,  and  inileed 
this  belief  was  held  by  the  entire  medieval  church; 
while  the  eternal  damnation  of  non-elect  infants 
still  .stands  implied  in  the  famous  Confession  of 
Faith  of  the  Westminster  Divines.  St  TlioiiuLS 
Aquinas  supposes  that  the  bliss  of  the  saved  will 
be  heightened  by  their  witnessing  the  punishment 
of  the  wicked  ;  and  Jonathan  Edwards  thus  ex- 
presses the  same  monstrous  notion,  '  the  view  of 
the  misery  of  the  damned  will  dimble  the  ardour 
of  the  love  and  gratitude  of  the  saints  in  heaven.' 
To  the  Catholic  the  horrors  of  hell  are  enormously 
ndtigated  by  the  notion  of  an  intermediate  state 
of  punitive  probation,  in  which  the  .souls  of  such 
as  have  not  died  in  mortal  sin  are  purgeil  from  the 
guilt  of  earthly  sin,  and  made  fit  for  translatirm  to 
heaven  to  the  companionship  of  God  and  his  elect 
saint.<.     See  PL'RGAT(pry. 

II.  The  .second  belief  in  importance  is  thai  associ- 
ated with  the  gicat  name  of  Origen,  and.  variimsly 
termed  Univer.salism,  Kest<uation,  or  the  Larger 
Hope — viz.  that  all  men  ultimately  will  be  saved. 
Origen  believed  that  the  punishment  of  hell  it-self 
was  but  purgatorial  in  its  character,  that,  its  ]iurify- 
ing  effect  once  attained,  the  punishment  would  cease 
for  all,  most  probably  even  for  the  devils  them- 
selves, and  that  the  duration  in  each  case  would  be 
proportioned  to  the  guilt  of  the  individual.  This 
doctrine  of  the  final  restoration  of  all  to  the  en- 
joyment of  happiness  is  the  theory  of  the  Apoca- 
tastaxis  to  which  so  many  of  the  early  Christian 
writers  allude.  It  was  taught  definitely  by  Gregory 
of  Nyssa,  who  foretells  in  glowing  words  a  time  when 
'there  shall  no  longer  be  a  sinner  in  the  universe, 
and  the  war  between  good  and  evil  shall  be  ended, 
and  the  nature  of  evil  shall  pass  into  nothingness, 
and  the  divine  and  uundngled  goodness  shall 
embrace  all  intelligent  existence.'  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia  teaches  that  in  the  world  to  come 
'  those  who  have  done  exil  all  their  life  long  will 
be  made  worthy  of  the  sweetness  of  the  divine 
bounty.  For  never  would  Christ  have  said  "until 
thou  ha.st  paid  the  ntternmst  farthing"  unless  it 
were  possible  for  us  to  be  cleansed  when  we  have 
paid  the  penalty.  Nor  would  he  have  sjioken  of 
the  many  stripes  and  few  unless  after  men  had 
borne  the  punishment  of  their  sins  they  might 
afterwards  hope  for  pardon.'  Gregory  of  Nazianztis 
seems  to  have  lieM  the  .same  opinion  :  and  St  Jerome, 
who  does  not  accept  it,  at  least  treats  it  with 
resiiect,  and  adds  'human  frailty  cannot  know  the 
JHilgnient  of  God,  nor  venture  to  form  an  opinion 
of  the  greatness  and  the  measure  of  his  punish- 
ment.' The  Keformei's  followed  .-Vugustine  excent 
in  so  far  as  they  rejected  Purgatory,  first  taught 
distinctly  in  his  treatise  Ik  Doctrina  Christiana. 
Of  theologians  inclined  to  the  wider  hope  it  is 
en<nigh  to  name  Bengcl.  Henry  More,  Kothe, 
Neauiler,  Tholuck,  ami  Martensen ;  and  among 
ourselves  Maurice,  Milman.  Kingsley.  Alf(ud, 
Ei'skine  of  Linlathen,  Thirhv.ill,  I'lum])tio,  and 
Farrar.  The  last  h.os  argued  for  the  cause  with 
equal  learning  and  eloquence. 

In  close  connection  with  the  theory  of  uiiiver- 
salism,  as  suggesting  inferences  all  tending  to  the 
pos.sibility  of  purification  and  educational  disci- 
pline beingmingled  with  the  iK-nalty  for  sin  I>eyon<l 
the  grave,  is  the  much  debated  ouestion  of  the 
descent  of  Christ  into  hell  to  jircach  to  the  spirits 


632 


HELL 


in  prison.  The  enrlii-Ht  account  of  tlii«  ns  a  liis- 
torical  fact  is  •liven  l>y  Kuscliius,  tint  it  soon  appeal's 
with  fantastic  ctaliuration  in  the  aiiDciyplial  t;ospcl 
of  Nicodenins.  ami  a  statement  of  lielief  in  it  wits 
inserted  in  the  Aposth's'  ('ree<l,  in  the  earlier  forms 
of  whicli,  however,  it-  (h)es  not  ajipear,  any  more 
than  it  iloes  in  the  creeds  of  Irenaus,  (>ri<;en,  Ter- 
tnllian,  Cyprian,  nor  in  that  of  the  Council  of  Nice. 
Yet  we  lind  it  distinctly  taught  liy  l};natiiis, 
Hernia-s,  .Justin  Martyr,  Iren;eiis,  Tortnllian, 
Clement  of  .Alexandria.  Orifren,  ('y])rian,  Cyril, 
Amlirose,  .lerome,  .Vuj^'ustine,  ami  Clirysostom.  It 
was  maintained  in  answer  to  Arian  and  AjioUin- 
arian  heresies,  a.s  proving  the  true  humanity  and 
the  real  death  of  Chri.st.  Besides  1  Peter,  iii.  19, 
the  other  pass.aires  in  Scripture  considered  to 
support  this  lielief  are  Ejih.  iv.  9,  and  Acts,  ii. 
'27-31.  Tertullian  a-sserts  thai  heaven  is  not  open 
till  the  end  of  the  world,  and  that  all  men  are  in 
Hades,  either  comforted  or  torinenteil,  and  that 
the  purpose  of  our  Lord's  descent  was  that  the 
patri.irclis  should  he  made  partakers  of  him.  The 
lielief  soon  came  to  lie  widely  liehl  th.it  the  patri 
nrclis  and  |)ropliets  were  in  Hades,  hut  p;ussed  with 
Christ  into  I'.iradise— the  fferm  of  the  medieval 
<loctrine  of  the  Li  minis  initnim.  .Aujiustine  seems 
to  have  helieved  that  Clirist's  preachin;;  wa-s  effec- 
tive in  savinj,'  some  sonls  which  were  in  torment. 
Cyril  of  Alexandria  descrilies  Christ  as  havin<i  hy 
his  descent  '  spoiled  Hailes  utterly,  and  thrown 
open  to  the  spirits  of  those  that  slept  the  gates 
that  none  m.ay  escape  from,  and  leaving  the  devil 
there  in  liis  solitude  and  desolation,  having  risen 
again.'  To  him  it  was  the  supreniest  proof  of 
Clirist's  love  to  man  that  the  Cross,  the  synihol  of 
deliverance,  li.ad  heen  raised  in  Hades  itself.  The 
theme  early  hecame  a  suhject  of  Christian  art,  a.s 
the  '  Harrowing  of  Hell  '  was  a  favourite  suhject 
of  our  own  medieval  writers  of  mysterie-s,  and 
takes  its  iilace  in  the  great  Diriiia  Ciniiiitedia  ai 
D.ante.  The  Iteforiners  felt  that  the  doctrine  lent 
support  to  the  dogma  of  Purgatory,  and  sonK^ 
as  Calvin,  taught  that  the  descent  into  Hades 
meant  only  the  terrihle  anguish  with  which  the 
.soul  of  Christ  was  tried,  equalling  in  its  intensity 
for  the  time  the  suM'eiings  of  the  damned,  while 
others  merely  admitted  the  fact  without  allowing 
themselves  to  clctine  anything  a.s  to  its  purpose 
or  result.  Hammond.  Pearson,  and  Harrow  main- 
tain the  only  meaning  of  St  Peter's  words  t<i  lie 
that  our  Lord  liy  his  Holy  S]iirit,  ins|>iring  Noah, 
preached  to  the  disobedient  antediluvians,  who  are 
now  for  their  disohedience  imprisoned  in  hell — an 
explanation  that  li.id  already  occurred  to  Jerome 
and  .Augusline.  liishop  Harold  Hrowiu?  observes 
that  on  this  subject  Pearson  li.as  written  less  logi- 
cally than  is  his  wont,  and  says  well  that  the  real 
didiculty  consists  in  the  fact  tiiat  the  proclamation 
of  the  tinishing  of  the  great  work  of  salvation  is 
represented  bv  St  Peter  as  having  been  addres.sed 
to  the.se  antediluvian  penitents,  while  no  mention  is 
made  of  the  penitents  of  later  ages,  who  are  equally 
interested  in  the  tidings.  It  can  hardly  be  denied 
that  the  patristic  interpretation  is  most  in  har- 
mony with  an  honest  exegesis  of  the  piussage  in 
St  Peter's  epistle,  but  here  it  may  be  enough  to 
fummarise  tiie  opinions  of  two  great  Protestant 
theologians,  Martcnsen  and  Oorner. 

The  former  s.ays  that  departeil  souls  live  a  deep 
sjiiritual  life,  for  the  kingdom  of  the  dead  is  a 
kingiloni  of  subjectivity,  n\  remrmbranre  in  the  full 
sense  of  the  word.  At  death  the  soul  linds  itself 
in  a  world  of  pure  realities  ;  the  manifold  voices  of 
the  world,  which  during  tliis  earthly  life  sounded 
together  with  the  voices  of  eternity,  grow  dumb, 
and  the  holy  voice  now  sounds  ahmc,  no  longer 
deadened  by  the  tumult  of  the  world  ;  and  hence 
the  realm  of  the  dead  becomes  a  realm  of  judg- 


ment. Departed  spirits  thus  not  only  live  and 
move  in  the  eleinent«  of  bliss  or  woe  which  they 
have  formcil  and  prepared  for  themselves  in  time, 
but  they  continue  to  re<'eive  ami  work  out  a  new* 
state  of  c<msciousncss,  because  thev  continue 
sjiiritnallv  to  mould  ami  govern  themselves  in  rela- 
tion to  tlie  «<■»•  manifestation  of  the  divine  will 
now  lii-st  presented  to  their  view. 

l)f  the  famous  pa.ssage  of  St  Peter,  Domer  says 
that  Peter  really  contem|ilates  Christ  after  liin 
death,  probably  before  his  lesnnpction,  as  active  in 
the  region  of  the  dead,  ami  thcielnrc  not  in  the 
place  of  torment,  but  in  the  intermi'diate  region. 
There  is  an  Intermediate  state  before  the  decision 
of  the.Iuilgment.  The  Heformation,  occupied  chielly 
with  opposition  to  the  Komisli  Purgatorv,  lea]ied 
over,  as  it  were,  the  middle  state— i.e.  left  at  rest 
the  questions  presenting  themselves  here,  gazing 
with  unblenclied  eye  only  at  the  antithesis  between 
the  saved  and  the  damned,  on  thi'  supjiosition 
(ret.ained  without  inquiry),  in  opposition  to  more 
ancient  tra<lition,  that  every  ones  eternal  lot  is 
definitely  decided  with  his  departure  fr<im  thi.s 
present  life.  This  is  in  keeping  with  tin-  high 
estimation  put  on  the  moral  worth  of  the  earthly 
life.  Nevertheless,  the  view  is  untenable,  and 
that  even  on  moral  groumls.  Not  merely  woiilil 
nothing  of  essential  importance  remain  for  the 
.Imlgmeiit  if  every  one  entered  the  place  of  his 
eternal  destiny  directly  after  death,  but  in  that 
ca.se  also  no  space  would  be  left  for  progressive 
growth  of  believers,  who  yet  are  not  sinless  at  the 
moment  of  death.  If  they  are  conceived  as  holy 
directly  after  death,  sanctilication  would  be  ellccted 
by  .seiiaration  fr<im  th(^  body  ;  the  scat,  therefore, 
of  evil  must  be  found  in  the  body,  and  saiictillca- 
ti<m  would  l>e  realised  through  a  mere  sutleiing  of 
death  a.s  a  physical  process  instead  of  through  the 
will.  Adil  to  this  that  the  absoluteness  of  Christi- 
anity demands  that  no  one  be  jndgi'd  licfoic  (  hrisli- 
anity  has  been  maile  accessible  and  bionghl  homo 
to  him.  IJut  this  is  not  the  ca.se  in  this  life  with 
millions  of  human  beings,  as  the  heathen  in 
central  Africa.  Nay,  even  within  the  church 
there  are  periods  and  circles  where  the  gospel 
does  not  really  aiqiroach  men  a.s  that  which  it 
is.  Moreover,  those  dying  in  childhooil  have  not 
been  able  to  decide  personally  for  Christianity. 
The  pa.ss.iges  which  make  the  ]>ious  enter  .'it  once 
a  better  place  exclude  a  Purgatorv  as  a  place  of 
punishment  or  penance,  but  by  no  means  exclude  a 
growth  in  perfection  and  blessedness.  Even  the 
departed  righteous  are  not  quite  perfect  before  the 
resurrection.  Their  souls  must  still  long  for  the 
dominion  of  Christ  and  the  consummation  of  (lod's 
kingdom.  There  is,  therefore,  ,a  sfiifiis  iiilniiniliiin 
even  for  believers,  not  an  instantaneous  pa,s.sage 
into  Jierfect  blessedness. 

How  closely  this  touches  the  question  of  tlie 
admissibility  of  Prayers  for  the  Deail  will  lie  at 
once  apparent,  although  that  subject  hardly  falls 
to  be  discussed  here.  It  w.i.s  ,an  ancient  jire- 
Christian  custom  to  otl'er  up  prayers  for  the  rlc.ad, 
and  we  early  find  traces  of  it  in  the  Christi.an 
Church.  These  .St  Augustine  thought  might  at 
least  s(fcure  for  the  lost  a  tolcrahil ior  r/iii)iii«tirj. 

III.  Another  view,  not  without  its  adherents,  is 
that  of  Conilitional  Immort.ality  or  Aniiihilation- 
alism,  according  to  which  (iiial  ilestriiction  and  not 
endles.s  suti'ering  is  the  doom  of  the  tinally  impeni- 
tent. It  of  course  traverses  the  belief  in  the  in- 
herent immortality  of  the  soul,  the  instinctive  hope 
and  belief  of  all  mankind  everywhere  :  and,  if  it 
saves  the  mind  from  the  horror  of  endless  torment, 
necessitates  the  belief  that  Cod  will  raise  u]i  the 
impenitent  from  the  dead  only  to  be  tormented 
and  ,at  la.st  destroyed.  Its  ailherents  depeml  for 
proof  on  the  literal  and  .assumed  interpretation  of 


HELL 


633 


a  few  passages  of  Scripture,  and  count  among  its 
modem  supporters  AVatts,  Isaac  Taylor,  and 
Whately. 

The  principal  theories  of  future  retribution  hav- 
ing thus  been  brietty  sketched,  it  only  remains  to 
say  a  few  words  more  generally  upon  the  signifi- 
cance of  New  Testament  eschatology,  and  the  mode 
of  its  development ;  and  here  we  shall  follow 
clo-iely  in  the  track  of  PHeiderer.  The  wh(jle  of 
the  Primitive-Christian  community  lived  in  the 
expectation  of  the  speedy  return  of  Christ  and  the 
advent  of  his  visible  kingdom  of  glory  upon  earth. 
Further,  the  Apocalypse  of  John  (following  the 
Jewish  apocalyptic — e.g.  the  Book  of  Knorh)  dis- 
tinguished between  ( 1 )  the  earthly  kiiigclum  of 
Christ  (of  limited  duration— 1000  years,  hence 
Ckilirtsm),  beginning  with  the  Parousia  and  First 
Resurrection,  and  (2)  the  definitive  end  of  the 
world  (Rev.  x.\.  2-7)  following  thereupon,  which, 
thro\igh  a  second  general  resurrection  and  judg- 
ment of  the  world,  together  with  the  annihilation 
of  the  kingdom  of  Satan,  will  introduce  the  eternal 
completion  of  the  kingdom  of  God  :  which  com- 
pletion, moreover,  the  Apocalypse  also  still  repre- 
sents in  accordance  with  the  analogy  of  the  Israel- 
itish  theocracy—descent  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem 
( Rev.  xxi. ). 

In  the  Pauline  eschatology  two  essentially  dift'er- 
ent  views  cross  each  other :  (a)  On  the  one  hand,  the 
sfK-cifically  Jewish-Christian  expectation  (handed 
down  in  the  Christian  community)  of  the  follow- 
ing miraculous  catastrophes :  Parousia,  Earthly 
Reign  of  Christ,  Resurrection  of  Christians,  General 
Judgment  (1  Cor.  xv.  2.?-26  ;  1  Thes.s.  iv.  13-18)— 
ander  the  a.ssumptiou  of  which  the  state  of  souls 
between  death  and  resurrection  appears  as  a  middle 
state,  like  sleep  ;  on  the  other  hand  (6)  a  result  of 
the  specifically  Pauline  doctrine  of  the  Spirit  of 
Christ — viz.  tiie  expectation  of  a  glorified  state  of 
individual  Christians  in  fellowship  with  Christ — a 
state  already  prepared  in  the  life  of  the  Christian 
<in  this  side  the  grave,  and  therefore  beginning 
immediately  after  death  to  unfold  its  fullness  in  the 
manifestation  of  a  body-of-light  ( Rom.  viii.  10  cl 
seq.,  and  17-23;  1  Cor.  v.  1  et  seq.  :  Phil.  iii.  20 
ei  scij. ).  The  latter  mode  of  conception  appeared 
first  in  the  later  Pauline  epistles,  without  however 
being  made  to  harmonise  with  the  first.  The 
definitive  end  of  the  world  Paul  conceives  as  intro- 
duced by  the  subjugation  of  all  the  enemies  of  God, 
which  is  carried  out  under  the  earthly  rule  of 
Christ  as  king  (whether  through  their  ccmversion 
or  even  through  their  coniplete  anniliilation),  and 
finally  of  even  death  itself.  On  this  f(dlows  the 
surrender  of  the  kingdom  by  Christ  to  God  and  the 
dominion  of  (iocl  alone  in  all  creation,  even  to  out- 
ward nature — glorified  and  serving  God  in  freedom 
( 1  Cor.  XV.  27  et  seq. :  Rom.  viii.  21 ). 

The  ideal  tendency  of  the  Pauline  e.schatologj' 
was  strengthened  from  the  side  of  Hellenism,  under 
whose  influence  already  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
had  combined  the  future  Messianic  world  of  Jewish- 
Christianity  with  the  higher,  heavenly,  or  ideal 
world,  and  had  immediately  attached  the  perfect 
state  to  the  death  of  the  individual  ( Heb.  xii.  23 ; 
iv.  9  ct  seq. ;  ix.  27 ). 

In  John  the  idealising  spiritualisation  of  the 
traditional  eschatology  goes  still  further  by  trans- 
forming the  external  perfection  (in  the  future)  into 
the  hiteninl  perfectin";  of  the  religious  Christian  life 
of  the  present  churcn.  As  already  the  'coming 
again '  of  Christ,  in  the  valedictory  discourses, 
wavei's  between  future  Parousia  ami  present  Com- 
ing in  the-Spirit  (John,  xiv.  16),  so  also  the  'eternal 
life  of  believers  has  now  already  become  realised  in 
the  present  in  their  corporate  unity  with  God  and 
Clirist,  which  is  above  death  and  judgment,  and 
which  receives  no  essential  addition  even  through 


the  future  resurrection  to  life  (which,  withal,  is 
here  firmly  adhered  to).  In  like  manner,  also. 
Judgment  realises  itself  already  in  the  historical 
life  of  the  community,  continuously,  in  the  jirocess 
of  separation  betwixt  faith  and  unbelief,  sonship  to 
God  and  to  the  Devil — which  separation  will  find 
only  its  full  outward  manifestation  in  the  future 
two-sided  resurrection  (John,  xvii.  3  ;  xi.  25  ct  seq.; 
vi.  40  ;  V.  24  et  .neq.  ■  iii.  17-21,  3ti:  xvi.  S  et  seq.). 

In  the  spiritualisation  of  eschatology  Origen  only 
went  further  on  the  line  pursued  by  the  Gosi>el  of 
John.  The  other  Church  Fathers  in  opposition 
to  Gnostic  spiritualism  laid  stress  all  the  more 
decisively  on  the  sensuous  reality  of  the  la.st  things, 
even  to  the  Pharisaic  fleshly  identity  of  the  resur- 
rection body  with  the  eartldy  one.  Only  it  nuist 
be  noted  that  Chiliasm,  as  an  apocalyptic  hope  for 
the  future,  was  from  the  3il  century  all  the  more 
decisively  rejected  by  the  church,  the  more  its 
idea  realised  it.self  in  the  church's  own  dominion 
over  the  world,  and  the  Parf)usia  of  Christ  was 
pushed  forward  from  the  near  future  to  the  far- 
off  distance. 

The  conception  of  the  If/nis  Pitrijato?-iiis,  derived 
from  the  Platonic  doctrine  of  the  purifying  pen- 
ances of  souls  in  the  world  beyond  the  grave,  was 
early  adopted  by  indivitluals,  but  from  the  time  of 
Gregory-  I.  became  a  part  of  the  Catholic  Church's 
faith,  closely  connected  with  the  Mass  and  with 
the  church's  penitential  discipline,  for  which 
reasons  it  was  rejected  by  Protestant  orthodoxy, 
which  makes  the  unchangeable  and  endless  retri- 
butive states  of  salvation  and  damnation  ensue 
immediately  on  the  death  of  the  individual, 
between  wliich  states  there  is  no  third,  though 
difl'erent  degrees  within  both  are  adnnttcd.  In 
no  other  respect  does  the  Protestant  eschatology 
difl'er  from  the  Catholic.  Chiliasm  is  rejected  as 
a  Jewish  error  ;  but  the  Parousia  of  Clirist  with 
general  resurrection,  judgment,  and  transformation 
of  the  world  stands  as  the  solemn  cli>se  of  time  and 
entrance  on  eternity.  In  the  further  coui^se  of 
Protestant  theology'  some  more  mystical  thinkers 
have  sought  to  \-ivify  the  abstract  monotony  of  the 
world  beyond  the  grave  as  conceived  by  the  church 
(«)  by  adopting  once  more  the  biblical  Chiliasm, 
now  termed  Millenarianisni,  or  (6)  by  finding  a 
compensation  for  purgatorj"  in  assuming  the  cajia- 
bility  of  conversion  beyond  the  grave,  or  assuming 
a  growing  perfectibility,  or  a.ssuming  a  general 
restoration  of  all  men  {A/mcatastasis). 

On  the  contrary  the  more  rational  theologians 
tended  rather  to  set  aside  the  last  remains  of  the 
primitive  Christian  dogma.s— Parousia  and  Resur- 
rection, and  to  reduce  this  whole  section  of  doctrine 
to  the  Alexan<lrine  form  of  the  incorporeal  con- 
tinuance of  souls.  Philosophic  thinkers  found  the 
essential  idea  of  Christian  eschatology  in  the  im- 
manent eternity  or  infinity  of  the  religious  spirit ; 
along  with  which  the  inili\idual  continuance  of 
souls  was  denied  by  some  (as  in  Sehleiermacher's 
Reden  ;  it  is  otherwise  in  his  Gtaiibenslehre  :  and 
by  the  Hegelian  Left),  but  a-sserted  by  others  (as 
by  LeiVmitz,  WoW,  Kant,  Fichte,  Selielling,  the 
Hegelian  Right,  Krause,  Herbart,  Lotze,  Teich- 
midler,  &c. ). 

Theology  holds  almost  exclusively  to  the  latter 
side.  The  Christian  faith  has  from  the  lH>ginning 
combined  the  two  fundamental  forms  of  hope  for 
the  future  :  {n)  the  Hebrew,  of  hope  for  the  earthly 
future  perfection  of  the  people  of  God,  and  (6)  the 
Hellenistic,  directed  to  the  sitpramidu/atie  perfec- 
tion of  the  indiviilual  soul.  Each  of  the  two 
represents  an  essential  side  of  the  Christian  hope, 
and  is  C(mceivable  without  self-contr.adiction  ;  it 
is  only  from  the  mixture  of  both  sides,  as  it  p,-u^sed 
over  from  the  Jewish  theology  into  primitive 
Christianity,   that   obscurities   and    contradictions 


634 


HELL 


HELLEBORE 


ai'iisc.  Til  set  o.-'ide  iIii'm-  ami  luiii;;  eiu'li  of  the 
two  Hides,  tlie  iiiiiiulniie  iiiid  tliv  Mi|iranmiidanc, 
or  the  social  ami  iinliviilual,  hope  of  |>eifection 
to  the  clearest  possihle  view  appears  (<>  lie  the 
eschalolo^'ical  tjt-k  of  the  theido^jy  of  the  present. 

The  primitive  Cliristiaii  faith  in  the  return  of 
Christ  anil  the  earthly  erection  of  his  kin;.'diim 
includes  the  irleal  of  the  earthly  realisation  oi  the 
kin^;doMi  of  (lod,  or  of  the  extensive  and  intensive 
permeation  of  the  Christian  (Spirit  tlirou;;hout 
linnianity,  as  the  •in!i\  and  task  of  the  history 
of  the  world.  It  is  in  the  union  of  all  mankind 
in  the  family  of  the  children  of  (!od  and  in 
the  moralising'  of  the  whole  lite  of  society  throu;,di 
the  power  of  the  Christian  spirit  that  the  viclori- 
ous  Coming;  and  Uoyal  Kiilc  of  Christ  in  the 
earthly  worhl  is  constantly  realisiu};  itself.  But, 
because  realisin;;  itself  upon  the  foundation  of  the 
hist<uical  life  of  nations,  it  remains  constantly 
hounil  to  those  ecuidilions  and  limits  which  are 
historically  human. 

Christian  failh  hopes  to  find  in  the  supra- 
mundane  or  heavenly  future  of  the  individual  per- 
sons the  completion  of  wh.at  is  on  earth  hut  frag- 
mentary, and  the  harmony  of  what  is  on  earth 
discordant.  This  hope  rests  partly  («)  on  the 
consciousness  of  the  independent  super-sensuous 
reality  of  the  personal  life  distinct  from  its 
-sensuous  orjjanisni  ;  iKUtly  and  especially  {/>)  on 
the  conviction  of  our  faith  that  we  are  ilestined  to 
perfect  likeness  to  (;o<l  and  fellowship  with  Cod, 
and  that  this  our  destinati<m  is  eternally  founded 
in  (Jod,  anil  therefore  not  to  be  set  aside  b}'  any 
temporal  contin;,'ency  whatever. 

Since  the  capaiity  for  ch^velopment  which  is  in- 
herent in  the  nature  of  the  human  soul  cannot  he 
renioveil  with  the  cleath  of  the  body,  .anil  since  the 
eternity  of  the  pains  of  hell  may  be  considered 
neither  i)sycholo';ically  thinkable  nor  coiLsistent 
with  the  all  wise  love  of  Goil,  nor  yet  corre- 
spondent to  the  tlioufjht  of  1  Cor.  xv.  28,  there- 
fore the  I'rotest.ant  doctrine  of  the  stability  of  the 
twofold  state  of  departed  souls  nnist  be  trans- 
formed into  the  thou'dit  of  an  inlinite  variety  of 
forms  and  stajjes  of  development  beyond  the 
;^rave  in  which  there  remains  room  for  the  infinite 
love  to  exercise  endlessly  its  educative  wisdom. 
Further,  the  unbiblical  concc]>tion  of  a  resurrec- 
tion of  the  body  of  lle.sh  is  to  be  explained  accord- 
ing to  the  spiritualised  ( 1  Cor.  xv.  44,  also  oOtli 
verse)  I'auline  theory  of  resurrection  bodies,  in 
doing  which  the  speculative  theory  of  the  body  as 
the  totality  of  ministering  forces  organised  by  the 
soul  itself  may  be  called  to  our  aid. 

For  the  rest,  the  tnie  evangelical  treatment  of 
the  '  List  things "  must  follow  the  principle  of 
biblical  caution  :  and,  instead  of  arbitrarily  pictur- 
ing to  ourselves  that  which  is  unsearchable,  we  can 
content  oui'selves  with  the  promise  that  we  will  be 

f)resent  with  the  Lord,  and  that  the  eternal  bles.sed 
ife,  which  is  begun  indeed  already  here  below,  but, 
under  the  endless  suflering  of  the  world,  remains 
constantly  incomplete,  will  .at  bust  reach  perfection  I 
in  the  knowledge  and  love  of  God. 

See  the  articles  Coxditional  Immort.vi.ity,  Devil, 
Hkavk.v,  Immortality,  JIohammki),  Prayer,  Pirga- 
TORY,  KKsniRKiTinx :  also  the  HiBtorics  of  Dogma 
of  Neander  and  Hagcnbach ;  E.  White's  Life  in  Christ 
(1.S46) :  Andrew  .Juke.s's  Restitution  of  All  TiiimmCM  ed. 
18G9);  J.  lialdwin  ISrovi-n's  Duetrine  of  Annihilation  in 
the  Lifiht  of  the  Irospel  of  Love  (1S7.T) :  F.  N.  Oxenhain's 
Catholic  Kxchatoloijji  iniil  Vnivermlimi  (2d  ed.  1878),  and 
hi.s  answer  to  Pus«y,  niml  is  the  Truth  im  to  Ererlastinq 
y'li/.iWimfnr' (2  parts,  1882);  H.  M.  Luckock's  After  Death 
(1871))  ;  W.  R.  Alger's  Critical  HixI'irii  of  the  [ioctrinf  of 
a  Future  Life  (10th  eiL,  with  a  cujiipjetc  bibliography  of 
the  subject,  comprising  4977  hooks  rel.iting  to  the  Nature, 
Origin,  and  Destiny  of  the  .Soul,  by  Ezra  .\bbot.  Boston, 
18«0) ;   E.  H.  Pluniptre's  article  '  I-lschatologj- '  in  Smith 


and  Wace'fl  Uictionarii  of  Chrittian  Jliotiraphit^  ,(r.  (vol. 
ii.  1880),  and  his  S/iiritu  in  1'ri.ion,  and  other  StiiJieii  on 
the  Life  after  Death  (1885);  K.  W.  Farrar's  Elernat 
//<>/«  (1878),  and  Mercy  ami  Jiulijment  (1881);  .S. 
Davidson's  lioctrine  of  ImM  'J  hini/n  eontaineil  in  the  A'nr 
Testament  (1882);  Tli.  Kliefotli's  fhri/tl.  Kschalnlnijie 
(Lcip.  188<i);  and  Professor  J.  Agar  Beet's  scries  of 
pajiers  in  tlie  Expositor  for  1890. 

Ilellas.    See  GitKKCE. 

Hcllohore,  a  n.ame  Ap|died  to  two  distinct 
genera  of  plants.  The  genus  to  which  it  more 
properly  belongs,  and  to  which  it  has  belonged 
since  very  ancient  times,  Hellebruus,  is  of  the 
n.atural  order  Kanunciilacea',  and  is  characterised 
bv  a  calyx  of  liM-  ]iei-sistcnt  sepals,  often  resem 
bling  jietals  ;  a  corolla  of  eight  or  ten  very  short, 
tubular,  honey-secreting  pet.als  ;  numerous  stamens 
.and  three  to  ten  ]>istils;  a  leathery  capsule,  and 
seeds  .arranged  in  two  rows.  The  species  are  per- 
ennial herbaceous  plants,  mostly  Kuropean,  gener- 
ally with  a  short  root  stock  ;  the  stem  mostly  leaf 
less,  or  nearly  .so,  but  sometimes  very  leafy  ;  the 
leaves  nuue  or  less  evergreen,  lobed,  the  ilowei> 
terminal.  A  familiar  example  of  this  genus  is  the 
Black  Hellebore— .so  called  from  the  colour  of  its 
root.s — or  Chiistmas  Rose  (//.  tiit/er),  a  favourite 
in  flower-gardens,  because  its  large  white  tlowen* 
— which  have  in  recent  years  been  greatly  im 
proved  by  llorists  in  point  of  size  and  purity  of 
colour — are  produced  in  wint-er.  The  leaves  are 
all  rf.ilical  :  the  stalks  generally  one  tlowered  :  the 
Howers  white  or  tinged  with  red.  ISlack  hellebon! 
formerly  enjoyed  a  higher  rei)Utation  as  a  medicinal 
agent  than  it  now  pos,se.s.ses.  Melampus  is  repre- 
sented (US  em|iloyiiig  it  in  the  treatment  of  madness 
centuries  before  the  Christian  er.a.  The  root  is  the 
part   used   in    medicine,   .and   it   is   importeil  into 


Christinas  Kosc  (Hellehorut  niijer). 

Britain  from  Hamburg,  and  sometimes  from  Mar- 
.seilles.  It  consists  of  two  parts — the  rhizome  or 
root-stock,  and  the  fibres  descending  from  it.  The 
former  is  nearly  half  an  inch  thick,  sever.al  inches 
long,  .and  knotty,  with  transverse  ridges  and 
slight  longituilinal  stria\  The  taste  is  slight 
at  first,  then  bitter  and  acrid.  It  is  not  much 
employed  at  the  present  day,  but  it  has  l)een 
found  of  service  ( 1 )  in  mania,  melancholia,  and 
epilepsy;  (2)  as  an  emmenagogue ;  (.3)  in  dropsy 
— its  action  as  a  drastic  purgative,  and  its  stimu- 
lating etfecf  on  the  ve.s,sels  of  the  liver,  rendering 
it  useful  ;  (4)  in  chrimic  skin  disea.ses  ;  and  (.5)  as 
an  anthelmintic.  Ten  or  fifteen  grains  of  the 
powdered    root    act    as    a   sharp    purgative.      The 


HELLENIST 


HELMHOLTZ 


635 


tincture,  which  is  obtained  by  rnaceiatii)n  in  spirit, 
is  usiiMliy  ^'iven  when  its  action  as  an  eniinena- 
gojtiic  is  ri'iiiiired.  In  an  excessive  dose  it  acts  as 
a  narcotic  acrid  imison,  and  causes  vomiting',  purg- 
ing', liiirninK  pain  in  the  stomach  and  intestines, 
faintness,  paralysis,  and  death. — !Stinl<in;,'  Helle- 
bore ( //.  fiitirlii.t)  jcrows  on  hills  and  mountains  in 
the  south  and  west  of  Europe,  in  some  of  the  chalk 
districts  of  Enjjland,  and  in  several  places  in  Scot- 
land. It  has  a  very  ilisa<;reeable  smell,  and  ^reen 
Howers  somewhat  tinned  with  purple.  The  .stem  is 
many-flowered  and  leafy. — Creen  Hellebore  ( //. 
rii-iilix),  also  found  in  the  chalk  districts  of  En^'- 
land,  lias  a  leafy  stem,  with  a  few  lar},'e  greenish- 
yellow  (lowers.  The  celebrated  liellebore  of  the 
ancients  was  proliably  a  siiecies  peculiar  to  (Ireece 
and  the  Levant,  //.  orkntalis  or  H.  offirhiri/i.s ;  all 
the  species,  however,  have  similar  medicinal  (piali- 
ties.  From  the  abundance  of  the  plant  around  the 
city  of  Anticyia,  hypochondriacal  persons  were  said 
to  need  a  visit  to  Anticyra. 

White  Hellebore  {Vri-atnim  ctlbiim)  behmgs  to 
the  natural  order  Melanthacea?.  The  ^enus  li.as 
polyjjamous  llowei-s,  with  si.vleaved  perianth,  six 
stamens,  three  pistils  coherinf,'  at  the  base,  a  three- 
horneil  capsule  separating  into  three  many-.seeded 
follicles,  and  compres.sed  seeds  winged  at  the  apex. 
\\'hite  hellebore  has  a  leafy  .stem,  sometimes  4 
feet  high,  ovate-oblong  leaves,  a  long  terminal 
compounil  panicle,  and  yellowish-white  flowers. 
It  al>ounds  in  the  mountains  of  the  centre  and 
south  of  Europe,  but  is  not  found  in  Britain.  The 
root  was  once  much  used  in  medicine,  but  now 
rarely,  although  it  seems  to  act  powerfully  in  some 
diseases.  It  is  a  very  acrid  and  active  poison.  Its 
powder  is  used  to  destroy  lice,  and  by  ganleners 
for  killing  caterpillars.  A  decoction  and  ointment 
of  it  are  sometimes  used  in  itch  and  ringworm. 
( Jaution  is  necessary  even  in  handling  the  powder 
of  white  lielleliore,  and  very  unpleasant  ed'ects 
ensue  from  its  getting  into  the  eyes  or  nose. 
— American  Hellebore,  or  Swamp  Hellebore 
(V.  ririilr],  known  also  ,as  Indian  Poke  or  Itch 
Weed,  is  frequent  in  damp  grounds  from  Canada 
to  Carolina.  Its  root  has  properties  similar  to 
those  of  white  hellebore.  These  pronerties  seem 
to  depend  chietlv  on  an  alkaloid  called  \'eratria 
(q.v.). 

HcIIcuist  (Or.  Hclleii/ntcx).  one  who  ailopts 
(Ireek  customs  and  language  ;  a  name  given  es|)eci- 
ally  to  those  among  the  Jews,  and  afterwanls  in 
the  Christian  church  of  Judea,  who,  cither  by  birth 
or  1)V  residence,  and  by  the  adoptiim  of  the  (Jreek 
language,  manners,  and  usages,  were  regarded  as 
(}reeks — in  opposition  to  the  Hebrews  pro[)erly  so 
called,  whether  of  Palestine  or  of  the  L)isi)ersion, 
and  to  the  Hellenes,  or  Greeks  proper.  Tliey  are 
called  (Irrcirtti.s  in  tlie  Authoriseii  Version,  (lirrinii 
Jcirs  in  the  Ive\iseil  \"ersion,  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. They  ine\ital)ly  stood  in  a  relation  of 
rivalry,  if  not  of  antagonism  to  the  Hel)rews 
(see  Acts,  vi.  1,  and  ix.  29).  It  was  annmg  the 
.lews  settled  in  Alexandria  that  the  Hellenising 
tendency  found  its  freest  development  ;  and  it  is 
to  that  city  that  we  must  refer  the  formation  as 
well  of  that  peculiar  dialect  of  the  (!reek  lan- 
guage which  is  known  as  the  Hellenistic,  its  of 
that  speculative  philosophy  which  exercised  so 
large  an  influence  on  those  early  Christian  schools, 
of  which  Urigen  is  the  most  famous  exponent  (see 

Al,KX.\Nl)l!I.\). 

The  really  characteristic  element  of  the  Hellen- 
istic (oc'i'k  consists  in  its  foreign,  and  especially  its 
Hel)rew  and  Aramaic  words  .and  idioms.  Although 
it  was  in  its  origin  a  purely  ]io|)ular  f(uni  of  the 
laugii.age,  yet  its  being  employed  in  the  .Mexandrian 
or  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testament  1ms 
given  to  it  all  the  fixedness  and  delinite  cli.aracter 


of  a  written  l.mguage.  The  Hellenisms  of  the 
Septuagint  differ  in  many  respects  from  those  of 
the    New   Testament,    which   again    iiresent   some 

ixiints  of  discrepancy  with  those  of  the  Alexamlrian 
'"athers  ;  but   there  are  certain  le.ading  character- 
istics common  to  them  .all. 

The  influence  of  the  Hellenistic  modes  of  thought 
<m  the  Alexandrian  phiIi)so])hy  will  be  traced  tinder 
Pmu),  Neoi'l.vto.nis.m,  Plot ixr.s,  &c. 

See  Wmer,  (Irammatik  drs  jV.  T.  Sfirtichidiomg  (l.t22; 
7th  ed.  18()7);  jUex.  Kuttmann,  Uramm.  den  N.  T. 
Sprachrjehrauchs  (1859)  ;  S.  A.  Green,  Handhimk  to  the 
Grammar  of  the  Greek  Neie  Testament  (188."));  M'.  H. 
Simcox,  On  the  Lawjimtjc  of  the  Nc%e  Testament  (].S.S!I) ; 
Dr  Hatch,  Essam  in  BiUieal  Greek  (1880).  There  are 
dictionaries  of  New  Testament  Greek  by  Schleusner 
(1792),  Robinson  (Boston,  18.%:  New  York,  l.S.")0), 
Cremer  (186C;  Eng.  ed.  by  I'rwick).  D.  Harting  (2d 
ed.  Utrecht,  18S8);  also  Grimm's  ed.  of  Wilke's  Claris 
(18(!8.  and  1877-79  :  Eng.  ed.  by  Professor  Thayer  I. 
Concordances  of  the  Greek  New  Testament  are  tliose  by 
K.  Young  (1884),  and  Hastings  and  Hudson,  as  revised 
by  E.  Aljbot  ( Boston,  1885 ). 

Heller,  Stephen,  pianist  and  musical  c<im- 
poser,  was  bom  on  15th  May  1813  .at  Pesth,  and 
made  a  brilliant  debut  a-s  a  pianist  when  only  nine 
years  of  age.  Befoi"e  he  was  sixteen  he  had  played 
in  most  of  the  princip.al  cities  of  Europe.  From 
18.S0,  when  he  settled  in  Augsburg,  he  began  to 
study  compositi(m.  In  18.S8  he  removed  to  Paris, 
where  he  occupied  himself  with  composing  and 
teaching  until  his  death,  on  13th  J.anuary  1888. 
In  the  matter  of  technique  he  must  be  ranked 
beside  Chopin.  He  wrote  almost  exclusively  for  the 
pianoforte  ;  his  works,  which  number  about  l.'iO, 
consist  of  sonatas,  etudes,  i.*v:c. ,  and  .are  distin- 
guished by  originality  .and  relinement.  See  his 
Life  by  B.arbedette  (P.aiis,  187G). 

Hellespont.    See  Daedanelles. 

Hell  Gate,  or  Hurl  Gate,  named  by  the 
Dutch  settlers  of  New  York  Hd/r  Gal.  is  a  pass  in 
the  East  Ri\er,  between  New  York  city  and  Long 
Island,  formerly  very  dangerous  to  ye.s.sels  from  its 
numerous  rocks  and  rapid  current.  As  early  as  1851 
attempts  were  made  to  blast  aw.ay  the  obstruc- 
tions; the  operations  which  in  1S85  finally  freed 
the  navigation  are  described,  with  an  illustration, 
in  the  artiide  Blasting. 

Hellili.  a  town  of  Sp.ain,  69  miles  by  rail  NNW. 
of  Murcia.  In  the  vicinity  .are  |)rodiictive  .sulphur- 
mines  and  sulphur-springs.     Pop.  l.'i.TdO. 

Helm.    See  Steering. 

Helmet.     See  Armour,  HEH.vLDiiy. 

Helmet-shell  (  Casxis),  a  genus  of  gasteri>iiods, 
type  of  a  family  (Cassida-),  the  members  of  which 
are  somewhat  whelk-like,  .and  have  thick,  heavy 
shells,  with  bold  ridges,  a  short  spire  .and  a  long 
aperture,  the  outer  lip  toothed,  the  canal  recurvecl. 
Numerous  species,  amounting  to  about  fifty  if  we 
include  closely  allied  genera  such  .as  Cassidaria, 
occur  in  the  warmer  seas.  As  the  shells  are  made 
up  of  difl'ercntly -coloured  layers,  they  are  much 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  Cameos  ( ii. v. ).  The 
species  most  used  is  the  large  Black  Helmet  ( C. 
>iinr/agiiisc((reii.sij<).  sometime-s  almost  a  foot  long, 
with  a  whitish  outer  and  black  inner  layer. 

Helmlioltz.  Hermann  vox,  a  very  dis- 
tinguisheil  scientist,  was  born  at  Pot.sdam,  31st 
August  18'21  :  he  was  ennobled  by  the  Empeii>r 
of  Germany  in  1883.  He  w.as  at  first  a  surgeon 
in  the  army,  then  a-ssist.int  in  the  Berlin  Ana- 
tomical Museum,  and  was  a  professor  of  Phy- 
siology from  1840  at  Kiinigsberg,  from  18.55  at 
P.imn.'and  from  18.58  at  Heidelberg.  In  1871  he 
became  professor  of  Physics  in  Berlin.  Hidmlicdtz 
is  equally  distinguished  in  physiology,  in  uiathe 
inatics,   and   in   experimental    and    malliematical 


636 


HELMINTHOLOGY 


HELPS 


physics.  His  pliysioloffical  works  are  principally 
coniu'Cled  with  tiie  eye,  the  ear,  ami  the  nervous 
system.  Tims,  we  Wave  his  exhaustive  treatise  on 
Pliysioli>;,'ioal  ()i«tics,  his  Speculum  for  the  exam- 
ination of  the  Uetina,  his  l)iscoui-se  on  Hunian 
Vision,  ami  various  |)apers  on  the  means  of 
nieasurin';  small  jierioils  of  timi',  and  their  appli 
cation  to  timl  the  rate  of  pr(ipii^;ation  of  iieive 
disturbances.  Of  a  semi  i>hysical  nature  we  have 
his  .\nalysis  of  the  Spectrum,  his  exjilanation  of 
\'owel  Sounds  ( KUtiKifiirliC  ilrr  I  (iriilfii  :  see 
S()IN1)),  anil  his  papei-s  on  the  Conservation  of 
Enerj,'y  with  reference  to  .Muscular  .Action.  In 
physical  science  he  is  known  liy  his  pai)er  on  Con 
servation  of  Knerfjy  (  VeUr  d.  'ErhdlliiiKj  il.  Knift, 
1S47,  translated  [hailly]  in  Taylor's  Sriciitifir 
Memoirx,  new  series) ;  liy  a  popular  lecture  on  the 
same  subject  (l.S.'>4);  hy  two  memoirs  in  t'relle's 
Joiinitil,  on  Vortex-moticm  in  fluids,  and  on  the 
Vibrations  of  Air  in  open  pipes,  ^.e.,  and  hy 
several  researches  into  the  develo]imeiit  of  electric 
current  within  a  ;,'alvaiiic  battery.  His  Pd/ni/arc 
visxiiisrhiiftlii-hc  I'nrlnir/c  a|ipeared  in  1.SG5-76 
(En;:,  trans,  by  .\tkinson,  with  Introduction  hy 
Tyndall,  ISSl);  his  ;Ljrreat  work  mi  />/<■  Lr/ire  tier 
Tone»tpjin(/iiii</eii  ( Kng.  trans,  by  .Ale.x.  J.  Ellis, 
The  Scnsatioiis  of  Tone.)  in  1862;  his  WisseMchnft- 
lic/ie  Alili/i)i(lliiiif/en  in  1881-SS;  and  his  Ji'eden 
uud  Vorfi-(i<ic  in  1884.  He  died  8lh  September 
1894. 

Sec  Clerk-Maxwell  in  Nature,  vol.  xv. ;  Rucker  in 
Ifaliiir.yn].  li. ;  and  Bezold's  German  monograph  (1895). 

lloIlllilltll<»Ioey,  that  branch  of  Zoology 
which  treats  of  worms,  especially  para.sites. 

IIcIiiioikI.  a  town  in  the  Netherlands,  province 
of  Norlh  Ihaliant.  lies  23  miles  N\V.  of  \eiilo  hy 
rail.  There  arc  m.iiiufaetures  of  te.vtiles,  machinery, 
and  iiou.     Pop.  y(iL'9. 

Ilelilioilt.  .Ie.\x  K.\i'Tt.sTK  VAN,  Belgian 
cheinisi,  was  liorn  at  Brussels  in  1.577.  At  Louvain 
he  studied  medicine  and  its  co;,'nate  sciences,  hut 
soon  turned  .aside  from  them  to  throw  himself  into 
the  movement  known  as  mysticism,  to  study  the 
■\v<u'ks  and  pr.actise  the  precepts  of  Thomas  a 
Kemiiis  and  .lohann  Tauler.  Then,  falling  in 
with  the  writings  of  Paracelsus,  he  came  b;ick 
to  his  tirst  love,  and  began  to  studv  cliemistry 
and  natur.vl  philosophy,  .\fter  spenc^ing  several 
years  in  I'lance,  Switzerhand,  and  Kngland,  in 
I60o  he  returned  to  Amstenlam,  married  Mar- 
garet van  Hanst,  a  noble  lady  of  Itrabant,  and 
in  Kill!)  settled  ilown  at  his  estate  near  Vilvorde, 
wlicii'  he  sjient  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
chemical  investigations  of  various  kinds.  He 
died  30th  December  1644.  In  spite  of  much 
theosophical  mistiness  and  much  alchemical  error. 
Van  Helmont  is  regarded  by  some  historians  of 
chemistry  as  the  greatest  chemist  who  ]ueceiled 
Lavoisier.  He  was  the  first  to  point  out  the  impera- 
tive ueces.sity  for  employing  tlie  balance  in  chemis- 
try, and  by  its  nutans  showeil,  in  m.any  instances, 
the  indestructibility  of  matter  in  chemical  changes. 
He  paid  much  attention  to  the  study  of  ga.se.s,  and 
is  sup])osed  to  have  lieen  the  first  to  apply  the  term 
na.sca  to  elastic  aeriform  Huids.     Of  these  g.ases  he 


gn 

distinguished  several  kinils.  He  wa.s  .also  the  first 
to  take  the  nudting-point  of  ice  and  the  boiling- 
point  of  water  a.s  standards  im  the  measurement 
of  temperature.  It  is  in  his  works  that  the  term 
saturation  is  tirst  employed,  to  signify  the  com- 
bination of  an  acid  with  a  base  ;  and  he  wa.s  one  of 
the  earliest  investigators  of  the  chemistry  of  the 
Huids  of  the  human  body,  .\long  with  otlu-r  l)hy- 
siologists  of  his  day.  he  speculateil  much  on  the 
seat  of  the  soul,  which  he  [daced  in  the  stomach. 
An  .account  of  his  cimtributions  to  the  knowledge 
of   chomistrv    will    be   found    in    the    Histories    of 


Chemistry  by  Kopp  and  Hiifer.  His  works,  en- 
titled (Jrliis  Meilinntv,  were  published  hy  his  son 
four  years  after  his  death,  and  freouently  since 
then.  See  Uommelaere,  £tiulcs  siir  tan  llchniint 
(Brussels,  IStiSi. 

Il<'lllistrdt,  a  town  of  Oemiany,  24  miles  by 
rail  KSK.  of  Brunswick,  w.a-s  formerly  famous  for 
its  Prot<>stant  university,  founded  by  .lulius.  Huke 
of  Brunswick,  in  ir>74,  and  supiuisscil  by  .Icrome 
Bonap.arte  in  l.sOil.  The  university  building  (the 
Juleum).  which  still  remains,  the  I2th  centurv 
church  of  St  Stephen,  and  the  .Marienberg  churcli 
are  the  most  notew(uthy  eililices.  Helnistedt  grew 
up  origimtHv  rcuind  the  mon.astery  ( now  in  ruins) 
of  St  l.ndger  in  the  9tli  centurj-.     'Poji.  9800. 

IIcIiiiiiImI,  or  Hki.maM).  a  river  of  Afghani- 
stan, rises  on  the  south  slopes  of  the  Hindu  Kush, 
Hows  south  west,  west,  and  north-west,  and  after 
a  conr^c  of  about  Ci.Sd  miles  empties  itself  into  the 
hike  of  llamun  m  Seistan.  See  ma])  at  .\Fi:llAXI- 
•STAN. 

llelolu:i'.  or  M.vifsii  Lilies,  form  on<^  of  the 
chief  groups  of  M(uiocotyled(Uis,  and  com]irise  the 
four  orilers   Butomacea-,  AlLsinsicea',  Juncagine;e, 

and  II  vdiiM-hiiridea'. 

Ilolodoriii.    See  Gila  Monster. 

Ilt'-Ioiso.     See  Abelard. 

llt'lot.S  were  the  lowest  of  the  four  classes  into 
whicli  the  population  of  ancient  Sparta  was  divided. 
They  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the 
aboriginal  population  of  the  country,  .and  to  have 
been  rc<luced  to  bondage  by  their  Dorian  con- 
fpuMdis,  their  inimbers  being  swelled  from  tinu'  to 
time  by  the  aildition  of  iieo|)h's  coniiuereil  in  war. 
They  belongeil  to  the  state,  which  alone  had  the 
j)ow"er  to  set  them  at  liberty  ;  but  they  toiled  for 
inilividual  ]iropriet(Us,  and  were  bound  to  the  soil — 
i.e.  they  could  not  he  sold  away  from  tlii'  |ilace  of 
their  Labour.  They  were  the  tillers  of  the  land,  for 
which  they  ]iaid  "a  rent  to  their  masters ;  they 
served  at  the  ]iublic  nu'als,  and  were  occupied  on 
the  imblic  works.  In  war  they  fought  as  light 
troops,  each  freelxun  Sp.artan  (who  bore  heavy 
arimuir)  being  accomjianied  to  battle  by  a  number 
of  them,  sometimes  as  many  as  seven.  On  rare 
occasions  they  were  equiii])ed  .as  he.ivy  armed 
soldiers.  It  is  a  matter  of  iloubt  whether  after 
emancipation  they  could  ever  enjipy  all  the  privi- 
leges  of  Spartan  citizenship.  Tbey  were  treated 
with  much  severity  by  their  masters,  especially  in 
the  later  ages  of  Sj)arta,  and  were  subjected  to 
degiiulation  and  indignities.  They  were  whijiped 
every  year,  to  keep  them  in  mind  of  their  servile 
.state  ;  they  were  obliged  to  wear  a  ilistinctive  dress 
(clothes  of  sheepskin  and  a  caj)  of  dog's  skin  ).  and 
to  intoxicate  themselves  as  a  warning  to  the  .Spar- 
t.an  youth  :  and  when  they  multiplieil  to  an  alarm- 
ing extent,  they  were  often  massacred  with  the 
most  barbarous"  cruelty.  On  one  occlusion  2000  of 
them,  who  hail  behaved  bravely  in  war,  were 
enc(mraged  to  cimie  forward  for  emanci|iation,  and 
were  then  treaclier<msly  put  to  death.  The  .'^par- 
tans  oigani.sed,  as  often  as  necessity  rei|iiired,  secret 
service  companies  (Gr.  cri/pteia)  of  y(mng  men,  who 
went  abroad  over  the  country-  arnieil  « ith  daggers, 
and  both  by  night  and  day  a.ssa.ssiiiated  the  Helots, 
selecting  a-s  their  siiecialVictims  the  strongest  and 
most  ^  igorous  of  the  race. 

Helps.  Silt  .•VnTHfR,  essayist  and  historian, 
was  born  at  Strealham,  Surrey.  10th  .Inly  ISl."!. 
From  Kton  he  jiassed  to  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  was  thirty-tirst  wrangler  in  18.V) ; 
but,  what  meant  more,  was  adiiiitte<l  a  member  of 
the  famous  Society  of  the  Ajxistles,  among  whom 
were  Charles  Buller,  Maurice,  Trench,  Monckton 
Milnes,  and  Tennyson.    On  leaving  the  university  he 


HELSINGBORG 


HELVETII 


637 


beciime  private  secietaiy  to  Siniug-Kice,  then  Clian- 
celli)r  of  the  Exclieijuer,  and  next  to  Loiil  Morpeth, 
tlie  Irish  secietaiy.  On  the  fall  of  the  Melbourne 
niinistiy  he  letired  to  enjoy  twenty  years  of  lettered 
leisure.  In  18G0  he  was  appointed  Clerk  to  the 
Privy-council,  and  was  in  consequence  much  thrown 
into  contact  with  the  (^ueen,  who,  it  is  undei-stood, 
set  a  hi{,'h  value  upon  his  character  and  talents. 
He  wa-s  employed  to  edit  the  Prmcipal  Sjtecchcs 
and  Addressea  of  the  late  Prince  Consort  { lHb2 ),  and 
the  Queen's  own  Lcaoesfroma  Journal  ofOar  Life 
in  the  lliqhlanda  ( IS68').  He  received  the  degree 
of  IJ.C.L.'  from  Oxford  in  1864,  was  made  C'.B.  iu 
1871,  and  K.C.B.  iu  1872.  He  died  in  Loudon, 
after  a  few  days'  illness,  7th  March  1875. 

His  first  work  wa.s  a  series  of  aphorisms  entitled 
ThoiKjlita  in  the  Cloister  and  the  Crowd,  jiuhlished 
as  early  as  1835.  The  next,  a  work  of  more  real 
consequence,  was  Essays  written  in  the  Intervals  of 
liusiness  ( 1841 ).  Two  worthless  plays  followed, 
then  The  Claims  of  Labour  ( 1844),  ami  Friends  in 
Council  (two  series,  1847-59),  an  admirable  series 
of  discussions  on  social  questions,  thrown  into  a 
conversational  form.  The  same  familiar  speakei-s 
(Milverton,  Ellesmere,  and  Dunsford)  reappeare<l 
in  Rc(dmah  (18G9),  Conversations  on  War  and 
General  Culture  (1871),  and  Tidk  about  Animals 
and  their  Masters  (1873).  His  strong  interest 
in  the  question  of  slavery  prompted  his  Con- 
querors of  the  New  World  and  their  Boudsuien 
(1848-52),  and  the  gieater  work,  The  Spanish 
Conijuest  in  America  (4  vols.  1855-61).  Out 
of  his  studies  for  this  work  grew  his  adnuralile 
biographies  of  Las  Casus  (1868),  Columbus  (\iHi9), 
I'izarro  (1869),  and  Cortes  (1871).  Other  works 
are  Companions  of  my  Solitude  (1850),  Casimir 
Marcmina  (1870),  Brevia  (1871),  'Thoughts  upon 
(iiivernnient  (1872),  Life  and  Labours  of  Thmiuis 
lirassry  (1872),  and  Social  Pressure  (1875). 

Helps  is  one  of  the  most  suggestive  and  delight- 
ful of  our  later  essayists,  revealing  everywhere 
acutene.ss,  humour,  a  satire  which  gives  no  pain, 
and  a  quiet  depth  of  moral  feeling  an<l  sense  of 
man's  social  responsibilities ;  while  his  style  pos- 
sesses in  a  rare  degree  the  qualities  of  grace,  clear- 
ness, and  distinction. 

Helsiuifbors,  an  ancient  seaport  of  southern 
Sweden,  32  miles  NW.  of  Malmo,  on  the  Sound, 
opposite  Elsinore  (Dan.  Hclsinijbr).  It  is  con- 
nected by  branch-lines  with  the  railway  from 
Stockholm  to  Malmo.  There  are  a  goo<l  harbour, 
some  lishing,  and  some  trade  (6500  vessels  annu- 
ally in  and  out).  It  figures  several  times  in  the 
wars  between  Sweden  and  Denmark.  Pop.  (1875) 
9471  ;  (189U)  20,410. 

Hclsill^fors,  a  fortified  seaport,  capital  of  the 
grand-iluchy  of  Fiidand,  and  after  Cronst.adt  the 
MU)st  important  naval  station  on  the  Baltic,  is 
lieautifully  situated  on  a  jjeninsula,  surrounded  by 
islands  and  rocky  cliffs,  in  the  (Julf  of  Finlaml,  191 
miles  W.  from  St  Petersburg  by  sea  and  256  by 
rail.  A  series  of  formidable  batteries,  called 
the  fortifications  of  Sveaborg,  and  consisting 
of  seven  strongly-fortified  islands  and  numerous 
islets  belonging  to  Russia,  protect  the  entrance 
to  the  harliour,  and  are  of  such  strength, 
and  so  well  apjiointed,  as  to  warrant  the  ap- 
plication to  them  of  the  name  of  the  Northern 
Gibraltar.  The  whole  front  ]>resented  by  the  suc- 
cessive wmks  is  more  than  a  mile  in  length,  and, 
besides  the  casemates  for  small-arms,  the  united 
fortresses  mount  about  300  guns  or  mortars,  and 
are  garrisoned  by  12,000  men  in  war-time,  there 
.leing  only  abimt  2(X)0  men  in  time  of  peace.  The 
harbour  it.self  is  further  defended  by  two  forts. 
Helsingfors  is  the  largest  and  handsomest  town  of 
Finland  ;  the  broad  streets  intersect  at  right  angles. 


and  there  are  several  fine  parks  and  public  squares. 
Of  the  public  buildings  the  mo.st  striking  are  the 
house  iu  which  the  diet  meets,  the  seuate-liou.se, 
and  the  university  buildings.  There  are  also 
three  very  handsome  churches.  The  university,  re- 
moved hither  from  Abo  in  1828,  where  it  had  been 
founded  in  1640,  comprises  four  faculties,  and  in 
1888  had  45  profe-ssors,  and  1703  students  inscribed 
on  the  lists,  of  whom  12  were  ladies,  but  of  whom 
ouly  1002  were  actually  in  residence.  In  con- 
nection with  it  are  a  library  of  200,000  volumes, 
a  hospital,  a  botanic  garden,  and  a  valuable 
observatory.  Helsingfors  is  a  favourite  bathing- 
place,  and  attracts  many  visitors  during  summer 
from  St  Petersburg.  The  town  carries  on  a 
considerable  trade  in  Baltic  produce ;  it  exports 
chiefly  timber,  paper,  and  butter,  and  imports  iron 
aiul  steel  goods,  with  machinerv,  fancy  article.s, 
colonial  wares,  \c.  Pop.  (1870)  32,113;  (1889) 
64,817  :  (1895)  73,820.  with  the  garrison. 

Helsingfors  was  founded  by  (histavus  I.  of 
Sweden  in  the  16th  century,  luit  the  site  of  the 
town  wa.s  removed  nearer  the  shore  in  16.39.  In 
1819  it  became  the  capital  of  Finland.  In  August 
1855,  during  the  Crimean  war,  Sveabtng  was  bom- 
barded for  two  days  and  nights  by  a  section  of  the 
allied  fleet,  without  any  material  impression  being 
made  upon  the  forts.  Helsingfors  has  still  many 
Swedish  characteristics,  the  majority  of  the  popu- 
lation being  of  Scandinavian  origin,  hence  Swed- 
ish is  the  tongue  generally  spoken.  The  Fiiniish 
language,  however,  is  beginning  to  assert  itself. 

Heist,     B.VRTHOLOM.EUS     VAN     DER,     a     Dutch 

painter,  Mas  born  (according  to  tradition)  at  Haar- 
lem in  1613.  He  was  joint-founder  in  16,54  of  the 
painters'  guild  of  St  Luke  at  Amsterd.am,  where 
lie  lived,  and  where  he  died  in  1670.  He  attained 
great  celebrity  as  a  portrait-painter.  Some  of  his 
pictures  seem  to  bear  traces  of  Franz  Hals's  intlu- 
ence.  One  of  his  works  at  Amsterdam,  a  '  Muster 
of  the  Burgher  Guard,'  with  thirty  full-length 
figures,  was  pronounced  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds 
to  be  '  the  first  picture  of  portraits  in  the  world.' 
His  later  creations  are  inferior  in  merit  ti>  the 
pieces  p.iinted  before  1650.  Numerous  paintings 
by  him  exist  in  European  galleries. 

HelstOII.  an  old  market  town  and  municipal 
borough  of  Cornwall,  10  miles  WSW.  of  Falmouth. 
It  was  made  a  borough  by  King  John  in  1201  ;  and 
from  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  to  18.32  it  sent  two 
members  to  parliament,  and  one  till  1885.  It  liiV-s 
long  been  noted  for  its  Furry  or  Ftora  Dance,  held 
on  the  8th  Mav.  A  branch-line  from  (iwine.M 
Road  was  opened  in  1887.     Pop.  ( 1891 )  3198. 

Ilelvellaa  a  genus  of  fungi,  of  the  cla.ss  A.scomy- 
cetes  (see  FuxGI),  having  the  j)i/eus  turned  down- 
wards, lobed  and  folded,  and  the  surface  of  the 
hyuienium  even.  Some  of  the  Helvella;  are  edible, 
and  much  used  in  Germany. 

Ilflvellyn.  one  of  the  highest  mountains  of 
England,  in  the  west  of  Cumberland,  between 
Keswick  and  Ambleside.  It  is  3118  feet  high,  is 
easy  of  ascent,  and  commands  magnificent  views. 

Helvetia,  a  Swiss  colony  (founded  1856)  in  the 
Argentine  Republic,  in  the"  Gr.an  Chaco,  80  mile.- 
N.  of  Santa  Fc.  Pop.  2500.  — For  ancient  Helvetia. 
see  Hki.vktii,  Switzeul.vM).  For  the  Helvetic 
Confessions,  .see  CoNFES.sioNS  OF  F.viTH  ;  and  for 
the  Helvetic  Republic,  see  SwrrzEKLAXD. 

Helvetii.  a  Celtic  people  inhabiting,  according 
to  Casar,  the  region  between  the  mountains  of 
Jura  on  the  west,  the  Rhone  on  the  south,  and  the 
Rhine  on  the  east  and  north,  the  region  ciuresi)ond- 
ing  pretty  closely  with  the  western  part  of  modern 
Switzerland.  Their  chief  town  wa.s  .1  rentirum,  and 
they   were  divided  into  four  pagi  or  cantons,  of 


638 


HELVETirs 


HEMIPTERA 


wliieli  tlie  most  iiiiiioitant  wnnUifjxir/iis  Tigiiriiiiin. 
Tlicy  are  liixt  iiifiitioneil  in  tlie  war  with  tlie 
Ciiiiliii,  l>ut  tlie  rlilef  event  in  llieir  history  is  their 
atteiMpted  irniption  into  anil  ci>n<|nest  of  sonthern 
(iaul,  in  which  they  were  repnlseil  liy  (';esar  with 
fri^'litful  slau;,'hter,  5S  li.c.  Kortnnately  we  luvve 
the  story  in  the  terse  bnt  vivid  narrative  of  I'iesjir. 
They  eollerted  three  month-  provisions,  liurned 
down  their  twelve  towns  and  4IH)  villa^'es,  and  niaile 
a  ^reneral  renile/.vons  hy  Lake  Leman  in  the  spring 
of  the  year,  fiesar  hiustened  to  (Jeneva,  destroyed 
the  liridge,  raised  two  lejjions  in  Cisaljiine  (iaul, 
anil  when  the  Helvetians  sent  delegates  to  demand 
a  |>.issa;,'e,  delayeil  them  until  he  li.id  built  a  wall 
ailing  the  Khone,  1(>  feet  hi^rh  and  ahout  1!)  Homan 
miles  in  len;,'th,  thmked  with  leilonlits.  After 
vainly  attempting;  to  p;iss  tlii>  harrier,  the  Helvetii 
took  another  route,  liut  were  followed  and  defeated 
with  terrilile  slau;;ht«r  at  Hihraete  (.!»/««  ).  and 
the  remnant  ol)li^eil  to  return  to  their  own  country, 
where  they  became  subject  to  the  Romans,  who 
overawed  all  disallection  by  the  fortresses  which 
thev  built,  Xufituhin Kill,  Viniioitissn,  Arrittirnm. 
Of  ".•ttiS.llOO  who  left  their  homes,  includinj;  92,(KX» 
li;;htin;.'-men,  only  110,CMJ0  are  said  to  have 
returned.     See  SwiTZEKL.\KD. 

Ilt'lv<'tilis,  Cl.vtde  Adkien,  one  of  the  French 

Encyclopiedists,  was  of  Swiss  origin,  and  wjus  born 
at  I'aris  in  ITl.i.  He  was  trained  for  a  financial 
career,  and  in  1738  wius  appointed  to  the  lucra- 
tive office  of  farnier-Keneral.  Hut  this  post  he 
quickly  resigned  for  the  situation  of  chamberlain 
to  the  (|ueen's  household.  \\  this  time  he  a-sso- 
ciated  nnich  with  the  French  philosophei's  of  the 
ilay,  Diderot,  D'Alembert,  Holbadi,  and  otliei-s. 
In  17ol  he  withdrew  to  a  small  estate  at  N'ore  (  Le 
Perche),  where  he  spent  the  most  of  his  life  in  the 
education  of  his  family,  the  improvement  of  his 
peasantry,  and  in  literary  laboui-s.  In  ITaS  ap- 
peared his  celebrated  w(U'k,  /><•  I' Ksiiril,  in  which, 
carryini;  out,  its  he  thou^dit,  the  work  of  Locke,  he 
endeavoured  to  prove  that  sensation  is  the  source  of 
all  intellectual  activity,  and  that  the  jjrand  lever  of 
all  human  conduct  is  self-^'ratilicati(m.  The  Iniok 
created  an  innneiise  sensation.  It  was  ilenounced 
by  the  doctors  i>f  the  Sorbonne,  and  condemned 
by  the  |)arliament  of  Paris  to  be  publicly  burned. 
E»eryliody  reaii  it,  and  it  Wiis  translated  into 
the  princijial  European  tonj^ue.s.  Helvetius  died 
at  I'aris,  26tli  December  1771,  leaving  behind 
him  a  work,  De  I' Hijinme,  clc  sis  Fuciiltes,  ct  de  son 
Eiliiialiun  ('2  vols.  Lond.  1772).  His  collected 
works  were  published  in  14  vols,  at  Paris  in  1796, 
ami  again  in  3  vols,  in  ISIS.  See  Morley's  Diderot 
mill  the  Eiii!/i/o/)U;i/ists  (  1878). 

Ilelvoetslliys.  or  HEl.l.liVDET.SLll.s,  a  forti- 
lied  -eapiirt  of  South  Ilcdlaml,  on  the  Haring- Vliet, 
an  arm  of  the  NLuis,  17  miles  S\V.  of  Rotterdam.  It 
h;vs  an  excellent  harbour,  and  is  to  Rotterdam  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Maas  what  the  Uelder  is  to 
Amsterdam  and  the  Zuider  Zee.  There  is  a  school 
of  navigation.  Here  William  III.  embarked  for 
England,  November  11,  1688.      Pop.  4362. 

Ileiuaiis,  Fklici.v  Dokotiie.v,  poetess,  wius 
born  at  Liverpool,  25th  September  1793.  Her 
father.  (Jeorge  Browne,  was  a  Liverpool  merchant, 
of  Irish  extraction ;  her  mother,  whose  maiden 
name  wivs  Wagner,  w;is  of  mixcil  Italian  and 
(icrman  descent.  F^elicia  was  distinguished  for 
her  beauty  and  precocity,  iind  at  an  early  age  she 
niiinifested  a  taste  for  poetry,  in  which  she  was 
encouraged  b.v  her  mother.  Family  reverses  le<l  to 
the  removal  of  the  Brownes  to  Wales,  where  the 
youn<r  poetess  injbibed  a  strong  jiassion  for  nature, 
read  books  of  chronicle  and  romance,  and  g.ained  a 
working  knowleilge  of  the  (!erman,  Italian,  Span- 
ish, nnd  Portuguese  languages.    She  also  cultivated 


her  excellent  musical  ta.ste.  Her  lirst  volume  was 
publisheil  in  1808,  when  she  wiis  only  lifteen  yeai^B 
of  age,  and  contained  a  few  pieces  written  about 
four  years  earlier ;  her  second,  entitleil  J'/ie 
JJi/mislir  Affeiliuiis,  aii|ieared  in  1812.  In  the 
same  year  she  marrieti  Captain  Hemans  of  the 
4tli  Regiment,  who.se  health  had  sutlered  in  the 
retreat  on  Corunna,  and  afterwards  in  the  Wal- 
elieren  e.xjiedition,  and  who  settli.'d  in  Italy  iu 
1818.  Alter  this  time  they  never  met  again ; 
their  marriage  wiis  understood  not  to  have  lieen 
happy.  Mrs  Hemans,  though  in  pom-  health, 
now  devoted  herself  to  the  education  of  her 
children,  to  reading  and  writing,  ami  spent  the 
lest  of  her  life  in  North  Wales,  Lancashire,  and 
latterly  at  Dublin,  where  she  died,  16tli  May 
1H;15.  Her  princijial  works  are:  The  Vrspirs 
of  Pdleniiii,  a  tragedy  (1823),  which  proveil  a 
failure  when  acted  at  Covent  tJarden  ;  J7ie  iHeije 
of  Wi/ciiiiti,  The  Lust  Coiisttiiiliiic,  and  other 
Poems  (1823):  The  Forest  Haiictmirij  (1827); 
Herords  of  Wtnnen  (1828);  The  lSoiii)s  of  the 
Affections  (ISTW);  and  I/i/»i>is  for  Childhood, 
^ittionul  Li/rie.s  and  Sonifs  for  Mti.sie  (1834); 
and  Srines  niiil  lli/nins  of  Life  ( 18,34).  A  volume 
of  Fortiitil  Jleniains  w;us  published  after  her  death, 
and  subse(|Uentlv  a  complete  edition  of  her  works, 
with  a  memoir  bv  her  sister,  wa-s  is.sueil  in  7  vols. 
( 18.39).  During  aVisit  that  she  paid  to  Abbolsford, 
Scott  eomiilimented  her  cm  her  musical  talents  : 
'  I  should  say  yon  had  too  many  gifts,  Mrs  Hemans, 
were  thev  not  all  made  to  give  pleasure  to  those 
around  yon."  And  on  parting  he  said  :  'There  are 
some  whom  we  meet  and  slionhl  like  ever  after  to 
claim  as  kith  anil  kin  ;  ami  you  are  one  of  these.' 

Mii<  Hemans,  w  ithcmt  great  originality  or  force,  in 
yet  sweet,  natural,  ami  pleasing.  Hut  she  w;is  too 
fluent,  and  wrote  much  and  hastily  ;  her  lyrics  are 
her  best  jiroductions -.  her  more  ambitious  poems, 
especiall.v  her  trage<lies,  being,  in  fact,  ijiiite  in- 
sipid. Still,  she  was  a  woman  of  true  "cuius, 
though  her  range  was  circumscribed,  and  some 
of  her  little  lyrics,  The  Voice  of  iy/;-/«(/,  'Jhe 
Better  Lond,  The  Gravcji  of  <i  Jluusehold,  The 
Treasurer  of  the  Deep,  and  The  Homes  of  Enij- 
land,  are  perfect  in  ]iathos  and  sentiment,  and 
will  live  !us  long  as  the  English  language.  Tlie.se 
are  found  in  almost  every  school  cidlection.  anil 
this  early  familiarity  with  her  sweet  and  simple 
lyrics  liiis  helped  to  keep  lier  memor.v  green. 

Besides  her  si.sti'r'8  memoir,  there  arc  MtniorinU  by  H. 
F.  Chorle,v  (IKIC);  Keeollirtimut  by  Mrs  l^iwn-ncc 
(1836) ;  I'otticnt  Htmiiiiii'.viith  uicnioir  liv  Delta  1 183(i); 
and  Pvttieal  Worku,  with  inemoir  by  W.  M.  Kossetti 
(1873).     ,See  al.so  Espinasso's  Laiieatihirc  TKor//i(Vfl(1874). 

Iloilialitr.     See  H.t.M.VTlTE. 

llciliol  lloinpstead,  a  market  town  of  Hert- 
forilsliiic,  23  miles  NW.  of  London,  a  centre  of  the 
straw -plaiting  industry.  It  has  also  paper  mills, 
iron-foundries,  tanneries,  and  luewei"ie.s.  Pop.  of 
parish  ( 1851 )  7073  ;  ( 1891 )  9678. 

lleiiKTorallis.    See  D.\y-lii,y. 

IlcilliailO|tia  ('Ir.  hemi,  'one-half,' «H,  'not,' 
and  '//«,  'the  eye),  vision  limited  to  one-half  of 
an  obje<-t— a  peculiar  and  rare  form  of  disease, 
generally  due  to  disease  within  the  brain. 

UoiiiH-raiiia.    See  Headache. 

Ileinitlcsmiis.    See  Sai!.sai'arilla. 

llolllipN'Uia  (t!r.  hemi,  '  one-half,' and  ^/caw, 
'I  strike  ).  Paralysis  (q.v.)  limited  to  one  side  of 
the  face  and  ImhIv,  and  usually  depending  upon 
di.sea-se  of  the  brain.  Opposed  in  .signihcation  to 
P;ir;iplegia. 

Ilcniipnde^    See  Quail. 

Iieillip't<'ra  ( (Jr. .  '  half-wingeil ' ),  a  large  order 
of  in-eci.-,  to  which  the  general  term  '  bugs '  is  often 


HEMIPTERA 


HEMLOCK 


639 


applied,  or  the  more  modern  title  Klivnchota,  in 
ailusiuii  to  the  characteristic  suctorial  proboscis. 
The  order  includes  (1)  forms  with  siuiilar  wings 
(  Hoiiioptera) — e.g.  coccus  insect.s,  aphides,  Cicadas 
(c|.v.);  (2)  otlij-rs  with  dissimilar  wings  ( Heterop- 
tera) — e.g.  water-bugs,  water-scorpions;  and  (3) 
parasites  or  Lice  (q.v. ). 

Hemlock  (Cotiium),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  (jnler  i'ml)ellifer;e,  having  compound  um- 
bels of  small  white  Howei-s,  small  general  and 
partial  involucres,  the  limb  of  the  calyx  merely 
i\idimentary,  and  a  compressed  ovate  fruit  with 
five  prominent  wavy  ridges  and  no  ritUe.  The  best- 
known  and  only  important  species  is  the  Common 


Flowers  and  Kout  of  Conniion  Hemlock 

( Couiinti  macitfatum}: 

e,  a  flower ;  d,  a  seed. 

or  Spotted  Hemlock  {C.  maciilatiim),  which  grows 
by  waysides,  on  heaps  of  rubbish,  and  in  other 
>iinilar  situations  in  Britain  and  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  in  some  parts  of  Asia,  and  now  also  as 
a  naturalised  ]>lant  in  North  America  anil  in  Chili. 
It  has  a  root  somewhat  re.sembling  a  small  parsnip  ; 
a  round,  branche<l,  hollow,  bright-green  stem,  2  to 
7  feet  high,  generally  spotted  with  dark  purj)le  ; 
the  leaves  lar''e,  tri[iinnate,  of  a  dark  shining  green 
colour :  the  leatlets  lanceolate,  pinnatiKd.  All 
parts  of  the  plant  are  perfectly  destitute  of  haii-s, 
and  it  is  the  only  British  species  of  the  onler  Vm- 
liellifene  which  has  the  stem  smooth  and  spotted 
with  purple.  Both  the  general  and  partial  umbels 
lia\e  many  rays.  The  general  involucres  consist 
of  several  small  leatlets,  the  partial  involucres  of 
three  small  leatlets,  all  on  one  side.  The  whole 
plant  has  a  nauseous  smell,  ]iarticu]arly  if  nibbed 
or  bruised.  The  leaves  and  fruit  are  the  parts  of 
the  plant  employed  in  medicine.  The  former 
should  be  gathered  just  before  the  time  or  at  the 
commencement  of  dowering,  and  after  the  removal 
of  the  larger  stalks  they  sh(mld  be  quickly  dried 
by  a  heat  not  exceeding  120'.  They  should  then 
be  preserved  in  perfectly  closed  tin  canisters.  The 
fruit  is  gathered  when  fully  developed,  but  still 
green,  and  should  lie  carefully  dried. 

The  most  important  ingredient  in  hemlock  is 
the  alkaloid  conine,  a  volatile,  colourless,  oily. 
stron^'ly  alkaline  substance,  CgH,-N,  but  it  also 
contains  two  other  alkaloids — methylconine  and 
conliyilrine.  The  fruit  contains  about  one-fifth 
per  cent,  of  it,  the  other  parts  of  the  plant 
merely  traces.  It  is  obtained  by  distilling  the 
seed.s  with  w.ater  which  contains  a  little  potash  in 
solution  ;  the  conine  pa-sses  over  with  the  water  in 
the  form  of  a  yellowish  oil,  and  is  jmrilied  by  redis- 
tillation. Conine  has  lately  been  preiiared  artitici- 
ally  by  Schitf.  Conliyilrine,  'C^HirNO.  isa  solid  vola- 
tile alkaloid,  and  is  much  less  jjoisonous  than  conine. 


Conine  and  methylconine  are  extremely  poisonous, 
and  cau.se  death  by  their  action  on  the  nervous 
system.  The  action  of  conium  depends  of  coui-se 
on  the  combined  eflects  of  the  active  i)rinciple.s 
contained  in  the  plant.  The  .\ymptoms  of  conium 
poLsoning  are  w  eakncss  and  staggering  gait,  pass- 
ing on  to  paralysis,  which  gradually  pa-sses  up  the 
cord  until  it  reaches  the  respiratory  centre,  when 
death  ensues.  Dilatation  of  the  pupil,  ptosU,  and 
a-siihyxial  convulsions  are  symptoms  also  seen. 

In  medicine,  it  is  given  internally  a-s  a  sedative 
to  the  nervous  system  in  chorea,  incontinence  of 
urine,  paralysis  agitans,  and  other  affection.s.  It 
is  also  employed  a-s  a  va])our  to  relieve  cough.  It 
may  be  administered  internally  in  the  form  of 
powder  (of  the  leaves),  succus,  tincture,  or  extract, 
while  externally  it  may  be  a|)idied  as  a  soothing 
application  to  ulcers,  painful  piles,  &c.,  in  the  form 
of  ointment  or  poultice.  The  succus  is  considered 
the  best  preparation,  the  othei's  often  containing 
no  active  principle. 

In  cases  of  jioisoning  by  hemlock,  the  evacuation 
of  the  stomach  is  the  first  thing  to  be  attended  to. 
Among  the  ancient  Greeks,  poisoning  by  hemlock 
was  a  common  mode  of  ileath  for  condemned 
criminals,  and  thus  it  was  that  Socrates  died. — 
Water  Hemlock,  or  Cowbane  ( Ckrttu  I'irona ),  is 
also  an  umbelliferous  plant,  of  a  genus  having 
much-vaulted  umbels,  a  tive-toothed  calyx,  and 
almost  glol)Ose  fniit,  each  caqiel  with  live  broad 
Hattened  ribs  and  evident  single  tu'ttic.  AVater 
hemlock  grows  in  ditches,  on  the  margins  of  ponds, 
and  wet  grounds  in  Eurojie  and  the  north  of  Asia. 
It  is  more  common  in  Scotland  than  in  England. 
It  has  a  large  fleshy  white  root,  covered  externally 
with  fibres  ;  an  erect  nmch-branched  stem,  2  to  5 
feet  high  ;  tripinnatc  leaves,  with  linear-lanceolate 
regularly  and  sharply  seirated  leaflets  ;  no  general 
involucre,  or  only  a  single  .small  leaflet,  partial 


V^ 


Water  Hemlock  {Cicula  lirotta). 

involucres  of  many  short  nanow  leaflets  ;  and  white 
flow-el's.  It  contains  an  active  princi|>le,  C'icut- 
o.riiie,  and  an  essential  oil.  It  causes  tetanic 
spii-snis,  in.sensibility,  vomiting,  and  diarrlio'a. 
I'atal  results  have  occurred  from  eating  the  root. 
Another  species,  C.  mavulatd,  is  common  in  North 
America,  growing  in  mai-shy  jilace-s.  It  has  a 
spotted  stem,  like  that  of  true  hemlock,  the  name 
of  which  it  very  generally  receives  in  North 
America.  The  leaves  are  triternate,  the  leaflets 
ternate.  It  is  a  veiy  poisonous  plant,  and  is  the 
cause  of  many  deaths. — The  Ciciita  of  the  liomans 
was  the  Ciiiiiiiiti  of  modern  botanists  ((^tr.  koiieiun), 
as  water  hemlock  does  not  grow  in  Italy  or  Greece. 


640 


HEMLOCK    SPRUCE 


HEMP 


Till' oniiiiiR'iilJil  (ilarit,  tlie.soeulletl  tliaiit  Heiulook, 
wliicli  ill  {t;i><>(l  nv\i  Hi>il  ri'jiclie.s  a  lieij^'lit  of  1*2  U<  15 
feet  in  tlirtve  iiioiitlis,  i.s  not  really  a  hemlock  at  all, 
but  a  j^iant  Co\v-|iar!>ni|>  (ij.  v. ). 

Ili-iiilork  Sprure.    See  Fir. 

Ilfiiiorrliime.    See  15lkki>ing. 

Ueilip  (i'liiiiiahin),  a  };enu8  of  plants  of  the 
naliiial  miler  Cannahinacea-  (q.v.),  having  the  male 
and  feiiiale  Mowers  on  Jifferent  plants  ;  tlie  male 
llowers  « itli  live  jiartite  calyx  anil  tivestnnien.s  ;  the 
female  llowers  with  a  spatlie-like  ealyx  of  one  leaf, 
rolleil  ronnil  the  ovary  anil  partially  split  alonj;  one 
siile,  ami  two  tlireaillike  stijiiiia-s.  There  is  only 
one  known  sjiecies  (  V.  sutira ),  vary inf;  consiilerably , 
however,  from  soil,  climate,  ami  cultivation.  It  is 
an  annual  plant,  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
Asia,  hut  lia-s  lieeli  cultivated  in  Europe  from  the 
earliest  historic  times,  ami  is  now  naturalised  in 
many  parts  of  Europe  and  America.  Like  llax,  it 
ailapts  itself  wonderfully  to  diversities  of  climate, 
and  is  cultivated  equally  under  the  hiiniing  sun  of 
the   tropics  and  in  the  northern  paiUs  of  liussia. 


Common  Hemp  (CannahU  lativa),  male  plant. 

It  is,  however,  readily  injured  hy  frost,  particularly 
when  younf{ ;  ami  in  many  countries  where  it  is 
cultivated  it  succeeds  only  because  the  warmth  of 
the  summer,  tlipuji;li  of  short  duration,  is  .suffi- 
cient for  its  whole  life  Ileiiip  varie-s  verj-  much 
in  heiftht,  accoriling  to  the  .soil  and  climate,  heing 
sometimes  only  3  or  4  feet,  and  sometimes  15  or  "20 
feet,  or  even  more.  Xotwithstaiidin;;  the  coarse- 
ness of  its  leaves,  it  is  an  ele^rant  plant,  and  is  .some- 
times .sown  on  this  account  iu  shruhlxiiies  and  large 
flower-borders.  The  stem  Ls  erect,  more  or  less 
branched  ;  the  leaves  are  five  to  nine  fingered.  The 
flowers  are  yellowish-green,  small,  and  numerous; 
the  male  Howers  in  axillan'  racemes  on  the  upper 
parts  of  the  plant ;  the  female  (lowers  in  short 
axillarj-  and  rather  crowded  spike.s.  The  female 
i>laiits  are  higher  and  stronger  than  the  male. 
riie  stem  of  hemp  is  hollow,  or  only  filled  with  a 
soft  pith.  This  pith  is  surrounded  by  a  tender, 
brittle  substance,  consisting  chiefly  of  cellular 
tissue,  with  .some  woody  libre,  which  is  calleil  the 
Tceil,  hoiiu,  or  shore  of  hemp.  Over  this  is  the  thin 
bark,  composeil  chiefly  of  fibres  extending  in  a 
parallel  direction  along  the  stalk,  with  an  outer 
membrane  or  cuticle. 

Hemp  Ls  cultivated  for  its  fibre  in  almost  all 
countries  of  Europe,  and  in  many  other  temperate 
parts  of  the   world,   most   extensively  in   Poland, 


and  in  the  centre  and  south  of  European  Russia, 
which  are  the  chief  hempexporting  countries. 
French  hemp  is  much  esteemeil  in  the  market,  as 
is  also  that  of  England  and  Ireland,  of  which,  how- 
ever, the  quantity  is  comparatively  inconsiderable. 
Bu/oi/iicir  JIiiii/j  and  lihrnish  lltmj)  are  varieties 
remarkable  fur  their  height  ;  and  a  fibre  of  veiy 
line  quality,  8  or  9  feet  long,  is  known  in  commerce 
by  the  name  of  Italian  Garden  J/enij>.  In  the 
I  nited  States  most  of  the  hemp  is  grown  in 
Kentucky.      In 

:  England        the 

!  cultivation      of 

I  hemp  is  almost 
conlined  to  Lin- 
colnshire, Holil- 

!  erne.ss  in  York- 
shire, .and  a  few 
other    districts, 

,  of  which  the 
moist     alluvial 

I  .soil  is  particu- 
larly suited  til 
it.  In  cultivat- 
ing hemp  it  is 
vei-j'  neces-saiN' 
to  liave  the  soil 
so  rich,  and  to 
sow  tlie  see<l  at 
such  a  season, 
that  the  plant- 
shall  grow 
rapidly  at  first, 
as  they  thus 
form  long  fibres. 
A  criq)  of  short 
scruliby  hemp  is 
almost  worth- 
less. The  liner 
kinds  of  hemp 
are  used  for  making  cloth,  the  coarser  for  sail- 
cloth and  rojies.  Hemp  sown  thin  produces  a 
coarser  libre  than  hemp  sown  thick.  Something 
also  depends  on  the  time  of  pulling,  for  the  crop 
is  pulled  by  the  hand.  AVhen  a  rather  line  libre 
is  wanted,  and  the  seed  Ls  not  regarded,  the  whole 
crop  is  pulled  at  once,  .soon  after  flowering ;  other- 
wise, it  is  usual  to  iiull  the  male  plants  as  .soon 
as  they  have  shed  their  iiollen,  and  to  leave  the 
female  plants  to  ripen  ttieir  seed,  in  which  ca.se 
the  libre  of  the  female  plants  is  much  coarser.  The 
treatment  of  hemp  bv  retting,  &c.  is  similar  to 
that  of  Flax  (q.v.).  "flie  libre  of  licni|>  is  generally 
used  for  coarser  pun)Oses  than  that  of  llax,  par- 
ticularly for  sailcloth,  pack-sheet,  ropes,  and  the 
caulking  of  ships. 

The  seed  of  liemj)  Ls  produced  in  great  abund- 
ance. It  Ls  commonly  sold  as  food  for  cage-birds  ; 
and  birds  are  so  fond  of  it  that  not  only  the  ripen- 
ing lields,  but  the  newly-.sowii  fields,  must  l>e  care- 
fully guarded  against  their  depredations.  A  fixed 
oil,  mi  of  hempaeed,  is  obtained  from  it  by  expres- 
sion, which  is  at  first  greenish-yellow  and  afterwards 
yellow,  and  has  an  acrid  odour,  but  a  mild  taste. 
Yhis  oil  is  used  in  Ru.ssia  for  burning  in  lanijis, 
although  the  wick  is  ajit  to  get  clogged,  also  for 
making  paints,  varnish,  and  a  kind  of  soft  soap. 

Hemp  Ls  cultivated  in  wann  countries  not  so 
much  for  its  libre  as  for  a  resinous  secretion, 
which  has  narcotic  or  intoxicating  qualities  (see 
H.\siilSH).  Hemp  is  also  used  as  a  therapeutic 
agent  under  the  name  of  Indian  Hemp,  or  Bhang, 
and  m.ay  be  ailministercd  in  the  form  of  resinous 
extract  or  of  tincture;  and  it  is  usually  |)re.scribeil 
(like  opium)  for  its  hypnotic,  anodyne,  and  anti- 
spasniixlic  properties.  Although  less  certain  in  its 
action  than  opium,  it  pos.sesses  these  advantages 
over  that  drug — that  it   does   not   constipate   the 


Coininou  Hemp,  female  plant. 


HEMP    PALM 


HENDERSON 


641 


l)0\vel?,  create  nausea,  or  cheek  the  secretions,  and 
that  it  is  less  likely  to  occasion  headache. 

The  name  Hemji  ((ier.  Hunf)  is  from  the  Greek 
and  Latin  rantKiInx,  and  that  from  Sanskrit  rritut. 
The  name  hemp  is  often  extended  witli  some  dis- 
tinctive prelix  to  many  of  the  lihres  used  for  ropes 
and  coarse  fabrics— Sunn  Hemp,  Manilla  Hemp, 
Deccan    Hemp,   Sisal    Hemp,    &c.      See  Apocvn- 

ACE.E,  BOW.STIUN'G  HEMP,  FiBKOlS  SUBSTANX'ES. 

Hemp  Palm  (Chiimwrnps  cerclsa ;  see  Cha- 
M.tRDl'S),  a  palm  of  China  and  Japan,  the  fibre  of 
the  leaves  of  which  is  much  employed  in  those 
countries  for  making  conlaj,'e.  Hats  are  also  made 
(if  its  !ea\es.  and  even  cloaks  and  other  garments 
for  wet  weather. 

Heiil!S,  HoMS,  or  Hu.MS  (Lat.  Emcsci),  a  city 
of  Syria,  is  situated  near  the  right  bank  of  the 
Orontes,  63  miles  NE.  of  Tripoli.  It  is  surrounded 
by  ancient  walls,  now  greatly  ruined,  and  is  entered 
by  six  gates.  Its  streets  are  narrow  and  dirty, 
and  its  houses  mean.  In  ancient  times  it  was 
cliietly  celebrated  for  its  temple  of  the  Sun,  now 
destroyed,  though  probably  its  site  is  occujiied  by 
the  dilapidated  castle  or  fortress,  mined  by  Ibiahim 
Pasha  in  18.31.  Une  of  the  priests  of  this  temple, 
Heliogabalus,  was  raised  to  the  imperial  throne 
of  Rome  in  218.  Under  the  walls  of  Hems 
( Emesa )  Zenobia  was  defeateil  by  the  Emperor 
Aurelian  in  272.  In  636  the  city  was  taken 
by  the  Saracens,  when  its  old  Semitic  name 
Hems  was  revived  ;  and  in  1098  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Crusaders.  It  has  a  considerable  trade 
in  oil,  cotton,  and  sesame,  and  produces,  besides 
these  commodities,  silk  goods  and  gold  wares. 
Pop.  about  20,000. 

Heiiisterhiiis.  Tiberius,  Dutch  philologist, 
was  born  at  Groningen,  1st  February  1685.  He 
became  professor  of  Greek  at  Franekerin  1720,  and 
of  Greek  history  at  Leyden  in  1740,  where  he  died 
7th  April  1766.  (Jnc  of  the  greatest  Greek  scholars 
of  his  time,  Hemsterhuis  may  be  said  to  have 
created  a  new  school  of  Greek  philology,  to  which 
belong  his  distinguished  pui)ils  Rulmken  and 
^'alckenaer.  His  editions  of  the  Oiioma^iicon  of 
Pollux  (1706),  of  the  Sclcrt.  Dktluijiies  of  Lucian 
( 1708  and  1732  ),  and  of  the  Phiftis  of  Aristophanes 
I  17-14,  by  Schiiler  1811)  are  his  principal  literary 
works.  A  beautiful  jiicture  of  his  life  is  given  in 
Huhnken's  Etofiiiun  tlenistcrhusii  ( 176S  and  1789), 
republished  in  Lindemann's  Vitcc  (liuimvirorum  T. 
HeDtstrrhunil  ct  I).  Uiilinkenii  {\ue\\>.  1822).  From 
Hemsterluiis's  MSS.  Anecdota  Hemsterhusiaiia 
(1825)  have  been  edited  by  Geel,  and  Orationcs  ct 
Epi'sto/a'  (1839)  liy  Friedemann. 

Hen.    See  Poultry. 

Ileilbaiie  ( ffi/oxri/amKs),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Solanacea-,  having  a  live-toothed 
calyx,  an  irregular,  funnel-shaped  corolla,  and  a 
capsule  opening  by  a  lid  and  enclosed  in  the 
hardened  calyx.  The  species  are  mostly  annual 
and  biennial  herbaceous  plants,  and  natives  of 
the  countries  near  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The 
only  species  found  in  Britain  is  the  Comnnm  Hen- 
bane (//.  iii(/ir),  which  is  not  uncommon  in  waste 
places  and  in  tlie  neighbdiuliood  of  towns  and 
villages,  particularly  in  calcareous  soils,  and  on 
the  sandy  sliores  of  Scotland.  It  is  an  annual 
plant,  somewhat  bushy,  about  2  feet  high,  with 
large  sinuated  or  sharidy-lolied  leaves  without 
leaf-stalks,  and  large  dingy  yellow  Howers  with 
purplish  veins.  The  whole  ]iiant  is  covered  with 
unctuous  hairs,  and  h;us  a  nauseous  smell,  which 
gives  warning  of  its  strong  narcotic  poisonous 
cjuality.  Cases  of  poisoning  liy  henbane  are,  how- 
ever, not  rare,  but  are  more  freipiently  owing  to 
the  proceedings  of  fpiacks  than  to  any  mistake  of 
the  plant  for  an  esculent. 
249 


The  seeds  contain  in  largest  i)uantity  the  peculiar 
alkaloid  on  which  the  properties  of  the  plant  chiefly 
depend,  Hiioaci/nmin  or  Hyrisciimnin,  which  crystal- 
lises in  stellated  acicular  crystals  of  a  silk}-  lustre. 


Henbane  ( Hyoscyamua  niger ). 

The  symptoms  of  poisoning  by  henbane  are  similar 
to  those  produced  by  other  narcotic  poisons,  and 
the  proper  treatment  is  the  same  as  in  cases  of 
poisoning  by  opium.  In  medicine  henliane  is  em- 
ployed both  externally  and  internally.  The  leaves 
are  the  part  commonly  used  :  they  are  gathered 
and  quickly  dried  when  the  [ilant  is  in  full  flower. 
Fomentations  of  henbane  are  ajiplied  to  painful 
glandular  swellings,  parts  att'ectcd  with  neuralgia, 
iVc,  and  are  often  tound  to  atl'ord  relief.  An  ex- 
tract of  henbane  is  sometimes  employed  instead  of 
belladonna  to  dilate  the  pupil  of  the  eye.  Tinc- 
ture and  extract  of  henbane  are  often  administered 
in  cases  of  annoying  cough,  spasnmdic  asthma, 
and  other  diseases  requiring  sedatives  and  anti- 
spasmodics. Henbane  is  al.so  employed  to  calm 
mental  irritation  and  to  induce  sleep.  For 
many  cases  it  has  one  great  advantage  over 
laudanum,  in  not  jiroducing  constipation.  The 
smoke  from  the  burning  seeds  of  henbane  is  some- 
times introduced  into  a  carious  tooth  to  relieve 
toothache. 

The  other  species  of  henbane  possess  similar 
properties.  The  dried  stalks  of  //.  n/hiis  are  used 
by  smoking  in  Greece  to  allay  toothache. 

Henderson,  cajiital  of  Hendei-son  county, 
Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio,  10  miles  S.  of  Evansville 
by  rail,  with  nearly  a  score  of  tobacco-facturic^ 
and  warehouses,  and  a  number  of  mills..  Pop.  .">36."). 

Henderson,  Alexander,  a  fanmus  Scottish 
ecclesiastic,  born  in  1583,  and  educated  at  St 
Andrews,  where  in  1610  he  wa.s  placed  in  the 
chair  of  Rhetcuic  and  Philoso]iliy,  being  soon  after 
presented  by  Archbishop  Gladstanes  to  the  living 
of  Leuchars,  in  Fife.  Although  the  nominee  of 
a  prelate,  he  soon  embiace<l  the  ])opular  cause, 
and  became  one  of  its  foremost  leaders.  lie  is 
supposed  to  have  had  a  great  share  in  drawing 
up  the  Nafional  Corciiaiit  :  he  withstood  to  the 
face  the  lukewarm  theologians  of  Aberdeen,  and 
was  unanimously  placeil  in  the  moderator's  chair 
at  the  memorable  General  Assembly  at  Glasgow 
in  November  1638.  which  in  the  f.ace  of  the  kingV 
commissiduer  restored  all  its  liberties  to  the  Kirk 
of  Scotland.  In  all  the  t(utuous  negotiations  with 
the  king  Hendei-son  took  a  principal  pari,  and  hail 
many  interviews  with  him.  He  w.a.s  moderator  at 
Edinburgh  in  1641,  and  again  in  August  1(543,  ancl 
drafted  the  famous  Solemn  Lcarjiic  ainl  Covenant. 


642 


HENDRICKS 


HENNA 


wliirli  wa-i  soon  )iil(>))te<l  also  by  the  EngllHli 
|>arliiiiiieiit.  llemlei'sim  wa-s  ime  of  tlie  Scottish 
roiiiiiiissioiiei-s  tliat  sat  in  tlie  Assembly  of  Divines 
at  Westiiiiiisler,  and  in  its  work  spent  liis  hi-st 
three  yeai-s  in  Kn^'laml.  He  ilieil  at  Kilinl)nr^h, 
19th  .\ii;,'iist  ii'tM),  anil  Wius  liurieil  in  tJreyfriars' 
("hnrehyard.  See  the  I^ives  by  Alton  (1830)  ami 
M'Crie  ( 1S40|,  ami  liaillie's  Letters  ami  J uunuil.s. 

Hendricks.  Tiid.MAS  Axduews,  vice-president 
of  the  I'nited  Slates.  Wius  born  in  Ohio,  Ttli  Se|i 
tember  1819,  and  admitted  to  the  Indiana  bar  in 
1843.  He  servetl  one  term  in  the  state  lejjislatnre, 
sat  in  coni;re.ss  from  IS.M  to  IXo,"),  and  in  tlie  I  niteil 
States  senate  from  IHIi;!  to  1869,  and  in  187'2  was 
elected  jiovernor  of  Indiana.  In  1876  he  was  the 
Demoeratii-  raiididate  for  the  vice  i)iesidency,  but 
was  not  returned  (see  H.WK.s,  H.  IS):  in  1884  he 
was  elected.     He  died  2otli  November  1885. 

Iloiicqiien,  or  Sisal  Hemp.     See  Fibrouss 

Si  iisT.\N<KS. 

lleilKist    (A.S.     'stallion')   and   Horsa.   the 

names  of  the  two  brothers  who  led  the  liist  liaiid  of 
Teutonic  iiivadci-s  to  Britain.  Tlie.v  are  mentioned 
liy  Nennius  and  the  Aii//lo-!ia.roii  C/ironic/e,  so  that 
we  need  not  insist  upon  the  sus|dcious  etymologies 
of  the  names  so  far  as  to  dismiss  their  story  as  a 
ni.vtli.  Accordinj;  to  the  story  tliey  came  about 
the  year  449  to  help  King  \'ortigem  against  the 
Picts,  and  were  rewardeil  for  their  services  with 
a  gift  of  the  Isle  of  Thanet.  Soon  after  they  turned 
against  Vortigern,  but  were  defeated  at  Aylesfonl, 
where  Hoi-sa  was  slain.  Kre  long,  however, 
Hengist  is  said  to  have  conquered  the  whole  of 
Kent. 

Ileiis:st<''lber}j.  Erx.st  \Vii,iit:LM,  a  famous 
(lerman  champion  of  orthodox  theology,  was  born 
20th  October  180'2,  at  Frondenberg,  in  Westiihalia, 
ivhere  his  father  was  clergyman.  Prepared  by  his 
father  for  the  univei'sity,  he  devoteil  himself  at  IJoiin 
cliielly  to  Orientalia  and  philosojihy,  whilst  at  the 
same  time  he  took  an  enthusiastic  part  in  the  Bur- 
xclicnschaftcii.  At  tii'st  asymjialhiser  with  rational- 
ism, at  liasel,  whither  he  went  in  1823,  he  pjusseil 
over  to  the  opposite  extreme,  and  going  next  vear 
as  inii'iitildniit  to  Iterliii,  soon  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  rising  orthodo.x  party,  whose  principles 
he  championed  vigorously  both  in  the  university 
and  through  the  |iies.s.  In  1826  he  was  made 
extraordinary,  in  1828  ordinary  profe.ssor  ;  and  in 
1829  doctor  of  theology.  His  kriiitficlischc  Ki'i- 
r/ioizcituiir/,  liegiin  ill  1827,  combated  rationalism 
even  in  its  mildest  forms,  seeking  to  restore  the 
orthodo.x.v  and  church  discipline  of  the  16tli  and 
17th  centuries.  .Vll  his  works  were  devoted  to  the 
defence  of  the  old  interpretation  and  criticism  of 
the  Scriptures  against  tne  results  of  modern  bib- 
lical science  in  (!eniiany.  Hengstciiberg's  great 
inlluenee  in  ecclesiastical  matters  was  eniployeil 
in  the  carrving  out  of  the  high  Lutheran  dogmas 
of  the  church,  of  church-offiee.s,  and  of  the  sacra- 
ments, by  pereeciition  of  sectaries,  by  opposition 
to  the  union  of  Lutherans  and  Keformecl,  and  by 
attempts  to  depose  from  their  chairs  Ge-senius, 
Wegscheider,  I)e  Wette,  and  other  so-called  ration- 
alistic teachei-s  in  the  universities.  He  died  at 
Berlin,  .May  28,  1869. 

His  chief  works  were  Beilrdijt  zur  Einlcilumi  iti»  Alle 
Ttstnmtnt  1 18:n  39 ;  Eiig.  trans.  1847  and  1848)  ;  Chtkl- 
vlrxiie  des  Allen  Te;<tamfnli  (2i  cd.  18.>4-57;  Eng.  traus. 
4  vols.  1854-")!)) ;  tieschichU  des  Retches  GoUes  unler  detn 
Allen  Biiiide  (1869-70;  Eng.  trans.  1871-72);  Die  Weig- 
Mi/nngen  des  Prophetcn  Ezechiel  (18(;7-68;  Eng.  trans. 
1869);  Die  Jiiden  mid  die  Christ.  Kirrhe  (1857) ;  and  Die 
Biicher  Afosis  und  AeiivpUn  (1841  ;  Eng.  trans.  184.51. 
Hi«  (»oin*n'»ntari^«  onil>r:>c^"l  the  l*s.ihiis  (1842-4.5;  Knj;. 
trans.  1845-48),  the  Apocalypse  (IRtO-.^I;  trans.  1852), 
and  the  Go-pel  of  St  .lolin  (IStU  (i2;  trans.  1865).  See 
his  Life  by  Bachmann  and  Scliinalenbach  ( 1876-ii2). 


Henley.  .Idiin.  commonly  known  as  Ohatok 
Hk.nj.kv,  the  son  of  the  vicar  of  Melton  Mowbray, 
in  Leicestershire,  where  he  was  born  on  3d  .-Viigust 
1692,  .set  up  in  Lonihm  in  1726  what  he  called  an 
•  oratory,'  whence  he  professed  to  teach  iinivei-sal 
knowledge  in  week-ilay  lectures  and  luiniitive 
Christianity  in  Sunday  sermons.  He  dubbed  him- 
self the  ■  restorer  <if  ancient  eloi|iience,'  and  prac 
tised  in  the  jiiilpit  the  arts  of  the  theatrical  atti- 
tnilinarian.  He  sold  medals  of  ailiiiis^ion  to  his 
lectures  and  sermons,  bearing  the  device  of  a  rising 
sun,  with  the  motto  Ad  xuinmti  ami  the  inscription 
Inveiiieiin  viiim  diit  fmiiim.  Yet  he  wius  not  with- 
out genius  as  an  orator,  and  by  this  and  his  eccen- 
tricities altractcil  during  several  yeai-s  large  crowds 
to  hear  him  preach  and  teach.  And  he  doubtless 
drew  many  by  his  (pieer  advertisements,  sometimes 
quaint,  sometimes  sarca-tic,  but  always  ilesigned 
to  catch  the  curious  and  the  idle.  His  addresses 
I  were  a  strange  mixture  of  solemnity  and  biill'oiinery, 
of  learning  and  ribaldr.v,  of  good  sense  and  person- 
alities, of  wit  anil  absurdity.  I'ope  spits  him  on 
his  literary  lance  in  the  Dunciiul: 

EinbrownM  witli  native  bronze,  lo!  Henley  8taii<ls, 
Tiininc;  liis  voice,  and  baluncint;  his  liaiirlH  ; 
How  iliieiit  iiuiiseiise  trickles  troiii  his  tongue  ! 
How  sweet  tlie  jieriiKls,  neither  said  iinraiuig  I 
<»h,  i,Teat  restorer  of  the  go<Ml  old  sta^e, 
I'reachcr  at  once,  and  zany  of  thy  age. 

Nevertheless  he  was  not  altogether  ridiculous  ;  he 
was  a  man  of  con.'-iderable  knowledge,  and  had  even 
some  learning  ill  oriental  matter.-'.  Whilst  still  an 
undergraduate  at  Cambridge  he  sent  a  witty  letter 
to  the  S/iecliitor  (1712),  and  in  1714  published 
a  i>oeni,  Exlher,  which  contains  .several  pa.s,sages 
initicative  of  imagination,  and  couched  in  elegant 
verse.  After  he  left  Cambriilge  he  taught  in  the 
school  of  his  native  town,  and  there  his  bubbling 
energy  introduced  several  refcuins  ami  innovations. 
.\t  t1iis  time  he  compiled  a  graminar  of  ten  lan- 
guages. The  Complete  Liiifjiiist  ( 1719-21 ).  He  wi-iit 
to  London,  where  he  earned  his  livelihood  by  wilt- 
ing; he  was  also  a  jiensioner  <if  Walpole,  and  edili'd 
a  weekly  paper.  He  ilied  13th  October  17.56.  His 
Orfitorif  1 1'etiisfirtiiiHS  contain  a  Life  of  himself. 

Henley.  Wii.i.i.^m  Ekxest,  LL.D.,  poet,  play- 
wright, critic,  and  editor,  was   born   at  Gloucester, 
23d  .\iigiisl  1849.     Months  of  sickness  in  Kdinbiirgli 
Inlirmary  (1873-7.5)  bore  fruit  in  A  liuol:  of  Verses 
I  1888),   which  won   niucli   attention,   and  wius   f<d- 
lowed  by  Views  imd  licriews  (  l8iMJ),  The  Sonej  oj  the 
Sword  ( 1892),  iVc.     Mr  Henle.y  ha-s  also  been  editor 
of   the  Mtiijiizinc  of  Art,   the  Scots  (or  Xcitioiiul) 
I  Dhserrcr,    and    the    jVciu   Seriew,    besides    editing 
Burns   .aiiil    Byron.      He    collaborated    with   It.    L. 
i  Stevenson    in    three    plays,    Dmeoii    Jlroi/ie,    IJeaii 
I  Austin,  and  Admired  Giiiiieei  ( lepriiiteil  1892). 

Henley-on-Tlinmes,  a  municijial  borough  of 

I  Oxfordshire,  at  the  base  of  the  Chiltern  Hills,  and 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Thames,  8  miles  NK.  of 
Heading,  .36  W.  of  London,  and  24  SE.  of  Oxford 
by  mail  (by  river  47).  The  five-arch  bridge  w.us 
built  in  1786  at  a  cost  of  i;iO,0(H);  the  parish 
church.  Decorated  in  style,  was  restored  in  1S(J4; 
and  the  grammar-school  was  founded  in  1605. 
Malting   is   a  princijial  branch  of  indiistrv- ;  there 

j  are  also  breweries,  and  a  considerable  trade  in 
corn,  flour,  and  timlier.  The  principal  ainateiir 
regatta  of  England  has  been  held  here  ever\'  sum- 
mer since  1839.  Pop.  (1851)  2.595:  (1881)  4604; 
(1H91)  4913.  See  Kowisu  ;  also  J.  S.  Burn,  A 
Ilistury  of  Henleijon-Thames  ( 1861 ). 

Henna,  a  small  shrub,  called  by  Iwtanists 
Lenisonie(  iilbit  (also  L.  iiieniiis  or  sjiiiietsei,  the 
younger  bushes  being  spineless).  It  is  also 
known  as  '  Egjptian  privet'  or  '  .Jamaica  mignon- 
ette.'    Henna  ltows  in  moist   situations   throiigh 


HENNEGAU 


HENRY    I. 


643 


out  the  north  of  Africa,  Aialiia,  Persia,  ami  the 
East  Indies.  It  is  cultivated  in  many  places 
for  the  sake  of  its  flowers,  which  are  nmcli  |irized 
for  their  fragrance,  particularly  liy  tlie  Egyptian 
ladies;  hut  still  more  for  the  sake  of  the  leaves, 
whicli  ahound  in  colouring  matter,  and  which, 
heiiig  dried,  powdered,  and  made  into  a  paste 
with  hot  water  and  catechu,  are  very  gener- 
ally eniployed  by  women  throughout  the  East  to 
stain  the  nails  and  tips  of  the  lingers  and  parts 
of  their  feet  of  an  orange  colour;  also  liy  men 
to  dye  their  beards,  the  orange  colour  Ijeing  con- 
verted into  a  deep  black  liy  indigo  ;  and  for  dyeing 
of  the  manes  and  lioofs  of  horses,  and  to  dye  skins 
and  h:atlicr  reddish-yeHow.  Powdered  lienna leaves 
form  a  large  article  of  exjiort  from  Egypt  to  Persia, 
.and  to  various  parts  of  Turkey,  from  winch  they 
hnd  their  way  to  more  northern  countries,  and 
even  to  Germany,  to  be  employed  in  dyeing  furs 
and  some  kinds  of  leather.  The  use  of  henna 
for  staining  tlie  nails  appears — from  allusions  in 
ancient  poets,  and  from  some  of  the  Egyptian 
munnnies — to  have  prevailed  from  very  ancient 
times.  It  is  perhaps  the  camphire  of  tlie  liible. 
The  use  of  henna  for  hands  ami  feet  is  said  to  check 
perspiration,  and  gives  a  feeling  of  coolness.  The 
process  has  to  be  rejieated  every  two  or  three 
weeks. 

Ileiinegau.    See  H.unault. 

IleilllillgSen,  CH.YKLES  FUEDERICK.an  English 
sohlier  of  fortune  and  author,  was  born  in  I8I0, 
served  witli  the  Carlists  in  Spain,  where  he  rose  to 
the  command  of  the  cavalry,  witii  the  Russians  in 
rircassia,  with  Kossuth  in  Hungary,  and  with 
Walker  in  Nicaragua.  In  the  American  civil  war 
he  comuumded  a  brigade  on  the  (Confederate  side  ; 
and  lie  afterwards  was  employed  to  superintend 
the  manufacture  of  Minie  rlHes.  He  died  at 
Washington,  lith  June  1877.  Ilis  books  are  for 
the  most  part  records  of  travel  and  personal  adven- 
ture, but  include  also  The  Past  and  Fittiirc  of 
lluiiijni-]!  ( ls.5'2),  and  T}ie  White  Slave,  a  novel. 

HeilWtikoil  (Or.  heuotih-o.s;  'serving  to  unite'), 
an  edict  for  uniting  the  Eutychians  with  the  church, 
issued  liy  the  Emperor  Zeno  in  482  A. I). 

_  Henrietta  Naria.  born  at  the  Louvre.  '2."ith 
November  ItiUO,  was  tlie  youngest  child  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  whose  assassination  six  months 
afterwards  left  the  balie  to  the  unwise  upbringing 
of  her  mother,  Marie  de  Medicis.  A  lovely  little 
thing,  bright  of  eye  and  wit,  but  sjioilt  and  way- 
ward. sh(^  was  married  in  llj'2.5  to  Charles  I.,  and 
s|ieedily  eviiiceil  her  bigotry,  if  not  by  a  barefoot 
|iilgriniage  to  Tyburn,  yet  by  refusing  to  share 
in  her  husbands  coronation.  The  dismissal,  how- 
ever, of  her  French  attendants,  and  the  murder  of 
Ihickingliam,  removed  two  conllicting  causes  of 
jealousy  ;  and  for  ten  years  Henrietta  might  call 
herself  '  the  happiest  woman  in  the  world — liaiuiy 
as  wife,  mother,  and  queen.'  IJut  she  liail  also 
made  herself  the  best-hated  woman  in  England. 
Stratlbrd  fallen  (she  did  her  woi-st  to  save  him), 
and  herself  menaced  with  impeacliment,  on  '2'M 
Feliruary  1042,  the  eve  of  the  Great  Uebellion, 
she  jiarted  from  Charles  at  Dover,  and,  repairing 
to  Holland,  there  raised  £2,000.000.  A  year  later, 
after  a  great  storm,  during  whicli  slie  bade  her 
ladi(^s  'Take  comfcut :  iiueens  of  England  are 
never  drowned,' she  landed  at  liridlington  (o.v.), 
and,  marching  through  England,  again  met  King 
Charles  near  Edgehill.  She  sojourned  with  liim 
at  Oxford,  until  on  3d  April  IG44  they  separated 
at  Abingdon,  never  to  meet  on  earth.  .Vt  Exeter, 
Nil  Kith  dune,  she  gave  birth  to  a  daughter,  and 
in  less  than  a  fortnigiit  had  to  tiee  before  Essex  to 
Pendennis  Castle,  whence  she  took  shipping  for 
France.     .\   cruiser   gave   chase,   and   she  charged 


the  captain  to  blow  up  tlie  magazine  .sooner  than 
let  her  be  caiitured  ;  but  at  length  she  landed  on 
the  coast  of  Brittany.  A  liberal  allowance  was 
assigned  her,  but  she  pinched  herself  to  send 
remittances  to  England ;  and  the  war  of  the 
Fronde  (1648)  liad  reduced  her  for  a  time  to  desti- 
tution, when,  nine  ilays  after  the  event,  news 
reached  her  of  her  husband's  execution.  That 
even  this  crowning  sorrow  failed  to  teacli  wisdom 
is  shown  by  her  quarrels  with  her  wisest  coun- 
sellors, and  her  etlbrts  to  convert  her  children. 
The  story,  however,  of  her  secret  marriage  to  her 
confidant,  Henry  Lord  .Jenny n  (afterwards  Earl 
of  St  Albans),  rests  solely  on  gossip.  After  the 
Restoration,  'la  Reine  Malheureuse,  .as  she  called 
herself,  paid  two  yisits  to  Engl.and — one  of  four 
months  in  1660-61,  the  other  of  three  years  in 
166'2-6.5.  Pepys  describes  her  as  '  a  very  little, 
plain  old  woman.'  She  died  of  an  overdose  of  an 
opi.ate  on  31st  August  1669,  .at  her  chateau  of 
Colombes,  near  Paris,  and  was  buried  ( Bossuet 
preaching  the  funeral  sermon)  in  the  abbey  of 
.St  Denis,  whence  her  cothn  was  ousted  at  the 
Revolution. 

.See  Ch.arles  L  and  works  there  cited ;  also  Strickland's 
Queens  of  Eixjland  (new  ed.  vol.  v.  1851). 

Henrietta,  Duche.ss  of  Orlean.s,  Charles  T.'s 
youngest  child,  was  horn  Hith  .June  1644.  Her 
mother,  Henrietta  Maria,  had  to  leave  her  behind 
at  Exeter,  wliich  in  April  1646  was  taken  by  Fair- 
fax ;  but  three  months  afterwards,  disguised  as  a 
French  beggar-woman,  her  governess,  Lady  Dal- 
keith, escaped  with  her  from  Oatlands  to  Calais. 
Her  mother  brought  her  up  a  Catholic.  Gay, 
brilliant,  beautiful,  in  1661  she  w,as  married  to 
Louis  XIV. 's  only  brother,  Philiji,  Duke  of  Orleans  ; 
'of  all  the  love  he  had  borne  her  there  soon  re- 
mained nothing  but  jealousy."  As  Louis's  am- 
ba.s.sadress,  in  1670  she  wheedled  Charles  H.  into 
signing  the  secret  treaty-  of  Do\-er ;  and  she  had 
been  back  in  F'rance  little  more  than  a  fortnight, 
when  on  30th  June  she  died  at  St  Cloud — aluMjst 
certainly  of  poison,  but  possibly  without  her 
husband's  cognisance. 

See  Ch.vrles  II.  and  works  there  cited ;  Mdnie.  de  la 
Fayette's  Histuire  d'Henriitte  d'Aniilclrrre  (1720;  new 
ed.  by  An.  France,  1882 );  Mrs  Everett  Green's  Piincime.i 
of  Enijlttnd ;  and  monographs  by  Baillon  (French,  ISSn) 
ii'nd  Jiilia  Cartwright  (  Mrs  .\ily  ;  181»3). 

Henry  I.,  king  of  England,  the  youngest  .and 

only  English-born  son  of  '^Villiam  tlie  Con(|neror, 
1  was  born  in  1068,  according  to  tr.aditioii  .at  Sclby, 
in  Yorkshire.  His  father  left  him  ,i'.-)0(K),  witli  a 
I  piirt  of  which  he  bought  the  districts  of  the  Cutcii- 
'.  tin  and  the  Avranchin  from  his  brother,  Robert  of 
Normandy  ;  and,  when  war  broke  out  between 
William  Rufus  and  Rcdiert,  Henry,  although  he  had 
been  imprisoned  by  the  latter,  helped  him  to  defend 
Normandy,  and  saveil  his  c.a]nt.al  city.  Rouen,  for 
him.  Yet  in  the  treaty  which  followed  (  10!)1  )  he 
was  excluded  from  the  succession,  and  his  lnothers 
joined  to  deprive  him  of  his  hands.  Immediately 
after  the  death  of  William  he  rode  to  Winchester, 
seized  the  royal  treasure,  .and  in  the  .absence 
of  Ridiert,  who  was  then  on  his  way  home  from 
crnsading  in  Palestine,  was  elected  king  by  such 
of  the  Wilan  as  were  at  hand,  and  crowned  at 
Westminster  four  days  after.  He  at  once  issued 
a  charter  restoring  the  laws  of  E<lward  and  the 
Con([ueror,  recalled  Ansclm,  and  set  about  the 
stern  reforms  which  gained  him  among  his  people 
the  name  of  the  Li<m  of  Justice.  He  .also 
slrengtheneil  his  position  by  a  marriage  with 
Eadgyth  (her  name  was  changed  to  Matilda), 
daughter  of  Malcolm  of  Scotland  and  the  good 
t^ueen  Margaret,  who  wa-s  descended  from  the 
old  English  roval  house.  The  highest  honoui-s 
under    Henry,  'liotli    in    church    and   state,    were 


644 


HENliV     1.     11.     OF     KN(;l,ANl) 


strictly    withheld    from    men    of    Eng1u>h    blomi ; 

yet  it  wa.s  on  the  native  Eiif;li>*li  support  that 
the  liiiii;  rclieil  ;  aiiil  in  1101,  when  the  nobles  con- 
Hpircil  to  hrin^'  in  IJolierl,  who  hail  now  returneil 
home,  the  Knylish  stuck  faithfully  hy  the  kiiijj 
born  in  their  own  land,  ami  the  Normans  were 
powerless.  Without  a  battle  U(diert  was  induceil 
to  resign  his  claims,  and  Henry  then  established 
his  power  so  .securely  that  there  w;us  peace  in  Kn;;- 
lanit  to  the  end  of  his  reijjn.  On  the  Scottish 
border  also  there  was  peace,  and  only  twice  (1114 
and  1121)  did  Henry  feel  comiielled  to  make  expe- 
ditions into  Wales.  Ills  controversy  with  Anselni 
(H. V. )  remirdinj;  investiture,  too,  W!U<  conducteil 
without  Litterness  on  either  side,  and  resulted  in 
a  compromise  ;  while  a  later  dispute  with  the  papal 
see  was  ended  ill  111!)  by  Calixtiis  solemnly  con- 
lirmin^'  the  ancient  customs  of  Enj;lanil. 

Uobert  had  received  a  |icn>ioii  of  .'itMlO  marks, 
but  in  1105  U  lleiirv  made  war  upon  his  baillv- 
L'overned  duchy  ;  Uobert  was  defeated  in  a  bloody 
battle  beneath  the  walls  of  Tinchebrai,  on  Sep- 
tember 2S,  I  lOG,  and  was  kept  a  i)risoner  during 
the  remaining  twenty-eifrht  ye;irs  of  his  life. 
The  ac(|uisitioii  of  Normandy,  the  ancient  patri- 
mony ol  his  family,  h;id  been  a  ]ioint  of  ambi- 
tion with  Henry  ;  to  hold  it  he  was  obliged  to 
spend  long  periods  away  from  his  kingdom,,  and 
to  wage  a  nearly  constant  warfare,  snpiiorteil 
largely  by  English  arms  and  by  subsidies  wrung 
from  his  English  subjects.  The  Erencli  king, 
liouis  the  I'at,  and  the  Counts  of  Anjou  and 
I'landers  took  part  with  William,  Uobert  s  youth 
ful  son  :  but  the  lirst  war  ended  in  the  peace  of 
Ciisors  (lU.S),  on  terms  favourable  to  Henry;  and 
in  the  following  year  his  daughter  Matilda  wiis 
married  to  the  Emperor  Henry  V.  of  (_iermany, 
and  a  new  alliance  tlius  formed.  The  .second  war 
( 1 1  Hi  '20)  was  m.irkeil  by  the  defeat  of  the  Erencli 
king  at  Noyon  in  1110;  ;ind  in  the  same  year  he 
pre.seiUeil  a  formal  com])laiiit  to  Calixtus  II.  at 
the  ('(Uincil  of  lUieims.  Henry,  however,  was 
able  in  a  persoiual  interview  to  satisfy  the  ]>ope, 
who  succeeded  in  bringing  about  a  peace.  In  1 1  l!t, 
also,  Henry's  only  .son,  William,  was  married  to 
the  daughter  of  tlie  Count  of  Anjou;  but  in  1120 
he  was  drowne<l  by  the  sinking  of  the  White  Ship 
on  his  way  from  Norm:iiidy  to  England,  and 
lli'iiiy's  succe.s.se.s  in  arms  and  intiiguc  were 
darkened  for  life.  A  fresh  relieilion  in  Normandy 
ended  in  the  battle  of  lionrgtheronldi!  (1124),  and 
in  cruel  punishments  inllicted  on  the  principal 
luisonei-s  taken.  In  1120  Matilda,  now  a  wido\v, 
came  back  from  (Jermany  ;  in  the  same  year  Henry 
iiidiK'ed  the  Witan  to  swear  to  receive  her  as  Laily 
of  England  and  Normandy  if  he  should  die  without 
heirs  male  ;  and  before  the  year  w;i.s  out  she  was 
married  to  (ieolVrey  IMantagenet,  the  son  of  the 
Count  of  Aiijou.  In  1127  Uobert's  son  William 
wxs  put  in  possession  of  the  vacant  countship  of  i 
Klandei-s  ;  but  in  112S  he  died,  and  the  wai-s  be- 
tween Henry  ami  Louis  ceased.  Henry  bimiaelf 
died  on  December  1,  US."),  and  tin-  crown  was 
seized  by  Ids  sister  .Vdela's  son,  Stephen  of  lilois. 

Henry  I.  wa.s  styleil    Beanclerc,  or  the   Scholar,  . 
in  honour  of  his  learning,  which,  for  a  king  in   his  I 
age,  was  not  undeserving  of  distinction.     Able  he 
was,  but  cr.afty,  passion le.ss  in  his  policy,  and  often  ' 
guilty  of  acts  of  colil-bloodeil  cruelty  ;  yet  he  was 
at    le.i,st   consistent    in    his   severity,    unmoved    by 
impulse.s    such   as,    generally   evil    but   sometimes 
goi«l,  had  governed   Kufus  ;    and   even   his   licen- 
tiousnes.s  wjus  jmlged  lightly  after  the  foul  vice.s  of 
the  Ued  King.      Law  was  administered  during  his 
reign  with  strictne.s,s,  and  generally  with  fairness; 
the   innocent   might  now-  and   then  l>e  confounded 
with  the  guilty,  and  the  penalties  were  often  severe 
ami    barbarous   enough,    but,    at   the    woi-st,   only 


iiidividuaU  Hiifl'ered  from  IiIh  cruelty,  while  the 
■Treat  mass  of  his  subject.s  reajied  the  bles.siiigs  of 
Ids  linn  rule.  .Moreover,  under  the  eiiual  weight  of 
his  heavy  hand,  Niunians  and  IJigli>li  were  slow  |y 
compressed  into  <nie  nation  :  and  alter  the  lainl 
iiig  of  Uobert  at  I'ortsmouth  in  1101,  never  again 
did  the  two  races  meet  in  arms  face  to  face  on 
English  soil.  MIood  man  he  wa-s,'  writes  the 
chronicler,  'and  mickle  awe  was  of  him.  Durst 
none  man  misdo  with  other  on  his  time.  I'eaee  he 
made  for  man  and  deer.' 

See  Freeinan'ii  Norman  Cotu/iicHt,  vol.  v.  {18711);  also 
Stiibbs,  Cim.'ititiitiinKtf  J/inton/  of  Enf/tft»il,  vol.  i.  ( 1874) ; 
ami  lit-an  t'liiirchs  Sttiiit  Aimthn  (1870). 

ll«'Iir.V  II.  of  England,  the  lirst  of  the  An- 
gevin kings,  wits  the  son  of  Matilda,  daughter  of 
Henry  I.,  and  her  second  husband,  fleoHrey  I'lan- 
t.'igenct,  and  was  born  at  Le  .Mans,  March  ;■>,  11.'!.'!. 
His  mother,  assisted  by  her  illegitim.'ite  brolher 
the  Earl  of  (ilonccster,  had  carried  on  a  bitter  war 
against  Steplu'ii,  as  a  usurper,  from  1139  to  1148. 
Henry  himself,  unable  after  his  uncle's  death  to 
secure  any  powerful  following,  joined  his  father  in 
Normandy.  At  eighteen  he  was  invested  with 
this  duchy,  his  mother's  heritage,  and  within  a 
year  after  became  also,  by  his  father's  death, 
Count  of  Anjou;  while  in  1152  his  marriage 
with  Eleanor  of  .Aijuitaine,  the  divorced  wife  of 
Louis  VII.,  added  I'oitou  and  (inienne  to  his 
dominions,  which  now  embraced  nearly  the  whide 
of  western  Erance.  In  .lanuary  11.53  he  landed 
in  England  ;  and,  after  his  and  Stephen's  armies 
had  twice  been  face  to  face,  a  treaty  was  linally 
agreed  to  in  November,  whereby  Heniy  was 
declared  the  successor  of  Stephen,  whose  son 
Eustace  had  died  during  the  negotiation.s.  Stephen 
died  the  next  year;  Henry  was  crowned  mi  lilth 
Deccmher  11,54,  and  issued  a  charter  conlirming  his 
grandfather's  laws.  He  at  once  re-establislied  the 
machinery  of  the  excheouer,  banished  the  foreign 
mercenaries,  demolished  the  hiimlreds  of  castles 
erected  in  Stciilien's  reign,  and  recovered  the  royal 
estates.  The  whole  of  the  year  1150  the  king 
sj)ent  in  Erance,  where  he  was  emjiloyed  until 
.luly  in  eH'ecting  the  submission  of  Ids  brother, 
(leott'rey  of  Nantes.  Geotlrey  died  in  1158,  and 
Henry,  having  secnreil  his  territories,  spent  live 
ycai>i  warring  and  (Uganising  his  possessions  on 
the  Continent,  whence  he  returned  in  January  110.'{ 
to  enter  on  the  disiustroiis  (|u;iriel  with  the  cinirch 
that  tills  the  second  period  of  his  reign. 

Henry,  like  his  grandfather,  hail  come  to  the 
crown  after  an  evil  time  of  inisgovernment  and 
of  anarchy,  and  his  fame  too  is  that  of  a 
lawgiver,  the  restmer  of  peace  and  order.  His 
object  was  that  of  all  tlie  Norman  kings — 1<> 
build  up  the  royal  iiower  at  the  expense  of  the 
feudal  barons  and  of  the  church  ;  but  his  policy, 
while  sellish  in  its  aim,  w.is  benelieent  in  result, 
innsmuch  jus  he  was  wise  enough  to  recognise  that 
his  power  could  be  securely  founded  only  on  the 
well-being  of  the  |ieople.  Erom  the  barons  theiii- 
.selves  his  reforms  met  at  the  time  w  ith  little  serious 
opposition  ;  w  ith  the  clergy  he  was  less  successful. 
Not  only  could  they  u.se  their  weapon  of  excom- 
munication with  terrible  ellect,  but,  lieing  trieil  by 
their  own  courts,  they  were  not  amenable  to  the 
common  laws  of  the  realm,  and  were  protected 
from  the  punishment  due  to  their  crimes;  so  that 
thieves  and  iimrdereis,  calling  Ihem.selves  clerks, 
would  for  a  lirst  ollence  escape  with  penances  and 
deprivation  of  orders.  To  aid  him  in  reducing  the 
church  to  subjection  to  the  civil  power  he  appointed 
his  trusted  chancellor,  Becket,  to  the  see  of  Can- 
ti'rbury.  This  was  the  great  mistake  of  his  life, 
for  with  his  archbishop's  pall  Becket  ]mt  on  the 
s))irit  of  the  high  ecclesiastic,  and  abandoned  the 
king's    service    for   the    pope's.       Henry    compelled 


HENRY    II.-III.    OF    ENGLAND 


645 


liitn  and  the  otlier  jnelates  to  agree  to  the  '  Con- 
stitutions of  Clarendon  '  (q.v.) ;  hut  Beeliet  proved 
a  sturdy  churchman,  and  the  hint;  and  ohstinate 
struggle  hetween  him  and  his  monarch  was  only 
terminated  hy  his  murder  (see  BiX'KET).  Henry 
was  harely  saved  from  excommunication  l)y  his 
messengers  making  for  him  an  unreserved  suh- 
mission  to  the  pope  ;  Init  lie  was  determined  not 
to  repeat  their  oath.  At  a  later  date  (1174)  he 
did  penance  at  Beckefs  grave,  allowing  himself  to 
he  scourged  hy  monks;  hut,  though  the  'Con- 
stitutions of  Clarendon'  were  formally  repealed, 
the  king  was  ultimately  successful  in  reducing  the 
church  to  suhordination  in  civil  nuitters.  Before 
liccket's  death  Henry  had  made  three  military 
exijeilitions  into  Wales,  none  of  them,  however,  of 
any  jiermanent  etl'ect ;  and,  while  negotiations 
were  pending  for  his  ahsolution,  he  organised  an 
expedition  to  Ireland.  Tlie  English  pojie,  Adrian 
l\.,  had  in  115.5,  hy  the  famous  liuU  LdiiihihUUcr, 
given  Henry  authority  over  the  entire  island  ;  and 
in  lUiTa  numherof  Norman-Welsh  knights,  having 
been  called  in  to  the  aid  of  a  banisheil  king  of 
Leinster,  had  gained  a  footing  in  the  country. 
Others  soon  followed,  among  them,  in  1170,  Richard 
<le  Clare,  afterward.s  nicknamed  Stronghow,  who 
married  the  heire.ss  of  Leinst«r,  and  in  1171 
assumed  rule  as  the  Earl  of  Leinster.  Henry  was 
jealous  of  the  rise  of  a  powerful  feudal  h.-irouiige 
in  Ireland,  and  during  his  stay  there,  from  the 
autumn  of  1171  to  Easter  1172,  while  waiting  for 
tlie  arrival  of  the  friendly  legates  from  Home,  he 
secured  the  submission  of  kings  and  bishops,  and 
left  the  power  of  Stronghow  and  the  other  nobles 
broken.  For  thirteen  years  his  governors  carried 
out  liis  system  of  interference  and  persecution  ;  and 
when  in  1185  Prince  John  was  appointed  king  of 
Ireland,  lie  took  with  liiin  a  hatch  of  Norman  and 
French  kiiiglits  who  pushed  the  soldiers  of  the  llrst 
con(|iiest  aside.  But  before  the  end  of  118C  John 
himself  was  driven  from  the  country,  and  all  was 
left  in  confitsion. 

The  thiril  period  of  Henry's  reign  is  occupied 
Avith  the  rebellion  of  his  sons.  The  eldest  had  died 
in  chihlliciod  ;  the  second,  Henry,  born  in  1155, 
was  crowned  as  his  father's  associate  and  successor 
in  the  kingdom  in  1170,  having  been  married  at 
the  age  of  live  to  the  little  princess  Margaret  of 
France,  in  1173,  incited  by  their  jealous  mother, 
t^ueeii  Eleanor,  the  prince  and  his  hrotlier  Itichard 
relielled  against  their  father,  and  their  cause  was 
espou.sed  by  the  kings  of  I'rance  and  Scotland. 
The  latter,  William  the  Lion,  was  ravaging  the 
north  of  England  with  an  army,  when  he  was  sur- 
prised at  Alnwick,  and  taken  prisoner,  l'2th  July 
1174.  To  obtain  his  liberty,  he  submitted  to  do 
homage  to  Henry  for  Scotland  (see  S('otl.-^ND; 
also  EnWAUD  I.).'  By  September  1174  Heiiiy  had 
defeated  the  great  league  thus  formeil  against 
liim,  and  re-established  his  authority  in  all  his 
dominions.  In  the  course  of  a  second  rebellion, 
I'rince  Henry  died  of  a  fever  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
eight ;  and  in  1185  Geort'rey,  the  next  son,  was 
killed  in  a  tournament  at  Paris.  At  the  end  of 
llss,  while  Henry  was  engaged  in  a  war  with 
I'hili])  of  France,  Kicliard  joined  the  French  king; 
and  ill  July,  Henry,  having  lost  the  chief  castles  of 
Maine  and  the  town  of  Le  Mans,  ill  .and  broken  in 
.spirit,  agreed  to  a  treaty  of  pe.ice,  of  which  one  of 
tlie  sti|)ul.ations  was  for  an  inilemnity  for  all  the 
followers  of  Itichard.  The  sight  of  the  name  of 
his  f.'ivourite  son  John  in  the  list  broke  his  he.art ; 
and  Ik'  died  at  Chinon  on  Otli  July  llsi). 

Ipon  the  whole,  Henry  was  an  able  and  en- 
liglitened  sovereign,  a  clear  headed,  uiijirinciided 
politician,  an  able  general.  He  diil  not  use  his 
power  despotically  ;  and  such  enemies  as  he  could 
either  win  over  or  disable  he  spared.     His  reign 


was  one  of  great  legal  reforms.  With  the  ex- 
chequer the  ancient  office  of  the  sheriffs  was 
restored,  the  jury  system  was  exten<led,  circuit 
courts  were  established,  and  a  high  court  of  justice 
formed;  whilst  the  institution  of  Scutage  (q.v.) 
and  the  revival  of  the  old  Anglo-Saxon  militia 
system  did  much  to  break  the  )iower  of  the  great 
feudal  lords.  The  earliest  writer  on  English  law, 
Kanulf  de  Glanvill  (q.v.),  was  Henry's  chief 
justiciaiy  from  1180.  He  was  ambitious  for  his 
children,  but  he  used  them  so  freely  as  counters  in 
the  great  game  of  politics  that  he  ultimately  alien- 
ated whatever  affection  they  had  to  give ;  yet, 
even  .so,  he  was  sinned  against  deeply  by  both  his 
wife  and  his  sons.  When  not  restrained  by  policy 
his  temper  was  passionate  and  outrageous ;  and 
his  personal  vices  were  those  of  the  first  Henry. 
Fair  Rosamond  (see  Clifford)  is  commonly  said 
to  have  had  two  sons  liy  him,  William  Longsword, 
Flarl  of  Salisbury,  and  Geoffrey,  who  became  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  and  who  was  faithful  to  him  when 
his  four  legitimate  sons  took  up  arms  against  him. 
But  there  is  no  positive  evidence  that  the  former 
was  her  son ;  while  (4eoffrey's  mother  apjiears  to 
have  been  a  woman  of  degiaded  chaiacter,  named 
Ykenai  or  Hikenai. 

See  Freeman ;  Stubbs,  Constitutional  History,  and 
preface  to  vol  ii.  of  the  Chronicle  of  Benedict  of  Peter- 
borough (18li7);  and  Mrs  Green,  Henry  the  flecoiid,  in 
'Twelve  English  Statesmen'  series  (1888). 

Henry  III.  of  England,  grandson  of  Henrj 
II.,  and  "eldest  son  of  King  John,  was  born  1st 
October  1'207,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  his 
father's  death  at  the  age  of  nine.  His  reign  is  one 
of  the  longest  and  most  troubled  in  English  history, 
and  he  himself  one  of  its  least  attractive  and 
least  interesting  figures.  The  first  fcnty-two  years 
are  for  the  most  part  a  dreary  record  of  niisgov- 
ernnient  and  purjioseless  extravagance,  the  next 
se\'en  a  period  of  stiife  and  civil  war,  the  remainder 
of  little  interest.  Henry  was  more  dev(mt  than 
his  predecessors,  and  could  boast  more  domestic 
virtues  ;  but  he  inherited  his  father's  faithlessness, 
and  through  all  his  impolicy  exhibited  a  stubborn 
determination  to  be  at  least  as  autocratic  as  he. 
The  interest  of  the  reign,  however,  centres  not  in 
the  king,  but  in  the  birth  an<l  infancy  of  the 
English  constitution.  In  1227  Henry  <leclared 
himself  of  age  to  govern  ;  in  12.'{2  he  deprived 
Hubert  de  Burgh,  who  had  ruled  England  well  a-s 
regent,  and  as  justiciary  had  practically  continued 
to  govern  the  country,  of  all  his  ollices  ;  and  in 
1234  he  was  compelled  to  dismiss  Huliert's  rival 
and  successor,  Peter  des  Roches.  He  took  the 
administration  into  his  own  hands,  and  hence- 
forward managed  everything  ill  both  at  home 
and  abroad.  A  war  with  F'rance  cost  him 
I'oitou,  and  might  have  cost  him  all  his  contin- 
ental possessions,  and  even  his  own  liberty,  but 
for  the  generous  dis]iosition  of  the  French  king, 
Lciuis  IX.  In  his  boyhood,  under  the  direction  of 
tlie  judicious  Earl  of  Pembroke,  he  reissued  the 
Great  Charter,  though  with  certain  imiKUtant 
omissions;  and  he  eontirnied  it  more  than  once 
afterwards,  but  always  as  a  condition  of  a  money 
grant.  He  was  beset  with  favourites,  chielly  from 
the  country  of  his  queen,  Eleanor  of  Provence,  and 
he  allowed  exorViitant  exactions  <m  the  part  of  the 
liojie.  His  misrule  and  extortion  roused  all  chvsses, 
and  in  1258  the  ]iarlianient,  as  the  assembly  of  the 
barons  and  hishojis  was  already  called,  headeil  by 
his  brother-in-law.  Simon  de  M<uitfort,  I'^aii  of 
Leicester,  forced  him  to  agree  to  the  Provisions  of 
Oxford  (q.v.).  whereby  he  transferred  his  power  lem- 
piuaiily  to  a  commission  of  barons.  But  jealousy 
and  disunion  am(mg  the  barons  soon  enahleil  Henry 
to  repudiate  bis  oath,  and  after  a  brief  jieriod  of 
open  war  ( 1263 )  the  whole  matter  was  referred  to 


C4G 


HENRY    IV.-V.    OF    ENGLAND 


tlie  ivrl>itration  of  Louis  of  Kiiiiu'C,  wlio  niiniilk'd 
tlie  I'mvisioiis.  Do  Montfort  iiiul  liis  iiarty  <li-*- 
ri'Hiiiili'd  tlieir  ajriet'iiiuut  to  lie  liouiid  liv  liis  j\nl^:- 
iiifiit,  mill  look  up  aims  ajjaiust  tin-  kiu''.  I'lii-y 
defeated  Idiii,  aud  took  liiiii  ipiisouer  iu  the  lialtle 

of  Lewes 14tli  Mav  1'2G4.  The  battle  was  followed 

liy  ail  a^'ieeiiieiit  called  the  Mise  of  Lewes  (i|.v.), 
iiioie  huuiiliatin^'  to  the  kiu;;  thau  the  I'lovisioiis 
of  Oxford.  Earl  Sinioii  now  suimiioned  the  parlia- 
iiieiit  ('iOtli  January  1'2(J5)  which  has  since  heeu 
faiiioiis  as  the  lirst  assembly  of  tiie  sort  in  which 
i>oroii';lis  were  represented  ;  altlioii;,'h  it  was  nearly 
the  end  of  the  century  before  the  reiueseiitatives 
of  towns  bcyan  re|,'ularly  to  sit  in  parliainent.  De 
Montfort 's  suiireniacy  did  not  last  lon^'.  AVitliin  a 
year  the  iiowerfiil  Eail  of  (Iloucester  deserted  his 
party,  ami,  witli  I'rinee  Edwanl,  wlio  had  esca]iiMl 
troiii  captivity,  led  an  overwhelniin;,'  army  aj;aiiist 
liim.  Ssimon  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Evesliain, 
on  4tli  Au^'ust  1265.  With  this  event  the  im- 
portance of  this  lon^',  dismal  reijrn  ends.  Henry 
dieil  on  IGtli  November  l'i72.  and  his  son  Edward, 
though  absent  in  Palestine,  was  at  once  proclainieil 
kin;;. 

See  Freeman,  Stubbs  (vol  ii.),  Prothero's  Lit\  mid 
Times  of  Simon  de  Montfort  (1887),  and  other  works 
cited  at  Mo.NTFOHT. 

Il«'nrv  IV.  of  Enjiland,  the  (ii-st  kinj;  of  the 
llini>e  ut'  Lancaster,  wjis  born  3d  April  1367.  the 
son  of  .John  of  (!aunt,  and  was  surnamed  liidin;; 
broke,  from  his  birthplace  in  Lincolnsliire.  His 
father  was  the  fourth  son  of  Edwaril  111.,  his 
mother  the  ihiuj,diter  of  Duke  Heniy  of  Lancaster. 
In  l.'tSU  Hcnrv  was  made  Earl  of  Deiliy,  and 
married  Mary  de  IJohun,  the  second  richest  heiress 
in  Eii;,dand.  For  some  years  he  led  a  roviiij,'  life. 
He  was  present  at  the  taking;  of  Tunis  in  1390, 
foiij;ht  against  the  heathen  on  the  shores  of  the 
lialtic.  made  an  attem|it  to  reach  derusalem  in 
13!)2  !K{,  and  commanded  some  English  lances  in 
the  disastrous  battle  against  the  Turks  at  Nicopolis 
(1396).  In  1.397  he  supported  Kiehard  II.  in  the 
revolution  which  destroyed  the  Duke  of  (iloucester, 
ami  was  createil  Duke  of  Herefoi-d  ;  in  139S  he  wiis 
banished,  and  in  the  following  year,  when  his  father 
dieil,  his  estates  were  <leelared  forfeit  to  Kiehard. 
Thereupon,  in  July  1399,  Henry  landed  in  ^'ork 
shire  with  three  small  ve.s.sels.  He  met  with  no 
opposition  :  and  on  September  '29,  iu  the  Tower,  he 
induce<l  Hicharil,  who  had  been  deserted  and  be- 
trayed, to  sign  a  renunciation  of  his  claims  to  be 
kinj;.  On  the  next  day  Henry  rose  in  his  place  in 
parliament  and  claimed  the  kingdom  and  crown,  all 
present  .■issenliiig.  The  act  was  a  usurpation,  for 
Henry's  claim  to  succeed  by  right  of  birth  was  barred 
by  the  six-year-old  .son  of  the  Earl  of  March,  who 
was  descended  from  an  older  brauch.  Kiehard  w  as 
shut  up  in  the  castle  of  I'omfret.  There  was  an 
attempted  rising  on  thejiartof  his  friends  in  the 
following  January,  but  it  was  easily  sup|>res.se(l, 
the  leadei-s  being  beheaded  bv  the  mob ;  and  in 
the  middle  of  January  1400  Itichard  died  in  his 
dungeon,  probably  from  starvation.  Yet  his  death 
wits  more  than  once  denied  by  the  disatl'eeteil 
narty,  and  many  cruel  executions  were  iiecessaiy 
Wore  the  report  that  he  had  escaped  to  Scotland 
could  be  silenced.  Henry's  reign  was  one  of  trouble 
and  eomniotion.  There  were  incessant  rebellions, 
and  more  than  one  treacherous  attempt  was  made 
upon  his  life,  until  in  his  last  yeai-s  he  was  reduced 
to  a  slate  of  constant  fear.  Lawlessness,  rising 
I)artly  out  of  the  great  poverty  and  heavy  taxa- 
tion, was  rife  iu  every  ((uarter ;  piracy  crippled 
commerce,  though  not  much  more  so  than  the 
increased  duties  laid  (Ui  staples ;  and  fre(|uenl 
descents  were  made  upon  the  coast  by  ex^)editions 
from  France  -f(u-  the  country  of  Kiehard  s  young 
C)Ueen  was  Henry's  implacable  enemy.     The  king  s 


iiioveiiient.s,  too,  were  constantly  hampered  for 
want  of  money,  there  lieing  no  funds  available  for 
anything  beyond  the  most  ordinary  expenses  of 
the  country  ;  ami  '  war  treasurers  '  were  iiltimatelv 
appointed  by  the  ini]>atient  ('onimons  to  watcli 
the  ilisbursemenl  of  the  sums  voted.  Ill  1404 
the  Illiterate  Parliament,  to  which  it  had  been 
ilirected  that  no  lawyer  should  be  returned  as  a 
knight  of  the  shire,  proposed  to  coiiliscate  the 
luojierty  of  the  clergy  ;  but  the  necessity  under 
which  Henry  found  himself  of  suppfuting  the 
authority  of  the  church  led  him  not  only  to  dis- 
countenance all  such  projiosals,  but  also  to  permit 
severe  enactments  against  heretics.  On  '2d  ^larcli 
1401  the  lirst  ca.se  in  England  of  burning  for  hi  lesy 
occurred,  when  a  clergyman  nanie<l  ^Villialll 
Chatrvs  was  binned  at  Smilblicld. 

The  chief  disturbances  of  the  peace  of  the  reign, 
however,  were  occasioned  by  the  Welsh  and  the 
Scots.  I'lider  Owen  (ileiidower  (u.v.)  the  \Velsli 
maintained  their  independence  tliroiighout  this 
reign,  ami  kept  u]>  a  hanussing  warfare  against  the 
English.  Scotl.ind  Henry  invaded  in  14(K),  besieg- 
ing Edinliurgh  Castle  until  compelled  by  famine  to 
retire.  In  1402,  while  Henry  was  engaged  against 
the  Welsh,  the  Scots  in  turn  iiiaile  an  irrujition 
into  Northumberland  with  40,000  men ;  but  a 
body  of  some  10,000  of  them  were  encountered  by 
the  Earl  of  Northumberland  ami  his  son  Harry 
I'lMcy,  with  a  force  compnted  at  1'2,0(I0  lances  ami 
7IMI0  archers,  and  met  with  a  ciiisliiiig  defeat  (  14th 
September)  at  Humbletuii  (or  llomildon),  where 
Earl  Dougl.-is  and  the  Duke  of  Allmny's  son  were 
taken  prisoners.  Harry  IVrcy  (Hotspur)  and  his 
house  shortly  after  broke  with  the  king,  and 
leagued  with  Douglas  and  Clendower  against  him  ; 
but  the  king  met  the  I'crcies  at  Shrewsbury  {21st 
.Inly  1403),  where  the  insurgents  were  utterly 
defeated,  Hotspur  slain,  and  Doii^das  again  taken 
]iri.soner.  Two  other  insurrections  followe<l,  but 
were  easily  suppressed  ;  and  the  remainder  of  the 
reign  was  com|)aiatively  free  from  domestic 
trimbles.  In  1406  I'rinee  James  of  Scotland 
(afterwards  James  I.)  was  caiiliiied  on  his  way 
to  France,  and  was  detained  and  educated  in 
Englaml.  The  civil  wai-s  in  Frame  gave  Henry 
■in  opportunity  to  send  two  expeditiiuis  (1411  and 
1412)  to  that  country;  but  in  his  later  years  he 
was  a  miserable  invalid,  atlliirted  with  ei)ileptic 
fits,  tlie  la-st  of  which  seized  him  while  in  West- 
minster .\bbey.  He  tlieil  on  '20tli  March  1413,  in 
the  .lerusalem  Chamber;  and  this  wiis  taken  to 
explain  a  luopliccy  which  hail  said  that  he  was  to 
die  at  Jerusalem  and  as  late  as  the  preceding 
November  he  certainly  had  hoped  to  go  once  more 
on  crusade.  Henry's  liust  days  were  embittered  by 
a  dread  that  he  would  be  sujiplanted  by  his  eldest 
son.  He  had  eoinmencod  his  reign  energetic  and 
deteiinined  to  govern  on  constitutional  juinciples; 
to  this  resolve  he  remained  steadfast,  as  he  main- 
tained also  his  devoiitne.ss  and  i>iirity  of  life; 
but  disa|ipi)intment  and  jierhaps  disease  latterly 
made  him  cruel,  vindictive,  suspicious,  and  irre- 
solute. The  labour  and  sorrow  of  founding  a 
dyiKLsty  were  his,  and  his  usurped  crown  he  found 
a  heavy  burden. 

Sec  Stubh.s,  voL  iii.  ;  Gainlner.  The  Hoium  of  Lan- 
cmtei- iinil  Yolk;  in  'Epochs  of  Historj-'  series  (1H74); 
anil  especially  Wylie,  Hixtori/  of  Emiland  under  Henry 
the  Fourth  (1884-98).  To  these  must  be  added,  for 
this  and  the  next  two  reigns,  and  for  Henry  Xlll., 
Sliakes]ieaie's  historical  plays,  wliicli  are  based  mainly 
on  tlie  Chronicles  of  Hall  and  Holinslied  (q.v.).  For 
their  value  as  history,  see  C'ourtenay's  Cummciilariet  on 
the  JiiMoricul  I'loim  of  Shakespcure  (2  vols.  1840). 

H«'lir>'  V.  was  bom  in  the  castle  of  Monmouth, 
9th  .Viigu>t  1387,  the  eldest  of  the  si.x  children 
of   Henrv  IV.  by  Mary  de  IJohun,  from  whom   he 


HENRY    V.  -VI.    OF    ENGLAND 


647 


inlieiiteil  a  certain  taste  for  books.  According  to  [ 
a  local  tradition,  he  studied  for  a  time  at  CJueen's  j 
College,  O.xford,  perhaps  in  1399-1400.  From  1401 
wo  lind  liim  engaged  against  Glentlower,  and  in 
1403— the  year  of  Shrewsbury,  where  he  was 
wonniled  in  the  forehead  by  an  arrow — lie  wa.s 
appointed  the  king's  lieutenant  in  Wales.  Here 
he  remained  in  command  of  ojierations  until  1408, 
and  succeeded  at  least  in  keejiing  Ulendower 
behind  the  barriei-s  of  his  mountains.  lu  1409  he 
became  constable  of  Dover,  and  in  1410  captain  of 
the  town  of  Calais  ;  an<l  in  one  of  these  i)laces, 
or  iti  London,  he  re.sided  until  his  father's  death. 
The  story  of  his  connuittal  to  jirison  is  a  lictiou 
(see  G.V.SCOIGXK),  ami  may  lie  traced  to  a  pa,s.>age 
in  the  life  of  Edward  11.  when  Prince  of  Wales. 
There  is  some  evidence  that  Henry  wa.s  for  a 
time  not  on  good  terms  with  his  father ;  but 
the  charges  of  riot  and  profligacy  are  at  least 
gross  exaggerations  of  a  young  soldier's  harm- 
less, boisterous  frolics.  He  was  cro\vne<l  on  10th 
April  1413,  and  at  the  outset  of  his  reign  liber- 
ated the  young  Earl  of  March,  who  was  the 
true  heir  to  the  crown,  restored  the  son  of  Hot- 
spur to  the  lands  and  honours  which  his  father 
had  lost  by  rebellion,  and  had  Richard  II.  s  Ixidy 
brought  up  from  Langley  and  buried  in  West- 
minster. The  great  ett'ort  of  his  reign  was  an 
attempted  conquest  of  France,  now  ruled  by  an 
imbecile  king  and  distracted  by  internal  factions ; 
and  in  1414  Henry  formally  demanded  the  French 
crown,  to  which  he  seems  to  have  believed  sincerely 
that  he  bad  a  valid  claim,  through  his  great-grand- 
father, Edward  III.  On  lltli  August  141.)  he 
sailed  with  an  army  of  30,000  men,  after  crushing 
a  coiispinicy  to  carry  oil'  the  Earl  of  March  ;  and 
on  2'2d  September  he  took  Hartleur,  after  live 
weeks'  siege,  at  a  gi'eat  cost  of  life,  including  2000 
Mien  carried  of!'  by  dysentery.  On  8th  (.»ctober  he 
set  out  on  a  march  to  Calais,  and  at  Agincourt 
(q.v. ),  on  the  2.5th,  where  his  way  w;is  blocked 
iiy  a  French  army,  gained  a  battle  against  such 
enormous  odds  as  to  make  his  victory  one  of  the 
most  notable  in  history.  Two  years  after  he  again 
invaded  France,  and  by  the  end  of  1418  Normandy 
was  once  more  subject  to  the  English  crown. 
Henry's  forces  had  appeared  before  the  walls  of 
I'aris,  when  the  murder  of  the  Duke  of  Ijurgundy 
(10th  September  1419)  aroused  the  indignation 
of  France  against  the  dauphin,  who  had  to  with- 
draw beyond  the  Loire;  and  on  21st  May  1420 
was  concluded  the  'perpetual  peace'  of  Troyes, 
under  which  Henry  was  recognised  as  regent  antl 
'heir  of  France,'  and  received  the  French  king's 
youngest  daughter,  Catharine,  in  marriage.  In 
Feliruary  1421  he  took  his  young  ipieen  to  Eng- 
land to  be  crowned,  having  shown  the  same  pro- 
mise of  just  and  vigorous  rule  as  he  had  already 
done  in  Xorniandy  ;  but  in  a  month  he  was 
recalled  by  news  of  the  defeat  at  Beauje  of  his 
brother  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  by  a  force  con- 
sisting largely  of  Scotch,  commanded  by  the  Earl 
of  Buchan.  Henry  returned  to  Franco  lor  a  third 
campaign,  and  his  wonted  success  in  arms  w;is 
attending  him,  when  he  was  seized  with  illness, 
and  died  at  Vincennes  on  the  31st  August  1422,  at 
the  age  of  thirty-live,  leaving  an  infant  to  succeed 
him.  Henry  was  a  deeply  devout  prince,  temper- 
ate, just,  and  pure  of  life  :  yet  his  religion,  thou'ch 
lie  was  free  from  wanton  cruelty,  did  not  make 
him  merciful  to  a  conc|uered  enemy.  He  followed 
his  father,  too,  though  apjiarently  with  reluctance, 
in  his  treatment  of  the  Lollards;  even  his  old 
companiou-in-arm.-.  Sir  .lohn  Oldcastle  (ipv.),  Wii^i 
sent  to  the  stake.  He  was  a  bravo  soldier,  a  linn 
iliscipliiiarian,  a  brillhant  general ;  iViid  he  died 
when  his  fame  was  brightest. 

See  Stubbs;  Gaiidner,  LaneaMcr  unit   York:  Nicolas. 


Hiitoni  of  the  Battle  of  Aijincourt  (1827);  and  A.  J. 
Church,  Henry  the  Fifth  (1889),  in  the  'English  Men  of 
Action '  series. 

Henry  VI.,  the  only  child  of   Henry  V.  and 

Catharine  of  France,  was  bom  at  Wind.sor  on  6tli 
December  1421.  .-Vs  he  was  not  quite  nine  months 
old  when  his  father  died,  his  uncle,  .John,  Duke 
of  Bedford,  was  appointed  to  govern  France,  and 
another  uncle,  Humphrey,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  to 
be  protector  of  England  in  Bedford's  alisence,  with 
a  council  appointed  liv  parliament  to  aid  ami 
control  him,  the  parliament  declining  to  apjioiut 
him  regent,  tliough  the  late  king  had  desired  it. 
After  twenty-four  years'  captivity,  the  Scotch 
king,  James  I.,  was  set  at  liberty  in  the  hope  of 
securing  peace  on  the  northern  border.  In  France, 
the  incapable  Charles  VI.  having  died,  his  son  the 
dauphin  assumed  the  title  of  Charles  VII.,  and 
went  on  lighting  with  the  English.  His  army, 
commanded  by  the  Scottish  Earl  of  Buchan,  now 
constable  of  France,  was  almost  annihilated  by  the 
English  at  Verneuil  (1424).  But  this  victory  wa-s 
the  last  great  success  obtained  by  the  English  in 
Fiance,  and  their  power,  which  could  only  be 
maintained  by  force,  gradually  crumbled  away. 
Gloucester's  marriage  with  .lacqueline  of  Hainanit 
(1423)  during  the  life  of  her  husband,  John  of 
Brabant,  had  strained  the  alliance  with  Burgundy, 
which  soon  after  lost  its  strongest  link  by  the 
death  of  Bedford's  wife,  Duke  Philip's  sister,  in 
1432.  In  1429  the  siege  of  Orleans  was  rai-sed  by 
the  French,  inspired  by  Joan  of  Arc  (q.v.);  and 
after  this  the  English  power  declined  steadily,  in 
spite  of  their  having  burned  .loan  as  a  witch  in 
1431.  Henry  was  crowned  king  of  England  at 
Westminster  in  14'29,  and  king  of  France  at  Paris 
in  1431  ;  but  the  struggle,  though  continued  for 
twenty  years,  was  seen  to  be  desperate.  Bedford, 
the  only  great  and  statesmanlike  leader  on  the 
English  side,  died  in  143.5 ;  Paris  was  recovered 
by  the  dauphin  in  the  following  year ;  Normandy 
was  completely  lost  by  the  fall  of  Cherbourg  in 
1450;  and  ultimately,"  in  14.53,  the  English  were 
expelled  from  all  France  (Calais  excepted),  greatly 
to  the  true  advantage  of  both  countries. 

Disputes  between  Gloucester  ami  his  uncle, 
Cardinal  Beaufort  (q.v.),  the  powerful  Bisliofi  of 
Winchester,  as  well  as  war  with  France,  prevailed 
during  the  king's  minority.  Besides  being  bodily 
weak,  Henry  inherited  the  mental  inlirmity  of  his 
grandfather,  Charles  VI.  of  France.  In  1445  a  w  ife 
was  found  for  him  in  the  strong-mindeil  Margaret 
of  Anjou ;  and  in  1447  the  Winchester  jiarty,  sup- 
ported by  her,  succeeded  in  having  tiloucester 
arrested  for  high-trea-son.  F'ive  days  later  he  was 
found  dead  in  his  bed  ;  but  that  he  was  murdered 
there  is  no  proof,  and  such  evidence  as  we  have 
tends  to  the  opposite  belief.  Beaufort,  who  had 
served  the  state  faithfully  for  fifty  yeai-s,  survived 
his  nephew  only  six  weeks,  and  after  his  death 
everytliing  went  wrong.  The  want  of  strength 
in  the  king,  as  well  as  in  his  title  to  the  crown, 
Wiis  an  invitation  to  every  f<nin  of  faction  to 
display  itself.  Jack  Cade  (i].v.),  an  Irish  adven- 
turer who  pretended  to  be  a  ilortimer,  obtaiiie<l  a 
temporary  possession  of  London  ;  but  the  citizens 
overcame  him  and  his  pill.aging  followers,  and 
he  was  killed  in  Su-ssex.  The  true  renresenta- 
tive  of  the  Mortimei-s  was  Richard,  Duke  of 
York,  and  he  was  one  of  the  umjuiet  spirits  of 
the  reign.  As  a  descendant  of  Lionel,  Duke  of 
Clarence,  the  third  son  of  Edward  III.,  his  title 
to  the  crown  was  suiierior  to  that  of  the  king, 
who  was  descended  from  the  Duke  of  Lancaster, 
the  fourth  son  of  that  monarch,  and  he  laid  claim 
to  the  crown  with  more  or  less  openness,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  His  intlnence  and  addres-s 
were  so   great   that   in    1454,   on   the  occasion  of 


648 


HENUY    VII. -VIII.    OF    ENGLAND 


tlie  kinji'H  weak  iiiiml  Ijeinj;  entirely  cclii>seil,  lie 
was  aiipointeil  i)rot«M-tor  liv  parliament.  On  the 
kinjj's  recovery  lie  wit-*  iiulispiised  to  give  up  liis 
power,  anil  levieil  an  army  to  maintain  it.  On 
22il  .May  U.">.'>  the  lii-st  hattle  of  St  Alhann  wa.-* 
fiin;.'ht,  anil  the  Yorkist.s  were  victors;  the  Dnke 
of  Siimei-set.  the  qneen's  favourite  iiiini:ster  for  the 
tiiiie,  was  sl.iiii,  anil  the  kinj;  himself  wa.s  taken 
pri.soner.  This  was  the  lii-st  hattle  of  twelve  that 
were  fou;;ht  helween  the  Houses  of  York  ami  I,an- 
cfuster  in  the  Wai's  of  the  Hose.s  {for  an  account 
of  the  strui{j,'le,  see  Ko.sks,  Wars  of  thk  ;  see  also 
Edw.mmi  IV.).  A  return  of  Henry's  ilisonler  niaile 
York  a^'aiu  protector  in  14."M-.")ti;  and  on  his  re- 
covery the  pour  kill';  vainly  strove  to  maintain 
peace  between  the  iliike  s  faction  ami  the  iiueen's. 
Slaifjaret  headed  the  Lanca-strian  forces,  ami  never 
relinijuisheil  the  stru^trle  :  Init  in  I4fil  Kihvard  IV. 
wius  iiriK'lainied  kin^,  and  in  1405  Henry  was  ca]i- 
tureii  and  committed  to  the  Tower.  In  1470  War- 
wick restored  him  to  the  throne,  liut  six  months 
after  he  wius  a^rain  in  Kihv.ird's  hands ;  and  at 
Tewkeshury  (4tli  May  1471)  his  son  was  slain  and 
Mar;;aret  taken  prisoner.  Kdward  returneil  to 
London  on  the  '21st  May;  and  that  ni;,'ht  Henry 
was  murdered  in  the  Tower.  Marjjaret  wius  ran- 
somed by  Louis  XL  in  1475,  and  returned  to 
France.  Henry  had  lost  both  the  kin^;doms  to 
which  he  had  succeeded,  and  seen  all  his  friends 
die  vainly  for  his  sake.  The  most  unfortunate  of 
kind's,  his  reign  stands  out  in  Knglish  history  as 
one  long  disaster.  He  himself  was  a  just  and 
merciful  prince,  pious,  pure,  and  generous ;  but 
the  gentle  and  saintly  scholar,  with  his  fit*  of 
imbecility,  was  no  lit  monarch  for  times  .so  rough. 
His  highest  claim  on  our  gratitude  is  that  he 
founded  Eton  College  and  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. 

See  Stiibbs  ;  Gairdner's  Lancaster  nttd  York\  and  his 
introduction  to  the  Paston  LdUrs  (vol.  i.  1872). 

Henry  VII..  founder  of  the  Tudor  dynasty, 
was  boni  at  Pembroke  Castle,  the  seat  of  his  uncle, 
the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  on  January  28,  1457.  His 
father,  Edmnnil  Tudor,  was  the  son  of  Owen  Tudor, 
a  knight  of  Wales,  and  of  his  wife,  t^ueen  Cath- 
arine, the  widow  of  Henry  V.  ;  be  had  been  created 
Earl  of  Kichmond  by  his  ball-brother,  Henry  VI., 
and  died  before  his  son's  birth.  His  mother,  Mar- 
garet Heaufort,  was  the  lineal  rejiresentative  of  the 
House  of  Lancaster,  Ijeing  descended  from  John 
of  Gaunt  and  Catharine  Swinford,  whose  children 
were  legitimated  after  their  marriage.  The  young 
Earl  of  Uichmiind  Wius  thus  the  nearest  heir, 
after  Itich.ird  III.  h.vd  munliri'd  his  nephews, 
the  sons  of  Edward  IV.,  except  their  sistei-s  and 
Kicliard  himself.  After  Tewkesburj-  he  found 
asylum  in  lirittany,  until  he  wa.s  invited  to  invade 
England  and  rescue  it  from  the  usurper.  The  first 
attempt  (HS.S)  ended  in  failure,  and  cost  the  Duke 
of  Buckingham  his  head  ;  but  in  August  14S5 
Richmond  landed  at  Milford  Haven,  and  marched 
across  the  country  to  Bosworth,  in  Leicestershire, 
where  Hichard  w  as  defeated  and  slain.  Henrv  now 
a.scendeil  the  throne ;  and  his  marriage  with  ICliza- 
beth  of  Yor'.<,  Edward  IV. 's  eldest  daughter,  by 
which  the  \\'liite  Kose  and  the  Red  were  uniteil. 
was  celebrated  in  the  following  January.  His 
reign  wa.s  troubled  by  several  imjiostors  claiming 
the  crown  :  lii-st,  Lambert  Sininel,  an  Oxford  joiner's 
son,  who  jirofessed  to  be  the  Earl  of  Warwick, 
Clarence's  son,  and  was  proclainieil  king  in  Ireland, 
but  was  defeated  at  Stoke  in  14S7,  taken  prisoner, 
and  turned  into  a  menial  in  the  king's  kitchen  : 
next,  Perkiii  Warbeck,  who  pretended  to  be  the 
lioy  Duke  of  York,  who  had  nut  been  murdered  in 
the  Tower  by  l{ichaid  TIL.  and  w.-is  patronised  by 
the  Duchess  of  Hiir;,'undy  and  supported  by  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  and  James   I\.  of  Scotland, 


but  was  finally  captured  in  1497 ;  and  finally, 
Italpli  Wilford,  who  also  )>reteniled  to  be  the  Earl 
of  Warwick,  but  did  not  succeed  in  carrying  his 
enterprise  far.  being  almost  at  once  taken  and 
hanged  in  1499.  In  this  year  Henry,  to  end  his 
troubles  from  pretenders,  liail  Warbeck,  whom  lie 
had  paidoneil,  and  the  true  Eail  of  Warwick,  a 
yiuilli  who  had  known  only  captivity  all  his  ilays, 
convicted  of  a  plot  to  recover  their  liberty,  and 
executed.  The  execution  of  the  latter  is  the  chief 
blot  on  Henry's  inemory  ;  for  the  execution  of  Sir 
William  Stanley,  deeply  though  the  king  had  been 
indebted  to  him.  there  appears  to  have  been  ainjile 
justiUcalion. 

Ill  1492  Henry  inv.aded  France,  but  was  bought 
otr  with  a  promise  of  745, (XK)  crowns  ;  and  this  was 
the  only  foreign  war  in  which  he  engaged,  allhongh 
his  successful  diplomacy  gave  him  an  iiilliience  in 
continental  politics  greater  than  had  been  atlained 
by  any  king  of  England  before  him.  Ferdinand 
and  Is.ibella's  daughter,  Catharine  of  .\ragon,  was 
married  to  his  son  Arthur,  Prince  of  Wales,  a  boy 
of  hfleeii,  just  before  he  died  ;  and  Henry's  policy, 
added  to  an  objection  to  return  part  of  her  dowry, 
ultimately  led  him  to  betroth  her  to  his  next  son, 
who  became  Henry  VIII.  A  marriage  from  which 
tlowed  most  important  consei|uences  was  that  of  his 
eldest  daughter,  Margaret,  to  .lames  IV.  of  Scotland, 
which  a  centuiT  later  brought  .about  the  union  of  the 
crowns.  In  February  1.503  Henry  s(|ueen  died,  and 
ill  his  active  endeavours  to  obtain  a  .second  wife, 
with  a  .sulhciently  large  dowry,  he  ]proiH>sed  a  few 
months  later  to  many  his  own  dauglitei  in-law, 
Catharine,  who  had  been  left  a  widow  by  .\rthur 
the  year  before  :  ami  in  150()  he  even  offered  to  wed 
her  sister  Juana.  the  insane  lieiie.ss  of  Ca-stile. 
With  similar  jirojects  he  was  still  en''ageil  when 
he  died  on  .\pril  22,  1509,  leaving  beliiml  him 
i;i,.StH),000,  worth  £18,000,000  in  our  currency. 
He  wa.s  a  lover  of  peace,  the  friend  of  the  cliiircli, 
the  patron  of  .scholai-ship  and  architecture,  as  well 
as  of  commerce  .and  .adventure.  Bacon  calls  him  'a 
wonder  for  wi.se  men,' and  'this  English  .Solomon, 
for  Solomon  also  was  too  heavy  ujion  his  people  in 
ex.actions.'  But  Henry's  avarice  ha-s  been  exagge- 
rated. Chieliy  he  w.os  a  financier,  yet  his  legis- 
lation was  wise  and  just.  He  not  only  ruled,  but 
governed  Englainl,  and  under  him  the  country 
prospered  and  the  trading-class  became  more 
powerful  ;  the  tax.ation  was  probably  not  so 
excessive  as  has  been  .assumed,  and  the  notorious 
extortions  of  the  king's  lawyers,  Dudley  and 
Empson  (ij.v. ),  did  not  touch  the  great  mass  of  the 
peoiile.  Nor  was  the  king  greedy  of  gold  for  its 
own  .sake;  'to  him,'  says  Gairdner,  'a  large 
reserve  wa.s  a  great  guarantee  for  pe.ace  and 
security.'  A.s  a  imliiician  Henry  was  pitted  against 
such  cunning  o]>ponents  a^i  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  and 
at  lea-st  m.atcheil  them  all  in  subtlety  and  in  fore- 
sight ;  .and  the  throne  which  he  had  won  he  left  to 
his  son  stable  and  secure. 

•Sec  Bacon's  HM'irii  of  Henri/  VII, ;  Gairdner's  Henry 
the  Serenth  ( '  Enslisli  Statesmen  '  series,  1889 ) ;  and  liiuch's 
Enijland  under  the  Tudors  ( voL  i.  trans.  1895). 

Henry  VIII..  the  sec<md  of  the  Tudor  nion- 
arclis  of  Englanil,  was  born  in  1491,  and  .ascended 
the  throne  in  1.509.  He  wjis  the  .second  son  of 
Henry  VII.  .and  Elizabeth  of  York,  and  thus 
united  the  rival  cl.ainis  of  the  Houses  of  York  and 
Lancaster.  Previous  to  the  death  of  his  elder 
lirother  Henr>'  had  been  intended  for  the  church; 
and  this  early  bent  of  his  mind  must  in  some 
niea.sure  explain  his  life-long  interest  in  all  matters 
of  religious  faith  and  church  government.  During 
the  fii-st  yeai-s  of  his  reign  Henry  held  a  pl.ace  in 
the  hearts  of  his  people  such  as  no  English  monarch 
before  or  since  lias  ever  held.  This  atVect ionat<? 
admiration,  which  with  strangely  little  diiniiiution 


HENRY    VIII.    OF    ENGLAND 


649 


he  retaineil  to  the  last,  was  due  to  tlie  fact  tliat  of 
all  Enijlish  kings  he  was  the  most  intensely  Eiijrlish 
— mentally,  morally,  and  i>hysically.  This  enthu- 
siasm of  liis  people  was  also  the  natural  rehou.id 
of  feeling  after  the  tame  anil  cautious  ffovernment 
of  Henry  VII..  a  king,  in  spite  of  all  his  a<lmiral>le 
qualities,  the  last  in  the  world  to  give  rise  to  any 
such  enthusiasm  himself.  In  his  earlier  manhood 
Henrj'  was  accounted  the  hand.somest  prince  of  his 
time,  though  foreign  r)l)servei-s  declared  that  his 
contemporary,  Francis  I.,  hole  him.self  with  a  more 
kingly  air.  In  all  manly  exercises  he  could  hold 
his  own  with  any  of  his  subjects.  His  attainments 
and  general  mental  cultivation  were  far  lieyond 
those  of  his  great  rivals,  Francis  and  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  ;  and  his  accession  to  the  throne  was 
hailed  with  delight  by  such  men  as  C'olet,  Erasmus, 
and  More,  as  the  happiest  omen  for  the  new  studies 
which  had  lately  found  their  way  into  England. 

At  the  date  when  Henry  ascended  the  throne  of 
England  a  ruler  was  needed  with  an  energy  of 
character  and  force  of  intelligence  such  as  hail  never 
yet  been  rei|uired  of  any  English  prince.  AVith 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  begins  the  modern  period 
of  Eurojjean  history.  The  Ijeginning  of  the  new 
time  was  marked  by  many  circumstances  that 
broadly  distinguish  it  from  the  age  that  preceded 
it.  In  Henr\'s  reign  began  that  relation  of  the 
leading  powers  of  Europe  to  each  other  which  has 
continued  to  the  pre-sent  day~a  relation  of  jealous 
watchfulness,  that  insists  on  a  '  balance  of  i)0wer ' 
as  the  necessary  condition  of  the  integrity  of  each 
separate  state.  To  play  his  part  in  the  new  order, 
therefore,  a  range  of  policy  was  required  of  Henry  far 
lieyond  that  of  even  his  most  ambitious  predecessoi-s. 
In  home  att'airs,  also,  questions  were  thrust  ujion 
him  which  touched  the  ver>'  existence  of  the 
nation.  By  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  and  the  policj" 
of  Henry  VII.  the  strength  of  the  feudal  barons 
had  been  broken,  and  the  modem  middle  class  had 
begun  to  be  a  force  in  the  state.  Had  Henrv  been 
a  weak  ruler,  however,  there  was  still  sufficient 
po«er  left  in  the  old  aristocracy  to  have  efi'ected 
at  least  a  temporary  reaction,  and  to  have  revived 
the  disastei's  of  the  late  civil  wars.  Above  all  the 
new  time  was  marked  by  a  revolutionary  spirit  in 
all  questions  of  religion  that  strained  to  the  utmost 
the  prudence  of  Heni-y  and  other  contemporary 
|irinces.  In  Henrj's  reign  the  followei's  of  Luther 
fouml  their  way  into  all  the  leading  countries  of 
Europe,  and  by  their  uncompromising  zeal  gave 
the  most  serious  alarm  to  the  upholders  of  the  old 
order.  By  the  rise  of  the  great  rival  powei-s,  also, 
and  bv  his  own  diminished  iirestige,  the  pope  and 
his  claims  had  become  a  question  of  the  lii-st 
political  importance — a  question  that  aflected  the 
entire  develcq)ment  of  the  respective  states  of 
Europe.  The  question  of  the  papal  su])remacy 
presented  itself  tn  Henry  in  a  special  form,  but 
sooner  or  later  it  must  have  presented  itself  in  one 
form  or  another,  and  sooner  or  later  been  decided 
as  Henry  decided  it.  It  was  impossible  that  the 
question  should  not  arise  whether  certain  out- 
grown institutions  and  privileges  should  continue 
in  the  interest  of  a  foreign  potentate,  who  by  the 
very  condition  of  his  existence  was  now  at  the 
bidding  of  whatever  ruler  might  chance  to  have 
the  strongest  arm.  The  time,  in  short,  was  one 
when  revolutionaiy  forces  were  everywhere  at 
work  ;  and  it  is  only  by  keeping  this  fact  before  us 
that  we  can  form  any  real  conception  of  the  most 
extraordinaiT  reign  in  English  annals. 

Shortly  after  his  accession  Henry,  by  the  advice 
of  his  council,  married  Catharine  of  Aragon,  his 
brother  Arthur's  widow — a  step,  as  it  turned  out, 
of  tremendous  consequence  in  the  destinies  of 
England.  The  fii-st  three  years  of  the  reign  pas-sed 
M^thout  any  memorable  event.      At  home,   by  a 


succession  of  shows  and  festix-ities,  Henry  at  once 
gratified  his  own  taste  for  pleasure  and  gained  an 
ea-sy  popularity  with  his  people.  He  also  gave 
further  satisfaction  by  the  execution  of  Dudley  and 
Empson.  In  1.512  the  real  history  of  Henrj's  reign 
begins.  As  a  member  of  the  Holy  League,  fonued 
by  the  pope  (Julius  II.)  and  Ferdinand  of  Spain 
against  Louis  XII.,  Henry  in  that  year  V>egan  his 
first  war  by  the  invasion  of  France.  The  result 
was  far  from  encouraging.  Overreached  by  Fer- 
dinand, Henry  sent  a  body  of  troops  to  Spain,  who 
di.sgiaced  England  in  the  eyes  of  Europe  by  mutiny- 
ing against  their  leaders,  and  insisting  on  being  led 
home  without  striking  an  etl'ective  blow.  The 
next  year  Henry  invaded  France  in  person,  and 
partly  retrieved  the  national  honour  at  the  so- 
called  Battle  of  Spurs,  and  by  the  capture  of 
Terouenne  and  Toumay.  During  his  absence  a 
greater  triumph  was  gained  for  England  by  the 
disastrous  defeat  of  the  Scots  at  Flodden,  which 
for  several  years  left  Heniy  a  fieer  hand  to  carry 
out  his  continental  policy. 

It  wa-s  in  this  fii-st  French  war  that  Henn 's  great 
minister,  Wolsey,  Iwgan  to  take  a  prominent  place 
in  the  councils  of  the  nation  ;  and  thenceforward 
till  his  fall  in  1529  the  history  of  this  reign  is  little 
else  than  the  histoiy  of  Wolsey.  A  senant  of 
Henry  VII.,  Wolsey  had  early  ingratiated  himself 
with  his  son  at  once  by  his  pliant  courtliness  and 
his  consummate  ability  in  puijlic  aflairs.  So  earlj' 
as  1514  Wolsey  was  after  the  king  himself  the  first 
man  in  the  countrj".  During  the  sixteen  years  of 
his  administration  the  liistoiy  of  England  is  the 
history  of  its  foreign  policy.  In  this  policy  the 
chief  aim  of  Wolsey  and  Ids  ma.ster  (for  Henry 
even  at  his  most  tboughtle.ss  period  never  wholly 
neglected  public  liusiness)  was  to  hold  in  equipoise 
the  two  great  continental  powers,  France  and 
Spain,  and  by  maintaining  the  position  of  arbiter 
to  win  for  England  an  importance  to  which  her  own 
resources  hardly  entitled  her.  In  pursuance  of  this 
aim  the  support  of  England  was  till  1525  given  to 
Spain  against  France.  In  this  first  perioif  of  the 
reign  the  foreign  events  on  which  the  mast  im- 
portant conseqtiences  turned  were  the  election  of 
the  emperor  in  1519,  the  battle  of  Pavia  in  1.V25, 
and  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1527. 

From  the  election  of  Charles  of  Spain  to  tlie 
empire  over  Francis  I.  of  France  began  that  rivalrj' 
between  these  two  princes  which  for  a  quarter  of 
a  century  distracted  western  Europe  witli  almost 
continuous  war.  It  was  of  the  utmost  inijiortance 
both  to  Charles  and  Francis  what  side  Henry 
should  take  in  the  duel  they  saw  before  them. 
Both,  accordingly,  were  eager  in  their  proffere  of 
friendship  to  the  English  king.  At  the  J-'iclcl  of 
the  Cloth  of  Gold,  near  Guisnes,  in  the  English 
dominion  in  France,  where  Henry  and  Francis 
met  in  l.')2()  amid  a  blaze  of  grandeur  that  .M)rely 
drained  the  |iurses  of  both  nations,  a  meeting  took 
place,  which,  after  many  professions  of  frienilshi|>, 
came  to  nothing.  Heniy  had  hardly  left  Francis 
when  he  met  the  emperor  at  Gravelines,  where  a 
formal  alliance  between  them  was  confinued  by  the 
Wtrothal  of  Charles  to  Heniy "s  daughter  Mary, 
then  a  child  of  four  yeai-s.  The  protracted  struggle 
l)etween  Charles  and  Francis  at  once  began,  thongh 
the  following  year  ( 1521 ),  at  Calais,  Wolsey  did 
his  utmost  as  ambassador  of  England  to  maintain 
the  peace  of  Europe.  The  stniggle  proceeded  with 
varying  .success  till  in  1525,  at  the  battle  of  I'avia, 
Fr.mcis  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  niin  by  his 
own  capture  and  the  defeat  of  the  most  imwerful 
army  he  had  ever  led  into  Italy.  As  the  a.-^cend 
ency  thus  gained  by  the  emperor  end.angered  that 
balance  of  jiower  at  which  Wolsey  was  ever  aiming, 
England  Avas  now  thrown  into  alliance  with  France. 
The  sack  of  Rome  by  the  emperor's  troops  in  l.">27 


CoO 


HENRY    VIII.    OF    ENGLAND 


Kiiii|ilie(t    Homy   with    still    stn>iij;er    reasons 
joiniii;:  I'r.iiioe  :   ami  meanwliile  iloiuestic  reat 


for 
joiniii;:  I'  raiioe  :  aim  meanwiiue  iiiniiesi/ic  reasons 
were  iirfriM^;  him  in  the  sume  direction. 

The  h'luliii};  cvent.s  at  home  (lurin-;  these  sixteen 
vears  may  l)e  lirielly  tohl.  In  l.VJl  the  Duke  of 
Ihiekinjiham,  a  ilesoemUmt  in  the  femaU-  line  from 
the  youn^.'est  s^jn  of  Kihvaril  III.,  and,  therefore,  a 
possihle  rlaimaiit  for  the  throne,  was  exeeute<i  on 
a  ch.uj,'e  of  treason.  There  was  little  foundation 
for  the  char^ie  :  hut  the  death  of  this  j;reat  nolile- 
■nan  showed  Knj;land  that  Ileury,  in  s|>ite  of  all 
his  love  of  pleasure,  was  no  ruler  to  he  trilled  with, 
while  it  <,'ave  continental  princes  a  stroiif;  impres- 
sion of  his  unlimited  jiower  over  his  suhjects.  The 
.same  year  Henry  jitililished  his  famous  hook  on  the 
Sacraiiients  in  ieply  to  Luther,  and  received  from 
I'opi'  l-eo  X.  the  title  borne  liy  all  Henry's  suc- 
cessors -/•'/(/<•(■  /Jiftii.sor,  'Defender  of  the  Kaith.' 
To  enahle  him  to  play  that  part  in  continental 
aHairs  which  he  desired,  Henrji-  had  fie<|Uent  need 
of  supplies  beyond  any  of  his  predecessors.  To 
raise  tliese  supplies  Wolsey  showed  his  devotion 
to  the  kinj;  by  taking  ujiou  himself  all  the  odium 
of  frec|Uont  and  excessive  taxation.  In  l."rJ.'{  he 
demanded  of  the  House  of  Commons  a  sub>idy  of 
fS(XJ,(KX),  to  be  raised  by  a  tax  of  twenty  per  cent, 
on  all  goods  anil  lamls.  After  a  vigorous  jirotest 
by  the  house  Wolsey  carried  his  point :  but  the 
resistance  he  had  met  was  a  serious  warning  that 
there  were  limits  beyond  which  even  he  could  not 
safely  proceeil.  To  the  country  at  large  he  made 
himselt  still  further  oilious  by  the  suppression  of 
all  monasteries  with  less  than  seven  inmate.s.  As 
he  ilevoted  the  revenues  of  these  monasteries  to 
educational  purposes,  this  action  was  in  the  be-st 
interests  of  the  country  ;  but  the  monks  were  still 
poiiular,  anil  the  i)eopie  were  not  yet  prepared  for 
tins  high-haiided  dealing  with  a  time  fionouied 
institution.  In  lo'lo  Henrys  expensive  foreign 
policy  again  brought  him  into  straits  for  money, 
and  again  Wolsey  had  to  face  poimlar  feeling  by 
the  proposal  of  an  illegal  tax.  The  tax  he  now 
proiM)sed  is  known  as  the  Amicable  Loan.  Un  all 
sides  it  met  with  the  strongest  op|iosition,  ,and 
Wolsey  was  forced  lo  abandon  his  i)ropos;il,  but 
'people  cursed  the  cardinal  and  his  adheient-s  as 
subversive  of  the  laws  and  liberty  of  England.' 

The  turning-i)oint  in  Henry's  reigii,  as  it  is  a 
great  turning-jMnnt  in  the  history  of  England,  is 
the  moment  when  the  thought  hrst  occurred  to 
him  that  at  all  costs  his  marriage  with  Catharine 
of  .\iagon  must  be  dissolved.  In  taking  a  step 
which  he  knew  to  lie  fraught  with  tlie  most  far- 
reaching  consequences  to  the  nation  lleniy  was 
(letcrniined  by  so  many  motives  that  it  is  hopeless 
to  decide  which  at  any  one  period  carried  it  over 
the  rest.  Catharine  was  nlain  in  personal  appear- 
.•mce,  cold  by  her  natural  temper,  and  six  years 
older  than  her  husband  ;  all  her  children,  exce]>t 
her  daughter  Mary,  had  died  in  infancy,  and 
Henry  professed  (and  we  may  l)elieve  honestly 
enough )  to  see  in  this  the  judgment  of  heaven  on 
an  unnatural  alliance  ;  any  doubt  of  the  legitimacy 
of  Mary  might  lead  to  a  renewal  of  the  civil  wai-s 
of  the  preceding  century  :  the  interest  of  England 
seemed  now  to  point  to  France  rather  than  Spain 
as  her  most  advantageous  ally,  and  Catharine  did 
not  conceal  her  dls;ipproval  of  Henry  s  breach  with 
her  cousin  the  Emperor  Charles ;  and,  liustly. 
Henry  had  set  his  affections  on  another,  Anne 
Boleyn,  a  niece  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  who 
soon  perceived  the  ascendency  she  had  gained,  and 
knew  how  to  use  it  for  her  own  purpose.  With 
such  various  motives  behind  him,  Henry,  with  all 
the  ])assionate  self-will  of  his  nature,  bent  himself 
to  accomplish  his  end.  Pope  Clement  VII.,  who 
after  the  sack  of  Home  had  every  reason  to  dread 
.and  detest    the   inllueiice  of  the  emperor,    w.as  at 


hist  dispo.sed  to  huniour  Henry's  desire  for  a 
I  divorce,  and  in  liV2.S  sent  Cardinal  Caiii])eggio  to 
I  England  to  try  the  validity  of  the  king's  marriage 
with  Catharine.  The  visit  of  Campeggio,  whose 
powers  had  been  carefully  guarded,  settled  nothing; 
and  the  pope  under  pressure  from  llii'  em]ieror  re 
voked  the  case  to  the  Koiiian  curia.  This  im]ioteiU 
conclusion  was  the  ruin  of  Wol.sey,  who  now  founil 
himself  without  a  friend  at  home  or  abroad.  The 
king  blamed  him  for  the  failure  of  Campeggio's 
mission  ;  Anne  Ifoleyn,  who  was  now  all-powerful, 
looked  on  him  as  the  only  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
her  ambition  ;  and  Catharine  regarded  him  as  the 
evil  counsellor,  wlio  in  his  policy  of  opiiositioii  to 
the  emperor  was  the  main  cause  of  all  her  mis 
fortunes.  In  l.')'2!t,  on  an  indicliiient  for  breach  of 
Jim iiiiiiiiir,  he  was  striiiped  of  all  his  goods  and 
noiiouiv,  and  dismi."sed  from  the  court  in  di.sgiace. 
The  next  ve.ir  he  was  summoned  to  London  <ni  a 
charge  of  liigh-treason,  but  bnikeii  in  health  and 
s|iirit  died  on  the  way,  jiiofessing  to  the  hist  his 
devotion  to  the  king.  '  No  statesman  of  such 
eminence,'  it  has  been  said,  'ever  died  less 
lainenled.'  The  people,  who  could  not  a])preciate 
what  he  had  done  for  England  abroad  in  making 
her  a  power  to  be  reckoned  with  in  all  the  councils 
of  Europe,  saw  in  him  only  the  h.anghty  and  vain- 
glorious upstart,  whose  entire  nimle  of  life  gave 
the  lie  to  his  ollice  and  jirofe.ssion. 

The  period  from  the  tall  of  Wolsey  to  the  fall  of 
his  successor,  Thomas  (lomwell,  in  154(1,  is  perhaps 
the  most  extraordinary,  as  it  is,  perbajis,  luie  of 
the  most  important  in  all  English  history.  During 
these  years  were  broken  link  by  link  all  the  tics 
that  bound  England  to  the  Papacy,  and  the 
country  disparted  from  that  system  of  the  natioiis 
wliicli  men  had  come  to  regard  as  no  less  divinely 
ordered  than  the  system  of  the  heavens  itself. 

This  severance  of  England  from  Home  was 
carried  through  by  the  parliament  of  1  o'iil-.SO, 
sumiiKmed  after  an  interval  of  seven  years,  and 
largely  composed  of  the  creatures  of  the  king. 
Des|>ite  the  c<ddness  of  the  liope,  Heiirv  was  as 
delermined  as  ever  on  his  divorce,  and  ct|ually 
determined  that  he  would  not  jilead  his  cause  at 
Home,  which  would  have  been  a  direct  admi.ssion 
of  the  |)a]ial  supremacy.  I!y  way  of  relieving  the 
scruples  of  the  pope  lo  reverse  the  judgment  of  liis 
)uedece.ssors  in  favour  of  Henry's  marriage,  the 
case  was  submitted  to  the  varhms  universities  of 
Europe.  Their  verdict  was  not  unanimous,  but 
the  majoritv  declared  that  Henry's  sciuplcs  were 
justilieil.  'the  pope,  however,  w itii  the  fear  of  the 
emperor  ever  before  him,  would  not  be  moved  from 
his  position  ;  and,  meanwhile,  the  English  parlla- 
,  nient,  inspired  by  the  king,  proceeded  with  its 
work.  I!y  humbling  the  clergy  Henry  doubtless 
I  thought  he  would  be  most  likely  to  bring  the  pope 
I  to  terms.  Accordingly,  one  blow  after  another 
was  struck  at  their  privileges  till  they  were  taught 
that  their  real  master  was  not  the  pope  of  Koine, 
but  the  king  of  England.  In  lo.U  the  whole  Ijoily 
of  the  clerg)',  on  the  same  grounds  .is  Wolsey,  were 
declared  giiilty  of  trea.son  under  the  law  of  /uy/-- 
iiiiiiiiir,  and  j)urclia«etl  the  pardon  of  the  crown 
only  by  the  payment  of  i;ilS,840.  The  same  year 
he  extorted  from  them  his  recognition  as  '  protector 
and  supreme  head  of  the  church  and  clergy  of 
England,'  and  the  year  following  abolished  the 
system  of  iiniidtcs  by  which  the  pope  received  the 
lii-st  year's  income  of  all  newly-appointed  bishops 
and  .archbishoiis.  The  tendency  of  all  these  acts 
could  not  be  mistaken,  and  Sir  Thomas  More,  who 
iiad  .succeeded  Wolsey  in  the  chancellorship,  and 
who  s.iw  the  inevitable  end  of  Henry's  i>olicy, 
prayed  to  be  relieved  of  the  (Jreat  Seal.  In  further 
deli'ance  of  Home.  Henry  (1533)  w-as  privately 
married  to  Anne   Holey n,  in  the  teeth,  also,  as  it 


voiilil  aiipeur,  of  public  oipinioii,  wliicli  all  tlir()ii<,'li 
ji.id  been  on  the  side  of  Catharine.  The  year  1534 
saw  the  definitive  breach  of  England  with  Konie. 
By  the  i)arliauient  of  that  year  it  wa.s  enacted  that 
all  bishops  should  be  appointed  by  a  cohj/c'  d'elirc 
from  the  crown,  and  that  all  recourse  to  the  bishop 
of  KoMie  should  be  regarded  a.s  illegal.  It  was  also 
enacted  that  the  king's  marriage  with  Catharine 
\v:v«  invalid,  that  the  succession  to  the  crown  sliould 
lie  with  the  issue  of  Henry  s  marriage  with  Anne 
liulcyn,  and  th.at  the  king  was  the  sole  supreme 
lii'ad  of  the  church  of  Englanil.  To  this  last  act 
IJisliop  Fisher  and  Sir  Thomas  More,  both  men  of 
the  old  order,  but  ilhistri(ms  by  their  cliaracter 
and  attainments,  refused  to  swear,  and  both  were 
executed  the  following  year.  In  all  his  action 
against  Rome  Henry  was  eager  that  the  world 
siiimld  understand  that  his  (piarrel  was  .solely  with 
the  pope,  ami  not  with  the  doctrines  of  the  church. 
The  supporters  of  Luther,  therefore,  were  treated 
with  the  same  severity  as  the  clergy  of  the  old 
church  Avho  refused  to  acknowledge  him  in  the 
l)lace  of  the  pope.  To  proclaim  his  soundness  of 
doctrine  he  ordered  ( 1537 )  the  publication  of  the 
liishoji's  Bool:  or  the  Institution  of  a  Christian 
Man,  in  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  headship 
of  the  pope,  all  the  Catholic  doctrines  were  set 
down  after  the  strictest  orthodoxy.  It  was  the 
same  anxiety  to  save  his  orthodoxy  that  prompted 
the  famous  Statute  of  the  .Six  Articles,  known  as 
the  Bloodij  statute,  in  which  all  the  fundamental 
doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Rome  are  insisted  on  as 
nece.ssary  articles  of  belief — the  severest  penalties 
being  attached  to  the  denial  of  any  one  of  them 
(1539). 

In  1535,  following  the  example  of  Wolsey,  Henry 
appointed  a  commission  under  the  direction  of 
Thomas  Cromwell  to  prepare  a  report  on  the  state 
of  the  monasteries  for  the  guidance  of  jiarliament. 
The  report,  contained  in  what  is  known  as  the 
lilaci:  Book,  revealed  a  state  of  things  that  justi- 
hed  the  most  drastic  dealing.  The  comniissionei'S 
were  strongly  disposed  to  exaggerate  whatever 
evils  they  found,  and  their  report  is  to  be  taken  for 
w  hat  it  is  worth  ;  yet  there  Is  abundant  testimony 
from  friends  and  foes  alike  to  prove  that  the 
nmnasteries  had  outlived  their  function,  and  that 
their  general  character  was  fitted  to  depress  rather 
than  elevate  the  moral  ideal  of  the  nation.  On  the 
strength  of  this  report  an  act  wa.s  i)assed  for  the 
sup|iression  of  all  monasteries  with  a  revenue  under 
f200  a  year.  This  high-handed  dealing  with  an 
ancient  institution  brought  to  a  head  a  widespread 
discontent  with  the  late  policy  of  Henry.  In  the 
north  of  England,  especially,  the  sympathies  of  the 
people  were  mainly  with  the  old  religion,  and  the 
tiarous  and  country  gentlemen  were  generally  of  the 
same  way  of  thinking.  The  (leople,  nu)reover,  had 
a  real  grievance  in  the  fact  that  everywhere  there  ! 
was  nuich  misery  in  the  country,  by  reason  of  the 
land  being  extensively  converted  from  agricultural 
to  pastoral  ^purposes,  and  its  being  bought  u|)  by 
>peculatoi'b  trom  the  towns.  The  year  following 
the  supiuession  of  the  smaller  mouiisleries,  there- 
fore, a  formidable  insurrection,  known  a-s  the  Pit- 
i/riinaijc  of  Grace,  was  organised  in  the  northern 
counties  under  the  leadei>liip  of  a  bairister  named 
lloliert  Aske.  The  revolt  was  crushed  aiul  failed 
in  all  its  olijects,  for  the  very  next  year  Henry 
gave  a  final  blow  to  the  ancient  church  by  the 
suppression  of  all  the  remaining  nu)nasteries. 
Henry's  agent  in  this  wholesale  dis,solutiou  was 
Thomas  Cromwell,  the  '  Hammer  of  the  Monks,' 
who,  after  the  king  him.self,  was  now  the  most 
powerful    man   in    England.     The   removal   of   the 

1 la-Nterio  was  in  the  best  interest  of  the  country; 

but  the  manner  in  which  Cromwell  carried  out  the 
Work  is  a  revelation  at  once  of   the  character  of 


the  man  and  the  time.  The  revenues  of  the 
monasteries  to  the  amount  of  £161,100  were 
devoted  to  small  pensions  for  the  ablmts  and 
ijiiors,  and  the  erection  of  si.x  new  bislio|)rics. 
The  liulk  of  the  revenues,  however,  pa.ssed  to 
the  crown  and  to  those  who  had  made  themselves 
useful  to  the  king. 

We  have  again  to  return  to  the  histoiy  of  the 
king's  marriages,  which,  in  every  case,  it  Is  to  be 
remembered,  have  a  more  or  less  direct  bearing  on 
the  policy  of  the  reign.  In  1536  Queen  Catliarine 
died,  and  the  same  year  Anne  Holeyn  herself  was 
executed  in  the  Tower  on  the  charge  of  infidelity 
to  the  king.  The  \ery  day  before  her  execution 
Henry  was  married  to  Jane  Seymour,  the  onlv  one 
of  his  wi\es  for  whom  he  apjiears  to  have  had  any 
real  afl'ectiou  and  respect.  The  next  yeai'  Jane 
Seymour  dieil,  leaving  a  -son,  afterwards  Edward 
VI.  The  succession  being  in  the  estimation  of 
Henry  and  his  ministers  still  insecure,  Anne  of 
Cleves  was  chosen  as  the  king's  fourth  wife,  in  the 
hope  of  attaching  the  Protestant  interest  of  (ier- 
niauy.  Anne's  personal  appearance  proved  so  little 
to  Heni-ys  taste  that  he  consented  to  the  marriage 
only  on  condition  that  a  divorce  should  follow  ;us 
speedily  as  decency  would  permit.  Henn's  dis- 
gust with  Anne  of  Cleves  was  the  immediate 
occa.sion  of  the  ruin  of  his  great  minister  Crom 
well.  As  the  agent  of  Henry's  own  religious 
policy  Cromwell  liad  nuide  himself  as  generally 
detested  as  his  predece.ssor  AVolsey.  It  wiis  mainl> 
through  his  action  that  Anne  had  been  brought 
forward,  and  his  enemies  used  the  opportunity  of 
Henry's  indignation  to  efl'ect  his  ruin.  Accused  of 
hightreasou  by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  he  was 
executed  on  a  bill  of  attainder,  without  the  form 
of  a  trial  (1540).  On  the  day  of  Cromwell's  death 
Henry  married  Catharine  Howard,  another  niece 
of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  and  thus  seemed  to  lend 
himself  to  the  Catholic  party  represented  by  that 
nobleman.  Before  two  years  hail  pa-ssed  Catharine 
sutt'ered  the  same  fate  as  Anne  Bolevn,  on  the  same 
charge,  and  in  her  case  proved  beyond  dispute.  la 
July  1543  Henry  married  his  sixth  and  last  wife, 
Catharine  Parr,  widow  of  Lord  Latimer,  a  woman 
of  character,  who  was  happy  enough  to  survive  her 
husband. 

During  all  these  years  the  rivalry  of  Francis  and 
the  emperor  had  been  the  source  of  almost  constant 
war,  and  Henry's  interest  in  their  struggle  had 
been  kept  continually  alive  by  the  intrigues  of 
France  in  Scotland.  In  15-13  Henry  and  Charles 
nuule  a  common  invasion  of  France,  w hich  ended 
disgracefully  for  England  by  Francis  and  the 
emperor  arranging  a  peace  in  w  hich  Henry's  name 
wius  not  even  mentioned.  In  1545  Francis  made 
an  abortive  invasion  of  England,  and  the  following 
year  Henry  retaliated  by  another  inviision  of 
France.  At  length,  both  monarchs  being  alike 
broken  in  health  and  spirit,  they  concluded  a 
peace  (1546),  of  which,  by  Francis's  intervention, 
Scotland  also  had  the  benefit. 

In  his  la-st  yeai-s  Henry  suffered  much  from  an 
ulcer  in  his  leg,  which  seems  at  times  to  have 
goaded  almost  to  madness  a  temper  never  very 
tractable  or  uniform.  The  execution  of  the  young 
Earl  of  Surrey,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  on  a 
charge  of  higli-trea-son,  comjiletes  the  long  list  of 
the  judicial  nmrders  of  Henry's  reign.  Norfolk 
himself  was  saved  from  the  same  fate  only  by  the 
death  of  Henry  himself,  January  28,  1547. 

From  the  revolting  record  of  his  conjugal  rela- 
tions and  the  long  list  of  noble  victims  that  make 
his  rule  a  veritable  reign  of  terror,  Henry  is  apt  to 
be  hastily  judged  simply  as  an  unnatural  monster, 
borne  along  by  motives  of  cruelty  anil  lust.  Yet 
it  cannot  be  questiimed  that  from  first  to  last  he 
was  popular  with  all  ranks  of  his  people,  and  that 


652 


HENRY    THE    LION 


HENRY    IV.    OF    GERMANY 


lie  iiisiiireil  the  iiiiist  ik'voteil  atlWtiim  nf  those  in 
iiiiiiietliate  contact  witli  liiin.  '  lliul  Henry  Iwen 
the  wilful,  oainicious,  and  Kelf'iniiul<;ent  monarch 
he  is  sometimes  represented,'  says  Professor  IJrewer, 
'  the  intense  pei-sonal  devotion  of  such  men  as 
Wolsey,  Cromwell,  More,  tiardiner,  and  Fitz- 
williaui,  so  unlike  esvch  other  in  .all  respects,  this 
one  excepted,  would  have  lii'en  the  most  unintel- 
lijiilile  i>aradox  in  history.'  In  the  point  of  pei>onal 
morals  Henry  was  purity  itself  compared  with  his 
contemporaries  Francis  .ami  .lames  V.  of  Scotland. 
In  the  sense  of  kindly  responsihility,  also,  he  bears 
the  most  favouralile  comparison  with  the  French 
kin;;.  Even  in  the  sheddinj;  of  lilood  Henry  was 
meri'iful  compared  with  Francis.  In  the  ca.se  of 
the  victims  of  the  Bloody  Statute,  ami  even  in  the 
ca.se  of  the  deaths  of  such  men  .as  More  .and  Fisher, 
we  are  hound  to  .admit  that  Henry  had  a  certain 
justification  in  i>rincii)le  and  in  the  interest  of  the 
country.  Hut  in  tlie  wholesale  niass.acre  of  the 
Protestants  hy  Francis  we  have  simply  the 
{,'ratuitous  act  of  a  monarch  ilevoid  himself  of 
all  reli^'iou.s  conviction,  prompted  hy  the  moment- 
ary caprice  of  sellish  interest.  Only  a  prince  of 
the  most  imperious  will  cimld  have  etl'ected  the 
ecdesiiistic.al  revolution  that  makes  Henry ".s  rei},Ti 
perhaps  the  most  important  in  English  history. 
At  the  s.ame  time,  the  whole  past  policv  of  Enjilaud 
tow.ards  Home  had  its  necessary  result  in  Henry's 
rejection  of  his  pa]ial  supremacy.  Hy  the  Law  of 
pram II II ire  the  power  of  the  pope  hail  cea-sed  to  he 
m<ue  than  a  form,  and  it  only  re(|uired  an  occasion 
such  as  the  divorce  of  Catharine,  and  a  kin^  with 
the  resolution  of  Henry,  to  sn.aj)  the  lionil  that  wiis 
already  worn  to  the  extremest  tenuity.  In  the 
suppression  of  the  mon.asteries,  also,  Henry  in 
reality  acted  in  accordance  with  the  hijrhest  con- 
sciousness of  the  nation.  The  uhuss  of  the  iieojile 
were  unfavour.alde  to  the  revolution,  but  that 
section  of  the  community  which  represented  the 
moral  sense  of  the  nation  wiis  all  on  the  side  of 
Henry.  It  is  in  his  manner  of  cairyin^  out  what 
w.as  a  necess.ary  revolution,  in  his  co.ai-seiie.ss  of 
nature,  which  deserves  the  harsher  name  of  sheer 
brutality,  that  the  instinctive  feelinj;  of  revulsion 
against  Henry  tinds  its  re<al  justilication. 

See  the  articles  Wolsey,  Cromwell,  Mobe,  Cr.\xmer, 
Ac;  Froude's  Hiftorii  of  England  (vols.  L-iv.) ;  The 
Rriiin  of  Hear ii  VIII.,  from  hii  Arctusion  lo  the  Death  of 
Wulseij,  by  J.  S.  Brewer,  edited  by  J.  (iairdner  (2  vols. 
1SS4 )  from  the  prefaces  to  the  Kolls  publications ; 
Mandell  Creightoii's  CanliiuU  Wohei;  (188S);  .Stubbs's 
Lectures  on  Medieral  and  Modern  ffi.itori/  (18^7);  and 
Gasquet's  Dissolution  of  the  English  Monasteries  (2  vols. 
1889). 

Ilenry.  Prince  of  W.\le.s.    See  James  I. 

Ili-lir.V.  surnamed  The  Lion  ( 1129-110.5),  Duke 
of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  w.as  the  son  of  Henry  the 
Proud,  anil  the  heail  of  the  Gnelphs.  After  Ba- 
varia, which  had  been  taken  from  his  father,  was 
restored  to  him  ( 11.54)  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  I., 
he  became  the  most  ])owerful  noble  in  Germany, 
his  possessions  extemling  from  the  North  Sea  .and 
the  Baltic  to  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic.  His  frreat 
iiower  and  his  ambitious  designs  roused  against 
iiim  a  league  of  princes,  ecclesiastical  and  tem])oral, 
in  )I66;  but  Henri-,  with  the  emperors  counten- 
ance, w.xs  .able  to  make  head  successfully  ag.ainst 
his  enemies.  Frederick  I.  at  length  grew-  al.armed, 
deprived  Henry  of  his  dominions  and  place<l  him 
under  the  ban  of  the  empire  in  1180.  Nor  w.as  he 
fully  reconciled  to  Frederick's  successor,  Henry 
VI.,  until  about  three  years  liefore  his  ow-n  death. 
Henry  the  Lion  ]>ui-sucil  an  enlightened  policy  in 
ruling  his  dominions,  in  that  he  encour.aged  agri- 
culture .and  trade  ;  he  fostered  the  commerce  of 
Hamburg  and  Lubeck,  and  wa.s  the  founder  of 
Munich. 


Ill'liry  111.,  emperor  of  (ienuany,  only  son  of 
till"  Kmperor  ( 'iinnul  II.,  was  iKirn  on  2Slli  October 
1017,  electe<l  king  of  the  Gennans  in  Krjfi.  I  take  of 
Bavaria  in  1027,  Duke  of  Swabia  in  loSS,  ami 
sncceedcil  his  father  lus  emperor  in  lOMO.  A  man 
of  stern  though  )iious  disposition,  he  resolutely 
maintaineil  the  ini]>erial  ])rerogatives  of  power,  and 
encouraged  the  ettbrts  of  the  Clugniac  nnuiks  to 
reform  the  ecclesiastical  system  of  Europe.  Having 
.summoned  a  council  at  Sutri  in  1040,  he  put  an 
end  to  the  scandalous  intrigvies  of  the  rival  jiopes, 
Benedict  IX.,  Sylvester  III.,  and  (Jrcgory  IV.,  by 
dejiosing  all  three  and  securing  the  electiim  of 
Clement  II.  in  their  stead.  In  1042  he  conipclled 
the  Duke  of  Bohemia  to  acknowledge  himself  a 
v.a.ssal  of  the  em]iire.  The  outcome  of  repeated 
e;im]i,aigns  in  Hungary  w-fis  the  establishment  of 
the  suprem.acy  of  the  empire  over  that  kingdom  in 
1044.  Henn-  also  stretched  his  authority  over  the 
Norman  coin|ueroi-s  of  Apulia  and  Calabria.  He 
dieil  suddenly  at  Bodfeld,  in  the  Harz  conutn-,  on 
.5th  October  lO.'ifi.  He  was  a  zealous  promoter  of 
learnin"  and  the  arts,  especially  music.  He 
founded  numerous  numastic  schools,  over  which 
he  ]d.aced  learned  nu)nks  of  Brittany,  and  built 
several  churches,  including  the  catheilr.als  of 
Wonns,  Mainz,  and  Spires,  in  the  last  of  which 
he  was  buried.  See  StcindorfV,  Jtihrburhrr  des 
iJcutschcn  lUiehs  iinfer  Heiiirich  I J  I.  ( 1874-81 ). 

lionry  IV..  emperor  of  Genuany,  was  bom 
at  Goslar  on  lltli  November  )0.')0,  elected  king 
of  the  (Jermans  in  1054,  anil  succeeded  his  father, 
Henn-  III.,  in  lO.IO.  his  mother  being  named  regent 
of  the  empire.  She  was  soon  ousted  by  the 
.•\rchbisho|i  of  Cologne,  and  he  in  turn  by  the 
Archbishop  of  Bremen.  About  1070  Henry  began 
to  .act  for  himself.  His  first  care  was  to  break  the 
power  of  the  nolilcs  of  the  Land  ;  but  his  me.a-surea 
jirovoked  a  rising  of  the  S<axons,  who  in  1074  foi-ce<l 
n]>on  Henry  humiliating  terms  of  pacilication.  In 
the  following  year  he  defeated  them  in  a  gieat 
b.attle  at  Hohenburg,  and  then  juoceeded  to  take 
vengeance  upon  the  princes,  secular  and  ecclesias- 
tical, who  h.ad  ventured  to  contest  p<»«er  with  him. 
The  case  of  the  latter  gave  the  )ii>|ie,  (Jregoiy  VII., 
the  pretext  he  longed  for  to  interfere  in  the  afl'airs 
of  Germany.  This  w.as  the  lieginning  of  the  gi-eat 
duel  between  pope  .and  emperor  which  has  been 
already  recorded  under  Gregory  VII.  (q.v. ).  This 
conllict  between  the  reiiresent.atives  of  secular  and 
ecclesiastical  jiower  w as  marked  by  several  dramatic 
event.s.  In  1076  Henry  declared  the  ]iontillib'[iosed. 
Gregory  \\\.  ret.aliateil  by  excommunicating  Henry 
and  absolving  his  subjects  from  all  obedience  to 
him.  The  king,  seeing  his  v.assals  and  princes 
gradually  falling  away  from  their  allegiance,  hast- 
ened, in  midwinter,  to  Italy  to  make  sulmiissiim  to 
the  ]>oi)e.  For  three  d.ays  in  .lanuarv  1077  he  w-as 
compelled  to  stand  in  the  courtyard  of  the  castle  of 
C.anossa,  exposed  to  the  inclemency  of  the  weather, 
barefooted,  and  clothed  only  in  the  haircloth  shirt 
of  a  i)enitent,  before  the  pontiff  consente<l  to  remove 
the  ban  of  excommunication.  Then,  having  found 
adherents  among  the  Lombards,  Henr>-  renewed 
the  conflict,  but  w-,as  again  excommunicated.  HLs 
counter-move  to  this  w-as  to  ajipoint  a  new-  pope, 
Clement  III.,  and  to  hasten  over  the  Alps  and  lay 
siege  to  Home.  Henry  in  1084  got  ]ii>ssession  of 
the  city  and  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  emperor 
by  the  .antipone.  (Oregon,-,  who  had  taken  refuge 
in  the  castle  of  San  Angelo,  w-as  only  saved  by  the 
a]iproacli  of  Holiert  Guiscard  at  the  head  of  the 
Italian  and  Sicilian  Nonu.ans.  In  Gei-many,  dur- 
ing Henr^-'s  long  alisence  in  Italy,  three  rival 
kings  of  the  Germans  successively  found  support 
.amongst  the  princes.  But  Henry  managed  to 
trinniph  over  them  all.  Crossing  the  Alps  fm-  the 
third  time,  he  in  1090  restored  the  fortunes  of  his 


HENRY    II.-IV.    OF    FRANCE 


653 


friend,  Clement  III.,  took  Mantua,  ami  was 
rapiiUy  subduinj,'  tlie  Guelpliic  piinces  and  their 
pope,  Crlian  II.,  second  successor  to  Giej^ory,  who 
had  died  in  lUSo,  when  he  learned  that  his  son 
Conrad  had  joined  his  enemies  and  been  crowned 
king  at  Monza.  Tlie  wearied  nionarcli,  disheart- 
ened by  this  adverse  blow,  retired  to  one  of  his 
Lombard  castles,  and  abandoned  himself  to  despair. 
But  at  lenifth  rousing  himself  from  his  lethargy, 
he  returned  (1097)  to  (lermany.  His  second  sou, 
Henry,  was  elected  king  of  the  Germans  and  heir 
to  the  empire.  This  ]irince,  however,  was  induced 
to  rise  against  liis  father  by  Pope  Pascal  II.  ;  he 
took  tlie  emperor  jMisoner,  and  compelled  him  to 
a1)dicate.  The  emperor  escaped  from  his  prison, 
and  founil  friends  and  safety  at  Liege,  where  he 
died,  August  7,  1106.  Henry  deserved  praise  for 
the  enilurance  and  tenacity  with  which  he  struggled 
against  the  tremendous  odds  arrayed  iu  opposition 
to  him.  That  l)e  was  alile  to  stand  his  ground  at 
all,  crnisiclering  the  magnitude  of  the  task  he  took 
in  hand — to  break  the  overweening  power  of  the 
great  feudal  nol)les  of  Germany  and  to  withstand 
papal  aggressiveness  incorporated  in  the  person  of 
a  (Jregory  VII. — must  be  reckoned  success  of  no 
mean  character.  See  Floto,  Heinrich  IV.  iiml  setii 
Zeit'iltcr  ('2  voU.  1855-57);  Giesebrecht,  Geschic/ite 
der  Dciitsr/tcn  Kaiserzeit  (vol.  iii.  4th  ed.  1876); 
and  Minckwitz,  Die  Biisse  Hcinriclis  des  IVteii 
(2d  ed.  1875). 

Henry  II.,  king  of  France,  was  born  at  St 
Germain  on  31st  March  1519,  was  married  to 
Catharine  de'  Medici  in  1533,  and  succeeded  his 
father,  Francis  I.,  iu  1547.  Although  an  amlutious 
and  stout-hearted  prince,  Henry  suffered  himself 
to  be  intluenced  uy  favourites,  women  mostly 
(such  as  Diana  of  Poitiers,  q.v.).  Immediately 
after  his  accession  he  proclaimed  himself  of  the 
Catholic  party,  and  jiroceeded  to  oppress  his 
Protestant  subjects.  Through  the  influence  of 
the  Guises,  whose  sister,  the  dowager-nueen  of 
James  V.  of  Scotland,  sought  the  aid  of  1*  ranee  to 
support  her  against  tlie  English  government,  Henry 
formed  an  alliance  with  Scotland,  and  declared  war 
against  England,  which  ended  in  1558  with  the 
taking  of  Calais,  after  that  city  had  been  210  years 
in  the  hands  of  the  Englisli.  In  spite  of  his  Catho- 
lic proclivities,  ambition  made  him  renew  the  duel 
with  the  eiii)iire  that  his  father  had  begun.  In 
1.552  he  concluded  treaties  of  alliance  with  the 
German  Reformers,  and  sent  an  army  to  aid  Maurice 
of  Saxony  against  the  emperor.  HLs  troops  cap- 
tured Toul  antl  Verdun,  while  Montmorency  seized 
iqion  Metz.  After  a  lull  in  the  hostilities  war  was 
renewed  in  1556.  In  tlie  following  year  Guise's 
design  to  compier  Naples  was  frustrated  by  the 
generalship  of  Alva,  whilst  in  the  Low  Countries 
the  French  under  Montmorency  sustained  a  crush- 
ing defeat  at  St  Quentin.  These  reverses  were 
followed  by  the  treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis 
( 1559 ).  Shortly  afterwards  Henry  was  accidentally 
wounded  in  a  tournament  by  Montgomery,  a  Scot- 
tish nobleman  and  cajitain  of  his  guard.  He  died 
from  the  wound  on  lOlh  July  1559.  See  works 
cited  at  France  and  C.vth.vui'ne  ue'  Medici. 

Henry  III.,  king  of  France,  the  third  son  of 
Henry  II.  and  Catharine  de'  Medici,  wa-s  born  at 
F(mtainebleau  on  19th  September  1551.  Gn  the 
death  of  Constable  Montmorency  he  received  the 
chief  command  of  the  army,  and  in  1569  gained  two 
decisive  victories  over  the  Protestants  at  Jarnac 
and  Moncontour.  He  showed  his  zeal  for  the 
Catholic  cause  by  taking  nn  active  share  in  the 
ma-ssacre  of  St  Bartholomew.  In  1573  the  intrignes 
of  the  iiueen-regent  secured  his  election  to  the 
throne  of  Poland,  liut  im  receiving  the  tidings  of 
the  death  of   his  brother,   Charles  IX..  he  Heil  by 


niglit  from  Cracow  and  came  home  to  France  to 
succeed  Charles  as  king  (1575).  His  reign  was  a 
period  of  almost  incessant  civil  war  between  the 
Huguenots  and  the  Catholics.  The  party  of  the 
latter,  supported  by  the  kings  mother,  and  headed 
by  Henry  of  Guise,  formed  the  Holy  League,  the 
oiiject  of  wliich  was  not  merely  to  assert  the  un- 
divided supremacy  of  Catholicism,  but  also  to  secure 
the  reversion  of  the  throne  to  the  family  of  the 
Guises.  Henry  was  quite  unfitted  to  cojie  with  the 
crisis.  He  showed  both  fickleness  and  want  of 
courage  in  liLs  public  conduct ;  and  in  private  life 
his  days  and  nights  were  spent  in  an  alternation  of 
dissolute  excesses  and  wild  outbreaks  of  religious 
fanaticism.  His  favourite  companions  were  a  band 
of  young  men  (the  'Migmms')  as  vicious  as  him- 
self. At  length  in  1588  the  as.sassinatioii  of  the 
Duke  of  Guise  in  the  king's  antechamber,  and  of 
the  Duke  of  Lorraine  in  prison,  fairly  roused  the 
Catholic  part  of  the  nation  to  the  utmost  jiitcli  of 
exasperation.  The  distracted  king  threw  himself 
into  the  arms  of  Heniy  of  Navarre,  and  the  two 
sovereigns  marched  upon  Paris  at  the  head  of  a 
Huguenot  army.  But  on  1st  August  1589  Henry 
of  France  was  stabbed  l)y  a  fanatical  Dominican 
named  Jacques  Clement ;  he  died  on  the  following 
day,  nominating  Henry  of  Navarre  as  his  suc- 
ces.sor.  With  this  king  the  male  line  of  the  house 
of  ValoLs  became  extinct.  See  JI.  W".  Freer,  Henry 
III.,  /lis  Court  and  Times  (3  vols.  1858). 

Henry  IV.,  ki»g  of  France  and  Navarre,  sur- 
named  'the  Great,'  and  'the  Good,'  was  born  at  Pan, 
13tli  Dec.  1553.  He  was  the  third  sou  of  Aiitoine 
de  Bourbon  and  .Jeanne  d'Albret,  daughter  and 
heiress  of  Henry,  king  of  Navarre  and  Beam.  His 
father's  death  placed  him  under  the  sole  control  of 
his  mother  and  grandfather,  at  whose  court  he  was 
trained  to  the  practice  of  knightly  and  athletic 
exercises,  and  inured  to  the  active  habits  and  rude 
fare  common  to  the  Bearnais  mountaineers.  His 
mother,  who  was  a  zealous  Calvinist,  was  careful 
to  select  learned  men  holding  her  own  tenets  for 
his  instructors  ;  and  having  discovered  that  a  plot 
was  on  foot  to  remove  him  to  Spain  by  force,  to 
train  him  in  the  Catholic  faith,  she  conducted  him, 
in  1569,  to  La  Rochelle,  and  luescnted  him  to  the 
assembled  Huguenot  army,  at  whose  head  he 
fought  at  the  battle  of  Jarnac.  Henry  was  now 
chosen  cliief  of  the  Protestant  party — although,  on 
account  of  his  youth,  the  principal  command  w.is 
vested  in  Coligny  (q.v.  I— and  the  third  of  the 
Huguenot  wars  began.  Notwithstanding  the  de- 
feats which  the  Huguenots  had  experienced  in  the 
next  campaign,  the  peace  of  St  Ciermain  which 
concluded  it  was  apparently  most  advantageous 
to  their  cause,  and  was  speedily  followed  by  a  con- 
tract of  marriage  between  Henry  and  Margaret  of 
Valois,  the  sister  of  Charles  IX.  After  much 
opposition  on  the  part  of  both  Catludics  and  Pro- 
testants, the  marriage  wiis  celebrated  with  great 
pomp  in  1572,  two  months  after  the  sudden  death 
of  the  Queen  Jeanne,  which  was  probably  due  to 
poison,  and  within  less  than  a  week  of  the  massacre 
of  St  Bartholomew .  It  had  been  originally  intended 
that  Henry  was  to  share  the  fate  of  his  friends  and 
co-religiimists  ;  but  his  life  w.is  spared  on  condition 
of  his  professing  himself  a  Catholic.  Three  years  he 
rem.ained  at  the  French  court,  virtually  a  jirisoner  : 
but  at  length,  in  1576,  he  contrived  to  elude  the 
vigilance  of  the  queen-mother,  and  escapeil  to  the 
camp  of  the  Huguenots  in  Alencon.  There,  having 
revoked  his  compulsory  cimvcrsion,  he  resumed  the 
command  of  the  army,  and  by  his  address  gained 
several  signal  advantages,  which  constrained  the 
king  to  consent  to  a  peace  highly  favourable  to  the 
cause  of  the  Keformers. 

The  death  of  the  Duke  of  .\njou  (late  Alencon) 
gave  Henry  the  rank,  as  tii-st  prince  of  the  blood- 


654       HENRY    IV.    OF    FRANCE 


HENRY    OF    HL'NTIN(;iMtN 


royal,  of  presiiiiiiitive  lieir  to  tlie  c-mwn  ;  wliile 
the  muriler  of  Henry  HI.  in  1589  made  liiiii,  in 
riylit  of  tlie  Salio  law,  and  as  the  nearest  lineal 
male  deseendant  of  the  royal  house  of  France, 
rij;litfnl  kinj;  of  France.  As  a  I'rotcstant,  lyinj; 
under  the  ban  of  papal  excomniunieation,  he  was 
otiMoxioiis  to  the  ^'reater  part  of  the  nation  :  and 
limlin^'  that  the  |)ukes  of  Lorraine  and  Suvoy.  1 
and  I'hilip  II.  of  Spain,  were  preuared,  each  on  his  I 
own  account,  to  dispute  his  claims,  he  retired  to  ! 
the  .south  until  he  could  collect  more  troops  and 
olitaiu  reinforcements  from  En;,dand  and  (lermany.  | 
His  nearly  hopeless  cau.se,  liowever,  jjradually 
jjained  strenj;th  thriiu;,'h  the  weakness  and  internal 
dissensions  of  the  Lea^'uers,  who,  in  their  anxiety  j 
to  circumvent  tlie  amhitious  desif,'ns  which  Philip  I 
n.  cherished  in  favour  of  his  danjrhter  (niece  of  I 
Henry  III.),  notwithstainling  her  exclusion  liy  the  | 
Salic  law,  proclaimed  the  aj;ed  (.'ardinal  Hourhon 
kin;r,  with  the  Duke  of  Mayenne  lieutenant-jreneral 
of  the  kinjjilom,  ami  thus  still  further  complicated 
the  interests  of  their  i)arty.  In  l."i!M)  Henry  won  a 
s|ilen<liil  victory  over  Mayeune  at  Ivry.  In  l.">!)3 
tlie  ;ussemhly  of  the  States-j^eneral,  hy  rejecting'  the 
pretensions  of  I'hilip  II.,  and  insisiing  on  the  in  I 
teij;rity  of  the  Salic  law,  smoothed  Henry'.s  way  to 
the  succession,  altliouj;h  it  is  probahle  that  he 
would  never  have  been  ;/enerally  acknowledjicd  had 
he  not,  liy  the  advice  of  his  friend  and  minister,  De 
Hosny,  afterwards  Due  de  Sully  (i|.v.),  formally 
iirofessed  himself  .i  member  of  the  Church  of  Home. 
The  ceremonv  of  his  recantation  of  I'rotestantism, 
wliiili  wiLS  celebrated  with  j,'reat  pomp  at  St  Denis 
in  .luly  159:!,  (illed  the  Catholics  with  joy,  and  wius 
followed  by  the  speedy  surrender  of  the  most 
impi>rtant  cities  of  the  kin^<loni.  includin;^  even 
Paris,  which  openeil  its  ;,'ates  to  him  in  l.')94.  The 
civil  war  was  not,  however,  wholly  put  ilown  till 
four  years  later.  In  the  same  year,  l.')9.S,  jieace 
was  conidiideil  between  Spain  anil  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Vervins,  which  restored  to  the  latter 
many  important  places  in  Picaiilv,  ami  wils  other- 
wise favourable  to  the  F>encli  kuij; ;  but,  import- 
ant a-s  was  this  event,  it  wils  pn-eeded  by  a  still 
more  memorable  act,  for  on  the  l.">th  .Ajuil  Henry 
had  signed  an  edict  at  Nantes  by  which  he  secured 
to  Protestants  perfect  liberty  of  conscience  and 
the  ailministration  of  impartial  justice. 

Henry  was  now  left  at  liberty  to  ilirect  his 
attenliou  to  the  interaal  im]Movements  of  the  < 
kin^rdom.  which  had  been  thorou^hlv  ilisor<;an-  I 
ised  thniu;,'h  the  lonj;  continuance  of  civil  war. 
The  narrow-miuclcd  policy  that  hail  been  followed 
duriiij;  the  precedinj,'  r<i;;ns  had  left  the  jirovinces 
remote  from  the  capital  very  much  at  the  mercy 
of  the  civic  ■jovernoi's  and  larjie  lauded  pro- 
prietors, who,  in  the  absence  of  a  ^'ener.il  adminis- 
trative vi<;ilance,  arrojjfated  almost  soverei^'U  power 
to  themselves,  raisinj;  taxes  and  exacting  com- 
pulsory services.  These  abuses  Henry  completely 
stopped,  and  by  makinjr  canals  and  roads,  and  thus 
opening  all  parts  of  his  kiu^'ilom  to  tratlic  and 
cmnmerce,  he  established  new  source.s  of  wealth 
and  prosperity  for  all  cla-sses  of  his  subjetrt.s.  The 
mainspring  of  these  improvements  was.  however, 
the  reor;rauisation  of  the  tiiiances  under  Sully,  who, 
in  the  coui-se  of  ten  years,  reduced  the  national 
debt  from  330  millions  to  .">()  millions  of  livres, 
althoujih  arrears  of  taxes  to  the  amount  of  '20 
millions  were  remitted  by  the  kin;,'  durin';  that  : 
lierioil.  On  14tli  May  1010,  the  day  after  the  corona-  ' 
tion  of  his  second  wife,  Man'  de'  .Medici,  and  when 
about  to  set  out  to  commence  war  in  CJerniany, 
Henry  was  a.s.sa.ssinated  by  a  fanatic  named  I{avail- 
lac.  Nineteen  times  before  attemiits  had  been 
made  on  his  life,  most  of  which  had  been  traced  to 
the  ajjency  of  the  papal  and  inijierial  courts,  and 
hence  the  people,  in  their  j.'rief  and  cimsteniation. 


laid  Kavaillac's  crime  to  the  char<;e  of  the  same 
influences.  The  f,'rief  of  the  Parisians  was  well- 
nijjh  delirious,  and  in  their  fury  Ihey  wreaked  the 
most  horrible  ven^teance  on  the  murderer,  who, 
however,  had  lieen  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands  of  the 
.lesuits,  Henry's  implacable  foes,  uotwithstandiu;; 
the  many  concessions  which  he  made  to  their  nidcr 

.\ecoidinjr  to  Henri  .Martin,  Henry  '  remains  the 
;,'reatcsl,  but  aliove  .ill  the  most  essentially  French 
of  all  the  kinjpi  of  France.'  His  unbridled  licentious- 
ness was  his  woi-st  fault,  and  the  cause  of  much  evil 
in  his  own  and  siiceeediuf;  reigns;  for  his  prodij;ality 
and  weak  indulgence  to  his  favourite  mistresses. 
(Jabrielle  d'Kstrces  and  Henrietta  d  Fntra;;ues,  and 
his  all'ection  for  the  natural  children  which  they 
bore  him  were  a  scandal  to  the  nalion,  and  a  souiie 
of  inipoverishinf;enibarra.s.sment  to  thefjovernmcnt. 

As  authurities  in  regard  to  Henry  II.,  III.,  and  IV.,  in 
addition  to  the  general  histories  of  France,  the  following 
works  may  be  consulted  :  Anquetil,  Kspril  de  In  Liijnr . 
Petitot's  Cothctioii  of  Mcminns  :  I)e  la  .Saussaye.  Jfht'iirt 
(if  litotg  :  DociimtnU  (/c  I'fiist,  lU  Frttncc ;  Mattliieu, 
Hist,  de  Hinri  IV.;  Memoirs  and  Letters  of  .Sully,  l)c 
Thou,  D'Aubigne,  Paj^uier,  Duplcbsis-Moriiay ;  C'ape- 
figue,  liiM.  de  fa  It*'Ji>rme  et  de  la  Lii/iie  ;  Pcrefixe,  /list. 
de  H'liii  IV. ;  M.  W'.¥teKT,Hi«turiiof  the  III  ii/n  of  Henri/ 
IV.  (ti  vols.  l.HliO-i;:));  H.  do  la  Ferriere's  Henri  IV. 
(18!K));  Hingham's  Murriaiies  of  t/ir  llourhotm  (ls8il); 
and  monographs  by  P.  K.  Willert  ( 1893 )  and  E.  T.  Blair 
(Phila.  18'Jl). 

Il<-iiry  V.  <iK  Fii.VNCK.     See  Cn.\MliouD. 

Ilt'liry.  surnanied  Thk  Nav|(;.\T0R  ( Doin 
Henrii|ne  el  Navej,'ador ),  a  famous  Portu^'uese 
prince,  the  fourth  son  of  JoAo  L,  kin^;  of  Portii;;al, 
wfus  born  at  Oporto  in  l.'{94,  and  hr>l  distinf^iiished 
himself  at  the  coni|iiest  of  (  euta  in  l-ll.'p.  .\ller 
the  death  of  his  father  he  took  u|i  his  residence  at 
the  town  of  Satires,  in  .-Vl^iarve,  near  Cape  St  Vin- 
cent; and  while  iirosecnting  the  war  against  the 
Mooi^s  of  .Africa,  his  s.ailors  reached  parts  of  the 
ocean  heretofore  nnvisited  and  unknown.  'J'lie 
^'rand  ambition  of  Henry  wiis  the  discovery  of  un- 
known rc^'ions  of  the  world.  .At  Sa;,'res  he  elected 
,an  observatory,  to  which  he  attached  a  .school  for 
the  instruction  of  youthful  scions  of  the  nobility  in 
the  .sciences  neces.sary  to  navi-iatimi.  Snbseijuenlly 
he  despatched  some  of  his  pupils  on  voya^;es  of  dis- 
covery, which  resulteil  at  l!i.--t  in  the  discovery  of 
the  iladeira  Islands  in  1418.  Henry's  thoujjlits 
were  now  directi'd  towards  the  auriferous  coiLsts  of 
Guinea,  of  which  he  had  heard  from  the  .Moms  ; 
and  in  14.33  one  of  his  mariners  sailed  round  Cape 
Nun,  until  then  rej,'arded  as  the  farthest  point  of 
the  earth,  and  took  pos.session  of  the  coasts  as  far 
south  (US  Ca]ie  Itojador.  Ne.xt  year  Henry  sent  out 
a  lar;.'er  ship,  which  reached  a  point  120  miles 
beycmd  Cape  liojadm' ;  and  at  last,  in  1440,  Caiie 
Hlaiieo  w;is  reacheil.  I'p  to  this  period  the  prince 
li.id  borne  all  the  expense  of  these  voya^'cs  himsell  ; 
henceforth,  self-supportin;^  societies  were  formid 
under  his  patronage  and  guidance,  and  what  had 
formerly  been  the  att'air  of  a  single  individual  now 
became  the  i)assi<ui  of  a  whole  nation.  Hut  Henry 
did  not  slack  |iersonally  in  his  ettorts.  In  1446  his 
cajitain,  Nnno  Tiistam,  doubli'd  Cape  Verd  in 
Senegambia,  and  in  1448  (ninzalez  A'allo  di.scovered 
three  of  the  .Azores.  Henry  died  in  1400.  A  great 
national  celebration  of  his  memory  took  ))lace  in 
Portugal  in  1894.  Henry's  mother  was  the  English 
Phili|ipa,  daughter  of  John  of  I  iaunt. 

^See  works  by  Wappiius  (Gtitt.  1842)  and  De  Veer 
(Kiinigsb.  1864);  tlie  ii/c  and  the /^ijic<wcn'c»  of  Henry, 
both  by  Major  (181)8  and  1877);  and  a  short  work  by 
Kay inoud  IJeazley  (  1895).  I 

Henry  of  Illllltill^tlon.  English  chronicler,  ; 
Wils  brought  up  in  the  li<iusehold  of  the  Bishop  of  I 
Lincoln,  and  about  II°20  became  Archdeacon  of  i 
Huntingdon.       His   irlief  d'ceui're   is   the   Hist'/rirr 


HENRY    THE    MINSTREL 


HENSLOWE 


655 


J«<7/o/-«(«,  cominf;  down  to  ll.>4.  Husitles  this  he 
wrote  several  e|)istles  on  liistorical  matters  ami 
some  poems.  His  Hintori/  was  pulilislied  for  tlie 
Rolls  series  by  T.  Arnokl  in  1«S() ;  an  Eiij,'lish 
translation  by  T.  Forrr^ster  ajipeared  in  18o.'J.  .See 
(lainlmn's  E'lrhi  CliruiuLicrs  of  Kn  rain;  {  1S7VI). 

Henry  the  Miustrel.    See  Haukv  (  Ulind). 

Henry.  .Jdseph,  pliysicist,  was  b(n-n  either  in 
1797  or  17'J9,  in  Alliany,  New  York.  There,  while 
apprenticed  to  a  watchmaker,  he  took  np  the  study 
of  science,  and  earned  means  to  carry  him  throuj;li 
the  coarse  at  the  academy,  in  which  institution  lie 
became  instructor  in  Mathematics  in  1820.  In  1S3'2 
he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  Natural  Philosophy  at 
Princeton;  in  lS4(i  he  was  elected  the  lirst  secre- 
tary of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  removed 
to  Waslunjjton,  wliere  he  die<l,  ISth  May  1878. 
Apart  from  his  great  services  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  with  Henry's  name  are  associated  the 
discovery  of  a  relation  between  the  number  of  coils 
of  wire  round  the  electro-maj,'net  and  the  (Mmstrue- 
tion  of  the  battery  to  work  it,  which  ]ire]iared  the 
way  for  Morse's  invention,  in  which  his  principles 
were  applied  to  make  the  instrument  etleeti\e  at  a 
<Ustanee  ;  the  discovery  of  a  singular  form  of  elec- 
trical induction ;  researches  in  meteorology  and 
acoustics  :  and  the  establishment  of  the  national 
liglithouse  board,  of  which  he  was  chairman  from 
1871  until  his  death.  He  was  LL.  D.  of  Unhm 
( 1829 )  and  Harvard  ( 1851 ),  and  a  member  of  many 
scientific  societies  in  America  and  Europe.  Of  his 
numerous  papers  2  vols,  were  published  in  1880  ; 
and  a  Mcinurial  was  published  bv  order  of  congress 
in  1880. 

Henr.y.  Matthew,  Nonconformist  divine,  the 
.son  of  Philip  Henry,  one  of  the  2000  ministers  who 
left  the  (-'huich  of  England  on  the  passing  of  the 
'Act  of  Uniformit.y,'  was  born  at  Broad  Oak  farm- 
house, in  Flintshire,  October  18,  1002.  In  1087  he 
became  pastor  of  a  congregation  of  dissenters  at 
•^'hester,  where  he  remained  until  May  1712,  when 
he  removed  to  a  charge  at  Hackney,  near  London. 
He  died  of  ai)ople.\v,  June  22,  1714,  at  Nantwich, 
while  on  his  return  from  a  visit  to  his  oUl  friends  at 


Chester 


His 


i\ 


principal  work  is  an  Ejpositivn  uf 
the  Old  anil  Xcw  Testament,  in  5  vols,  folio  ( 1710 
and  repeatedly  since),  which  was  carried  down  only 
'o  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  The  remainder  was 
com]deted  after  Henry's  death  by  various  ministers, 
whose  names  are  given  in  some  of  the  editions. 
This  commentary  is  not  a  critical  work,  but  rather 
practical  and  devotional  in  its  aim,  and  as  such 
occupies  a  high  place  amongst  works  of  its  class. 
Henry  wrote  several  other  books,  whic'li  were  ])uli- 
lished  at  London  in  ISIiO.  There  are  biographies 
of  him  by  Tong  (1710),  J.  li.  Williams  ( 1805), 
Davies  (1844),  Hamilton  (1853),  and  Chapman 
(1859)  ;  and  see  the  Diaries  and  Letters  uf  Philip 
Hcurij,  edited  by  Matthew  Henry  Lee  ( 188.'?). 

Henry.  Patrick,  a  great  American  orator  and 
patriot,  was  born  in  Hanover  county,  Virginia, 
29th  -May  17.')G.  His  father  was  a  native  of  Scot- 
lanil,  his  grandmother  a  cousin  of  Kobertson  the 
historian.  Henry  received  a  share  of  ehussical 
I'ducation,  but  at  an  early  age  entereil  business, 
and  married  at  eighteen.  Having  failed  succes- 
.-^ively  in  'store-keeping'  and  in  farming,  he  became 
a  lawyer  in  1700,  and  three  years  later  found  his 
opportunity,  when,  having  been  employeil  to  plead 
the  cause  of  the  people  against  an  unpopular  tax, 
his  great  elo(|uence  seemed  suddenly  to  develo|i 
itself.  This  <Iefence  placed  him  at  once  in  the 
front  rank  of  American  orators,  and  his  later 
speeches  advanceil  him  to  their  head.  From  amid 
the  sullen  murmui-s  and  remonstrances  that  the 
(lassage  of  the  stamp-act  evoked,  his  voice  it  was 
that  lirst  rose  in  a  clear,  bold  call  to  resistance. 


Thronghout  the  war  of  independence  he  wa-s  a 
zealous  patriot.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Hi-st 
Continental  congress,  which  met  at  Philadeljdiia  in 
1774,  and  delivered  the  lirst  speech  in  that  assembly 
— a  .speech  that  for  liery  eloquence  and  lofty  tone 
was  worthy  of  so  momentous  a  meeting.  In  177ti 
he  carried  the  vote  of  the  \'irginia  convention  I'm- 
independence ;  and  in  tlie  same  year  he  became 
governor  of  the  new  state.  He  was  afterwards  four 
times  re-elected.  In  1791  he  retired  from  public 
life,  and  returned  to  his  juactice :  in  1795  he  declineil 
the  secretarvshi])  of  state  oH'ered  him  by  Washing- 
ton. He  died  0th  .June  1799.  Henry  wa.s  an  able 
administrator,  a  wise  and  far-seeing  legislator  ;  but 
it  is  as  their  greatest  orator  that  his  memory  lives 
in  the  minds  of  most  Americans.  No  one  who  lia-s 
come  after  has  approached  him  in  al>ility  to  stir 
and  sway  the  passions  of  an  audience.  The  cla-ssical 
Life  is  that  by  William  Wirt ;  others  are  Everett's, 
in  Sparks's  American  Biorjraphij,  Tyler's  (1887), 
and  W.  W.  Henry's  (3  vols.  1891). 

Henry,  Roisert,  a  Scottish  historian  and 
divine,  was  born  at  St  Ninians,  in  Stirlingshire, 
February  18,  1718.  He  studied  at  the  university 
of  Edinburgh,  and  from  1768  till  his  deatli  in  1791) 
was  one  of  the  ministers  of  that  city.  In  his  His- 
tory of  Great  Britain  on  a  New  Plan  ( 0  vols. 
1771-93)  he  adopted  the  'new  ]dan  '  of  devoting 
chapteis  to  the  social  aspects  of  successive  periods, 
and  thus  tracing  the  progress  of  ci\ilisation  in 
tireat  Britain  ;  but  the  work  has  no  juetensions 
to  critical  acumen  or  even  strict  accuracy,  an<l 
consequently  is  now  of  little  value. 

Henry,  Willi.\M,  a  chemist,  wa.s  born  at 
Manchester,  12tli  December  1774,  and  dieil  on 
■2d  September  1830  at  Pendlebury  near  that  -city. 
In  1795  he  began  to  study  medicine  at  Edinburgh, 
but  at  the  end  of  his  hist  session  he  returned  home 
to  superintend  a  chemical  business  which  hail  been 
established  by  his  father,  and  it  was  not  until 
1805  that  he  was  able  to  resume  his  studies  at 
Edinburgh.  He  only  practised  for  a  short  time 
in  Manchester,  preferring  to  devote  himself  to 
original  investigation  in  chemistry.  He  was  the 
author  of  some  very  v.aluable  [lapcrs  in  the  I'hitu- 
sophical  Transactions  (chiefly  on  the  chemistry  of 
the  gases):  and  his  Elements  of  Experimental 
Chemistry,  in  two  volumes,  which  Avas  published 
in  1799,  reached  an  eleventh  edition  in  18'29. 
Henry  was  awarded  by  the  Hoyal  Society  the 
Cople.v  gold  medal  in  1809.  The  Memoirs  of  the 
Manchester  Society  are  chiefly  indebted  to  him 
and  to  Dalton  for  their  high  scieutilic  character. 

Henrysoil.  Robert,  Scottish  poet,  was  born 
about  1425,  and  was  most  likely  educated  abroad. 
He  is  usually  designated  schoolmaster  of  Dun- 
fermline, and  he  seems  besides  to  have  pracliscil 
there  the  profession  of  a  notary.  His  ileatli  may 
safely  be  put  about  the  end  of  the  15th  century. 
Of  his  poems  the  most  important  is  his  Testament 
of  Cresseid,  in  the  form  of  a  kind  of  supplement  to 
Chaucer's  poem  on  the  same  subject.  Another. 
Rohene  and  MaLyne,  is  especially  interesting  iis  the 
earliest  e.\tant  specimen  in  the  Scottish  dialect  of 
pastoral  poetry.  Other  works  are  a  inetrical  vci-^ion 
of  thirteen  of  the  Fables  vf  ^Esoji,  with  morals 
suited  to  the  questions  of  the  time,  and  the  some- 
what feeble  Orpheus  and  Eurydice.  All  previous 
eilitions  of  Henryson's  poems  were  supei'seded  by 
tliat  of  Dr  David  Laing  (Edinburgh,  1865). 

Ueuslowe,  Philip,  a  stage-manager  in  Shake- 
speare's time,  was  originally  a  dyer  .and  starch- 
maker,  but  became  in  1584  le.ssee  of  the  Rose 
theatre  on  the  Bankside.  From  1591  till  his  <leatli 
in  1610  he  w;ui  in  partuer-ship  with  Edward  .Vlleyu, 
(q.v. ),  who  married  his  step-daughter  in  1592. 
Henslowe's    business    iliarv   from    the    year    1593 


656 


HEPAK 


HERA 


ti)  KMHl  liivt  foitmiaU-ly  Ijueii  preiserveil  at  Dili- 
wivli  ('iille^'e,  ami  contains  invaluable  infoiina- 
tiiin  aliout  new  iilays  ami  all  tlie  sla^e  business 
lit'  Shakespeare's  clay.  It  was  edited  by  .1.  I'avne 
Collier  for  tlie  Shakespeare  Society  in  1841,  lint 
his  reprint  is  unreliable,  niarreil  by  many  U{;ly 
inter|iiilations  and  woi>e. 

Ilopar  (»;r.  Iii'imr,  'the  liver')  is  the  name 
^'iven  by  the  older  chemists  to  various  compounds 
lit"  sulphur,  from  their  brown,  liver  like  colour. 
HcjHi/ir  means  beloiij;in^'  to  the  liver ;  as,  /irjialic 
artery,  vein,  duct,  \c.  Hejitttica  is  a  term  for 
medicines  which  atVect  the  liver  and  its  appendages. 
Ilcpatira,  a  ;;eMus  of  liardy  perennial  iilants 
lK'lciii;;iii>;  to  the  natural  order  Kanunculaieir, 
closely  related  to  .Vneirione,  and  formerly  included 
in  that  ^enus  undir  the  name  .1.  Ilijidlini.  II. 
friluljii  is  the  bestUnown  species,  and  has  lonj; 
been  extremely  popular  in  the  llowerjjarden  on 
account  of  its  llowerin;;  in  early  sprint;  .'"  {;''eat 
profusion;  the  llowei-s  of  the  several  varieties  beinf,' 
also  very  brilliantly  coloured.  The  normal  colour 
of  the  species  appears  to  be  purple,  but  there  are 
varieties  with  red,  deep  blue— of  these  there  are 
sinj;le  and  double-tlowered  forms— and  pure  white 
Howers.  It  is  a  native  of  many  hilly  parts  of 
Europe.  Its  roots  are  powerfully  astringent,  but 
have  not  the  acrid  ijualitics  possessed  by  uuiiiy  of 
the  Kanunculaceic.  Jl.  niKjidusii  is  the  only  other 
species  known  to  cultivation  ;  it  is  larger  in  all  its 
parts;  the  (lowers  are  |iale  blue.  It  is  a  native  of 
Transyhania,  and  both  siiecies  delight  in  partial 
shade  rather  than  full  exposure  to  the  sun. — For 
another  kind  of  llepatica>,  see  LlVi;i;woKT.s. 

Il«'|»atitis  ((!r.  lupar,  'the  liver'),  iiillamnui- 
tion  111  llie  Liver  (i|.v.). 

Il«>|>li:i*stll.s,  the  god  of  fire  and  of  smithying 
among  the  (Jreeks,  is  represented  by  Homer  as 
lame,  walking  with  the  aid  of  a  slick,  and  panting 
as  he  goes,  ills  character  is  good  tempered,  allec- 
tioiiate,  and  compa-ssionate  (cf.  .Ksch.  J'ruiiic//ieiis 
Bound).  There  is  also  an  element  of  the  comic 
connected  with  him  ;  his  gait  and  ungainly  iigure 
provoki-  the  laughter  of  the  gods.  (»n  the  other 
luuid,  he  is  himself  given  to  practical  jokes  ;  he 
constructs  a  seat  on  which  his  mother  sits  down, 
but  from  which  she  is  unalile  to  rise.  His  mother 
was  Hera,  who  (according  to  Homer)  liked  her 
lame  child  so  little  that  she  cast  him  far  out  from 
heaven.  .Another  account  of  Ids  fall  from  heaven 
is  also  given  by  Homer — that  Zeus  thrc^w  him  out 
for  siding  witii  Hera  aj^ainsi  liim.  The  story  of 
the  .seat  just  mentioned  is  brought  into  connection 
with  the  former  version  of  his  fall ;  none  but  he 
could  release  Hera,  nor  would  he  help  her  until 
restored  to  his  jilace  in  heaven.  Mytliologists  in- 
terpret the  fall  of  Ilephastus  ivs  the  fall  of  lightning 
from  the  sky  (  =  Hera,  but  s('e  IIeI!.\).  .\mongst 
the  myths  "in  which  Hepluistus  is  concerned  we 
must  iliention  that  of  the  manufacture  of  the  lirst 
woman,  I'andora  (by  whom  all  evil  came  into  the 
world):  the  birth  "of  Athene  from  the  head  (if 
Zeus,  when  Hepluestus  with  an  axe  acted  as  mid- 
wife ;  and  the  birth  of  Erichthimios,  who  claimed 
llephast  us  for  father,  and  from  whom  the  Athenians 
counted  them.selves  ;us  descended. 

In  discussing  the  origin  and  antiquity  of  Hephics- 
tus  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  this  deity 
appears  under  two  aspects,  which  would  naturally 
come  to  lie  combined  though  they  were  not  neces- 
sarily united  from  the  first.  Hephaslns  is  the  god 
of  sniithying  and  also  the  god  of  tire.  To  begin 
with  the  latter  luspect  of  the  deity,  there  are  so 
m.any  points  of  resendilance  between  the  ilivine 
smith  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Wayland  Smith  (ipv.) 
or  Wicland  or  Volundr  of  the  northern  membei-s  of 
the    Indo-European    family   of   peoples    that   some 


comparative  mytliologists  have  felt  justilied  in 
inferring  that  the  divine  smith  wa-s  a  conception 
known  to  the  Imlo  Europeans  liefoie  their  disper 
sioii.  On  the  <illier  liaml,  it  is  maintained  that  the 
resemblances  are  due,  not  to  the  joint  inheiitance  by 
dill'erent  peoples  of  the  same  original  myth,  but  to 
borrowing  at  a  late  period.  The  stories  of  Wieland 
were  a  conscious  loan  on  the  part  of  the  Teutons, 
ill  the  titli  century  .\.l). ,  of  various  classic  tales 
about  Dailalus  and  \ulcan  (\V.  (iolther,  Cn-iiiiiiiid, 
ill.  xxiii.  4-Jit).  This  latter  view  has  in  its  favour 
the  fad  that  the  undivided  Imlo-Europcaus  were 
uiia(i|uaiiited  with  the  metals,  excejit  copper,  and 
totally  ignorant  of  the  art  of  smilhyiiiu.  The 
divine  smith,  lheref<ire,  is  a  mythologiciil  couccp 
lion  which  must  be  posterior  to  the  ilispersion  of 
the  I ndo- Europeans.  Keniains  the  iiuestion  then 
whether  the  other  aspect  under  which  Heiih:istus 
ajipcai-s,  that  of  the  god  of  lire,  goes  dack  to 
primeval  times,  (di  the  one  liaml,  other  I  ndo  Euro 
pean  peoples  have  lire-gods  of  their  own  ;  the 
Hiinlus  Agiii,  and  the  Norsemen  Eoki.  Hut,  uu 
fortunately,  there  is  no  phonetic  identity  between 
the  names  of  the  various  deities.  ^Ve  have  there- 
fore nothing  beyond  general  consiilerations  to 
guide  us.  The  want  of  philological  e(|nivalcnce 
in  the  names  of  various  lire  gods  makes  rather 
against  the  supposition  that  the  jirimitive  Imlo 
Europeans  recognised  a  god  of  lire.  (Ill  the 
other  hand,  there  is  no  imi>robability  inherent  in 
the  a-ssumptiiui  that  they  were  at  lca.st  lus  far 
advanced  as  the  Australian  aborigines  who  woi-ship 
lire.  The  fact  that  several  members  of  the  Indo 
European  family  agree  in  the  woishii>  of  a  lire-god 
does  not,  of  course,  demonstrate  that  the  worship 
was  a  joint  inheritance,  for  the  worshipper's  idea  ol 
worshipping  so  useful  an  element  occurs  indcpciid 
ently  to  jieoples  who  cannot  be  suiiposeil  on  an.\ 
theory  to  be  connecteil.  Finally,  the  lameness  of 
HepliMstus  may  be  an  expression  of  the  unsteady, 
nickering  iiKililm  of  llame  ;  but  it  is  well  to  remeni 
ber  that  amongst  savages  the  people  to  whose  lot  it 
particularly  falls  to  tend  the  lire  are  the  laiin>. 

Hepli:islus  was  by  the  Konians  identilied  with 
their  own  lire  god  Vulcan  (q.v.). 
Ilciltaill't'roil.  See  Maui;.U!ET  of  Nav.mcki;. 
ll<'ptar«'ll.V.  tbe  name  sonielimes  a]iplied  to  the 
seven  Kiiigcluiiis  supposeil  to  have  been  established 
by  the  Saxons  in  England.  The  term  is  completely 
misleading  if  it  be  taken  to  mean  that  there  were 
neither  more  nor  less  than  seven  distinct  kingdonis 
in  the  country  down  to  the  time  of  Egbert ;  but  is 
peniiissilih'  ciiongh  if  taken  to  mean  only  that  the 
i-hief  kingdoms  at  various  periods  from  the  .'ith  to 
the  '.lib  century  were  \Ve.ssex,  Sussex,  Kent,  Essex, 
East  Anglia,  ^lercia,  and  Northumbria  (see  Esii- 
LANl) ).  The  shadowy  sovereignty  of  the  Bretwalda 
is  discussed  under  that  head. 

lleptateiK'll,  a  word  sometimes  used  for  the 
first  seven  books  ((ir.  liepta,  '  seven  ;'  tciicliua,  'in 
strunienl,'  '  volume' )  of  the  Old  Testament — formed 
on  the  aujilogvof  Fentateuch  ami  He.xateuch.     See 
BlliLii,  V.il.  11.  p.  119. 

Hera,  the  daughter  of  Kronos,  the  sister  and  at 
the  same  lime  the  wife  of  Zeus,  was  the  (Jreek  god 
dess  of  marriage,  child-liirth,  and  menstruation. 
In  the  //(■(«/ slie  takes  the  part  of  the  (ireeks,  ,anil 
liatesthe  Trojans,  because  Paris  awarded  the  fatal 
apple  of  ili.scord  to  Aphrodite.  She  is  the  motliei 
of  Ilephastus,  the  god  of  lire,  of  Ares,  the  god  ot 
war,  of  Eileithyia,  of  Hecate,  and  of  Hebe.  Three 
towns,  according  to  Homer,  are  especially  dear  to 
her— Argos,  Sjiarta,  and  Myceiue.  She  is  repre- 
sented by  the  poet  as  jealous  and  ill-tempered. 
As  the  gotldess  of  lawful  marriage  she  jiersecutes 
the  illegitimate  oll'spring  of  her  consort  /ens,  such 
ivs  Heracles  and  Dionysus.     She  conspires  against 


HERA 


HERACLIUS 


657 


Zeus,  wlio  makes  reprisals  by  hangin"  her  up  from 
heaven  with  j;oklen  fetters  on  her  liands  aiul  a 
couple  of  anvils  on  her  feet.  In  consequence  she 
subsequently  preferred  to  thwart  him  secretly 
rather  than  ilefj-  him  openly. 

Many  interpretations  of  this  figure  in  mythology 
have  been  given  in  ancient  and  in  modern  times  : 
Empcdocles  and  Euripides  re"arded  her  as  the  god- 
dess of  tlie  earth  ;  Plato,  and  after  him  the  Stoics, 
as  tlie  goddess  of  the  clouds.  In  modern  times  she 
has  lieen  regarded  a-s  the  goddess  of  the  lower  air, 
which  is,  like  Juno  in  Virgil,  varium  et  ittutabUc 
xetiijicr,  in  contrast  to  Zeus,  who  is  the  god  of  the 
serene  and  upper  ether.  Roscher  (Stud.  z.  Ven/l. 
Myth.  d.  Griecheti  u.  Rumer)  interprets  hei'  as  a 
moon-goddess  of  Grteco-Italian  times.  He  bases 
this  view  on  the  fact  that  she  resembles  all  other 
moon-goddesses  in  being  the  goddess  of  women,  and 
in  presiding  over  menstraation  and  child-birth  ;  in 
possessing  as  her  attributes  the  torch,  the  bow,  and 
tlie  crown  of  stars  ;  in  the  fact  that  the  new  moon 
was  the  time  for  her  festivals,  and  finally,  on  the 
rcseniljlance  between  Hera  and  Juno.  As  regards 
the  resemblance  between  these  two  goddesses,  they 
are  each  the  spouse  of  the  supreme  god  of  the  sky, 
they  have  the  same  functions  relatively  to  women, 
their  cult  and  attributes  are  similar  ;  and  linally, 
the  ancient  Epirotic  name  for  Hera  was  Bione, 
which  corresponds  phonetically  to  Juno. 

The  ancient  identihcation  of  Hera  with  the  earth 
may  at  once  be  dismissed.  There  is  no  resemblance 
l)etween  Hera  and  Gaia,  or  any  other  chthonian 
{ earth )  deity.  Nor  can  she  be  regarded  as  a  goddess 
of  the  lower  air  :  goddesses  of  the  air  are  unknown 
to  any  related  people,  and  no  primitive  tribe  (or  any 
other  tribe  than  that  of  mythologists)  would  dis- 
tinguish between  the  lower  air  and  the  serene  ether. 
If  it  is  an  unalterable  canon  of  mytliology  that  all 
deities  must  be  nature-myths  of  some  kinil,  then 
Koscher's  interpretation  of  Hera  as  a  moon-god- 
dess is  the  most  probable.  Otherwise  we  may  be 
content  to  seek  tlie  origin  of  Hera  simply  in  the 
necessity  under  which  the  worsliippers  of  Zeus  lay 
of  providing  him  with  a  spouse.  And  here  it  he- 
comes  a  point  of  some  importance  to  determine  at 
what  period  Hera  was  created — whether  before  the 
dispersiim  of  the  Indo-Europeans,  or  after  their 
dis[iersion,  ami  while  the  joint-ancestoi's  of  the 
Greeks  and  Italians  yet  lived  together  in  a  Gneco- 
Italian  period,  or  in  purely  Greek  times.  Now,  no 
one  claims  that  Hera  dates  from  before  the  dis- 
pei'sion  of  the  Indo-Europeans — i.e.  from  the  time 
when  Zeus,  though  the  supreme  god,  was  still  to 
the  average  Indo-European  mind  also  and  always 
the  sky.  Nor  can  Roscher  be  said  to  have  made 
out  his  ciuse  for  the  Gneco-Italian  origin  of  the 
goddess  :  tlie  fact  that  Dione  in  one  part  of  Greece 
was  once  the  supreme  goddess,  and  was  dethroned 
by  Hera,  is  not  enough  to  prove  that  Hera  was 
generally,  or  indeed  ever,  known  as  Dione ;  and, 
further  {to  say  nothing  of  the  fact  that  Diana 
rather  tlian  Juno  is  the  phonetic  eiiuivalent  of 
Dione),  there  is  no  identity  between  tlie  mytholo- 
gical functions  of  Dione  and  Juno  on  the  one  hanil, 
or  of  Dione  and  Hera  on  the  other.  As  for  the 
resemblances  of  Hera  and  Juno,  they  are  not  greater 
than  might  rea.sonably  be  expected  :  Greeks  and 
Italians,  alike  inheriting  the  sky-god  (not  from  a 
Gra'co-Italian  period,  the  very  existence  of  which 
is  <l(mblful,  but  from  primitive  times),  would  alike 
feel  till'  necessity  of  providing  him  with  a  wife  ; 
and  if  in  both  c:ises  the  wife  of  the  supreme  god 
came  to  lie  regarded  as  the  "oddess  of  marriage, 
and  of  all  appertaining  to  it,  tlie  coincidence  is  not 
astonishing  when  we  reflect  on  the  considerable 
similarity  between  the  two  peoples.  If  then  Hera 
does  not  date  from  before  purely  Greek  times,  the 
nece.ssitv  for  interpreting  her  as  a  nature-myth  is 
•2.")0 


considerably  weakened,  for  as  long  as  Zeus  was 
but  the  sky  we  should  expect  that  he  could  only 
be  married  to  some  nature-power;  but  when  the 
personality  of  the  god  liad  come  to  be  usually 
conceived  apart  from  the  element  from  which  he 
orig'inated,  we  should  expect  that  his  consort  would 
be  in  mythologj-  what  she  undoubtedly  was  in  art 
— merely  the  feminine  counterpart  of  tlie  supreme 
deity.  And,  finally,  on  this  view  Heras  resem- 
blance to  moon-goddesses  would  be  the  result  of 
her  position  as  the  goddess  of  marriage,  instead  of 
her  position  as  the  goddess  of  marriage  being  the 
result  of  a  lunar  origm. 

Heracleia.  an  ancient  city  of  Magna  Groecia, 
situated  near  the  river  Aciris,  about  .3  miles  from 
the  Gulf  of  Tarentuin.  It  was  founded  about  432 
B.C.,  and  under  the  Romans  became  a  prosperous 
and  refined  city,  though  it  never  acquired  any  his- 
torical prominence.  Near  it,  however,  Pyrrliu.s 
defeated  the  Romans  in  'iSO  n.c.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood, besides  a  large  number  of  coins,  ranking 
among  the  very  finest  relics  of  antiquitv,  there  have 
been  discovered  (1753)  two  bronze  tablets  (Tabulce 
Heracleenses),  containing  a  copy  of  the  Lex  Julia 
Municipalis  (45  B.C.),  and  forming  one  of  the  piin- 
cipal  authorities  for  a  knowledge  of  the  municipal 
law  of  ancient  Italy.  This  inscription  has  been 
published  by  Muratoii,  Savigny,  and  others.  Two 
other  cities  of  this  name  deserve  mention  :  ( I ) 
Her.\clei.\  Mixoa,  between  Agrigentum  and 
Selinus,  on  the  south  coast  of  Sicily,  originally  a 
Phoenician  town;  and  (2)  Heraclei.v  PoNTIca, 
on  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea  in  Bithynia,  destroyed 
by  Cotta  in  the  Mithridatic  war. 

Herac'lian,  an  officer  of  the  Emperor  Hono- 
rius  (q.v. ),  who  as  governor  of  the  province  of 
Africa  rendered  good  service  during  the  invasion  of 
Alaric.  He  became  consul,  but,  revolting  against 
Honorius,  was  defeated  on  invading  Italy  (413 
.A..U. ),  and  slain  soon  after  in  Africa. 

Heracli'dse  means,  in  its  widest  sense,  all 
'  the  descendants  of  Heracles  '  (  Hercules ),  but  is 
specially  applied  to  those  adventurers  who,  found- 
ing their  claims  on  their  supposed  descent  from  the 
great  hero  (to  whom  Zeus  had  proiniseil  a  portion 
of  the  land ),  were  said  to  have  joined  the  Dorians 
in  the  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus.  Several  ex- 
peditions were  undertaken  for  this  purpose,  the  last 
and  greatest  occurring  eighty  years  after  the  Trojan 
war.  The  chiefs  of  the  invaders  defeated  Tisa- 
menus,  son  of  Orestes,  and  grandson  of  Agamem- 
non, and  took  possession  of  the  Peloponnesus.     See 

GUEECE. 

HeracirtnS  (Gr.  HSraklcitos),  a  Greek  philo- 
sopher, was  born  at  Ephesus,  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
fiourislied  about  500  B.C.  He  is  said  to  have 
resigned  the  hereditary  office  of  '  king '  of  his 
native  city  in  favour  of  his  younger  brother,  and 
to  have  given  himself  up  to  a  life  of  solitary  con- 
templation. In  the  old  traditions  he  was  called, 
from  his  gloomy  way  of  looking  at  things,  '  the 
weeping  philosopher,'  in  contrast  to  Democritus, 
'the  laugliing  philosopher.'  He  died  at  the  age 
of  sixty.  The  result  of  Heraclitus'  meditations 
was  a  work  On  Nature,  of  w  hicli  only  a  few  obscure 
fragments  remain.  The  fundamental  tenets  in  his 
philosophy  are  that  all  things  are  in  a  constant 
tlu.x  of  becoming  and  perishing,  that  fire  is  the 
primordial  principle  of  all  existence,  and  that  the 
supreme  law  of  existence  is  the  harmony  that 
results  necessarily  from  the  operations  of  universjil 
reason.  His  enigmatical  fragments  were  published 
by  Bywater  in  1877.  See  Die  Philosophic  dcs 
Herakleitds  des  Dunklcn  (1858)  by  the  famous 
Socialist  Liussalle. 

Hcrac'lius,  a  Byzantine  emperor  (610-41), 
of  splendid  but  fitful  genius,  was  uorn  in  C'apjja- 


668 


HERALD 


HERALDRY 


(liiciii  nlH^iit  STo  A.li.  In  (ilO  lip  lieiulol  a  revolt 
ii^iaiiist  tlie  tyrant  1'lioca.s,  slew  liim,  and  n-soended 
Ills  throne.  At  tliU  time  the  empire  was  in  jpeat 
Htraits:  the  Avars  threatened  it  nn  the  north-west, 
and  the  Persians  invaded  its  frontiers  from  tiie 
Kuvine  to  EiLtypt.  The  armies  of  Khosraii 
(Chosroes)  II.  i-ii]itnrcd  Damascus  in  til.S,  and  in 
the  following  year  .lerusalem,  from  which  they 
carried  olf  the  sjicreil  eross  ;  then  Syria  anil  Ef^-yiit 
wereconijuered,  and  the  whole  of  Asia  Min<ir  to  the 
gates  of  C'haleeilon,  over  atjainst  (.'onstantinoiilc. 
At  lenj,'tli  Ileraeliiis  he-stirred  himself,  and,  having 
in  620  cdMiliided  a  treatv  with  the  Avars,  set  alnint 
disciplining  .m  army.  Two  years  later  he  took  the 
tield  against  his  eiustern  enemy,  anil  in  a  series 
of  most  brilliant  campaigns  utterly  routed  the 
generals  of  Persia  several  times  in  liattle,  won 
hack  his  lost  provinces,  slmt  up  Khosrau  II.  within 
the  walls  of  his  strong  capital  of  Ctesiphon  (t)28), 
and  comjielled  him  to  restore  the  true  cro.ss,  which 
Heraclius  solemnly  carried  back  to  Jeni.salem  in 
Oil).  Two  years  later  a  new  and  more  formidalile 
enemy  apiieiired  in  the  south  ejust — viz.  the  fol- 
Uiweis  of  >loliammeil,  who  speedily  won  from  the 
Christian  emperor  nearly  all  that  he  had  gained 
from  the  Persians,  the  people  of  Asia  .Minor  alone 
o|>posing  any  resistance  to  their  iiii]ietuous  enthu- 
siasm of  cominest.  Meanwhile  Heraclius,  strange 
to  say,  wa.sted  his  time  within  his  palace  at 
Constantinople  in  inexplicable  inactivity,  partlv 
in  reprehensible  self-indulgence,  partly  in  theologi- 
cal disputes.  He  died  in  641,  leaving  the  throne 
to  his  son,  Con.stantiiie  HI.  See  Drapeyrou, 
L'Einpcrcur  Hfracliiis  ( 1869). 

Horald  (f>lil  HighGer.  harioUl — i.e.  harivahl, 
'aiiiiy  strength  '),  an  otlicer  who  waji  in  early  times 
the  messenger  of  war  and  peace  l>etween  sovereigns, 
and  of  deliance  and  courtesy  Ijetween  knights,  his 
otlice  also  including  the  superintendence  of  jousts 
and  tournament.s,  and  the  regulation  of  public  cere- 
monials. \Vhen  the  bearini;  of  coat-armour  came 
to  be  reduced  to  a  system  its  supervision  became 
in  France,  England,  Scotland,  and  some  other 
countries  one  of  the  functions  of  the  herald.  A 
herald  was  generally  attached  to  every  order  of 
knighthood.  Heralds  had  their  attendants,  calleil 
iiiirsiiictinti,  who  were  iiresumed  to  lie  lejirniug  the 
duties  of  a  herald.  Both  had  oHicial  titles  ;  and 
often  not  only  sovereigns,  but  the  greater  nobles, 
luul  their  heralds  and  pursuivants.  English  records 
and  chronicles  of  the  I4th  atid  loth  centuries 
contain  allusion.s  to  York,  Windsor,  Chester, 
Lancaster,  Anindel,  Clarencieux,  Leopard,  and 
other  heralds,  and  to  Falcon,  Portcullis,  Antelope, 
and  other  pursuivants  ;  and  in  Scottish  records  of 
tlie  same  date  the  heralds  mentioned  include  Lyon, 
Itothe.say,  Marchmont,  Suowdoun,  Hay,  and 
Albany,  and  the  imrsuivant-s  Cairick,  Diligence, 
Inicorn.  In  France,  England,  Scotland,  Burgundy, 
and  some  other  countries  the  chief  of  the  lieralds 
acijuired  the  title  of  Kiiigof-arms,  anil  had  more 
or  less  a  judicial  power  of  rei'ulating  the  l»earing  of 
coat-armour.  The  office  of  Moutjoie  rot  cTanncs  in 
F"rance  is  a-s  old  as  the  13th  century.  In  England 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  there  were  two  kings-of- 
arms — Norroy  and  Surroy — the  jurisdiction  of  the 
line  being  to  the  north,  the  other  to  the  south  of  the 
Trent.  The  designatiim  Surroy  was  changeil  by 
Henry  V.  to  Clarencieux.  And  the  same  king 
instituted  a  new  king-of-arms  called  Garter,  who 
was  to  be  connected  with  the  order  so  calletl,  and 
to  be  principal  king-of-arms  of  England.  In  Scot- 
tish records  mention  first  ix-cnrs  of  Lyon  King-of- 
arms  (who  took  his  title  from  the  lion  in  the  roval 
shield)  in  the  beginning  of  the  loth  century,  "fhe 
title  of  Ulster  Kingofarms  was  created  in  the 
I  reign  of  Edward  VI.  :  but  there  existed  an  Ireland 
'    King-of-arms  at  an  earlier  date.     Certain  fees  were 


spcnred  to  the  English  kings-of-arms  and  heralds 
in  connection  with  public  ceremonials  and  creations 
of  peers  in    \-UW  ;  and  in    NKi   Kichard   III.   incor- 

Iiorated  them  into  a  collegiate  lK)dy,  known  a.s  the 
leralils'  College,  or  College  of  .\rms.  iiresided  over 
by  the  Earl  Marshal  (whose  ollice  is  liereditary  in 
the  family  of  the  I  )uke  of  Norfolk  I,  the  other  olhcers 
including  (larli-r,  |irinijpal  kingofarms.  with 
Clarencieux  and  Norrov  under  him,  besides  .six 
heralds,  named  Chester,  \Vind.sor,  Lancaster,  Kich- 
mond,  York,  and  Somerset,  and  four  pursuivants, 
Itlnemantic,  Portcullis,  Kouge  Dragon,  and  Koiige 
Croix.  A  residence  was  at  lirst  granted  to  the 
heralds,  called  ('old-harbour  or  PultcMi-y's  Inn.  in 
the  parish  of  .Ml  Saints;  ;iiicl  in  I."i."i4  (,>iiri'ii  .Mary 
gave  them  a  building  opposite  St  liennels,  which 
was  rebuilt  after  the  great  lire  of  1666,  and  is  still 
the  otiicial  residence  of  the  oflicei-s  of  arms  and 
depository  of  their  archives.  Heralds  extraordin- 
ary are  sometimes  appointinl  by  the  crown,  who  are 
not  membel"s  of  the  Heralds'  College. 

The  College  of  .\rms  has  no  jurisdiction  out  of 
England.  Fuiu'tions  similar  to  those  which  the 
English    kings-of-arms    exercise    under    the    Earl 

I  Marshal  are  discharged  by  Lyon  Kingofarms  in 
Scotland,    and     I'lster    King-of-arms     in     Ireland, 

'  directly  under  the  crown.  There  are  under  Lyon 
three  heralds.  Kothesay,  Marchmont.  and  Alliany, 

I  and  three  pursuivants.  Cincorn,  lluie,  and  .Albany  ; 
their  duties  are  chietly  connected  with  public  cere- 
monials and  royal  proclamations.     Lyon's  armorial 

1  functions  are  exerci.sed  alone,  as  judge  in  the  Lyon 
Court,  where,  however,  the  clerk  of  court  or  his 
deputy  is  sometimes  a  herald. 

A  tabard  with  the  royal  arms  endiroidered  on 
both  sides  of  it  hxs  long  been  the  nllirial  dress  of 
heralds  and  ]mrsnivants.  The  tab.uils  of  the  king-- 
of-arms  are  richer  in  material.  The  insignia  of  the 
latter  .ilso  include  a  crown,  a  baton  or  sceptre,  and 
a  chain  with  a  medal  or  biulge  attached  to  it. 

Heraldry  is  in  its  origimil  and  more  compre- 
hensive sense  the  knowledge  of  the  whole  multi- 
farious duties  of  a  Herald  (i|.v.):  in  the  more 
restricted  signilication  in  which  the  term  is  used  by 
most  modern  writei-s.  and  that  a-^signed  to  it  in  the 
present  article,  it  is  a  knowledge  of  the  laws 
that  regulate  armorial  insignia— i.e.  the  devices 
that  ajipear  on  shields,  with  their  attendant 
crests,  supporters,  and  bailges.  .-\fter  occupying 
for  ages  the  attention  of  the  learned,  and  forming 
an  important  branch  of  a  princely  education,  this 
study  fell  for  a  time  into  neglect  and  disrepute,  and 
was  ,'ibandoneil  to  coiicli  jiainters  and  undertakei-s, 
a  degradation  owing  in  (lart  to  the  endless  tissue 
of  follies  and  niystilications  with  which  it  had 
lieen  interwoven.  Modern  criticism  has  rescued 
heraldry  from  these  pedantries  and  absurdities, 
and  imparted  to  it  a  new  interest  as  a  valuable 
aid  to  historical  investigations. 

Instances  iwcur  in  remote  times  of  nations,  tribes, 
and  individuals  distinguishing  themselves  by  par- 
ticular emblems  or  ensigns — e.g.  the  standards  of 
the  twelve  trilies  of  Israel,  of  the  Egyptians  and 
Assyiians,  and  the  Roman  eagle  and  cohort  ensi-Tis. 
Figures,  symbolical  and  ornamental,  singularly  like 
some  of  those  of  herahlry,  are  found  mixed  with 
other  emblems  in  Egy]>t,  China,  India,  Jajian,  on 
Etruscan  vases,  and  on  Greek  coins  :  and  shields 
decorated  «ith  devices  are  described  by  both  Homer 
and  .lischvlus.  Vet  there  is  exhaustive  negative 
evidence  tliat  nothing  that  can  be  properly  called 
armorial  devices  were  used  either  on  shields  or 
banners  l)efore  the  middle  of  the  12tli  century.  The 
shields  of  the  French  knights  in  the  lii-st  cnisade 
presented  a  plain  face  of  .^ilid  metal,  nor  is  tin-re 
any  certain  evidence  of  armorial  bearings  having 
been  in  use  in  the  second  crusjule,  1147  A.D.  The 
representation  of  theXornian  invasion  and  coni|ni"-t 


HERALDRY 


659 


of  England  on  tlie  Bayeux  Tajiestrv  (q.v.)  contains 
on  tlie  shields  of  l)otli  Saxons  and  Xoiiiians  fijruies 
of  a  senii-aiinorial  character,  includin<i  drajrons, 
crosses,  roundles,  irregularly  arranged,  also  striiied 
baunei-s ;  )iut  there  is  no  attempt  to  individualise 
the  arms  of  the  clilferent  heroes  of  the  figlit.  Yet  the 
rude  devices  on  these  shields  seem  to  have  been  the 

Erecui'sors  of  systematic  armory;  and  in  the  later 
alf  of  the  12th  century  similar  figures  began  to 
assume  the  |)ermanent  or  hereditary  character  which 
is  essential  to  the  idea  of  armorial  ensigns.  Their 
use  began  with  the  French  and  (Jernians,  and  soon 
sjuead  from  France  to  England.  The  other  nations 
of  Europe  followed  ;  and  their  nearly  simultane- 
ous adoption  seems  to  have  been  ill  part  the  result 
of  the  intimate  intercourse  which  the  crusades 
luought  about  between  the  chief  .sovereigns  and 
wani(jis  of  Europe.  Tournaments  helped  to  liring 
arms  into  fashion,  ami  before  long  the  bearing  of 
liere<Utarv  arms  on  shields  and  banners  became  one 
<if  the  most  prominent  features  of  medieval  life. 
Some  sort  of  armorial  insignia  were  certainly  de- 
picted on  the  sliielils  borne  in  the  third  crusade, 
which  took  place  in  1189  ;  and  in  the  same  century 
originated  the  lleurs-de-lis  of  France,  and  the  lions 
or  leopards  of  England.  In  the  13tb  century  the 
practice  wa-s  introduced  of  embroidering  the  family 
insignia  on  the  siircoat  worn  over  the  hauberk  or 
coat  of  mail,  whence  originated  the  expression  coat- 
ofariii.H.  Arms  were  similarly  embroidered  on  the 
jup(m,  cycla-s,  and  tabard,  which  succeeded  the  snr- 
coat,  and  also  enamelled  or  otherwise  represented 
<in  fuiniture,  personal  ornaments,  and  weapons. 
•Sealing  had,  before  the  introduction  of  heraldry, 
become  a  legal  formality  necessary  to  the  authenti- 
cation of  a  deed,  and  from  the  13th  century  onwards 
the  seals  of  all  persons  of  noble  or  gentle  birth 
represented  their  armorial  ensigns  (see  Se.\l). 
Those  seals,  a])pended  to  charters,  are  among  the 
most  valualile  materials  for  tracing  the  history  of 
lieraldry,  though  they  labour  under  the  disadvan- 
tage of  not  indicating  coloui's,  as  the  arms  on 
painted  windows  do. 

Among  im]iortant  adminicles  for  the  study  of 
English  heraldiy  are  certain  extant  rolls  or  records 
of  arms  of  the  times  of  Henry  III.,  Edward  I., 
Edward  II.,  Edward  III.,  and  also  of  later  reigns, 
in  the  British  Museum,  Heralds'  College,  and  else- 
where— a  good  many  of  which  have  been  published 
<ir  privately  [irinted.  The  earliest  of  these,  of 
<late  1-240  to  124.j,  show  that  heraldry  bad  at 
that  date  been  reduced  to  a  systematic  sha]ie. 
In  most  ca-ses  the  arms  on  these  rolls  are  verlially 
described ;  in  a  few  instances  they  are  drawn. 
Along  with  the  rolls  of  arms  may  be  classed  a 
heraldic  poem  known  a.s  the  Roll  of  Caerlurcmch, 
in  wliich  are  recited  in  Norman- French  the  names 
and  arms  of  the  knights-banneret  who  were  present 
at  the  siege  of  that  fortress  in  1300.  It  was  edited 
by  Sir  Harris  Nic<das  (1828),  and  by  Thoma-s 
AV right  (1861).  Only  a  little  later  in' date  is  a 
manuscript  armorial  of  all  Christendom,  the  work 
«f  a  Flemish  herald  of  the  middle  of  the  I4tb 
century,  preserved  in  the  Koyal  Library  at  Brussels, 
in  which  the  shields  are  beautifully  illumined  in 
colours,  with,  in  manvca.ses,  the  addition  of  helmets 
and  crests  ;  it  has  ^leen  rejiroduced  in  facsimile 
by  M.  Bouton.  A  valuable  Swiss  roll  of  the  same 
century  h.as  been  facsimiled  in  tlie  same  way  by 
the  AntiriuarischeCiesellschaft  of  Zurich.  Authentic 
materials  of  this  kinil  enable  us  to  trace  the  steps 
by  which  the  usage  of  arms  reached  the  still  more 
.systematised  form  which  it  a.«.snmes  in  the  works  of 
the  established  writers  on  heraldry.  In  the  hands 
of  these  authors,  the  eiirliest  of  whom  wrote  at  the 
end  of  the  14th  century,  the  historical  part  of  the 
subject  had  been  obscured  by  a  tissue  of  fictions, 
which  had  a  very  misleailing  ett'ect  ilown  to  a  ipiite 


recent  time.  The  arms  a-ssi^^iied  to  our  forefathers 
Adam  and  Noah,  to  the  old  Jewish  and  )iagan 
worthies,  and  to  the  A|iostles,  have  long  ceased  to 
be  believed  in  ;  but  till  a  very  recent  date  the  coats 
of  Edward  the  C'onfes.sor  aiui  of  William  the  Con- 
(|Ueror  were  regarded  as  thoroughly  historical.  No 
less  .spurious  than  the  arms  of  Edward  the  Confessor 
are  those  given  by  (.eorge  Kiixner.  herald  to  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  I.,  in  his  Thurnicrburfi  to 
knights  of  (Germany  of  the  10th  century,  and  his 
Lei/es  hastiludiales  of  Henry  the  Fowler,  who 
rtourislied  two  hundred  years  before  the  earliest 
gemis  of  heralilrv,  one  of  which  laws  made  it  imper- 
ative for  the  combatants  in  tournaments  to  have 
borne  '  insignia  gentilitia '  for  four  generations. 
These  laws  of  Henry  the  Fowler  have  imposed  not 
luily  on  the  (Jerman  armorialists  of  last  century, 
but  on  Mr  Ellis,  who  in  his  ingenious  plea  for  the 
antif|uity  of  heraldry,  appeals  t<i  them  with  full 
faith  in  their  genuineness.  M<«lern  (jerman  critics, 
however,  reject  them  a.s  a  pal|)able  forgeiy. 

In  the  infancy  of  heraldry  everv  knight  seems  to 
have  assumed  what  amis  he  i>lea.sed.  Animals, 
plants,  imaginary  monsters,  things  artificial,  and 
objects  familiar  to  pilgrims  and  Crusaders,  were  all 
fi.xed  on  ;  and  whenever  it  was  possible,  the  object 
chosen  was  one  whose  name  bore  sufficient  resem- 
blance in  .sound  to  suggest  the  name  or  title  of  the 
bearer  of  it.  The  charge  fixed  on  was  used  with 
great  latitude,  singly  or  repeated,  in  any  way 
which  the  bearer  of  the  shield  chose,  or  which  the 
form  of  his  shield  suggested.  But  as  coats-of-arms 
multiplied,  different  knights  occasionally  fixed  on 
the  same  symbol,  and  the  confusion  which  arose 
from  the  similarity  of  coats-of-arms  couhl  only  lie 
oliviated  by  a  restraint  being  placed  on  the  l>earer's 
fancy,  and  regulations  being  introduced  regarding 
the  number,  position,  and  colour  of  the  cliarges, 
and  the  attitudes  of  the  animals  represented.  As 
heraldry  became  more  and  more  consolidated  into 
a  system,  the  true  origin  was  lost  sight  of,  and  the 
fertile  imagination  of  the  early  armorialists  led  tlieui 
to  invest  the  most  common  charges  with  my.-tical 
meanings,  and  to  trace  their  original  ;idoption  to 
the  desire  of  commemorating  the  adventures  or 
achievements  of  the  founders  of  families.  The 
legends  ascribing  an  origin  of  this  kind  to  early 
armorial  bearings  have,  wherever  it  has  been  jios- 
sible  to  investigate  them,  proved  fabrications.  For 
the  first  few  centuries  of  the  existence  of  heraldry 
a  very  large  number  of  the  insignia,  both  of  families 
and  of  kingdoms,  w  ere,  as  already  remarked,  (irmcs 
jjiirlautcs,  though  the  allusion  can  now  in  many 
cases  be  traced  with  difficulty.  The  lion  of  Leon 
and  Louvain.  the  ca-stle  of  Castile,  the  bear  of 
Berne,  the  column  of  the  Colonna  family,  are  well- 
known  continental  examples ;  and  in  England 
we  have  three  fountains  for  Wells,  a  whirlpool 
(gurges)  for  Gorges,  a  calf  for  Vele.  At  the 
same  time  coinniemorative  heraldry,  which  became 
common  in  later  times,  was  not  absolutely  unknown 
in  the  14th  century,  one  of  the  earliest  instances 
being  the  heart  introduced  into  the  Douglas  coat, 
in  memory  of  the  jdlgrimage  of  the  good  Sir  .James 
with  the  heart  of  his  royal  master,  found  on  the 
seals  of  the  Douglas  faniily  a-s  early  as  i:io6. 

.-\s  no  two  families  in  the  same  kingdom  were 
alloweil  to  bear  the  same  arms,  the  right  to  bear  a 
particular  coat  sometimes  became  a  matter  of  fierce 
dispute.  It  lay  in  England  with  the  constable  ami 
marshal,  as  judges  in  the  Court  of  Chivalry,  to 
ilecide  t|uestions  of  this  kind,  with  a  right  of  appeal 
to  the  king ;  and  one  of  the  most  famiuis  contests 
liefore  them  was  that  between  the  f.amilies  of  Scroiie 
and  firosveuor.  in  13So,  for  the  right  to  bear  the 
coat  azure,  a  beml  or ;  when  .John  of  Gaunt  w  as 
one  of  the  witnesses  examined,  and  tlie  undill'er- 
enced  coat  was  adjudged  to  Scrope. 


6G0 


HERALDRY 


In  coui'Ke  of  time  the  right  to  use  a  coat-ofarins 
ItocaTiie,  like  the  Jus  imaijhiiim,  the  distinctive 
]>rivilej;e  of  tlie  nolile,  the  word  hein;;  usyd  hurt-  in 
the  continental  sense,  anah)!,'ous  to  the  Kn^;lish 
Gentleman  (q.v.);  and  the  piivile^'e  transmitted 
to  all  his  descendants  in  the  male  line.  When  a 
iiiince  made  a  plelieian  nolile,  as  it  was  comiietent 
lor  him  to  do,  tlie  patent  of  nobility  delineit  what 
arms  he  wius  to  hear. 

In  Kii;,daiid  a  proclamation  of  Henry  V.  restrained 
the  iirivatc  !tssiim]ition  of  armorial  insij^nia,  hy 
prohiljiting  all  who  hail  not  Uorne  arms  at  A;,'in- 
conrt  to  assume  them,  except  in  virtue  of  inherit- 
ance or  a  {^rant  from  the  crown.  On  the  estahlish- 
inent  of  the  Heralds'  ('idlei,'e  (see  HliliALli)  in  U,S.3, 
tlie  regulation  of  mattei's  armorial  was  to  a  laige 
extent  delefjfated  to  the  kin;;s-of-arms  and  heralds 
acting  under  the  Earl  Mai-shal.  Periodical  visita- 
tions of  the  dill'erent  counties  were  directed  to  he 
nuiile  to  take  cognisance  of  the  arms,  pedigrees, 
and  marriages  of  the  noliility  and  gentry  of  England. 
Those  visitations  went  on  at  varying  periods  from 
i'ylH  down  to  1704,  and  are  the  principal  source  of 
evidence  as  to  the  hereditary  right  to  hear  arms 
in  Englan<l.  .\mong  the  functions  e.xerci.seil  hy 
the  English  kings-ofarms  (the  chief  of  whom  is 
(Jarter  King-of-arms)  are  the  a-ssigning  of  appro- 
priate insignia  to  persons  who  have  acquired  a 
social  importance  that  entitles  them  to  take  their 
jdace  among  the  gentlemen  of  coat-armour  of  the 
country.  Lyon  King-of-arnis,  besides  heing  ii 
judicial  ollicer  having  cognisance  of  all  i|uesticuis 
regarding  the  right  to  arms,  exercises  liy  ilirect 
delegation  from  the  crown  .siuular  functions  in  the 
cjise  of  Scotsmen  in  the  way  of  granting  arms  to 
iiuvi /luiiiiiics ;  as  does  Ulster  King-of-arms  in  the 
case  of  Irishmen.  The  wrongful  a.ssuniption  of 
arms  is  still  in  Scotland,  if  not  in  England,  an 
act  for  which  statutory  penalties  can  he  enforced 
against  the  assumer. 

While  there  is  nowhere  on  the  Continent  an 
institution  similar  to  the  English  Herahls'  College, 
there  still  exist-s  in  Prussia,  Austria,  Bavaria, 
Kussia,  Holland,  and  IJelgium,  and  some  other 
continental  countries,  a  direct  supervision  of 
arnKuial  insignia,  which  takes  place  through  the 
chancery  of  the  onlers  of  the  kingdom.  In  Sweden 
and  Norway  the  abolition  of  titles  of  nobility  liius 
niaile  the  administration  of  armorial  niattei-s  more 
lax,  though  the  preservation  of  the  ordei's  of  knight- 
hood im]dies  a  chancery  or  oliice  of  regulation  so 
far  fus  they  are  concerned.  In  France  there  is  now 
no  jiijc  d'arinci ;  and  spurious  heraldry  ligures 
largely  on  carriages  and  elsewhere  in  Paris.  In 
the  United  States  the  stars  and  stripes  are  said 
(erronetmsly,  it  would  appear;  .see  Flac;,  Vol.  IV. 
ji.  (it>.5)  to  be  derived  from  the  anus  of  Washington; 
and  it  is  not  unusual  for  individuals  and  families 
to  trace  their  descent  from  old  world  houses,  and 
to  a.ssnme  the  arms  proper  to  their  name.  So  in 
the  liritish  colonies. 

Not  only  families,  hut  kingdoms,  feudal  lord- 
ships, towns,  episcopal  sees,  abbeys,  kings-ofarms 
in  their  otticial  capacity,  and  corporations  may  hy 
lieraldic  usage  hear  arms.  The  arms  of  two  or 
more  states  ruled  by  one  sovereign  prince  are 
marehalled  U>gether  quarterly  or  otherwi.se  in  one 
escutcheon ;  and  it  has  been  the  practice  of  many 
sovereigns  to  mai-shal  along  with  their  own  arms  of 
dominion,  arms  of  territories  of  which  they  are  not 
in  possession,  but  to  which  they  claim  a  right. 
Thus,  England  bore  the  arms  of  France  from  thi; 
time  of  Edwanl  III.  till  1801  ;  and  the  kings  of 
Najiles  and  of  Sardinia  were  in  use  to  hear  the  arms 
of  Cyprus  and  of  Jerusalem.  Similarly  it  has  been 
the  practice  of  the  Dukes  of  .\thole  and  Earls  of 
Derby,  as  having  been  lords  of  Man,  to  quarter  the 
arms  of  that  island  ;  and  feudal   coat.s  are   borne 


i|uarterly  and  en  surtout  by  vaiious  peers  of  Scot- 
land. As  to  honourable  at)ditions  to  arms  grant«d 
l)y  sovereigns,  .see  .VlcJMKNT.vi'IoN. 

While  family  arms  transmit  in  the  male  line  to 
the  descendants  of  the  bearer  of  them,  to  he  borne 
hy  cadets  with  recognised  dill'ereiices,  an  heiress  in 
the  heralilic  sense — i.e.  a  <laugliler  who  represents 
her  father,  conveys  her  arms  to  her  husband  (\>\o- 
viiled  he  l)e  himself  a  gentleman  of  coat-armour) 
to  be  marslialled  in  iiccordance  with  certain  rules 
with  his  own.  Occasionally  the  aims  of  a  great 
heiress  are  allowed  altogether  to  supersede  the 
paternal  coat ;  and  sometimes  a  successor  who  is  a 
stranger  in  blood  has  been  empowered  to  assume 
adoptive  arms  to  ftillil  the  wish  of  a  testator. 

Heraldry  is  thus,  in  one  of  it-s  aspects,  a  faithful 
cbroniclerof  the  history  both  of  royal  dynasties  and 
of  private  families.  Every  change  in  the  hereditary 
.succession  of  a  kingdom,  every  union  of  two  houses 
by  marriage,  occasions  a  corresponding  change  in 
the  coat-of-arms  ;  the  position  which  the  iiiembers 
of  a  house  occupy  in  the  family  tree  is  duly  in- 
dicated, and  an  armorial  shield  is  thus  a  record 
whose  nice  distinctions  indicate  to  all  who  under- 
stand its  language,  a  number  of  material  fact.* 
regarding  the  owner  of  it.  Heraldiy  is  in  this  way 
an  aid  to  the  study  of  history,  general  and  local. 
It  has  often  all'orded  the  key  to  <inestions  of  ilLs- 
puteil  succession  ;  and  seals,  baronial  and  nioiiu- 
niental  carvings,  and  shields  in  church  win<lows, 
have  all  been  recorded  in  courts  of  law  as  evidence 
in  obscure  questions  of  marriage  and  ilescent. 

Tin;  altiilil. — A  coat-of-arms  is  composed  of 
charges  depicted  on  an  escutcheon  representing  the 
old  knightly  shield.  The  word  'escutcheon'  is 
derived  fnuu  the  Flench  icussou,  which  signilied  a 
shield  with  arms  on  it,  in  cimtradistlnction  from  it 
shield  generally.  The  forms  of  the  shield  leiire- 
sented  in  heraldry,  as  in  war.  ilillered  at  diHerent 
times.  The  actual  shiehls  of  the  llth  and  12th 
centuries   were  in  shape  not   unlike  a  boy's  kite. 


Fig.  I. — Shields. 

They  were  curved  to  encircle  the  body,  and  in 
some  early  seals  are  so  re|iresented ;  hut,  after 
heraldry  began  to  be  .systematiseil,  we  generally 
lind  them  engraved  on  .seals  and  monuments  as 
if  llalteiied,  to  let  the  armorial  design  be  fully 
seen.  The  pear-shape  (1,  lig.  I.)  represented  in  a 
few  early  shields,  was  soon  followed  by  the  flat- 
iron  or  lieater-shape  (2),  which  prevaileil  in  the 
l'2th  and  l.'Jtli  centuries,  with  an  increasing  tend- 
ency to  bulge  towards  the  base,  more  esjiecially 
after  the  introduction  of  the  practice  of  quartering. 
When  liidmet,  or  helmet  and  crest,  were  repre- 
sented, the  shield  was  often  placed  in  the  posi- 
tion called  coucht  (3),  as  if  susiiended  from  the 
helmet  by  the  sinister  chief  angle.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  loth  century  appeared  such  forms  a» 
4  and  .">,  where  the  notch  is  meant  to  reiiresent  a 
rest  for  the  knightly  lance.  In  the  Hith  ccntiiry 
the  forms  used  became  more  llorid  (U),  but 
with  considerable  variety.  Tlie  forms  in  use  in 
the  17th  and  still  more  the  ISlh  century,  became 


HERALDRY 


661 


gradually  more  and  more  tasteless  and  unmeaning, 
the  least  offensive  heing  perhaps  the  vairshaped 
shield  (7).  In  France  and  Germany  the  shield 
most  in  use  is  very  wiile  at  the  base,  so  as  to 
afford  sufficient  room  for  the  display  of  quarter- 
ings  or  small  charges.  In  Spain  the  favourite 
type  of  shield  has  always  been  one  with  rectangular 
si<les  and  a  segment  of  a  circle  for  the  base.  The 
sliield  of  an  unmarried  lady  or  widow  is  of  a  lozenge- 
shape  ( 8 ). 

To  facilitate  the  description,  or  as  it  is  called 
blazoning  of  arms,  the  different  points  or  positions 
on  the  escutcheon  have  received 
technical  names.  English  heralds 
generally  enumerate  them  as 
nine:  A  (fig.  II.),  the  de.xter 
chief  point ;  B,  the  middle  chief  ; 
C,  the  sinister  chief ;  D,  the 
honour  or  collar  point ;  E,  the 
fess  point ;  F,  the  noniliril  or 
navel  point ;  (J,  the  dexter  base  ; 
H,  the  middle  ba.se ;  and  I,  the 
sinister  liase  point.  To  these 
may  be  added  K,  the  dexter 
flank,  and  L,  the  sinister  Hank.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  dexter  and  sinister  sides  of  the  shield  are 
so  called  from  their  position  in  relation  to  the  sup- 
posed bearer  of  the  sliield,  not  of  tlie  spectator. 

Tinctures. — Coats-of-arms  are  distingnisheil  from 
each  other  not  only  by  the  charges  or  objects  borne 
on  them,  Init  by  the  colour  of  these  charges,  and  of 
the  field  itself."  The  field  may  be  of  one  colour, 
or  of  more  than  one,  divided  in  various  ways  to 
be  noticed  below.  Tincture  is  the  more  proper 
armorial  expression  than  colour,  as  the  surface  of 
a  shield  or  of  an  armorial  figure  may  be  of  a  metal, 
or  a  fur,  as  well  as  of  a  colour  strictly  so  called. 

Or.  ArL'ent.         Gules.         AzTire,  Sable. 


Fifr.  IL 


;:■■■ 

'■iSiflltlBijl 

^^^^■IHI 

^^^^w 

^^^J^H 

•  .■■T.-.T.-.^ 
>.-.♦.-.♦ 

U.-.^...4. 
k  +  .A., 

^"^'wIttJ 

^Ww^tM 

wwwTWl 

Vert.         Furpure.      Ermine.  Vair.  Potent. 

Fig.  III.— Tinctures. 

The  nomenclature  of  these  three  classes  of  tinctures, 
as  of  heraldry  generally,  is  an  adaptation  of  Norman- 
French.  The  metals  in  use  are  two — gold,  termed 
or,  and  silver,  arr/cnt,  often  represented  in  paint- 
ing by  yellow  and  white.  The  colours  are  five — red, 
blue,  black,  green,  and  purple,  known  as  t/nlcs, 
azure,  sable,  vert,  and  purpurc.  A  charge  re- 
presented not  of  any  of  these  conventional  heraldic 
tinctures,  but  of  its  natural  colour,  is  .said  to  be 
propter.  In  uncoloured  heraldic  engravings,  it  has 
been  found  convenient  to  have  a  mode  of  represent- 
ing colours  and  metals  by  hatched  lines  and  dots, 
wliich  is  shown  in  fig.  III.  ;  an  invention  not 
older  than  the  17th  century.  Or  is  represented 
by  dots ;  for  argent,  the  field  is  left  plain  ; 
gules  is  denoted  by  perpendicular,  and  azure,  by 
norizontal  lines  ;  sable,  by  lines  perpendicular  and 
horizontal  crossing  each  other;  vert,  by  diagonal 
lines  from  dexter  chief  to  sinister  base :  and  pur- 
pure,  by  diagonal  lines  from  sinister  chief  to  dexter 
base.  The  original  fui-s  in  use  were  ermine  and 
;•"/)■.  Tlie  former  is  represented  by  lilack  spots 
re.'^cmliling  those  of  the  fur  of  the  animal  called  the 
ermine,  on  a  white  ground.  Tuir,  said  to  liave 
been  taken  from  the  fur  of  a  si|uirrel,  bluish-givay 
on  the  back,  and  white  on  the  belly,  is  expressed  (at 


least  in  the  more  modem  heraldrj')  by  blue  and 
white  bells  or  panes  in  horizontal  rows,  as  shown 
in  the  figure.  As  the  number  of  coats  increased, 
various  modifications  of  these  furs  Avere  introduced, 
including  ermines,  or  ermine  with  the  fiekl  black 
and  the  spots  white;  erminois,  with  the  field  gold 
and  the  spots  black  ;  enninites,  with  a  red  hair  on 
each  si<le  of  the  bliick  spots  ;  pcrtn,  with  the  field 
black  and  the  spots  gold.  Potent  is  a  crutch -shaped 
form  of  vair,  as  represented  in  the  figure,  and  it  also 
has  occasional  varieties  which  need  not  be  noted 
at  length.  When  vair  is  composed  of  any  other 
tinctures  than  argent  and  azure,  it  is  blazoned 
rerry  of  these  tinctures,  and  is  more  strictly  a  field 
divided  by  partition-lines  than  a  fur. 

Charges. — Everything  depicteil  on  the  field  of 
the  escutcheon  is  called  a  eharije,  and  is  supposed 
to  stand  out  in  relief  on  it ;  and  as  a  general  rule, 
a  shield-of-arms  has  one  or  more  charges.  A  few 
exceptional  cases  occur  in  continental  heraldry  of 
an  uncharged  shield  of  one  of  the  metals,  colours, 
or  furs ;  and  even  in  British  heraldrs'  there  are,  as 
will  be  seen,  cases  where  a  field  consisting  of  metal 
and  colour  divided  by  partition-lines  is  uncharged. 
It  is  an  established  rule  of  heraldry  that  metal 
should  not  be  placed  on  metal,  nor  colour  on  colour. 
A  remarkable  transgression  of  it  occurs  in  the 
arms  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  founded  by  the 
Crusaders,  whicii  are  argent,  a  cross  potent  be- 
tween four  crosses  or.  A  recognised  exception  exists 
wherever  a  charge  lies  over  a  field  partly  of  metal 
and  partly  of  colour,  or  wheie  an  animal  is  { see 
itifra )  armed,  langued,  attired,  ungnled,  beaked, 
membered,  crowned,  collared,  or  chained  of  a 
ditt'erent  tincture  from  that  of  his  body.  One 
charge  of  colour  may  surmount — i.e.  parti v  cover, 
another  of  colour  on  a  field  of  metal,  and  tlie  same 
may  happen  in  case  of  two  charges  of  metal  on  a 
field  of  colour. 

Armorial  charges  are  usually  divided  into  three 
classes :  ( I )  Honourable  ordinaries,  figures  of 
simple  outline  and  geometrical  form,  conventional 
in  cliaracter,  wliich  in  some  of  the  oldest  coats  are 
the  only  charge  ;  (2)  Subordinaries  or  subordinate 
ordinaries,  which  differ  from  the  above  chieHy  in 
not  lieing  generally  the  recipients  of  charges, 
while  honourable  ordinaries  may  be  and  often  are 
charged:  (3)  Common  charges,  iepiesentati<ms  of 
objects  of  all  kinds,  animals,  plants,  and  the  whole 
range  of  things  natural  and  artificial. 

Ordinaries. — The  enumeration  of  the  honouralde 
ordinaries  by  different  armorialists  is  not  absolutely 
identical,  some  classing  as  subordinaries  figures 
whicli  others  regard  as  belonging  to  this  class.  It 
may  be  predicated  generally  of  the  ordinaries  that 
they  may  be  borne  either  simply,  along  witli  other 
charges,  charged  with  other  figures,  bounded  by 
any  of  the  forms  of  irregular  partition-lines  to 
be"  noticed  below,  or  combined  with  each  other. 
Also  that  they  have  in  most  cases  their  diminu- 
tives, which  (except  in  the  case  of  a  canton  as  the 
diminutive  of  a  quarter)  cannot  be  charged.  Tak- 
ing as  our  test  for  admission  to  this  more  honour- 
able class  the  capacity  of  receiving  charges,  they 
may  be  accounted  thirteen  in  numlier  : 

"The  Chief  {\,  fig.  IV.),  Iving  horizontally  along 
the  upper  part  of  the  shiehl,  and  (as  also  the  I'ale 
and  Fess)  supposed  to  occupv  a  third  of  it.  The 
Pale  (2),  a  vertical  band  in  tlie  middle  of  a  shield. 
It  has  a  diminutive,  the  Pallet,  seldom  used  singly, 
and  a  smaller  diminutive,  the  Endorse.  The  Fess 
(.S),  a  horizontal  band  in  the  middle  of  the  shield. 
The  liar  is  a  narrower  fess,  never  used  singly, 
and  there  are  further  diminutives,  the  Closet  and 
Barridet.  The  Bend  (q.v. )  (4),  a  band  crossing 
the  shield  fnuii  dexter  chief  to  sinister  ba.se  ;  when 
charged  it  occupies  one-third,  and  when  plain 
(me-lifth,  of  the  field.     It  has  for  diminutives  the 


662 


HERALDRY 


licnJlcl,  the  VutUe  or  Cost,  and  the  liibbim.  The 
i'il>l>oii  is  soini'tiiues  roiipetl  or  cut  short  sons  not 
to  toiiih  thf  eil^^es  of  the  shielil.  The  coti-e  some- 
limes  iicooiiiiiaiiies  the  heml  in  pairs  on  each  siiU-, 
when  it  is  saiil  to  he  Vutisetl,  ami  the  same  term 
is  sometimes  applied  willi  less  propriety  to  a  less 
or  chevron  accompanied  hy  a  pair  of  its  diminu- 
tives. The  Biiulainister  (5),  a  hand  crossinj^  the 
shield  from  sinister  chief  to  dexter  lia'^e.  Its 
ilimiimtive,  the  lidlinisinistir  (u.v.),  couped,  and 
liorne  over  all  is  a  mark  of  illef,'itiniacy.  The 
Chevron  ((J),  a  tijjure  composed  of  two  hands  or 
limhs  issuin;^  from  ilexter  and  sinister  hase,  and 
meeting  ahout  the  honour  point.  Its  diminutives 
are  the  C/ierruiicI,  which  never  appears  sin),'ly,  and 
the  Viiiiiilc-rlosr,  which  sometimes  aecom]panies  the 
chevron  in  pairs,  one  on  each  siile.  The  t'/r/.v\(7). 
of  the  form  of  the  Greek  cross,  with  eijual  limbs. 


21.  Ruun.lle.       -22.  Annulet.    23.  Eseutclieon.        24.   Km. 
Fig.  IV. — Ordinaries  and  Subordinaries. 

It  lias  numerous  varieties,  most  frequently  Iwjme  in 
numliei-s  or  with  other  charges,  for  which  .see  CRi>ss. 
Any  of  them  is  said  to  be  litcbce  when  its  lower 
limb  terminates  in  a  sharp  point.  The  tint  tire  (8), 
a  St  Andrew's  Cross,  or  combination  of  the  bends 
dexter  and  sinister,  often  borne  along  with  a  chief 
in  the  heraldry  of  Scotland.  The  Pile  (9).  a  tri- 
angtilar  wedge-shaped  figure,  issuing  usually  from 
the  chief  with  (point  downwards.  Three  ]iiles  are 
oft«n  l)Orne  together.  The  Pull  ( 10),  the  u|>|ier  part 
of  a  .saltire  comldned  with  the  lower  part  of  a  pale. 
A  variet.v  of  it,  couped  and  pointed  at  the  extremi- 
ties, occurs  in  Scotland  under  the  name  of  a  Shnle- 
fork.  The  Bordure  ( 1 1 ),  a  l)order  surrounding  the 
shield,  sometimes  used  as  a  principal  figure,  some- 
times as  a  difference.  The  <>rlr  l\i)  ami  the 
Tressiirr  (13)  are  .sometimes  cla.ssed  lus  its  diminu- 


tives. Tlio  former  is  a  narrower  lM)rilure  delachei 
from  the  edge  of  the  shield.  The  latter,  home 
double  ami  llowereil  and  connterllowered  with 
Ih'urs  (le-lis,  (K'CUi-s  in  the  royal  shielil  of  Scotland, 
and  is  a  l>earing  greatlv  esteemed  in  Scottish 
herahlry.  The  t^iiarlir  is  the  upper  dexter  fourth 
part  of  the  shielil,  cut  oD'  by  a  vertical  and  a 
horizontal  line  meeting  in  the  fess  )>oiut.  The 
('(iiitiiii  (14),  ol  more  frei|Ueut  occurri'ucc,  is  a 
smaller  ligure  like  it,  ami  also  in  ib-Nter  chief, 
unless  otherwise  specilied.  The  hall  of  a  canton 
iiarted  jier  heml  is  called  a  Gyruii,  chielly  known 
in  llrilish  heraldry  ils  giving  its  name  to  the  held 
(lyniiiiiy.  Fltinelir.i  (l.">),  Ixniie  in  pairs,  are  iiro- 
jeclions  from  each  Hank  of  the  shield  boundeo  by 
a  segment  of  a  circle.  Their  diminutives  are 
Flii.i'/iic.i  and  ]'(ju/rrs. 

tinbunliiiaries.  —  The  suborilinaries  (excluiling 
those  here  included  in  the  category  of  honourable 
ordinaries)  are:  The  Lozetige  (16),  a  rhombus 
with  the  acute  angles  at  top  and  liottom.  The 
Mascle  ( 17),  a  lo/enge  depriveil  of  the  middle  part. 
The  Fiixil  (IS),  an  elongated  lozenge.  Several 
fusils  are  .sometimes  run  joined  ('«  /i.w  (  l!l ),  as  in 
the  coat  of  I'ercy.  The  liidet  (20),  an  oblong 
ligure  placed  |ier|>endicularly.  The  Hoiindle  ('2\  ),  a 
circular  ilisc  or  knoli.  Houudle^s  have,  in  Knglish 
heraldry,  siiecilic  names  in  respect  of  their  tinc- 
tures. A  roundle  or  is  called  a  Bezant :  argent,  a 
I'Idte  :  gules,  a  Torlcaii :  sable,  a  Pellet  or  (lifrrxs  : 
vert,  a  J'omnie.  The  Annulet  (22),  somelimes 
regardeil  by  armoriallsts  not  as  a  ring  but  iis  a 
pierced  roundii-.  The  K.inifr/ieon  or  Jnexeidcluon 
(23),  a  representation  of  a  sliield — the  latter  name 
being  generally  nseil  when  there  is  oidy  one.  It 
is  dillicult  to  see  on  what  principle  these  last  two 
charges  are  conventional  enough  to  be  ranked 
among  the  le.s.ser  ordinaries.  The /V<7  (24),  C(m- 
sisting  of  two  narrow  bendlels  dexter  and  sinister 
in  saltire,  interlaced  with  a  mascle. 

Parted  Fields. —The  Held  of  an  e.scuteheon  (and 
.sometimes  an  ordinary  cu'  other  charge)  may 
1)6  of  two  or  more  dill'erent  tinctures,  divided  by 


Frrtty. 


Parted  Fields. 


one  or  more  partition-lines,  and  the  consideration 
of  partition-lines  h.os  here  been  postponed  to  this 
point,  as  the  nomenclature  of  many  of  them  is  de- 
rived friun  that  of  the  ordinaries  and  snbordinaries. 
AVhen  <lividcd  by  a  ]iartition-line  in  the  direction 
of  one  of  the  ordinaries  the  shield  is  .said  to  l>e 
' pnrted  (av  party)  /Jfrthat  ordinary,'  or  simply  '  jier 
tliat  ordinarj-.'  Thus  ive  may  have  a  shield  parted 
\ier  jiide  (1,  fig.  A'.),  fes.i  (2),  Itend,  r/irerrni.  or 
scdtirc  (3).  A  shielil  divided  in  the  direction 
of    a    cross    is    said     to    be    i|uartereil    or    parted 


HERALDRY 


663 


qvrirterlji  [i);  parted  both  per  cross  and  per 
saltire  it  is  called  Grjronny  of  eight  (5),  the 
well-known  bearing  of  the  Campl)ell  family.  A 
shield  iliviileil  into  any  number  of  parts  by  lines 
in  the  direction  of  a  pale,  bend,  bar,  or  chevron, 
is  said  to  be  Pnlif,  Bendy,  Barry,  or  Chevronny, 
the  number  of  pieces  being  specified,  as  in  the 
example  (f>),  paly  of  six  or  and  sable  (Athole).  A 
field  diviiled  into  square  or  oblong  ]ianes  or  pieces 
by  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  is  said  to  be 
chiyqiiy,  as  the  ancient  coat  of  Warren,  checiiuy  or 
and  azure  panes  ( 7 ).  A  field  divided  into  lozenge- 
shaped,  niascle-shaped,  or  fusil-shaped  panes  is 
describeil  by  the  term  lozengy,  mciscully,  ov  fiisiUy. 
Fusilly  argent  and  ^les  (8)  is  the  coat  of  the 
Grimaldis,  princes  of  ^lonaco. 

A  field  strewed  with  an  indefinite  number  of  small 
charges  so  as  to  produce  the  eftect  of  a  pattern  is 
said  to  be  semi  ( sometimes  aspersed  or  powdered ) 
of  that  charge,  as  France  ancient,  azure,  seme 
of  tleurs-de-lis  or  (9).  When  bestrewed  with  an 
indefinite  number  of  bezants,  billets,  cross  crosslets, 
or  drops,  it  Ls  called  bezanty,  hillctty,  cruxilly, 
or  fjonttfc.  English  heraldry  ?ttaching  a  s]>ecific 
term  to  droi)s  of  separate  tinctures — i.e.  gouttee 
d'eau  (water,  tinctured  argent),  de  sang  (blood, 
gules,  10),  de  larmes  (tears,  azure),  de  poix  (pitch, 
sable),  (Src.  Frctty  [\\)  is  when  a  field  Ls  covered 
with  a  pattern  of  interlaced  fillets  placed  diagon- 
ally, and  leaving  open  sp.aces  between  them. 

Partition-lines  are  not  always  straight.  Fig. 
VI.  represents  the  commonest  forms  of  ir- 
regular partition-lines  in 
use — viz.  the  engrailed, 
inrecked,  wavy,  nebid(, 
embattled,  indented,  and 
dancetti,  names  equally 
applicable  to  the  boundarj'- 
lines  of  ordinaries.  An 
ordinary  engrailed  has  the 
points  of  the  engrailed  line 
turned  outwards,  and  an 
ordinary  invecked  inwards. 
AVhen  a  fess  or  chevron  is 
p.     -y-j  said  to  be  endjattled,  it  is 

Irregular  Partition  Lines.  ""'V  «'"*  boundary-line  on 
the  upper  snle  tliat  is  of 
this  form.  Daneette  differs  from  indented  by  the 
partition-line  having  larger  and  fewer  indentations. 
Common  Charges. — These  are  representations, 
more  or  less  conventional,  of  familiar  objects.  The 
knights,  in  the  early  days  of  heraldr>%  ransacked 
the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdom  and  the  whole 
range  of  objects,  natural  and  artificial,  for  charges 
that  would  be  distinctive  ;  of  which  only  a  few  of 
the  most  frequent,  and  those  whose  nomenclature 
or  treatment  is  somewhat  technical,  can  be  here 
noticed. 

Of  beasts  which  occur  in  coat-armour,  the  most 
im])ortant,  botli  in  earlier  and  in  later  heraldry,  is 
the  Lion.  Its  earliest  known  occurrence  is  on  the 
seal  of  Philip  I.,  Duke  of  Flanders,  in  1164;  and 
before  long  the  king  of  beasts  was  borne  by  a  large 
number  of  the  potentates  of  Europe.  The  lion  is 
made  to  assume  a  variety  of  positions,  a  few  of 
which  are  represented  in  fig.  Vll.  Its  original 
and  normal  attitude  is  rampant  ( 1 ) — i.e.  in  an  erect 
position  with  the  left  hind-leg  resting  on  the  ground, 
the  head  in  i)rofile,  and  the  tail  elevated  over  the 
back.  L'am/ianf  gardant  (2),  the  same  with  the 
head  allVontee  ( looking  out  of  the  shield ) ;  regard- 
ant (.3),  the  same  looking  backwards.  Passant  (4), 
walking,  three  paws  resting  on  the  ground,  the 
dexter  forei>aw  elevated,  the  head  in  profile  look- 
ing fiuward.  and  tail  elevated  over  the  back ; 
/lassrinf  gardant  lo),  as  the  last,  but  with  the  heacl 
airnmtoe.  A  lion  salient  (6)  has  both  hind-legs 
on  the  ground,  and  the  fore-legs  elevated,  a.-  if  to 


.'Engrailed. 

.  Invecked. 

sWa\-y. 

'^iiilJlSl.Xebule. 

"U~L-n_n_n_  Embattled. 
/VWVvWS  Indented. 

/\/\/\/    Daneette. 


spring ;  and  a  lion  sejant  ( 7 )  is  rising  to  prepare  for 
action.  The  lion  passant  gardant  is  often  blazoned 
as  the  lion  of  England  ;  and  in  times  when  terms 
of  blazonry  were  comparatively  few,  it  was  known 
as  the  leopard ;  there  has,  in  fact,  been  much  con- 
troversy as  to  whether  the  animals  in  the  escutcheon 
of  England  are  lions  or  leopards.  Twohe.aded.  bi- 
corporate,  and  tri-corporate  lions  occur  in  heraldrj', 
as  also  lion-dragons  and  lion-]>oissons.  There  is 
likewise  the  celebrated  winged  lion  of  St  Mark 
adopted  by  the  republic  of  \'eniee,  and  the  two- 
tailed  lion  of  Bohemia  and  of  Simon  de  Montfort, 
Earl  of  Leicester.  In  British  heraldry  litms  ami 
other  animals  always  face  to  dexter  unless  other- 
wise blazoned.  Two  lions  placed  face  to  face 
are  called  romhatant,  and  back  to  back,  addossi. 
Some  of  the  above-mentioned  names  for  the 
attitudes  of  the  lion  are  applied  to  other  heraldic 
animals.  Lions  and  other  lieasts  of  prey  are  said 
to  be  ai-med  or  langued  of  any  tincture,  when  their 
teeth  and  claws  or  their  tongue  are  of  that  tincture, 
and  in  modem  English  blazon  a  lion  is  always  pre- 
sumed to  be  armed  and  langued  gules  unless  either 
himself  or  the  field  be  gules,  in  either  of  which  cases 
he  is  armed  and  langued  azure.  A  dcmilion  (8)  is 
the  upper  half  of  the  body  of  a  lion  with  the 
extremity  of  his  tufted  tail.  Lions  are  often 
crowned,  or  gorged  (collared)  with  a  crown  of  some 
sort.  Bears,  bulls,  boars,  stags,  goats,  dogs,  foxes, 
horses,  and  hedgehogs,  and  occasionally  elephants, 
camels,  moles,  apes,  bats,  and  mice  occur  as 
heraldic  animals.  A  stag  when  in  easy  motion 
Ls  said  to  be  trippant  (9);  he  is  at  gaze  (10) 
when  a  lion  would  be  statant  gardant,  and  he 
is  attired  of  any  tincture  when  his  attires — i.e. 
his  antlers,  are  of  that  tincture.  Animals  that 
possess  horns  and  hoofs  are  said  to  be  armed 
and  unguled  in  respect  of  them.  The  heads 
and  limbs  of  animals  are  often  borne  as  charges, 
and  may  be  either  cra.^ed,  like  the  lion's  head  ( 11 ) 
— i.e.  cut  off  Avith  a  jagged  edge  ;  or  couped  ( 12)  — 
Le.  cut  straight  off.  A  leopanPs  faec  (13)  shows 
none  of  the  neck,  and  fronts  the  spectator.  A 
stag's  head  borne  full  faced,  with  none  of  the  neck 
seen,  is  said  to  be  cabossed  ( 14 ).  Boars'  heads 
(15)  are  not  unfrequent,  and  bears'  heads  (16), 
which  are  usually  represented  muzzled.  Animals 
in  heraldry  sometimes  assume  a  conventional  form 
(littering  widely  from  the  realistic  type  of  the  same 
creature — e.g.  the  antelope,  which  has  a  stag's  head, 
a  unicorn's  taU,  a  tusk  issuing  frtmi  the  tip  of  the 
nose,  a  row  of  tufts  down  the  back  of  the  neck,  and 
similar  tufts  on  the  tail,  chest,  and  thighs. 

Among  birds,  far  the  most  prominent  is  the  Eagle 
(q.v. ),  most  commonly  represented  in  the  conven- 
tional attitude  known  as  displayed  ( 17),  with  wings 
expanded.  Being  the  king  of  birds,  it  became,  next 
to  the  lion,  the  most  favourite  bearing  of  royal  per- 
sonages, and  was  adopted  by  the  German  emperors. 
The  imperial  eagle  had  at  first  but  one  head  :  the 
tvoheaded  eagle  (18)  appeared  in  the  middle  of  the 
13th  century,  and  occasionally  ocelli's  in  English 
heraldry.  The  allerion  and  martlet,  originally 
an  eagle  and  a  swallow  respectively,  became  in 
time  unreal  birds,  the  one  without  claws  or  beak, 
the  other  without  legs  or  beak.  The  falctui.  the 
pelican,  the  swan,  the  cock,  the  raven,  the  ostrich, 
the  heron,  and  the  parrot  or  papingoe  are  all 
armorial  l>irds.  The  pelican  is  generally  depicted 
pecking  her  breast,  and  when  represented  in  her 
nest  feeding  her  young  with  her  blood,  she  is 
said  to  be  in  her  piety  (19).  A  peacock  borne 
aftrontee  with  his  tail  expanded  is  said  to  be  in  his 
jn-ide.  Birds  having  the  power  of  flight  are,  in 
resiiect  of  their  attitude,  close,  riiing.  or  volant. 

Fishes  and  reptiles  occur  .as  charges  ;  the  former 
are  said  to  be  naiant,  if  drawn  in  a  horizontal, 
and  huuriant  (20),  if  drawn  in  a  vertical  position. 


664 


HERALDRY 


The  itulpliiii,  whom  naturnlistst  do  not  acknow- 
le<lj;e  n«  a  lish,  is  in  hi-iiildry  the  kin;;  of  lish, 
and  in  very  conventionally  drawn  most  nsually 
ciitliiiirat  {'2\) — i.e.  with  the  hody  IkmU.  It  i.s  lie.st 
kiiciwn  in  this  attitude  a.s  the  allnsive  bearinj;  of 
the  dauphin.  Tlie  cscul/oj)  shell  ('i2)  is  a  favourite 
charfje,  having  been  the  pilgrim's  en-sign  in  crusad- 
ing times.  Hcrpeul.s  occur  in  various  attitudes, 
liowed,  erect,  &c.,  and  in  one  famous  instance  (the 
coat  of  the  Viscimti)  vorant  (devouring)  a  child 
(231. 

Of  purely  fanta.stic  animals,  we  have  the  dragon, 
gridin,  wyvern,  cockatrice,  unicorn,  mermaid,  and 
others. 


Man  in  whole  and  in  liis  partM  aUo  occura  in 
annory.  Argent,  a  naked  man  ]>roper,  is  the  coat 
of  the  Scottish  faiiuly  of  Dalzcll,  and  we  have 
Mooi-s'  (generally  represented  as  lilackamoors) 
heads,  Saracens'  heads,  men's  hearts,  arms,  legf, 
and  lianils,  also  that  strange  heraldic  freak,  tiie 
tliric  legs  conjoined  (24),  carried  in  the  escutcbeon 
of  the  Isle  of  Man. 

To  pass  to  the  vegetable  kingdom,  trees,  plants, 
leaves,  and  flowers  are  all  usual  heraldic  charges. 
Trees  are  often  eradicated  ('i.j),  or  torn  u\>  l>y  the 
roots,  sometimes  placed  on  n  nioiinl  {'2ii),  and  occa- 
sionally friietrriteil  of  a  dillerent  tinct\ire.  Garbs 
(27),  representing  sheaves  of  wheat,  are  well  known 


Lion  salient.       Lion  sejant.         Dcnii-lion. 


Stag  tripijant. 


10.  11. 

Stag  at  gaze.        Lion's  head 
erased. 


Fir-tree  Oak-tn-eonn  Gail), 

erndjcated.  mount. 


■J8. 
LAUri'l  Icavoa. 


:to.  31.  32. 

Trefoil  slipped.      Ciminefoil.  Rose.  Flours-delia. 


84.  36.  36.  37.  XS. 

Crescent.  Increa-    Decres-       Mullet         E.stoile. 

cent.       cent.         (Star). 


40.  41.  42.  43.  44. 

Batterinj^-      Water-       Caltrap.        Castle.      Tower, 
ram.  budKft. 


17. 
Eagle  displayed. 


46. 
Maunch. 


48.  49.  60. 

Clarion.  Cliessrook.Millriud. 


Fig.  VII.— Common  Charges. 


as  the  amw  of  the  Earls  of  Chester,  of  the  Oros- 
venoi-s,  and  of  the  Scottish  fanuly  of  Ciimyn. 
Leares,  as  of  the  laurel,  are  often  borne,  like  many 
other  charges,  in  threes  (28).  A  trefoil,  with  three 
leaflets  and  a  stalk,  is  said  to  be  slipped  (29) ;  in 
the  iiiiatrcfoil  and  cinque/oil  (30)  the  syllable  foil 
means  a  petal.  The  )osc(  31)  has  obtained  a  ]iro- 
minence  in  English  heraldry  from  having  been  the 
bailg<!  of  the  rival  houses  of  Voik  ami  I.,ancaster, 
and  in  the  conventional  representations  of  it,  it  has 
five  petals,  barbs  between  them  to  represent  the 
calyx,  and  seeds  in  the  centre.  It  is  generally 
without  a  stalk,  its  tincture  being  either  gules  or 
argent,  an<I  it  is  usually  barbed  ami  seedeil  piopcr 
— i.e.  the  barbs  are  green,  and  stamina  yellow  or 
gohl.  Hut  of  the  floral  devices  of  heraldry  the  most 
famous  is  the  Jlciirdelis,  generally  identified  with 
the  iris,  adopted  as  a  badge  by  I.ouis  VII.  of  France 
in  1150,  and  borne  by  his  son  in  the  form  of  seme 


of  fleurs  delis  (9,  fig.  V.),  which  became  the  royal 
coat  of  Fiance,  till  the  flowers  were  reduced  to 
three  in  nund)er  in  the  reign  of  t'harles  VI.  (.12). 

Such  charges  as  swords,  scimitars,  bows,  arrows, 
helmets,  battle-axes,  horseshoes,  mitres,,  crosiers, 
Ac.  explain  themselves.  The  sun  surrounded 
by  rays  is  said  to  be  in  his  splendour,  and  gener- 
ally ha-s  a  human  face  (33).  A  rrr.sernl  (.34), 
representing  the  moon,  has  Imth  himis  pointed 
ujiwards.  If  the  horns  are  turned  to  dexter  it  is 
called  an  increscent  ( 35 ) ;  if  to  the  sinister  a  decrescent 
(30).  1\\e  f  repainted  star  (37),  in  the  heraldry 
i)Oth  of  the  fontinent  and  of  Scotland,  represents 
the  heavenly  body  so  called,  thougli  not  distinguish- 
able from  the  iniillrl  or  spnr-rowo],  except  that  the 
latter  is  sometimes  jjierced.  In  iiiocleni  Kngli.sh 
heraldry  this  figure  is  always  styled  a  mullet, 
and  the  citoilc  (38)  or  star  has  six  or  more 
wavy  jioints.     A  phcon  (39)  is  the  liea<l  of  a  dart 


HERALDRY 


665 


barlie<l  and  engrailed  on  tlie  inner  side.  A  bnttcr- 
iiifj-riuH  (40)  is  fuvnislied  -with  an  actual  ram's  head. 
A  iratcr-hiidgct  (41)  represents  the  baj;s  in  which 
water  was  storeil  up  and  carried  across  tlie  desert 
in  crusadin','  times.  Cultrai)s  (see  CaltkoI')  or 
r/nrii/ti-iij/s  (42)  are  military  instruments  for  galling 
the  feet  of  horses.  Casilcs  (43)  and  towers  (44) 
are  not  nnfreejuent,  the  former  very  generally 
trinle-towered.  An  ancient  one-masted  galley, 
oalle<l  a  liimiiltKil  (4.5),  is  characteristic  of  the  West 
Higldands  of  Scotland.  Of  charges  derived  from 
<lress  one  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the  inaunch 
(41)),  a  12th-century  sleeve,  borne  by  the  Hastings 
family.  Cushions  (47)  have  become  famous  in 
Scotland  from  being  borne  by  Bruce's  gallant 
lU'iihew,  Randolph  or  Ranulph,  Earl  of  Moray,  and 
his  descendants.  The  chirivii  (48)  or  war-trump 
i-<  an  early  English  bearing.  The  c/icssroo/:  (49) 
or  castle  in  chess  is  somewhat  conventionally 
drawn.  Tlie  millrind  (50)  is  the  iron  afii.xed  to 
the  centre  of  the  millstone. 

Like  medieval  architecture,  heraldry  attained  its 
greatest  beauty  and  purity  in  the  1.3th  century  and 
tirst  half  of  the  14tli.  From  that  date  its  "early 
simplicity  was  gradually  departed  from  :  a  variety 
of  charges  came  to  be  accumulated  in  one  shield, 
and  there  was  a  growing  tendency  to  pictorialism. 
Trees  are  represented  issuing  out  of  a  mount  or 
little  green  hillock  in  base  (2G),  and  we  have  also 
anim;ils  walking  on  a  base— i.e.  a  line  cutting 
off  tlie  lower  part  of  the  sliiehl.  In  Wales  we  have 
combinations  such  as  a  cradle  witli  a  child  under  a 
tree  guarded  by  a  goat,  and  sometimes  in  Spain  and 
Italy  two  animals  rampant  against  a  tree,  or  such 
scenes  as  a  bloodhound  in  the  act  of  strangling  a 
boar,  or  a,scrpent  voirint  a  child  (2.3).  In  the  second 
half  of  the  18tli  century  the  heraldry  of  England 
entered  on  a  singularly  degraded  and  debased  stage, 
far  lieyond  the  pictorialisiiis  alluded  to,  shields 
being  loaded  with  representations  of  sea-fights, 
fortresses,  and  landscapes,  with  medals  and  decora- 
tions granted  to  the  liearer  of  them,  setting  all 
heralilic  conventionalities  at  defiance,  and  dealing 
in  details  hardly  discernible  on  the  closest  inspec- 
ticm.  Such  charges  were  habitually  granted  by 
way  of  chiefs  of  augmentation  to  the  heroes  of  the 
old  wars.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  revival  of  a 
measure  of  taste  in  coat-armour  has  put  an  end  to 
them  for  ever. 

Blazoiirij.  — To  blazon  a  coat-of-arnis  is  to  describe 
it  in  words  so  precise  as  to  enable  any  one  who  has 
an  orilinary  knowledge  of  heraldry  to  depict  it 
correctly.  The  following  are  the  principal  rules  of 
blazonry.  The  field  must  first  be  named  ;  it  may 
be  of  one  tincture,  or  an  arrangement  of  more 
than  one  (see  ante — Parted  Fields).  The  charges 
follow,  beginning  with  those  of  most  import- 
ance and  nearest  the  field,  their  name,  number, 
]iosition,  and  tincture.  An  ordinary  or  a  iliminu- 
tive  of  an  ordinary,  except  it  be  a  chief,  borduie, 
or  canton,  generally  claims  the  precedence.  When 
the  ]irincipal  charge  is  not  in  the  centre  of  the 
shield,  its  position  must  be  described,  as  De  Vere, 
Earl  of  O.Kford  (fig.  VIII.  1),  quarterly  gules  and 
or,  in  the  first  (juarter  a  star  (mullet)  argent. 
When  two  or  three  of  the  same  charge  occur,  it  is 
understood,  unless  otherwise  specified,  that  two 
are  placed  in  pale — i.e.  <me  over  the  other;  .and 
tliree  are  disposed,  two  above  and  one  below  ;  .and 
it  is  also  understood  that  in  case  of  a  fess  or  a  bend 
between  si.x  charges  of  the  same  kinil,  there  are 
three  in  chief  and  three  in  base.  In  other  ca.ses 
the  disposition  of  the  charges  must  lie  specified,  as 
JH  he  lid,  ill  eriiss,  in  sidtirc,  in  orle:  t/irec,  tiro,  and 
one :  four,  Hirer,  tiro,  and  one,  Ike.  If  the  ordinary, 
wliicii  is  tlie  principal  charge,  be  it.self  charged, 
and  there  are  also  other  charges  in  the  field,  the 
order  of  the  words  of  blazon  will  be  understood  bv 


the  following  example— Wilmot,  Earl  of  liochester 
(2),  argent,  on  a  f e.ss  gules,  between  tliree  eagles' 
heads  erased  sable,  as  many  escallops  or.  An 
exception  to  the  rule  that  an  ordinary  or  it.s 
diminutive  is  first  named,  occurs  where  itdebruises 
or  surmounts  another  charge — e.g.  Abeniethy  (3), 
or,  a  lion  rampant  gules,  surmounted  by  a  ribbon 


4.  Graham. 


0.  Chaucer. 


6.  Mar. 
Fig.  VIII.— Blazonry. 

sable.  Generally  speaking,  a  chief,  bordurc,  or 
canton  is  mentioned  last.  When  a  borduie  sur- 
rounds a  chief,  the  bordure  is  named  last  of  all, 
the  reverse  being  the  case  when  the  chief  covers 
tlie  bordure.  A  bend  may  surmount  a  chief,  in 
which  case  it  is  mentioned  last. 

Avoidance  of  repetition  is  one  of  the  principles  of 
blazonry.  AVben  any  tincture  has  to  be  repeated, 
it  is  on  the  second  occasion  described  as  oftliejirsf, 
of  the  second,  of  the  last,  or  of  the  field — e.g. 
Graham  (4),  or,  on  a  chief  salile,  three  escallops  of 
the  field.  Repetition  may  also  be  avoided  by 
naming  the  tincture  only'  the  second  time— e.g. 
Mar  (5),  azure,  a  bend  lietween  six  crosslets  litchce 
or,  where  the  tincture  or  applies  to  both  bend  and 
crosslets. 

When  the  field  is  of  a  metal  and  colour  separated 
by  any  of  the  lines  of  partition,  and  the  charge  on 
it  is  said  to  be  eoiinterehanr/ed,  this  means  that  the 
part  of  the  charge  which  Ui  on  the  metal  is  of  the 
colour,  and  liee  versA,  as  in  the  coat  borne  by 
the  poet  Chaucer  (6),  per  pale,  argent  and  gules,  a 
beml  counterchanged. 

Differcneing. — With  the  advance  of  the  science  of 
arms  it  became  necessary  not  only  to  distinguish 
different  families,  but  to  distinguish  the  dilferent 
iiiembers  and  branches  of  a  family  from  each  other 
and  from  their  chief.  The  head  of  the  bouse  bad 
alone  the  right  to  use  the  pure  paternal  coat ;  the 
cadets  had  to  wear  it  with  a  hrisiire  or  ilij/'erenee. 
There  is  great  variety  in  the  early  brisures.  A 
change  of  tincture,  the  substitution  of  one  ordinary 
for  another,  the  debruising  of  the  paternal  coat  by 
a  bend,  the  surrounding  the  arms  with  a  bordure, 
uncharged  or  charged,  and  the  addition  of  part  oif 
the  coat  of  an  heiress,  were  all  in  use  as  modes  of 
ditt'erencing.  The  differenced  coat  became  an  in- 
dependent heraldic  composition,  .suHiciently  like 
the  original  arms  to  indicate  the  family  to  which 
its  owner  lielonged,  and  also  often  suggestive  of 
events  in  the  history  of  the  cadet  line. 

The  name  of  marks  of  radcnci/  has  been  given  to 
certain  small  figures  which,  by  a  conventional 
arrangement,  indicate  the  order  of  descent  of  the 
ditt'erent  sons  of  a  family.  As  systematised 
about  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  and  in  use  in 
modern  English  heraldry,  the  marks  of  cadency 
are,  the  label  (1,  fig.  IX.)  for  the  eldest  son,  the 
cre.ieent  (2)  for  the  second,  the  midlet  (3)  for  the 


600 


HERALDRY 


tliird,  tlie  min-tlel  (4)  for  the  fourth,  tlie  annulet  (5) 
for  the  fifth,  {\\f  flnirtlelis  (6)  for  tlie  sixtli,  the 
nisr  fur  the  M'vciilh,  the  r/r/.v.v  iiio/iiie  for  the  ei^'hth, 
ami  tlie  (iflofall  fur  the  ninth.  The  ilillieiilties  are 
iihvioiis  of  earryiii-;  out  a  system  of  tliis  kind 
thi'<>U};li  all  the  rauiihcations  of  a  family  for  suc- 
eessivc  •leiierations,  even  hy  such  ileviees  as  eliarg- 
inj;  a  orescent  with  a  miillel  for  the  third  son  of  a 
seooMil  son,  iX.r.,  ami  the  conseciueiice  of  the  siiper- 
sessioii  in  lMij;laMd  of  all  other  ililliTi'iU'i's  liy  these 
lijjnies  li;us  heeii  that  dillereiieiiij,'  is  iiiucli  Me;,'leeted, 
and  remote  eadets  are  often  found  liearin;;  the  anus 
of  the  head  of  their  house  unditrerenced.  \Vith 
the  sons  and  daii^diters  of  the  royal  house  of  the 
I'nited  Kingdom  another  usa^e  ])revails.  They  all 
liear  their  .inns  dill'ei  eneed  liy  a  lahel  of  three  poiiit.s 
arj;eTit.  That  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  is  plain, 
those  of  the  youn^'er  princes  are  variously  ch:ii;;ed. 

1.  2.  3  4.  5.  «. 

Label.       Crescent.  Mullet.    Martlet.   Aiiiiiilit.  I'leur-rte-lis. 

Fig.  IX. — Marks  of  Cadency. 

The  lalud  of  the  Duke  of  Edinhur^di  is  charged 
with  a  St  (leorije's  cross  in  the  centre  point,  and 
in  each  of  the  other  jioints  with  an  anclior  azure. 
The  Duke  of  Connau;;lit  suhstitutes  for  the  anchor 
a  lli'urde  lis  azure,  an<l  the  Duke  of  Camhridge 
two  hearts  in  jiale  joules. 

In  Scotland,  owin;:  perhaps  to  the  wider  rauiilica- 
tion  of  the  princijial  feudal  families,  dill'ereiK'in;; 
lia.s  heen  considered  of  more  monuuit,  ami  is  the 
suliject  of  a  separate  treatise  hy  the  Scottish  herald 
Nisiiet.  The  modern  ni.arks  of  cadency  are  less  in 
use.  The  modihcation  of  the  ]iaternal  coat  hy  an 
additi(ui.al  chaiire.  the  enj;railin^'.  inveckin^'.  \c., 
of  a  chief  or  ,a  ]iartition  line  h.is  never  f.illeii  out  of 
use.  Diirerenciii^'  hy  a  hordure  has  also  lii-en  much 
in  favour,  a  plain  hordure  of  the  tincture  of  the 
principal  char;:e  in  the  case  of  a  second  son,  which 
may  he  en^jrailed,  invecked,  wavy,  Ac,  for  cailets 
hraiichinj;  oil'  in  the  same  jjeneration,  and  for  suh- 
cadets,  |iarte{l  in  diM'erent  ways,  or  char^red  with 
lijtures  from  llie  maternal  coat.  With  c.ailets  of  a 
later  };ener.at ion  the  hordiires  will  he  of  a  dillerent 
colour.  Some  such  sy.steni,  more  or  less  rifodlv 
ohserved,  runs  through  the  differencing'  of  Scottish 
coats,  which  is  under  the  direct  supervisiim  of  the 
Lyon  Olhce.  Tor  iliirerencedesij;ned  to  ille^'itimate 
children,  see  li.VTONsiNisTKEi. 

.Miiisli/iUinij  II f  Arms. — M.aivliallin};  is  the  jiroper 
arrangement  of  such  coats  as  ,are  to  he  comhined  in 
one  shield.  In  the  earlier  heraldry  it  wa-s  not  the 
practice  to  exhihit  more  coats  than  one  on  a  shield, 
nut  the  arms  of  hushand  and  wife  were  sometimes 
placed  ricro/Ue,  or  side  hy  side  in  sejiarate  escut- 
cheons :  or  the  princi])al  shield  was  sunounded  hy 
smaller  ones,  containing;  the  arms  of  maternal  an- 
cestors ;  .and  we  not  unfrequently  lind  m.aternal 
descent  or  niarria;;e  indicated  hy  the  addition  of 
some  hearin;,'  from  the  wife's  or  mother's  shield. 
Then  followed  r/imir/iritioii,  when  the  shield  wius 
parted  per  pale,  and  the  two  coat.s  placed  side  hy 
sirle,  half  of  each  heing  shown.  liy  the  more 
modern  jnact 
whole   of  eac 

however,  of  the  (dder  ])ractice  liein;;  retained  in 
the  omission  of  hordures,  and  occasionally  tres- 
sures,  on  the  side  hounded  hy  the  line  of  impale- 
ment. The  most  common  case  of  impalement 
in  English  heraldry  is  where  the  coats  of  hushand 
and  wife  are  coiijoineil,  the  hushanil's  arms  occupy- 
inj;  the  ilexter  side  of  the  sliiehl,  or  |daceof  honour, 
and  the  wife's  the  sinister  side,  the  impaled  coat 
heing  pcisonal,  and  non-dcscendiiiir  to  the  children. 


lern    practice    of    iin/i'ilinf/    (1,     (ig.     X.),     the 
h  coat  is  cxhihited,  a  reminiscence. 


The  arms  of  states  are  sometimes  impaled,  a.i  >vere 
those  of  England  and  Scotland  in  the  tii-st  and 
fourth  i|uarti'rs  of  the  .achievement  of  llreat  Ihitain 
from  the  accession  of  l^ueen  Anne  to  tin-  Irish 
I'nion.  Uishops,  deans,  heads  of  colleges,  and 
kings-ofarnis  impale  their  arms  of  ollice  with 
their  family  coat,  giving  the  dexter  side  to  the 


1. 

Impaleel. 

Fii 


Quartered. 
X.  —  MarslialUng  of  Anus. 


8.  4. 

Ell  Surtout.  Count«rqiiart<"re<l. 


lj>i:irlrrh 


fortner.  This  pr.actice  in  Scotland,  as 
far  a.s  hishops  are  concerned,  helongs 
only  to  the  post-Hcstoration  epis- 
copacy, as  tlie  Scottish  sees  had  mi 
arms  till  then. 

The  hushand  of  an  heiress  (in  the 
heraldic  sense)  is  entitlcil,  according 
to  the  more  modern  usage  of  Ihitish 
heraldiT,  to  ]dace  her  arms  on  a  small  shield, 
called  an  csriitrhroii  of  /iirtnirr,  in  the  centre 
of  his  shield,  instead  of  impaling,  and  in  the  next 
generation  the  arms  of  the  heiress  are  transferred 
to  one  of  the  iiuaiters  of  the  shield.  The  escut- 
cheon of  nretence  is,  however,  not  to  he  con- 
foundeil  with  a  small  shield  of  the  same  kind, 
called  an  isriilrhrati  ni  siirtiiitl  (H),  much  in  usi- 
in  (ierman,  Krencli,  and  Scottish  heralilry,  which 
takes  a  permanent  jilace  in  the  achievement, 
and  may  contain  either  the  paternal  arms  (as  in 
the  Tweedilale  hrancli  of  the  Hay  family),  some 
feudal  coat,  or  the  coat  of  an  heiress  in  some  l>.a-st 
gener.alion,  whose  memory  it  liius  heen  thought 
clesiiahlc  to  iireserve.  It  has  hccn  the  practice  for 
an  electeil  king  to  place  his  arms  in  an  escutcheon 
cii  xiirti/iil,  the  old  ( lerinan  emiierois  placing  their 
family  arms  on  the  hreast  of  the  imjicrial  eagle. 

Qxartirhif/,  or  the  cxhihitiiig  of  dillerent  coats 
on  a  shield  divided  hotli  horizontally  and  verti 
cally,  originated  in  the  llitli  centiiiy,  hut  Wiis  little 
jiractised  till  the  14th.  The  divisions  of  the  shield 
are  calleil  iiuarlers,  and  are  nuiiihered  horizon- 
tally, heginning  at  the  dexter  chief  (2).  Arms  are 
(juartered  on  various  accounts:  {(i)  To  indicate 
ilominion.  A  sovereign  i|iiarters  the  ensigns  of 
his  ditlerent  states.  On  the  toiiih  in  Westminster 
Ahhey  of  Eleanor,  daughter  of  I'Vrdinaml  III.. 
king  of  Castile  and  Leon,  ami  lii'st  wife  of  Kdward 
L,  is  the  ])a1ernal  shiehl  of  that  princess,  in  which 
the  castle  of  Ca-stile  occupied  the  llrst  .and  fourth 
(|uarter,  and  the  lion  of  Leon  the  second  and 
third.  The  received  nile  regarding  the  ijuartering 
of  the  ensigns  of  dillerent  states  is  that  precedence 
is  given  to  the  most  ancient,  unless  it  he  of 
inferior  im]jortance.  The  kings  of  England,  ow  in^ 
to  their  sujiposed  claim  to  the  Erench  throne,  long 
lH>re  Erance  in  the  first  and  fourth  i|uarter,  and 
England  in  the  second  and  third.  In  the  arms  of 
the  I'nited  Kingdom,  as  now  home,  Kiigland  occu- 
pies the  lirst  and  fourth  <|uarte]-,  Scotland  the 
second,  and  Ireland  the  thinl-  the  relative  |iosi- 
tions.  however,  of  England  and  Scotland  heing 
reversed  on  the  official  seals  of  Scotland.  Eeudal 
.arms  are  sometimes  f|uarteied  hy  suhjects.  Some 
of  the  peers  of  Scotland  hear  arms  of  this  descrip- 
tion, (h)  Arms  of  augmentation  or  special  con- 
cession accorded  to  a  suhject  hy  his  sovereign  hy 
w.ay  of  honour,  are  sometimes  gianted  to  he  home 
(|uarterly  with  the  paternal  coat.  These  some- 
times include  a  portion  of  the  royal  insignia,  and 
have  ]irecedence  of  the  paternal  coat,  (c)  The 
most    usual    reason   for   cpiartering    is    to    indicate 


HERALDRY 


067 


(lescPiit  t'nini  an  lieiress  who  has  nuiriieil  into  the 
family.  Where  tliere  is  Imt  one  heiress,  her  coat 
oi'oupies  the  second  and  third  iiuarters  of  tlie 
shield,  anil  the  paternal  arms  the  hrst  and  fonrth. 
When  there  are  more  than  one,  tliey  are  marshalled 
in  the  successive  i|narters  in  the  order  of  the  inter- 
niavria;,'es.  Where  more  than  four  coats  have  to 
he  marshalled,  the  number  of  vertical  lines  is  in- 
creased, and  the  divisions,  though  more  than  four, 
are  still  called  i|uarters  (5).  Wliere  there  is  an  odd 
nuniher  of  coats,  the  last  quarter  is  usually  tilled 
np  l>y  repi^atiii),'  the  lirst.  (-)ne  of  the  ((uarters 
may  itself  lie  ijuartered,  when  the  heiress  was 
entitled  to  hear  a  cpiartered  coat :  the  shield 
is  then  said  to  he  coiinterqnartered  (4),  and 
its  primary  quarters  are  called^  gratid  quarters. 
In  the  c(mi>ie  of  generations  a  sliielil  may  thus 
sometimes  be  inconveniently  crowded  by  the 
accumulation  of  coats,  including  the  coats  to 
■which  each  heiress  may,  in  a  similar  way,  have 
become  entitled ;  and  in  Germany  sometimes 
above  twenty  coats  ( generally  coats  of  dominion) 
are  found  marshalled  in  one  escutcheon  ;  but,  in 
British  heraldry,  families  entitled  to  a  number  of 
quarterings  usually  select  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant. A  quartered  coat  may  be  surrounded  by 
a  bordure  (for  difference),  in  which  case  it  is 
treated  as  ime  coat. 

In  the  heraldry  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
which  is  not  older  than  the  1 6th  century,  a  system 
of  quartering  jirevailed  quite  irrespective  of  family 
alliance,  the  cpiarters  being  changed  under  different 
niodilications,  with  figures  partlj'  borrowed  from 
the  ohl  monumental  sculpture  of  the  country,  in- 
chiding  the  eagle,  the  fish,  the  hand  with  the  red 
cross,  and  the  one-masted  galley  of  Lome. 

The  expre.ssion  '  quarterings '  is  sometimes 
loosely  used  for  descents  in  cases  where  there  is 
no  right  to  quarter  from  representation.  The 
eight  or  si.vteen  quarterings  which  in  former  days 
were  on  the  Continent  essential  for  the  holder  of 
nearly  every  public  office,  which  were,  till  lately, 
often  fonnil  ranged  rouml  the  Scottish  funeral 
escutcheon,  and  which  are  still  important  for 
many  purposes  in  tierniany  and  Austria,  have  no 
reference  to  representation,  but  imply  purity  of 
blood  for  four  or  live  generations — i.e.  that  the 
father  and  mother,  the  two  grandmothers,  the  four 
great-granchuotliers,  and  also,  in  the  ca-se  of  .six- 
teen (|uarterings,  the  eight  great-great-grand- 
mothers, have  all  been  entitled  to  coat-armour. 

Other  modes  of  marehalling  are  in  use  ou  the 
Continent,  as  the  division  of  a  shield  |ier  saltire,  or 
into  three  parts.  The  marshalling  of  a  coat  en 
prjinte,  or  on  a  triangular  ligure  issuing  from  the 
oa.se  of  the  shield,  used  to  be  familiar  from  the 
escutcheon  of  Hanover,  borne  first  in  the  fourth 
quarter  of  our  royal  achievement,  and  afterwards 
cii  siirtniit,  where  we  have  Brunswick  impaled  with 
Liinebuig,  Saxony  in  base,  and  over  all  the  crown 
of  Charlemagne,  as  belonging  to  the  office  of  arch- 
treasurer  of  the  empire. 

Externa/  Ornamrtits. — Over  and  above  the  shield 
of  arms  there  are  certain  accessories  in  use  to  lie 
represented  along  with  it,  and  which  together 
with  it  constitute  an  nr/iieremeiit  of  iiniit,:  These 
include  the  helmet,  the  crest,  the  motto,  the 
mantling,  the  supportei's,  and  the  crown  or 
coronet. 

Before  the  beginning  of  the  14th  centnry  a 
helmet  began  to  be  placed  above  shields  of 
arms,  the  shield  being  represented  in  the  posi- 
tion called  eiinrhee — i.e.  suspended  from  the 
sinister  chief  angle.  After  the  couchee  attitude 
was  abamloned,  the  helmet  resting  <m  the  shield 
began  to  vary  according  to  the  rank  of  the  bearer, 
the  forms  ado]>ted  being  both  unbecondng  and 
fanciful.      The  following  are  the  forms  in   use  in 


modern  British  heraldry  :  ( 1 )  that  a-ssigned  to  the 
sovereign  and  royal  family,  which  is  full  faced,  of 
gold,  lined  with  crimson,  ami  with  the  visor  divided 
liy  si.\  projecting  bars;  (2)  the  helmet  of  jieers, 
exhibited  in  protile,  with  hve  bars,  of  which  three 
or   four  are  .shown.     The  helmets   of  dukes  and 


1.  Sovereign. 


3.  KiiiKlit. 
Helmets. 


4.  Esquire. 


marquises  are  entirely  of  gold,  those  of  earls, 
viscounts,  and  barons  of  steel,  with  the  bars  of 
gold;  (3)  the  helmet  of  baronets  and  knights,  of 
steel,  full  faced,  with  the  visor  thrown  back,  and 
without  bars  :  ( 4 )  the  helmet  of  es(|uires  and  gentle- 
men, in  ])rofile,  of  steel,  and  with  the  visov  closed. 
A  helmet  is  never  placed  over  the  arms  of  any 
woman  except  the  sovereign. 

The  Crest  (q.v.)  is  an  oniament  of  the  head  rising 
above  the  helmet.  Crests  lirst  appear  occasionally 
on  seals  and  monuments  of  the  13th  century,  the 
earliest  being  a  radiant  ornament  somewhat  like  a 
displayed  fan.  Originally  a  .special  mark  of  honour 
worn  by  heroes  of  great  valour  or  holding  a  high 
military  command,  the  crest  became  eventually,  in 
English  heraldry  at  least,  an  inseparable  adjunct 
of  the  coat-of-arms.  An  extraordinary  number 
of  crests  are  sometimes  accunmlated  in  German 
achievements,  each  on  its  separate  helmet.  In  our 
modern  heraldry  the  crest  is  generally  placed  on  a 
wreath  of  two  jiieces  of  silk  of  the  lively  colours  — 
i.e.  the  first  metal  and  first  colour  of  the  shield, 
but  occasionally  on  a  cap  of  maintenance  or  a 
ducal  coronet.  In  the  achievement  of  the  sovereign 
the  helmet  is  placed  immediately  above  the  shield, 
the  cro^vn  rests  on  the  helmet,  and  the  royal  crest 
rises  from  the  crown.  In  the  achievements  of 
peers,  on  the  other  hand,  the  helmet  rises  from  the 
coronet,  which  is  placed  immediately  over  the 
shield. 

The  motto  is  placed  within  an  escrol  either  over 
the  crest  or  below  the  shield.  It  bears  in  many 
cases  an  allusion  to  the  family  name  or  arms,  or 
to  the  crest. 

The  muiitluiy  or  lambrequin  is  an  appendage 
hanging  ilown  from  the  helmet  and  pa-ssing  behind 
the  escutcheon.  It  is  considered  to  be  ilerived 
either  from  the  contoise,  an  ornamental  .scarf 
represented  in  seals  and  monuments  of  the  I3tli 
and  14th  centuries,  or  from  the  military  mantle  or 
robe  of  estate.  Its  comparatively  irregular  shape 
in  more  modern  instances  has  been  explained  as 
indicative  of  the  tattered  conditiim  to  which  it  ha.s 
been  reduced  in  the  field  of  battle.  Ta-ssels  are 
sometimes  appended,  and  when  treated  as  a  i<ibe 
of  estate  the  bearings  of  the  shield  are  occasionally 
repeated  on  it.  In  British  heraldry  the  mantling 
of  the  sovereign  is  of  gold,  lined  with  ermine  ;  that 
of  peei-s  of  crimson  velvet,  lined  with  ermine. 
Knights  and  gentlemen  have  either  the  livery 
colours  of  the  shield,  or,  as  the  jiractice  is  in 
Scotland,  crimson  velvet  lined  with  silver. 

'V\w('rown  (q.v.),  Coronet  (q.v.),  a.m\  HI  it  re  (i\.\.) 
are  adjuncts  to  the  shields  of  those  whose  dignity 
or  office  entitles  them  to  be  thus  distinguished. 

Sii/i/iorters. — These  figures  placed  on  each  side  of 
an  armorial  shield,  as  it  were  to  suiiport  it,  were  at 
lirst  purely  decorative,  ■renerally,  however,  having 
allnsiim  to  the  arms  or  descent  of  the  hearer :  but 
they  soon  came  to  be  considered  imlicative  of  liis 
being  the  head  of  a  family  of  eminence  or  dis- 
tinction.    The  most  usual  sujiporters  are  animals, 


668 


HERALDRY 


real  or  falmlons ;  l)iit  men  in  iirinoiir  are  not 
nnfre(HK>nt,  a»  also  naked  men  or  savajjes,  often 
carrying;  diilis,  and  wreathed  about  the  lieatl  and 
iniildle.  tin  early  seals  a  single  snpporter  occasion- 
ally occnix,  and  there  are  instances  ot  the  escutcheon 
lieiiig  placeil  on  the  breast  of  an  eajjle  «lis|)laye<l. 
The  dexter  an<l  sinister  su|i|iorters  are  often,  and 
almost  always  in  continental  hiralchy,  alike.  In 
Hritish  hcraltlry,  however,  the  two  supporters  are 
in  many  cases  ditl'erent ;  and  where  the  bearer 
represents  two  families,  a  supporter  is  sometimes 
a<topted  from  the  achievement  of  each.  The 
rules  restricting'  the  ri^ilit  to  supportei-s  are 
dill'erent  in  difrereiit  countries.  In  Kujilaiul  their 
use  is  coiil'ined  to  the  royal  family,  ]ii'i'rs,  knij,'lits 
of  the  darter,  ami  knit;hts  (Irand  Cross  of  the 
liatli  (with  the  host  the  ri;,'lit  does  not  transmit  to 
descendants),  the  heads  of  a  very  few  families  out 
of  the  peerage,  who  derive  their  right  from  an  old 
patent  or  early  usage,  and  the  chief  mercantile 
com])anies  of  Lonchm.  In  Scotland  the  right 
extends  to  the  chiefs  of  imixirtant  clans,  and  the 
representatives  of  minor  oarcms  who  h.ad  full 
baronial  rights  ]irior  to  I.iST,  the  date  of  the  act 
wliiili  linally  excluded  the  minor  barons  from 
parliament.  Baronets  of  Xova  Scotia  li.ave  as  such 
no  right  to  supporters,  though  many  of  them  bear 
them  in  respect  of  their  baronial  i|ualilications.  It 
is  considered  to  be  in  the  power  of  the  Scottish 
Kingof  arms  to  confer  them  ex  i/nitio,  a  right 
whii'h  has  been  sparingly  exercised,  except  for 
the  period  between  ITWI  and  1,S20. 

Any  collar  and  badge  of  an  order  to  which  the 
hearer  may  have  a  right  forms  luoiierly  a  jiart  of 
his  achievement,  the  collar  surrouucling  his  shield, 
and  the  badge  being  suspended  from  it.  The  badge 
of  Nova  Scotia  is  snsiiciicled  by  an  orange  tawny 
libboM  from  the  shield  of  baronets  of  Scotland  ;  and 
other  baronets  have  the  arms  of  Ulster  in  a  canton 
or  an  inescutclieon  (.see  Baronet).  Certain  ollicers 
of  state  accom]iany  their  shields  with  nnirks  of  their 
rank.  The  Duke  of  Norfolk  as  Earl  Marshal  places 
.saltirewi.se,  behind  his  shield  two  truncheons, 
tipped  .above  with  the  arms  of  England  and  below 
with  his  own  arms.  The  Lord  .Justice-general  of 
Scotland  in  like  manner  places  two  swords  .saltire- 
wise  behin<l  his  shield. 

The  fnll  achievement  of  the  sovereign  of  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  is 
shown  in  lig.  XII.     Its  fnll  blazon  is  :  (Quarterly, 


Royal  Amis  of  the  United  Kingdom. 


first  and  fourth  gules,  three  lions  passant  gardant 
in  pale,  or,  for  England  :  second,  or,  a  lion  ramjiant 
within  a  double  tressure   flory-couuterllory  gules, 


for  Scotland  ;  third,  a/nre,  a  harp  or,  stringed  argent, 
for  Ireland  ;  all  snrroundcil  by  the  Carter.  Crest. — 
I'pon  the  roval  helmet,  the  imperial  crown  pr<)])er, 
thereon  a  iion  stalant  gardant  or,  imperially 
crowned  proper.  Siijipurters. — iJexter,  a  lion  ram- 
pant gardant  or,  crowned  as  the  crest.  Sinister,  a 
unicorn  argent,  armed,  crimed,  and  nnguled  proper, 
gorged  with  a  coronet  compoMMl  of  crosses  ]ialee 
ami  llenrs-de-lis,  a  chain  allixcd  thereto  jiassing 
between  the  forelegs,  and  rellexcd  over  the  back, 
also  or.  Miilfii. — '  i)ieu  et  mon  Droit.'  in  the  com- 
])artment  below  the  shielil,  with  the  I'nion  rose, 
slmmrock,  and  thistle  engrafted  on  the  same  stem. 

This  article  m:iy  appropriately  c(Ui('lu(li'  with  a 
short  account  of  the  various  ways  in  which  the 
royal  arms  of  Knglaml.  (ireat  Britain,  and  the 
United  Kingilom  h;ive  been  borne.  The  (ireat 
Seal  of  Biclianl  Coui -de-Lion,  made  after  his 
return  from  the  third  crusade,  had  the  three  lions 
jiassanl  gardant  (or  leopards)  in  pale,  as  iln'y  have 
ever  since  been  depicted.  In  l.'f-lO  Edward  III.,  in 
virtue  of  the  su|>posed  right  of  his  mother,  assumed 
the  title  of  king  of  Erance,  and  i|uarterrd  the  arms 
of  Erance  (azure,  seme  of  tlenrs-de-lis  or)  with 
tho.se  of  England,  giving  the  iirecedence  to  the 
former.  Hicliard  II.  sometinies  bore  the  ie|iuted 
arms  of  Edward  the  Confessor  (azure,  a  cross  llorj' 
between  live  martlets  or)  impaleil  with  his  quar- 
tered co.at,  giving  the  former  the  ]iiecedeiice.  In 
conformity  with  the  practice  in  Erance,  the  llenrs- 
de-lis  were  in  the  later  ji.irt  of  the  reign  of  Henry 
IV.  reilnced  to  three  in  number.  No  further 
change  toid;  ])lace  in  the  royal  escutcheon  until  the 
time  of  .lames  I.,  except  that  Mary,  on  her  seccmd 
(ireat  Seal,  made  after  her  marriage  with  I'liilip 
II.,  impaled  the  arms  of  Soain  and  England. 

.lames  \T.  of  Scotland,  on  succeeding  to  the 
throne  of  England  as  .lames  1.,  (piartiTed  the  arms 
borne  by  preceding  sovereigns  with  those  of  Scot- 
land and  Ireland,  the  first  and  fourth  r|uartei-8 
being  countei(|uartered  Erance  and  Euglaml.  the 
second  quarter  being  the  lion  ramnant  of  Scot- 
land :  the  third,  the  harp  of  Irelami.  The  royal 
arms  were  borne  similarly  by  all  the  sovereigns  of 
the  House  of  Stuart  until  the  leigii  of  .\nne, 
except  that  William  111.  bore  cii  .luitniit  the  coat 
of  N."us.sau  :  azure,  seme  of  billets,  a  lion  rampant 
or.  In  the  reign  of  Anne  the  legislative  union 
with  Scotl.and  brought  about  a  further  change; 
England  impaled  with  Scotland  was  placed  in  the 
first  anil  fourth  quarter.  Erance  in  the  second,  and 
Ireland  in  the  third.  The  accession  of  ( leorge  I. 
(li.splaceil  England  ami  Scotland  from  the  fourth 
quarter,  to  make  way  for  the  arms  of  Hanover 
(see  a)de — Qiiiirleriiiii).  In  1801  (leorge  ill.  laid 
aside  the  titular  .tssumption  of  king  of  Erance, 
and  abandoned  the  Erench  lleurs-de-lis.  The  arms 
of  England  were  now  maile  to  ocouiiy  the  first 
and  fourth  cpiarter,  Scotland  the  second,  and 
Ireland  the  thinl,  while  the  arms  of  Hanover 
were  i)laced  en  surtoiU.  Tlie.se  last  were  finally 
abandoned  on  the  severance  of  Hanover  at  the 
accession  of  Queen  Vict<uia,  when  the  royal 
escutcheon  assumed  its  present  arrangement. 

The  lion  passant  (or  statant)  gardant  as  the 
crest  of  England  first  appears  on  the  (ireat  Seal  of 
Edward  III.  The  su|>i)orters  borne  in  former  times 
by  the  kings  of  England  varied  much,  particularly 
during  the  e.arly  period  when  these  .ajqiendages  of 
the  shield  were  invested  with  more  of  ,a  decorative 
than  an  armorial  character,  an<l  i^ierhaiis  often  left 
to  the  fancy  of  the  engraver.  \\  hen  the  arms  of 
any  of  the  English  sovereigns  from  Kichard  II.  to 
Edward  IV.  are  representeil  with  supporters,  the 
animals  chosen  are  almost  inditl'eieiitly  lions, 
antelopes,  or  white  harts,  and  oec.i~ion.illy  their 
place  IS  supjdied  by  angels.  Edward  IV.  s  shield 
IS  sometimes  supported  on  one  side  by  a  black  bull, 


HERAT 


HERAULT 


669 


and  that  of  Ricliarcl  III.  in  one  instance  by  wliite 
>)i)ars.  During'  the  reigns  of  Henry  VII.,  Henry 
VIII.,  Edward  VI.,  Maiy,  and  Elizabeth,  the  lion, 
red  (h-agon,  and  gi-eyhonnd  were  the  animals  most 
in  vogue  ;  the  herald  or  engraver  generally  choos- 
ing as  it  suited  him  two  out  of  the  three.  James  I. 
for  the  first  time  clearly  defined  the  royal  sup- 
])orters,  adopting  the  lion  of  England  and  unicorn 
of  Scotland  as  tliey  have  ever  since  been  borne. 

At  the  union  of  1603  a  ditt'erent  mode  of  mar- 
shalling from  what  has  been  described  was  allowed 
in  Scotland,  the  arms  of  that  kingdom  occupying 
the  first  and  fourth  quarter,  and  England  being 
relegated  to  the  second.  The  Act  of  Union  of  1707 
contains  no  provision  for  the  continuance  of  a 
special  mode  of  marshalling  for  Scotland  ;  but  the 
\arious  otficial  seals  of  Scotland  have  uniformly 
reversed  the  places  of  England  and  Scotland, 
giving  precedence  to  the  latter.  The  royal  arms, 
as  borne  in  Scotland,  are  also  in  use  to  be  encircled 
with  the  collar  of  the  Thistle  outside  the  Garter. 
The  Scottish  crest  takes  the  place  of  the  English, 
and  the  unicorn  supporter  takes  precedence  of  the 
lion,  the  former  being  crowned  and  gorged  with  an 
antii|ue  crown. 

Tlie  full  blazon  of  the  old  royal  arms  of  Scotland 
is  as  follows  :  Or,  a  lion  rampant  gules,  armed 
and  laugued  azure,  within  a  double  tressure  flory- 
counterrtory  of  lleurs-delis  of  the  .second.  Sup- 
porters. — Two  unicorns  argent,  imperially  crowned, 
armed,  crined,  and  unguled  or,  gorged  with  open 
crowns,  with  chains  affixed  thereto,  and  retlexed 
over  the  back,  of  the  last.  Crest. — Upon  the  im- 
perial crown  proper,  a  lion  sejant  affrontee  gules, 
crowned  or,  holding  in  the  de.xter  paw  a  sword,  and 
in  the  sinister  a  sceptre,  both  proper.  Mottoes. — 
'Nemo  me  iinpune  lacessit,'  and,  over  the  crest, 
'  In  Defence.' 

Among  standard  works  on  heraldry  are  Guilliiu's 
Disiilaji  of  Hcraldri/  (editions  of  1610  and  1724); 
Eilmoiison's  Complete  Body  of  Heraldrii  (17S0);  Sir 
George  Mackenzie's  Science  of  Hei'aldrij  treated  as  part 
of  the  Civil  Law  and  Law  of  JVations  (IfWO);  Nisbet's 
Si/slem  of  Heraldry  (1722^15;  reprinted  1«10)  ;  Ue  la 
Colombiere's  Science  Heroique  ( 101)9);  various  Frencli 
treatises  of  Menestrier  ( 1671-80 ) ;  Spener's  Opua  Heratdi- 
f«w(1690);  and  the  iV«)'/i'-<c)Yy(M'  Wappenbuch.  Among 
modern  treatises:  FlancliQS  Pursitirunt  of  Amis ;  Mon- 
tagu's Heraldry ;  Boxitell's  Heraldry,  Hintorical  and 
J'raetical  (ISGi) ;  Seton's  Heraldry  in  Scotland  (1863); 
liurke's  General  Armory;  Bouton's  Traite  de  Blazon 
tlS(J3);  Kielstajp's  Armorial  General  (Gouda,  1884): 
L'Art  Hcraldiqiie,  by  Gourdon  de  Genouillac  (1889); 
¥.  E.  Huhne's  Heraldry  (1891);  and  A  Treatise  wi 
Heraldry,  British  and  Foreiyn,  by  the  Rev.  J.  Wood- 
ward and  the  writer  of  this  article  (2  vols.  1892). 

Herat',  capital  of  the  most  westerly  of  the  three 
divisions  of  Af'dianistan,  stands  on  the  Hari-Kud, 
at  the  height  of  2500  feet  above  the  sea,  in  34'  50' 
N.  lat.,  62'  30'  E.  long.  ;  distance  from  Kabul,  390 
miles  west.  Situated  near  the  boundaries  at  once 
of  .Vfghanistan,  Persia,  and  the  Transcaspian  dis- 
trict of  Russian  Turkestan,  Herat  is  one  of  the 
princii)al  marts  of  Central  Asia,  earryini^  on  at  the 
same  time  extensi\e  manufactures  of  its  own  in 
wool  and  leather.  The  vicinity,  naturally  fertile, 
has  been  artificially  rendered  nuich  more  so  by 
means  of  irrigation,  drawn  from  the  Hari-Kud  and 
its  tributaries.  Owing  to  this  abun<lance  in  water, 
Herat  and  its  district  h;\s  been  at  all  times  famous 
for  its  rich  crops  and  excellent  fniits,  in  fact  it  luxs 
been  the  granary  of  the  north-western  portion 
of  Afghanistan  and  of  the  adjoining  Tun<oman 
country.  IJut  the  city  claims  notice  nuiinly  on  polit- 
ical and  military  grounds.  Long  the  roy.-il  scat  of 
the  descendants  of  Timur,  and  often  a  bone  of  con- 
tention between  the  warlike  tiibes  all  round,  it  is 
fortified  by  a  ditch  and  wall,  and  is  commanded  on 
its  north   side   by  a  strong  citadel  built  under  the 


direction  of  British  officers,  amongst  whom  the 
late  Sir  Eldred  Pottinger  occujned  a  pre  endnent 
place.  In  1885-86  the  fortihcations  of  Herat 
were  examined  and  armed  by  the  military  mem- 
bers of  the  Afghan  Boundary  Commission.  In 
modern  times  the  place  has  accjuired  a  kind  of 
European  importance,  being,  towards  Persia  and 
Ku.ssia,  the  key  of  Afghanistan,  which  country  in 
turn  aflbrds  the  oidy  apjiroach  by  land  to  western 
India.  In  this  connection  Herat  has  been  viewed 
as  an  outpost  of  England's  eastern  emjiire  against 
Russian  intrigue  and  encroachment.  Hence  it  has 
been  alike  the  subject  of  treaties  and  the  occasion 
of  wars  between  Great  Britain,  as  the  mistress 
of  India,  and  Persia,  as  virtually  a  vassal  of 
Russia.  This  feature  of  the  history  of  the  city  was 
more  specially  developed  in  connection  with  the 
last  conflict  between  Persia  and  England.  In 
November  1856  the  Shah,  regarded  by  the  British 
government  as  a  vassal  and  agent  of  the  Czar, 
captured  Herat,  while  actually  conducting  negotia- 
tions for  an  amicable  ailjustment  at  Constantinople ; 
but  he  was  within  a  few  months  constrained  to 
relinquish  his  prey  and  renounce  his  claims  by  a 
British  expedition  directed  against  the  oj)posite 
extremity  of  his  empire.  Since  Russia,  after  sub- 
duing the  Tekke  "rurkomans  and  after  having 
annexed  the  oasis  of  Merv  (1884),  pu.shed  her 
frontiers  as  far  as  Child  Dukhteran  and  Kosh 
Assiah,  which  is  from  30  to  40  miles  distant  from  the 
gates  of  Herat,  the  political  importance  of  the  place 
has  grown  immensely,  and  Herat  is  actually  the 
pivot  of  the  whole  Central  Asian  question.  From  a 
commercial  point  of  view  Herat  has  been  at  all 
times  an  emporium  for  the  trade  between  Central 
Asia,  Persia,  and  India,  as  the  caravan  roads  leading 
from  tlie  O.xus  and  from  the  Indus  towards  Peisia 
and  Western  Asia' had  found  here  their  point  of 
junction.  Indigo,  dried  fruits,  dyes,  asafu^tida, 
rice,  wool,  carpets,  raw  hides,  silk,  and  leather 
wares  are  the  chief  items  of  export,  whilst 
chintzes,  cloth,  sugar,  ironwares,  and  European 
arms  are  imported  from  the  West,  and  quite  re- 
cently to  a  large  extent  from  Russia.  In  1890  it  was 
in  contemplation  to  bring  Herat  into  railway  con- 
nection either  through  a  branch-line  coming  fiom 
the  Transcaspian  railway  from  Dushak  via  Sarakhs 
in  the  north,  or  vi&  Kandahar  from  the  south,  in 
which  case  Herat  will  again  acquire  its  ancient 
importance  from  a  commercial  point  of  view. 
The  town,  famous  in  the  time  of  Sultan  Husein 
Baikara  for  its  splendid  buildings,  is  to-day  a  hea)! 
of  ruins,  out  of  which  the  citadel,  the  Charsn, 
the  Tunia  Musjiil,  and  parts  of  the  Musallah  are 
prominent  as  remnants  of  a  byi^one  glory.  The 
population,  consisting  chiefly  oi  Persians,  Tajiks, 
and  Chihar  Aimaks — Afghans  constitute  only  the 
garrison — has  fluctuated  within  the  century  from 
100,000  to  10,000  :  the  average  pop.  now  being 
about  30,000.  See  Malleson's  Herat  (1880);  Yate's 
Xortherii  Afejlianistaii  (18S8). 

H^rault,  a  maritime  department  in  the  south 
of  France,  Ijounded  on  the  south-east  by  the  Gulf 
of  Lvons,  is  oval  in  form,  84  miles  in  greatest 
lengtli  from  east  to  west,  and  has  an  aiea  of  2393 
sq.  m.  Pop.  (1872)  429,878;  (1891)  461,651.  It 
is  occupied  in  the  north  and  north-west  by 
chains  of  the  Ceveunes  ;  but  the  mountainous 
tracts  L'ive  place  to  low  plains  as  the  coast  is 
api>roaclied,  and  these  in  turn  to  salt-nuii-shes 
and  lagoons  next  the  sea.  The  largest  of  the 
lagoons  (ctangs),  Thau,  covers  neaily  20,000  acres. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Herault,  the  t)rb,  and 
the  Lez,  which  rise  in  the  Cevennes  and  jiursue  a 
generally  southward  course  to  the  Mediterranean. 
In  the  neighbcmrhood  of  the  etatujs  the  climate  is 
unhealthy,  especially  in  summer,  when  agues  and 
fe\'ei's    prevail  :     but    elsewhere    throughout    the 


670 


HERBAL 


HERBERT 


>le|)iii'tiiii!iit  it  i.s  uimsuallv  tine,  tliciii;;li  in  ^^iiiiniii-r 
veiy  hot  ami  dry.  AIkhU  a  fourtli  of  tlie  entire 
area  consists  of  urulile  laml.  Hrevioiis  to  the 
devastating  attacks  of  the  phylloxera,  this  depart- 
ment was  countcil  amongst  the  most  important 
of  the  H  iiiegrowing  districts  of  France.  The  acre- 
age |>hinted  with  vines  has  in  ten  veal's  decre.used 
from  4SII,()(K)  to  l.')4,(J(KJ  acres,  and  tlie  yield  of 
wine  from  .'!!)()  to  aliont  12.)  million  gallons.  The 
cultivation  of  (dives  and  the  lireeding  of  silkworms 
anil  sheep  are  important  industries,  as  are  also  the 
prejiaration  of  hrandy  and  liipienrs,  the  manufac- 
ture of  cloth,  glitss,  .soap,  and  candles,  and  liinning. 
Coal  is  (he  chief  MUneral  iinneil.  liaige  i|UaMlities 
of  salt  are  prepared  from  the  saline  marshes  ;  anil 
from  the  sliore  lakes  and  the  sea  inimense  ipian- 
tities  of  lisli  are  obtained.  This  department  is 
divided  into  the  four  arrondissements  of  IJeziers, 
Lodeve,  .MontjMdlier,  ami  Saint-Puns.  Mont- 
pellier  is  the  cai)ital. 

II«'rl)al,  originally  a  hook  containing  an 
accoinit  of  all  known  plants  with  their  meilicinal 
properties,  is  now  a  hook  containing  descriptions 
only  of  those  plants  which  possess  medicinal  Jiro- 
perties.     See  ri,.\NTS,  Vol.  VlII.  \i.  2'22. 

Ilorharilim.  or  FIohti-.s  Siccfs  ('dry  gar- 
den ).  a  collection  of  specimens  of  dried  i>lants, 
intended  for  the  future  study  and  examination 
of  botanists.  Specimens  intended  for  the  her- 
barium shoulil  be  as  perfect  in  all  their  parts  a.s 
possible.  They  are  laid  between  layers  of  nlotting 
or  botanical  jiajier,  and  subjected  to  pressure  to  dry 
them.  The  pressure  should  be  light  at  first,  but 
increased  as  the  process  of  drying  goes  on.  The 
])aper  reipiires  to  be  changed  frei|Uenlly — daily  in 
the  case  of  succulent  specimens.  Special  methods 
have  to  be  adopted  in  the  case  of  very  succulent 
specimens,  such  as  orchids,  \-c.  :  only  very  slight 
pressure  must  be  given  ;  and  subjecting  them  to 
constant  uniform  heat,  as  in  hot  sand,  placing  them 
in  an  oven,  cu'  sus])ciiding  .and  turning  them  befiu'e 
the  lire,  enveloping  them  lirst  of  course  in  paper, 
indicate  some  of  the  modes  of  proceeding  with 
suchlike  specimens.  When  dried  they  are  mounted 
on  pa])er,  and,  if  they  are  to  be  of  any  .scientilic 
value,  the  generic  and  specific  names  of  each 
should  be  attached,  along  with  all  other  data  bear- 
ing on  its  identity,  such  ius  habitat,  \c.  (Jare 
must  be  taken  to  preserve  spiK-imeiis  from  the 
ravages  of  moths  and  beetles  by  freiiiient  inspec- 
tion, by  the  aid  of  camphor,  and  by  the  occasional 
application  of  a  little  corrosive  sublimate. 

Ilorhart.  •bill ANN  I'lilKUItlcn,  atierman  philo- 
sopher, w;is  born  at  Oldenburg,  .May  4,  \~'(i.  At 
a  very  early  age  he  was  familiar  with  religious  and 
metaphysical  doctrines  and  discussions,  and  in  his 
eighteenth  ycMr  he  became  the  (lujul  of  Kichte  at 
Jena.  In  ISd.")  he  was  appointed  extia-ordinarv 
professor  of  I'hilo.sophy  at  tiottingen  ;  in  l.SOi)  he 
went  t<>  Konigsbergas  Kant's  succe.s.sor :  but  in  bS.W 
returned  to  (iottingen,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death,  .-Viigust  14,  1.S41.  His  collected  works  were 
published  bv  his  scholar  Hartenstein  ( 12  vols.  1850- 
.32;  newed".  1 88.3  e<  .srr/. ). 

Herbart  start.s  from  the  Kantian  position  by 
analysing  experience.  In  his  system  logic,  meta- 
physics, and  .rsthetics  rank  as  co-ordinate  elements. 
Logic  deals  with  the  formal  elements  of  thought, 
metaphysics  and  lesthetics  with  it.s  content.  Of 
these  two  the  former  investigates  those  of  our 
empirical  conceptions  which  are  given  us  in  ex- 
perience, .and  which  cannot  be  alienated  from  our 
thought,  whilst  the  Latter  deals  with  those  con- 
ceptions which  involve  judgments  of  approv.al  or 
disapproval.  The  most  characteristic  features  of 
his  thinking  are,  however,  the.se.  He  posits  a 
niultiiilicity  of   '  reals,'  or  things  whicli  possess  in 


themselves  absolute  existence  apart  from  appercep- 
tion by  the  mind  of  man.  He  rejects  the  notion 
of  separate  mental  faculties,  substituting  in  their 
place  the  conception  of  primordial  presentations  or 
forces,  from  whose  a<rtion  ami  interaction  all 
psychical  phenomena  result.  Krom  the  conditions 
whicli  determine  the  ei|uilibriiiiii  and  movement  of 
these  presentations  he  deduces  a  statics  and  a 
dynamics  of  mind,  both  amenable  to  mathematical 
manipulation,  and  thus  introduces  |>sycholiigy  In  a 
place  among  the  exact  sciences.  Kthics  he  ranks 
;i.s  a  branch  of  a-sthetics  ;  it  investigates  the  agree- 
ment or  disagreement  between  volition  and  the 
fundamental  moral  ideas. 

His  works  on  the  science  of  education  have  a  peculiar 
value,  and  have  been  much  studied  of  late.  See  buokB 
on  Herbart  by  Thilo  (1M7.t),  Ziinnuiniann  (1877),  and 
Wagner  (7th  ed.  1K!I4 ) ;  Do  (ianiio,  II,, hurt  uiitl  llic 
Herhtirtians  {  l.S!l.~i) ;  the  translation  of  Hurbart's  Sruin^e 
itf  Kdiiention  by  Mr  and  Airs  Felkin  (18'.l5);  and  Ufer's 
Pedu'jotjy  of  Hcrha  rt  ( trans.  1890 ). 

Herb  Christopher.    See  Uaneberry. 

HerhelOt.  I! AKTIIKI.KMY  d'  (  l(i2.">-!).5),  oriental- 
ist, was  liorii  ill  I'aris,  and  became  ( 1H02)  professoi  of 
Syriac  in  the  ('olle;,'e  de  France.  His  Jlil/lint/i'i/iu: 
Oriniltili\  was  published  after  his  death  bvtJalland 
(lBfl7:  ."id  ed.  4  vcds.  1777-83).  It  is  a  universal 
ilictionary  of  all  knowledge  known  to  the  Orient, 
and  is  |iriiicijially  based  ujioii  the  Arabic  work  of 
Hajji  Khalfa  ;  although  lacking  in  critical  a<>cu- 
racy,  it  is  full  of  important  information  for  those 
who  do  not  rea<l  .Arabic  and  other  iniental  ton;^ues. 

llerlMTf.  Herbert  Fitz- Herbert  was  cham- 
berlain and  trea-siirer  to  King  Henry  I.  Se\eii 
or  eight  generations  later,  we  lind  the  Herberts 
diverging  into  several  distinct  branches,  including 
the  lines  of  the  Earls  of  Powis  (now  extinct  in  the 
male  line),  of  the  Lords  Herbert  of  f'herbniy  (also 
extinct),  the  Herberts  of  Mnckross,  and  also 
.several  untitled  branches  which  have  llonrished 
upon  their  ancestral  lands  in  England,  A\ales,  and 
Ireland.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  V.  Sir  William 
Herbert  of  Haglaii  Castle,  County  Monmoiith, 
received  the  honour  of  knightliooil  in  reward  of  his 
valour  in  the  French  wars.  His  eldest  son,  a 
staunili  adherent  of  the  House  of  York,  Wiis  created 
Earl  of  Pembroke  by  Edward  IV.  in  14t>8,  but  fell 
into  the  h;iiids  of  the  Lancastrians  after  the  battle 
of  Danesiiioor,  ami  was  beheaded  the  following 
day.      His  son  became  Earl  of  Huntingdon. 

The  title  of  Fail  of  Pembroke  ^^"as  restored  to  the 
Herberts  in  l.j.")!  in  the  jieison  of  the  son  of  an  ille- 
gitimate .son  of  the  lirst  earl.  The  new  earl  was 
one  of  the  most  intlnential  noblemen  of  his  age,  and 
one  who  took  an  active  ]iart  in  public  adairs,  both 
as  a  statesman  and  a  .soldier.  By  his  wife,  who  was 
.a  sister  of  Catharine  Parr  (the  Last  iiueeii  of  Henry 
VIII.),  he  had  a  son  Henry,  second  earl,  to  whose 
countess,  Mary  ('Sidney's  sister,  Pembroke's 
mother),  Sir  Philip  Siilney  dedicated  his  Araulia. 
It  has  been  attempted  to  i<lentify  Shakespeare's 
'  W.  H.,'  the  'only  begetter'  of  the  SoiDirtx,  with 
the  third  earl,  who  succeede<l  in  1621.  The 
fourth  earl,  sometime  Lord  Chamberlain  tii  Charles 
I.,  and  Chancellor  of  the  university  of  Oxford, 
was  also  Earl  of  Montgomery.  The  eighth  earl 
held  several  high  otficcs  under  (^ueen  Anne,  iiii  hid- 
ing that  of  Lord  High  Admiral.  Lord  Her- 
bert ((i.v. )  of  Lea  was  a  younger  son  of  the 
eleventh  earl  :  anil  his  son  became  ( 18(i2)  thirteenth 
Earl  of  Pembroke,  and  tenth  Earl  of  Montgomery. 
The  Earls  of  Carnarvon,  more  than  one  of  whom 
have  gained  celebrity  in  the  field  of  literature,  de- 
scend from  the  eighth  Earl  of  Pembroke  mentioned 
aliove.  The  recent  Earls  of  Powis  are  descended 
from  the  same  stock  maternally,  the  onlv  child  and 
heiress  of    the   last    Earl   of   Powis  of   tlie  Herliert 


HERBERT 


071 


stock  liavin^'iuanied  theelilest  son  of  the  illustrious 
Luid  ('live,  ill  whose  favour  that  title  was  renewed 
in  1804. 

Herbert,  Edwaed,  Lord  Herbert  of  Cher- 
i:rnv.  soldier,  statesnian,  poet,  an<l  philosoplier, 
was  liorn  of  the  ancient  and  noMc  House  of 
IIiM-liert,  apparently  on  the  :W  March  l.'js;},  at 
Eyton  in  Shropshire.  He  was  sent  to  Oxford  in 
his  twelfth  year,  and  before  he  had  (|uite  (luitted 
his  studies  he  married  an  heiress  considerably 
older  than  himself.  On  the  occasion  of  the  coro- 
nation of  James  I.  he  was  made  a  kni<,difci  and 
invested  with  various  offices.  He  left  home, 
accordin^'ly,  for  France  in  1608,  and  in  Paris 
lived  in  terms  of  intimacy  with  the  Constaljle 
Montmorency,  Isaac  Casaubon,  anil  other  dis- 
tin;;uished  men.  After  a  brief  return  to  his 
native  country,  he  set  out  ai;ain  in  1610  for 
the  Low  Countries,  where  he  joined  the  arms  of 
Maurice  of  Orange  ;  and  he  ayain  ottered  him  his 
services  in  1614.  After  a  campai;,'n,  he  travelled 
through  Germany  and  Italy  on  horseback,  and  went 
as  far  as  Venice,  Florence,  and  Home.  On  his 
way  back  he  got  into  trouble  through  an  attempt 
which  he  made  to  raise  a  troop  of  Protiistant 
soldiers  in  Languedoc  for  the  Duke  of  Savoy. 
Shortly  after,  he  returned  to  Englaixl,  and  was 
made  a  member  of  the  Privy-council  ;  then  sent 
to  France,  first  as  extraordinary  ambassador,  and 
then  as  ordinary  ambassador.  He  tried,  but  with- 
out much  success,  the  difficult  task  of  negotia- 
tion between  Lmiis  XIII.  and  his  Protestant  sub- 
jects, was  ultimately  dismissed,  and  in  spite  of 
eager  solicitation  never  received  any  further 
appointment.  He  was  elevated  first  to  he  a  ]ieer 
of  Ireland,  and  then  in  1629  to  be  a  peer  of  Eng- 
land, with  the  title  (jf  Baron  Herbert  of  Cher- 
bury.  When  the  Civil  War  broke  out  he  at 
liist  sided  with  the  royalists,  but  ultimately 
surrendered  his  castle  to  the  parliamentarians, 
with  wimm  he  afterwards  lived  on  easy  terms. 
He  was  commonly  regarded  as  having  saved  his 
possessions  at  the  expense  of  his  lumour.  He  died 
in  London,  •20th  August  1648. 

The  work  by  which  Herbert,  the  friend  of  Donne, 
Selden,  Hen  jonson,  Grotius,  and  Gassendi,  was 
best  known  to  his  contemporaries  is  his  De  Vcritatc 
— an  anti-empirical  theory  of  knowledge,  which  in 
many  respects  anticipates  the  common-sense  jihilo- 
sopliv  of  the  Scottish  school,  and  is  at  times  even 
Kantian.  His  De  Rcliqionc  GoitiUum  (1663)  is  a 
'natural  histiuy  of  religion,'  by  means  of  which 
Herbert  linds  that  all  religions,  amidst  their 
extravagances  or  follies,  recognise  what  were  for 
him  the  five  main  articles  of  religion — that  there  is 
a  supreme  t!od,  that  he  ought  to  be  worshi[)ped, 
that  virtue  and  purity  are  the  main  jiart  of  that 
worship,  that  sins  should  be  repented  of,  and  that 
there  are  rewards  and  punisliments  in  a  future 
state.  In  virtue  of  this  'charter  of  tlie  deists,' 
Herbert  is  not  unjustly  reckoned  the  first  of  the 
(leistical  writers.  The  Expulitio  liiickiuf/hitiiii 
JJiifis  ( 16.")6)  is  a  vindication  of  his  patron's  ill-fated 
expedition.  The  ill-proportioned  Life  mid  Uiiiipic  of 
Kiiiij  llriinj  VIII.  ( 1649)  glorifies  Henry  overmuch, 
and  is  by  no  means  accurate.  His  best-known 
work,  the  AiUuhiui/rap/ii/,  a  lirilliant  ]ncture  of  the 
man  and  of  contemporary  manners,  may  fairly  be 
regarded  as  a  masterpiece  in  its  kind  :  but  it  is 
disfigured  by  overweening  conceit  and  self-glory 
in  his  own  personal  beauty,  noble  blood,  valour  in 
Quixotic  duels,  favours  from  famous  ladies,  and 
generosity,  and  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  veracious. 
It  comes  down  only  to  1624.  The  Puc.m.'i,  Latin 
and  English,  which  may  be  divided  into  sonnets, 
elegies,  epitaphs,  satires,  miscellaneous  lyrics,  and 
occasional  pieces,  reveal  in  their  aullu>r  a  re]u-e- 
sentative  of  Donne's,  or  the  'metaphysical,'  school; 


many,  in  the  judgment  of  a  recent  editor,  are  of 
real  and  true  (loetry,  in  some  respects  re.sembling 
Browning,  in  some  anticij)ating  Tennyson.  See 
l!cmu>at's  monograph  on  Herbert  (Paris,  1874); 
Cliurton  Collins's  edition  of  the  Poems  (  1881 )  ;  and 
Sidney  L.  Lee's  edition  of  the  Autobiography,  with 
introduction  and  continuation  (1886). 

Herbert,  George,  an  English  poet,  was 
bf)rn  in  Montgomery  Castle,  in  Wales,  on  the  ."id 
A[uil  !.■)!•.■?.  His  family  was  a  younger  branch  of 
that  of  the  Earls  of  Pembnd<e.  His  eldest  brother 
was  Lord  Herbert  (q.v.)  of  Cherbnry,  who  says  of 
liim  :  'My  brother  tJeorge  was  so  excellent  a 
scholar  that  he  was  made  the  public  orator  of  the 
university  of  Cambridge,  some  of  whose  English 
works  are  extant,  which,  though  they  be  lare  in 
their  kind,  yet  are  far  short  of  exjiressing  tho.se 
perfections  he  had  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongue, 
and  all  divine  and  human  literature.  His  life  was 
most  holy  and  exemplary,  in  so  much  that  about 
Sali.sbury,  where  he  lived  beneficed  for  many  ( '; ) 
years,  he  was  little  less  than  sainted.  He  was  not 
exemjit  from  passion  and  clioler,  being  infirmities 
to  M'hich  our  race  is  subject;  but,  that  excepted, 
without  reproach  in  his  actions.'  George  Herbert's 
mother  was  a  Newport,  of  the  old  Shroiishire  family 
of  the  Newports  of  High  Ercall.  She  was  left  a 
widow,  and  devoted  herself  to  the  education  and 
training  of  her  seven  sons,  in  which  effort  she  was 
singularly  successful.  Her  memory  has  come  ilown 
to  us  as  one  of  those  many  mothers  of  the  En^ilish 
race  to  whom  it  owes  so  much.  Under  her  inllu- 
ence  and  that  of  Dr  Neville,  Dean  of  Canterbury 
an<l  Master  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  the 
foundations  were  laid  of  a  character  of  almost  jier- 
feet  beauty.  In  1614  George  Herbert  was  elected 
Fellow  of  his  college,  and  in  HiUt  i)romoted  to  the 
office  of  Public  Orator,  in  which  place  he  c<mtinued 
eight  years,  and,  as  Izaak  \\'alton  says,  '  managi'd 
it  with  as  becoming  a  grace  and  gaiety  as  any 
had  ever  before  or  since  his  time.'  '  If  during  this 
time,'  he  continues,  '  he  expressed  any  error,  it 
was  that  lie  kept  himself  too  much  retired,  and  at 
too  great  a  distance  from  all  his  inferiius,  and  his 
clothes  seemed  to  prove  that  he  put  too  great  a 
value  on  his  parts  ami  parentage.'  The  ante- 
cedents of  his  family,  indeed,  and  his  position  at 
the  university,  naturally  led  him  to  expect  advance- 
ment at  court:  but  on  the  death  of  King  .lames 
his  thou.i;hts  became  more  decidedly  drawn  towards 
a  distinctly  religious  life — a  life  which  his  mother 
had  always  wished  him  to  follow.  After  a  period 
of  seclusion  in  the  country,  he  finally  decide<l  to 
relinquish  all  expectatiim  of  cimrt  favours,  and  to 
ile\'ote  himself  entirely  to  the  religious  life.  In 
1626  be  was  made  prebendary  of  Layton  Ecclesia 
in  the  diocese  of  Lincoln,  and  in  Ui.'W,  the  year 
after  his  marriage  to  a  kinswoman  of  the  Earl 
of  Danliy  ami  daughter  of  Mr  Charles  Danvers  of 
Bainton,  Wilts,  he  was  presented,  by  the  favcmr  of 
his  kinsman  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  to  the  vicarage 
of  Bemerton,  neai-  Salisbury  ;  Charles  I.  saying, 
when  the  earl  solicited  the  |iresentati(m  which 
had  lapsed  to  the  crown,  'Most  willinj;ly  to  Mr 
Herbert,  if  it  be  worth  his  acceptance.'  He  only 
enjoyed  this  vicarage  for  three  years,  being  buried 
on  Sd  March  16.S3  ;  yet  in  that  short  time  he  left 
a  memory  which  still  survives.  No  one  who  reads 
his  CniDifri/  Pid-soti,  a  description  of  an  iileal  p.ir- 
son's  life,  which  is  doubtless  to  a  considerable 
extent  a  (licture  of  his  own  life  and  conduct,  will 
be  surprised  at  this  fact.  Walton  says  of  him, 
'  his  aspect  was  cheerful,  and  his  speech  and  nu>tion 
did  botli  declare  him  a  gentleman;  f<u'  they  were  :iU 
so  meek  and  obliging  that  they  purcliiused  love  and 
respect  from  all  that  knew  him.'  He  w.os  naturally 
the  intimate  of  the  most  cultured  natures  of  his 
day,  but  the  reality  of  religious  life  led  him,  as  it 


672 


HERBERT 


HERCULANEUM 


luLs  (lime  otlieix,  to  a  perfect  svmpatliy  with  the 
iiiiiMiltmed  ami  the  i^;ii(>raiit.  lie  wius  an  aofoin- 
plisheil  musician,  who  recognised  in  music  not  a 
wieMce  only,  hut  a  divine  voice;  ami  his  ]ioetrv  is 
the  natural  result  of  his  Iriiinin;,'  ami  of  his  life. 
It  exhihits  a  sinj;ular  combination  of  the  attrihutes 
of  a  courtier,  a  gentleman,  ami  a  saint.  It  mani- 
fests a  knowledge  of  life,  and  of  the  world,  and  a 
certain  strength  and  force  of  thought  an<l  of  expres- 
sion which  has  nia<le  his  verses  the  favourite  read- 
ing of  men  who  are  not  generally  attracted  to  sacred 
and  ilevotional  noetry  ;  and  this  (|uality  will  (irob- 
alily  ensure  for  liis  poems  a  lasting,  thongii  perhaps 
limiteil,  number  of  students  and  admirers. 

Sec  his  Wurk.'i  iit  Prose  ami  Kt'r.vc,  witli  Life  by  Walton, 
and  iiiilea  Ijy  Coleridge  (1K4G) ;  editions  by  Nichol  (1803) 
and  Grosart  {1S701 ;  the  present  writer's  preface  to  The 
Temple  (1882);  and  a  new  Life  (S.F.C.K.,  1893). 

Ilorliert.  Sidnev,  Lup.u  Hekuei!t  uv  Lea, 

minister  and  statesman,  wa.s  the 
son  of  the  eleventh  Earl  of  Pem- 
broke by  his  secoml  wife,  the 
ilaugliter  of  Count  Woronzow,  and 
was  iH>rn  at  Kichmond,  lOth  Sep- 
tember 1810.  Educated  at  Har 
row  ami  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford, 
he  devoted  himself  to  public  life, 
ami  entered  the  House  of  Com 
moils  in  l.s;t2  a.-  member  for  South 
Wills,  which  he  represented  uiiii! 
his  elevation  to  tlie  peerage  i 
18(il.  He  began  his  poiiti'  ^ 
career  as  a  Conservative,  and  was 
Secretary  to  the  Admiralty  in  Sir 
K.  Peel's  administration  from  1841 
to  184o,  when  he  liecauic  Secic 
tary-at-war.  It  fell  to  him  to 
0[>pose  Mr  Cidjden's  motion  for  a 
select  committee  to  inquire  into 
the  ell'ect  of  the  corn  laws.  He 
went  out  of  othce  with  his  party 
in  184().  In  185'2  he  wa.s  again 
Secretary-at-war,  under  the  Aber- 
deen ministry,  and,  in  consei|uence, 
the  '  horrible  and  heart-rending 
sullerings'  of  the  army  before 
Sebastopol  were  laid  in  a  great 
degree  at  his  door.     He  was  for  a  ' 

few  weeks  Colonial  Secretary  in  the 
fii-st  administration  of  Lord  Palmei-ston  in  1835, 
and  Secretary-at-war  in  his  .second  administration 
in  1S.")0.  (ireat  improvements  in  the  sanitary  con- 
dition and  education  of  the  army,  the  amalgama- 
tion of  the  Imlian  with  the  royal  army,  and  the 
organisation  of  the  volunteer  force  signalised  his 
army  administration.  He  largely  reformed  the 
War  Odice,  and  Wii-s  devoting  him.self  with  ei|ual 
zeal  and  intelligence  to  his  ministerial  duties 
whi^n,  owing  to  failing  health,  he  resigned  his 
seat  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  in  18GI  was 
called  to  the  Upper  House,  under  the  title  of  Karon 
Herbert  of  Lea.  He  died  August  2,  1861.  He  waa 
lieir-presumptive  to  the  earldom  of  Pembroke,  and 
liis  .son  (1850-95,  author  of  Suiil/i  t)'tte  Uubblcs) 
became  iu  1802  thirteenth  earl. 

Herb  <»erar<l.    See  Bishopweed. 

Ilorbiy'ura  Cplant-eatei-s'),  in  some  of  the 
chissilications  of  the  Mammalia,  lias  been  regarded 
as  an  order  (co-ordinate  with  Carnivora),  and  by 
some  been  divided  into  Artiodactyla  and  Perisso- 
dactyla.     See  M.v.mm.vli.v,  Uxgulata. 

Il«'rb  l*aris.    See  Pakis. 

Ilorb  Kubcrt.    See  Ger.vnium. 

Herbs, or  HEKiiACEOU.s  Plants,  are  tliosewhich 
do  not  form  i\,  persistent  woody  stem  above  ground. 
They  are  annual,  biennial,  or  perennial.  An  annual 
springs  from  .seed,  blos.soiiis  and  dies  in  one  .sea.son. 


A  biennial  vegetates  only  during  the  lirst  growing 
season,  and  stores  up  nourisliment  in  its  root-stock 
which  persist.s  through  the  winter;  during  the 
second  growing  sea.son  the  root-stock  semis  nji 
llowering  shoots,  and  after  frucliUcalion  the  whole 
plant  dies.  When  the  root  stock  pciennatcs,  and 
only  the  aerial  shoots  die  at  the  end  of  each  grow 
ing  season,  the  plant  is  perennial.  See  PoT-llEHUS. 
llercilluilOUIII.  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  so 
called  from  the  l<x:al  worship  of  Hercules,  was 
situated  at  the  northwestern  base  of  Mount 
Vesuvius,  about  5  miles  E.  of  Naples.  Consider- 
able obscurity  envelops  its  early  histoiy  ;  it  is  sup- 
posed, however,  to  have  been  of  Ph<i'iiician  origin, 
ami  to  have  been  occupieil  aflcrwanls  by  Pclasgiaiis 
and  (lsc;ins.  It  subsei|ueiitlv  wils  com|Ucrcd,  with 
all  the  rest  of  Campania,  liy  the  Samnites,  and 
later  it  fell  into  the  hamls  <if  the  Honians.  In 
63  A.D.  the  city  was  .seriously  injured   li\  ;i  \iiik'nt 


earthquake ;  and  in  79  it  was  buried,  along  with 
Pompeii  and  Stabi.T,  by  the  memorable  erui)tion 
of  W'suvius  ( ij.v.)  which  took  place  in  thai  >  car. 
It  now  lies  at  a  dejith  of  from  4(1  to  lUU  feet  below 
the  surface,  and  is  filled  uji  and  covered  with  vol- 
canic tufa,  composed  of  sand  and  ashes,  and  con- 
soli<lated  to  .some  extent  by  water,  which  is  often 
thrown  up  in  great  (luantities  during  volcanic 
eruptions.  Alnive  it,  on  the  modern  surface,  are 
Portici  and  Kesina,  two  villages  now  ab.sorbcd  in 
the  .suburbs  of  Naples.  In  1706,  on  the  occasion  of 
deepening  a  well,  fragments  of  mosaics  were  fii'st 
brought  up :  hut  little  was  ilone  for  systematic 
excavation  till  1738,  when  explorations  were  com 
menceil  under  royal  authority.  It  was  then  dis- 
covered that  the  buihling  near  the  bottom  of  the 
well,  from  which  the  lirst  relics  were  (ditaiiied.  was 
the  theatre.  This  building  was  forthwith  exploieil 
and  cleared,  and  several  statues,  both  in  bronze  and 
marble,  were  extracted  from  it.  Excavations  were 
carried  on  but  to  a  limited  extent,  not  only  in  con- 
se(|uence  of  the  hardness  of  the  tufa,  but  from  the 
fear  of  umlcniiiiiing  the  dwellings  on  the  surface. 
Hence  but  a  portion  of  this  entombed  city  is 
yet  visilde,  the  chief  edilice  shown  being  still  the 
theatre,  which  had  been  built  a  short  time  before 
the  fatal  eruption.  It  has  eighteen  rows  of  stone 
seats,  an<l  could  accommodate  8000  perscms.  Part 
<if    the    I'orum    with   its   colonnades,    a   colonnade 


HERCULANEUM 


HERCULES 


673 


( mistaken  at  first  for  a  basilica),  t\vo  small  temjiles, 
anil  a  villa  have  also  been  ilisnovered  ;  and  Ironi 
these  buihlinf,'s  many  heantiful  statues  and  remark- 
able paintings  have  been  obtained.  Of  late  years 
excavations  have  been  resumed  under  government, 
with  imjiortant  results,  jiarticularly  as  to  the 
plan  of  Herculaneum,  and  in  1880  ruins  of  exten- 
sive baths  an<l  of  the  aeeessory  buildings  were 
brought  to  liglit.  A  general  view  of  the  exposed 
city  (1889)  is  given  from  a  iihotograpli.  Among 
the  artrclics  of  Herculaneum,  which  far  exceed 
in  value  and  interest  those  found  at  Pompeii, 
are  the  statues  of  -Kschines,  Agrijipina,  the 
Sleeping  Faun,  the  Six  Actresses,  Mercury,  the 
group  of  the  Satyr  ami  the  Goat,  the  busts  of  Plato, 
Scipio  Africanus,  Augustus,  Seneca,  Demosthenes, 
&c.  These  treasures,  together  with  such  vases  and 
domestic  imjilements  as  have  been  found,  are  on 
view  in  the  National  Museum  at  Naples.  For  the 
classical  student  La  ]'illii  Eicdbaicse  dci  Pisoni,  by 
Comparetti  and  De  Petra  (Turin,  1883),  is  recom- 
mended. 

Ileroules  (Or.  Iferac/ca),  the  beloved  .son  of 
Zeus  by  Alcniene  (of  Thebes),  was  intended  by  his 
father  to  be  king  of  the  Argives  ;  but  Hera,  the 
jealous  sjKiuse  of  Zeus,  by  a  trick  causeil  Eurys- 
tlieus  to  become  king  of  .\rgos.  Nor  washer  wrath 
satisfied  with  this  ;  she  m.ade  Hercules  serve 
Eurystheus,  by  far  the  inferior  man.  And  he  en- 
joined hard  adventures  on  Hercules,  even  sending 
him  to  Hades  to  fetch  up  the  dog  Cerberus.  Thus 
Hercules  was  doomed  to  a  life  of  trouble,  and  be- 
came the  type  amongst  the  (Greeks  not  only  of 
manly  strength,  but  of  manly  endurance.  liesides 
the  labours  imposed  on  him  by  Eurystheus,  Her- 
cules undertook  adNcntures  on  his  own  account,  kill- 
ing a  sea-monster  that  ravageil  Troy,  and  destroy- 
ing Troy  when  the  mares  promised  him  as  reward 
for  killing  the  nionster  were  denied  him.  His  love 
of  horses  also  led  him  to  kill  I]ihitus,  though  his 
guest.  Finally,  after  death,  he  himself  joined  the 
ban(|uet  of  the  deathless  gods,  with  Hebe  as  bis 
wife  ;  but  his  phantom,  armed  with  bow  and  arrow 
and  gold  baldric,  with  wild  boars  and  lions  wrought 
upon  it,  terrified  the  dead  in  Hades.  Thus  far 
according  to  Homer. 

Hesiod  adds  four  more  labours,  imposed  by 
Eurystheus — the  destruction  of  the  Neniean  Vum, 
of  the  Lenuean  hydra,  fetching  the  oxen  of  the 
triple-bodieil  Geryoncs,  and  the  golden  apples  of 
the  Hesperides  ;  and  Hesiod  includes  amongst  the 
p(ircrr/a,  or  vcduntary  exjdoits,  freeing  Prometheus 
from  the  eagle  which  torture<l  him.  From  later 
authors  we  liear  of  yet  more  labours,  the  number 
of  which  was  first  fixed  at  twelve  by  Pisander  ( who 
lived  about  6.')0  is.c. ,  and  wrote  an  e]pic  ]ioem 
on  the  adventures  of  Hercules),  though  this 
number  was  not  regarded  as  a  canon  either  of 
jioetry  or  art.  They  are  the  destruction  of  the 
Erymanthian  boar,  and  of  the  Slymiduilian  birds  ; 
the  cajiture  of  the  Cretan  bull,  of  the  stag  of  Cery- 
neia,  and  of  the  horses  of  Dioniedes  ;  the  cleansing 
of  the  st;ibles  of  .\ugeas  ;  anil  obtaining  the  girdle 
of  the  i|ueen  of  the  Amazons.  Many  voluntary 
exploits  are  added  by  later  writers  to  the  jii(rii-i/(( 
mentioned  by  Homer  and  Hesiod,  and  are  as  a  rule 
lirought  into  connection  with  the  Homeric  story  of 
Hercules,  the  outlines  of  which  they  lill  ui).  Thus, 
Homer  mentions  Megara  as  the  wife  of  Hercules  ; 
later  writers  recount  that  she  was  the  daughter  of 
the  king  of  Thebes,  and  that  her  hand  was  bestowed 
on  the  liero  in  reward  for  ha\lng  freed  the  Thebaiis 
from  their  tribute  to  the  Miiiy.e.  The  story  of 
Hercules'  service  as  a  slave  to  the  Lydian  Om|ihale 
is  connected  with  the  Homeric  story  .as  being  the 
atonement  for  the  murder  of  Ipbitus.  When  all 
other  resources  fail,  toipography  is  made  to  all'ord 
the  connection.     Thus,  the  light  with  the  Centaurs 


251 


is  connected  with  the  labour  of  destroying  the 
Eiymanthian  boar,  because  the  scene  of  the  one 
adventure  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  other.  It 
is  on  bis  May  to  Thrace  in  (|ucst  of  the  horses  of 
Jliomedes  tliat  Hercules  rescues  Alcestis,  who  had 
given  her  life  for  that  of  her  husband  Admetus,  the 
guest-friend  of  Hercules.  It  is  on  his  way  back  from 
the  west,  when  he  is  returning  with  the  cattle  of 
(ieryones  by  way  of  Haly  to  Greece,  that  he  destroys 
the  monster  Cacus,  who  stole  his  oxen.  It  is  on  liis 
way  to  Gadira  in  search  of  Geryoncs'  oxen  that  he 
travels  in  the  mystic  beaker  given  to  him  by  the 
sun-god.  And  finally,  it  is  r«  pussdiit  that  he 
founds  the  ()lyni]iian  games  also.  IJut  in  all  cases 
we  find  that  Hercules  lias  become  the  national  hero 
of  the  Greeks,  and  that  he  is  regarded  not  only 
as  the  type  of  manly  endurance,  luit  also  as  the 
self-sacrificing  hero  who  succours  the  op]iressed  and 
rids  earth  of  its  monsters.  As  to  the  manner  of  his 
deatli  nothing  is  said  by  Homer,  but  in  later  times 
the  story  was,  that,  in  the  agonies  caused  by  the 
poisoned  robe  of  Nessus  sent  to  him  in  all  inno- 
cence as  a  love-eh,arm  by  his  wife,  Dei.anira,  he 
tln-ew  himself  on  to  a  funeral  ]iyre  on  .Mount  (Eta, 
and  was  thence  carried  up  to  heaven. 

It  is  maintained  by  some  scholars  that  the  origin 
of  Hercnles  as  a  mythical  figure  is  not  (Ireek,  not 
even  Indo-Eurojiean,  but  oriental.  And  in  support 
of  this  view  there  are  traits  to  be  found  both  in 
literature  and  art  which  are  undoubtedly  oriental. 
Thus  in  literature  the  mystic  beaker  in  which 
Hercules  travels  to  Gadira  is  undoubtedly  the  sym- 
bol of  the  oriental  sun-god.  The  nundier  (twelve) 
of  Hercules'  labours  is  that  of  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac.  In  art  the  lion-skin  which  is  the  ch.-irae- 
teristic  garb  of  Hercules  is  undoubtedly  a  loan 
from  the  East;  and  the  resemblances"  between 
ancient  types  of  Hercules  and  the  idols  of  the 
Pho'nici.an  god  liesa  are  undeniable.  Anil  even  the 
(ireeks  themselves  identified  Hercules  with  Mel- 
carth  of  Tyre.  In  his  jihysical  strength  Hercules 
brings  to  mind  .Samson,  and  Samson,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  been  exidained  by  ;i  venture.sunie  niylh- 
ologist  ((Joldziher)  as  being,  like  Hercules,  a  solar 
hero.  I5ut  on  examination  the  hyjiothesis  of  the 
oriental  origin  of  the  figure  of  Hercules  breaks 
down.  It  is  c|uite  true  that  there  are  amongst  the 
many  and  diverse  elements  in  the  myth  of  Hercules 
some  of  undoubtedly  orient.al  origin  ;  but  none  of 
the.se  can  be  traced  back  further  than  the  time  of 
Pis.ander.  The  story  of  Hercules  as  told  in  Homer 
is  purely  tireek.  Thus  the  nundier  (twelve)  of 
Hercules'  l.aliours,  which  forms  such  an  admirable 
basis  for  the  theory  that  Hercules  is  a  solar  hero 
and  of  oriental  origin,  cannot  be  tr.aced  back  fur- 
ther than  the  time  of  Pisander,  by  whom  it  may 
well  have  been  borrowed  from  some  cistern 
story,  for  he  lived  in  libodes,  which  was  exjiosed  to 
orient.al  influences.  The  beaker  of  the  sun  god, 
.again,  is  borrowed  from  the  E.ast,  but  is  no  part  of 
the  er|ui]iment  of  the  original  Homeric  Hercules. 
The  lion-skin,  which  subsei|uently  became  the  cliar- 
.acteristic  g.arli  of  Hercules,  w;is  imported  from  the 
Orient.  This  is  indicated  by  the  f.-ict  that  Pisander 
first  introduced  it  into  literature,  and  is  confirmed 
by  the  circuinstance  that  it  aiijiears  in  art  for 
the  first  time  in  images  from  Cyprus,  which  were 
lilainly  iiroduced  (as  might  be  expected  in  Cyprus) 
under  oriental  influences.  IJut  the  lion-skin  is  not 
found  in  literature  older  than  Pisander,  and  it  is 
nniformly  ali.-ent  from  older  works  of  art.  l''inally, 
the  resembl.ances  between  the  ancient  tyjies  of 
Hercules  and  the  iilols  of  the  Phonieian  Hesa  are 
in  p.art  due  to  the  f.act  that  the  latter  date  from  the 
time  when  I'lnenieian  art  was  already  under  the 
influence  of  (Jreek. 

That  the  Greeks  themselves  identified  Hercules 
with  some  strange  god,   whether  of   Egypt  or  of 


C74 


HERCULES 


HERDER 


Tvie,  is  imtiiral  onoutrli,  Inu  proves  iiotliiii)^.  Tliey, 
liko  llio  |{i>iM;ins,  wcii!  ovor  iiii  the  aleit  to  identify 
till- jimls  tliey  knew  nf  ulil  «itli  the  new  deities  of 
forei;;n  nations.  Imleed.  it  is  in  this  ten<h,'ncy  that 
we  have  to  hiok  for  tlie  explanation  of  the  ^'rowth 
(if  tlie  story  cjf  lleirnles.  It  is  hecanse  the  ti reeks 
recognised,  or  llioti'.dit  they  recoi,'nised,  their 
national  hero  in  the  oriental  sun  {jml,  that  traits 
and  stories  helon^rins  to  the  latter  liee.iine  attached 
to  the  former.  In  this  way  the  hero  of  the  l.yilian 
story  was  idenlilied  with  Hercules,  and  the  ^tory  of 
his  service  to  Oiiipiiale  transferred  to  Hercules. 
On  the  same  principle  we  may  prolialdy  detach  the 
Italian  story  of  the  monster  Cacus  a.s  an  accretion. 
The  Italians  recojj;nise<l  in  Hercules  their  own 
native  (lenius  Jovis,  of  whom  the  C'acus-story  was 
ori;;inally  tolil.  Not  only  was  the  story  alisorlied 
into  the  Hercules  cycle  of  myths,  lint  Hercules 
eclipseil  the  (Jenius  .lovis  in  Italy  itself.  It  has, 
inilei'il,  heen  .supposed  that  the  story  of  Hercules 
wius  known  to  the  tJnecoItalians,  the  common 
ancestors  of  Hreeks  and  Italians;  hut,  apart  from 
the  ilouht  which  now  attaches  to  the  very  e\isteiice 
of  (Jra'co-ltalians,  the  I.alin  name  Hercules  is  un- 
doiilitedly  I  like  that  whii-h  it  stands  fur)  horrowed 
from  the  tircek.  Hercules,  as  a  matter  of  pliil- 
olo;,'y.  is  a  loan-word  from  the  (ireek  Heracles. 

Not  only,  however,  is  it  jiossihle  to  strip  the 
ori','iiial  liomerie  story  of  Ilalian  ami  oriental 
accretions;  it  is  also  jiossihle  to  trace  its  <;rowth 
within  the  limits  of  Hell.as  itself.  For  jvs  the 
tireeks  identilied  their  natioii.al  hero  with  foreit;n 
deities  and  heroes,  so  Hercules  came  to  Ik;  the 
national  (Ireek  hero,  hecatise  the  various  CJreek 
states  identilied  him  with  various  local  heroes. 
Thus  the  .Ktolian  myth  of  Deianira  and  the  rolie 
of  Nessus  i-ame  to  lie  attached  in  the  time  after 
Homer  to  Hercules.  And  even  in  the  Hercules  of 
Homer  .'ind  Ilesioil  we  can  detect  at  least  two  local 
heroes.  The  son  of  .\lcmene  of  Thehes  was  proh- 
ahly  not  orifiinally  the  same  hero  as  the  Hercules 
whose  exploits  in  destriiyiii;;  the  Lerna'an  hydra, 
Nemcan  lion,  and  the  Kryniantlii.in  hoar  arc 
localised  in  the  I'eloponnese.  And  this  view  is 
con(irme<l  liy  the  fact  that,  whereas  the  IVlnpon- 
nesian  hero  is  named  Heracles,  the  Thehati  hero 
was  known  as  AlcaMis  ('the  stronj^  man'),  or 
Alcides  ('son  of  strenj;tli ').  and  compilers  of 
mvtlis  had  to  Jille^e  that  the  chaii;,'e  of  name  from 
Alcides,  the  less  know]i  name,  to  Hercules,  the 
hetter  known,  was  ordaincil  liy  the  Deljihian  oracle. 
Further  hack  than  this 
it  seems  impo.ssilde  to 
trace  Hercules.  There 
is  no  rea.son  to  ima- 
gine that  Hercules  was 
known  to  the  Indo 
Kuropeans  before  their 
dis]iersion  :  and  even  if 
some  of  his  a<Iventures 
(e.f;.  the  ohiest  laliour — 
that  of  fetchinjr  up  Cer- 
lierus  from  the  nether 
worlil )  are  really  solar 
in  character,  we  need 
not  close  our  eyes  to  the 
fact  that  the  strong'  man 
is  a  natural  subject  for 
myths. 

In  art,  Hercules  is  re- 
presented .'IS  the  type  of 
manly  strength,  with 
muscular  limbs,  curly 
li.air,  and  somewhat 
small  head  ;  a  club  and 
Farncsc  Hercules.  lion's     skin     are     often 

added.      The  most  not- 
able statue  is  the  so-called  Farnese  Hercules,  found 


in  the  baths  of  C'aracalhi  in  loOt),  and  now  in  the 
museum  at  Naples.  It  is  the  work  of  the  .\lhenian 
(Jlyi'on,  but  probably  a  copy  of  a  work  by  l.ysippus. 

ll«'r«'lll«'S,  l'lt.I..\I!.s  OF,  the  name  jiivcn  by 
the  ancients  to  two  rocks  llankiuK  l'"'  entrance 
to  the  .Mediterranean  at  the  Strait  of  (Gibraltar. 
Accordinj;  to  one  vci'sion  of  the  le^'cnd,  they  liiul 
once  been  united,  but  Hi'rcules  tore  them  ;v-under 
to  admit  the  ocean  into  the  Mediterranean  ;  another 
version  represents  him  an  causin};  them  to  unite 
temporarily  in  order  to  fonu  a  briil'.'e.  They  seem 
to  have  been  lirst  visiteil  by  the  I'honiciaus  abrmt 
IKK)  H.r.  (.'aipe,  one  of  them,  is  now  identilieil 
with  (iibraltar,  ami  .\byla.  the  other,  with  ("euta. 

Ilor«"lllos  Bf'flU'  (/'//""*■''■■«  lirrrii/rs),  a 
j.'ij:anlic  lamellii-orn  beetle  from  trojiical  America, 
sometimes  (i  inches  in  len^'tli.  The  nuile  beam  on 
the  thorax  an  enormous  horn,  which  is  met  by  a 
shorter  upturned  horn  from  the  head,  the  whole 
resembling,'  a  pair  of  larjie  but  somewhat  uner|ual 
pincers,   of   which    the   body  of   the  insect  is  the 


-^•-^^ 


^•■ 


-v-.'^ 


Hcrnilcs  Coctle  (Vi/nailes  hcrculei). 

handle.  The  female  i.«  without  lionis,  and  decidedly 
smaller.  Another  sjiecies,  /'.  Iitii/i(.i,  about  "2  inches 
in  lenyth,  occurs  in  the  I'nited  States.  The  jicnus 
Mef;as(una  is  nearly  allieil  to  Dyniustes.  See  also 
(iipi.i.vni  Hkkti.k. 

llcrnilos'  Club  is  the  trivial  name  of  a  West 
Indian  tree  [Xdiillmrijltim  riavallerciilis),  for  a 
kind  of  gourd,  and  for  a  .species  of  Aralia. 

lleroyiiiiiii  Forest  (1-at.   Ilrri-ijoia  sih-a), 

till"  jreneral  desi;.'nation  of  the  entire  wooded  nioun- 
tainran^'es  of  midille  Cermany,  from  the  Uhine 
to  the  Carjiathian  .Mountains.  DilVerent  ancient 
writers  apjily  the  nauje  sometimes  to  one  of  the 
constituent  ranj;es,  sometimes  to  another.  Moilern 
•;eo^raphers,  and  more  particularly  geologists, 
ajijily  the  term  Ilercynian  system  to  all  the  moun- 
tuinchains  between  Westphalia  and  Moravia. 
These  have  for  the  most  jiart  a  northwest  to 
south-east  strike,  and  are  all  older  than  the  close 
of  the  Cretaceims  perioil. 

Ilerdor,  .Ioii.\SN  (hiTTFUIKD,  one  of  the  most 
thoughtful  and  suggestive  of  German  writers, 
called  by  De  Quincey  the  Coleridge  of  Germany, 
ecpially  imjiortant  as  a  philosopher,  a  theologian, 
anil  a  literaiy  critic,  was  born  at  Molirungcn.  in 
Fast  rru.ssia"  on  2")tli  Angu.st  1744.  Hi'  .-ludied 
.it  Kiinigsberg,  and  there  became  aci|U.iiiiled  with 
Kant  and  Hamaun,  the  '  .Magus  of  the  North.' 
The  latter  inspired  young  Herder  with  love  for 
the  poetry  of  primitive  ]ieoples  and  the  study  of 
the  ob.scure  beginnings  of  civilisation,  and  for 
the  literature  and  lore  of  the  Orient,  especially 
of  the  Hible.  But  perhaps  the  greatest  thing 
that  Haniann  did  for  Herder  was  to  awaken  him 
to  intellectual  freedom,  to  emancipate  his  mind 
from  traditional  habits  of  thinking  and  stimulate 
him  to  jirosecute  lines  of  independent  search. 
In  1764  Herder  became  assistant-teacher  in  a 
school,  and  as,sistant-pastor  in  certain  churches, 
in  Kiga.  Being  convinced  that  literature  was  to 
be  his  life's  calling,  lie  began  to  practise  it  by  writ- 
ing Fragmciite  iibcr  die  iicucre  dcntsche  Litcralur 


HERDER 


HEREDITY 


675 


(1706-67),  Die  h-ifischcn  WulJer  (1769),  and 
minor  (lieces,  in  wliicli  he  maintained  that  the 
truest  poetry  is  the  poetry  of  tlie  jieople,  tlie  spon- 
taneons,  nnarlilirial  expression  of  the  cliaracter- 
istic  Iniinan  nature  tliat  is  in  tliem  ;  and,  in  the 
spirit  of  Winckelmann  ami  Lossing,  lie  tooVc  u))  a 
brief  for  the  idiosyncratic  (k^vclo|>nii>nt  of  national 
;;enins  in  opposition  to  the  fashionalih;  pseudo- 
classicism  of  tlie  day.  He  was  an  impressive 
preacher,  tlie  suliject  of  his  sermons,  as  of  all  his 
writing's,  being  man  qua  man  in  all  phases  of  his 
essential  and  complex  nature.  Leaving  Riga  in 
1769,  he  spent  some  months  in  travel.  It  ^vas 
during  this  tour  tliat  he  made  the  acnnaintance 
of  young  (loethe  at  Strasburg;  froiu  Herder  the 
future  literary  imperator  of  ticrmany  learned  to 
understand  the  realities  of  life.  In  1770  Herder 
accepted  the  appointment  of  court-preacher  at 
liiickeburg ;  but  six  years  later  he  exchanged 
this  uncongenial  post  for  that  of  first  preacher 
in  the  town  church  of  Weimar,  a  position  which, 
partly  owing  to  untoward  circumstances,  partly — 
and  perhaps  principally — to  his  own  innate  irrita- 
bility of  temper,  proved  to  lie  little  less  uncon- 
genial, in  spite  of  liis  intercourse  with  (Joetlie  and 
the  other  literary  celebiities  then  gathered  in 
Weimar.  It  was  there  that  Herder  died  on  18th 
December  180.S. 

Herder's  love  for  the  songs  of  the  people,  for 
human  nature  unadulterated,  for  simple  truth 
warm  with  the  lilood  of  life's  reality,  in  preference 
to  classic  gr,ace  and  coldness,  and  the  beautiful 
but  artificial  poetry  of  cultureil  minds,  found 
expression  in  an  admirable  collection  of  folk- 
songs, Stiinincn  iIkv  Volker  in  Lialcni  (1778-79), 
in  ids  favourite  book,  Voni  Geiste  clcr  Ilcbriiiac/icn 
Poesic  (1782-8.3;  Eng.  trans,  by  James  Marsh, 
18.'13),  Uebcr  die  M'irAiiiif/  tier  J)i<-lill;iinxt  iiiif  die 
fatten  dcr  Volker  (1778),  in  a  series  of  oriental 
mythological  tales,  in  parables,  and  legends,  in 
his  version  of  the  Cid  (180.5),  and  other  works. 
The  principal  constructive  idea  of  his  thinking 
wa-",  however,  what  we  should  now  i-all  the  sense 
of  the  supreme  importance  of  the  historical  method. 
The  stimulus  of  this  thought  is  iliscernible 
not  only  in  the  works  quoted  above,  but  in 
such  hooks  as  Uebcr  den  Ursprung  dcr  Sprachc 
(177'i),  Die  ciltcste  Urkiitule  des  Mcnschciigc- 
sehlcehts  (177-1-76),  and  especially  in  his  greatest 
masterpiece,  Ideeii  zur  (lenchichtc  dcr  Mcnsrhlicit 
(1784-91:  Eng.  trans,  by  T.  Churchill,  ISOO), 
which,  like  so  many  of  his  other  books,  was  left 
uncoiii]iU>ti"il.  This  work  is  not  only  the  ripest 
product  of  his  thinking ;  it  is,  as  it  were,  the 
ca]iital  of  his  intellectual  kingdom,  in  which  are 
gathered  all  the  wealth  and  beauty  and  power  of 
his  mind.  Besides  its  great  intrinsic  value,  the 
l>ocd<  is  reiu.ark.'ibh'  for  its  auticip.ttions  .and  adum- 
brations of  ev(dutionarv  theories.  Herder  shows 
that  higher  and  higher  types  of  organis.ation  arc 
observable  in  all  things,  stones,  plants,  and 
animals,  until  the  culminating  type  is  reached  in 
man  ;  and,  as  the  scale  is  a.scended,  a  closer  and 
closer  resembl.ance  to  the  culminating  type  is 
revealed  both  in  organL^ation  and  in  the  develop- 
ment of  powers  and  instincts.  Moreover,  the  more 
comidex  the  organisation  of  a  being  the  greater 
the  extent  to  which  that  organisation  jiartakes 
of  the  forms  existent  in  the  lower  grailes.  But 
he  does  not  vit.alLse  the  .scheme  of  the  nnivei"se 
by  the  conception  of  genetic  development,  or  the 
iloctrine  of  organic  descent.  He  does,  however, 
recognise,  in  a  more  or  less  imperfect  way,  the 
struggle  for  existence  and  .adaptation  to  environ- 
ment. The  end  for  which  all  things  exist  that 
do  exist  is,  he  teaches,  m.an,  the  crowning 
work  of  the  universe.  But  man  is  not  merely 
the   crowning  work  of   the   universe ;   he   is  also. 


by  analogy  of  reasoning  fioni  the  laws  of  nature, 
the  fii'st  and  rudest  link  in  a  still  higher  series  of 
existences,  ami  what  he  has  in  common  with  them 
is  his  pure  humanity,  his  intelligent,  .sensitive,  ami 
spiritual  powei-s.  Hence  the  life-business  of  man, 
liie  loftiest  aim  of  jihilo-soiihy  and  religion,  is  to 
cultivate  these.  Henler  is  one  of  the  few  ,anthoi-s 
wlio  appreciate  the  poetry  in  philosophy  and  the 
higher  synthesis  of  botii  with  religion  ;  yet  he  can 
scarcely  be  called  a  great  writer.  His  last  years 
were  cliielly  occujiied,  apart  from  the  Idecn,  with 
the  Humanitittslirirfe  (1793  97)  and  an  ill-advised 
polemic  against  Kant. 

His  SUmmtliche  Wake  (CO  vols.)  were  published  in 
1S27-.'10  ;  later  issues  are  Suplian's  (32  vols.  1877- H7  i  and 
his  edition  ( with  Redlich  )  of  the  '  selected  Wf»rks '  ( 0  vols. 
18,S4  aq.).  8ce  Erinnernivjen^  by  Herder's  widow  ( 1.S30) ; 
the  Le/jf'uisbilfl,  by  his  son  Emil  ( 1846-47 ) :  ami  collections 
of  his  Letters.  The  standard  Life  is  Hayiu's  (2  vols. 
18-S()-8.5);  but  see  shorter  lives  by  Kuhiiemann  (^Innicli. 
1894),  Jorel  (Paris,  1875),  and  Nevinson  (London,  1.SS4). 

Herd,  David  (1732-1810),  born  a  Kincardine- 
shire farmer's  son,  spent  his  life  as  an  Edinburgh 
clerk  and  in  literary  work,  being  remembered  for 
his  cidlection  of  Ancient  Scottish  Soncfs,  Heroic 
Bedlads,  &c.  (2  vols.  1776;  reprinted  1869). 

n^ri'dia,  Jose  Mari.v  de,  French  poet,  born 
in  Cuba  of  a  wealthy  house  22d  November  1842, 
came  in  boyhood  to  France,  where  he  was 
educated,  and  where  with  short  intervals  he 
subsequently  lived.  He  printed  occasional  poems, 
sonnets,  iSc.  for  ]irivate  circulation,  and  tliough  a 
Spaniard  born,  he  gradually  came  to  be  reckoned 
one  of  the  most  gifted  and  accomplished  of  French 
poets.  A  collection,  Lc.i  Troph(c.s,  published  in 
1894,  deal  largely  with  the  Conquistadoies.  He 
was  admitted  to  llie  Academic  in  1895. 

Heredity,  the  org.anic  relation  between  gen- 
erations— especially  between  parents  and  ofl'spring. 
All  offspring  produced  by  sexual  reinoduc- 
tiou,  from  a  male  and  a  female  oiganiMii,  owe 
half  of  their  esseuti.al  (nuclear)  material  to  each 
parent.  Therefore  through  successi\e  generations 
there  persists  a  constancy  of  likeness  or  stability  of 
type,  as  expressed  in  the  familiar  saying  that  ■  like 
begets  like.'  Besides  this  general  resemblance 
between  offspring  and  parent,  there  is  frequently 
a  reappearance  of  minute  features,  idiosyncrasies, 
and  |ieculiar  traits ;  yet  this  is  not  inconsistent 
with  the  occurrence  of  variations,  which  are  in  ji.art 
due  to  the  twofold  origin  of  the  off^juing,  and  fmce 
us  to  modify  the  familiar  saying  into  '  like  tends  to 
beget  like.'  In  many  cases,  moreover,  the  offspring 
exhibits  not  only  parental,  but  gi-and- parental  or 
ancestral  characteristics,  which  when  very  jiro- 
nonnced  or  remote  are  called  'Atavisms'  (q.v.)  or 
'reversions.'  Nor  is  the  inheritance  confined  to 
normal  characters,  for  diseased,  pathological,  or 
abnormal  conditions  of  parents  <u-  grand  p.arcnts 
often  rrrippeeir  in  the  offspring,  though  this  re- 
appearance is  not  always  due  to  transtnission. 
Characteristics  acquired  by  the  parents,  not  as  out- 
crops of  their  innate  constitution,  but  a-s  the  results 
of  use  and  disuse,  or  as  dints  from  the  environment, 
often  retippcfir,  though  there  is  lack  of  evide!;ce 
that  they  are  transmitted.  Finally,  throughout 
successive  generations,  there  is  a  tendency  to  sus- 
tain the  specific  averjige,  by  the  continued  approxi- 
mation of^  exceptional  forms  tow.ards  the  mean  of 
the  species. 

Dcnieds. — While  a  few  have  been  so  misguided  by 
prejudice  as  to  maint.ain  that  there  wa.s  no  trans- 
mission at  all.  ami  while  a  few  have  exaggerated 
lieyond  all  credence  the  undeniable  tendency  of 
similar  work  and  surroundings  to  make  olVsiiring 
like  their  parents,  there  is  no  sceidicism  of  any 
importance   except   that   which  denies   the   tran.s- 


676 


HEREDITY 


niLssinii  of  iiidiviiliinlly  acquireil  characters.  Be  it 
clearly  iimU'rsliHMl  lluil  'iiiilunil  iiilioritance'  is  ii 
certain  fait  ;  iiiii:itc,  (■iinsutiitiiiiiiil,  ci)iij;i'nital,  or 
j^eriiiiiial  ijualitios.  ami  tlit'  results  of  those  in  thr 
parents,  are  certainly  transinissihle  to  the  otl's|irin^' ; 
the  (lispiiteil  prohlein,  whioli  awaits  experimental 
evidence,  is  to  what  ilejjree,  if  any,  extrinsic,  fiinc 
tional,  or  environmental  moililications  accpiireil  hy 
tlie  iiarents  can  he  haniled  on  as  a  le^'aoy  for  f^ood 
or  ill  to  the  oll'sprin^'.  That  such  acipiisitions  often 
recur  is  induliitahle,  hut  it  is  not  at  present  certain 
that  they  recur  hccause  they  have  hei-n  transmilti'cl. 
They  may  of  eoui-se  he  the  result  of  the  action  on 
the  oll'sprin^'  of  the  same  conditions  as  first  evoked 
them  in  the  parents. 

Problems. —In  re^rard  to  the  relation  l>etween 
parents  and  otrsi)rinL',  there  are  three  great  pro 
olems  to  he  discnssetV.  What  is  the  jieculiarity  of 
the  },'ermcell.s  which  enal)les  them  (in  most  Ciuses 
after  uniting  fis  mah'  and  female  elements)  to 
develop  into  organisms  essentially  like  the  jiarents? 
Granting  that  the  germ-cells  are  in  some  resjiects 
unique  when  compareil  with  the  ordinary  cells  of 
the  '  hody,'  granting  that  the  fertilised  egg  is  in  some 
sense  a  potential  organism,  how  arc  we  to  think 
of  the  mechanism  of  develoiJment  hv  which  the 
specilic  type  is  reconstructeo ';  Thirdly,  what  is 
tlie  prohahle  truth,  or  pre.sent  state  of  opinion,  in 
regard  to  the  transniis.sion  of  accjuired  as  opposeil 
to  constitutional  or  germinal  characters?  In  addi- 
tion to  these  three  great  prohlems  of  individual 
inheritance,  there  are  minor  i)nestions  in  regard 
to  atavism,  reparation  of  injuries,  and  the  like, 
detailed  jiractical  impiiries  as  to  the  inheritance  of 
di.seiV.se,  and,  widest  of  all,  tlio.se  ]irolilenis  of  social 
inheritance  which  cimcern  the  relation  hetween 
large  fraternities  of  the  human  .species  through 
successive  generations. 

Mi/stiml  Theiirim. — Theories  of  heredity,  like 
those  of  many  other  facts,  have  heen  expresse<l  in 
three  sets  of  terms— theologi<'al,  metaphysical,  and 
more  or  less  scientilic.  The  ancient  hypotheses, 
that  germs  were  pos,se.ssed  and  controlled  liy  spirits, 
gave  place  to  theories  which  iiivokeil  'principles  of 
liereility '  and  'formative  forces,' and  tliese  in  turn 
have  heen  ilisplaceil  hv  more  concrete  conclusions. 
Of  most  historical  importance  are  the  so-called 
'mystical'  (M-  'preformation  theories,' according  to 
which  the  male  or  female  germ  i-ontaineil  a  minia- 
ture model  of  the  future  organism,  and  inrleed  of 
succeeding  generations  as  well,  while  the  develoji- 
Ijient  wa-s  merely  a  gradual  unfolding  or  literal 
'evolution.'  AVe  still  helieve  of  course  that  the 
fertilised  egg  is  a  potential  organism,  and  that  it 
has  great  complexity  witliin  its  apparent  simplicity, 
hut  the  researches  of  the  founders  of  emlirycdogy 
were  enough  to  show  that  no  miniature  models 
existed,  and  that  development  Wiis  .anything  hut  the 
unfolding  of  a  hud.     See  E.Mni!Viil,i)i;v. 

Puiiijnic.ii.1. — .Many  naturalists  have  attenipteil  to 
explain  the  uniijueness  of  the  germs  or  germ  cells  hy 
regarding  them  as  concentrations  of  units  collected 
from  the  various  structures  of  the  hody.  The  hy|>o- 
thetical  process  hy  which  these  units  are  given  oM 
from  the  various  organs,  travel  to  the  seat  of  tlie 
germs,  and  are  there  accuniulate<l  to  reproduce  in 
the  einhryo  structures  like  tho.se  whence  they 
originated,  is  termed  jiangenesis.  At  such  diU'erent 
epochs  a-s  are  suggested  hy  the  names  of  Democritiis 
aniHIippocrates,  r.aracelsus  and  Ihiiron.  jiangenetic 
theories  were  advanced.  The  lii>t  clear  theory, 
however,  was  that  of  Spencer  ( 1864 ),  who  suggested 
the  existence  of  '  physiidogical  units,"  derived  from 
and  capahleof  develo])ment  into  cells,  and  supposed 
their  accumulation  in  the  reproductive  elements. 
Hut  the  hest-known  form  of  the  theory  is  Darwin's 
'provisional  hyjiothesis  of  pangenesis'  (  l.HGS), 
according  to  which  (a)  every  cell  of  the  body,  not 


too  liiglily  ditrerentialeil,  throws  off  cliaracteriKtic 
gemniules,  which  (/<)  multiply  hy  fission,  retaining 
their  peculi.irities,  and  (<•)  liecome  specially  concen- 
trated in  the  reproductive  elements,  where  (</)in 
development  they  grow  into  cells  like  those  from 
which  they  were  originally  given  oil".  Somewhat 
later  ( I87(i)  the  ingenious  Jiiger  sought  to  replace 
Darwin's  gemniules  hy  characteristic  '.scent-slutrs,' 
which  were  cidlected  from  the  hody  into  the  repro- 
ductive elements;  he  suggested,  in  other  wonls, 
what  may  he  called  chemical  pangeni'sis.  .Mean- 
while (  IST'i  )  ( Jalton  hail  1 n  led  hy  his  e\]ierinients 

on  the  transfusion  of  hlood  ami  hy  other  consider- 
ations to  the  conclusion  that  '  the  doctrine  of  jian- 
genesis,  ])ure  and  sinijile,  is  incorrect.'  While 
reaching  forward  to  something  hetter,  he  still 
allowed  a  limited  pangenesis  to  account  for  those 
ca-ses  which  suggi'st  at  lea-st  that  acipiired  charai-lei-s 
are  'faintly  heritahle. '  He  adniitti'd  that  a  cell 
■may  throw  oil"  a  few  germs  |  i.e.  gemniules)  that 
liiid  their  wa.v  into  the  ciicnlation,  and  have  therehy 
a  chance  of  occasionally  liiidiiig  their  way  to  the 
sexual  elements,  and  of  hecoming  naturalised  among 
them.'  In  1S83  Professor  W,  K.  Urooks  |iroposeu 
an  important  modification  of  Darwin's  theory, 
especially  insisting  on  the  fidlowing  three  points  : 
that  it  is  in  unwonted  and  ahnornial  conditions  that 
the  cells  of  the  hody  throw  oil'  gemniules  ;  that  the 
mule  elements  are  the  special  centres  of  their  accu- 
mulation ;  and  that  the  feiimle  cells  keep  uji  the 
general  resemhlance  hetween  oll's|)ring  and  jiarent. 
i'or  criticism  of  the  numerous  sujipositions  involved 
ill  the  various  theories  of  pangenesis,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  works  of  (lalton,  liiliot.  Brooks, 
Herdnian,  I'hirre,  De  \'ries,  and  others  (see  hihlio- 
graphy )  ;  it  is  enough  for  our  ]iurpo.se  to  notice,  in 
the  light  of  the  next  step  of  ]iiogre.ss,  the  coiii)iara- 
tive  gratuitousness  of  any  such  spechil  theories. 

Ftirt  of  Coiiliiiiiitii. — .Vs  far  hai-k  as  1849  Owen 
pointed  out  that  in  the  developing  germ  it  wa-s 
iiossihle  to  ilistingnish  hetween  those  cells  whu'li 
became  much  changeil  to  form  the  'body,'  anil 
those  which  remained  virtually  unchanged  and 
formed  the  reiuiMluclive  organs.  The  same  dLstinc- 
tion  was  emphasised  hv  Haeckel  and  hy  Kanher, 
while  Jiiger  expressed  Ids  views  very  explicitly  as 
fidlows  :  'Through  a  great  series  of  generations 
the  germinal  prolopl.asm  retains  its  specilic  pro- 
perties, dividing  in  development  into  a  i>ortion 
out  of  which  the  individual  is  built  up,  and  a 
Iiortion  which  is  reserved  to  form  the  reproductive 
material  of  the  mature  oll'spring. '  This  reserva- 
tion, by  which  the  germinal  ]irotoplasni  is  sheltered 
from  external  or  corporeal  inlluences,  and  retains 
its  sitecilic  and  emhryonic  characters  unchanged 
from  the  parent  ovum,  Jiiger  called  by  a  now  famous 

iihiase  'the  eontinuitv  of  the  germ  )irotojilasiii.' 
{rooks  (1870,  1877,  1883)  was  not  less  clear: 
'  The  ovum  gives  rise  to  the  divergent  cells  of  the 
organism,  but  also  to  cells  like  itself.  The  ovarian 
ova  of  the  oll'spring  are  these  latter  cells,  or  their 
direct  unmodilied  descendants.  The  ovarian  ova  of 
the  otrs|iring  thus  share  by  direct  inliei  itance  all  the 
luoperties  of  the  fertilised  ova.'  In  the  same  way 
(ialton  (187'2,  1875),  using  the  term  'stirp'  to  ex- 
press the  .sum  total  of  germs,  gemniules,  or  organic 
units  of  some  kind  in  the  fertilised  ovum,  main- 
tained that  a  certain  residue  is  kept  ajiart  from 
the  devclo|imcnt  of  the  body,  to  form  the  repro- 
ductive elements  of  the  otlspiing.  The  history 
must  also  include  Nussbaum,  who  likewise  called 
attention  to  the  very  early  dill'erentiation  and 
isolation  of  the  sex-elements  to  be  observed  in 
the  develoiuueiit  of  some  animals.  The  general 
notion  independently  suggested  by  the  alxive 
naturalists  is  siiiijile  enough.  At  an  early  st.age 
in  the  development  of  the  embryo  the  futiiie  re- 
productive cells  of  the  organism  are  distinguishable 


HEREDITY 


677 


from  tliose  which  are  foriiiiiif;  the  '  bofly. '  The  latter 
jlevehip  in  iiiaiiifuhl  variety,  ami  soon  lose  almost 
all  likeness  to  the  fertilised  ovum.  The  former — 
the  reiirodnctive  rudiments — are  not  iniidicated  in 
the  uji-huildintr  of  the  'body,'  remain  virtually 
unchanj;eil,  and  continue  the  |irot(i|>hisiiiic  tradi- 
tion unaltered  so  as  to  start  a  new  iir;,'anism  on 
the  same  lines— i.e.  with  the  same  jii-otoiilasmic 
material.  It  is  evi<lent  that  a  fertilised  egj,'-cell 
with  certain  characters,  a,  b,  c,  will  develop  into 
an  or^'anism  in  which  these  characters  «,  6,  c 
are  variously  expressed  ;  Init  if  at  an  early  stage 


Fig.  1. 

I,  ori;;ili.tl  ovum  ;  ABC,  body  of  organism  to  which  it  gives  rise  ; 

o,  ehiiin  of  ovarian  ova  with  properties  a,  b,  c  retained  ;   I', 

liberated  ovum  of  next  genei'ation,  virtually  equivalent  to  I. 

certain  cells  are  set  apart,  retaining  the  characters 
(I,  I),  c  in  all  their  entirety,  then  these  will  be 
on  the  same  footing  as  the  original  fertilised 
egg-cell,  able  like  it  to  give  rise  to  an  organism, 
and  necessarily  to  a  similar  organism.  This  e.\- 
planation  of  heredity  is  at  once  .so  simple  and  so 
satisfactory  that  it  Ijecomes  a  most  important 
<|uestion  to  determine  how  far  the  above  facts  are 
actually  true  among  plants  and  animals.  The 
answer  is  that  tliey  are  as  yet  demonstrable  only 
in  a  minority  of  cases.  Thus,  it  is  true  that  an 
early  appearance  or  insulation  of  reproductive 
cells,  materially  continuous  and  presumaldy  iden- 
tical with  the  ovum  itself,  has  been  observed  in 
some  worm-types  (leeches,  Sagitta,  thread-worms, 
I'olyzoa),  in  some  Arthro])ods  (e.g.  Moina  among 
Crustaceans,  Cbinmomus  among  Insects,  I'halan- 
gid:i'  among  .\rachnids),  and  with  less  distinctness 
in  a  number  of  *)ther  organisms.  But  it  must  be 
4listinctly  allowed  tliat  in  muU  cases  it  is  only  after 
<levelopment  has  progressed  for  some  time  that  the 
future  reproductive  cells  make  their  distinct  ajipear- 
ance.  Therefore,  if  distinct  cellular  continuity  be 
only  demonstrable  in  a  nunoiity,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  modify  the  gencialisation.  The  rei|uired 
modilication  is  d\ie  to  Weismann,  whose  theory 
must  be  briefly  stated.  ( 1 )  A  small  portion  of  the 
etl'ective  substance  of  the  fertilised  egg-cell  remains 
unchanged  during  the  development,  and  serves  as 
a  founilaliou  from  which  the  germ-cells  of  the  new 
organism  are  produced.  (2)  This  important  sub- 
stani'C — the  'germ-plasma' — which  keeps  up  con- 
tinuity from  one  generation  to  another,  is  part  of 
the  nucleus,  possesses  an  exceedingly  complex 
minute  structure,  but  has  great  stability,  for  it 
absorlis  nourishment  and  grows  enormously  with- 
out the  least  change  in  its  molecular  constitution. 
(3)  I>ut  while  part  of  this  special  nuclear  substance 
or  germ-plasma  of  the  egg-cell  is  reserved  unchanged 
for  the  formation  of  the  germ-cells  of  the  resulting 
oiganism,  [lart  of  it  is  changed  into  the  nuclei  of 
the  oi'dinarv  body-cells,  where,  however,  it  some- 
times retains  enough  of  its  original  elliciency  to  be 
aide  to  repair  serious  injuries  or  start  the  ilevelop- 
ment  of  a  new  organism  in  <ise.ni(il  reiiroduclion. 
Weismann  has  given  a  moi'C  comid.'te  exjiression  lo 
the  fact  of  the  continuity  of  generations  than  has 
hitherto  been  proposed,  but  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  there  is  much  that  is  entirely  hypothetical 
aliout  the  'germ- plasma'  and  its  history.  For 
thorough  exposition,  reference  must  be  nuule  to  his 


translated  papers,  and  for  detailed  criticism  to 
works  cited  in  the  bililiography. 

We  may  further  notice  an  imimrtant  work  by  H. 
de  Vries  ( 1889),  which  .seeks  to  combine  the  fact  of 
continuity  with  part  of  the  theory  of  pangenesis. 
He  maintains  that  every  characteristic  of  the 
(Mganisni  is  rei)resented  by  a  special  '  i)angene,' 
and  that  the  germ-cells  contain  samples  of  all. 
This  pangenetic  accumulation  in  the  germ-cells 
is  not,  however,  the  result  of  contributions  travel- 
ling fiom  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  but  is 
the  result  of  a  delinite,  more  or  less  direct 
continuity  between  the  germ-cells  and  the  fertilised 
ovum  which  started  the  organism  to  which  they 
belong. 

Theories  of  CuntiniiHy. — It  can  lianlly  be  doubted 
that  in  the  more  or  less  direct  continuity  between 
the  .successive  sets  of  reproductive  jiroducts  lies  the 
solution  of  the  main  problem  of  heredity.  The 
germ-cells  which  give  rise  to  oll'spring  are  unique 
in  their  continuity  with  those  wliich  gave  rise  to 
the  parents  and  it  is  this  continnily  or  the  involved 
sameness  of  material  which  explains  the  production 
of  like  by  like  In  the  simplest  animals  or  Proto- 
zoa, organism  A  buds  and  hands  on  a  fraction  of 
its  living  matter  to  Ai,  which,  being  so  really  jiart 
and  parcel  of  A,  must  grow  up  into  a  similar 
adult  Protozoon.  With  higher  aninuvls  the  same 
holds  true,  though  the  continuity,  as  expres.sed  in 


Fiy.  2. — Tlie  Kelatiou  between  Reproductive  Cells  and 
the  Body : 
The  continuous  chain  of  dotted  cells  at  first  represents  a  suc- 
cession of  Protozoa ;  further  on,  it  represents  the  ova  from 
which  the  '  bodies  '  (undotted  )  are  produced.  At  each  gener- 
atii:>n  a  spermatozoon  fertilising  the  liberated  ovum  i.s  ahso 
indicated. 

the  figure,  is  less  direct.  At  various  levels  of 
analysis  suggestions  have  been  made  which  attempt 
to  render  the  fact  of  continuity  more  luminou.s. 
Thus,  Professor  Hering  and  Samuel  Butler  sug- 
gested about  the  same  time  a  jisychical  aspect  of 
hereditary  continuity,  according  to  which  memory 
is  regarded  as  a  general  function  of  organised 
matter,  and  the  reproduction  of  parental  likeness 
as  due  to  an  unconscious  recollection  of  the  i)ast. 
Haeckel  also  emphasised  the  luminous  meta|ih<u-  of 
'organic  memory,'  but  souglit  to  ex|iress  this  in 
terms  of  molecular  motion.  The  invisible  activity 
of  the  organic  molecules  he  compares  to  a  complex 
wave-motion,  harmonious  and  persistent  from 
generation  to  generation,  though  capable  of  in- 
corporating the  results  of  fresh  exiierience  The 
periodic  wave-motion  of  the  molecules  he  de- 
scribes characteristically  as  'the  perigenesis  of 
the  plastidules.'  In  metaphorical  language,  the 
molecules  remember  uv  jiersist  in  the  rhythmic 
dance  which  they  have  learne<l.  Most  naturalists, 
however,  have  been  content  to  express  the  con- 
tinuity in  terms  of  the  cells  or  of  the  nuclei,  or  of 
yet  smaller  elements,  (ialton  aiul  .lager.  Brooks 
and  Xussbaum,  Hertwig  aiul  Herdman,  Niigeli 
and  Weismann,  and  others  have  all  contributed 
to  making  the  fact  of  continuity  more  puecise 
Hopeful  al.so  are  the  suggestions  of  Jiiger,  Bert- 
hohl,  tiautier,  and  Geddes,  which  make  towards 
a  c/ic/iiinil  expression  of  the  continuity  between 
germ  and  germ.  Within  present  limits  it  is  im- 
possible to  criticise  any  of  the  above  elaborations. 
Behind  all  the  suggestimis,  whether  of  'organic 
nuMiiory,'  '  persistent  wave-motion,"  'stable  germ- 
plasma,'    or    'constancy    of     chemical     processes,' 


678 


HKREDITY 


tlicrc  staixU  tlie  great  fact  of  tlic  real  continuity 
of  (;i'tit'ratii)iis. 

yVic  I'luhliin  »/  JliToiistnirliuH.  —  How  is  it  that 
tlie  jrcrrucoll  ilivides  anil  rediviiles  as  it  iloe»,  anil 
how  ilocs  the  ilevoloipinent  of  the  oniliryii  retain  its 
areliitertnral  CDnstamy?  I'art  of  theaiiswcr  has  ju>l 
l)een  i,'iven  :  hci'ause  the  i.'erni  is  virtually  contiMiioiis 
wilh,  anil  niaile  of  the  same  slnll'  as.  the  parenl 
};erin  ;  therefore  it  must  liehave  in  [ireeisely  similar 
fashion.  The  rest  of  the  answer  involves  ilillienlties 
whieh  eannot  fairly  he  laid  on  the  shoulders  of 
studenls  of  heredity,  hut  helonj;  to  that  niosi 
intrieate  of  proldems,  the  mechanics  of  develoli- 
nient.  Kefenin^^  to  the  article  EMBltvoLoiiV  for 
notice  of  some  of  the  pioneer  invesli^ators  of  lliis 
prohletn,  we  can  do  little  more  than  reiterate  the 
caution  of  I'rolessoi  His:  'To  think  that  "  lieied- 
ity  '  will  Ijuilil  u\>  i)r;j;anic  beinj;s  without  mechani- 
cal meaii.s  is  a  piece  of  nnseientilic  mysticism.' 
We  must  also  protest  ajjainst  the  careless  diction 
whieh  makes  'heredity'  now  into  a  'principle'  and 
n<'aln  into  a  'power,'  which  calls  it  .sometimes  a 
'law  '  and  ne.\l  time  a  'cause.' 

Iiiliiritdiirc  of  Arijiiireil  Clniriirtcrs. — Clianj;es  m' 
variations  in  an  organism  may  he  roughly  referred 
to  three  origins:  («)  they  may  he  the  results  of 
e.vlernal  or  environmental  inlluence  ;  (t>)  thev  may 
be  the  outcome  of  u.se  and  disuse,  or  of  functional 
increa.se  or  deereiuse ;  or  (c)  they  may  he  due  to 
internal,  constitutional,  or  gernjinal  conditiojis,  of 
which  one  of  tlie  most  iiii|Mirlant  is  the  mingling  of 
two  dilh'reiil  kinds  of  living  matter  in  the  fertilis- 
ation of  the  egg-cell.  It  is  granted  hy  all  that  an 
individual  plant  or  aninui.1  ma.v  e.xhihit  these  three 
kinds  of  variation — environmental,  fnnelional,  and 
organismal  ;  and  it  is  al.so  true  that  the  majority  of 
naturalists  have  till  recently  believed  that  an  indi- 
vidual gain  or  loss  from  any  of  the  above  origins 
might  be  transmitted  from  jiarent  to  ollspring. 
Now,  however,  there  Ls  a  widespread  scepticism  as 
to  the  inheritance  or  transmission  of  any  but 
organismal,  congenital,  or  germinal  variations. 
This  scepticism,  mainly  emphasised  by  Weismann, 
and  now  jprevalent  among  naturalists,  is  by  no 
means  novel.  The  editor,  whoever  he  w;is,  of 
Aristotle's  //i.sforiti  Aninntlhtin  seems  to  have 
iliM'ered  from  his  master  as  to  the  iidierit;ince  of 
injuries  and  the  like.  Kant  al.so  maintained  the 
non-inheritance  of  e.\triiisic  variations,  and  lilumen- 
bacli  cautiously  inclines  to  the  same  negative  posi- 
tion. In  more  recent  times.  His  e.\pre.s.sed  a  strong 
conviction  against  the  inheritance  of  aci|ulred  char- 
acters, and  I'lliiger  is  also  among  the  scejitics.  .V 
few  sentences  fiom  ( lalton  ( IHT.") ),  whose  far  sighted- 
ne.ss  Invs  been  iiisiillicieiitly  .ickimwleilged,  may  be 

3 noted.  The  inheritance  of  characters  acquired 
uring  the  lifetime  of  the  parents  'includes  nnicli 
question.able  evidence,  usually  dillicult  of  verilica- 
tion.  We  might  almost  reserve  our  belief  that  the 
structural  cells  can  react  on  the  sexual  elements  at 
all,  and  we  may  be  confident  that  at  the  most  llu'v 
do  so  in  a  very  faint  degree— in  other  words,  that 
acquired  modilications  are  barely,  if  at  all,  inherilcil 
in  the  correct  seirse  of  that  word.'  Weismann, 
however,  has  brought  the  discussion  to  a  cliina.\. 
He  goes  even  further  than  Galton  in  .scepticism  lus 
to  the  iidieritance  of  acquired  characters,  for  he 
denies  that  any  such  tiaiismission  occurs.  This 
denial  is  in  part  juslilied  by  the  absence  of  experi- 
mental evidence  to  the  contrary,  but  it  is  also 
suggested  by  Weismann's  theory  of  continuity. 
For  if  a  portion  of  the  germ-plasma  of  a  fertilised 
ovum  is  ])re.serveil  unchanged  during  develo]pment 
to  form  the  rudiments  of  the  reproductive  cells  of 
the  new  oigauism,  :ind  if  the  germ  plasma  is  as 
stable  as  Weismann  makes  out,  then  there  is  Ji 
strong  iirohability  that  no  variations  produced  in 
the   bodv  h\'  use  or  disuse  or  liv  outside  iutluences 


can  l>e  transmitted.  l'"or  they  could  only  be  trans- 
initted  by  all'ecling  the  germ-cells,  ami  this  is  a 
iiossibility  which  Weismann  denies.  He  makes, 
nowe\cr,  two  admissions:  (i()tlial  the  germ  plasma 
may  be  slightly  modilied  by  changes  of  nutrition 
ami  growth  in  the  body,  anil  (A)  that  external  con 
ditions  siu'h  as  climate  may  inlluence  the  gernrcells 
(i/diii/  iril/i,  thiiiigh  not  exactly  tliruinili,  the  boily- 
cell.s.  These  admissions  are  of  course  dilterent  from 
the  once  prevalent  opinion  that  changes  in  the  body 
were  aide  to  allect  the  germ  cells,  and  thus  liecome 
tiansmi.ssible,  though  it  may  be  i|in'stiipned  whether 
the  two  saving  clauses  which  Weismann  allows  are 
not  sullicient  to  damage  seriously  the  stringency  of 
the  conclusion  on  which  he  insists  throughout — that 
no  aiiiuired  ch.iracters  are  transmissible. 

If  tnis  conclusion  be  true,  then  the  inllnenccs  of 
functiiin  and  environment  on  the  body  of  an  organ- 
ism affect  the  itiiliviiluul  oiih),  not  the  spix'ies. 
They  iiave  therefore  no  evolutioimry  value  ;  the 
source  of  variation  and  the  origin  of  adaptations 
nnist  be  sought  clsewheie.  To  Weisnuinn  the  sole 
source  of  evolution.-iry  change  is  the  intermingling 
of  germ  plasm.i  which  occurs  in  fertilisiitinn,  .iiid 
the  condition  of  progress  is  found  in  the  actiun  of 
natural  selection  on  the  germinal  variations  M'liich 
thus  arise.  There  are,  however,  evolutionists  who 
regard  species  ;is  the  nece.s.siiry  result.i  of  persistent 
variation  in  some  delinite  diiection,  'according  to 
the  laws  of  organic  growth,'  'according  to  the  con- 
ditions of  protoplasiiiic  ch.'iijge,'  'according  Ici  the 
oiiposition  between  nutrition  and  repiodnction,'  and 
so  on.  Those  w  ho  take  this  view,  even  if  they  admit 
Weismann's  conclusion  about  acquired  charailei-s, 
will  m)l  lind  it  neces.sary  to  lay  the  entire  burden 
of  ]irogri'ss  on  the  shoulders  of  natural  selection. 

As  Weismann's  conclusion  lluit  aci|iiiied  char- 
acters are  not  transmitted  is  one  of  vast  importance 
both  theoretically  ■•uid  piaclically,  it  is  necessary  to 
notice  some  of  the  counter  arguments,  (n)  There 
are  very  numerous  cii.ses  on  record  w  here  the  ell'ects 
of  mutilation  ;ire  said  to  be  iidieritcd,  but  it  must 
frankly  be  iillowed  that  no  case  is  known  w  liicli  is 
not  open  to  set ious  iibjection.  Circumcision  has 
a  very  ancient  origin,  but  its  ellecls  on  the  Jewish 
race  are  imperceiililile  ;  while  the  same  is  true  of 
mutilations  iidhcted  for  many  generations  on 
domesticated  animals.  And  even  the  numerous 
c.uses  of  tailless  kittens  produced  from  artilicially 
curtailed  cats  have  little  cogency  in  face  of  the  fact 


that    tailless   sports    nuiy    also   arise   from   normal 
parents.       (//)  \'arious   pathologists    have    Iprought 
piieared  to  them  to  be 


parents.  (//)  \  arious  palliologists  Iiave  Orou^ 
forward  instances  of  what  apiieared  to  them  to 
the  liansudssiipu  of  aci|uiied  disease,  but  their 
arguments,  as  in  the  case  of  \'iichow's,  have  evi- 
denced misundei'standing  as  to  Weisnninn's  real 
position.  There  is  no  doubt  that  many  malforma- 
tions and  weaknesses  appear  tliioiigli  numerous 
generations,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  such 
variations  weie  not  to  start  with  germinal.  If  so, 
Wcisiii;inn  of  course  adiuils  their  ti.uismissibilily. 
t'oliiiir-blindness  has  been  known  to  occur  in  the 
tiiales  only  of  si.x  successive  generations,  deaf- 
mutism  for  three,  finger-malformations  for  six, 
and  so  with  harelip  and  cleft-pahite,  and  with 
tendencies  to  consumption,  cancer,  gout,  rheuma- 
tism, bleeding,  iVc.  I!ul  none  of  these  prove 
the  transmission  of  ehar.aeters  aci|uireil  by  use  or 
disuse,  or  imiues.sed  by  the  action  of  sunoundings. 
(i)  Various  naturalists  have  brought  forward  what 
apjiear  to  them  to  be  examples  of  the  genuine 
transmission  of  individually  acquired  characters. 
Thus,  Detmcrand  Hollniann  among  botanists,  and 
Kiiner  aniong  zoologists,  may  be  quoted.  ICven  the 
title  of  Kimer's  recent  work,  Tlic  Oriijia  nf  SjircieH, 
on  the  Bit.sis  tif  thf  Iiihcritanvc  of  iteqiiircit  Chitruc- 
fr.rs,  areori/iiii/  to  the  Lavs  of  Onjiinie  Growth, 
shows  how  f.ar  be  is  from  giving  up  the  case.     It 


HEREDITY 


679 


must  be  confessed,  however,  that,  in  default  of  fresh 
experiments,  coi,'(;nt  evidence  to  negative  Weis- 
niann's  scepticism  is  still  awanting,  though  some 
suggestive  arguments  in  support  of  tlie  old-fashioned 
belief  in  th(^  inheritance  of  ac(|uired  characters 
are  forthcoming,  especially  perlia|is  in  connection 
witli  instinct  and  the  growth  of  intelligence.  (</) 
Another  mode  of  argument  often  adopted  against 
Weismann's  conclusion  is  to  shift  the  ground  to 
the  study  of  evolution,  and  there  to  demonstrate 
steps  of  progress  which  seem  to  many  inexjdicable 
on  Weismann's  sole  formula  of  natural  selection 
acting  on  variations  produced  by  the  intermingling 
of  male  and  female  germ-]dasmas  in  fertilisation. 
(c)  Finally,  it  may  be  urgecl  tliat  the  unity  of  tlio 
organism,  the  connectedness  of  its  elements,  the 
common  medium  of  the  blood,  and  other  facts 
niake  it  diflicult  to  believe  that  the  germ-plasma 
can  live  on  in  the  reproiluctive  organs,  unchanged 
by  any  of  the  deep  environmental  and  functional 
variations  which  sometimes  modify  the  structure 
of  the  body.  Tho.se  who  .seek  to  maintain  the 
transmission  of  some  acquired  characters  have 
obviously  to  submit  their  cases  to  all  the  stern 
criticism  which  Weismann's  valuable  work  in- 
volves. But  if  .such  cases  be  proved,  it  need  not, 
of  course,  lead  to  any  departure  from  some  form  of 
the  doctrine  of  continuity,  on  which  Weismann 
lias  so  well  iii.--isted,  nor  to  a  return  to  the  supposi- 
tion of  travelling  '  i)angencs.'  It  does  not  att'ect 
the  theory  of  continuity  to  admit  that  decisive 
variations  produced  l)y  environment  or  fimction 
may  send  their  roots  deep  into  the  system,  pene- 
trating through  the  liody  to  the  reproductive  cells 
themselves.  Such  cases  are  confessedly  at  present 
(hibious,  but  there  is  no  «  priori  reason  why  the 
sex-cells  should  not  .share  in  the  results  of  altered 
nutriment  an<l  waste  products,  and  even  become 
saturated  or  infected  by  the  characteristic  chemical 
results  of  environmental  and  functional  variations. 
Social  Aspects. — All  the  important  biological 
conclusicms,  such  as  that  «f  germinal  continuity, 
or  the  fact  that  the  two  parents  contribute  almost 
equal  shares  to  the  starting  of  the  oH's]iring,  and 
also  the  .scepticism  about  the  tran?.missi<in  of 
acquired  characters,  have  an  obvious  human  in- 
terest. The  first  result  enables  us  to  realise  that 
the  gei-m  is  virtually  as  old  as  the  parent,  ,and  that 

f^ - — -/j\  ^^  /A 

Fig,  X 
A-A^,  tlie  bodies  of  .successive  jiencnitioiis ;  (i-a^,  the  germ-cells 
between  which  the  real  continuity  obtains. 

the  main  line  of  hereditary  connection  is  not  that 
between  parent  and  child,  but  '  that  between  the 
sets  of  (dements  out  of  \^■hicll  the  iiei-sonal  parents 
had  lieim  evolved,  ami  the  set  out  of  which  the 
jiersonal  child  was  evolved.'  'The  main  line,' 
Galton  says,  '  may  be  rudely  likened  to  the  chain 
of  a  necklace,  and  the  (lersonalities  to  pendants 
attached  to  the  links.'  To  this  fact  social  inertia 
is  largely  due,  for  the  organic  stability  secured  by 
germinal  continuity  hinders  evolution  by  leaps 
ami  bciiinds,  either  forwards  or  liacdiwards.  '  That  a 
gooil  stock  is  jM'e-emincntly  valuable  is  an  ol)vious 
truth.  The  tact  that  eacli  parent  contributes 
almost  eipially  to  the  oll'spring  emi)hasises  the 
two-sided  responsibility  of  parentage;  but  the  fact 
has  to  be  corrected  by  (Jalton's  statistical  conclu- 
sion that  the  oll'siiring  inherits  a  fourth  from  each 
parent,  and  a  sixte^-nth  from  each  grand-parent. 
Inherited  cajiital  is  thus  not  merely  dual,  but 
multiple,  like  a  mosaic,  .\gain,  if  we  believe  with 
Weismann  that  no  acquired  characters  are  in- 
herited, wo  are  saved  from  the  des]iair  which  the 
abnormal     functions     and     environments    of    our 


civilisation  are  apt  to  suggest.  But  if  the  influ- 
ences of  function  and  envinmment  do  not  readily 
become  entailed  or  ingraineil,  we  are  all  the  more 
urged  to  )iractical  action,  which  will  secure  im- 
proved conditions  of  life  for  each  successive  crop 
of  individuals. 

The  fact  that  patliological  conditions  innate  or 
congenital  in  an  organism  certainly  tend  to  be 
transmitted  suggests  that  iiopular  (jpinion  should 
be  informed  and  educated  as  to  nndesiiabiliiy  of 
parentage  on  the  part  of  abnormal  members  of  the 
community.  All  congenital  malforniatioii.i  and 
defects  due  to  germinal  faults  tend  lo  be  trans- 
mitted, and  the  list  includes  not  a  few  of  evident 
jiiaetical  importance,  such  as  poverty  of  teeth, 
abnormal  lingers,  harelip  and  cleft-jialate,  and 
defective  sense-organs.  Still  more  important,  how- 
ever, are  congenital  or  constitutional,  as  opposed 
to  acquired,  liiseases.  Certain  forms  of  insanity 
and  diseases  of  the  nervous  system  and  sense- 
organs,  deaf-mutism,  colour-blindness,  gout,  mus- 
cular weakness,  unusual  lialiility  to  certain  con- 
tagious diseases,  tendencies  to  ccmsumption,  cancer, 
and  dipsomania,  are  illustrations  from  a  long  list 
of  inheritable  diseases  or  weaknesses.  Some  dis- 
eases are  transmi.ssil)le  with  greater  probability 
than  others — i.e.  in  a  larger  percentage  of  cases; 
some  appear  to  take  a  lirnier  grip  of  the  constitu- 
tion, and  may  persist  for  m.any  generations,  while 
others  are  more  readily  counteracted  or  '  washeil 
out'  by  hygienic  regime  or  by  intercrossing  ;  some 
are  transmitted  along  tolerably  constant  lines — e.g. 
father,  daughter,  grandson — i.e.  in  alternate  sexes, 
or  father,  son,  grandson — i.e.  along  similar  sexes, 
while  others  are  quite  irregular  in  tiieir  occurrence. 
In  reference  to  lines  of  transmission,  tialton  is 
inclined  to  conclude  that  '  the  female  iiiHuence  is 
inferior  to  that  of  the  male  in  conveying  ability.' 
In  the  case  of  a  disease  like  consuinplion,  which 
decimates  our  British  population,  it  ought  to  be 
noted  that  in  about  50  per  cent,  of  cases  it  is  in- 
dividu.ally  acquired,  not  inherited  ;  that,  as  the 
disease  is  bacterial,  only  a  consumptive  tciitlcnci/ 
at  most  is  transmitted  :  tliat,  even  when  the  ])htliisis 
'  runs  ill  families,'  its  ]iidpagatioii  is  sometimes  due 
to  maternal  or  other  infection  ;  that  environmental 
conditions,  such  as  the  nature  of  the  soil,  seriously 
ati'ect  its  frequency  ;  that,  with  care  in  regard  to 
climate,  surroundings,  diet,  exercise,  &c.,  even 
children  with  a  consumptive  tendency  may  rejoin 
the  healthy  stock.  None  the  less  is  it  inadvis.-ihle 
that  consumptives  should  be  parents,  least  of  all 
along  with  other  consiim]itives.  Allowing,  again, 
for  the  undeniable  inlluences  of  early  nutrition, 
upbringing,  and  surroundings,  all  authorities  admit 
that  di]is(miania  or  its  results  tend  to  be  trans- 
mitted, often  with  the  final  consequence  of  ex- 
tiiiguishhig  the  family.  ^e1,  in  regard  to  the 
inheritance  of  |iath(dogical  conditions,  it  ought  to 
be  noticed  {a  )  that  \'ircliow  and  others  have  hinted 
.at  an  'optimism  of  iiathology,' since  some  of  the 
less  known  abnormal  variations  may  be  i\.ssociated 
with  new  beginnings  not  without  |U()iiiise  of  |>os- 
sible  utility;  (b)  that,  by  the  intercrossing  of  a 
tainteil  and  a  relatively  pure  stock,  a  recuperative 
or  counteractive  inlluence  may  act  so  as  to  produce 
comparativ(dy  healthy  oll'spring,  thus  illustiating 
what  may  lie  called  the  'forgiveness  of  nature.' 

Siiciiil  hdicrHtiiice. — The  widest  problems  of 
heredity  are  raised  when  we  substitute  •frater- 
nities' for  individuals,  or  make  the  transition  to 
social  inheritance.  I'or  lack  of  reliable  statistics, 
and  experts  capable  of  wielding  the  statistical 
method,  the  com]dex  problems  of  the  relation 
between  successive  generations  of  a  .society  have 
rarely  been  essayed.  The  most  impin'tant  iiioneering 
is  that  of  llalton,  whose  unique  papers  liave  been 
recently   summed    up  in   his   Xatiiral   Jiihcritimce 


680 


HEHKDITY 


HKKKFOKD 


(1889),  a  work  which,  in  its  emphatic  transition 

from  tlic  stuily  of  inilividiials  to  that  of  fratcinilifs, 
wi'll  ilhi^trateH  llmt  .sciunce  is  iii<li'eil  'a  Miiial 
|ih('iioiiu'iiciM.'  (laltoii  lU'iivi'il  his  ihita  from  hi» 
Wfll  known  lieiniil.t  nf  F(iiiu7i/  I'miillici,  especially 
conoernhi^;  stature,  eve-colour,  anil  artistic  powers; 
anil  his  work  hiu<  lieen  in  ^reat  part  an  application 
of  the  statistical  law  of  Kre<iuencv  of  Krror  to 
the  ahove-meutioneil  recorils.  If  we  leave  out  of 
account  the  prolilem  of  estimatiii;;  the  share  con- 
triliutcil  to  the  oH'sprinj;  liy  each  ancestor,  .inil  that 
of  iletermlnin;;  accurately  the  ile^'rees  of  near  kin- 
ship, the  ;,'rcat  prohlem  of  (ialton  s  work  relates  to 
the  luriiiiis  re;;ularity  oliscrveil  in  the  peculiarities 
of  fjreat  populations  ihirin-;  a  lon^  series  of  jiencra- 
tions.  'The  larjje  ilo  not  always  lie;;ct  the  larjje, 
nor  the  small  the  small  :  hut  yet  the  ohserveil  pro- 
]>ortion  hetweeii  the  lar^e  ami  the  small,  in  e.icli 
ile^'ree  of  si/o  ami  in  every  ipiality,  hardly  varies 
from  one  ;;eiieration  to  another.'  In  short,  .a 
si>ecilic  avera^,'e  is  sustaineil.  This  is  not  hecause 
each  iniliviilual  leaves  his  like  liehiml  him,  for  this 
is  certainly  not  the  cjuse.  It  is  rather  ihu'  to  the 
fact  of  a  re>;ular  re-jression  or  deviation  which 
hrinjjs  the  ollspriu",'  of  extraordinary  ])arcnls  in  a 
delinite  ratio  nearer  the  avera;;e  of  the  stock.  A 
few  sentences  must  he  iiuoted  to  expl.iin  this  'Law 
of  rpj,'ression  '  w  hich  ( ialton  has  estahlisheil.  '  How- 
ever paradoxical  it  may  ajipear  at  lirst  sij^ht,  it  is 
theoretically  a  necess.ary  fact,  and  one  that  is 
clearly  conlirmed  hy  ohservation,  that  the  stature  of 
the  adult  oll'sprinj;  must  on  the  whole  he  more 
mediocre  than  the  stature  of  their  parents  that  is 
to  say,  more  near  to  the  median  stature  of  the 
^jeneral  population.'  Or  a^'ain,  'each  peculiarity 
in  a  man  is  shared  hy  his  kinsmen,  hut  </»  the 
iircnif/c  in  .a  less  ile;;ree.  It  is  reduced  to  a  definite 
fractU)U  of  its  amount,  (piite  indepeudentlv  of  what 
its  amount  mi;;ht  he.  The  tract iiui  dill'ers  in 
dillerent  orders  of  kinship,  hecomin;;  siualler  a.s 
they  are  more  remote.'  Vet  it  must  not  he  sup- 
posed that  the  value  of  a  nood  stock  is  denied  or 
underestimated  hy  (ialton,  for  he  shows  how  the 
oirsi)rinf,'  of  two  ordinary  mend)eis  of  a  j,'ifteil  stock 
will  not  rejtrcss  like  the  oll'sprinj;  of  a  couple  eipial 
in  jiifts  to  tlie  former,  hut  helou;;in^'  to  ii  poor  stock, 
ahove  the  avera;.'e  of  widcli  thi-y  have  risen.  Vet 
it  is  true  that  the  fact  of  re;,'rc.ssion  tells  a;;ainst  the 
full  hereditary  tniusmlssion  of  any  si^'ual  talent. 
Children  are  not  likely  to  ditltr  from  mediocrity  so 
widely  ;is  their  parents.  'The  more  hountifully  a 
parent  is  f,'ifteil  hy  nature,  the  more  rare  will  he 
Ills  i;ooil-f<utune  if  he  he},'ets  a  son  who  is  as  richly 
endowed  ;us  himself,  and  still  more  so  if  he  has  a 
son  who  is  endowed  nmre  largely.'  The  other 
jLspect  of  the  cuse  must  not,  however,  he  over- 
looked. '  The  law,'  Galton  says,  '  is  even-handed  ; 
it  levies  an  equal  succession-tax  on  the  transmission 
of  badness  as  of  ".joudncss.  If  it  discoura^jes  the 
extrav.agant  hopes  of  a  ^rifted  parent  that  his 
children  will  inherit  all  his  powers,  it  no  less  dis- 
countenances extrav.a^'ant  fears  that  they  will 
inherit  all  his  weakness  .and  diseiuse. ' 

The  study  of  itidividual  inheritance,  as  in  Galton  s 
Hcrctliliiiii  (jfiium,  may  tend  to  ilevelop  an  aiisto- 
cratic  and  justihahle  pride  of  race  when  a  ;;ifteil 
line.a<i;e  is  demonstr.ahle  for  gener.ations,  or  it  m.ay 
tend  to  .ahsidiite  desp.air  if  the  records  of  family 
ili.seiLse  he  suhjected  to  investigation.  The  study 
of  soci,al  inheritance  is  at  once  more  democratic 
and  less  pes-simistic.  The  nation  is  a  vjist  frater 
nity,  with  an  avera^'c  towards  w  hich  the  descend- 
ants of  all  nohles  ^;radually  tend,  hut  to  which  the 
otrsprinj,'  of  the  uniier-<averaj;e  will  also  ajiproximate. 
It  seems  a  corollary  that  practical  measures  which 
heneliceutly  atl'ect  lar;.'e  numhcrs  are  more  hopeful 
than  those  which  artilicially  select  .a  few.  It  should 
be  noticed  also  that,  if  Weismaun's  sceiiticism   lie 


tlior<>ii<;lily  justified,  it  hy  no  means  lea<ls  us  to 
depreciate  the  ell'ecl  of  work  and  surroumlin^'s,  hut 
emphatically  increa-scs  the  ui'^'cucy  of  conservini; 
healthful  function  and  stimulating:  eii\  ironnienis  of 
every  kind—all  the  nuire  important  if  their  inlht- 
ences  must  needs  he  repeated  on  each  fresh  f;eMeia- 
tion.  Nor  should  one  for};et  how  much  a  plastic 
physical  and  mental  education  (alonj;  with  which 
Nl.  Guyau  includes  hypnotic  sii;.';.'csliiin )  may  do  to 
counteract  ilisaiU  antii^;eous  inherited  i|nalities,  or 
au;;ment  those  which  are  hencliiial.  I'inally,  it 
will  he  alliiwid  that  much  rci|uires  to  he  done  in 
ediicatin;;  public  <i|iiiiion,  not  onlv  to  reco;;nise  the 
results  of  the  .science  of  heredity,  hut  also  to 
admit  the  value  and  necessity  of  the  corresponding 
art  which  Mr  Galton  calls  'eugenics.' 

See  P.IOI.OOV,  EsillUYOLOGY,  EXVIIIONMENT,  EvOH'TION, 
&c.  For  hiMio;,'rapliy,  J.  Arthur  Thonistin,  *  Hi.^tnry  and 
Theory  of  llvrudity.'  /'rar.  Ituii.  Sm:  Kiliii.  ( IKM'.i'i ;  ]■:. 
Kotll,  hi'  'I  htit:fttflti  mitr  ?Vr(-r6«)ii/ ( -d  ciI.  IScrlin,  1.SS5). 
Sec  also  W.  K.  lirooks.  The  Lair  nf  Hirnlitii  ( llaitiniore, 
1883);  S.  liutlcr,  Life  and  Hill.it  ( Lonil.  1878);  C. 
Darwin,  Variittityii  intftcr  Dumtsticntinn  (Loud.  18G8); 
ti.  H.  T.  Eiiiar,  Die  Kvlgtiliuiiy  ilir  Ailin  (.Iina,  IKSS) ; 
F.  Galton,  Natural  Inh(ritaiicc  I  Lond.  lS8It ;  and  Ids 
other  works  there  noticed ) ;  E.  Hacckcl,  ^Unii'dte  Mor- 
jihiiliiiiic  (Berlin,  18<i(>>,  Die  I'niiiiiie»i.i  tlir  J'lattidule 
(Ilerlin,  1870);  W.  A.  Herdnian,  Pfiilnn.  Soe.  Lirtrpnol 
(1883);  E.  Hcring,  Daa  (''eddrhlnifti  aU  fine  a/hfciiieine 
Fnnktion  iter  orf/aiiigrfi(n  Matirie  (Vicn.  1870);  O. 
Hertwig,  Lihrhuvh  ilrr  Etitiriekhnnjf(jr»i'ltichtt  (Jena, 
1,888);  W.  His,  Umcr(  Kihiierfnrm  I  Ui|i.  187.^);  G. 
Ja;.'er,  ^tiolijpinche  Jh-iefe  ( Vit-n.  187(i ;  Ivosnios,  1877, 
1870):  ^fiUclir.  witdi.  Ztntl.  x,\vii. ;  Lihrhuch  dir  Zoo- 
linjie  (Leip.  1878);  IVosper  Lucas,  TraiU  pftihinoj/h.  el 
phimiul.  (le  ri/fii'dile  niilurtlle  (Paris,  1847;  the  first 
serious  treatise  on  heredity):  C.  Kageli,  Jifirfianiyrh- 
phji.siulott.  Thcofie  drr  AhstammuvijsUhre  (^lunich, 
18H4 ) ;  Til.  Uihnt.  L'H*'rtditi  psi/c/wtotjit/ue  ( 3d  ed.  Paris  ; 
trans.  I.<iiid,  187.'i):  H.  Sjpencer,  J'riiicij>lea  of  Hiolniiy 
(Loud.  18(ji>);  K.  Vircliow.  Dtuceudenz  mid  Paiholoijie ; 
Viichow's  Archil-,  ciii,  (188G);  H.  de  V'ries,  Intrazd- 
Ill/an-  J'aiit/eiiesiit  (Jena,  18891  ;  A.  Weisniaiui,  Papn-n  on 
Hi-reditu  ( 1882  1 889 ;  trans.  Oxf.  1 88'.l ).  For  pathological 
inheritance,  see,  conveniently,  Felkiii, '  Heredity  in  Health 
and  Disease,' //»a?M  in-^inj!  (Fdin.  1887);  II.  A.  Douglas 
Lithgow  (Loud.  ISS'.I);  M'indlo,  '  Maiforinations  and 
Heredity,'  Pmr,  Jlirniin'jham  Phil.  Site.  ( 18S8).  For 
heredity  in  relation  to  education,  see  M.  (iuyau.  A'rfu- 
catioii  el  Niri'dilt  {Varia,  1889).  For  social  iiilieritaiice, 
see  titilton's  Hcrtditant  Geniitg  and  Nalnrat  Jnhiritance, 
For  critiques  of  Weisiiiann,  ^ee  Eiiiier,  Virchow,  opp.  cil.  ; 
Spencer,  Faclnrs  nf  Onianic  i'lululimi  (1880);  M'Ken- 
ilrick,  (reiieral  PhiitioliHiij  (1888);  Vines,  Turner,  and 
Mivart  in  Nature,  vol*,  xl.  and  xli.  See  also  Wcisiuann, 
Tlie  (liriii-iilasiii,  a  Thcorii  of  Heredity  (1893),  and  the 
articles  V.vm.vTio.v,  Wkism.vnn. 

Hereford,  the  county  town  of  Hereforilshire, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  AVye,  144  miles  by  rail 
WNW.  of  London,  and  51  S.  of  Shrewshurv.  Its 
noble  cathedral  was  built  between  1079  anil  1")35, 
.and  so  e.xhihits  every  variety  of  style  from  Norman 
to  rerpendicular.  Sleasuriii;,' 34'2  feet  by  14(i  across 
the  transept,  it  has  a  central  tower  Ki.")  feet  hlL'h. 
It  sutl'ered  much  at  Wyatt's  hands  after  the  fallof 
the  western  tower  in  178(i,  but  has  been  jndiiiously 
restored  by  Cottin^diam  (1841  ,V2)  and  .Sir  (i.  G. 
Scott  ( I8.j(>-6.S).  Special  features  are  the  elaborate 
metal-work  screen,  the  shrine  of  St  Thomas  de 
t'aulilupe  ( 1282),  the  orpan  (ori^'inally  by  lienalus 
Harris),  and  the  '  Mappa  Mumli.'  or  map  of  the 
world  (c.  1314).  a  fac  simile  of  which  was  ]Miblislied 
ill  I87'2.  Hereford,  with  (iloucester and  Worcester, 
is  one  of  the  meeting' places  of  the  '  Three  <  hoir.s.' 
Other  eililice.s  are  the  Doric  shire  hall  (1817),  in 
front  of  it  a  statue  ( 1864)  of  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis  ;  the 
corn  exchange  { 18.")8),  the  episcopal  jialace  (formed 
out  of  a  Norman  h.all ),  the  colle-je  of  vicars  choral 
('■.  1474),  the  I4tli-century  <;raiiimar  school,  the 
half  timbered  'Old  House,'  the  ^■uildhall,  the 
liutchers'  guildhall,  the  (.'oningsby  Hospi;;il  ( IGIO), 


HEREFORDSHIRE 


HERESY 


681 


the  free  lilnarv  (1876),  &c.  The  NeUon  column 
(1807)  maiks  the  site  of  the  almost  ohliterateil 
castle  ;  ami  the  Wliite  Cross,  one  mile  out  on  the 
Ilav  road,  commemorates  the  Black  Death  of  1347. 
Neil  (Jwynne  ami  (larrick  were  natives.  A  larjje 
traile  is  done  in  agricultural  produce  ;  and  the  rose- 
-gardens of  Hereford  are  famous.  The  seat  of  a 
liisho|uic  from  li7(),  the  city  was  chartered  liy 
Henry  III.,  ami  returned  two  members  to  [larlia- 
ment— now  only  one — from  Edward  I.s  reign  till 
188.5.  It  has  stood  many  sieges  from  Stephen's 
time  down  to  the  Great  Ileljcllion.  Pop.  (1851) 
12,108;  (1881)  19,822;  (1891)  20,267.  See  works 
l.y  r.rittdu  (  is:?]  )  and  Havcrgal  (1869). 

II«'ror<»r<lsllirO.  an  iidaml  county  in  the  west 
of  Knglaml,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Shropshire, 
E.  by  Worcester,  S.  by  Gloucester  and  Monmonlh, 
and  W.  Iiy  South  Wales.  In  length  it  ineasures 
38  miles,  in  breadth  .S,5,  and  its  area  is  8.S.S  s(|.  m. 
Pop.  (1801)  89,191  ;  (1871)  125,370:  (1881  )  121,062: 
(1891)  115,986.  The  surface  is  mostly  hilly  with 
occasional  valleys  o|iening  into  widi'spread  [ilains, 
the  chief  hill-ranges  being  tho.se  of  the  H;ittcridl  or 
Ulaidc  .Mountains  (2631  feet)  on  the  south  western, 
andthe  M:i.lvern  Hills(  1395  )on  the  eastern  boundary 
of  the  county.  It  is  watered  by  several  streams,  the 
jirinciiKil  of  which  are  the  Teme,  and  the  Wye  with 
its  allluents  the  Lugg,  the  Arrow,  and  the  Monnow, 
alike  noted  for  their  fishing,  and  the  Wye  in  par- 
ticular for  its  picturesque  scenery.  The  climate  of 
Hcrcfoi-dsliire  varies  with  the  elevation  and  ex- 
posure, but,  as  attested  by  the  general  longevity  of 
the  iidiabitants,  is  on  the  wliole  very  healthy.  The 
soil,  which  is  for  the  most  part  a  deep,  heavy,  red 
loam,  with  a  substratum  in  many  places  of  lime- 
stone, proiluces  good  crops  of  grain,  i>rinci|)aUy 
wheat,  and  is  favour<alde  to  the  growth  of  timber. 
Hops  ar<^  largely  cultivated,  and  the  area  of  the 
orcliards  witii  which  the  county  abounds  exceeds 
27,000  acres.  Herefordshire  is  celebrated  for  its 
cattle,  and  its  horses  and  sheep  are  in  a  lesser  degree 
well  known.  Ciiler-making  is  the  principal  manu- 
facture, ami  malting  is  also  carried  on  ;  whilst 
sandstone,  limestone,  ,and  marble  have  been  largely 
(piarrieil.  The  county,  diviileil  into  11  hunilreds 
anil  258  parishes,  returns  tliree  meml>ers  to  parlia- 
ment, inie  for  each  of  its  two  divisions  (  Leominster 
and  Koss),  and  one  for  the  city  of  Hereford. 
'Plie  c(Minty  council  numbers  sixty-eight  members. 
The  i)rinciiial  towns  are  Hereford.  Eeominster, 
Koss.  and  Ledbury. 

The  historical  events  connected  with  the  county 
are  soon  told.  Its  earliest  inhabit.ants  were  the 
Silurcs,  who  for  long  withstood  an  invasion  of  the 
Ilomans,  l)ut,  Ijeing  at  last  ( about  73  A.  u. )  overcome, 
they  retired  into  the  fastnesses  of  Wales.  During 
the  so-called  Heptarchy  it  was  incorporated  with 
Mcrcia,  ainl  sulise(|uently  from  its  position  on  the 
Widsh  lioriler  was — a  jiortion  of  the  county  being 
included  in  the  debatoable  land  called  'the  .\Iarches' 
— the  scene  of  prolonged  contests  between  the  rival 
claimants.  In  793  .\.D.  Ethelbert,  king  of  the 
East  .Vngles,  was  treaclierously  murdered  at  Sutton, 
near  Hereford  ;  and  in  1-161  at  Mortimer's  Cross,  4 
miles  north-west  of  Lecmiinster,  the  decisive  battle 
took  place  lietween  the  houses  of  York  and  Lan- 
caster which  resulted  in  tlie  ilefe.at  of  the  latter 
and  the  establishment  of  Edward  IV.  on  the  throne 
of  Englaml.  Subserpiently  Herefordshire  sullered 
much  during  the  civil  broils  in  the  time  of  Charles  II. 
Of  places  of  interest  in  the  county  mention  may  be 
m.ade of  ( Xl'a's  Dyke(ii.v.);  of  Dorstone,  where  there 
is  a  large  and  curious  cnmileidi  known  as  '  Arthur's 
Stone:'  of  the  ruins  of  Clill'ord  Castle,  the  birth- 
place of  'Fair  Kosamond,'  Henry  II. 's  mistress; 
and  of  the  Hereford  Beacon  on  the  Malvern  Hills, 
on  which  is  a  camp,  the  construction  of  which 
is  ascribed  to  Caract.acus.      Robert  Devereux,  Earl 


of  Essex  (Queen  Elizabeths  favourite)  ;  Ilichard 
Whitlington,  '  thrice  Lord  Mayor  of  London  ; ' 
David  (larrick,  the  actor  ;  John  Kvile  ('The  Man 
of  Koss ' )  ;  and  Nell  (Jwynne,  tiie  favourite  of 
Charles  II.,  were  all  natives  of  Herefordshire;  and 
Mrs  Browning,  the  jioetess,  jiassed  her  chililhood 
there.  See  tlie  Qaurlcr/i/  Jicciew  for  1879,  and 
works  there  cited.  For  the  Earls  of  Hereford,  sec 
IJoHlN. 

Hei'OIK'ia,  a  town  of  Spain,  40  miles  KE.  of 
Ciudad  Ileal,  carries  on  manufactures  of  soap. 
Pop.  6000. 

Hereros.    See  D.\m.\i!.\l.vnd. 

Heresy  (Gr.  /laire.t'is)  primitively  means  a 
choice  or  r/rrtioii,  and  in  its  ap]ilication  to  religious 
belief  is  used  to  designate  as  well  the  act  of  choos- 
ing for  one's  self,  and  maintaining  opinions  contrary 
to  the  authorised  teaching  of  the  religious  com- 
munity to  which  one's  obedience  is  due,  ;is  also 
the  heterodox  opinions  thus  adoptcil  and  the  l>arty 
which  may  have  adopted  them.  In  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  (see  v.  17,  xv.  5,  xxiv.  5,  xxviii.  '22) 
the  word  seems  to  be  used  of  a  sect  or  Jiarty, 
apart  from  the  consideration  of  its  character, 
whether  good  or  bad  ;  but  in  the  Epistles  and  in 
the  early  Christian  writers  it  is  iiliufist  invariably 
used  in  a  bad  sense,  which  is  the  sense  uniformly 
accepted  in  all  subsequent  theological  literature. 
Koman  Catholic  writers,  regarding  the  authority  of 
their  own  church  as  supreme  and  linal,  apidy  the 
n.anie  of  heresy  to  any  formal  denial  of  a  iloctrine 
proposed  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Chundi  as  neces- 
sary to  be  believed.  Protestant  writers  selilom  use 
the  wonl,  except  in  relation  to  what  each  sect 
reganls  as  the  essentials  of  Christian  faith. 

Even  in  the  apostolic  times  heresies  had  arisen 
in  the  church,  and  before  the  Council  of  Nice  the 
catalogue  of  sects  had  alreaily  swelled  to  consider- 
alile  dimensions.  The  chief  early  heresies  are 
reducible  to  two  classes  :  ( 1 )  those  which  attempted 
to  associate  the  Christian  doctrines  with  .Judaism  ; 
(2)  those  which  ingrafted  Christianity  upon  the 
Gentile  religions  or  the  Gentile  philosophies. 

From  the  very  date  of  the  establishment  of 
Christianity  in  the  Koman  empire  heresy  aiiiiears 
to  lia\e  been  regarded  as  a  crime  cognisable  oy  the 
ci\  il  law  ;  and  Constantine  enacted  several  severe 
laws  for  its  repression,  which  were  continued  and 
extendeil  by  his  successors,  and  were  collected  into 
a  .single  title,  Dc  Horcticis,  in  the  Justinian  code. 
The  penalties  of  heresy  ordained  by  these  enact- 
ments are  very  severe,  extending  to  cornoral  punish- 
ment, and  even  to  death  :  and  they  all  proceed  on 
the  distinct  assumption  that  a  crime  ag.iinst  religion 
is  a  crime  against  the  state.  These  enactments  of 
the  Koman  law  were  embodied  in  the  various  codes 
of  the  European  kingdoms  ;  in  P^nglish  law  heresy 
consisted  in  bedding  opinions  contrary  to  Catholic 
faith  and  the  determination  of  Holy  Church,  liy 
common  law  the  oU'emler  was  to  be  tried  in  the 
provincial  synod  by  the  archbishop  and  his  cmincil, 
and,  after  conviction,  was  to  be  given  up  to  the 
king  to  be  dealt  with  at  his  plea-sure.  But  the 
statute  2  Hen.  IV.  chap.  15  (Dc li(vic(icocoinbuirnilu) 
empowered  the  diocesan  to  take  cognisance  of 
heresy,  and,  on  conviction,  to  hand  over  the  criminal 
directly,  and  without  waiting  for  the  king's  writ, 
to  the  sheritl'  or  other  comjietent  ollicer.  This 
statute  continued  jiractically  in  force,  with  certain 
moditications,  till  the  29  Charles  II.  chap.  9.  since 
which  time  heresy  is  left  entirely  to  the  cognisance 
of  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  "The  article  Iii..\.s- 
I'UmiY  deals  with  an  important  cognate  subject. 

In  the  case  of  clergy  of  the  Church  of  F^iglaml, 
under  a  statute  of  1571  (nowcontined  to  its  nar- 
rowest ell'ect  by  a  series  of  judgments)  any  distinct 
contradiction  of  the  Articles,  or  obvious  eviu-ion  of 


CS2 


JIKHKWARD 


HKRITABLE 


them,  sulijects  the  otlVnder  to  cleprivntiiin  of  his 
heiR'lice.  The  sui>iciiie  luithmity  is  llie  .Iiuliciiil 
ComiiiittcODf  the  I'rivyoiiuiR'il,  whicli  ((iiistnies  thr 
arlich's  ami  foniiiilaries  aciDrdiiif;  to  the  h'jral  iiik-s 
for  tlie  inlcr|ii.'latii>ii  i>f  statiiles  (see  Kcci.Esl- 
ASTKAl.  ColitTs;  ami  Ksia.AMi.  Cliriicil  OK). 
In  the  l'iesl)Vteiiaii  chmrhes  a  heietieal  iiiiiiisler  is 
Hsiiallv  tried  hy  liis  preshytery,  ami  may  he  ilepDseil 
from  the  iiiiiiis'tiy  hy  the  (leiieial  Asseiiilily. 

For  the  history  ami  literature  of  heretical  sects,  consult 
the  very  numerous  articles  in  this  work  on  the  various 
liodies  of  lieretics.  as  Ai,iiIi;enses.  Ahu.s,  EiiidnitES, 
JissENEs,  GNosries,  Mamcii.ka.ns,  .Muntaxus,  Mystics. 
I'ELAGIUs,  &c.  See  also  the  articles  Uaimi,  C'HliUfll 
HisTouv,  Dominicans.  Excommunhatiox,  lNiii:isriiox, 
Peusecltion  ;  the  standard  ecclesiastical  hi.storians ; 
Arnold's  A'ctaWi/Voii-  (IG'.VJ) ;  Hnhitn  Kilzey  lin  MilUi- 
alley  (lX-">0);  and  Hilgenfeld's  Kil:ciycschichlc  (/ta  tV- 
chrhteiituHis  (1883). 

nori'Ward.  eommonly  called  Hki:i;\y.U!1>  iiii; 
AVAKli,  w;us  an  Knglisli  yeoman  or  sipiire  who  held 
the  l.sle  of  Ely  a^'ainst'  William  the  (_()m|iieior  in 
1070-71.  When  William  had  siiceeeded  in  eneom- 
jutssiii^'  the  Kii^'lish  patriots  and  piMietratiiL),'  to 
their  eamp  of  lefii^,'!-,  llereward,  .si-oniiiij,'  to  yield, 
cut  his  wav  thron^'h  to  the  fiustnesses  of  the 
swampy  fens  nuithwards.  It  is  piohahle  that 
he  suli'se(|iiently  hecame  reconeih'd  to  William. 
He  held  propelly  in  Warwiekshire  and  proliahly 
also  in  Woreesloi'shire.  The  nohle  linea^'e  assigneil 
to  llereward  in  Charles  Kin<,'slev's  romance  of 
Jhirirnnl  the  l\'(i/.c  (IStiti)  hius  been  shown  hy 
Freeman  (SoniKiii  Cum/iic^l,  vol.  iv.)  to  he  desti- 
tute of  historic  foundation. 

Ilorford.  a  town  in  the  Prussian  pinvinee  of 
AVeslphalia.  situated  close  to  the  frontier  of  Mime- 
IJetmidd,  .■)!)  miles  SW.  of  Hanover  hy  rail.  Flax 
and  cotton  si>inninj;,  linen  weaving,  and  the  iiiaiiu- 
faclure  of  sn^.'ar  and  confections  aii^  carried  on. 
Pop.  (1875)  12,012;  (188.",)  l.J,'J02  :  (1895)21,535. 

ll«'rK«'st,  Till-;  Uki)  IUwk  ok,  the  name  usually 
};ivi-n  loa  great  manuscript,  the  chief  iei]ositoiy  <>[ 
Welsh  literature,  now  preserved  in  the  lihrary  of 
Jesus  College,  Oxford.  It  owes  its  name  to  llergest 
Court,  a  seal  of  the  Vanghans,  fm-  whom  most 
likely  it  was  ori>;iiially  compiled.  It  is  a  folio 
viduiiie  of  HtJO  vellum  leaves  written  in  ilouhle 
columns,  from  the  beginning  of  the  14th  to  the 
miildle  of  the  15th  century.  Its  eleven  judse  tales 
were  printed  by  Lady  Charlotte  tJuest,  to;,'ether 
with  the  romance  of  the  Iluiici  'J'ltlicssiii,  under  the 
name  of  JIoOiiiiM/iuii,  although  in  the  lied  IJook 
itself  that  name  is  applied  to  four  only. 

Ilcriot,  in  Knglish  law.  is  a  kind  of  line  due  to 
the  lord  oi  a  manor  on  the  death  of  a  prrson  holding 
l.-ind  ot  the  manor,  and  consists  of  the  best  beast, 
pwel,  or  idiattcl  that  belonged  to  the  deceased. 
I'he  lord  can  enforce  this  riyht  by  action,  or  seize  it 
bicvi  iiuniii.  Heriots  probably  originated  in  the 
retui-n  of  the  hoi-se  and  arms  lent  by  a  fcMidal  hinl 
to  his  tenant  :  they  are  now  seldom  jiaiil  in  respect 
of  freehold  lands, 'and  they  are  regarded  as  oiu'  of 
the  most  vexath)Us  incidents  of  copyhold  tenure. 
See  Coi'viioi.i). 

Hrriot.  Ckohok,  founder  <if  a  magnificent 
school  at  Kilinburgh,  was  a  descendant  of  the 
Heriots  of  Trabroun,  East  Lothian,  and  w.is  bom 
at  Kdinburgii  in  .lune  I5().3.  Commencing  business 
as  a  goldsmith  in  that  city  in  1.^)86,  he  was,  after 
being  eleven  years  in  business,  appointeil  goldsmith 
to  Anne  of  Denmark,  consort  of  .l.imes  VL  of  Scot- 
land, and  soon  after  to  the  king.  On  .James's  acces- 
sion, in  1(30:$,  to  the  Knglish  throne,  Heriot  went 
to  London,  where,  as  court-jeweller  ami  b.anker,  he 
amasse4l  considerable  riches.  He  died  at  London, 
Febru.ary  12,  1(124,  without  issue,  an<l  beriueathe<l 
the  residue  of  his  jiroperty,  amounting  to  £23,625, 


J,-: 


to  found  and  enilow  a  liospilal  (or  school)  in 
Kdinburgii  for  the  maintenance  and  education 
of  till'  sons  of  poor  deceaseil  or  ilecaye<l  burgesses. 
Heriots  Hospital  was  eompletid  from  a  design, 
it  is  helieveil,  by  Inigo  .Jones,  in  l(i5i).  In  1837 
an  act  of  parliament  was  procured  for  expending 
surplus  funds  which  had  aecumulatiMl  in  the  hands 
of  the  trustees  in  thf  erection  of  free  sidiools  for 
|)nor  children  (iilliuialidy  sixteen  in  all).  The 
.Vet  of  18S.">.  at  \\hi(h  lime  the  annual  revenue  of 
the  trust  amounted  to  i'2t),.")02,  reconstituted  the 
hospital  as  a  middlecla-ss  and  technical  schiiol, 
and  closed  the  free  schools  in  the  city.  The 
Heriot-Watt  ('ollej.'e  was  also  subsidised  from 
the  Heriot  fumls,  to  nrovide  for  idder  students 
thorough  scieiililic  ami  technical  instruction  at 
moderate  fees,  liesides,  there  are  valuable  bur 
saries  awarded  for  the  promotion  of  .si'condary  ami 
hi;;her  edmatioii.  Icn:ible  at  tieorge  Heriots  llos- 
pital  School,  the  Hijih  School,  the  Heriot-Watt 
College,  and  the  university.  And  a  sum  is  ex- 
jiemled  in  providing  free  education,  books,  iVc. 
for  poor  ehildrc'ii  attemliiig  public  cu'  state-aided 
schools.  The  reveiine  is  now  aliout  i'35.tKMI,  ami  it 
is  estimaleil  that  it  will  ullinialely  iiicie.-ise  to 
little  short  of  .t'.">0,000.  'Jingling  (Jeordie'  ligures 
in  Scott's  Fiiiiiiiirs  <if  Niijd.  See  lli.slori/  of 
Jhnol's  Jlos/iiUtt,  liy  W.  Steven  (new  ed.  18\j9). 

Ilorisail.  the  largest  town  of  the  Swi.ss  cantim 
of  Ai)pen/ell,  in  the  Ausser  Koden  ilivision,  stands 
2.'>49  feet  above  sea-level,  51  miles  SW.  of  St  (Jail 
by  rail.  It  is  a  thriving  se.'it  of  the  cotton  manu- 
factures.     Pop.  11,082. 

ll4M'isl:il,  or  Hi;i:sr\l.,  an  industrial  town  of 
l!elt;iMiii,  on  tlu'  Meuse,  immcdiatelv  NK.  of  Liege, 
of  which  it  is  virtually  a  suburb.  It  is  mostly  in- 
habiteil  bv  workmen,  who  find  emidoymeiit  in  the 
coal-mines  and  the  iron  and  steel  works.  Kuins 
still  exist  of  the  castle  of  Heristal,  the  birthplace 
of  Pepin,  the  mayor  of  the  ).alace  ;  ami  his  great- 
grandson  Chaileinagne  freciueiilly  lesideil  here. 
Po]).  11,918. 

lloi-itahio   :iii«l   MovsibU-.  n   Sd.tdi    law- 

phra.se  ileiiolin^  ihe  distim-lion  of  things  which 
go  to  the  heir  and  to  the  exeeutms  res)iectively. 
Movables  include  such  properly  as  passes  to  the 
executor  in  suceissioii,  or  is  ienio\able  by  the 
tenant  on  leaving;  his  farm,  or  as  comes  under  the 
operation  of  the  law  of  the  owner's  domicile  in 
bankruptcy  and  succession.  Money  and  hoiisidiold 
furniture  iiiav  be  taken  a-s  examples.  Ilerilable 
subjects  are  such  as  go  to  the  heir  in  succession, 
or  go  with  land  to  a  buyer,  and  are  regulated  by 
the  territorial  law.  The  best  examples  are  land  and 
houses.  The  gearing  of  en;;ines  and  all  iiia(diinery 
fixed  to  the  lloor  are  also  heritable.  The  dislinc- 
tioii  corresiMUids  to  a  certain  extent  to  the  jdirasc 
'Heir  and  Kxecutor'  in  Kngland. 

Hi;i!lTAHl.K  P.oNl),  in  Sc(dch  law,  is  a  jier- 
sonal  bond  for  a  sum  of  money,  w  ith  a  real  right 
of  annual  rent  jiayable  out  of  land,  and  acconi- 
paiiie(l  bv  a  convevance  of  the  lands  themselves  in 
security.'  The  usual  deed  is  now  a  bond  and  dis- 
posituiii  in  security,  corresponding  to  the  English 
Mortgage  (q. v.).  •  •     .■ 

HliHiTAin.l-:  Sl-XTIMTlE.s,  the  name  given  in  the 
law  of  Scotland  to  what  are  called  mortgages 
and  charges  on  laml  in  Eni^l.-iml.  These  were 
formerly  distinguished  into  wadset,  iiifeftmeiil  of 
annual 'rent,  heritable  b(md,  bond  and  disiiosition 
in  security,  ami  absolule  disposition  with  hack- 
bond,  and  also  reserved  burdens  on  land.  I!y  the 
eonstituthm  of  a  heritable  security  the  ihdit  secured 
becomes  a  burden  on  the  land,  entitling  the  cred- 
itor to  aopropiiate  the  rents  until  the  debt  is  jiaid. 
This  right  of  the  creditor  remains  entire  against 
the   lainl,   no  matter  into  wlio.se   hands   it  passes. 


HERITABLE    JURISDICTIONS 


HERMAPHRODITISM 


G83 


anil  witliout  affecting  oi-  being  aflected  by  the 
fcndiU  titles,  wliicli  confer  and  traiisiiiit  the  radical 
ri^'lit  to  the  land.  In  Scotland  the  iirincijial 
liciitable  security  is  now  called  the  bond  and 
disiMisitiun  in  security,  which  consists  of  an 
obli;;alii)n  to  pay  the  debt,  and  a  disposition 
to  the  creditor,  by  way  of  security  till  the  debt 
is  i)aid.  The  bond  must  lie  registered  in  the 
li('L;ister  of  Sasines  to  conijilete  the  creditor's  title, 
and  it  is  assignable  to  a  third  jiarty.  A  power  is 
always  given  to  the  creditor  to  sell  the  estate  if  the 
lirnicijial  or  interest  is  not  paid,  in  which  case  the 
creditor  must  account  for  the  surplus  after  paying 
himself  his  debt. 

Heritable  JlirisdiotioilS,  a  remiuUalde  class 
of  juiisdictioMs  lield  licreclilarily  from  the  crown  in 
IScothuid,  and  abolislied  in  174.S.  These  jurisdictions 
amounted  lo  upwards  of  a  hundred  in  nunil>er,  ami 
consisted  of  sheriHships,  stewartries,  constabularies, 
l)ut  iirincijially  of  regalities  and  bailieries,  witli  some 
offices  of  distinction.  One  of  the  more  important 
was  the  office  of  Lord  Justice-general  and  tlie 
lordship  of  Argyll  and  the  Isles,  both  belonging  to 
tlie  faULiiy  of  Argyll.  In  virtue  of  their  hereditary 
rights,  the  possessors  of  these  jurisdictions  exer- 
cised an  arbitrary  jiower  o\er  \assals  and  others 
within  the  limits  of  their  domain,  and  could 
punish  them  by  lines,  scourging,  imprisonment, 
anil  even  in  some  cases  put  tliem  to  death,  with- 
out interference  of  the  common  law.  As  re]>ug- 
nant  to  social  policy,  and  more  jiarticnlarly  with 
the  view  of  extinguishing  the  authority  of  Higli- 
laiid  chiefs  over  tiieir  clans,  these  lieritaldo  juris- 
dictions \vere  abolislied  ;  the  po.ssessors  receiving 
payment  for  the  assumed  value  of  their  rights. 
Aigyll  alone  received  £21,000  as  an  indemnity, 
and  altogether  there  was  paid  bv  government 
£l.V2,OI{7,  l"2s.  '2d.  The  abolition  ot  these  odious 
jurisdictions  being  followed  by  the  apiiointment 
of  sliiTills  on  a  proper  footing,  this  great  legislative 
act  marks  an  important  era  in  the  history  of  Scot- 
land. See  the  Duke  of  Argyll's  Scotland  as  it  was 
a}nl  as  it  is(\im). 

Heritor,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  the  owner 
of  land  in  a  parish  liable  to  jiublic  burdens.  The 
heritors,  collectively,  have  vested  in  them  the  fee 
of  the  church  and  churchyard ;  they  rejiair  the 
parisli  church  and  manse,  or  rebuild  tiiem  wliere 
iiec<'ssary,  and  before  the  Education  Act  (1872) 
elected  the  parish  schoolmaster. 

Iler'koiiier,  Hubert,  artist,  was  lunn  at 
Waal,  in  liavaria,  in  1849,  the  son  of  a  wood- 
carver  who  came  to  England  in  \S-u.  At  the  age 
of  thirteen  he  gained  a  medal  at  the  Southampton 
art  school,  and  afterwards  studied  for  a  few  months 
at  .Municli  and  South  Kensington.  lu  1S70  he 
settled  in  London,  where,  besides  painting,  he 
employed  himself  in  prejiaring  designs  for  the 
(iraji/iir.  He  has  since  exhibited  a  large  number 
of  works  in  water-colour  and  oil,  including  tignre- 
subjects  and  portraits.  His  best  jiicture  is  'The 
Last  Muster'  (187-'>),  a  picture  of  Chelsea  pen- 
sioners ill  chapel.  In  1879  he  was  elected  A.Il.A., 
and  in  IS8.")  Slade  professor  at  OxfonI,  being  re- 
elected in  1889;  he  is  also  an  lionorarv  member  of 
the  academies  of  Vienna  and  Herliii,  and  an  officer 
( 1889)  of  the  Legiim  of  Honour.  He  became  K.A.  in 
18911.  An  engraver,  wood-carver,  playwright,  and 
musician,  lie  fcnmded  an  art-school  at  IJusliey  (q.v. ). 

llerklllesbnd  (or  SUluulla),  a  Hungarian 
watering  |ilace,  20  miles  north  of  Orsova  by  rail  ; 
its  eighteen  warm  springs,  '  the  wateis  of  Hercules,' 
have  been  used  since  Uoniaii  times. 

Hernia'.    See  HiiitiiEs,  Ai.cihi.vdes. 

Ilerinaildad,  Thk  (S|i.,  'brotherhood'),  had 
its  rise  in  all  association  of  tlie  iniiieipal  cities  of 
Castile  a'_;ain>t  the  iioldes  who  in  l'_'S2,  under  I'rince 


Sancho,  rose  against  Alfonso  X.  ^^'llen  Sancho 
succeeded  to  the  throne  (1'295)  the  league  was 
more  iirmly  organised  throughout  Castile  and  Leon, 
with  the  express  object  of  resisting  the  tyranny  and 
exactions  of  the  crown-vassals  and  nobles.  I'er- 
dinand  and  Isabella,  in  order  to  curb  the  ]iower  of 
their  feudatories,  lirst  favoured  the  association  and 
ultimately  (in  1485)  gave  it  a  legal  status  under 
the  name  of  the  Hermandad.  It  now  constituted 
a  confederation  of  the  entire  burgher  cla.ss  for 
police  and  judicial  purpo.ses,  with  local  courts  and 
an  annual  meeting  of  deputies  from  all  the  cities  ; 
and  the  sovereigns,  adopting  its  members  as  a 
standing  force  to  counterbalance  the  followers  of 
the  feudal  lords,  put  themselves  at  the  head  of 
the  association,  placed  it  at  the  service  of  the  city 
magistrates,  and  employed  it  both  in  quelling  dis- 
turbances and  in  seizing  confiscated  properties. 
The  introduction  of  a  regular  standing  army  en- 
abled the  crown  to  free  itself  from  this  depend- 
ence on  the  towns ;  and  w  ith  the  decay  of  the  Her- 
mandad disappeared  the  last  \estige  of  popular 
freedom. 

Herinaiiii.    See  Arminius. 

Heriiiaiiii.  Joh.\xn  Gottfried  J.vkois,  a 
German  classical  .scholar,  was  born  at  Leipzig, 
2Sth  November  177'2.  He  studied  there  and  at 
Jena,  and  was  made  in  1798  extra-ordinary  professor 
of  Philosophy  at  Leipzig  ;  in  180.S,  ordinaiy  jiro- 
fessor  of  Eloquence  ;  and  in  additicni,  in  1809,  juo- 
fessor  of  Poetry.  He  died  as  senior  of  the  uni\er- 
sity,  31st  December  1848.  The  lirst  dep.artment 
which  he  began  to  cultivate  on  original  principles 
was  the  science  of  classical  metre,  of  which  he 
attempted  to  develop  a  philoso|iliicaI  theory,  based 
upon  the  categories  of  Kant ;  on  this  subject  he 
wrote,  besides  his  Haruibitrli  dcr  Mctril;  (1798), 
several  Latin  treatises,  amonj'  which  the  Epitoitn- 
Doctrina:  Metrifce  (1818)  reached  a  fourth  edition 
in  18fi9.  Of  wider  importance,  however,  was  the 
new  method  which  he  introduced  into  the  treatment 
of  Greek  grammar,  and  which  has  had  its  inlluence 
on  the  grammar  of  Latin  and  of  (iernian.  The 
principles  of  this  method  are  explicitly  devehqied 
in  Dc  Emcndanda  liatio)ic  Graxo:  Gratnitmtirn- 
( 1801 ),  and  are  practically  illustrated  in  his 
numerous  excellent  editions  of  the  ancient  classics. 
Hermann's  power  of  dealing  with  chnmological, 
topographical,  and  person.-J  (|Uestions  is  shown  in 
his  Ojitiscida  (8  vols.  1827-77),  which  also  contain 
some  poems  breathing  the  spirit  of  Koman  poetry. 
See  jSIcmoirs  by  Jahn  ( 1849)  and  Kiiclily  ( 1874  ). 

Ueriuaillistadt  (  Lat.  Cibinium,  Hung.  Adf///- 
S:cbcii),  a  town  of  Hungary,  formerly  capital  of 
Transylvania,  is  situated  at  the  terminus  of  a 
braiicii-line  ('28  miles  long),  370  miles  SK.  of  Pesth. 
It  consists  of  an  upper  and  a  lower  town,  the  walls, 
towers,  and  ba.stious  formerly  suiioiindiiig  which 
have  only  recently  been  demolished,  llei  niaiin>tadt 
is  the  scat  of  a  Greek  archldsliop  and  of  a  '  Saxon 
university.  The  line  Uruckenthal  palace  contains 
a  picture-gallery,  numismatic,  antiquari;in,  and 
mineral  collections,  and  a  library  of  .some  30.000 
volumes.  Tanning,  wax  bleaching,  and  the  inakin" 
of  cloth,  paper,  candles.  >iigar.  and  hats  are  can  led 
on.  Pop.  (1891)  21,4li.'>,  of  wliom  l.'i.'OOO  are  Ger- 
mans. Hermannstadt  was  originally  the  seat  of  a 
German  colony,  founded  in  the  reign  of  Gesa  II. 
( 1141-Gl ),  and  was  at  lirst  calleil  Villa  Uiriiiiiiiiii. 
It  has  euiliiied  several  sieges  from  the  Turks  ( 1438 
and  1442),  as  well  as  one  from  the  followers  of 
John  Zapolya  ( lo2t)).  It  also  snilered  at  the  liamls 
of  (iabriel  Bathori  in  ItilO,  and  again  from  both 
combatants  during  the  Russo-Huugariau  war  of 
1849. 

Herilia|>liro<Iitisill.  the  combination  of  the 
essential  male  and  female  functions  and  structures 


684 


HERMAPHRODITISM 


HER  MAS 


r.' 


in  one  oryaiiisni,  as  in  most  lloweiin);  |>liint.s,  or  in 
many  lower  iininials,  sucli  as  earllnvoriii.  leecli,  or 
snail.  Tlie  name  is  ilerive<l  from  lliu  falile  of  the 
union  into  one  of  the  bodies  of  lIerma|>liroiiitus, 
son  of  Hermes  and  Aplirodite,  anil  the  nynigili 
Salmacis  (see  Oviil's  Melmnorphoscji,  iv.  347). 
The  combination  of  two  se.xes  in  one  occurs,  how- 
ever, in  vario\is  de^rrees,  the  bisexuality  l<einx 
sometimes  very  intimate,  and  in  other  cases  only 
sniiorlicial.  («0  It  is  |irobable  that  many  animals 
— e.j;.  frog's,  which  are  unisexual  in  adult  life  -]>;i.ss 
throuj,'h  a  iieriod  of  ciiihri/onir  hermanhroditism, 
early  nutrition  having  much  to  do  witli  the  more 
or  less  complete  predominance  of  one  sex  over  the 
other.  (A)  Amon;;  lishes  an<l  amphibians  and  else- 
where, riixKiit  or  (ibiioiimtl  hermapliroditisni  is  not 
infrequent,  the  animal  having;  for  instance  an 
ovary  on  one  side  and  a  testis  on  the  other,  (r) 
In  other  cases  only  one  orjjan  is  developed,  and  one 
sex  emphatically  oredominates  in  the  or^'anism, 
not,  however,  witliout  hints  of  the  other.  This 
partitil  herniaphnxlitism  is  usually  an  excention, 
as  when  a  butterlly  has  its  win;.'s  coloured  like 
those  of  the  female  on  one  side,  like  those  of  the 
male  on  the  other.  Fro;;s  ami  toails  also  illustrate 
curious  combinations,  which  do  not,  however,  con- 
flict with  the  predominance  of  the  egf^-producing 
or  the  spermproducin;;  function  as  the  case  may 
be.  (fl)  -Vn  ai>parent,  but  in  reality  /«/.<<;  Iieriua- 
ihriKlilism  may  result  in  the  hij;her  animals  where, 
>y  malformation  or  nulimentary  develoi>ment  of 
tlie  external  reproductive  orj,'ans,  a.  mammal  in 
reality  quite  female  may  look  like  a  male,  or  vice 
versti. 

(i\  Xonti'tl  ndiilt  hcniKi/i/irodilisin,  where  eg-j;- 
producing  and  spermpnMlucing  functions  go  on 
(usually  at  dilferent  times),  is  rare  among  higher 
animals — occurring  in  Chryoplirys  and  Serranus 
among  lislies,  in  the  haglish  Myxine,  and  in  all 
the  Tunicata.  It  is,  however,  of  freiiuent  occur- 
rence in  the  invertebrate  series — among  snails, 
bivalves,  cirripedcs,  worm-types,  ctelenteratcs,  and 
sponges.  It  is  most  familiar  in  our  common 
flowering  plant.s,  which  are  often  called  mono- 
cNnoits  or  iterfrrt. 

Ilermapliroilitism  may  be  more  or  less  intimate. 
Thus,  a-s  an  entire  plant  an  Arum  is  hermaphrodite, 
with  female  llowei's  below  and  male  Howers  abo\e  ; 
but  the  hermaphroditism  is  more  intimate  in  a 
buttercup,  where  each  Hower  bears  male  and  female 
organs,  or  yet  more  intimate  in  an  orchid,  where 
stamens  and  carnels  are  united.  So  a  leech,  with 
ovaries  (piite  ilistinct  from  the  testes,  is  less 
intimately  hermaphroilite  than  a  snail,  where 
within  the  same  small  organ  both  kinds  of  sex 
elements  are  produced. 

The  male  and  female  elements,  whether  in 
])hanerogam  or  invertebrate,  are  rarely,  if  ever, 
matured  at  the  same  time.  Such  a  '  want  of  time- 
keejiing'  is  called  in  Ixjtanical  language  dicho- 
gamy, and  is  ime  of  the  conditions  which  tend  to 
prevent  selffertili.sation.  Protandnnis  dichogamy, 
where  the  stamens  take  the  leail,  is  much  com- 
moner than  protogynons  dichogamy,  where  the 
carpels  mature  first.  This  is  also  true  of  animals, 
anil  Ls  more  marked  when  the  hermaphroditism  is 
intimate,  as  in  snail  or  oyster.  The  haglish  seems 
to  l>e  predominantly  male  till  it  attains  a  certain 
size;  ami  so  in  the  curious  thread-worm  .Angio- 
stonnim  and  in  the  crustacean  Cyuiothoidie  the 
organs  are  tirst  male  ami  then  after  a  while  female. 
In  the  cirripeds  ami  Myzostoniata,  the  majority 
of  which  are  bisexual,  pigmy  or  complemental 
males  are  in  some  cases  associated  with  the  herma- 
phrodites, or  in  the  ca.se  of  the  barnacles  ( in  which 
separate  sexes  sometimes  occur )  even  with  some  of 
the  females. 

Alike  in  plants  and  in  animals,  though  hemia- 


|>hr(Hlitism  is  common,  selffertili.sation  is  rare.  It 
iloes  occur  in  not  a  few  common  flowers,  and  \n 
tai>eworms,  some  tlukes,  ami  a  few  other  aninialn, 
but  is  without  ili>ubt  excei>tional. 

IIerma|iliriKlilisni  is  commonest  in  sluggish 
animals  (e.g.  Ilat-worms,  tardigrades,  snails),  or 
in  lixed  animals  (e.g.  sjjonges,  corals,  I'olyzoa, 
bivalves,  Tunicates),  or  in  parasitic  animals  with 
a  plethora  of  nutriti<in  ami  little  exertion  (e.g. 
Ilukes,  tapeworms,  leeches,  .Mvzostomata). 

As  to  its  origin,  hermaphriHliiism  is  probaldy  the 
lower,  m<ue  primitive  comlition  from  which  that  of 
iinisexuality  has  been  in  the  majority  of  oLses 
evolved.  In  alternating  rhythms  eggs  ami  sperms 
were  produced,  gradually  the  areas  of  their  res|)ec- 
tive  formation  were  reslricteil,  by-and-by  cme 
tendency  prcdoniin.-itcd  in  the  organism,  and 
separate  males  and  females  were  established.  If 
embryonic  hermaphrodilism  be,  a.s  some  believe,  of 
general  occurrence,  then  most  organisms  recajiitu- 
late  this  evolution  of  separate  .sex  in  their  indi- 
viilual  life-history.  If  it  be  allowed  that  herma- 
phroditism was  the  j>rimitive  nmdition,  then  the 
cases  now  existing  indirale  either  persistence  or 
reversion.  See  K.MiiitVdi.ixiV,  HKrUdlniTlos, 
Sex  ;  and  Geddes  ami  Thomson,  'J'/ie  Krulutiuii  of 
Sex  (  Lond.  1HS9).  Kor  aberrant  hermaphroditism 
in  human  adults,  .see  Todd  and  Bowman's  Cyclop, 
iif  AiKit.  ttutl  Phijtiioi.^  vol.  ii. 

Herina.s.  ;is  the  author  of  the  well-known  early 
treatise  called  yVc  Sliiiilniil,  is  usually  reckoned 
one  of  the  Apostolic  I'athers  (q.v.).  The  work 
is  ([noted  as  inspired  by  Irena-us  and  Clement  of 
Alexandria.  To  the  .Montanist  Tertullian  it  is 
'that  apocry|ihal  Shepherd  of  the  adulterei-s  ; "  but 
Eusebius,  while  he  i)laces  it  in  his  list  of  spurious 
or  rejected  books,  witnesses  that  it  had  l)een  read 
publicly  in  the  churches.  Ami  indeeil  the  'com- 
mamlments'  were  read  here  and  there  in  the 
Kiustern  Church  from  the  4th  to  the  LMh  century, 
though  nowhere  with  the  honour  of  Scripture.  The 
date  ami  the  authorship  are  iMith  in  dispute.  The 
snggestitm  first  advanccil  by  Origen,  in  the  3<1 
century,  that  the  Hernias  mentioned  in  Romans 
might  be  the  author,  may  l)e  dismissed  in  company 
with  the  a.ssertion  of  ilie  Kthio].ic  scrilie  that 
Hennas  w. IS  none  other  than  St  I'anl.  The  state- 
ment of  the  writer  of  the  .Muratoiian  Fragment 
has  been  generally  accepted,  that  Hennas  was 
the  brother  of  Tins  I.,  I!isliop  of  Home  about  the 
middle  of  the  2d  century,  and  that  he  wrote 
during  his  brother's  ejiiscopate ;  but  the  form 
of  church  government  that  api)ears  in  Tin-  Slicp- 
liciil  is  against  this  tnulition,  as  perhaps  is  also 
the  jealousy  the  writer  ilisplays  of  those  who  are 
ecclesiastically  his  superiors ;  and  moreover  the 
treatise  was  alreaily  in  general  use  consiilerably 
liefore  the  end  of  the  century.  From  these  and 
other  considerations  there  has  lieeii  in  recent  years 
a  tendency  to  throw  the  date  back  to  the  beginning 
of  the  2d  century,  and  to  i<h'iitify  a  certain  Cli-ment 
who  is  mentioned  with  Clement  (q.v.)  (if  Koine. 
This  last  point  is  a  mere  a.ssumptioii,  but  in  favour 
of  the  earlier  date  is  most  of  the  intenial  evidence, 
a-s  well  as  the  fact  that  the  book  wa-s  read  in  public 
—  an  lioncmr  restricted  in  every  other  instance  to 
writings  acce|>te<l  as  those  of  the  Apostles  or  their 
immediate  dl.sciples  ;  against  it  are  the  allusions 
to  the  persecutions  suH'ered  by  the  Christians,  the 
condition  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  the  absence 
of  all  reference  to  Judaising  Christians.  Finally, 
Donaldson's  tlieory  that  the  name  Hernias  Is  ficti- 
tious, and  the  whole  work  an  allegory,  appears  to 
be  ba.sed  on  a  misconception.  The  treatise,  which 
is  divi(le(l  into  three  parts— visions,  commandments, 
and  similitudes— contains  little  of  positive  dog- 
matic teaching,  but  is  an  interesting  monument  iif 
early  Christian  thought ;  it  was  intended  primarily 


HERMENEUTICS 


HERMES 


685 


to  rebuke  the  worlflliness  that  had  come  iipoii  the 
church,  anil  to  turn  sinneis  to  reiientance. 

Latin  translations  were  in  use  before  the  end  of  the  2d 
century,  and  for  long  the  work  was  known  only  through 
a  score  of  M.S.  copies  of  one  of  these  versions.  A  second 
Latin  version  has  been  discovered,  however,  as  well  as  an 
Ethiopic  version,  found  by  D'Abbadie  in  1847,  and  edited 
by  him  with  a  Latin  translation  (Leij).  ISGO).  Of  the 
Greek  text  the  Codex  Sinaiticus  supplies  about  one-fourth, 
to  nearly  the  end  of  the  fourth  commandment ;  the  rest, 
except  about  seven  short  chapters,  is  in  the  Athos  M.S. 
Considerable  portions  are  foun  1  in  Pseudo-Athanasius 
and  Antiochus  Palajstinensis,  who  have  borrowed  exten- 
sively from  Hernias  without  acknowledgment.  In  l.S!IO 
tlje  discovery  of  a  new  Greek  codex,  conteinjiorary  with 
the  Sinaiticus,  and  containing  the  whole  of  Hennas,  was 
announced.  There  is  a  '  complete '  Greek  text  by  Hil- 
genfeld  (1888),  who  has  also  edited  the  Latin  form 
(1873);  and  a  Co/fation  of  the  Athog  Cod' x  has  bet-n 
made  by  Dr  Spyr.  P.  Lambros  {trans,  with  preface,  tVc, 
by  F.  A.  Kobinson,  Cauib.  1H88).  There  is  a  good  edition 
of  Latin  and  Greek  by  Gebhardt  and  Harnack  (1877). 
See  also  Zahn,  Dey  HiH  des  Herman  (18*>8) ;  Donaldson, 
Tke  AjMstolical  Fathers  (1874);  Salmon's  Introductton 
to  the  Niw  Tutament  {4th  ed.  1889);  and  Johns  Hopkins 
Vniversitii  Circulars,  iii.  75  and  iv,  23. 

Hermeiieiitirs.    See  Exegesis. 

Herilie.s,  on  the  testimony  of  art  and  literature 
alike,  wa.s  more  intimately  connected  with  the 
everyday  life  of  the  Greeks  than  was  any  other  of 
their  gods.  In  the  country  Ills  images  were  erected 
on  mountains,  in  caves,  by  tlie  side  of  streams,  by 
the  roadside,  where  they  served  a-s  finger-posts,  and 
on  tlie  marches,  where  they  served  to  delimit  the 
frontier.  In  towns  the  gate  by  wliich  one  entere<l 
the  city  and  tlie  door  by  which  one  entered  a  house 
were  under  the  protecti<m  of  an  image  of  this  deity. 
The  streets  of  the  city,  like  tlie  roads  of  the  country, 
were  marked  by  statues  of  Hermes  ( Lat.  Hcnitir).  ' 
Inside  the  liouse  a.s  well  as  outside  its  doore  the  I 
likeness  of  Hermes  was  to  be  found.  The  ajrora  or 
market  place  of  every  city  was  especially  under  the 
protection  of  this  deity,  and  possessed  a  statue  of 
Iiini.  The  gymnasium  and  paUestra  also  were  decor- 
ated with  likene.s.ses  of  their  patron  god  Herme-s. 
Finally,  in  the  very  grave  the  Greek  was  accoiii- 
j)anied  In'  Hermes,  the  conductor  of  souls. 

From  what  has  lieen  said  it  is  obvious  that  tlie 
functions  ascribed  to  Hermes,  the  son  of  Zeus  and 
Maia,  must  have  been  very  considerable  in  number 
and  range.  In  the  lirst  place,  he  was  reijanled 
unanimously  and  from  the  beginning  a-s  the  herald 
and  messenger  of  Zeus,  aud  in  virtue  of  this 
character  he  is  represented  in  art  with  the  herald's 
stall",  with  wings  on  his  feet  or  shoulders,  and  a 
traveller's  hat  of  felt,  low  in  the  crown  and  broad 
in  the  brim,  on  his  liead.  It  seems  natural  in  the 
next  ]dace  to  attribute  Hermes'  function  as  god 
of  the  training  ground  to  the  speed  of  foot  which 
he  as  the  herald  of  the  gods  was  cre<lited  with. 
Again,  Hermes  was  the  patron  of  thieves,  and  he 
himself,  according  to  the  '  Hymn  to  Hermes,'  com- 
menced a  thief's  career  by  stealing  the  o.xen  of 
Apollo  when  he  was  but  a  few  hours  old.  At  the 
same  early  age,  according  to  the  same  authority. 
Hermes  invented  the  lyre,  which  he  constructed 
out  of  the  shell  of  a  tortoise.  The  invention  of  the 
flute  and  the  syrinx  also  w;is  ascribed  to  this  deity. 
The  function  of  conducting  the  spirits  of  the 
departed  to  the  next  world,  and  the  clo.sely-related 
function  of  bringing  il reams  to  mortals,  probably 
were  part  of  his  duties  as  the  nie.sseiiger  of  the 
gods,  imt  are  of  .so  much  importance  that  they  need 
separate  mention.  A  function  apjiaiently  quite 
unconnected  with  any  already  mentioned  is  that  of 
securing  fertility  to  llocks  ami  herds,  and  generally 
of  preserving  health.  We  have  already  noticed 
that  roads  and  street.s  in  Greece  were  under  the 
especial  care  of  Hermes ;   we  must   then   connect 


this  fact  with  the  circumstance  that  Hermes  was 
the  patron  of  travellei's,  merchants,  and  commerce 
generally.  Finally,  Hermes  wa.s  the  god  of  unex- 
pected good-luck ;  what  we  call  a  godsend  the 
Greeks  calleil  a  Herniaion. 

As  to  the  origin  of  Hermes  comjiarative.  myth- 
ologists  are  disagreed,  though  perhaps  not  more  so 
in  his  ca.se  than  in  the  ca.se  of  other  god.s.  He  has 
been  reganled  as  the  go<l  of  fertilising  rain,  as  the 
evening  tw  ilight  or  the  light  of  dawn,  a.s  a  cloud- 
god,  a.s  a  nether-world  goil,  and  of  course  as  a  solar 
god.  It  is  objecteil  to  these  explanations  that  they 
only  account  for  some  and  not  for  all  of  his  func- 
tions. Thus,  the  fertilising  rain  woulil  explain  liLs 
function  of  causing  fertility  (were  it  not  for  the 
fact  that  it  is  the  fertility  of  flocks  and  herds  that 
Hermes  is  concerned  w  ith  ),  and  the  jilea-sant  .sound 
of  the  falling  rain  might  explain  liis  connection 
with  music.  But  the  other  functions  hnd  no  ex- 
jdanation  or  but  a  forced  one  in  this  theory.  It  has 
been  therefore  argned  (by  Koscher,  Hermes  c/er 
Whidijiitt )  that  Hermes  is  a  wind-god.  The  wind  is 
the  divine  messenger  sent  from  Zeus  ( the  sky  )  to 
man.  The  wind  sweejis  down  from  the  mountain- 
tops,  where  again  the  images  of  Hermes  vere 
placed.  The  swiftness  of  the  wind  is  indicated  by 
the  wings  on  the  heels  or  the  .shoulders  of  the  god. 
The  winds  carry  things  away,  even  as  the  thief 
Hermes.  The  wind,  like  Hemies  the  inventor  of 
the  flute  and  the  lyre,  makes  sweet  music.  Ghosts 
tliat  are  but  thin  air,  belong  to  the  domain  of  the 
air,  and  are  under  the  dominion  of  the  wind-god. 
The  gentle  zephyrs  not  only  favour  the  growth  of 
]dants,  but,  according  to  ancient  notions,  conduced 
to  the  fertility  of  Hocks  and  herds.  The  winds  also 
blow  away  foul  air  and  miasma,  and  the  wind-god  is 
therefore  pro]ierIy  the  god  of  health.  The  iliang- 
ing  wind  ha.*  ever  been  the  symbol  of  fickle  fortune 
and  unexpected  luck,  and  Hermes  is  the  god  of  un- 
expected good-fortune.  Travellers  are  esjiecially 
dependent  on  wind  and  weather,  and  hence  on 
Hermes.  Again,  various  ei)ithets  which  are  apjilied 
to  this  god  and  have  caused  much  trouble  to 
scholars  can  be  explained  on  this  theory.  Arijci- 
phonies  is  the  god  who  makes  the  sky  clear,  its 
does  the  wind.  DUikttiros  is  the  chaser.  The 
name  Hermes  itself,  or  rather  the  older  form 
Hermeicts,  corresponds  phonetically  to  the  Sanskrit 
Seiramei/ets,  and  is  derived  from  the  root  sr(r,  '  to 
hasten.'  whence  conies  the  ejiithet  Sara/ijn, 
applied  to  the  Hindu  Maruts,  gods  of  the  storm- 
wind. 

That  this  explanation  of  the  origin  and  functions 
of  Hermes  explains  everything  cannot  be  denied. 
Whether  it  is  the  right  exiil.anatiim  is  another 
matter.  Apart  from  the  fact  that  there  are  not 
many  things  for  which  an  analogy  could  not  be 
found  in  the  action  of  the  wind,  it  may  be  doubted, 
a.s  a  matter  of  general  principle,  whether  we  ought 
to  look  for  one  idea  from  which  to  deduce  all  the 
functions  of  a  god.  We  may  borrow  an  illustration 
from  conijiarative  syntax  :  no  one  wnuld  now  think 
of  trying  to  deduce  all  the  meanings  of  the  Greek 
genitive  from  one  single  central  idea.  In  the  fii-st 
place,  the  Greek  genitive  conceals  beneath  it 
several  ca.ses  (jnst  a-s  the  Greek  Heracles  conceals 
several  ilitl'erent  local  heroes),  such  as  the  ablative, 
the  instiumeiital,  &c.  :  and,  in  the  next  place,  even 
the  uses  of  the  genitive  proper  were  not  as  a  m.atter 
of  history  all  evolveil  out  of  one  nebulous  u.se 
equidistant  fnuii  all  subsei|uent  uses.  The  exten- 
sion of  the  meaning  of  a  Citse,  like  the  extension  of 
the  meaning  of  a  word,  is  due  to  analogy,  to  its 
application  to  expressions  new  but  analogous  to 
those  in  which  it  was  fii-st  enijdoyed.  The  same 
princi|>le  of  extension  by  'contiguity,'  as  logicians 
call  it,  in  all  probability  explains  the  heterogene- 
ous functions  ascribed  to  any  one  particular  god. 


686 


HERMES 


HEUMITAGE 


To  seek  for  soino  iiDlioii  coiiiiiiim  to  tlicm  ;ill  may 
lie  ns  inistiiken  a  i)ioci>i'(liiij;  as  it  wdiiM  lie  to  seek 
to  derive  the  idea  of  tlie  jiiave  ami  the  idea  of 
horsciaciii;;  from  some  idea  equidistant  hetweeii 
the  two,  lief-niiM'  '  thi-  turf  hears  huth  meaning. 

[•■jiially,  the  heaiily  which  charaelerises  the 
slatiie  of  Hermes  in  the  zenitli  of  (Ireidv  art  ( the  so- 
ealh'd  Aiilinous  of  the  Helveilere  is  a  Hermes) 
naturally  helonj;s  to  the  patron  goil  of  tlie  [gym- 
nasium and  the  nala'stra,  while  the  eeleliraleil 
statue  of  Hermes  hy  I'raxiteles  portrays  the  jjod 
of  the  jiriuciple  of  fertility,  in  whose  oare  all  younj; 
lhinf;s  were,  and  to  whom  therefore  it  fell  to  tend 
his  yonnf;  brother  Dionysus.  I'or  Hermes  Tris- 
lue^'jstus,  see  HmniKTlc  Uooks. 

IICPIIU'S,  (iKiiliC,  a  lionian  Catholic  ])hilnso- 
pher  and  divine,  was  liorn  at  Dreyerwalde,  in  We--!- 
nlialia,  April  '2'2,  177.').  He  studied  at  Miinsler, 
lieeame  tlie(doi;ieal  profes-sor  there  in  ISO",  and 
in  1.SI9  at  lionn.  At  Bonn  he  died,  Mav  '2(1, 
IS.Sl.  In  his  ehief  works,  Die  Iiiiicrc  Wnlirluit 
ties  Cliri.stciihiiii.f  (1805),  Philosophi.srhe  Kiiihit- 
iiii<i  ill  ilii-  CliristLdthnlisrhe  Tlieo'nfilc  (181!!),  and 
{'linsll.dlliiilisclir  Jingnititih,  he  .sou;,'ht  (o  hase  the 
Catholic  faith  and  doctrines  on  a  critical  theory  of 
knowleil;,'e  like  K.ant's.  The  Hermesian  nietliod 
(if  investigation  in  like  manner  discarils,  in  the 
fiixt  stages,  ,and  so  far  .as  investigation  is  permitted 
to  extend,  all  principle  of  .authority  ;  and  in  the 
details  of  meta|ihysical  ini|uiry,  in  the  selection  of 
the  arguments  of  the  existence  of  Coil,  and  of  the 
nature  of  divine  altrihutes,  he  departed  widely 
from  the  olil  text-hooks  of  the  schools;  although  in 
the  general  sum  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Homan 
Catholic  Church  his  orthodoxy  does  not  appe.ar  to 
li.ave  heen  in  .any  <legree  called  into  question. 
Soon  many  theological  ami  philosiqihical  chairs 
were  lilled  hy  llfnni'siiiii.i :  ami  il  was  m>t  till 
after  thi'  de.ith  of  Hermes  that  his  ihictrines  were 
couilemned  hy  the  po|)e  ( is;i.">),  ami  some  (irofcssors 
deprived  of  their  chairs.  The  controversy  w.a-s  eon- 
tiriued,  as  well  in  Home  .as  in  tJermany,  fin-  a  con- 
siileralile  lime;  hy  degrees,  however.  theTIermesian 
partv  fell  awav.  See  works  on  Hermes  ami  his 
movement  l.v"  Esser  (18."<2),  Elvenich  (18.S6), 
Medner  ( IHSti),  ami  Stupp  (1845). 

lloi'llK'tio  Books,  the  sacre<l  canon  of  the 
ancient  Kgyptians,  eon.<isted  of  forty-two  hooks, 
ilividi>d  into  six  sections.  They  constitute  wh.at  is 
virtually  an  eneyelopa'dia  of  Egyptian  wisdom,  in 
that  they  treat  of  religion,  the  .arts,  and  science  - 
the  nature  of  the  goils,  laws,  liturgical  rites  and 
ceremonies,  hymns,  hieroglyphics,  geometry,  a.s- 
tronomy,  medicine,  and  cosmography.  The  name 
'hermetic'  comes  from  Hermes  Trismegistus 
(' Hermes  Thrice-greatest'),  the  Greek  name 
of  the  Egyjitian  god  Thotli,  who  wius  regarded 
as  the  originator  of  Egyptian  lailture,  the  god 
of  writing,  of  religion,  and  of  the  arts  ami 
seiencc-s.  Neither  tlie  time  at  which  tlie.se  hooks 
were  actually  written,  nor  the  author  or  authors 
who  wrote  them,  can  now  he  determined.  They 
are  evidently  hased  upon  the  Egy|>tian  niytli<iUigy, 
hut  at  a  time  when  it  was  liegiiining  to  feel  the  in- 
llueme  <if  Hellenistic  culture,  since  tr.aces  of  Xeo- 
|ilatonist  ide.as  can  he  discerneil  in  them,  .as  also 
indications  of  the  iiiHuenee  of  the  .Jewish  philo- 
sopher I'liilo.  The  Creek  and  Latin  texts  of  the 
hermetic  hooks  exist,  hut  only  fragmentarily,  in 
the  writings  of  such  writers  as  Stoha'us,  Cyrillus, 
Snidas,  and  L.aclantius.  The  gieater  p.art  of  these 
pieces  have  heen  published  hy  Partlicy  (//i7//(c/('.v 
J')i.imeijisli  I'oniiiiiHlcr,  .  1854),  .and  .again  hy 
.Menard  (Hrniuji  Tiismfrjistc,  1866).  The  I'tijii/riix 
J^/his  ( 1H75)  is  generally  accepted  as  heinp;  one  of 
the  medical  books  of  the  series.  The  teachings 
of    Thoth    were    at    first    regarded     as     e.soteric 


doctrine.s,  and  as  such  jealously  gmirded  hy  the 
s.ages  and  from  I  hem  Iransmitleil  to  their  pupils, 
tlie.se  depositions  of  the  sacred  lore  making  what 
wa.s  called  the  luriiiitic  chiiiii.  Tliolli  wa.s  also 
the  invi'iilor  of  magic  anil  alchemy,  whence  the 
latter  w;i.s  .somelimi's  called  llie  lirniiillc  art,  and 
whence  are  derived  the  terms  luiiiirlic  mediriiie, 
lirriiirtir  frcrmnsniirii,  and  liennrliinllii  seiilnl,  this 
last  to  signify  the  closing  of  a  box  or  jar  or  other 
receptacle  in  such  a  way  a.s  to  exclude  absolutely 
the  atmosphere. 

Hermit  (fir.  errmiloi),  a  name  given  in  the 
early  .ages,  and  still  more  in  the  later  elmreli,  to  a 
solitary  ascetic,  who,  with  a  view  to  more  complete 
freedom  from  the  cares,  tem]da)iiins,  and  business 
of  the  world,  took  up  his  abode  in  a  natural  cavern 
or  .a  rudely  formi'd  hut  in  a  desert,  forest,  moun- 
tain, or  other  solitary  jihice.  In  the  lirst  centuries 
the  names  of  eremite  and  anchorite  (Cr.  niiiitlid- 
iaic.1  =  '  one  who  retires  '—i.e.  from  the  world  )  were 
indiscriminately  applied  to  these  solitaries;  but, 
the  word  n-nnilii  having  been  ailo]iteil  into  Latin, 
'hermit'  is  more  commonly  nsed  in  the  modern 
languages  which  are  derived  from  that  tongue. 
Hermits  beg.in  to  aiipe.ir  in  the  Christian  church 
in  the  M  century.  The  advocates  of  Asceticism 
(q. v.)  were  the  first  to  set  the  example  of  retiring 
from  cities  to  rural  districts  and  villages.  Ibit  the 
hermits  went  further,  and  sought  to  withdraw 
altogether  from  mankind,  that  Ihev  might  give 
themsidves  up  to  a  life  of  solitary  but  holy  con- 
teni|il.ation.  The  earliest  hermit  is  said  to  have 
been  I'anI  of  the  Thcbiiid  (Egypt),  who  during 
the  Dccian  per.seculion  lied  for  safety  to  the 
desert  (2.")0);  there  he  lived  for  the  rest  of 
his  life,  dying,  113  years  old,  about  342.  The 
fame  of  his  sanctity  qui(d<ly  incited  others  to 
imitate  his  mode  of  life.  The  most  famous  amongst 
these  successors  was  St  .Anthony  (q.v.).  At  the 
time  of  his  death  (.'i05)  hermit  cells  existed  in  con- 
siderable numbei-s  in  the  deserts  of  Egypt,  Syria, 
and  Palestine.  Hut  the  hermits  were  not  alw.ays 
able  to  |ueservo  their  solitude  unbroken.  Tlie 
fame  of  tJieir  .sanctity  drew  many  to  visit  them, 
partly  out  of  curiosity,  partly  to  enjoy  pious  eon- 
verse  with  them,  or  to  gel  religious  advice  from 
them,  ]iarlly  .also  in  the  belief  ih.it  diseases,  particu- 
larly mental  ilise.a.ses,  were  cured  by  their  blessing. 
Sometimes  they  returned  for  a  short  time  to 
the  midst  of  their  fellow-men  to  deliver  warnings, 
instruction,  or  encouragement,  and  were  received 
a.s  if  they  had  been  inspired  ]uophets  or  angels 
from  heaven.  The  Stylites  (q.v.)  o]-  jiillar  her- 
mits, who  spent  their  li\es  on  the  tops  of  columns, 
and  similar  eccentric  beings,  were  a  base  carica- 
ture of  the  true  hermit,  men  in  whom  the  good 
spirit  of  ivsceticism  had  become  perverted  by  ex- 
.aggerated  fancy  or  pride  or  passion.  lint  the 
number  of  hermits  gradually  diminished  a.s  the 
co'iiobite  life  of  convents  grew  into  fashion.  In- 
deed the  institution  .at  no  tiiiii'  secured  the  same 
fooling  in  the  We.-tern  Church  that  it  did  in  the 
Eastern  ;  and  perhaps  the  reason  may  in  |iart  be 
found  ill  the  dill'erence  of  climate,  which  renders  a 
manner  of  life  impossible  in  most  parts  of  Europe 
that  could  be  pursued  for  many  years  in  Egypt  or 
Syria.  Partial  revivals  of  the  juactice  continued 
to  be  made,  however,  during  some  centuries,  St 
Cuthbert  (q.v.)  being  a  casein  point.  The  name 
hermit  w.as  in  still  later  ages  applied  to  those 
eccentric  individuals  who  sep.ar.ated  themselves 
from  tlu'ir  fellow-men  to  live  in  caves  or  solitary 
huts,  not  from  any  religions  motives,  but  from  a 
morbid  aversion  to  human  society  or  an  inordin.ale 
love  of  solitude.  See  Mo.NAfHi.SM,  and  Charles 
Kingsleys  /lermi/s  {liHi'.)). 

Il(>riiiita$;t>.    See  Wine. 


HERMIT-CRAB 


HERMUS 


G57 


Hermit-crab,  a  name  a]>i>lie(l  to  the  membeis 
of  a  family  nf  cni^-taeeaiis  ( l'a;,'uri(-Uv),  notable  for 
their  habit  of  ^hellerin;,'  themselves  in  gasteropod 
shells,  ami  for  the  soft-skinneil  and  (generally  un- 
Rj-mmetrical  tail,  probably  in  jiart  the  cause  and 
in  part  the  consei|uenee  of  this  curious  custom. 
The  eyes  are  borne  on  long  stalks  ;  the  great  claws 
are  very  large  and  generally  unequal,  one  being 
used  to  close  the  entrance  of  the  shell  into  which 
the  hermit  can  wliolly  retract  himself;  the  ab- 
dominal appendages  are  practically  aborted,  with 
the  exceiition  of  those  at  the  tip  of  the  tail,  which 
hold  so  lirmly  on  to  the  spire  of  the  inhabited 
shell  that  it  is  dillieult  to  pull  out  the  crab  un- 
l>roken.  There  are  a  great  many  dill'erent  kinds  of 
hermit-crabs,  and  these  utilise  many  forms  of  gas- 
teropod  shell,  not  always  keeping  constant  to  one 
type  of  house.  The  commonest  species  (rai/iini.i 
or  Jui/Mif/nnis  bcnilitinlH.-i)  is  usually  found  tenant- 
ing the  shells  of   the   whelk   (Buccinum);   while 


Common  Hermit-crab  sli it 

to  another. 


..n.'  wlidk  shell 


another  very  common  species  ( /■■.  or  E.  pridcauxii) 
may  b(;  found  inside  shells  of  I'"usus,  Mure.x,  Can- 
cellaria.  Turbo,  IJuccinum,  iVc,  and  is  also  very 
interesting  as  an  illustration  of  partnership  or  Com- 
mensalisni  (q.v. )  with  a  species  of  sea-anemone 
winch  forms  a  cloak  round  the  shell.  It  masks 
the  hermit-crab,  and  may  also  be  useful  on  account 
of  its  stinging-cells,  while  the  lierniitcrab  repays 
the  .anemone  by  carrying  it  about,  and  doubtless  also 
with  debris  of  food  (for  illustration,  see  AXKMOXE). 
This  habit  of  helpful  partnership  lias  been  observed 
even  in  Paffunis  ahi/s.mniDt  from  a  depth  of 
3000  fathoms.  As  hermit-crabs  grow  they  have 
not  only  to  cast  their  own  armature  in  the  usual 
crust.acean  fashion,  but  they  must  periodically 
.shift  to  .a  successively  Larger  and  larger  house.  In 
looking  out  for  a  new  shell  to  tenant  hernut  crabs 
are  naturally  in  a  hurry,  being  then  in  a  positi<.n 
of  defencelessness  unusual  for  them  ;  and  it  has 
been  observed  that  they  ilo  not  always  seek  for  an 
empty  mollusc  shell,  but  may  evict  the  rightful 
owner  of  one  which  strikes  their  fancy.  The 
common  hermit-crabs  feed  on  nudluscs  and  animal 
debris.  They  are  most  interesting  inmates  of 
aipiaria,  but  their  voracity  is  very  apt  to  reduce 
the  population. 

f5ome  of  the  deep-sea  liermit-cr.abs,  brought  up 
by  the  V/iedlenijer,  ISUikc,  ami  other  explorations, 
are  of  much  interest,  esjiecially  perhaps  ina.smuch 
as  several  retain  the  symmetrv  which  the  more 
familiar  forms  tenanting  spiral  shells  have  lost. 
As  such  shells  are  rarities  at  the  bottom  of  the 


deep  sea,  some  of  the  hermits  retain  the  doubtless 
original  free  life.  Such  is  I'l/laspis  anomala,  from 
the  south  I'acitic  at  a  di'pth  of  2375  fathoms,  which 
has  a  very  much  shortened  abdomen,  with  distinct 
segments,  however,  ami  well-developed  symmetri<'al 
a]ipend,ages.  From  the  We.st  Indies  the  ]il<il:e 
obtained  I'ylochelfs  ai/rissizii,  living  in  straight 
tubes  of  compacted  sand, 
and  quite  symmetrical. 
Even  more  interesting  is  the 
symmetrical  Xi//(ijini/i(riis 
rccfii!:,  living  at  depths  of 
.300  to  400  fathoms,  in  open 
tubes  of  wood  or  bamboo- 
stem,  into  which  the  animal 
retreats  head  foremost,  and 
guards  the  opening  with 
lirm  plates  on  the  end  of 
the  tail. 

The  members  of  the  genus 
Cuenobit.a,  from  the  shores 
of  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
other  warm  seas,  live  in  all 
sorts  of  hou.ses,  including 
the  .shells  of  ni.arine  gastero- 
pods  (Murex,  Purpura,  vVc. ), 
of  landsnails,  of  sea-urchins, 
or  even  nuts.  One  species, -TyopcffurMS  i-fc<«.«  in  its 
C.  rtiffom,  is  famous  for  its  case  («)  and  free  (6). 
fondness  for  cocoa-nuts,  and 

for  its  excursions  ashore.  In  another  genus,  the 
robber  heiniit  crab  {Biigus  latro),  from  the  West 
Indies,  lives  in  holes  in  the  earth  uniler  trees, 
has  an  almost  lung  like  modillcalion  of  the  gill- 
cavity  for  breathing  air  directly,  yet  visits  the  seii 
periodically  by  night.  It  feeds  on  cocoa-nuts, 
though  it  does  not  climb  for  them,  and  is  itself 
eaten  in  Amboyna  and  elsewhere.  Darwin  liiis 
graphically  described  how  it  tears  the  husk  from 
the  cocoa-nuts,  and  hammers  on  the  round  de- 
I  pre.ssions  at  one  end  until  entrance  is  ell'ected. 
j  Out  of  a  biscuit-box,  the  lid  of  which  was  fastened 
j  down  with  wire,  a  robber-crab  made  its  escape, 
actually  imnching  holes  in  the  tin  and  turning 
down  tlie  edges. 

See  CoM>iE.vs.\LlsM,  Ci!.\B,  Cri.st.vcea  :  .1.  R.  Hen- 
dei'son,  Ckadaiaa-  R'port  on  Anonnira  ;  .■\y.i.<siz,  Votiafje 
of  the  Bhike  ;  JIarshall, />«.<  Titfsce  uiuJ  ilir  Lihin  (lA-ip. 
188S) ;  and  Darwin,  Voiiaye  of  Ike  Bewjle  iLond.  1845). 

llvriiiudaetyl.    See  Colchici'm. 

Ileriuoii,  Mount  (now  JchclesShcihh),  9150 
feet  high,  is  the  culminating  point  of  the  Anti- 
Libanus  range.     See  Lkii.vxox. 

llcriliopolis  lluii'Iia.  an  ancient  town  of 
Egypt,  situated  on  the  Nile,  on  the  border  of  the 
Thebaid.  and  near  the  frontier  line  of  ujiper  and 
middle  Egypt.  Thanks  to  its  position,  Hermonolis 
grew  to  be  a  place  of  great  importance,  ranking 
next  after  Thebes.  It  had  a  celebrated  temple 
sacied  to  Tholh,  the  ibis-headed  god  of  letters,  of 
which  the  portico  alone  is  all  that  now  remains. 
On  the  oppo.-ite  or  right  bank  of  the  Nile  wjis 
Antinoopolis,  where  the  dead  of  Ilermopolis  were 
taken  for  burial.  The  modern  name  of  Hermoi)olis 
is  Asbmun  oi-  Esbmocm. 

Iloriliosillo,  cajiital  of  the  Mexican  state  of 
Sonor.i,  stands  in  a  fertile  plain  on  the  Kio  Sonora, 
50  miles  by  rail  N.  of  the  port  of  (Juaymji.s.  It  lias 
a  mint  and  other  government  buildings,  a  bank  of 
issue,  sawmills,  distilleries,  and  shoe  and  furniture 
factories,  and  a  large  export  trade  in  wheat  and 
wine.      I'op.  1. "1,000. 

IIoriiKMiitoIis.    See  Svr.v. 

Ilerilllis.  a  river  of  Asia  Minor,  (lowing  through 
the  plain  of  Sardis,  and  falling  into  the  Gulf  of 
Smyrna. 


688 


HERNE    BAY 


HERNIA 


Il4'l'll('  Itay.  a  »atiM'iii}.''|>laee  of  Kent,  V2 
iiiik'>  \\  .  Ill  Marjjiite.  Koundeil  in  1830,  it  1ms  a 
|iii'r  1213  yards  loni;,  an  esplanade  1  mile  Ion;;,  and 
II  handsome  eloeUtower.  liislii)]i  Itidlev  was  vicar 
of  Heme  in  l.".3s  An.     I'op.  -JxKi. 

Il«>l'll('  IIm-  llllllti'r,  a  li^nre  in  jmiiular 
tradition.  Ion;;  snii|iosed  to  ran;;e  at  niidMi;,'lit 
around  an  aneient  oak  in  Windsor  Forest.  He  is 
referred  to  in  Shakespeare's  Mi-rrif  llVn-.v  nf 
Wiiiihur,  and  Hemes  ( tak  continued  to  lie  an 
object  of  interest  until  it  was  blown  down  on  31st 
August  180.3.  Tlie  t^ueen  planted  a  youn;;  oak  on 
tlie  spot  where  the  patriarch  had  stood,  a.s  was 
suppnscil,  fill-  (i.")0  years. 

Ilcriiiit  ( I..at.  ;  prol)al>ly  from  (Jr.  cnin.i,  'a 
sprout),  in  its  widest  sense,  si^jnilies  a  luotru 
sion,  thiouKtl  an  ahnormal  or  accidental  openin;;, 
of  any  or;,'an  from  its  natural  cavity.  AlthoM;;li 
hernia  may  occur  in  many  parts  of  the  body,  the 
word,  useil  l)y  itself,  is  restricted  to  signify  juo- 
trusion  of  the  abdominal  viscera,  the  condition 
popularly  called  iiijiture. 

The  way  in  which  hernia  may  ari.se  will  be 
readily  understood  if  we  bear  in  mind  that  the 
abilominal  viscera  are  subject  to  constant  pressure 
from  the  diaphragm  ami  otlier  surrounding  muscles. 
If  at  any  point  the  walls  of  the  lielly  are  not  sulti- 
ciently  siroiig  to  resist  this  pressure  some  porlion 
of  the  viscera  is  driven  tlirough  them,  and  a  licmia] 
tumour  is  formed.  Certain  parts  of  the  abdominal 
walls,  especially  the  inguinal  and  crural  rings,  and 
the  unibilieus,  being  weaker  than  others,  hernia 
most  frec|uently  occui-s  at  these  points.  In  some 
instances  hernia  is  congenital,  from  abnormal 
ddiciency  of  the  walls ;  in  other  cases  il  may 
arise  at  any  period  of  life  ivs  a  resull  of  violent 
bodily  exertion.  Sex,  age,  and  occu|)ation  .seem 
to  have  a  marked  iiilluence  in  pre<iisposing  to 
hernia.  Men  are  far  more  liable  (in  about  the 
proportion  of  four  to  one)  to  this  disease  than 
women  :  though  they  are  less  so  to  those  forms 
of  the  all'eclioM  known  as  feuKU'al  and  umbilii'al 
hernia.  .Vcionling  to  Malgaigne,  in  France  one 
man  in  thirteen,  and  one  woman  in  liftytwo,  are 
the  subjects  of  hernia.  In  respect  of  age  he  found 
that  the  liability  is  least  about  the  age  of  thirteen 
(one  in  seventy-seven),  after  which  it  progressively 
increases  until  the  close  of  life,  rising  at  seventy 
to  seventy  live  to  one  out  of  every  three. 

A  hernia  is  almost  always  composed  of  n  stir  and 
its  contiiits.  The  .sac  is  a  portion  of  the  I'eriloneum 
(q.v.)  corresponding  to  the  aiierture  at  which  the 
hernia  prolruiles.  It  is  |)ushed  forward  by  the  juo- 
truding  viscera,  and  forms  a  ]>onch.  The  contents 
vary  greatly,  but  generally  consist  of  a  portion  of 
the  small  intestine  (particularly  of  the  ileum), 
forming  the  variety  of  hernia  known  as  iiitrriiri/c. 
Omentum  is  often  found  in  hernial  s.acs,  either 
with  or  witliout  intestine,  liesides  the  viscera, 
the  .sac  always  contains  a  certain  quantity  of  tinid 
secreteil  by  its  interior.  Hernia  is  ilivisible  ( 1 )  into 
reihiriUe,  or  returnable  into  the  abdomen,  //•(•(•■ 
diicihic,  and  sliutit/ii/ntctl ;  and  (2),  according  to 
its  situation,  into  iiii/nhin/,  frmonil,  &v. 

The  treatment  of  reducible  hernia  may  be  pallia- 
tive or  radical.  Tlie  ])alliative  treatment  consists 
in  the  application  of  a  truss  ( see  below )  to  retain  the 
protrusion  w  ithin  the  cavity  of  the  abilomen.  Each 
]iarticular  kiml  of  hernia  I  femoral,  umbilical,  \i'.) 
reipiires  its  s]iecial  form  of  tru.ss  ;  ami  before  apjily- 
ing  it  the  hernia  must  be  reduced  by  placing  the 
patient  on  his  liaek,  relaxing  the  muscles  by  beml- 
ing  the  thigh  upon  the  abdomen,  and  pressing  the 
tumour  back  in  the  proper  direction.  The  truss 
should  then  be  put  on,  and  should  be  worn  during 
tlie  whole  of  the  day ;  and  if  the  patient  will 
submit   to  wear  it  (or  a  lighter  one)  during  the 


night,  so  much  the  belter.     The  nieniiK  that  have 
been    contrived    to   ell'eet   a    railieal    cure   are    too 

iuirely  surgical  for  description  in  these  jiages. 
{elow  the  a^e  of  puberty,  and  if  the  hernia  is 
recent,  a  radical  cure  is  sometimes  ellected  by 
wearing  the  truss  for  two  or  three  yiars. 

In  irreducilile  hernia  the  prolrndeil  viscera  can- 
not bi'  reliirned  into  the  alxlonien,  but  there  is  no 
ini]ie<linient  to  the  passage  of  liieir  contents  or  to 
their  ciiiulation.  In  these  ca.ses  the  ]iatient  is 
often  liable  to  dragging  |>ains  in  the  alxUniien,  and 
to  attacks  of  vomiting,  in  consei|ueiice  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  ab<lomiiial  organs  being  checked  by 
the  omentum  or  intestini's  being  lixed.  There  is 
also  const.-int  danger  of  this  hernia  passing  int<i  the 
slrangnlated  form.  Tlu!  tre.-itment  may  be  either 
palliative  or  railieal.  The  jialliative  lieatment  con- 
sists in  the  employment  of  a  truss  with  a  hollow 
pad  that  shall  embrace  the  hernia,  and  jirevenl  any 
additional  protrusion.  An  irreducilile  hernia  may 
.siiiiiitiiiirs  be  converted  into  a  ledmilile  one  by 
keeiiiiig  the  ]iaticnt  in  the  recumbent  position,  and 
on  very  low  diet,  for  two  or  three  months:  at  the 
same  time  keeping  the  bowels  open  by  laxatives 
and  injections,  and  maintaining  eijuable  ]iressuie 
over  the  tumour,  liadii-al  cine  is,  as  in  the  case 
of  ledueible  hernia,  by  o]ieralioii. 

Hernia  is  said  to  be  strangulated  when  a  piution 
of  intestine  or  omentum  that  is  |iiotiudcil  i>  so 
tightly  constricted  that  it  not  only  cannot  be 
returned  into  the  abdomen,  but  has  its  circulation 
arrested.  This  form  is  highly  dangerous,  because, 
if  relief  is  not  speedily  allorded,  the  strangulated 
]iarl  becomes  gangrenous.  The  causes  of  strangula- 
tion are  various,  but  this  condition  most  conimonlv 
arises  from  a  sudden  violent  ellort,  by  «hiili  a  fie>li 
portion  of  intestine  is  driven  into  a  pre  existing 
liernia,  which  it  distends  to  such  a  degree  as  to 
)iroiliice  this  complication.  The  most  inominent 
early  symptoms  are  fl;Uulence,  colic  pains,  iVc. 
They  are  .succeeded  by  vomiting  first  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  stomach,  then  of  mucus  and  bile,  and 
lastly  of  f:i-cal  matters,  owing  to  inverted  iicrislaltic 
action.  If  relief  is  not  obtained  the  inllammation 
that  commences  in  the  sac  extends  to  the  ]ieri- 
toiieum,  and  the  ordinarv  signs  of  peritonitis 
appear.  After  a  variable  lime  comes  gangrene  or 
niortiliealion  of  the  part,  and  the  patient  siieedily 
sinks. 

The  surgeon  lirst  tries  to  return  the  intestine,  a.<* 
in  the  )Meceding  cases.  This  manipulalion,  termed 
the  taxis,  niav  be  a.ssisted  by  the  internal  use  of 
chloroform,  iiilialed  till  it  produces  complele  rela.xa- 
lion  of  the  muscles,  by  the  hot  bath,  i.Vc.  If  this 
fails  he  must  have  recourse  to  the  knife  to  divide 
the  constriction. 

The  necessity  of  having  recourse  to  a  suitable 
truss  the  moment  that  the  slightest  protrusion 
shows  itself  in  any  of  the  parts  liable  to  hernia 
cannot  be  too  strongly  urged  as  a  matter  of 
necessary  general  knowledge.  At  whatever  periiMl 
of  life  a  hernia  occurs,  if  properly  attended  to  and 
jiidicioiislv  sup]iorted.  it  usually  gives  little  trouble, 
and  if  il  occurs  in  early  life,  it  may  often  be  cured  ; 
whereas,  if  it  be  neglected,  increase  of  bulk,  and, 
siib>cc|iiently,  di.seiused  states  of  the  parts,  often 
terminating  in  death,  will  almost  certainly  occur. 
A  tnixs  consists  essentially  of  a  pad  or  cushion 
attached  to  a  metallic  sjiring,  with  straps  so 
arninged  that  its  ]>i>sition  may  be  retained  iliirin" 
the  varied  |M)stures  of  the  body.  A  surgeon  -lioultl 
always  be  consulted  in  the  choice  of  the  instru- 
ment. 'The  practice,'  says  .Mr  llirkctt,  'of  leav- 
ing cases  of  rupture  in  the  hands  of  mere  trades- 
men cannot  be  too  strongly  censured.  Amongst 
the  poor  we  constantiv  observe  the  lamentable 
efl'ects  of  this  proceeding.'  Many  varieties  of 
trusses  have  been  invented.     There  are  occa.sional 


HERO 


HEROD 


689 


cases  ill  wliicli  the  common  truss  fails  to  support  a 
rupture  comfortaljly,  and  in  these  cases  various 
instruments,  for  tlie  most  part  the  property  of 
special  instrument-makers,  are  often  serviceable. 
The  patient  must  expect  to  find  the  truss  some- 
what nncomfortahle  for  a  week  or  two,  hut  will 
soon  get  used  to  it.  The  skin  of  the  part  upon 
whicli  it  ])resses  should  he  ref;ularly  washed  and 
hathed  with  eau  de  Cologne  or  spirit,  as,  without 
tliis  ])recaution,  boils  are  apt  to  form  on  it. 

IIci*0<  a  priestess  of  Aphrodite,  who  loved  and 
was  beloved  by  a  beautiful  youth  named  Leander, 
whose  home  was  at  Abydos,  on  the  op]iosite  shore 
of  the  Hellespont.  Hero's  position  as  a  prieste.ss, 
and  tlie  will  of  her  parents,  were  obstacles  to  theii' 
union,  but  Leander  every  ni;,dit  swam  across  the 
Hellespont  to  visit  his  liejoved,  directiiif;  his  course 
by  a  lamp  that  burned  on  the  top  of  a  tower  on  the 
seashore.  But  one  tempestuous  nij^ht  the  light 
was  e.xtinguished,  and  Leander  was  drowned. 
Hero,  when  she  saw  his  deail  Ijody  washed  ashore 
at  daybreak,  threw  herself  down  from  the  tower 
into  the  sea  and  perished.  A  poem  on  this  theme 
has  come  down  to  us  under  the  name  of  Musieus  ; 
the  romantic  story  is  alluded  to  by  Ovid,  Virgil, 
and  Statins ;  and  in  modern  times  JIarlowe, 
Schiller,  and  Leigh  Hunt  have  retold  it  in  verse, 
whilst  lirillparzer  has  made  it  the  subject  of  a 
drama. 

Hero  UK  Alexandria  (Or.  HerOii),  a  great 
mallieniatician  and  natural  philosopher,  was  a 
pupil  (jf  Ctesibius,  and  flourished  about  100  or  150 
B.C.  He  seems  to  have  invented  a  great  number 
of  machines  and  automata,  among  which  are  Hero's 
fountain  ;  a  steam-engine  on  the  .same  principle  as 
P.arker's  mill ;  a  double  forcing-iiump  used  for  a 
tire-engine,  and  various  other  similar  applications 
of  air  and  steam.  Among  his  works  whicli  have 
come  down  to  us  the  most 
notable  is  on  Pneumatics  ; 
Hultsch  edited  the  remaining 
fragments  of  his  geometrical 
works  in  1864. — Another  Hero, 
called  Hero  the  Younger,  who 
wrote  on  mechanics  and  astro- 
nomy, long  had  the  credit  of 
writing  some  of  his  namesake's 
books.  According  to  some 
authorities  he  tlourished  at 
Alexandria  in  the  7th  century 
A.D.  ;  according  to  others,  at 
Constantinople  in  the  lOtli.— 
Hero's  Fountain  is  a  pneu- 
matic apparatus,  through  whicli 
a  jet  ot  water  is  supported  by 
condensed  air.  A  simple  mode 
of  constructing  it  by  means  of 
glass  tubes  and  a  glass-blower's 
lamp  is  shown  in  the  annexed 
figure.  The  column  of  water  in 
the  tube  it  comiires.ses  the  air 
in  b  ;  this  presses  on  the  surface 
and  causes  it  to  gush  out  at  il. 

1IcI'4mI<  the  name  of  a  family  which  rose  to 
power  in  jiuhea  during  the  period  which  imme- 
diately preceded  the  complete  destruction  of  the 
Jewisli  nationality.  The  family  was  of  Iduniean 
descent ;  but,  though  alien  in  blood,  was  Jewish 
in  religion,  the  Idumeans  having  been  comniered 
and  converteil  to  .ludaisni  liy  .Jcdm  llyrcanus,  130 
li.c.  ( 1 )  Hekod  the  Great  was  the  second  son 
of  Antipater,  who  was  appointed  procurator  of 
Judaa  liy  Julius  Ca-sar,  47  B.C.  At  the  time 
of  his  father's  elevation  Herod,  though  only 
fifteen  years  of  age,  was  made  governor  of  (ialilee, 
and  afterwards  of  Coele-Syria ;  and  ultimately  he 
and  his   elder  brother  were   made   joint-tetrarchs 


a 


Huro'.s  Fuunt.iin. 
of  the  water  in  r. 


of  Judjea.  But  he  was  soon  displaced  by  Anti- 
"onus,  the  representative  of  the  Hasmoneaii 
dynasty,  and  forced  to  llee  to  Koine,  where  he 
obtained,  through  the  patronage  of  Antony,  a  full 
recognition  of  his  claims,  and  became  tetrarcli  of 
Juda'a,  40  B.C.  Several  years  elapsed,  however, 
before  he  succeeded  in  establishing  himself  in  Jeru- 
salem. On  the  fall  of  Antony  he  managed  to 
secuie  a  continuance  of  f.avour  from  Augustus, 
from  wliom  he  not  only  obtained  the  title  of 
king  of  Juda-a,  but  also  a  considerable  accession 
f)f  territory,  31  B.C.  From  tliis  time  till  his 
death  his  reign  was  undisturlied  l>y  foreign  war  ; 
but  it  was  stained  with  cruelties  and  atro- 
cities of  a  character  almost  without  parallel  in 
history.  Every  member  of  the  Hasmoneaii  family, 
and  even  those  of  his  own  blood,  fell  in  succession 
a  sacrifice  to  his  jealous  fears  ;  and  in  the  later 
years  of  his  life  the  lightest  shade  of  suspicion 
sufficed  as  the  ground  for  wholesale  butcheries, 
which  are  related  in  detail  by  Josephus.  The 
slaughter  of  the  innocents  at  Bethlehem  is  quite 
in  keeping  with  his  character ;  as  was  also  his 
ordering  the  death  of  his  wife  Mariamiie  and  his 
two  sons  by  her.  The  one  eminent  (|uality  by 
which  Herod  was  distinguished,  his  love  of  magm- 
licence  in  architecture,  was  evinced  by  the  grandeur 
of  the  public  works  executed  under  his  direction. 
Samaria  rebuilt  and  C;esarea  were  monuments  of 
his  zeal  in  building.  Herod  married  no  fewer  than 
ten  wives,  by  whom  he  had  fourteen  children.  He 
died  of  a  painful  disease  at  the  age  of  seventy,  the 
year  of  Christ's  birth — i.e.  in  the  year  4  before  the 
Christian  era,  as  fixed  by  Dionysius  Exiguus  (see 
Chronology,  Vol.  III.  p.  227) — after  a  reign  of 
thirty-seven  years. — (2)  Herod  Antibas,  son  of 
Herod  the  Great  by  his  wife  Mallhace,  a 
Samaritan,  was  originally  designed  by  his  father 
as  his  successor ;  but  by  the  final  arrangements 
of  the  will  of  Herod  the  Great,  Antijias  was 
named  tetrarcli  of  Galilee  ami  Perea.  He 
divorced  his  first  wife,  the  daughter  of  Areta.s, 
king  of  Arabia  Petra^a,  in  order  to  marry 
Herodias,  the  wife  of  his  half-brother  Phili|i — 
an  Incestuous  connection,  against  which  John  the 
Baptist  remonstrated,  and  was  in  conseuuence 
put  to  death.  It  was  during  a  ^■isit  of  Herod 
Antijias  to  Jerusalem  for  the  purjiose  of  celebrat- 
ing the  passover  that  Jesus  was  sent  before  him 
by  Pilate  for  examination.  At  a  later  time  he 
made  a  journey  to  Home  in  the  hope  of  obtain- 
ing the  title  of  king :  but  he  not  only  failed  in 
this  design,  but,  through  the  intrigues  of  Herod 
Agrippa,  was  banished  to  Lugdunum  (Lyons), 
where  he  died  in  exile.— (3)  Herod  Atuur'i'A  i.. 
son  of  Aristobulns  and  Berenice,  and  grandson  of 
Herod  the  (Jreat,  was  educated  at  Kcmie.  He  lived 
there  in  a  very  extravagant  style  until  his  debts 
compelled  him  to  take  refuge  in  Idumea.  From 
this  period  almost  to  the  ileath  of  Tiberius  he 
sutl'ered  a  variety  of  misfortunes,  but,  having 
formed  a  friendship  with  Caligula,  he  received  from 
him,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  the  tetrarchies 
of  Aliilene,  Batana'a,  Trachonitis,  and  Auraniti>. 
After  the  banishment  of  Herod  .\ntipas  he 
received  his  tetrarchy  also — viz.  Galilee  and 
Perea.  Claudius  added  to  his  doininions  Jmhca 
and  Samaria,  and  lie  w  as  thus  the  ruler  of  a  more 
extensive  territory  than  even  was  Herod  the  CJreat. 
He  died  at  Ca'sarea  of  a  painful  and  incurable 
malady,  'eaten  of  worms'  (Acts.  xii.  23),  in  the 
fifty-fifth  year  of  his  age,  and  the  44th  of  the 
Christian  "era. — (4)  Herod  Acribi-a  IL,  son  of 
Agripjia  I.,  was  at  Konie  when  his  father  died, 
and  only  seventeen  years  of  age.  Claudius 
therefore  resolved  to  detain  him  for  some  time, 
and  in  the  meanwhile  re-transformed  the  kingdom 
into  a  Roman  province.     In  53  A.D.  he  left  Home, 


690 


HERODAS 


HERODOTUS 


iiml  lOfeiveil  from  tlie  emppiDr  iioaily  tlie  wliolf  of 
liis  luitfinal  iiosM'~-ioiis,  which  were  sul)se<|Ueiitl.v 
eiihir>;e<l  hy  Nero.  Like  his  ancestor  Her<Kl  the 
(Ireat,  A>.'ii|i|«a  was  foml  of  ImililiiiK,  ami  si'eiit 
>.'reat  sinus  in  ailoriiin}.'  Jenisaleni  ami  other 
cities;  hut  he  failed  to  secnre  the  fjooilwill  of 
the  .Jews.  He  ilid  all  in  his  power  to  ilissnade 
them  frinn  rehellin^'  a^rainst  the  Konians.  When 
.lerusaiem  was  taken  lie  went  with  his  sister  to 
live  at  Koine,  where  he  was  made  pra'tor,  and 
where  he  died  in  the  seventieth  year  of  his  a^e.  It 
was  hefoie  him  I'anl  made  his  iiiemmahle  defence. 

ll«TO«las,  or  Hkkosdas,  a  (.oeek  poet  of  the 
3d  ceutuiy  n.i'.,  probalily  fmrii  the  island  of  I'os,  of 
whose  Miiiiiiiiiilii  (mainly  scenes  of  (Ireck  life  in 
ilialoj;iie)  only  small  fragments  weri'  known  till 
some  700  verses  from  eight  diU'crent  iioems  were  re- 
covered from  an  Egyptian  MS.  in  the  liritish  Museum 
an^l  imhlished  hy  Kenyon  (1891).  They  have  since 
heen  edited  l>y  Uiicheler,  Criisius,  ami  Aleister. 

llerodiail.  a  (ireek  historian,  who  lived  in 
Home.  lli>  /listuri/,  in  eight  books,  e.xtemls  from 
the  ileath  of  Marcus  Auielius  (180)  to  Gordian  III. 
(■2."{S),  and  is  fairly  trustworthy.  See  editions  by 
liekker  ( 18.V))  and" .Mendelssohn  { 1883). 

llerodotllK.  '  the  father  of  lilston-,'  was  Imrn 
lii'tween  4!M)  and  480  n.f.,  between  the  (irst  and  the 
seconil  of  those  two  I'ei-sian  inviusions  of  (Jreece  of 
which  lie  was  hereafter  to  write  the  history.  He 
was  born  at  Halicania.ssus,  one  of  those  (Ireek 
colonics  on  tlie  coast  of  Asia  Minor  which  were 
(■oni|Uereil  by  the  Persians,  and  whose  ett'orts  to 
recover  liberty  were  the  cause  of  the  I'ei-sian  wars. 
Haliearnxssus,  originally  founded  by  Dorian  .set tiers, 
had  ill  coui-e  of  lime  bccoiiu'  an  ionic  city,  and 
coii>ei|ueiilly  Herodotus  wrote  in  the  ionic  dialect. 
When  the  colonies  were  freed  from  the  Persian 
yoke  the  citizens  of  Halicarnassus  dilfered  as  to 
the  form  of  government  to  adopt,  and  Herodotus 
left  his  native  town.  His  travels  were  of  remark- 
able e.Ment  :  he  travelled  not  only  over  Asia  Minor 
and  the  islands  of  the  .Egean  Sea,  but  over  Creece 
proper.  He  spent  nuicli  time  at  Athens  and  at 
l)clphi,  and  ]iaid  visits  also  to  Sjiarta,  Corinth, 
'riiebes,  <  llynii)ia,  and  Doilona.  He  also  journeyed 
to  Macedoiiia,  Thrace,  and  the  coasts  of  the  Hlack 
Sea.  Above  all  he  ])eiietrated  to  the  interior  of  the 
Persian  empire,  to  Susa,  Ecbatana,  and  liabylon  ; 
and  he  'did'  Eg>pt.  On  the  journey  thither  he 
visited  Tyre,  .and  f^roin  Egyiit  he  reached  Cyrene. 
In  443  II. c.  the  colony  of  Thurii  was  founded  by 
Athens,  and  Herodotus  joined  it,  whether  in  that 
year  or  not  is  uncertain.  From  Thurii  he  visited 
Sicily  and  Lower  Italy.  He  lived  to  the  beginning 
of  the  Pelo|i(>niiesian  war,  432  B.i'.,  and  perhaps  not 
later  than  42.")  B.C.,  but  when,  where,  or  how  he 
died  we  do  not  know.  riineiforni  inscriptions 
iirove  that  the  revolt  of  the  Medes  referred  to  in 
book  i.  .30  took  jilace  under  Darius  I.,  and  not 
Darius  II.,  so  that  we  cannot  infer  from  the  pa-ss- 
age  that  Herodotus  was  alive  at  the  latter  date 
(409  11.  C). 

HcHMlotus,  then,  spent  a  large  part  of  his  life  in 
travelling.  These  travels  he  undertook  for  the 
puriMises  of  his  histoi-y,  and  his  activity,  mental  as 
well  iis  physical,  in  collecting  information  and 
making  ini|uiries,  historical,  geographical,  ethno- 
logical, niytliologieal,  and  arclneological,  was  ex- 
traordinary. His  history  wjus  designed  to  record 
not  only  the  wars  but  the  causes  of  the  wai^s 
between  (Ireece  and  the  liarbarians  :  thus,  as  to 
the  (Ireek  the  whole  world  was  either  (ireek  or 
barbarian,  he  could  have  no  ditliculty  in  finding  a 
place  for  all  his  information.  The  way  in  which  he 
actually  weaves  it  together  is  as  follows.  Beginning 
with  tlie  conquest  of  the  (ireek  colonies  in  Asiji 
Minor  by  the  Lydian  king  Cra>sus.  he  has  an  oppor- 


tunity for  giving  a  history  of  the  kings  of  I.ydia 
and  a  description  of  the  country.  The  Lydians 
were  coni|ueie<l  by  the  lVi>iaiis,  whose  history  and 
empire  have  now  to  be  desi'iibed.  Amongst  the 
coiii|Uests  of  Cyrus  were  Itabylon  and  the  Mas- 
sagetu- ;  of  Camby.ses,  Kgyjit,  the  account  of  which 
tills  book  ii.  In  book  iii.  the  organisation  of  the 
Persian  empire  by  its  great  slatesmanking,  Darius, 
enables  Heroilot Us  toemphiusi^e  Iheconlrast  between 
the  might  and  magnitude  of  Persia  on  the  luie  hand 
and  the  inferiority  of  (ireece  on  the  other.  The 
invasion  of  the  Scyths  by  Darius  in  bonk  iv.  allows 
Herodotus  to  jdace  the  remarkably  iiitcristing 
ethnological  information  he  had  gathered  from  the 
emporiums  on  the  coast  of  the  Itlack  Sea.  And  the 
statement  that  Darius  iii(enile<l  to  invade  the  north 
co.'ist  of  Africa  brings  in  what  Herodotus  hail  learned 
at  Cyrene  and  on  the  joiirni'y  to  it.  In  books  v.  to 
i.\.  we  have  the  liisloiy  of  the  two  Persian  wars. 

Herodotus  has  been  called  'the  father  of  history,' 
but,  as  we  have  seen,  he  has  an  eipial  right  to  lie 
called  'the  father  of  geography.'  This  combina- 
tion of  history  and  geogiajiliy  is  not  a  feature  which 
distinguishes  him  from  his  predecesson^,  the  '  logo- 
grapliei"s.'  They  not  only  compo.sed  cliionological 
lists,  containing  pr(d)ably  a  brief  account  of  the 
events  recorded,  but  they  also  comiioseil  topo- 
graphical works,  which,  however,  contained  in  many 
ca-ses  a  history  of  the  places  <lescribed.  Thus 
historj'  ami  gcogiaidiy  (scarcely  iliscriminated ) 
existed  before  Herodotus'  time,  nor  diil  he  divide 
them.  Hut  the  work  of  Herodotus  is  to  the  bald, 
brief,  disconnected  notes  of  his  predecessors  what 
the  work  of  Homer  was  to  the  poems  of  his  prede- 
cessors. It  is  the  beginning  of  (Jieek  prose,  as  is 
Homer's  of  (Jreek  verse;  but  whereas  we  have  no 
fragment  of  any  of  the  poets  who  lived  ln'fore 
Homer,  we  have  of  the  prose-writers  before  Hero- 
dotus, and  the  advance  in  point  of  fonii  is  remark- 
able. In  reading  Herodotus  we  feel  very  strongly 
that  the  style  is  th<'  man.  possibly  because  we  know 
so  little  of  the  man  :  but  in  .any  case  the  character 
revealed  by  the  style  is  syinpathelic  in  a  high 
degree,  ami  probably  few  writers  of  any  a"e  or 
country  have  so  many  devoted  jiersonal  friends  a.s 
Herodotus  counts  amongst  his  readei-s.  He  is  so 
sim])le,  .so  frank,  so  talkative,  amiable,  and  resjject- 
worthy.  He  wrote  indeeil  not  to  be  read,  but  to  be 
heard,  like  all  other  classical  Creek  .uitliors,  and 
he  read  his  history  in  imblic  at  .Alliens  and  other 
places.  Thus  we  may  account  partly  tor  the  fact 
that  we  seem  to  hear  him  talk  rather  than  to  be 
reading  an  author.  I!ut,  beyond  the  charm  of  style, 
Herodotus  had  the  knack  of  taking  interest  in  the 
right  things — i.e.  things  which  have  continued  to 
interest  [leople  for  '23(K)  years.  On  the  one  httnd, 
he  could  write  in  a  spirit  worthy  of  the  glorious 
light  for  liberty  fought  by  the  Creeks  at  Marathon, 
Thermopyhe,  and  elsewhere.  On  the  other,  he 
delighted  in  the  mannei's  and  customs  of  strange 
peojiles,  and  in  things  ancient  and  mysterions.  As 
to  his  honesty  as  a  liistoiian  there  is  pr.actically  no 
doubt — the  author  of  tUe  JJc  Mtili(/iiit(itc  an<l  Pro- 
fessor Sayce  notwithslamling  :  he  never  says  what 
he  does  not  believe.  He  does  not  apjiarently  .sup- 
press alterUfative  versions,  and  he  distinguishes 
between  what  he  saw  and  what  he  w.as  told.  He 
ilid  not  believe  all  that  he  w.os  told,  though  he  did 
believe  occasionally  things  which  were  not  true. 
I  He  is  not  a  scientific  historian  :  what  he  tells  is 
frequently  not  history  :  it  is  something  better- 
legend.  Very  possibly  he  wholly  misconceives  the 
str.atcgy  of  >iarcloiiius.  but  he  preserves  the  cl/ivs  of 
the  Creeks  who  fought— which  is  of  much  niore 
moral  imi>ort.ance.  His  .story  about  Khampsinitus 
is  altogether  unhistorical,  but  it  is  not  only  more 
interesting  but  more  valuable  for  the  history  of 
the  ]ieoi)le  than  hieroglyphic  inscrii)tions  recording 


HEROES 


HEROPHILUS 


601 


the  numljer  of  captives  taken  or  killed  by  some 
king. 

The  editio  princeps  is  by  Aldus  ( 1502 ).  The  best  critical 
editions  are  those  by  Gaisford  and  Stein  (Berlin,  1809). 
The  best  Latin  cominentai-y  is  that  of  Baehr  ( Leip. 
185<J);  the  best  German,  (itein  (Berlin,  1877);  the  best 
English,  lUiwlinson  (4  vols.  1858).  The  last  contains  a 
translation.  Another  English  translation  is  by  G.  C. 
Macaulay  (2  vols.  1890).  The  appendices  to  Professor 
Sayce's  edition  of  books  i.-iii.  are  valuable. 

Heroes  were,  iu  tlie  Homeric  periiMl,  the  kings, 
princes,  generals,  leadei-s,  all  brave  warriors,  and 
men  wlio  excelled  in  strength,  courage,  wisdom, 
and  expeiience.  Many  of  the.se  had,  on  account  of 
such  iiualities,  a  fabled  origin,  half  human,  lialf 
<livine,  and  were  honoured  after  their  death  with 
a  kind  of  adoration  or  inferior  worsliip.  Tliese 
lieroes  and  ilemigods  were  recognised  a-s  tne  special 
patrons  or  protectors  of  particular  countries,  cities, 
or  families,  as  the  Pelopid;e,  Atrida',  \c.,  and 
temples  and  altars  were  raised  to  them.  Poetry 
exalted  the  heroic  sentiment  to  sublimity  :  and 
poems  wliich  celebrate  the  deeils  of  heroes  are 
themselves  termed  heroic.  The  imaginary  time 
when  heroes  and  otlier  semi-divine  beings  lived  on 
earth  was  called  the  Heroic  Age. 

Heroic  Ver.se.    See  Metre. 

Hl^rold.  LoiLS  Jo.SEPH  Ferdixaxd,  French 
musical  composer,  was  born  at  Paris  on  iStli 
January  1791,  ami  studied  at  the  conservatoire  of 
music  in  that  city.  His  earliest  successes  were 
achieved  with  Mdlle.  dc  la  Vallierc  ( 1812 ),  a  cantata, 
which  gained  him  a  travelling  scholarship ;  the 
opera.  La  Ginrenth  tti  Enrico  (Jiiiiitu  (ISIo);  and 
the  comic  opera,  Les  Ru-iiinm  (181(j).  None  of  Ids 
succeeding  pieces  met  with  success,  until  the  opera 
Mtirie  appeared  in  1826.  Zanipa  ( 1831 )  and  Le  Pri' 
uux  CTect*  (1832),  which  followed  next,  were  both 
decidedly  succes.sful ;  the  former  is  still  put  on  tlie 
stage  fiom  time  to  time.  Herold  died  on  19th 
Januaiy  1833  at  Thernes  near  Paris.  See  Jouviu's 
Heruld,  sa  Vie  ct  scs  (Ekvich  (1868). 

Heron,  a  genus  ( Ardea)  and  family  ( Ardeida-) 
of  birds  of  the  order  Herodiones.  The  Herodiones 
<  wliich  includes  also  the  families  of  storks,  spoon- 
bills, and  Hamingoes)  are  large  birds  covered 
with  long  loose  down,  with  large  wings,  and  a 
haril  horny  bill  longer  than  the  head,  compressed 
from  side  to  side,  and  united  to  the  skull  by  Hrm 
broad  bones.  Tlie  Arileid;e  are  distinguished 
from  the  other  families  liy  tlieir  large  hind-toe, 
which  rests  on  the  ground  ami  has  a  large  claw 
equal  in  size  to  the  claw  of  the  middle  toe,  and 
by  the  inner  margin  of  the  middle  toe  having 
a  pectinated  or  comb-like  structure.  The  family 
comprises  live  genera — the  Herons  (Ardea),  the 
Xight  Herons  ( Nycticorax ),  the  Bitterns  ( Uotau- 
nis),  the  Boatbills  (Cancroma),  and  the  Tiger- 
bitterns  (Tigri-soma).  In  the  Heron  genus— which 
includes  the  species  commonly  known  as  Egrets — 
the  plumage  is  beautiful,  but  seldom  exhibits  very 
g.iy  colours,  white,  brown,  black,  and  slate,  finely 
l)lended,  generally  preilominating.  Tlie  body  is 
small  in  proportion  to  the  lengtli  of  the  neck  and  the 
limbs.  The  neck  is  usuall.v  curved.  See  the 
article  Flying  (with  illustration)  for  the  iiositiim 
of  the  neck,  wings.  &c.  in  (light — when  tlie  long 
legs  are  carried  straight  out,  projecting  like  .i 
tail.  Herons  are  very  voracious,  feeding  mostly 
on  lish  and  other  .aquatic  animals  ;  but  they  also 
often  prey  on  snakes,  frogs,  rats,  and  mice,  and  the 
young  of  other  birds.  They  are  isually  shy,  soli- 
tary birds,  going  about  singly,  but  at  nesting-time 
congregating  in  numbei-s.  possibly  more  from  com- 
munity of  purpose  than  from  the  true  gregarious 
instinct.  Tlie  Common  Heron  {Arclen  cinere^i) 
measures  about  three  feet  from  the  point  of  the 


bill  to  the  tip  of  the  tail.  It  is  of  a  delicate  gray 
colour  on  the  upper  parts,  the  iiuill-feathers  are 
black,  the  tail  of  a  deep  slate  colour,  and  the  long 
plume  is  glossy  dark.  It  generally  builds  its  nest 
on  a  high  tree  ;  and  as  many  as  eighty  nests  have 
been  counted  on  a  single  oak.  Though  in  the  ilays 
of  falconry,  when  it  was  the  chief  game  pursued,  it 
was  highly  jirized  for  the  table,  the  common  heron 
is  now  the  object  of  almost  universal  hostility.  Its 
geographical  distribution  is  wide,  extending  from 
Britain  to  the  countries  of  northern  and  southern 
Europe,  being  most  plentiful  in  Holland,  extending 
into  northern  Africa,  Caucasus,  India,  Japan,  and 
Java. — The  Purple  Heron  (,-1.  jiiirpureu)  Ls  a 
.somewhat  rare  British  species. — The  Great  Wliite 
Heron  or  Great  Egret  (.1.  alba),  an  extremely 
beautiful  bird  with  perfectly  white  plumage, 
much   of  it  loose  and    flowing,    is  an   accidental 


Common  Heron  {Atdta  cmtrai 


visitor  to  Britain.  It  is  more  coninion  in  Turkey 
and  Greece  and  in  some  parts  of  Asia,  where  its 
ui)per  tail  coverts  are  much  worn  as  plumes. — The 
Little  Egret  {A.  f/orzctta),  a  smaller  copy  of  the 
great  egret,  and  fre(iueutiug  the  same  localities,  is 
about  two  feet  long,  and  rather  quicker  in  flight 
than  the  larger  species. — The  Butt- backed  Heron 
(.-1.  atjuiiioetiali^)  of  southern  Europe  is  an  insect 
feeder,  and  by  no  means  so  shy  as  other  species. 
— America  has  many  species  of  herons,  most 
numerous  in  its  warmer  parts.  A  common  species 
of  the  teuipei-ate  parts  is  the  Green  Heron  (A. 
virescens),  whose  flesh  is  much  esteemed.  Other 
important  species  are  the  Great  Blue  Heron  (.1. 
herrK/ias),  the  Great  White  or  Floiiila  Heron  (A. 
occidenlalis),  the  Great  White  Egret  (A.  cfjrcttu), 
and  the  Little  White  Egret  (A.  anididissimn). — 
The  Peacock  Heron  {A.  /ic/in.i)  of  South  America, 
a  small  heron  of  exquisitely  graceful  shape  and 
mien,  with  plumage  variegated  with  coloured  spots 
and  liai>^.  is  a  favourite  pet-bird  of  the  Brazilians. 

Heroiitlas.    See  Hekodas. 

HeropllilllS.  one  of  the  greatest  physicians  of 
antiquity,  and  co-founder  of  the  celebrated  medical 
school  lit  Alexandria,  was  bom  at  Chalcedou,  in 
Bithynia,  ami  tlouii>hed  iu  the  4th  and  .3d  centuries 
B.C.  He  ilistinguished  himself  in  particular  by  his 
devotion  to  anatomy,  especially  of  the  brain  and 
those  parts  which  were  less  known.  He  was  a 
skilful  dissector,  and  is  saiil  to  have  even  ilissected 
criminals  alive  :  moreover,  he  Wius  a  bold  and  dexter- 
ous surgeon.  The  few  fragments  of  his  writings 
which  remain  were  published  at  Gottingen  in  1S40. 


692 


HEROSTRATUS 


HERRICK 


llorostratiis.    See  Ephesi's. 

lltTlU'S  ('■!'.,  fliim  herno,  '  I  creep  ' ),  tin-  Iiiiiiii' 
of  II  ;,'ioiip  of  iliseii-ses  or  tlie  wkin,  olKiiiicU'iisrd 
l>y  tlu!  |iiesoiice  of  oliistei"s  of  vesicles-  on  an  in- 
lliinieil  liiisi'.  Tlieie  are  two  welldelined  classeH 
iiii'luileil  niider  llie  name. 

( 1 )  Ciiftirr/tii/  hii'fifs  ocenrs  ni<tst  coninionly  at  tlu' 
ecli,'0  of  the  lip,  ami  often  atten<ls  some  felirile 
(lisea.se,  especially  acute  inllammation  of  tlic  lunf,'s  ; 
but  may  also  follow  some  local  irritation,  or  lie 
without  jLssi{;nal>le  cause.  It  is  attemleil  some- 
times liy  burninj,'  or  itching'  sensations,  hut  rarely 
hv  pain.  The  vesicles  dry  up  into  a  scah,  wliicli 
falls  oil'  in  the  course  of  a  tew  days.  No  treatment 
is  ;;encrally  necessary  ;  hut  it  is  verj'  apt  to  recur. 
It  appears  le.ss  commonly  on  other  parts  of  the  face, 
on  tile  mucous  memhraue  of  the  mouth,  and  on  the 
genital  organs. 

(2)  lleijHS  zustcr  (Gr.  ;  Lat.  :oiiti ;  Eng.  slilmjles, 
plural  of  Old  Eng.  single,  '  a  girth,'  through  Er. 
troin  Lat.  ciiiifii/iint,  words  all  meaning  'a  girdle) 
is  most  eommonly  met  with  along  the  course  of 
one  of  the  intercostal  nerves,  whence  the  name. 
It  is  now  known  that  the  iiilhimMiation  of  the 
skin  depemls  upon  an  iiillammatiou  of  the  nerve 
supplying  the  area  all'eeted,  though  many  forms  of 
inllammation  of  the  nerves  occur  w  itiiout  producing 
herpes.  Its  occurrence  can  sometimes  he  traced  to 
a  htow,  to  diseiused  tissues  in  the  iieiglihoiirhood, 
or  to  the  prolongeil  administration  of  arsenic  ;  hut 
more  often  no  cause  can  lie  assigned  for  it.  The 
apiiearaiice  of  the  characteristic  eru|itioii  is  gener- 
ally preceded  for  some  clays  hy  neuralgic  pain  in 
the  atlected  ]iart ;  inllammation  of  the  skin  in 
patches,  development  of  vesicles,  formation  of 
scahs  and  their  subseqtient  detachment  generally 
run  a  pretty  uniform  cour.se,  occu]iying  ahout  a 
flirt iiiglit.  In  young  people  nothing  is  left  hut 
slight  scarring  of  the  skin  ;  hut  in  those  lieyoml 
miildle  life  an  extremely  intractalile  form  of  neur- 
algia often  remains,  and  may  persist  for  months. 
The  disease  may  occur  at  any  age,  hut  a  second 
attack  is  (piite  e.veeiitional.  ^Iol■e  than  one  inter- 
costal nerve  may  he  atl'ecteil  at  once ;  hut  very 
seldom  two  on  the  opposite  sides,  so  that  the  iio|iu- 
lar  superstition  '  that  shingles  which  meet  round 
the  hody  always  prove  fatal '  is  not  likely  to  lie 
often  practically  refuted.  Though  commonest  in 
connection  with  the  intercostal  nerves,  herpes  zoster 
may  occur  on  almost  any  region  of  the  body.  The 
brow  is  a  freiiuent  situation  ;  and  if  the  eye  is 
allected,  as  sometimes  happens,  it  may  be  seriously 
damaged.  No  treatment  seems  to  ))e  eH'ective  in 
arresting  the  cmirse  of  the  diseiise  ;  but  painting 
with  tle,\ile  collodion,  or  application  of  zinc  oint- 
ment over  the  infiamed  patches,  diminishes  their 
irritability. 

II<>r|H'toIogy  (<■]•.  /ler/ii'ton,  '  a,  reptile,'  and 
lofi'is,  '  a  discourse ' ),  that  branch  of  natural  history 
which  treats  of  reptiles.     See  Keptiles. 

Ilorrera,  EeunaNDO  DE,  a  Spanish  lyric  poet, 
of  whom  we  only  know  that  he  was  born  at  Seville 
in  1;)34,  took  onlen*,  and  ilied  in  1597.  As  a  poet 
he  ranked  so  high  in  the  opinion  of  his  eontem- 
iioraiies  that  they  bestowed  upon  him  the  appel- 
lation of  the  tliihie.  Many  of  his  love  poems  are 
remarkable  for  tender  feeling,  while  his  oiles,  such 
as  that  on  the  'Battle  of  Lepanto,'  fiei|uently 
display  a  lofty  enthnsiiusm  ;  but  his  language  is 
very  artificial,  being  full  of  words,  intlections, 
aiul  inversions  in  imitatiim  of  Creek,  Latin,  and 
Italian  authoi-s.  Many  of  his  poems  were  accident- 
ally burned  shortly  after  his  death  ;  most  of  what 
survived  were  published  by  Pacheco,  the  painter,  in 
1619,  and  all  were  printed  in  the  Coleecion  of  Hamon 
Fernandez  (178(5;  new  ed.  1808).  Herrera  wrote 
in  prose   a  good  Anotint   of  the    War  in  Cjiprns 


( l.'i7'2),  and  translated  from  the  Latin  of  Stapleton 
a  life  of  Sir  T.  .More  ( l.'jyi). 

Hcrrora,  Eiiwcisro,  .surnamed  El.  ^■lK.I(> 
(the  Kldcrl.  Spanisli  ]iainter,  was  born  in  Si'ville 
in  l.")7(>.  Ills  drawing  was  correct,  and  his  pictorial 
style  is  markeil  by  energy,  freedom,  and  boldness, 
and  he  became  the  founder  of  a  school,  llcnera's 
mastcriiiccc  was  the  '  Last  .luilgment,'  in  a  clinicU 
at  Seville.  Itesiilcs  historical  pieces,  he  also  painted 
such  subjects  as  wine-houses,  fairs,  carnivals,  anil 
the  like  ;  he  was  a  clever  worker  also  in  bronze.  In 
1G.")()  he  removed  to  Madrid,  and  died  there  in  lU.'iti. 
Some  of  his  best  works  are  in  the  Louvre  at  I'aris. 
—  Ilis  youngest  son,  KliAM'lvsco  IIkiiukic.\,  siir 
naiLicd  Kl.  MiiZd  (the  ^'oungci).  was  born  at  Seville 
in  lO'J'J.  He  studied  under  his  father,  but  to  escape 
his  roughness  and  cruelty  ran  away  to  Home, 
where  he  became  celebrated  for  |iictures  of  still  life, 
especially  for  tish-pieces.  Ketiirning  to  Spain  aftei 
his  father's  death,  he  at  (ii-st  settled  in  Seville,  and 
was  in  lOliO  appointed  sub-director  of  the  academy 
there  ;  hut  he  .soon  betook  himself  to  Madrid,  where 
he  became  painter  to  the  king.  Ilis  best  wiirks 
are  a  fresco,  'The  .Ascension,'  in  the  .-Vtocha  chiinli 
in  Madriil,  and  'San  Ki.inci.sco,'  in  Seville  catlie 
drill,      llerrei.-nlicl  at  Miidrid  in  KiK.'i. 

Ilorrera  y  Tordesillas.  .ANniMo,  Spanish 

historian,  was  born  at  t'uellar,  in  Segovia,  in  l.')49, 
was  appointed  by  I'hilip  II.  historiographer  of  the 
Indies  and  of  ('astile,  and  ilied  at  .Madrid,  ■2!Hh 
March  Ki'i.").  Ilis  p]'inci]ial  work  is  a  Uninnl  His- 
tarjl  nf  i_\lstiliiltt  h.rplnits  in  tin'  /V/r///c  (  ItiOl  -  l.'l ), 
that  is,  a  history  of  the  Siianish-.Ameiicaii  colonies 
from  14!t'2  to  iri.'i4  ( Eng.  trans,  by  John  Stevens, 
17'2.*)).  Ilis  /h:srrijn'ioii  (tr  tits  /lutift.s  itrrit/cntatex 
( 1601  and  161."))  forms  an  introduction  tojhe  above- 
work.  He  also  wrote  on  the  history  of  England 
and  Scotland  in  the  time  of  Mary  Stuart :  historic.'^ 
of  Portugal,  of  the  world  in  the  time  of  Philip  II., 
of  the  League,  and  of  the  Sjianisli,  Ereneh,  ami 
Venetians  in  Italy. 

Il«'rri«'k.  KdliEltT,  a  great  English  ]ioet,  wa.« 
born  in  London,  the  fourth  son  and  seventh  child 
of  a  prosperous  ('heapside  goldsmith  of  good  Leices- 
tershire descent,  and  was  bajitised  '24th  August 
l.")91.  His  father  died  the  year  after,  not  without 
suspicion  of  suicide,  and  the  boy  was  bound  appren- 
tice for  ten  years  to  his  uncle,  afterwards  Sir 
William  Herrick,  also  a  well  to  do  Cheapsiile  gold 
smith.  liy  .September  lUl.'f,  however,  we  lind  hint 
a  fellow-commoner  at  St  tjohn's  College,  Cam 
bridge,  whence  he  sent  fourteen  letters,  still  ex- 
tant, to  his  guardian-uncle,  who  appears  to  have 
been  stingy  in  his  allowances  of  money.  The  last 
letter  is  dated  from  Trinity  Hall,  whither  he 
writes  he  had  migrated  for  economy.  Herrick 
took  his  M.A.  ill  l(i'20,  ami  apiiareiilly  came  ne.xt 
to  London,  where,  no  doubt,  he  plunged  light- 
heartedly  into  the  gaieties  of  tlie  town,  as  well  as- 
'  tlio.se  lyric  feasts  made  at  the  Sun,  the  Dog,  the 
Triple  Tun.'  He  was  already  a  jioet,  and  his  'wild, 
unhaptisi'd  rhymes'  ijuickly  earned  him  the  frieiid- 
.ship  of  lien  .Joiison  and  his  ring  of  hilarious  spirits. 
In  lf)'29  his  mother  died,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
took  orders,  and  was  |iresented  to  the  sequestered 
living  of  Dean  Prior,  near  Totnes,  in  Devonshire. 
He  lienioans  his  lonely  banishment  in  'loatheil 
country  life'  among  'currish'  natives  in  'dull 
Devonshire,'  but  from  his  poems  we  cannot  doubt 
that  his  keen  eye  and  kindly  heart  found  him  a, 
consolation  in  the  observ.ation  of  the  honest  couiitiv 
folk  around  him  whose  old-worlil  customs  are  mil 
rored  so  charmingly  in  his  verse.  Of  his  clerical 
life  we  know  but  little,  although  Wood  speaks  of 
his  '  tlorid  and  witty  discourses,'  and  tells  us  he 
was  '  beloved  by  the  neighbouring  gentry.'  He  has 
immortalised  his  housekeeper,  'Prue'or  Prudence 


HERRICK 


HERRING 


693 


Baldwin,  as  well  as  liis  spaniel  'Tracy,'  and  a 
tradition  lonj;  survived  of  a  'favourite  pig,  which 
lie  auuised  liimself  by  teaching  to  drink  out  of  a 
tankard.'  His  'Julia'  is  more  visionary  than 
these,  but  no  doubt  had  her  existence  also.  In 
1647  the  Puritan  supremacy  ejected  him  from  his 
vicarage  and  drove  him  to  London,  whence  he 
returned  tf)  reassume  his  duties  in  .Viigust  16(i'2. 
Here  twelve  years  later  he  died,  being  buried  15th 
October  1674.  A  monument  was  placed  in  the 
■church  in  1857. 

Herrick's  one  volume  of  verse  contained  the 
Ihsperides,  dated  1648,  and  Noble  NnmlKm,  dated 
1647.  The  last  is  a  collection  of  professedly  reli- 
gious poetry;  the  former,  an  ill-arranged  group  of 
lyrical  poems  addressed  to  friends  ami  eminent 
contemporaries,  amatory  poems,  epithalamia,  ei)i- 
grams,  fairy  poems,  and  short  occasional  odes  anil 
poems  on  all  kinds  of  subjects,  of  which  sixty-two 
had  already  seen  the  light  in  Wit's  Recreations 
<1640).  The  whole  embrace  more  than  1'200  poems 
<)f  lengths  varying  from  live  or  six  pages  to  a  single 
couplet,  many  of  which  are  among  tjie  most  ex- 
flui.site  examples  of  lyrical  art  in  English.  Of 
tiiese  it  is  enough  to  name  '  Corinna's  going  a 
JIaying,'  'The  Mad  Maids  Song,'  'The  Night 
Piece  to  Julia '  ( '  Her  eyes  the  glow-worm  lend 
thee'),  'To  the  Virgins'  ('(father  ye  rose-buds  while 
ye  may'),  'To  DatTodils,'  '  Cheriy  Kipe,'  'To 
Anthea'  ('Bid  me  to  live'):  and,  among  religious 
poems,  such  masterpieces  as  'The  Litany,'  'The 
Dirge  of  Jejihthah's  Daughter,'  and  'A  Thanks- 
giving to  God  '  { '  Lord,  thou  hast  given  me  a  cell ' ). 
Much  of  his  religious  poetry  is  weak,  but  these 
are  immortal.  Yet  the  rea<ler  turns  most  often 
to  his  secular  poems,  in  almost  every  line  of  which 
he  will  find  a  charm  of  a  quite  peculiar  nature, 
save  only  in  the  epigrams,  which  are  otteu  poor 
and  sometimes  gross.  The  last  laureate  of  fairy- 
land, his  '  Fairie  Temple,'  'Obenm's  Feast,'  and 
'  Oberou's  Palace '  were  not  unworthy  to  follow 
Shakespeare's  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  and 
Drayton's  Ni/mphidia. 

The  Ilesjierides  is  one  of  the  sunniest  books  in 
English  literature,  consummate  in  linish,  ex(|uisite 
in  fancy,  fresh  and  natural  throughout,  and  rich  in 
sweet  and  delightful  pictures  of  the  homely  English 
country  and  the  quaint,  kindly,  old-world  customs 
of  her  folk.  His  love-poems  are  stampeil  with  a 
real  ahnndon  that  is  not  Horatian  and  not  .Anacre- 
ontic, but  all  his  own,  and  ever  throughout  his  joy- 
ousness  the  ear  detects  an  undertone  of  melancholy. 
In  unforced  sweetness  of  melody  and  ))erfect  har- 
mony of  sound  and  sense  Herrick  rises  above  all  his 
bretliren  among  the  Caroline  lyrists,  and,  indeed, 
follows  closely  in  the  steps  of  Shakespeare.  Like 
the  master  he  is  thoroughly  natural,  unatt'ected,  and 
English.  We  do  not  look  for  ilepth  and  intensity 
of  p.assion  in  his  work,  but  within  his  limits  he 
attains  perfection.  The  fresh  fragram^e  of  English 
meadows  lives  in  his  verse,  and  will  beget  per- 
petual delight  as  long  as  English  literature  is  read. 
He  sleeps  secure  of  the  eternity  of  fame  for  which 
he  longed,  and  which  he  half-promised  to  him- 
self. 

After  being  neglected  for  more  than  .i  hundred  yeai-s 
Herrick's  poems  were  revived  by  Mr  Nichols  (Sylvanus 
Urban)  in  the  Oriitlcinan's  Mmitizine  of  1701!  and  1707. 
Editions  followed  by  Dr  Nott  (ISIO).  T.  Maitland  (Lord 
Dundrennan.  1823),  W.  C.  Hazlitt  (1S(!9),  and  iJr  Grosart 
(3  vols.  1870,  with  an  exhaustive  incniorial-introjuction). 
See  F.  T.  Palgrave's  Ch ri/somihi  (1877),  a  selection  by  a 
fine  critic,  with  a  suggestive  introduction  ;  and  ICdmund 
W.  tios.se's  e.s.say  in  .'iintitinit/i-CiinlKri/  StuilU.i  (bS83). 

Ilerrill<;  (Clnpca  hareugus)  belongs  to  the 
order  of  bony  fishes  (Teleostei)  called  Pliysostomi, 
and  characterised  by  the  existetice  of  an  ojien 
communication   between    the   air-ldadder   and   the 


gut.  The  family  C'lupeida>  is  disting^iished  by  the 
following  characters  :  There  is  a  single  short  dorsal 
fin  near  the  middle  of  the  dorsal  edge  of  the  body, 
also  a  single  anal  fin.  The  pelvic  fins  are  ab- 
dominal in  position,  as  in  all  Pliysostomi.  Body 
covered  with  thin  cycloiil  scales,  head  naked, 
barbels  absent.  Jlaxillary  bones  composed  of  at 
least  three  movable  pieces.  Branchial  apertures 
very  wide.  The  stomach  has  a  posterior  |)rolon- 
gation,  which  communicates  with  ,the  air-bladder 
at  its  extremity ;  pyloric  aiii>ciidages  numerous. 
Lateral  line  usually  absent.  The  genus  Clnpea, 
which  includes  the  herring,  sprat,  pilchard,  and 
shad,  is  thus  defined  :  Boily  compressed,  with  the 
scales  of  the  ventral  edge  keeled,  each  keel  |iro- 
jecting  posteriorly  into  a  point,  so  that  the  edge 
is  senated.  t'pper  jaw  not  projecting  bejond  the 
lower.  Cleft  of  the  mouth  of  moderate  width. 
Teeth,  when  present,  rudimentary  and  deciduous. 
Caudal  forked.  C.  hnretigns  is  distinguished  by 
having  an  ovate  patch  of  minute  teeth  on  the 
vomer ;  the  serrations  of  the  \eiitral  edge  are 
weak  :  the  pelvic  fins  arise  liehind  the  front  end 
of  the  ba.se  of  the  dorsal.  These  characters  dis- 
tinguish the  herring  from  the  sprat.  From  the 
pilchard  it  is  easily  distinguished,  as  that  sjiecies 
has  much  larger  scales,  and  has  radiating  ridges 
on  the  operculum  which  are  absent  in  the  herring. 
The  shad,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds,  are  much 
larger,  and  have  opercular  ridges  like  the  idlch.ard. 
The  air-bladder  in  the  herring  has  an  o]n'ning  to 
the  exterior  behind  the  anus.  The  herring  is  a 
pelagic  and  gregarious  fish,  living  on  the  small 
pelagic  organisms,  especially  Crustacea,  which 
swarm  in  the  sea.  The  species  occurs  throughout 
the  Germ.an  Ocean  and  tlie  North  Atlantic,  both 
on  the  American  and  European  sides,  and  also  the 
seas  to  the  north  of  Asia.  Enormous  shoals  of 
herring  approach  the  coast  every  summer  in  order 
to  spawn,  and  it  is  then  that  the  great  fisheries  are 
carried  on.  There  are  in  most  places  two  sjiawn- 
ing  periods,  but  the  numlier  of  those  which  spawn 
in  winter  or  spring  is  always  much  smaller.  The 
summer  spawning  season  varies  in  diflerent  lati- 
tudes. On  the  east  coast  of  Britain  it  occurs  in 
June  and  July  at  AVick,  July  and  August  at  Peter- 
head and  Aberdeen,  August  and  Sejiteniber  at 
Yarmouth,  September  and  October  oil'  Kent,  while 
on  the  south  coast  of  England  only  one  spawning 
period  has  been  observeil,  namely  in  January. 
This  corresponds  to  the  winter  sp.awning  in  the 
north,  which  at  the  mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Forth 
takes  place  in  .January  and  February. 

The  eggs  of  the  herring  are  small  and  numerous, 
and  are  liea\y  and  adhesive,  so  that  when  shed 
they  .adhere  to  the  stones,  shells,  and  hydroids.  or 
other  material  of  the  sea-bottom.  The  spawning- 
ground  chosen  is  always  hard,  rough,  and  often 
rocky,  so  that  it  is  usually  ground  which  trawls 
cannot  be  worked  over.  "The  same  spawning- 
grounds  are  annually  visited  by  the  winter-spawn- 
ing hening.  Two  such  grounds  are  accurately 
known — one  to  the  west  of  the  isle  of  M.ay  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  and  one  off 
Ballantrae  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  in  Ayr- 
shire. None  of  the  summer  sp.awning-beds  have 
been  actually  discovered,  tliougli  it  is  certain  that 
there  arc  acres  of  them  .along  the  east  coast  of 
Britain.  It  is  probable  that  herring  remain  in 
Loch  F'yne  all  the  year  round,  and  young  and  half- 
grown  herring  are  often  found  in  estuaries  at 
various  times  of  the  year,  ascending  as  far  as  the 
tides  extend. 

The  artificial  fertilisation  of  the  herring's  ova 
and  their  liatohing  in  aquaria  are  easily  effected, 
and  have  been  carried  out  several  times  by  various 
expenmenters.  But  the  artificial  propagation  has 
never  been  carried  out  on  a  large  scale  for  the  sake 


694 


HERRINGS 


UEKSCUEL 


of  aitilifiiilly  iiiaintaiiiiiif;  or  increasiii};  the  supply 
of  lieriin";s," localise  it  lias  never  yet  i>een  proyeil 
tliat  the  suijply  lias  any  where  eontinuoiisly  dim- 
inislieil  in  oonsequenee  of  tlie  enornums  eai)tiires 
which  are  annually  niaile.  The  ahumlance  of  the 
lish  at  a  jiarticnlaV  |ilaoe  varies  capricicuisly  from 
year  to  year,  ami  at  ilitl'erent  periods  of  time.  Un 
the  coast  of  llohnsliin,  in  the  south  of  Sweden, 
multitudes  of  lieriin;,'  have  appeared  within  tin- 
last  few  yeai-s  after  they  ha<I  deserted  that  coast 
for  aliout  seventy  yeai's. 

HerriuK-eggs  were  lirst  liatehed  under  <d)serva- 
tion  hy  Prof.  Allnian,  in  Scotland,  in  18()2  ;  the 
eggs  ill  this  case  were  ilredged  from  the  holtoin  otl' 
the  isle  of  May.  In  1S74-7S  the  eggs  were  lioth 
fertilised  and  hatcheil  artificially  hy  the  (MTioau 
Fishery  Commission  at  Kiel.  The  clevelopmciit 
has  heen  descrihed  hy  KuptVer,  in  IST.S,  in  the 
aniiuiU  reiiort  of  the  Kiel  Commission.  Artificial 
liatchiiig  has  also  heen  carrie<l  out  hy  the  I'niteil 
States  Kish  Commission.  The  eggs,  when  pres-sed 
from  the  lish,  are  received  on  glass  plate-s,  to  which 
they  adhere,  and  are  then  develo|ied  in  a  enrrent 
of  pure  sea-water.  The  larva,  when  hatched,  is 
very  slender  and  elongated  :  it  is  perfectly  trans- 
parent, and  at  once  commences  to  lead  a  pel.agic 
existence  in  the  surface  waters  of  the  sea.  Herring- 
spawn  at  the  liottom  of  the  sea  is  largely  devoured 
by  llat-lish  and  haddocks,  which  are  e.xtieinely  foiul 
of  it. 

Meyer,  of  the  Kiel  Commission,  noted  the  growth 
of  the  herring  in  captivity  :  when  tii.st  hatched  it  is 
^th  to  Jd  of  an  inch  long  ;  one  month  after  hatch- 
ing it  is  jds  of  an  inch  ;  at  two  months  it  is  1;} 
inch  ;  at  three  months  about  2  inches.  Then  it 
grows  at  the  rate  of  about  half  an  inch  per  month,  so 
that  at  si.\  months  it  is  about  3.J  inches,  and  at  one 
year  Gh  inches.  Thus  the  herring  is  matuie  .at 
two  years  old,  hut  not  full-sized.  The  so-calleil 
'  matii's,'  which  are  mature  lish,  and  she<l  spawn 
and  milt,  are  prob.ibly  the  two-year-old  lish  spawn- 
ing for  the  lirst  time,  while  the  full-grown  liening 
are  three  or  four  yeai's  old. 

For  detailed  information  on  the  natural  histor)'  of  the 
herring,  8ce  Nature  (vol.  x.wi.  p.  tJO",  and  vol.  .\xix.  p. 
W.I)  and  the  * Jahresl>erichte'  of  the  Cuininia^iou  zuv 
Uiilcrsitchuiir/ der  Dciilechtii  Mcere,  which  contain  numer- 
ous elaborate  nieinoirs  on  the  subject.     Sec  FisHEHlES. 

Heri'iiiufs,  Battle  of.    See  Fastolf. 

Ilcrrilllllt.  a  small  town  in  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony,  is  miles  SK.  of  liautzeii,  celebrated  as  a 
chief  seat  of  the  Moravian  lirethren  (q.v.)or  Heirn- 
liuters,  who  settled  herein  1722.     Pop.  1125. 

HorscllCl,  Sir  Willi.VM,  bom  at  Hanover, 
Novemlier  15,  \~lis,  was  the  son  of  a  banil-inaster, 
and  was  educated  as  a  professional  musician.  He 
fii-st  visited  England  as  a  member  of  the  band  of 
the  Hanoveri.an  Guards;  but  in  1757  he  established 
himself  in  England,  becoming  a  teacher  of  music 
in  the  town  of  Leeds,  whence  he  went  to  Hali- 
fax as  organist,  and  subsequently  (17ti6)  in  the 
same  cajiiicity  to  Bath.  Here  he  would  seem  to 
have  (iret  turned  his  attention  to  astronomy. 
Wanting  a  superior  telescope,  and  unable  to 
ad'onl  to  buy  a  good  rellector,  he  made  one  for 
himself— a  Newtonian,  of  5  feet  focal  length,  and 
with  thi>  applied  himself  to  study  the  lieavens. 
In  17fil  he  m<ade  his  first  discoveni',  being  a 
new  planet,  which  at  first  he  took  for  a  comet. 
It  was  detected  by  an  exhaustive  process  of 
surveying  the  heavens,  which  Herschel  was  the 
fii-st  to  jldlow,  taking  the  stars  in  regular  series, 
and  examining  them  all  in  their  groups  through  the 
same  instrument.  The  result  of  his  discoveiy  was 
his  appointment  to  be  private  iustronomei  to  Ceorge 
III.,  witha  s.alaiy  of  £2tXJ  (afterwards  f2.">0 1  a  year. 
He  then   went   to    live  at    Slough,   near  Windsor, 


wliere,  assisted  bv  his  sister  Caroline,  he  con- 
tinned  his  re-searclies.  Hei>eliel  iiiiirried  a  Mrs 
Mary  I'itt,  an<I  left  one  son,  John.  He  was 
knighted  by  IJeorge  III.,  and  made  a  D.C.L.  by 
the  university  of  O.xfoid  ;  he  became  rich  nartlv 
through  his  wife's  jointure,  and  partly  througli  sell- 
ing mirrors  for  reflecting  telescopes.  He  died  at 
Slough,  25tli  August  1.S22. 

Hei.schel  contributed  sixty-nine  jiajiers  to  the 
I'hilus.  Trans,  between  the  yeai-s  17S0  and  1S15: 
and  to  the  lirst  vol.  of  Mnii.  nf  the  Astrnii.  Sijiicly 
he  contributed  a  pajier  '(tii  the  Places  of  145  New 
Double  Stai-s.'  He  greatly  added  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  s(dar  system  :  he  iliscovcied  I  raiius  (calleil 
by  him  (leorgiiim  Siilus)  and  what  he  took  for  its 
six  satellites,  an<l  two  satellites  of  Saturn.  Besides 
this  he  detected  the  rotation  of  .Saturn's  ring,  the 
period  of  rotation  of  Saturn  itself  and  that  of  X'enns, 
the  existence  of  the  motions  of  binary  stars,  the 
lirst  revelation  of  systems  besides  our  own.  He 
extended  our  knowleilge  of  the  Milky  Way  and  the 
constitution  of  nebuhe,  and,  in  fact,  was  the  lirst  to 
give  the  human  mind  any  conceiitioii  of  the  iiiimeiis 
ity  of  the  univei-se.  His  catalogue  of  double  st.ais. 
nebuhe,  itc. ,  and  tables  of  the  comparative  bright 
ne.ss  of  stars,  and  his  researches  in  regard  to  light 
and  heat  would  of  themselves  entitle  him  to  the 
iii-st  rank  as  an  .o-stronoiiier  and  natural  philoso]dicr. 
He  erected  a  famons  monster  telescope  of  40  feet 
lengtli.  It  was  begun  I7H5,  ami  linished  17.''!',  in 
which  year  he  by  mi-ans  of  it  detecteil  the  sixth 
satellite  of  Saturn.  See  Hcrschel's  Lijcund  Wurhs, 
by  E.  S.  llolden  ( New  York,  ISSI ). 

His  sister,  Cakoi.ink  Lichktia,  was  born  Kith 
M.arcli  17.")0,  and  lived  in  Hanover  till  1772,  when 
she  came  to  England  to  live  with  her  brother 
at  Batli.  When  William  turned  a-tionomer  she 
became  his  constant  helper;  and  on  his  lieiiig 
ajipointed  private  astroni>mer  to  Ceorge  111.  she 
acted  as  his  a-sistant,  doing  all  the  duties  of  an 
a.ssistant-astrononier,  and  in  that  character  re- 
ceiving a  siii.all  salary  from  the  king.  While  dis- 
charging her  duties  in  this  jiosition  she  found  time 
for  a.  series  of  independent  observatiiuis  with  a 
small  Newtonian  telescope,  made  for  her  by  her 
brother.  Her  sjiecial  business  was  to  sweep  the 
heavens  for  comets,  eight  of  which  she  discovered, 
in  regard  to  live  of  which  sh<!  has  the  credit 
of  priority  of  iliscovery  ;  ami  several  remarkable 
nebuhe  aiid  clusters  of  stars  included  in  William's 
catalogues  were  described  from  her  original  oliser- 
vations.  In  179S  she  published,  at  the  exjiense 
of  the  Koyal  Society,  ..-i  i'atiilwiiic  of  Stiir.s  tahiii 
from  Mr  HiioMslniVx  (ihserrutio)is,  which  con- 
tained .5til  stars  omitted  in  the  British  catalogue. 
She  lived  with  her  brother  during  the  whole  of  his 
career,  sharing  his  lalMiui-s  and  distinctions,  and  on 
his  death  returned  to  her  n.ative  country.  She  was 
then  seventy-two  years  of  age,  but  she  lived  to  be 
ninety-eight,  retaining  all  her  faculties  to  the  last. 
In  IH2,S  the  Astronomical  Society  conferred  on  her 
their  gold  medal,  and  she  was  an  homnary  member 
of  tiie  swiety.  She  died  9tli  January  1848.  See 
her  Memoir' and  Correspondence,  edited  by  Mrs 
Herschel  (1876). 

Sir  John  FiiKDF.KirK 'NViixiam  Hekschel,  the 
onlv  son  of  Sir  AVilliam,  was  boni  at  Slough, 
7th'  March  17!)2,  ami  educated  at  Eton  and  St 
John's,  Cambridge,  where,  in  1813,  he  was  senior 
wrangler  and  lirst  Smith's  prizeman.  His  lirst  pub- 
lication was  A  VoUection  tif  Examtiles  of  the  Appli- 
ration  of  the  Ciilrulns  of  Finite  /lijfercnre.s  {\»20). 
In  1822  he  aiiplied  himself  especially  to  astronomy, 
using  his  father's  methods  and  instniiiients  in 
observing  the  heavens.  For  a  time  he  worked  with 
Sir  .lames  South  in  re-examining  the  nebul.e  and 
clusters  of  stars  ile-cribed  ill  his  father's  catalogues. 
The  results  of   the  re-e.xamination  were  given  in 


HERSCHEL 


HERTFORDSHIRE 


695 


1833  to  tlie  Koyal  Society  in  the  form  of  acatalojjue 
of  stars  in  order  of  their  ri^'lit  ascension.  The 
catalogue  containeil  oljservatirms  on  525  iiehul;e 
and  chisters  of  stars  not  noticed  hy  liis  fatlier,  and 
on  a  great  niiinl)er  of  iloul)le  stai-s — in  all  hetween 
3000  and  4(M).  This  important  contribution  to 
science  led  to  his  being  acknowledged  as  the  worthy 
successor  of  his  father;  so  early,  indeed,  as  1826 
the  Koyal  Society  had  voted  to"  him  and  South  a 
gold  medal  apiece  for  their  observations  on  double 
stars  ;  but  by  1833  his  pre-eminence  was  Ijevond  the 
necessity  of  being  marked  by  acknowledgments. 
His  treati.ses  on  Sound  and  on  the  Tlieoiy  of  Light 
had  appeared  in  the  Encyclop(edia  McfrojjolitcDia 
( lS.30-31 ) :  his  treatise  on  Astronomy  ( 1831 ) 
and  the  '  Preliminary  Discourse  on  the  Study  of 
Natural  Philosophy'  in  Lardner's  C'yclopcedia ;  not 
to  mention  his  papei-s  in  tlie  Transactions  of  the 
Astronomical  Society.  In  January  1834  Herschel 
arrived  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  completing  the  survey  of  the  sidereal 
heavens,  by  examining  the  southern  hemisphere  as 
he  had  d<me  the  northern.  Here  he  established  his 
observatory  at  Keldhausen,  si.K  miles  from  Table 
Bay  ;  and  in  four  yeai-s,  working;  all  the  time 
at  his  own  expense,  he  completed  his  observations. 
The  public  interest  taken  in  his  laboui-s  was, 
as  might  be  supjiosed,  very  great ;  but  though 
now  and  then  gi-atitied  by  partial  statements  of  his 
results,  it  was  not  till  1847,  nine  years  after  his 
return  from  the  Cape,  that  it  received  full  gratifica- 
tion in  tlie  publicati(m  of  a  volume  of  Astronomical 
Obserrations  made  at  the  Cape  ;  being  the  Completion 
of  a  Telescopic  Survey  of  the  ichole  Surface  of  the 
Visible  Hcurcns  commenced  in  lS2o.  It  need  not  be 
said  that  the  results  of  these  labours  are  invaluable. 
They  are  now  incorporated  into  all  books  on 
astronomy.  Herscliel,  when  at  the  Cape,  gave  an 
impulse  to  the  science  of  meteorology-,  having  the 
merit  of  ha\iiig  suggested  the  scheme  for  taking 
meteorological  observations  simultaneously  at 
different  places. 

On  his  return  to  England  honours  were  showered 
on  him — he  was  m.vde  D.C.L.  of  Oxford,  and,  on 
the  Queens  coronation,  a  baronet.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Astronomical  Society,  and  in  1849 
became  Master  of  the  Mint.  His  articles  on 
Meteorology,  Physical  Geography,  and  Telescope, 
contributed  to  tlie  Encycloixmia  Britannica,  were 
jiublished  separately  ;  and  his  Popular  Lectures 
on  Scientific  Subjects  (new  ed.  1880)  and  Collected 
Addresses  are  well-known  works.  Herschel  wa-s 
also  a  distinguished  chemist,  and  attained  import- 
ant results  in  photography  independent  of  Fox 
Talbot.  His  researches  on  the  undulatory  theoiy 
of  light  were  very  valuable.  He  had  also  a  pro- 
found interest  in  [loetry,  and  made  translatione  from 
Schiller  and  from  the  Hind.  He  died  at  Colling- 
wood,  in  Kent,  on  12th  (not  11th)  May  1871,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey  near  Sir  Lsaac 
Newton.  See  Agnes  M.  Clerke,  Jhe  Horschels  and 
Modern  Astronomy  (1896). 

Hersflu'l,  or  Ura.nit.s.    See  Planet. 

llersfehl.  an  old  town  of  Hesse-Na-ssau,  on 
the  river  Fulda,  which  liere  liecomes  navigable,  27 
miles  N.  of  Fulda  by  rail.  Here  are  a  fine  Gothic 
church,  built  in  1320:  the  niiiis  of  the  cathedral, 
destroyed  by  the  French  in  1701  ;  and  the  formerly- 
celebrated  Benedictine  abbey,  founded  in  769. 
Pop.  7271. 

Hrrsllip,  an  old  Scotch  law  term,  denoting  the 
oft'ence  of  carrying  oil' cattle  by  force. 

Hertford,  the  c<mnty  town  of  Hertfordshire, 
26  miles  N.  of  Limdon  by  rail,  is  situated  on  the 
Lea,  which  is  navigable  for  barges  uj)  to  this  point. 
It  contains  f<'w  buildings  of  any  architectural  ini- 
portaiiic,  .■^ave  one  ancient  church  :  but   there  are 


also  a  town  or  shire  hall  (1768),  an  infirmary, 
and  a  corn  exchange  and  free  library  ( 1859).  Hert- 
ford has  a  grammar-school  and  several  charity 
schools,  whilst  at  the  entrance  into  the  town  on 
the  London  Road  is  a  preparatory  school  in  con- 
nection with  Christ's  Hospital  (q.v. )  in  London. 
A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  corn,  malt, 
and  Hour.  Hertford  returned  two  members  to 
parliament  till  1867,  and  in  1885  cea.-ied  to  be  a 
parliamentary  borough.  Pop.  ( 1851  )  6605  ;  ( 1881 ) 
7747;  (1891)  72.32.  The  New  Kiver  (q.v.)  has 
its  source  a  mile  east  of  the  town,  and  2  miles 
westward  is  Panshanger,  the  seat  of  Earl  Cowper, 
with  its  valuable  collection  of  jiictures.  Of  the 
old  castle  of  Hertford,  commenceil  by  Edward  the 
Elder  about  905  to  protect  the  inhabitants  from 
the  incui'sions  of  the  Danes,  and  strengthened  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  but  a  small  portion  now 
remains  ;  the  present  castle  was  built  by  William 
Cecil,  Earl  of  Salisbury,  or  Sir  William  Harring- 
ton, in  the  reign  of  .James  I.,  and  in  1S05-9  was 
occupied  by  the  East  India  Company  as  a  tempo- 
rar\'  college  during  the  erecti(m  of  Hailevburv 
(q.v.).     See  Turner's  History  of  Hertford  ( 1 8.30 ). 

Hertfordshire,  or  Hert.s,  an  inlaml  county 
of  England,  extending  35  miles  in  a  north-easterly 
direction  and  20  miles  in  mean  breadth,  is  bounded 
N.  by  Camluidge,  E.  by  Essex,  S.  by  Middlesex, 
and  W.  by  Buckingham.  It  contains  611  sq.  m., 
of  which  more  than  one-half  is  under  tillage, 
one-fourth  pasture,  and  one-seventeenth  in  wood  ; 
is  divided  into  8  hundreds,  2  municipal  boroughs 
— viz.  Hertford  and  St  Albans— 138  paiishes, 
and  has  11  market-towns,  the  chief  of  which  are 
Hertford  (the  county  town),  St  Albans,  Wat- 
ford, Hitcliin,  Hemel  Hemjistead,  and  Bisliop- 
Stortfoiil.  Pop.  (ISOl)  97,577;  (1841)  1.56,660; 
(1881)  203,140;  (1891)  220,125.  The  surface  is 
mostly  level,  except  in  the  north,  where  a  branch 
of  the  Chiltern  Hills  skirts  the  county,  Kenswortli 
Hill  ( 904  feet )  being  the  highest  elevation.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Lea,  the  Stort,  and  the 
Colne,  all  affluents  of  the  Thames,  and  the 
artificial  stream  called  the  New  River  (q.v.):  the 
tJraiid  Junction  Canal,  too,  pas.ses  through  the 
south-western  extremity  of  the  county.  Chalk,  at 
a  greater  or  less  depth  below  the  surface,  forms  the 
basis  of  the  .soil,  which  is  various,  but  principally 
loam  and  clay,  the  former  being  met  with  in  nearly 
all  its  gradations,  more  or  less  interniingleil  with 
tlint  or  .sand.  The  climate  is  mild  and  healthy. 
As  a  manufacturing  county  Herts  does  not  stand 
liigh.  Straw-plaiting  is,  however,  largely  carried 
on  in  the  north  and  west  portions,  where  the  land 
is  least  adapted  for  agriculture  :  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  M'atford  and  Rickmansworth  are  several 
paper  and  silk  factories,  and  at  (ireat  Berk- 
hampstead  are  extensive  chemical  works.  The 
agriculture  of  the  county  has  iminoved  very  much 
of  late  years,  the  quantity  of  barley  and  wheat 
grown  being  very  considerable  :  immense  quanti- 
ties of  hay,  too,  are  .sold  otl'  the  land,  and  sent  to 
London.  Ware  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  malting 
trade  in  the  kingdom  ;  Che.shunt,  Waltham  Cross, 
and  Bishoii-Stortford  are  famous  for  their  rosi'- 
gardens,  anil  in  some  districts  watercre.ss  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  for  the  London  market.  Herts 
is  almost  entirely  in  the  diocese  of  St  Albans  and 
in  the  South-eastern  Circuit,  and  since  1885  has 
returned  one  member  to  parliament  fm-  each  of  its 
f<mr  divisions — North  or  Hitcliin,  East  or  Hert- 
ford, Mid  or  St  Albans,  and  West  or  Watford. 
Many  historical  events  are  connected  with  the 
county  :  it  w;vs  the  scene,  at  Verulam  near  the 
present  town  of  St  Albans  (q.v.),  of  contests  with 
the  Romans,  and  of  the  martyrdom  of  St  Albaii ; 
in  it,  too,  were  fought  three  of  the  most  iniiM)rtaiit 
battles   in   England's   history— the    first    in    14.55, 


696 


HERTHA 


HERZEN 


wlii'ii  Ilciuy  \l.  «as  wiiiiiicleU  ami  taken  iniHoiivr 
at  St  Alliaiis  Ipy  the  Yorkists  ;  again  at  St  Albans 
six  years  later,  when  victory  deciiled  for  the 
opposite  party;  and  lastly  in  1471,  at  Harnet, 
when  the  ilecisive  hattle  was  fonj^ht,  in  whioli  the 
Lancastrians  were  ntterlv  ronteil  l>y  the  Yorkists. 
Kye  House  was  the  residence  of  Iiuinhold,  one  of 
the  persons  en^'a;,'ed  in  the  alle;,'ed  plot  aj;ainst 
the  life  of  I'harles  II.  Kinj;s  Lanj,'ley,  llunsdon 
House,  and  llatlield  were  royal  residence.s,  and  at 
Theoliahls  .lames  1.  ended  his  days.  Amonjjst  the 
worthies  of  Herts  mention  may  he  made  of  Nicholas 
I ir.ikespearc,  afterwards  I'ope  Ailrian  I\'.  ;  Kr.aiicis 
liacon,  afterwards  created  Lord  \'ernlmii  ;  liii-hanl 
(!nu;;h,  the  antiiiwary  ;  the  poet  ('i>wpi'i' :  liiilwer 
Lytton  ;  Charles  Lamb  ;  and  Jolm  Leech.  Hert- 
ford ■,'ave  a  title  to  a  branch  of  the  family  of 
Seymour  (f|.v.  ;  and  see  El)\v.\ui)  VL).  See 
Cussans  llislnrit  iif  ll>rU  (  1S80). 

Ilortlia  (true  readin';  in  Tacitns,  Nerthii.i),  the 
Nortli  German  deit.v  identilieil  with  '  Mother 
Earth,'  to  whom  the  Hertha  Lake  in  Uiigen 
was  s.'icred. 

llortoKoiibosch.    See  Bois-le-Duc. 

Her  I/.,  Hkinimcii,  physicist,  W!vs  l)orri  '22il  Feb- 
ruary ls.")7,  at  Ilainl)ur;5,  and  studied  at  lii'riin, 
wliere  iu  ISSO  lie  became  assistant  to  Hehnboltx. 
In  1H,S;{  111-  be;,'au  to  lecture  in  Kiel,  in  ISS.'>  w;us 
called  to  the  technical  school  at  Karlsruhe,  and  in 
LSS!)  succeeded  C'lausius  at  Bonn.  He  greatly  ad- 
vanced the  science  of  electricity,  was  the  contiuuator 
of  the  work  of  Faraday  and  Clerk-Maxwell,  and 
w;us  a. singularly  ingeniou.s  experimenter.  He  <lied 
1st  January  l,s;i4.  In  the  three  volumes  of  bis  col- 
lected works  (  1S!)4)  the  most  important  discussions 
are  those  on  the  relation  of  liglit  and  electiicity, 
on  the  ilillusioii  of  electric  force,  and  on  the  prin- 
ciples of  mechanics.  See  l\iec/iif/c  by  I'lanck  ( 1S94), 
and  Lodge  in  Xtitinx  for  .June  1894. 

Ilt^rtz,  Hknrik,  IJanish  poet,  wa.s  born  of 
Jewish  parents  in  Copenhagen,  25th  August  1798, 
and  studie<l  for  tlie  bar.  GJeiir/ttiif/rrhrcvene 
('Letters  of  a  Ghost'),  a  rhyme<l  satirical  poem, 
created  a  sensation  in  1S3().  His  linest  dramatic 
writings  are  Sivml  Di/n'iir/'s  Hiiii.i  ( l.S:{7),  a  rmuan- 
tic  drama;  and  Kontj  Rent's  Dulier  (  1S4.5),  a  lyric 
drama  (translated  four  times  into  Fnglish^n  1850 
by  .Sir  Theodore  Martin).  He  also  wrote  many 
lyrics  (4  vols.  I8.57-(i2),  a  lyrical  comedy,  and  a 
humorous  novel.      He  died  "ioth  February  1870. 

Ilorv*',  whose  proper  name  w.%s  Florimond 
K().\(iEU,  a  musical  couipo.ser,  wa-s  bom  on  .SOtli 
June  1825,  at  Houdaiu,  near  Arra.s.  In  1H48  he 
m.ade  his  (ii-st  appearance  in  an  operetta  com- 
posed by  himself,  Don  Qiiifhottc  ct  Snnrlio  Paiirti. 
Then,  after  otiiciating  for  three  years  as  director  of 
the  orchestra  at  the  theatre  of  the  Palais  Uoyal,  he 
worked  as  singer,  composer,  director,  and  actor  in 
various  theatres.  Some  of  his  light  opera.s  have 
h.ad  very  sncee.ssfnl  runs,  such  .a.s  L'Qul  Crcrf,  Cliil- 
jicrir,  and  Lc Petit  Faust.    He  died  November  4, 1892. 

Hervey,  James,  author  of  Mcf/itations  among 
the  Tumhs,  w.as  born  at  Hardingstone,  near  North- 
anipton,  on  2tith  Febniary  1714.  The  facts  of  his 
life  are  few.  He  w,%s  educated  at  Ncnthampton 
and  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  and  wa-s  first  eur.ate 
and  afterwards  incumbent  of  Weston-Favel  and 
Collingtree,  both  near  Northampton.  He  died  on 
Christmius-day  1758.  Hervey  adopted  a  Calvinistic 
creed,  and  in  the  18th  century  bis  works,  though 
not  distinguished  by  any  extrivordinary  (|ualities, 
enjoyed  great  favour  w  ith  the  ])eople.  The  liest  of 
them  are  Mef/itrition.t  ond  Contem/i/nfions  (\'46), 
including  his  most  famous  production,  'Medita- 
tions   a ng    the    Tombs,'   .and   also    'Reflections 

on  a  P'lower  Garden  '  and  '  A  Uescant  on  Creation  ;' 


('ii)iti ni/>ltilions  on  the  Siyhl  and  Slarri/  Heavens 
(1747);  anil  Theron  and  Asjxi.sio,  or  a  Heries  of 
iJiuloijnes  and  Letters  on  the  Most  Inijiorlant  Sub- 
jerts  (3  vols.  1755).  This  last  gave  rise  to  the 
Sandenumian  controversy  ils  to  the  miture  of  saving 
faith.  A  complete  ediliim  of  his  wdrks,  with  a 
memoir,  appeared  in  1797.  See  also  his  Life  and 
Letters  (2  vols.  1700). 

llrrvi'V  Islands.    See  Cook  Isi.vxd.s. 

Ilcrwarlli  von   Ititt4'nr«>ld.   Kai:i.  Erer- 

llAlih.  I'lussiiin  geiier.il.w.is  born  in  1791!,  and  gained 
his  lirst  laurels  in  the  war  of  liberation,  espeiially 
in  the  battle  of  Leipzig.  In  lH(i4,  raisiMl  to  the 
rank  of  general,  he  acipiircd  great  fame  through 
his  daring  capture  of  tlie  isle  of  Al.sen.  In  tlie 
campaign  of  18CG  lie  wa.s  entrusted  with  the  occu- 
jiation  of  Saxony,  and  then  with  thi'  command 
of  the  arinv  which  ailvanced  from  Saxony  into 
Bohemia,  lie  contributed  largely  to  tin'  lirllljant 
victories  of  Hiihnerwa.sser,  Miiiuhengriit/,  and 
Kiiniggriitz.  In  1870,  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Franco-German  war,  he  w.as  made  governor  of  the 
Rhine  [uovinces,  in  1871  a  general  iield-mai'shal ; 
and  he  died  at  Bonn,  '2{\  Septt'mber  1884.  In  the 
war  of  18ti(>  one  of  his  sons  fell ;  in  that  of  1870 
two  were  killed. 

Ilor/.,  Hknui,  a  pianist  ami  composer  for  the 
pianoforte,  wius  born  of  .lewisb  parentage  at 
Vienna  in  l.SOO,  .ami  educated  iirincipally  in  I'aris, 
where  bis  talent  was  e.irly  recogniseil.  His  com- 
]iositions  becami!  ]>opnlar  over  Kurojie,  and  he 
was  received  with  great  a|)plause  on  visiting  Eng- 
land in  18.'i4,  and  America  in  1840.  In  18.'i7  he 
received  the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honour; 
.and  from  1S42  till  1874  he  was  professor  of  .Music 
.at  the  ConservatoinMif  I'aris.  At  the  same  time 
be  man.aged  a  pianoforte  factory,  ami  in  1855 
gained  with  bis  pianofortes  the  lirst  [uize  .at  the 
I'aris  exhibition.  His  compositions,  more  th.an 
'200  in  number,  are  mostly  for  the  piano,  .and  are 
ch.ar.acterised  by  melodic  charm  and  a  certain 
originality.     He  died  5tb  January  1888. 

Her/.,  IIknhiettk,  a  l.ady  of  great  beauty,  high 
intelligence,  ami  wide  culture,  ami  a  .Jewess,  who, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  I9th  century,  m.ade  her 
home  at  Iterlin  a  gathering  place  for  the  intel- 
lectual life  of  the  city.  .Amongst  those  who  either 
met  in  her  salon  (w  were  in  ouresiiomlence  with 
her  were  the  Humboldts,  Fr.  Schlegel,  llentz,  V.arn- 
li.agen  vcm  Fuse,  R.abel,  Schleiermacher,  and  Biirne. 
.She  was  born  at  Berlin,  on  5tli  September  1704, 
the  daughter  of  a  .lewish  doctor  of  I'ortugni'se 
origin,  lienjamin  ile  Lenios,  and  was  m.arried  in 
1779  to  another  doctor,  .Markus  Heiz.  In  1817 
she  went  over  to  I'rotestantism.  She  died  on  2'2d 
October  1847.  See  her  Life  by  Fiirst  ('2d  ed.  1858), 
and  her  correspondence  with  Biirne  ( 1801 ). 

ll«'r7.4>so'vina.    See  Ro.snia. 

Ilcrzcil,  .\l.KXAN"l)Kl!,  a  Russi.an  author,  was 
born  at  Moscow,  25th  March  1812.  In  18.14,  while 
yet  a  student,  he  was  imprisoned  for  bis  political 
opinions.  From  1842  he  published  much,  princi- 
pally novels  and  political  works.  In  1840  be  left 
Russia,  and  eventually  established  himself  in 
1851  in  London.  .-M  this  time  his  voice  li.ad 
great  weight  in  inlluencing  ]mblic  opinion  in 
Russi.a.  chielly  by  means  of  his  paper  Kolohol, 
of  which  tliou.sands  of  copies  were  smuggled  into 
I'ussia,  in  spite  of  the  government  luohibition. 
But  Herzen  gr.adu.ally  lost  his  intluence  as  he 
became  more  .and  more  a  ]i.art.y-m.an,  and  especially 
by  his  .advocacy  of  the  cause  of  the  I'oles  at  the 
outbreak  of  their  rebellion  in  1SG.3.  He  died  at 
I'aris,  21st  .lannary  1870.  Of  his  numerous  works 
may  be  mentioned  the  novels  Who  is  to  Blame?  und 
Dr  Krupdff,   and    From    the    Other   Shore,   Letters 


HERZOG 


HESPERORNIS 


G97 


frdia  Iliihi  and  FritncCy  iJi'Vclujiiiioit  of  lirrolution- 
ary  Ideas  in  Itti.isiri,  linptiaed  Property  (Serfdom), 
anil  The  S(xial  Condition  of  Rinssia.  Many  of 
these  appeared  nnder  tlie  pseudonym  of  Iskander. 
He  also  edited  M('inoires  de  Vlmpirutriee  Catliirine 
( IS.")!)),  and  the  works  of  Pushkin,  Lerniontott',  &o. 
His  collected  works  appeared  in  Russian  in  II  vols, 
at  Basel,  1875  et  scq. 

Ilcrzog,  JoHANN  Jakor,  a  theologian  of  the 
I'lOfoniied  creed,  was  born  at  Basel,  12tli  September 
ISO."),  and,  after  studying  at  Berlin,  became  pro- 
fessor at  Lausanne  (iS3()),  Halle  (1847),  and  Kr- 
langen  (1854).  He  died  30tli  Sejitember  1882. 
Amongst  his  works  are  a  book  on  the  Plymouth 
I'rcthrcn  (Lausanne,  1845),  lives  of  Calvin  and 
(Kcolampadius,  a  work  on  the  Walden.ses,  and  a 
churchdiistory  ;  but  Ids  name  is  be.st  known  for 
the  great  theological  encyclo]iN.'dia  edited  by  him, 
Uialeneyhlopddiefiir  Proteslmitisehc  Thculotjic  and 
Kirehe  (22  vols.  Gotha,  1854-68);  new  ed.  by 
Herzog,  Plitt,  and  Hauck  (18  vols.  1877-88); 
Knglisli  abridged  ed.  by  Schafi'(3  vols.  1882-84). 

llesiod,  the  earliest  didactic  poet  of  Greece  of 
whom  we  have  any  knowledge,  was  boin  in  Ascra, 
a  small  village  at  the  foot  of  Blount  Helicon.  As 
111-  himself  informs  us,  in  his  boyhood  he  tended 
flocks  on  the  mountain.  On  the  death  of  his  father 
lie  became  engaged  with  his  brotlier,  Perses,  in  a 
lawsuit  as  to  tlie  division  of  their  patrimony.  His 
brother  bribed  the  'kings'  or  judges,  and  thus 
gained  unjust  possession  of  tlie  property,  which, 
however,  lie  soon  dissipated.  But  Hesiod  pros- 
pered, and  when  Perses  in  his  poverty  ajiplied  to 
liiiM  for  aid  He.siod  gave  him  the  good  advice  which 
forms  the  larger  part  of  his  \Vurl:n  and  lliiyx. 
Aceoiiling  to  a  passage  (if  genuine,  646-()62)  in  the 
same  poem,  Hesiod  attended  the  funeral  games 
of  Amphidanias  at  Chalcis,  in  Eubma,  and  there 
recited  a  hymn  of  his  composition  which  gained 
him  the  prize.  It  was  probably  for  some  such 
festival  that  he  composed  the  Thengoiiy.  Where  or 
how  Hesiod  died  we  do  not  know.  The  only  data 
we  pos.sess  for  fixing  the  time  at  which  Hesioil 
lived  are  those  contained  in  his  works,  for  although 
Herodotus  makes  Hesiod  contemporary  with 
Homer,  he  can  have  had  no  suHicient  evidence  to 
go  upon.  The  poems  of  Hesiod  show  .■icquaintance 
with  a  wider  geographical  horizon,  especially  west- 
wards, than  do  those  of  Homer;  the  Language  is 
in  a  later  stage,  the  digamma  more  froiiuently 
neglected  ;  and,  linally,  in  Hesiod  there  are  unniis- 
takalile  imitations  of  Homer.  We  may  therefore 
safely  conclude  that  Hesiod  was  later  than  Homer 
— possibly  belongs  to  the  end  of  the  8th  century  B.C. 

The  ir<//7,.s  mid  Days  is  generally  considered  to 
consist  of  two  originally  distinct  poems,  om^  con- 
taining the  good  advice  to  his  brother,  lueachiiig 
up  honest  labour  and  denouncing  corrupt  and  un- 
just judges  ;  the  other,  the  real  Works  ami  Days, 
containing  advice  as  to  the  days  lucky  or  unlucky, 
proper  or  improper,  for  the  farmer's  work.  The 
V'/i(w/o»i/ teaches  the  origin  of  the  universe  out  of 
Chaos,  tlie  creation  of  earth  and  hell,  of  night  and 
(lay,  sea  and  sky,  sun  and  moon,  and  the  history  of 
the  gods.  Boeotian  tradition  denied  that  the  T/ie- 
or/on  If  wa.s  the  work  of  Hesiod,  but  Herodotus  allirms 
it  (ii.  53),  and  the  internal  testimony  and  the 
similarity  of  the  language  of  the  Throijotiy  and  the 
W'lirl.s  and  Days  coiilirms  Herodotus.  ( )n  the  other 
h.and,  the  Hhield  of  Heracles,  which  has  been  pre- 
served, and  the  Catalogue  of  Women  and  the  how, 
which  have  not,  were  not  genuine.  The  corrosive 
criticism  which  has  been  poured  on  the  Homeric 
poems  has  also  been  applied  to  the  Ilesiodic  ;  and 
here  too  the  critics  are  not  agreed  whether  the 
unity  of  the  poems  is  the  work  of  the  original  com- 
poser, and  has  been  disturbed  by  inter]iidations,  or 


is  the  work  of  some  late  editor  harmonising  lays 
originally  unconnected.  The  dialect  (Old  Ionic)  in 
which  the  Ilesiodic  poems  are  compo.sed  has  also 
been  attacked.  Fick  maintains  that  the  Theoyony 
w.as  composed  in  the  Delphic  dialect,  the  ir'»7.'.v«H</ 
Days  ill  ancient  .Kolic,  and  that  they  were  subse- 
ijuently  rewritten  in  artilicia!  Ionic. 

Hesiod  wrote  not  to  plea.se  the  imagination,  1)ut 
to  improve  the  mind.  Homer  told  tales,  the  tale  of 
Troy,  of  x\clnlles,  of  Odysseus,  '  lies  like  unto  the 
truth,'  as  Hesiod  would  say.  Hesiod's  objec^t  wa-s 
to  tell  the  truth.  His  j)oetry  is  not  very  ])oetical, 
but  it  has  its  interest,  in  the  lirst  place,  it  is  what 
the  Greeks  learned  by  heart  as  ehihlren  and  quoted 
as  men  for  their  moral  guidance.  In  the  next 
place,  the  Works  and  Days  gives  us  an  invaluable 
picture  of  the  village-community  as  it  existed  in 
Greece  in  the  8th  century  B.C.,  and  of  the  'kings' 
of  Homer  as  they  appeared  to  the  vill.agers.  Finally, 
the  Thcoijony  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the 
comparative  mythologist.  The  hist  edition  of 
Hesiod  appeared  at  ililan,  1493 ;  other  editions, 
Schomann  (1869),  Fick  (1887).  See  also  Grappe, 
Dieejrieeh.  Knlte  u.  Mythen,  1.  567-612. 

Ilesper'ides,  the  name  of  the  sisters  who, 
assisted  by  the  dragon  Ladoii,  guarded  the  golden 
apjiles  which  Hera  had  received,  on  her  marriage 
with  Zeus,  from  G;ea.  Their  genealogy  and 
their  number  are  variously  given  by  inythologists. 
The  gardens  of  the  Hesperides  wore  placed  far  in 
the  west,  on  the  verge  of  the  ocean,  or  in  the  land 
of  the  Hyperboreans.  The  apples  were  stolen  by 
Hercules  (q.v. ),  but  were  afterwards  restored  by 
Athena.     See  Atlantls. 

He.sperornis,  a  remarkable  extinct  form  of 
bird,  the  remains  of  which  have  been  met  with  in 
the  American  Cretaceous  deposits.  As  described 
by  Professor  Marsh,  it  ))Ossossed  small  pointeil 
reptilian  teeth,   which  were  implanted  in  a  deep 


Restoration  of  Skeleton  of  Hespcrornis  regal  is  : 
a,  tootii  of  do.  witb  germ  of  second  tooth  (  magnified  ). 

continuous  groove,  somewhat  like  those  of  Ichthyo- 
saurus. Its  luain  was  small  and  more  reptilian  in 
type  than  that  of  any  adult  bir<l  as  yet  examined. 
It  apiieiii's  to  have  been  a  large  diving-bird,  measur- 
ing over  5  feet  from  the  jioint  of  the  bill  to  the  end 
of  the  toes.  Its  wings  were  rudimentary,  its  legs 
powerful,  and  its  feet  well  adapted  for  raoid  pio- 
gres.>^ion  in  w ater.  The  tail  w.as  broad,  could  move 
up  and  down,  and  was  probably  used  as  a  milder 
or  swimming-paddle.  Tlic  long  slender  j.aws  were 
united  in  front  onlv  by  cartilage,  as  in  serpents, 
and   had   on   each  side  a  joint   which  admitted  of 


698 


HESPERUS 


HESSIAN    FLY 


some  inotiim,  so  tlmt  '  the  jiowerof  swiillowiiij,'  wiv* 
(loulitless  eiiual  to  almost  any  emeigoiicy.'  See 
Odontiiknuiiks. 

Hesperus,  tlie  ('lepk  name  (Lat.  Tis/nr)  for 
A'enus  .us  the  evening'  star  (see  PLANET).  Hence 
the  Alexanilrian  jjiammaii.ans  called  Italy,  anil 
sometimes  all  western  Eiiio|ie,  Ucsjicria,  '  the 
western  land.' 

Hesse  (tier.  Ifr.i.ten),  or  Hi;s,sk1)akm.st.m)T,  a 
^'riinil-ciucliv  of  thetierman  empire,  lyini,' l)et«een 
''  .">r  an.l  9'  :i'.y  K.  lonj,'.,  and  49'  24'  anil  50"  .'.O' 
N.  l.at.  A  stri]!  of  Hesse- Nassau  divides  it  into  a 
northern  part,  tHierhesscn,  completely  enclosed  liy 
Prussia,  anil  a  southern  iiart.  ciimprisin;;  the  two 
provinces  of  Starkenliur^'.  civst  of  the  Kliine,  and 
Kheinlicssen,  west  of  the  lihine.  IJesiiles  these  two 
main  parts  there  are  eleven  enclaves  in  Hadcn 
and  Prussia,  the  Iari,'est  Wimpfen  and  Hohen- 
stadt.  Oherhessen  is  partly  occupied  in  the  cast 
by  the  Vo;;elsliertr,  culminating'  in  Taufstcin 
('Jr>.'!2  feet),  in  the  southwest  liy  a  ramilic.-ilion 
of  the  'I'aunus,  the  fertile  and  undulatin;,'  valley 
of  Wettciau  lyin^'  l)etween  them.  Starkeulmrf;, 
in  the  south-e.-ist,  is  covered  l>y  the  larger  part 
of  the  Oilenwalil.  The  P>cr';stra.s.se  divides  the  u])- 
lands  of   Starkenhnrj;  on  tlie  east  from  the  ]>lain 

of  the  Khii 1  the  west.     This  jihiin  merges  in  the 

north  iutii  tlie  jilain  of  the  Main.  Itheinhe.sscn, 
fertile  and  populous  uplands,  laid  out  largely  in 
vineyards,  tlie  iirincipal  iudiistiy  of  the  province, 
lies  "lietween  the  three  points,  Kreuznach,  .Main/, 
and  Worms.  With  the  exception  of  the  streams  to 
the  ea.st  of  Vogelslierg  draining  into  the  Kulda,  the 
watei-s  of  He.sse— Rhine,  Main,  Neckar,  ami  l.alin 
— helong  to  the  llhine  systeni.  Of  the  total  sur- 
face, comprising  3000  sip  m.,  50  percent,  is  tilled 
land   and   g.irden,   and    'M    forest.      The  most    im- 

i)ortant  products  are  corn — jjarticularly  in  the 
{liine  and  Main  plains,  and  in  Wetterau— pulse, 
potatoes,  rape,  poppy,  tobacco,  llax,  fruit,  and 
vines.  Hesse  yields  iron,  manganese  ore,  and 
peat.  The  industries — luainly  in  Mainz,  Oll'en- 
fiacb,  and  Worms — include  the  making  of  leather, 
boots,  upholstery,  tobacco,  cigars,  chemical.s,  &c. 
For  an  old  Hessian  tr.ade,  sec  Mkiicknahik.s. 

The  total  i>opulatii>n  amounted  in  1875  to 
882,349,  in  18S5  to  95G,G11,  in  1890  to  992,88.3.  Of 
these  419,042  belonged  to  Starkenliurg,  and  006, 118 
were  Protestants,  293,632  Catholics,  and  25,331 
Jews.  M.ainz(ii.v.)  is  the  largest  town  ;  D.armstadt 
is  the  capital.  Hesse  has  a  university  at  Giessen, 
with  5.'>0  students,  and  a  technical  university  at 
Darmstadt,  with  300  st\idents. — The  government  is 
constitutional,  the  legislative  power  consisting  of 
two  chambers.  The  annual  revenue  for  the  period 
1894  97  was  estiriniteil  at  £1,721,000,  and  the  ex- 
penditure at  £1,. 570,000. 

The  I  lessen  were  an  ancient  (Jerman  tribe,  and 
their  territory  came  to  be  included  in  the  princi- 
pality of  TImringia.  We  tiist  hear  of  the  land- 
grave of  Hesse  in  the  13th  century.  On  the  death 
of  Philip  the  Magnanimous  in  15()7  the  land- 
graviate  of  Hesse  w:is  quartered  among  his  four 
sons,  into  Cjussel,  Marburg,  Kheinfels,  .uid  Darm- 
stadt. The  House  of  Kheinfels  becomin;;  extinct 
in  1583,  and  that  of  .Marburg  in  ltiU4,  llesse  was 
reconstituted  in  two  divisions — He-sse-Ciussel  and 
Hesse- Darmstadt.  After  the  French  Kevohition 
Louis  X.,  under  pressure  of  France,  signed  a  treaty 
of  neutrality,  and  ( I80.")-13)  suiiplied  Napoleon  with 
a  contingent  of  troops  .against  the  other  (lermans. 
In  18(H)  l^ouis  .assumed  the  title  of  graml-duke. 
In  1813,  after  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  Louis  joined 
the  allies,  and  in  1815  had  to  acknowledge  the 
independence  of  Hesse- Homburg.  In  1.866  Hes.se, 
having  sided  with  .Vustria,  had  to  yield  up  certain 
territories,     including     Hes.se- Homburg,    recently 


acquired,  to  Prussia.  In  1.82t)  was  founded  a  new 
constitution  of  government,  modilied  in  18.56,  lsi>2, 
and  1872. 

Hesse-i'a.ssel,  till  1866  a  (lerinan  elector.ite, 
now  forming  the  government  district  of  ('iLs,sel  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  Hesse-Nius-sau  (q.v.).  Area, 
37(HI  sq.  m.  ;  liop.  (1864)745,063.  The  landgiavi 
ate  of  Hesse-Cassel  was  formed  by  William  1\. , 
eldest  son  of  Philip  the  Magnanimmis,  who  died 
in  1567.  Constituted  an  electorate  in  1803,  it  wiu* 
occupied  by  the  French  in  1S06,  incorporated  with 
Westphalia  in  1807,  and  reconstituted  an  electorate 
in  1813.  The  elector  having  joined  Austria  in  1866, 
Hesse-Ca.s.sel  was  incorporated  with  Prussia,  as  part 
of  the  iirovince  of  Hesse-Na.ssau. 

llesse-IIOIIllMir;;.  till  ISOO  a  lamlgraviate  of 
Germany,  consisting  of  the  Innlsliip  of  llnmburg 
vor  der  lliihe,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Kbine,  and 
the  lordship  of  Mi-isenbeim,  on  the  left  bank. 
Area,  106  sq.  iii.  :  pop.  (1864)  27,374.  Since  1866 
H es.se- Homlmrg  has  been  incorporaled  with  Prussia, 
Homburg  now  forming  pint  of  the  district  of 
Hesse-Ca.-'.sel,  and  .Meisenhcim  of  that  of  Coblenz. 
Hesse-Honiburg  was  constituted  a  lamlgraviate 
in  1.596.  In  1S06  Hesse  Homburg  became  aj;ain 
incorporated  with  Hesse  Darmstadt,  but  in  1815 
was  decreed  inileiienilcnt,  while  it  was  enlarged  by 
the  addition  of  the  district  of  Meisenhcim.  In 
1866  Hes.se- Homburg  reverted  to  llesse- Darmstadt ; 
but  the  grand-duke,  having  espon.sed  the  cause  of 
Austria  in  the  seven  weeks'  war,  was  forced  to 
surrender  Hesse  Homburg  to  Pnissia. 

Hesse-Miissilll,  .a  province  of  Prussia,  between 
Bavaria  and  Saxony  on  the  east  and  the  Hhinenti 
the  west,  wa-s  formed  (1867-<iS)  out  of  parts  of 
the  former  electorate  of  Hesse-Cassel,  of  the  former 
Duchy  of  Na-ssau,  of  the  lordship  of  Homburg 
forming  part  of  the  former  countship  of  Hesse 
Homburg,  of  the  larger  part  of  the  former  free 
town  of  Frankforton-the-Alain,  and  small  jiarts  of 
Pavaria.  It  comprises  5943  sq.  m.  The  surface 
consists  mostly  of  ujdands,  contrasting  with  the 
Main  plain  and  part  of  Wetterau  in  the  south, 
and  with  the  narrow  valley.s  of  the  Werra  and 
Fulda,  and  the  fertile  basin" of  the  Schwalm  in  the 
north.  The  bills  I'overing  its  surface  include  the 
Taunus  and  the  Westerwald,  rising  to  2886  feet ; 
the  Hohe  Ithiin,  rising  in  (Jrosse  Wiusserkiijipe  to 
3096  feet  :  the  Lahn  Mountains,  iVc.  The  Thiii- 
ingerwald  tr.vversing  Schmalkalden  culminates  in 
the  In.selsberi'  (3001).  Among  the  minerals  are 
iron,  coiqier,  lead,  manganese,  and  building-stone. 
It  is  ricli  in  mineral  watei's,  such  as  at  Wiesb.aden, 
Ems,  Kronthal,  Homburg,  iS.c.  The  manufactures 
include  gold  and  silverwares  at  Cassel,  leather  at 
E.schwege,  damasks  and  other  stull's  at  I'ulibi, 
iron-foundries  at  Hanan,  iVc.  The  ]iopulation  in 
1875  was  1,467,898;  in  1890,  1,664,426;  1,1.'>6,4.J7 
being  Protestants,  455,;U2  Catholics,  and  44,543 
Jews.  Of  its  108  towns  only  .seven  ( Frank- 
fort, Cussel,  Wiesbaden,  Hanan,  ISockenheim, 
Marburg,  and  Fulda)  have  more  than  10,000  in- 
habitants each.  He.s.se-Na.ssau  has  a  university  at 
Marburg,  twelve  gymnasiums,  thirty-eight  '  Heal-,' 
commercial,  and  iiigher  .schools,  seven  teacbci-s' 
seminaries,  three  deaf  and  dumb  and  two  blind 
institutes.  The  principal  occupations  are  agricul- 
ture, cattle-rearing,  the  usual  industries,  and 
mining. 

Hessian  Flv  {Ceddomyiu  destructor),  a  dip- 
terous in.sect,  wliich  in  its  larval  state  is  one  of 
the  most  important  cro|i-pests,  attacking  stems  of 
barley,  wheat,  and  rye.  The  eggs  are  usually  laid 
on  the  leaves  twice  a  year,  in  May  and  Sei>tember, 
and  the  larvas  which  hatch  in  a  fortnight,  bore 
into  the  stem,  suck  the  juices,  and  destroy  the 
plant.     The  larv;e  turn  to  pup;e  in  the  end  of  July, 


HESYCHASTS 


HEVES 


699 


or  in  spring,  and  tlience  the  flies  develop  in  abont 
ten  days.  The  egg  is  verv  minute,  about  ^^.th  of  an 
inch,  and  pale  red  towards  hatching.  The  larva  or 
maggot  has  a  sliining,  oval  body,  white  or  yellow- 
ish, with  a  soft  lleshv  head  and  twelve  segments. 


Hessian  Fly  (Cecidomyia  destructor) : 
a,  masnifietl;  h,  natural  size;  c,  pupa  cases  ('flax-seeds')  in 
(liferent  stages,  natural  size  and  niapnilied  ;  d,  barley  stem, 
showing  'flax-seeds'  in  situ;  e,  stem  elbowed  down.    (From 
Miss  Onnerod.) 

The  mouth  parts  are  very  delicate,  hut  near  the 
hind  enil  is  a  chitinons  '  anchor  process,'  which  is 
]irolial)ly  useil  as  a  digger  or  scraper.  The  pupa- 
cases,  which  are  called  '  tl.ax-.seeds,'are  about  |th  of 
an  inch  in  length,  of  a  long  oval  shape,  and  of  a 
brownish  or  chestnut  colour.  The  Hy  itself  is  a 
little  stout-made  black  and  brown  gnat,  about 
Jth  of  an  inch  in  length. 

The  lly  Mas  iiist  lcno«Ti  as  a  scourge  in  North 
America  during  the  years  17H6  and  1789,  and  owes 
its  name  to  the  ernmeous  supposition  that  it  was 
imported  by  the  Hessian  troops,  mercenaries  of 
Great  Britain.  In  Englan<l  it  appeared  in  1788, 
and  was  described  liy  Sir  .Joseph  Banks.  '  It  is  now 
known  to  exist  in  the  south  of  France,  Austria,  Hun- 
gary, .and  southern  Russia,  and  its  original  haliitat 
is  coiisidcrcd  most  probably  to  have  been  .southern 
Enrojie  and  western  Asia.'  In  1886  it  occurred  in 
Britain,  and  in  some  districts  is  said  to  have  caused 
a  loss  of  several  bushels  per  acre.  In  some  years 
the  loss  in  America  has  been  enormous;  as  in  the 
years  1790,  1S'21,  lS-y-45,  1871-7-2,  1876-78.  Late 
sowing,  '  ploughing  in  '  infested  stubble,  the  use  of 
'  bait '  patches  of  cmn,  rotation  of  crops,  the  selec- 
tion of  strong-stemmed  corn,  and  the  like  are 
suggested  preventions  of  the  scourge. 

See  Cecidomyia,  Corn  Insects  ;  E.  A.  Onnerod,  The 
Hessian  Fly  (Lend.  lS8(i);  A.  S.  Packard,  'The  Hessian 
Fly,  its  ravages,  &c.'  in  U.S.A.  Third  Rep.  of  Kntomotof/. 
Comm.  (Washington,  1883)  ;  H.  A.  Hagen,  'The  Hessian 
Fly  not  imported  from  Europe,'  in  Caiiad.  Entomolo- 
oisl  (1880);  B.  Wagner,  Die  neue  Getreide  QaU-MUckc 
(18lil). 

Hesycliasts  (Gr.  hiisychrtzcin,  '  to  be  quiet '),  a 
mystic  and  contemplative  sect  of  the  (xreek  Church 
in  the  14tli  century,  who  m.ay  be  described  as  the 
(I'uietists  of  the  Ea.st.  A  Basilian  monk,  nameil 
B.ulaam,  a  native  of  Calaliria,  in  the  coui'se  of  a 
visit  to  the  momistcries  of  Greece,  ()bserved  among 
the  monks  of  Mount  .\thos  several  jvractices  and 
doctrines  which  he  considered  grievously  reprehen- 
sible, but  one  in  especial.  Believing  that  in  the 
soul  lay  hidilen  a  certain  divine  light,  which  it  was 
the  olhce  of  contemplation  to  evoke,  the  monks 
withdrew  at  stated  time>  to  a  retired  place,  seated 
themselves  on  the  earth,  ami  lived  their  eyes  ste.ad- 
fa.stly  on  the  centre  of  the  stomach  (whence  the 
soubriiiuet  by  which  they  were  known,  omphalo- 


pifyi-hoi.,  '  navel  souls' ) ;  and  they  averred  that,  aftc-r 
the  allotted  time  of  contemplation,  a  kind  of 
heavenly  light  beamed  forth  upon  them  from  the 
soul  (whose  seat,  they  held,  was  in  that  region), 
and  tilled  them  willi  ecstasy  and  supernatural 
delight.  The  monks  weie  defended  by  Gregory 
Palam.as,  the  Archbisho]i  of  Tlies,s;iloniea ;  ami 
councils  in  1.S41  and  1:551  juonouncecl  in  their 
favour.  But  the  public  voice  w.as  hostile  to  the 
sect,  and  they  soon  fell  into  obscurity.  See  Stein '.s 
monograph  ( Vienna,  1874). 

HesychillSa  a  Greek  grammarian  of  Alexandria, 
Hourished  probably  towards  the  eml  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury A.D.  He  was  the  author  of  a  (ireek  lexicon, 
containing  words  and  jihra.ses,  ob.scure,  rare,  and 
dialectical,  which,  in  spite  of  the  corrupti<m  of  the 
text,  is  one  of  the  most  useful  books  we  have  for 
understanding  the  works  of  the  great  cl.assic  writei-s 
of  Greece.  I'lie  best  edition  is  that  published  by 
Alberti  and  Uiihnken  (1746-66;  with  additions  by 
Schow,  1792).— He.svchiis  of  Miletus  wrote  a  work 
on  eminent  Greek  writers,  and  a  universal  hi-tory 
(mostlv  lost)  down  to  jl8  A.D.  See  Urellis  edition 
( 18-20  )." 

Hetairai,  or  Het;er.B  (Gr.,  'female  com 
panions),  the  courtes.ans  of  Athens,  who  enjoye<l 
a  social  standing  not  elsewhere  accorded  to  them, 
were  often  women  of  high  culture,  and  exercised 
great  influence.     See  Asp.vsia,  Lais,  Phkyne. 

Hetairi.sts.    See  yp.siLASTi. 

Heteroocrcal  (Gr.  hefa-o.<i,  'unequal,'  and 
kerkus,  'tail'),  Agassiz'  term  for  the  tail  of 
Elasmobranch  and  most  Ganoid  fishes,  in  which 
the  vertebral  axis  is  bent  upwards  in  the  tail, 
making  the  upper  lobe  mnch  the  larger  (see  the 
article  Stirgeox).  In  bony  fishes  also  the  axis  is 
somewhat  bent  upwards  in  its  termination,  but  the 
asymmetry  is  disguised,  and  the  tail  looks  equal- 
lobed  or  homocertul.  In  some  Teleosteans  and 
Ganoids,  in  a  few  Elasmobraiichs,  and  in  Dipnoi, 
the  tail  is  genuinely  symmetrical  or  diplnjccrcdl. 

Hetcrop'oda,  pelagic  Gasteropods,  in  which 
the  'foot'  has  become  a  swimming  organ.  In 
a.ssociation  with  their  active  life  on  the  surface  of 
the  ocean  must  be  noteil  not  oidy  the  locomotor 
foot,  but  the  protective  transjiarency,  the  highly- 
developed  nervous  system  and  sensory  structures, 
eyes,  eai-s,  and  smelling  organ.  The  toothed  rib- 
bon in  the  mouth  is  also  very  elaborate.  Techni- 
cally the  Heteropods  are  included  among  the  Azygo- 
branchs.  Atlanta,  with  a  large  visceral  dome  ami 
shell  ;  Carinaria,  with  a  reduced  hump  and  small 
cap-like  shell  ;  and  I'terotrachea,  without  a  hump  or 
shell,  are   the  three   types.       See  Gasteropod.v, 

MOLLU-SCS. 

Hetorop'tera.     See    Hemiptera,    AV.vter- 

UUG. 

Hetlliail.  or  At.vmax,  the  title  of  the  head  or 

general  of  the  Cossacks  (q.v.). 

Hevelill.s  (whose  real  name  was  Hovel  or 
HovEl.KE),  JonANN,  German  astronomer,  was  iMun 
at  Danzig,  '28th  January  1611,  and  died  in  that  city, 
28th  January  1687.  He  was  wealthy,  and  in  1641 
lie  erected  an  observatory  in  his  own  house,  ami 
for  forty  years  carried  on  astronomical  ob>ervations 
therefrom.  He  wrote  descrii>tions  of  the  phases  and 
spots  of  the  moon,  conducteil  numerous  researches 
on  comets,  ami  prepared  charts  of  the  moon  and  of 
the  he.avens.  He  laid  down  the  results  of  his  ob.*er- 
vations  in  Sehiiof/rofi/iia  (1(547),  Cuinctoijriij>hia 
(1668),  and  Maclihia  Ca'leMi.i  (1673:  reprinted, 
with  ail  English  trans,  by  Prince,  in  188'2),  besiiles 
minor  w<uks. 

Hov«'S,  a  town  of  Hungary,  60  miles  ENE.  of 
Pesth.      Pop.  6698. 


700 


HEXACHORD 


HEYLIN 


lloxacliord.  i"  moilern  imisio,  ilenotps  the  six 
(liiitiiiiii- ili'j,'ii'cs  of  wliioli  (Jiiidn  foiiiit'il  lii»  scale. 
Sff  Ci  MM),  ami  SCAI.K. 

llcXilKOII  ('■'■•  '"■''•  'six,'  and  i/iiiiiii,  'allele'), 
a  lij;iiie  cif  six  sides  and  six  an-^cles  ;  wlieii  the  sides 
and  angles  are  equal  it  is  ealled  a  »■<■//»/«;■  licj-ngoii. 
Of  the  three  lifriiies  which  ean  ooiiipletely  ori'ii|py 
s|)ace  (the  e<iuilatciiil  tnan;,'le,  s(|iiaie,  and  liexa 
gon)  tlie  liexa;;(>M  eontaiiis  the  <;ieatest  area  within 
a  ^iven  perinicter,  the  ]iri>|>i>rtii>ns  hetween  the 
three  ditl'erent  (i^'ines  hein;;  nearly  ivs  the  nunil>ei-s 
4,  55,  6.  It  is  thus  that  hees,  hy  niakinjj;  their  cells 
of  a  hcxa;{onaI  form,  enclose  the  f;reatest  space 
witli  the  least  expenditure  of  wax.     .Sec  liEKS. 

ll4'\:ilH'4il*OII,  a  solid  lij;nre  bounded  by  six 
fares     the  eiihe  hein;,'  one  incli. 

Ilexailiotcr.  the  name  a|)plied  to  the  most 
important  form  of  classical  verse.  It  is  the  heroic 
<n'  e]iic  vei-se  of  the  (Jreeks  and  liom.ins,  the 
f,Tandcst  examples  of  which  are  the  lliml  and 
Odyssei/  in  Greek,  and  the  yEiirid  in  Latin.  It  con- 
sists, as  its  name  implies,  of  six  feet  or  measures, 
the  last  of  which  must  he  a  spondee  (a  mciusure 
composed  of  two  lonj;  syllables),  and  the  i)eiiulti. 
mate  a  dactyl  (i>ne  l<m<;  syllable  and  two  slim-t). 
If  the  iienultimate  is  also  <a  s]ionili'e,  the  verse  is 
s.iid  to  l>e  sponilaie.  Klopstock,  (Joetlie,  and  Voss 
have  jiroduced  admirable  specimens  of  hexameter 
verse  in  (Jerman  ;  .and  it  has  become  f,aniiliar  in 
Enfjlish  throuxli  IiOni,'fel low's  Ju-iitif/c/tNC,  Kin^s- 
ley's  AiidniitHild,  anil  ('lou;,'h"s  liiilhic  iif  'J'ohcr-iia- 
]'iiijtic/i.  Tile  following'  lines  from  the  last  show 
the  only  varieties  of  the  hexameter  which  ar(! 
endurable  to  the  e.ar— i.e.  those  in  which  the 
accent  on  each  foot  falls  on  its  lii-st  syllable  : 

FOlt  slij^  Id  I  inyrlitd  I  springs  her  I  sOurccs  I  flir  In  thi^  |  niufln- 

tiiiiis, 
.StlrriiiK.  oM  j  lectfng,  |  hSavIng  Qp,  |  rising,  |  IDrth  oQt  |  flowing. 

It  will  be  observed  that  on  whatever  syllable  here 
the  metrical  accent  falls,  that  syllable  is  precisely 
the  same  which  the  voice  n;iturally  .accentuates. 
Whether  this  wius  the  case  in  ancient  (Jreek  ami 
L.atin  hexametei's  we  do  not  know,  but,  if  the 
present  .system  of  (Jreek  .accentuation  represents 
the  natural  accent  of  Homeric  words,  it  is  certain 
th.it  Homer  <lisrej;.arded  the  natural  accents,  or  did 
not  observe  our  rule  of  always  pl.icln<;  the  metrical 
accent  on  the  first  syllable  of  e.acli  foot ;  and  we 
still  pronounce  Latin  hexameters  by  ]>reserving 
what  we  take  to  be  the  natural  accent  of  each 
word,  whether  that  corresponds  to  the  metrical 
accent  or  not.     Thus  in  the  line 

Itiili  I  nin  fA  j  to  pr6fu  |  giis  I^a  I  viniaquc  [  v^nit 
we  disie>;ard  the  metrical  accent,  which  should  fall 
on  the  lirst  syllable  of  e.acli  foot  (and  actually  does 
so  in  the  lifth  .and  sixth),  and  in  reading;  the  line 
give  eti'ect  to  the  natur.al  .accents  only,  as  we  con- 
ceive them,  of  the  words  Ilaliam,  fato,  proftignx. 
Professor  T.  .\rnold,  in  the  appendix  on  metres 
in  his  Mdiniiil  of  KiMfti.sh  I.itiratiire,  points  out 
that  when  English  hexameters  were  lirst  written 
they  were  constructed  in  the  same  manner ;  they 
were  to  be  read  in  the  same  way  a-s  Latin  hex- 
ameters. The  natur.al  accent,  except  in  the  l.ast 
two  feet,  overruled  the  metrical.  In  the  following 
lines  from  Stanihui-st's  transl.ation  of  the  yEneid 
it  will  .at  once  be  seen  Ih.at  the  ellect  is  absurd  if 
we  re.ad  the  lines  as  modern  English  hexameters 
are  rea<l : 

Either  here  |  arc  couch  |  ing  some  I  troops  of  |  Grcckish  as  | 

seinbly, 
Or  to  crash  |  our  hul  |  warks  this  I  work  is  |  forged,  all  I  houses 
For  to  pry,  |  surmount  |  ing  the  |  town  ;  some  |  iiraeticc  or  | 

other 
Here    lurks  |  of  cun  I  ning;    trust  |  not  this  |  treacherous  | 

ensign. 

If  we  reail  by  the  natural  accent  the  cfTect  is  rough 
,and  luaish  to  the  ear  :  if  by  the  modern  metrical, 


ridiculous  .and  absunl.  Such  .ire  tin-  limitations  of 
the  hexameter  in  English. 

Iloxapla  (dr.  /iixa/tia,  'the  sixfold'),  a  cele- 
bratc.l  idiiion  by  Origen  of  the  Did  Testament 
Scriptures,  consisting  of  the  Hebrew  text,  with  a 
traiiscrijit  in  Greek  letters,  the  Se|ituagint,  and  the 
versions  of  A<|uila,  Symmaclius,  and  Tlicodotion. 
It  is  no  longer  extant.     See  OltlcKX,  Skiti'.vcint. 

Iloxliaill,  an  ancient  town  of  Northumberland, 
be.iulifiillv  situated  on  the  right  b.mk  of  the  Tyne, 
■24  miles  \V.  of  Newciustle  by  rail.  ,\  st(uie  liiidge 
of  nine  arches  spans  the  river,  and  the  town  is 
intersected  from  cast  to  west  by  one  long  street, 
ealled  in  its  dill'ereiit  ]iarts  by  the  names  of  I'riest- 
po]i])le,  Hattlehill,  and  Ilencotes.  Two  narrow 
streets  connect  with  the  market  jdace,  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  pi(tiir(s(|ui'  in  England,  from 
which  again  other  narrow  streets  diverge  irregularly. 
The  great  point  of  interest  is  the  Abbey  Church  of 
I  St  Anilrew,  a  noble  monument  of  1. 'it h  century 
architecture,  of  which  the  greater  part  of  the  choir, 
except  the  eastern  chapels,  and  both  the  tr.insept.s 
alone  remain,  the  building  h.aving  been  subjected  to 
shameful  restoration  in  1H."),S,  an<l  .again  in  I8G'.*. 
The  mon.a-sterv  w.as  origin.ally  foundeil  by  St 
AVilfiid  in  674,  and  his  church  was  long  cili'lirate<l 
by  the  chroniclers  a.s  the  (inest  on  this  side  the 
Aljis.  Here  in  681  a  bishopric  was  established 
which  hosted  till  821,  when  Tidferth,  the  la.st 
bishop,  ilied  on  a  voyage  to  Home,  having  lieen 
driven  otl'  by  the  Danes.  The  ruined  church  was 
rebuilt  in  1112,  .and  .a  priory  of  .Austin  camms 
founded,  but  the  nioniusterv  was  suppressed  under 
Henry  \'II1.,  and  its  la-st  ]irior  hangeil  .at  Tyburn 
fm-  taking  part  in  the  Pilgrimage  of  (Jrace.  The 
nave  of  the  cliurch  was  destroyed  by  the  .Scots  in 
12!)(i,  and  was  never  rebuilt.  Under  its  ruins  wius 
discovered  the  Saxon  crypt  of  St  M'ilfriil,  .a  won- 
derful survival  of  our  earliest  architecture,  with 
strange  barrel  vaults,  lamp  niches,  .and  fnnnel- 
slia])ed  apertures,  cmly  to  be  m.atclied  at  Higion. 
It  h.as  been  discovered  that  it  w.as  built  of  Koiii.an 
stimes,  most  likely  carried  from  the  olil  Konian 
station  of  CorstopHiim,  but  ."5^  miles  ilistant.  The 
centr.al  tower  is  1(X)  feet  high,  an<I  of  its  eight 
ancient  bells  one  is  still  called  the  '  Kr.ay  Hell,' 
from  having  been  rung  to  give  warning  in  Border 
alarms.  Tlie  stone  Frith-stool  is  su|ipi>,seil  to  li.ave 
been  Wilfrid's  chair.  The  best  remains  of  the 
monastery  are  the  refectory  and  the  .abbey  g.ate- 
way  of  Norman  architecture.  To  the  west  of  the 
churchyard  is  the  Seal,  imce  the  jiark  of  the  monks, 
now  a  public  promenade.  Ne.ar  Hexh.am  the  Lan- 
castrians were  severely  defeated.  May  \'>,  14H4. 
The  chief  manufactures  of  the  town  are  gloves  and 
hats.     Pop.  ( l.STl )  .5.331  ;  ( ISSl )  .5919  ;  ( 18!tl )  0945. 

See  AVright's  Hintori/  of  Hexham  (1823) ;  The  Priory 
of  Hexham,  it«  Chroniclers,  Kndoimirnts,  and  Annals, 
edited  for  the  Surtees  Society  hy  James  Kaine  ( 1804- 
(j.5);  \iev;'\tt\  Handbook  to  Hexham  and  iU  Antifiuitiet 
(1879);  and  especially  the  admirable  and  sumptuous 
work  by  Charles  Clement  Hodges,  The  Aljljeij  of  St 
Andreiv,  Hexliam  (privately  printed,  1888). 

Hcylin.  Peter,  an  English  divine  of  consider- 
able note  in  his  own  day,  w.as  descemleil  frmu  an 
•ancient  Welsh  family  belonging  to  .Montgomery- 
shire, and  wa-s  born  at  IJurford,  in  Oxfordshire, 
November  29,  1599.  He  studied  ,at  Oxford,  where 
he  took  the  degree  of  D.D.  Thnmgh  the  interest 
of  Laud  (q.v. ),  Heylin  was  appointed  chaplaiii-in- 
ordinary  to  King  Ch.arles  in  1629.  He  was  deprived 
of  his  livings  under  the  Commonweallh  ;  but  .after 
the  Kestor.ation  was  made  sub-dean  of  Westminster. 
He  died  May  8,  1662.  Heylin  was  a  very  volumin- 
ous controversi.al  writer  on  the  .anti-Puritan  side, 
and  wrote  cosmographies,  histories  of  England,  of 
the  Heforiiiiition,  and  of  the  PresbyteriaiLs.  See 
FcLl.EK,  Thom.v.s. 


HEYNE 


HEYWOOD 


701 


HeyilC,  Christian  Gotti.oh,  a  (iennau  classi- 
cal scliolar,  was  liorii  at  Cheinnitz,  in  Upper 
Saxony,  25th  Septenilier  1729,  tlie  son  of  a  poor 
weaver.  In  spite  of  extreme  poverty  ami  often 
absolute  liunger,  Ileyne  strn<,'gleil  perseverin^ly  at 
Lei])zig  ;  anil  in  17r)3  lie  olitaineJ  tlie  situation  of 
umler-clerk  in  the  IJriilil  library  at  Dresden.  An 
edition  of  Tibiillits  ami  one  of  the  EndiirUlion  of 
Epictetus,  which  he  published  about  this  time, 
gained  for  him  the  patronage  of  the  celebrated 
scholar,  Iluhnken  of  Leyden.  But  the  outbreak 
of  the  Se\eu  Years'  War  threw  Heyne  out  of 
employment,  and  for  some  time  he  led  a  precarious 
life,  lieing  often  without  bread,  and  supi>orting 
himself  as  best  he  could  by  writing  for  booKsellers. 
But  in  176.3,  on  the  recommendation  of  Kuhnken, 
he  was  appijintcid  [irofessor  of  Eloquence  at  Uiittin- 
gen,  and  the  rest  of  his  long  life  was  spent  in  com- 
fort and  jirofessorial  activity.  By  his  lectures  and 
the  thorough  knowledge  he  displayed  of  all  depart- 
ments of  ancient  (ireek  and  Roman  life,  he  was 
chietly  instrumi^ntal  in  raising  Giittingen  to  its 
pre-eniinent  position  as  a  school  of  classical  study. 
He  is  said  to  have  trained  more  than  130  professors. 
Heyne  died  14th  July  1812.  His  principal  winks, 
besides  those  mentioned,  are  his  editions  of  Virgil 
(1707;  ncwed.  1830-44),  Pindar  ( 1773),  Apollodorus 
(1782),  and  Homer's  Iliinl  (8  vols.  1802);  numerous 
translations  ;  six  volumes  of  Opuscula  Acadcmica 
(1785-1812);  and  about  7500  reviews  of  books  in 
the  Gottinifcr  Gdchrtc  Anzcifjcn,  of  which  he  «'as 
editor  from  1770.  Compare  the  Life  of  Heyne  by 
his  sonin-law,  Ludwig  Heeren  ( 1813),  and  Carlyle's 
es.say  in  vol.  ii.  of  the  DlisccUaidcs. 

Heyse.  Pai'L  Johaxx,  German  pfiet,  dramatist, 
and  novelist,  was  born  in  Berlin  on  15tli  March 
1830,  and  educated  at  Berlin  and  Bonn.  He  was 
one  of  the  band  of  writers  whom  King  Max  of 
Bavaria  gathered  around  him  in  Munich  in  1854. 
Freed  from  the  necessities  of  earning  a  livelihood, 
Heyse  has  developed  an  astonishing  productive- 
ness. As  a  writer  of  novelettes  he  is  an  acknow- 
ledged master,  his  work  in  this  department  being 
mostly  of  the  nature  of  genre-pictures  in  words. 
He  is  not  wanting  in  sly  liumour,  exhilnts  consid- 
erable e.\ecutive  skill  and  fertility  of  invention, 
shows  artistic  attention  to  details,  and  writes  in 
a  graceful  style ;  but  his  work  is  frequently 
marred  by  sensuousness  and  immoral  feeling.  He 
has  pulilislied  more  than  a  .score  of  collections  of 
novelettes  under  variims  titles,  good  specimens  of 
which  are  conlained  in  Dits  Biich  dcr  Frcinnlsi-liuft 
(1883-84).  His  poetic  works  include  narrative 
jmems,  such  as  Uriat  ( 1852),  and  epics,  such  as  Die 
Brant  von  Ciz/icni  { 1856)  and  TItckta  ( 1858).  As  a 
dramatist  he  has  been  almost  as  voluminous  a 
writer  as  in  the  domain  of  novels  ;  but  few  if  any 
of  his  dramatic  pieces  have  been  unequivocally 
successful.  He  has  also  written  a  couple  of  more 
ambitious  novels.  Die  Kinder  der  Welt  (1873;  7th 
ed.  1880)  and  //«  Puradiese  (1875;  5th  ed.  1880), 
which  have  been  very  warmly  praised.  Nor  is  his 
industry  yet  exhaustc-d  ;  he  has  translated  the 
poetical  works  of  (Jiusti  ( 1875),  of  Leopardi  ( 1874), 
and  of  Parini,  Monti,  and  Manzini  (1889). 

Hcywood,  a  municipal  town  of  Lancashire,  3 
ndles  E.  of  Bury  and  9  N.  of  Manchester.  It  is 
connected  with  the  Rochdale  ^anal  by  a  branch 
canal,  and  is  on  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire 
Railway.  Incorporated  in  1881,  Hey  wood  has 
increased  with  great  rapidity,  both  in  po|niIation 
and  wealth,  since  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury, partly  in  consequence  of  extensive  coal-mines 
in  the  neighbourhood  and  jiartly  in  consequence  of 
the  enterprise  of  the  Peel  fanuly,  who  introiluced 
there  the  cotton  manufacture.  Lon  ami  brass 
founding,  boiler-making,  and  the  manufacture  of 


cotton,  woollens,  machinery,  railway  plant,  and 
chemicals  are  carried  on.  The  Free  Libraries  Act 
was  adopteil  in  1873;  and  the  (Queen's  Park,  20 
acres  in  extent,  was  opened  in  1879.  Pop.  (1851) 
12, 194  ;  ( 1881 )  22,979 ;  ( 1891 )  23,286. 

Hey\vo«d,  John,  the  epigrammatist,  was  born 
near  St  Albans  about  1497.  After  his  studies  at 
Oxford  he  was  introdui'cd  at  court  by  Sir  Thomas 
More,  aiul  soon  made  himself  by  his  merry  wit  and 
his  skill  in  nnisic  a  favourite  with  Henry  VIIL, 
and  later  with  Mary.  He  was  a  devout  Catholic, 
and  on  the  acce.ssion  of  Elizabeth  betook  himself 
to  Malines,  where  he  died  in  l.iSO.  He  wrote 
several  short  plays  which  he  called  interludes. 
The  name  had  hitherto  meant  short  dramatic 
pieces  performed  in  the  intervals  of  a  bancpiet  or 
court-i)ageant,  in  which  the  characters  were  merely 
personiiied  qualities,  but  Heywood  introduced  the 
imvidty  of  making  these  individual  persons  re- 
present classes,  as  the  Pedlar,  the  Pardimer,  and 
the  like,  instead  of  Youth,  Felicity,  «!v:c.  His  inter- 
ludes thus  form  an  imjiortant  stage  l>etween  the 
old  moralities  and  the  modern  drama.  Among 
them  are  Julian,  Tt/b  his  irife,  and  Sir  Jolian  the 
prcestr  ;  A  Mery  I'laij  betvene  the  Pardoncrc  and 
the  Frere,  the  Curate  and  Neighbour  Prattc  :  and 
The  Plat/  railed  the  /bur  P's,  a  new  and  eery  Merry 
Interlude  of  a  Palmer,  a  Pardoner,  a  Potieary, 
and  a  Pedlar.  His  three  collections  of  Epiffrunis 
reach  the  number  of  six  huiulred.  His  longest 
work  is  the  wearisome  allegorical  poem.  The 
Spider  and  the  Fly,  in  whi(-h  the  relati\e  merits 
of  Catholics  and  Protestants  are  contrasted. 

Heywood,  Thomas,  dramatist  and  actor,  a 
Lincofnshire  man,  was  educated  at  Cambridge. 
He  seems  to  have  been  writing  plavs  as  earlv 
as  October  1596;  and  on  25th  March  1598  he 
was  regularly  engaged  by  Philip  Henslowe  as  an 
actor.  Of  ail  the  old  dramatists  he  was  the  most 
prolific.  We  learn  from  the  preface  to  TIa-  Enrflish 
Trarellcr  that  down  to  1633  lie  had  '  had  either  an 
entire  hand,  or  at  the  least  a  main  linger,'  in  the 
composition  of  220  plays :  and  he  continued  for 
some  years  after  that  date  to  write  for  the  stage. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  an  historical  poem,  Troja 
Pritaunira  (1609,  folio);  an  Apology  fur  Aetors 
( 1612) ;  N iue  Bookes  of  Various  History  roneerninye 
]t'omen  (1624);  a  folio  of  nearly  live  hundred 
pages,  which  was  planned,  written,  and  printed 
within  the  space  of  seventeen  weeks  ;  a  long  poem, 
with  learned  and  curious  annotations,  The  Ilier- 
arehie  of  the  Blessed  Auqells  (1635,  folio);  a 
volume  of  rhymed  translations  from  Lucian's 
Dialogues,  Erasmus,  Ovid,  i.'v.c.  ;  various  mayoralty 
pageants,  and  divers  tracts  and  treatises.  His  pro- 
jected Lires  of  all  the  I'oets,  Modern  and  Foreign. 
was  unfortunately  never  published.  In  1624,  and 
again  in  1635,  he  refers  to  this  work  ;  and  we  know 
from  Richard  Bratliwait's  Sehol((r's  Medley  that 
he  was  engaged  upon  it  iis  early  as  1614.  The 
last  of  Heywood's  puldications  was  The  Life  of 
Audirosiiis'Merliu  (1641).  It  is  usually  suppo.se(l, 
but  without  sullicient  evidence,  that  he  was  alive 
in  1648,  when  he  was  mentioned  in  the  Satire 
against  Separatists. 

'  Twenty-four  of  Heywood's  plays  have  come 
down,  "the  best  is  A  Woman  hilde  with  Kind- 
ni's.se  (1607),  a  [lathetic  tragedy  of  domestic  life: 
and  with  this  may  be  coujilcd  '/'he  English  Trareller 
(1633),  wliich  contains  some  admirable  scenes,  but 
ends  somewhat  abruptly.  Heywood  was  particu- 
larly successful  in  depicting  blameless  r^nglish 
gentlemen,  such  characters  as  Master  Frankfonl 
in  the  earlier  play  :ind  young  Geraldine  in  the 
later.  His  work  is  usually  distinguished  by  natur- 
alness and  simplicity ;  Ijut  he  wrote  at  the  begin- 
ning of  his  career  one  absurdly  grandiose  play,  The 


702 


HEZEKIAH 


HIBERNATION 


Foure  Pniitiacs  of  Luiuhii,  )irintcil  in  1(51'),  wliich 
was  panidifd  in  Ifemiiiiont  lunl  l''letcliei'.N  Kiiiji/it 
of  the  ISiiniiiiij  Pcjitlc.  Ill  the  two  i)aits  of  T/ic 
f'ldr  Moid  of  l/ic  ]Vcst  (UiSl),  and  in  Furliiiic  by 
I.aitil  mill  Sen,  partly  wiitton  by  William  Uowk-y 
and  tiist  iiriiitud  in  16oj,  lie  t^ives  iis  some  spirited 
desciiptions  of  seali{,dits.  The  Fiii/rc  Mni/i/c  of  the 
F.ah<ui)/c  { ItiOT ),  a  sentimental  eomeily,  liius  a  very 
impiolialile  plot:  The  Hope  of  Lioieeee  (1008)  is 
iliielly  noticealilo  for  its  songs;  Lure's  Mdislrcusc 
( li;;!!)"),  dealing  with  the  story  of  Ciipiil  and  Psyche, 
is  fanciful  ami  ingenious  ;  and  there  is  much  ten- 
derness in  .1  Vhulleiiijc  for  licautie  ( 1()36).  In  the 
I'onr  Ages— 77(t  Golden  Aije  ( lUl  1 ),  7'he  Silrer  Aije 
(Hii:i),  The  lirazcii  Age  (ICJi:*),  and  the  two  parts 
of  The  Iron  Ai/e  ( 1632)— Heywood  dramatised 
classical  iiiytlndogy,  '  from  Jupiter  and  Saturn  to 
the  utter  suhveision  of  Troy.  These  [days  are 
undeniably  tedious,  but  contain  some  charming 
poetry.  The  Lute  LaiiciiAhire  Witehcs  (IG.'W), 
written  in  conjunction  with  Richard  Hroiiie,  is 
largely  of  a  farcical  character;  anil  The  IIV.vi; 
JVoiiiiiii  of  l/oij.siloii  (KiliS)  cxi>oses  the  trickeries 
of  fortune  tellers.  In  'J'he  lioyiill  Kiiiij  ami  Loi/ntl 
Salijert  (ltJ37)  the  doctrine  of  jiassive  obedience 
to  kinglv  authority  is  carried  to  extreme  lengths. 
The  early  plays,  Filirnrd  IV.  (2  jiarts,  16(K))  and 
If  You  Know  not  Me  Yon  liioir  Ao  Ilodie  ;  or,  the 
Troubles  of  (Jiieeii  Elizabeth  ( Ili05-.S'2 ),  are  of  small 
account  ;  nor  can  much  be  said  in  favour  of  A 
Miii/deiilleiid  Well  Lost  (lli34).  The  Ciijitires,  or 
the  Lost  Heeoeered,  an  interesting  play  acted  in 
U)24,  was  lirst  iiublislied  in  18SJ  from  Egerton  MS. 
Ul>)4  (liullcn's  'Old  Plays,'  1st  series,  vol.  iv.).  A 
collection  of  Ilcywood's  plays,  in  si.\  volumes,  was 
issued  in  1874  ( I^ondon,  Jolin  Pearson).  In  tragic 
power  he  wjus  ilelicieiit,  but  his  gentleness  and 
sincerity  endear  him  to  students. 

Il4-Z4-kiall  (Ileb.  IIisKiah,  i^ehisl.ii/iihn,  'May 
.lehi>vali  slrengthcn  him'),  a  reforming  king  of 
.ludah,  son  and  successor  of  Aliaz,  rcigneil  from 
7'28  to  ()i)7  B.C.  His  reign  is  remarkable  for  the 
invasions  by  the  Assyrians  under  Saigon,  and  again 
under  Sennacherib.  When  Sennacherib  appeared 
before  Jcrnsaleiu  'an  Angel  of  the  Lord  (ex- 
plained variously  to  mean  the  plague,  an  earth- 
■  piakc.  a  sndilen  attack  liy  Tirhaka,  or  the  simoom) 
slew  during  one  single  night  ISO.OOU  men  in  the 
.Vssyrian  camp,  and  Sennacherib  wius  obliged  to 
retreat.  (Sec  2  King's,  xviii.-xx.,  and  2  Chron. 
xxix.-.xxxii. )  The  events  of  this  period  as  recorded 
in  A.ssyrian  records  are  treatetl  at  Assyria  (<i.v. ). 
After  the  war  he  collecteil  great  tieiusuies  and 
executed  many  highly  useful  wiirks,  among  which 
the  aiiueiliicts  of  jernsaleiii  take  a  foremost  place. 
His  was  also  the  goldi^n  age  of  pro|ihetic  poetry. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  sou  Manasseh. 

Hiawatha,  the  name  by  which  the  Inxpiois 
lall  a  personage  of  miraculous  birth  (elsewhere 
amongst  the  North  American  Indians  known  ius 
Michabou,  Cliialio,  ^.c. )  sent  amongst  tlieiu  to  clear 
the  rivers  and  forests,  and  teiicli  the  arts  of  peace. 
Longfellow's  poem  ( 1842)  is  baseil  on  Schoolcraft's 
version  of  the  tradition  ('Algic  Kesearches,'  1839; 
republished  as  The  Mi/th  of  Iliiiiratha,  1856). 

Ilibbcrt  L<'<'l'ir«*S,  a  '""ndation  instituted 
by  the  trustees  of  Robert  Hibberl  (1770  1849), 
a  Wcsi  India  merchant.  I''or  many  yeai-s  the 
trustees  applied  the  funds  mainly  to  the  higher 
culture  of  students  for  the  Unitarian  ministry, 
but  in  1878  rcsolveil  to  institute  HiblM-rt  Lectures, 
with  a  view  to  cajiable  and  really  honest  treat- 
ment of  unsettled  problems  in  theology,  apart  from 
the  interest  of  any  particular  church  or  system. 
Amongst  the  lecturers  have  been  Max  Miiller, 
Page  Renoiif,  Renan,  Rhys  Davids,  Kuenen,  Beard, 
Keville,  Plleideier,  Rhvs,  Saycp,  ami  Match. 


IlilM'riialiuil  (Lat.  hiUrnare,  'to  naeti  the 
winter  ),  :i  physiological  term  employed  to  de- 
scrilie  tiie  haiiit  which  certain  northern,  and  most 
i>iobably  some  Antarctic  mammals,  reptiles,  fishes, 
m.sects,  ;iinl  molluscs  have  of  pa-ssing  jmrt  of  the 
year,  almost  invariably  the  coldest  winter  months, 
in  a  nioie  or  less  continuously  torpid  condition, 
from  which  they  revive  either  at  irregular  int<'rvals, 
or  altogether  on  the  return  of  warm  weather. 
Hence  the  (iermans  express  this  c<mdition  by  the 
word  irintcrsehUif  ('winter  sleep')  in  contra- 
distinction to  soinmcrsrhltif,  'summer  sleep'  or 
a'stivatioii,  an  analogous,  though  not  i<leiitical, 
trait  of  some  southern  animals  during  the  .summer 
moiith.s. 

As  far  .OS  mammals  are  concerned,  the  following 
are  the  principal  facts  establisheil  :  ( 1 )  -Ml  nortliem 
siKH'ies,  even  those  which  linil  food  scarce  during 
winter,  do  not  hibernate,  nor  do  all  the  species  of 
the  same  family,  order,  or  genus.  Even  iMith  sexes 
of  the  same  sjiecies  do  not  alw.ays  agree  in  this 
resjiect.  The  Iiear,  the  l>adger,  the  dormouse,  the 
li.'imstcr,  the  bat,  the  luarniot,  the  zizel,  and  the 
hedgehog  are  among  the  best  known  and  most  pro- 
nounced hibeiiiators.  liiil  while  all  the  Iniirowiiig 
niarmots,  whistlers,  woodchucks,  groundhogs,  \c. 
are  more  or  less  complete  hibcrnatoi's,  the  alpine 
marmots  {Arrtomi/s  mnnnottii)  indulge  in  this 
habit  by  fits  and  starts.  The  sloth  bear  (Meliirsiis 
liiliiiiliis)  and  other  Indian  I'lvidic  di Her  from  the 
other  mciiibei-s  of  their  family  in  remaining  .iw.ike 
during  w  inter,  though  they  are  sluggish  during  this 
sen.soii,  moving  about  very  little,  and  then  only 
occasionally  when  they  recpiire  food  :  and  both  the 
black  and  brown  bear  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
ami  the  jiolar  bear  are  strict  hibernatoix  only  ;us 
regards  their  females,  the  male  being  often  seen 
at  large  between  NovciiiU'r  and  May.  Most  of 
the  American  s<|uiriels  dillcr  from  the  Euro- 
pean species  in  lieing  mm  hibernating.  (2)  The 
same  animal  may  vary  in  this  respect  in  ilitler- 
cut  ]i<irtions  of  its  range.  Thus,  though  the 
American  skunks  are  in  the  northern  jiart  of  the 
legicm  over  which  they  roam  more  or  less  c(Uiiplete 
hibcrnators,  they  get  more  and  iiiorc>  wakeful  iis 
their  range  extends  ecjuatorially,  until  in  the  most 
southern  part  of  it  they  move  about  freely  at  all 
seasons  of^  the  year.  In  like  m.iiiner,  the  ]nairie 
'dog,'  or  marmot  (Cynomi/s  Imloneianns),  in  the 
northern  i>lains  retires  to  sleep  during  severe 
weather,  ius  do  also  the  woodchucks  of  tlie  same 
region,  but  in  o]icn  winters  and  on  jdcasant  days 
they  display  no  such  tendency  :  while  ill  the  ex- 
treme soutlicrii  limits  of  their  range  they  are  not 
hibern.itois  at  all.  (3)  They  do  not  all  retire  at 
the  same  time.  Most  of  the  true  hibernatois  take 
to  their  'hibernaculum,' or  winter  hole — ii  burrow, 
a  hollow  tree,  a  cave,  the  eaves  of  a  house,  or 
similar  sitnaticm — in  late  autumn,  varying  the  date 
slightly  according  to  weather.  Rut  the  gre.it  bat 
{.Seotojihi'liis  noetiila)  is  rarely  .seen  after  Septem- 
ber, and  often  retires  lus  early  as  the  end  of  duly, 
when  its  insect  food  is  abunilant.  (4)  All  of  them 
do  not  sleep  the  same  length  of  time,  or  with  the 
.same  torpiility,  and  several  indulge  in  hibernation 
ami  w;ikiiig  alternately  during  tin;  winler.  The 
s(|uiiicl,  in  Britain,  lies  dormant  most  of  the  cold 
scxsoii  ;  but  on  sunshiny  days  it  often  wakes, 
visit.s  its  hoards  of  food,  eats  freely,  an<l  then 
retires  to  re-st  again.  The  heilgehog  is  s<imi'times 
seen  during  the  winter  ;  and  on  sunshiny  days  the 
comiiKui  l»at  often  emerges  from  its  hiberiiaciilum, 
.and  Hits  about  even  when  snow  is  on  the  ground. 
The  dormouse  also  at  intervals  wakes  uji,  eats, 
anil  gin's  to  sleep.  Other  animals,  like  the  long- 
tailed  lieldniouse,  pass  the  winter  in  a  drowsy  state 
not  f.ir  removed  from  dormancy.  There  are  thus  all 
gradations   lietween   contiiiuou.s  winter  dormancy 


HIBERNATION 


HIBISCUS 


ro3 


ami  the  ordinary  daily  slee])  of  a  few  hours  in 
which  every  animal  indul^'cs.  There  is  also 
every  de^'ree  of  torjadity  cxhiljited.  The  hedge- 
hog and  the  ilormouse  may  I)e  rolled  over  and  over 
like  a  hall,  without  waking,  and  tlie  black  hear  of 
America  is  extremely  ditlicult  to  arouse  out  of  its 
winter  sleep.  On  the  other  hand,  the  hrown  bear 
t)f  Siberia  hibernates  lij;litly,  and  is  very  dangerous 
when  awakened.  The  hedgehog,  if  disturbed,  takes 
a  '  deep  sonorous  insiiiration,  followed  by  a  few 
feeble  respirations,  and  then  by  total  (juie.scence.' 
Tliis  ditt'ers  from  the  stirring  and  then  coiling  itself 
up  again  which  is  the  animal's  way  when  awakened 
out  of  an  ordinary  sleep.  I5ut,  though  sensation 
and  volition  are  dormant,  the  retle.x  and  excito- 
motory  actions  are  keen,  the  slightest  touch 
a]iplied  to  tlie  spines  of  a  hedgeliog  or  to  the 
wings  of  a  bat  inducing  one  or  two  inspiratory 
movements.  But  the  hibernating  badger  is  not 
difficult  to  leawake,  and  in  its  torpor,  like  all 
liibernating  animals,  is  not  rigid.  (.5)  Continuous 
hiliernators  do  not  lay  in  stores  of  fooil.  Inter- 
mittent winter-.sleepers  generally  do,  while  some 
animals  which  are  not  true  hibernatoi-s,  but  remain 
only  drowsy  during  the  winter,  retire  to  their 
burrows  to  pass  the  days  of  famine  above  ground 
in  the  midst  of  their  abundant  nuts  and  otlier 
pro\eiuler.  All  of  these  food-storers  are  vegetable- 
eaters.  The  arctic  fox  is  iiuleed  the  only  excep- 
tion to  this  rule,  for  though  it  is  not  any  more 
than  the  beaver  a  liibernator,  it  hoards  up  dead 
lemmings,  ermines,  geese,  hares,  \"c.  against  the 
evil  days  of  winter.  An  exception  to  intermittent 
hibernatius  being  thus  provident  is  attbrded  by  the 
porcui)ine  (Hijstrix  cristata)  and  the  alpiue  mar- 
mot. 

In  its  most  pronounced  forms  hibernation  diflers 
physiologically  in  several  important  steps  from 
ordinary  sleep,  tliough  it  is  undoulite<lly  linked 
witli  this  function  by  a  regular  chain  of  links. 
Cold  we  know  produces  drowsiness,  which  ends 
in  a  fatal  torpor,  and  on  warm  ilays  a  sleep  steals 
over  the  eyes  which  might,  in  kind  if  not  in  de- 
gree, be  compared  with  the  astival  torpor  of  some 
animals.  In  other  respects,  hibernation  is  more 
akin  to  trance.  Yet  what  is  most  puzzliu''  al)out 
it  is  that  it  atiects  only  some  animals  whicli  diHer 
little  in  habit  from  others  which  keep  awake  all 
winter,  and  in  the  same  region  find  food  in  abund- 
ance. Tlie  polar  bear  sleeps  while  seals  are  j)lenti- 
ful  on  the  ice-Hoes,  and  the  Noctule  bat  retires 
while  the  cockchafers,  in  which  it  delights,  are 
numerous.  Still,  as  it  enables  animals  to  live 
within  their  area  which  might  otherwise  require 
to  migrate,  we  cannot  refu.se  to  admit  that  hiber- 
nation pla\s  an  important  part  in  the  struggle  for 
existence,  the  survival  of  the  littest,  and  the  means 
whereby  animals  are  confined  within  certain  zoo- 
geographical  regions.  15ut  how  it  originated,  or 
whether  it  is  a  survival,  like  migration,  from  a 
former  condition  of  things,  are  problems  which  in 
the  i)resent  state  of  our  knowledge  cannot  be 
satisfactorily  solved. 

Hibernatoi-s,  when  they  retire  for  the  winter, 
.ire  unusually  fat  :  when  they  emerge  from  their 
hibernaoulum  they  are  unwoutedly  lean.  They  all 
try  to  keep  warm,  the  heat  of  their  body  being 
nearly  tliat  of  their  hibernaculum.  Yet  if  exjiosed 
to  greater  cidd  they  revive,  .and,  if  the  temiierature 
i~  still  further  lowered,  like  other  animals  they 
freeze  to  death.  Keviviscence  is  probably  due  to 
the  calls  of  nature,  the  observations  of  Horvath  on 
a  zizel  {Spcniwphilii^  ritil/iis)  showing  that  the 
lieat  of  the  circumambient  air  does  not  rise  while 
the  animal  is  awaking,  though  the  temperature 
of  its  body  does.  During  ilormancv  the  animal 
functi(ms  are  all  but  suspended.  Excretions  in 
the  bat  are   reduced  to  almost  nothing,  and  the 


beai-s  close  the  lower  end  of  their  alimentaiy  canal 
by  a  resinous  ]dug,  known  in  Sweden  a.s  'tappen.' 
Kespiration  and  circulation  are  reduce<l  to  a  mini- 
mum. The  air  of  a  closed  jar  containing  a  hilper- 
nating  dormou.se  is  unaltered.  Others  can  survive 
long  in  an  atmosphere  deprived  of  oxygen.  A 
bat  in  a  lethargac  condition  has  remained  sixteen 
minute.s  under  the  water ;  and  though  three  or 
four  minutes"  immersion  will,  under  other  circum- 
stances, suttice  to  drown  a  hedgehog,  in  a  state  of 
winter  torpidity  it  can  bear  twenty-two  and  a  half 
with  impunity  (ilai-shall  Hall).  'Carbon  dioxide 
has  so  little  ettect  on  a  torpid  niannot  that  one 
lived  after  being  four  li(mi-s  in  this  ]>ois<mous  ga.s. 
Simon  and  Friedleben  noticed  that  in  some  hiber- 
natoi-s  the  thynms  gland  gets  laden  with  fat  just 
before  they  retire  for  the  winter,  and  IJarkow  has 
described  a  portion  of  this  a-s  the  '  hibernating 
gland.'  In  this  special  organ,  he  claims,  the  fat 
is  transformed  into  a  store  of  animal  starch  and 
sugar,  by  which  the  heart  and  muscles  are  fed 
during  the  jieriod  of  toi-jiiility.  But  his  observa- 
tions have  not  been  conliruied,  this  gland  not 
existing  in  all  hibernators  ;  nor  is  it  at  all  certain 
that  such  is  its  use.  Moreover,  contrary  to  his 
a.ssertion,  hibemators  do  lose  weight,  often  to  tlie 
extent  of  30  and  40  per  cent. ,  in  this  respect  resem- 
bling staging  animals. 

Hibeniation  in  otlier  animals  has  not  been  so 
closely  studied.  All  reptiles  and  batrachia  become 
torpid  during  cold  weather,  snakes  passing  the 
winter  in  tangled  knots  as  if  for  warmth  -.  if  the 
viper  is  aroused  at  this  season  its  venom  is  said  to 
be  inert.  Alligators  creep  into  holes  in  the  river- 
banks,  and  frogs  lie  dormant  in  the  mud  at  the 
bottom  of  ponds.  Many  fishes  (carp,  roach,  chub, 
minnows,  eels,  the  Mediterranean  mura'na,  &c.) 
also  retire  into  some  dee|>  recess,  or  into  the 
mud,  though  their  condition  at  this  period  is  not 
that  of  the  tnie  hibemators.  Their  vitality  only  is 
lowered.  In  winter  all  land-snails  hibemate  by 
closing  the  mouths  of  their  shells  with  a  jdate 
( the  epiphragni ),  leaving  only  a  little  hole  in  the 
miildle  of  it  for  breathing.  Slugs  also  become 
torpid  in  holes  in  the  giound,  and  the  fresh-water 
mussels  (Unio,  Anodcmta,  Dreissena)  bury  them- 
selves in  the  pond  and  river  mud  until  the  cold 
iiKmths  are  over.  The  torpidity  of  insects  in  the 
pupa  and  other  stages  is  well  known.  Individuals 
Iielonging  to  the  Vanessa  group  of  butterflies  w  liicli 
hibernate  in  the  imam  stage  occa-sionally  emerge 
during  mild  winter  days.  But  hive-bees  do  not 
hibernate,  food  being  necessaiy  for  their  subsist- 
ence during  the  flowerle.ss  season. 

See  Animal  Heat  and  Physiolocv;  Temper.vti're 
OF  THE  Body  ;  also  Baikow's  Dev  Winterschlaf  imch 
sciiun  Erschtiiiuniien  im  Thierreich  daniestellt  (lS4(i); 
Friedleben's  Die  Phus.  dir  Tliym  us  Driise  ( 1856 ) ;  Simon's 
rhiisioloijical  Essay  on  the  Tlititn us  Gla nd ( 1845 ) ;  Lloyd's 
Field  Sports  of  tlw  North  of  t'i'ropr  (1885),  pp.  124-125; 
Marshall  Hall  in  Todd's  Ciidopiidia  of  Anatomy  and 
Phiisioloijy  (vol.  ii  p.  771  et  seq.) ;  Newport,  Philosophi- 
cal Trausuctions  (1837);  Brown's  Mammals  of  Gi-een- 
land  (Admiralty  Manual^  1875,  p.  16);  and  Our  Earth 
(18901,  vol.  iii.  pp.  2!t-30;  Duns  in  Science  for  All  (vol 
V.  p.  240),  &c. 

Ililioruin.     See  Ikki.asd.     For  the  Hibemian 

School,  see  ItOVAL  MILITARY  ASYLUM. 

Hibisi'llS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  .Malvacea-,  the  type  of  a  trilie  or  sub-order 
distinguished  by  a  double  calyx  and  fruit  of  three 
or  more  many-seede<l  carjiels  united  into  a  maiiy- 
eelled  cajisule.  The  species  are  numerous,  natives 
of  warm  climates,  some  of  them  trees  or  shrubs, 
but  most  of  them  large  herbaceous  ]daiits.  annual 
or  perennial.  The  llowei-s  of  many  are  very  beauti- 
ful ;  in  the  South  Sea  Islands  they  are  much  used 
for  personal  adornment.     H.  syriacus,  sonietinies 


704 


HIBISCUS 


HICKORY 


but  eiTonemisIy  ciiUeil  Altlitni  frutcx,  a  native  of 
Syria  ami  t'aiiiiola,  lia-s  Ion;,'  Iweii  in  cultivation  a-s 
an  ornamental  slirnli,  ami  |)iiives  snttieierilly  liaiily 
in  many  paitM  of  Hiitain.  Many  arc  favourite 
liotlionsc  plants.  The  cliaractcristic  mucilajjinous 
ami  lilirous  properties  of  the  .Malvacc;e  are  very 
stroM;;ly  devclopeil  in  this  trihc.  The  fruit  of  //. 
esriileiitiix  (or  AlirlinDsilnti  esriileiilii.i)  is  in  ;;cncral 
use  Imtli  in  the  Kiust  ami  West  Imlies  as  an  article 
of  fooil ;  its  name  in  the  West  Indies  is  (Johho.  It  is 
an  annual  plant,  with  a  soft  hcrliaceous  stem,  3  to  5 
feet  hi;;h,  crenate  leaves,  a\illarv  sulphur coloureil 
Dowel's,  and  pyramidal,  somewhat  podlike  caiisules. 
It  \s  eultivateil  iu  some  parts  of  the  south  of  huro|)c. 

The      fruit     is 
br^Hi.  ^     Sir        used  iu  an  un- 

ripe state.  It 
is  generally 
mucliesteenieii, 
hut  is  ili.slikeil 
l>y  some  on 
account  of  its 
viscidity.  It 
enters,  a»  an 
important  in- 
pedient,  into 
the  fii'ftjjcr-iiot 
of  the  West 
Indies.  The 
ripe  seeils  are 
sometimes  used 
in  soups  a-s 
harlev.  The 
hark  of  H.  tili- 
iimi.i — a  tree 
20  feet  hi-h, 
with  a  very 
thick  bole — so 
alxmnds  in 

nmcilage  that 
by  chewinj;  it 
the  natives  of 
the  South  Sea 
Islands  obtain  nourishment  in  times  of  scarcity. 
This  tree  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  trees  of 
the  South  Sea  Islands ;  and  the  wood,  bein;; 
li^jht,  touKh,  and  durable,  is  nnich  used  for  many 
purposes.  Krom  its  llbre  the  Tahitians  manufac- 
ture matting;  line  and  coarse,   the  latter  for  slecj)- 

iugu| ,  the  former  for  protci-tion  from  wet  during 

the  rainy  season,  ami  tliey  also  make  ropes  and 
twine  of  the  same.  The  bark  is  very  tihrous,  and 
cordage  and  matting  are  u»i<le  of  "the  fibre  in 
various  tropical  countries.  Many  otlier  sjiecies 
yield  fibres,  .some  of  them  coai-se,  some  of  them  line 
and  beautiful,  which  are  used  in  ditlerent  coun- 
tries; but  the  most  important  iu  this  respect  is 
H.  cannahinus,  the  IJeccan  Hemp  of  western  India 
(see  FlHKOfS  SfU.ST.VSCE.S).  //.  .mlx/anya  is  very 
generally  cultivated  iu  warm  countries,  on  account 
of  it.s  calyx,  which,  as  the  fruit  ripens,  becomes 
Heshy,  and  accpiires  a  very  jilejusant  acidity.  It  is 
much  used  for  making  tarts  and  jelly,  and  a  decoc- 
tion of  it,  sweetened  and  fcrmenteA,  aflbrils  a  re- 
freshing beverage,  well  known  in  the  West  Indies 
as  Sorrel  C'uol  Ihinh,  the  jdant  bein"  called  Kcd 
Sorrel  ;  and  in  the  .Madras  territories  it  is  u.sed  for 
similar  purposes,  and  is  named  llozcllc  or  RimacUc. 
H.  Ahclmoschns  (or  Abehnosc/tiis  vwschatns),  some- 
times called  Musk  Seed,  another  plant  comnmn  in 
widely  separated  tropical  countries,  is  cultivated  for 
its  seeds,  which  have  a  fragrance  between  tliat  of 
musk  and  that  of  amber.  They  are  much  used  by 
perfumers,  and  are  called  Ainhrcttc  or  Graiiics 
(TAmhrrtlc.  In  Egypt  and  .Arabia  they  are  mixed 
with  coffee,  and  stimulant  and  stomjicliic  qualities 
are  ascribed  to  them.  The  jietals  of  //.  Eoxa- 
Sinensis  possess  astringent  properties,  and  they  are 


HibUcuA  esculenlus^  ui)per  part  of  a 

flowering  plant : 

n,  unripp  fruit ;  I\  section  of  do. 

(IJentley  and  Trinieu.) 


also  Used  by  the  Chinese  to  stain   their  eyebrows 
and  their  shoes  black. 

IIU'4-|||>,  or  Iliccol-OH,  is  causeil  by  an  in- 
voluiiliiry  contraction  of  the  Diaphragm  (i|.v.), 
while  the  glottis  is  spasmodically  chwed.  Tlie 
inward  current  of  air  through  the  "narrow eil  aper- 
ture, ami  its  sudden  arrest  when  the  glottis 
closes,  cause  the  characteristic  sound.  I'sually  the 
paroxysm  only  lasts  for  a  few  minutes,  but  it  niay 
sometimes  extend  to  hours  or  davs.  The  most 
common  cause  of  hiccu^i  is  some  disordered  con- 
dition of  the  stomach.  \  ery  obstinate  hiccup  some- 
tinu's  occurs  in  various  diseases,  especially  fevers 
and  diseases  of  the  lungs  and  liver;  ami  may  be  a 
very  serious  complication  in  (•i)nsc(|iu'ncc  of  the 
exhaustion  it  produces.  Sometimes  it  lia.s  a  nervous 
origin. 

When  the  attack  is  .slight  it  may  often  be  stopped 
by  making  a  very  full  insj>iration|  and  then  holding 
the  breath  as  long  as  ])ossible,  the  diaphragm  being 
thus  kept  in  a  state  of  voluntary  contraction. 
A  draught  of  cold  water,  a  start  or  blow,  or  strong 

fre.ssure  round  the  waist  will  soniclimcs  give  relief! 
n  more  <d>stiiiate  c;tses  a  combin.'ilion  of  cimphor 
or  of  o^iium  with  chloniform,  and  the  frci|uent 
swallowing  of  small  rounded  pieces  of  ice,  are  per- 
haps the  most  ellicient  remedies.  liismuth,  mix 
vomica,  bromide  of  pota-ssinm,  and  many  other  ilriigs 
have  also  been  recommended. 

Ilickos,  <:i:oi!<:i:,  nonjuror  and  philologist,  was 
bom  at  Newsham,  Vorkshire,  June  20,  IG42.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  in  1004  was  elccteil  I'cllow  of 
Lincoln  College,  and  in  lOOG  took  holy  ordcr.s. 
In  1()7()  he  became  chaplain  to  the  Duke  of 
Lauderdale,  whom  he  accomiianied  to  Kdinburgh. 
In  167S  he  received  the  degree  of  D.I),  from  the 
univei-sity  of  Cila.sgow,  and  next  year  from  (»xf(nd. 
In  1682  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  king's  chap- 
lains, and  the  following  year  made  Dcau  of  Wor- 
cester, licfusing  at  tlie  Uevolution  to  take  the 
oaths  to  King  William  III.,  he  was  deprived  of  all 
his  benefices.  In  IBM  he  wius  .sent  with  a  list  of 
the  nonjuring  clergy  to  the  exiled  king  at  St 
Germaiiis,  ami  in  105(4  was  consecrated  by  a  luelate 
of  his  own  party  Sufl'ragau  liishop  of  Thctfonl. 
His  [lublications  iu  controversial  and  practical 
divinity  are  numerous.  His  greatest  work,  en- 
titled Thesaurus  (iratiim((lir(j-Crttinis  I'f  Arr/itro- 
logicus  Liiif/iiuriim  Vclcriim  Scntcnirinnaliiiin, 
appeared  at  Oxford  iu  170.3,  3  vols,  fob,  and  in  1G89 
he  had  |inblishe<l  a  grammar  of  Anglo-Saxon  and 
Muwo-(!(ithic.      Ho  died  December  15,  1715. 

Ili«'kory  {('nri/n),  a  genus  of  trees  f(u-merly 
inclmlcd  among  Walnuts  (.Juglans).  The  hickories 
are  exclusively  North  American.  They  are  large 
ami  beautiful  trees,  attaining  a  height  of  70  or 
80  or  even  100  feet,  w  ith  pinnate  com]iouiul  leaves. 
The  timber  of  all  of  them  is  very  heavy,  strong, 
and  tenacious,  but  decays  speedily  when  cxiiosed 
to  heat  and  moisture,  and  is  said  to  be  i)eculiarly 
liable  to  injury  from  worms.  (Jieat  (luantitics  (if 
hickory  are  used  to  make  hoops  for  casks.  It  is 
much  used  for  handspikes,  and  shaft.s  of  carriages, 
handles  of  axes  and  golf -clubs,  large  screws,  ^'ic. 
are  made  of  it.  It  is  greatly  esteemeil  for  fuel. 
The  nuts  of  some  of  the  species  are  excellent  eat- 
ing, and  in  flavour  resemnle  walnuts.  They  are 
enclosed  in  husks  which  split  up  into  four  equal 
valves ;  the  surface  of  the  nut  is  smooth,  with 
four  or  more  ridges  ninning  lengthwise,  and  meet- 
ing, especially  in  C.  xiilcfito,  in  sharj)  points  at 
either  end. — C.  (ithit,  the  Shell-bark  or  Shag-bark 
Hickory,  so  called  from  its  shaggy  outer  bark, 
which  peels  ofl'  in  long  narrow  plates,  yields  the 
common  hiekorji-tntt  of  the  northern  parts  of  the 
United  States.  The  trunk  is  slender,  and  the  tree 
occasionally  reaches  a   height  of  from   80   to   100 


HICKS 


HIEROGLYPHICS 


705 


feet.  Its  coinpoiiiiil  leaies  are  nfteii  20  Indies  long. 
The  nuts  have  a  ilelicious  tiavour,  anil  are  in  oon- 
sifleralile  rei|uest.  'I'lie  sliell  is  tliin  Imt  hard,  tlie 
kernel  sweet. — V.  isnlrntn,  the  Shellliark  Hiekorv 
of  the  West,  is  a  very  similar  tree,  found  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Wisconsin.—'',  ulii-iifniiiiis,  a 
western  and  .southern  s|icci<'s,  yields  the  well-known 
Pecan  Xut — in  which  the  internal  jiartitiiuis  coiu- 
moii  to  the  other  hickories  with  the  walnut  are 
lackin;,'.  It  is  a  handsome  tree  of  BO  or  70  feet 
hi;;h — in  some  cases  reacdiinj;  90  feet. — C.  toim'iitosti 
yields  the  Mocker  Nut,  and  (,'.  (iiiiitra  the  Bitter 
Nut  :  while  the  Pif;nut  Hickory,  also  with  a 
hitter  nut,  is  C.  /tori-nut. 

Hirks,  Eli.\s.  a  oelehrated  American  preacher 
of  the  Societv  of  Friends,  was  horn  at  Hem|)steail, 
Long  Island',  March  19,  1748.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-seven  he  was  already  a  well-known  preacher, 
and  for  many  years  he  travelled  through  tlie  States 
and  Canada,  receiving  no  compensation  for  his 
lahours,  anil  when  not  ]ireaching  lahouring  on  his 
own  farm.  He  was  one  of  the  lirst  in  his  hody  to 
agitate  against  slavery.  An  ahle  preacher,  he 
e-\ercised  great  inHuence  among  his  co-religionists 
until  his  unitarianism,  or  denial  of  the  divinity  of 
Christ  and  a  vicarious  atonement,  brought  him  into 
disfavour  with  orthodox  Kriends  :  hut  he  published 
his  own  views  with  perseverance,  and  at  the  age 
of  eighty  still  travelled  and  [ireached.  The  result 
of  his  labours  was  a  schism  of  the  society  into 
two  divisions,  po]iularly  known  as  Orthodox  and 
Hicksite  Friends  (see'  FlilKNDS).  He  died  at 
Jericho,  Long  Island,  February  27,  1830.  See  his 
Joiini'd  (Phila.  1828)  ami  Lrtins  (1834). 

IIi(IaI$;<l<  '*  word  explained  as  being  originally 
hij'i  ih-  'ihi'i.  'son  of  sonu;thing,'  is  the  title  of  a 
memlier  ot'  the  lowest  class  of  Spanish  nobility. 

Hide,  in  old  English  law,  denoted  a  certain  area 
of  land,  tlie  exact  (|uanlity  of  which  is  variously 
given  as  Ijll,  80,  and  100  acres.  According  to  K.  W. 
Eyton  (Kifitii  Donnst/ni/,  1877),  the  Domesday  hide 
of  land  denoted  fiscal  value,  not  siiperticial  quantity. 

Hides.    See  Lk.vtiiei!. 

Hieraciiiiii.    See  H.wvkweed. 

Hierapolis,  two  ancient  cities  of  the  Orient. 
(1)  Hiera]iolis,  or  on  coins  Hiero]iolis.  was  a  city 
of  Syria  i/vrrhestica,  and  stood  on  the  high-road 
from  Antioch  to  Mesopotamia,  14  miles  W.  of 
the  Euphrates.  I'nder  the  Seleucid  kings  this 
city  was  an  important  centre  of  trade,  particularly 
in  cotton  ami  silk.  The  great  temjile  of  Astarte 
(locally  known  as  liiniibi//,c  or  jfainho(/]  was 
plundered  by  Crassus  in  '>',i  li.c.  With  the  growth 
and  s]>read  of  Christianity,  Hierapolis  gradually 
lost  its  iuiportance.  Passing  into  the  hands  of  the 
califs,  it  was  refortilii'd  by  Haroiin  al-Kaschid  about 
the  beginning  of  the  9th  century.  It  was  c,ai>tured 
by  Roman  us  Diogenes  in  10G8,  and  was  again 
stormed  by  Saladin  in  I17.>.  Its  decay  dates  from 
the  time  of  the  Mongol  invasion. — (2)  Hierapolis 
was  the  name  given  to  a  city  of  Phrvgia,  situated 
between  the  rivers  Lycns  and  Meander,  .">  miles  N. 
of  Laodicea.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  hot  s])rings, 
and  for  a  cave,  called  Plutonium,  whence  issued 
mephitic  vapours  that  proved  fatal  to  life.  At 
Hierapolis,  the  liirthplacc  of  Epictetus,  Cybele  Wius 
much  worshipped  ;  and  there  St  Paul  founded  a 
Christian  church.  See  Hni/iii'a  Mnijuzi/ic.  Octo- 
ber 1889. 

Hierarchy  (Cr.  /liemx,  'sacred,'  and  tinlin,  '  I 
govern),  the  name  used  to  designate  the  whole 
sacred  governing  and  ministering  body  in  the 
church,  distributed  according  to  its  several  giada- 
tions.  See  Oki>khs  (Holy),  Bishop,  PRitsT, 
Deacon  ;  also  Pope. 

Hieratie  Writing.    See  Hieroglyphics. 
•2^i 


Hiero  I.,  king  of  Syracuse,  succeedeil  his 
brother  ( Jelon  in  478  B.C.  The  mo.st  important 
event  of  his  reign  was  the  naval  victory  "ained  by 
his  Meet  ami  that  of  the  Cumani  over  the  Etruscans 
in  474,  which  ih-|irived  the  latter  of  their  sujiremacy 
in  the  'I'yrrhenian  Sea.  Though  violent  and 
rapacious,  lie  was  a  lover  of  poetrv,  and  the  patron 
of  Simonides,  .Eschylus,  Itacchylides,  ami  I'indar. 
Hiero  died  at  Catana  in  407  li.C. 

Hiero  II.,  king  of  Syracuse  (270-21.")  li.c), 
w,as  the  son  of  a  noble  Syraeusan  nameil  Hierooles. 
During  the  troubles  whi(  h  prevailed  in  Sicily  after 
the  retreat  of  Pyrrhus  I  27.''i  B.C.)  Hiero  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself,  and  was  first  apiiointed  com- 
mander-in-chief and  then  elei^ted  king  of  the 
Syracu.saiis.  He  joined  the  Carthaginians  in 
besieging  Messana,  which  had  surrendered  to  the 
Honians  ;  but  he  was  beaten  by  Apjiius  Claudius, 
the  Roman  consul,  and  comiielled  to  return  to 
Syracuse.  In  203.  however,  he  concluded  a  peace 
with  the  Romans  for  fifteen  years,  duiing  which  he 
lUdved  so  faithful  to  his  engagements  tliat  in  248 
peace  was  permanently  established.  In  the  second 
Punic  war  Hiero  likewise  proved  himself  the  faith- 
ful .ally  of  the  Romans,  and  supported  them  with 
money  and  troops,  especially  after  their  defeat  at 
the  lake  of  Thnvsymene.  He  died  in  215,  and  was 
siu'ceeded  by  his  grandson  Hieronymus.  Hiero, 
by  his  clemency,  wisdom,  and  simplicity,  i|uite 
gained  the  aflections  of  the  Syr.acusans,  ami  his 
financial  arrangements  were  adopted  by  the 
Romans  when  they  subsequently  coni|uered  Syra- 
etise.  He  devoted  great  attention  to  the  improve- 
ment of  agriculture,  and  his  laws  resjiecting  the 
tithe  of  corn,  iVc.  (Lrijcs  HiiroidciL)  were  still  in 
force  in  the  country  in  Cicero's  time.  He  was  like- 
wise a  patron  of  the  arts,  |)artieularly  architecture; 
and  Archimedes  was  his  relative  and  friend. 

Hieroeles.  the  Neoplatonist,  lived  at  Alex- 
andria about  the  middle  of  the  oth  century,  and 
enjoyed  a  great  reiiutation.  He  is  usually  reckoned 
the  author  of  a  commentary  on  the  golden  vei'ses 
of  Pythagoras  (edited  liy'  MuUach.  I8."i3).  A 
collection  of  jests  (Asteia)  used  also  erroneously 
to  be  fathere<l  on  him. 

Uieroglypllios  (literally  'sacred  sculptures,' 
Irom  hii'i-tis  and  (//i/p/iii),  a  term  apjdied  to  the  repre- 
sentations of  objects  used  to  cxjircss  language, 
especially  those  which  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Mexi- 
cans, and  other  nations  employed  foi-  that  juirpose. 
The  term  hicroghjphs  would,  however,  be  more 
correctly  applied  to  the.se  figures.  Tiie  number  of 
those  u.sed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  was  probably 
about  1700,  and  by  means  of  them  they  were  en- 
abled to  exjuess  all  their  ideas  with  correctness, 
clearness,  and  facility.  They  con.sist  of  rejiresenta- 
tions  of  figures  of  men  and  women  and  their  limbs  ; 
ipiadrupeds.  birds,  fishes,  and  reptiles  ;  plants,  trees, 
anil  flowers  ;  celestial  bodies  ;  mountains,  islan<ls, 
stones,  water  :  towns,  building's,  rooms  and  parts 
of  a  house ;  lighting  implements  and  sceptres  ; 
arti(des  of  furniture;  musical  instruments;  mathe- 
matical ligures  :  crowns  and  baskets  ;  ships  and 
their  varioiis  jiarts,  i^tc.  Hieroglyphics  were  in- 
scribed uiion  granite,  basalt,  poriiliyry,  and  sand- 
stone ;  they  were  cut  or  painted  upon  wooil  antl 
plaster;  and  they  were  written  ujion  papyri,  slabs 
of    calcareous    stone,   and   leather.      A    reed   pen, 

^     fl  y,  q<tsh,  was  used  for  writing  upon  papyri. 


The  jialette  used  for  holding  the  ink  was  usually  a 
flat,  rectangular  piece  of  wood  or  ivory  measuring 
alMuit  2.\  inches  by  1'2.  At  one  end  of  this  two  w 
niiue  holes  were  hollowed  out  for  holding  ink.  The 
coloui's  most  commonly  used  were  black,  red.  and 
green  ;  the  fii-st  was  made  from  vegetable,  the 
second  and  thinl  fnuu  mineral  substances. 


706 


HIEROGLYPHICS 


Iiif-criptiinis  on  Kjivptiaii  iiininiiiieiits  are  •"Oiiie- 
times  iiiluiil  with  ooloui's.  mi  attciii|it  lii'iii<;  iiuule 
to  imitate  the  natural  niloni's  (if  the  animals  ami 
ohjects,  leiiresenlatiiiiw  iif  which  an-  i'm|>liiveil  to 
form  the  insi'ri|ilicin.  The  |iainti-il  insi'riptiiins 
whh'h  aio  fciiiml  ujion  the  inner  oollins  in  thi'  toiiihs 
of  the  Isth  ami  litlh  clvmu-^ty  usually  t'ollow  a  ciiu 
volitional  ilesiffii  ;  the  niimher  of  colours  used  n|)on 
tlieni  hein^  ci)ni]iaratively  few,  six  at  the  most. 
But  on  the  Ani  papyrus  in  the  liiilish  Museum  its 
many  a.s  thirteen  colours  are  useil.  On  papyri  they 
are  usually  ilrawii  in  outline  in  Mack.  The  ruhrics 
anil  initial  worils  are  usually  written  in  ri'd. 
Hierofflyphics  are  written  in  hiui/ontal  lines  or 
iierpenilicular  columns,  which  are  separated  liy 
tine~  drawn  in  Mack  ink.  Isnally  they  are  to  lie 
read  in  the  direction  in  which  they  face,  and  are  so 
arranged  as  to  cover  comidetely  all  the  parts  of  the 
papyrus  whicli  were  to  lie  written  on.  K;.'vptian 
liieio^lyphics  are  read  in  the  order  in  whicli  they 
are  written  ;  this  order  is  sometimes  liroken  for  the 
sake  of  symmetrical  arrangement. 

Hierofilyphics  are  either  phonetic  or  ideoffiaphic  : 
the  former  chuss  compri.ses  si;,'ns  which  represent 
sounds,  and  the  latter  those  which  represent  idea-s. 
Phonetic  siijns  are  either  aljihalietic  or  syllahic. 
The  hieroj.;lypliic  alphahet  is  as  follows  : 


W 


J 


.23!i 


■i 
i 

II 
li 

P 
f 

III 
n 

I  or  r 
r  or  1 


ra 
i 


h 


4 

s 


^ 


t 

ih 
t 


The  earliest  Ejiyptian  hierojjlyphic  iu.scriptions 
known  to  us  are  iilleil  with  the  alphahetic  sij,'ns 
here  given  ;  this  fact  shows  that  so  far  hack  .xs 
.'tetKI  H.C.  the  use  of  phonetic  signs  wius  well  known 
and  used.  The  other  phonetic  signs  have  syllahic 
values.  A  large  nunioer  of  the  hieroglyphics  are 
employed  as  it/eoi/iKji/is,  or  reiireseiitatious  of  iileas. 
Every  word  in  Eg,vpti.aii  has  one  (/t:fcrintntttin-  or 
more  at  the  end  of  it.     Thus,  after  the  word  for  tree 

we  have  the  picture  of  a  tree,  m  ;  and  after  the  word 

for  dog  we  have  the  picture  of  a  dog,    }ryi-     An  ah- 

stract  idea,  such  as  joy  or  gladness,  wxs  expressed 
by  the  ligure  of  a  woman  heating  a  tamhoiirine,  or 
a  man  dancing,  or  hy  the  figure  of  some  oliject  pos- 
sessing it,  as  "yff^,  a  jackal,  to  expre.ss  the  idea 
of  cunning  or  craft :  ^,  a  seated  man,  signifying 

man,  was  applied  to  all  relationships,  functions, 
anil  offices  of  men,  as  «//,  '  father  ;'  sen,  '  brother; 
mer,  'governor;" /i/vi,  'priest;'  hn/:,  'lahoiirer  :' the 
special  meaning  which  it  conveyed  heing  shown  hy 
the  phonetic  groups  which  preceded  it.  In  the 
same  way  all  beasts,  or  objects  made  of  leather,  were 


expresseil    hy   a  skin,  ^;  all     )>recious    stones   or 

ohjects  iiiaile  of  the  same,  by  o  ;  all  actions  of  mov- 
ing, standing,  or  streiching,  hy  two  legs,  y\  ;  and  all 
actions  in  which  the  idea  of  streiiglli  was  to  be  con- 
veyed, by  an  arm  and  a  stick,  I  /).  The  number 
of  these  signs  may  be  computed  at  aboiil  \'t().  and  they 
resemble  in  tludr  use  those  of  the  .Assyrian  ciinei 
form,  in  which,  altlioiigh  to  a  more  limited  extent, 
the  leading  classes  of  thought  were  iletiTinined  b>' 
a  character  prefixed  ur  .illixeil  to  llie  phonetic  group 
giving  the  particular  idea.  Thus,  in  the  .\ssyrian, 
all  names  of  men  are  preceded  liy  a  single  upright 

wedge,  y  ;  all  countries  by  \*  ;  names  of  horned 
cattle  by  ^J ;  and  after  the  names  of  certain 
places,    Babylon,   for  example,  JpJ  is  affixed.     In 

the  Egyptian  system,  however,  the  determinatives 
are  always  placed  after  the  phonetic  groups,  and 
are  more  numerous.  The  < 'hiiie.se  system  of  writing 
approaches  still  more  closely  to  the  Egyptian, 
■24'2  radicals,  as  they  are  called,  but  really  deter- 
minatives, being  ])laced  after  other  groups  and 
symbols,  which  indicate  the  speci.il  idea  intended. 
In  this  last  language  the  radicals  are  generally 
])laceil  to  the  left,  except  in  those  instances  in 
which  they  enclose  the  phonetic  or  special  groups. 
Ill  the  Egy])tian  hieroglyphs  every  word  not 
expressing  an  abstract  idea,  such  as  the  verb  '  to 
be,'  or  the  grammatical  forms  and  pronouns,  is 
accompanied  by  its  ilelerminative,  and  is  incomplete 
without  it.  The  following  examples  will  illustrate 
the  use  of  determinatives  in  Egyjitian  : 


I-^T-I^^^ 

sesh. 

a  bird's  nest. 

\^\^ 

iiaa. 

a  boat. 

IJ^6 

l.iebs. 

clothes. 

[j^J[ 

aiieb. 

wall. 

^^^ 

ket, 

little. 

-li^ 

f 

tehliu, 

to  pray. 

1®  i®;^A 

sexsex, 

to  run  av  ay 

nelies. 

to  awake. 

SPECIMEN.S  OF   .\LI'H.\IiKTIC  AND   .SYl.L.MilC  IIIKHO- 
(iLYI'llIC  CH.\R.-VCTEIiS.* 


^  an  eagle,  A. 

n  an  arm,  A. 
(l      a  reed,  .\. 
^2^    *  ''''"'  I"- 
^"•-    a  heron,  Ba. 
J       a  leg,  15. 
*<.=^  a  ceivistes,  F. 
^    a  wild  fowl,  Ta. 
fl      a  vase,  Ta. 


a  viper, 


f. 


¥    legof  astool,  .\hft. 

JJ~    a  house,  H. 

O    a  sieve,  x- 
jT^   a  garment,  I' a. 
.2a>  a  lion,  H  or  L. 
<;;>   a  mouth,  1.  or  K. 

T    a  Jieii,  .M. 

y      a  weight.  Ma. 
/ a  hole,  .M. 

Si     an  owl,  M. 


•  The  linrt  fount  of  liierojilyphic  type  was  cut  in  Eli;^]aiid 
from  <lrawin;si  by  the  late  Mr  Bononii.  For  the  hieroglyphics 
used  in  this  article  we  are  indebted  to  .Messrs  Harrison,  printers, 
I-ondon. 


HIEROGLYPHICS 


707 


"Vn    avultiiie,  Mut.  ^ /»  """'"y'ls  lisl. 


i  water-line,  N.  *»—='  a  mace,  x''- 

^      a  reil  crown,  N.  /J\      a  slaml,  x^i'. 

Q      a  vase,  \u.  ra     top  of  iiniM-r,  Sa. 

^    agooseflyiii;^,  Pa.  ^    a  yoose.  Se. 

a      a  iloor,  P.  ,^=E!  a  woof,  Sa. 

A     a  knee,  (J.  i      a  leeil,  Su. 

f(  a  ]ia]i\  IMS   i>lant, 
I      Ha. 

f3i  ffoie-iiait  ol    lion. 
-^1     HA. 

\     twisteil  conl,  H. 

< '  a  tusk,  Hn. 

a  fiiit;er,  Teli. 
(J  Ij      two  reeds,  I. 

..    /two  olilique 
(     strokes,  I. 


a  liolt,  S. 

hack  of  chair,  S. 

a  ^anlen,  Slia. 

I    v^    I  a  1 1,  SH. 

\      a  spindle,  d. 


,  1" 


K. 


Q     part  of  dress,  xa. 

?     I  leaf  of  water-lily, 
k     \     xa. 


(2 


'  a  haiiil,  T. 
tongs,  B. 
a  cake,  T. 
a  chicken,  V . 
a  twisted  cord,  U 


rnder  the  rule  of  the  Ptolemies  in  Ej^vpt  the 
values    of    the    hieroglyphs    were    systenuitically 

changed.       Thus  J ,   x'^".  l>ecanie  iit  :  f^,  tir.s, 

became  ii,  and  so  on.  The  various  forms  of  the 
same  vowel  were  ccmfnsed  with  one  another,  and 
many  changes  between  consonants  took  place. 

The  /iiiif/i(((f/e  of  the  hieroglyjihs  is  most  nearly 
represcnte<l  liy  Coptic.  Coptic  is  a  name  given  to 
the  Egyptian  language  written  with  the  letters  of 
the  (Ircck  alphabet,  and  a  few  signs  borrowed  from 
the  demotic  forms  of  some  of  the  bieroglyiihs. 
The  Hible  was  translated  into  Coptic  early  in  the 
'M  century  .\.D.,  and  the  greater  part  of  this  work, 
indispensable  for  the  proper  study  of  the  hiero- 
glyphs, has  come  down  to  our  time.  Coptic  litera- 
ture is  (-hietly  theological,  and  the  te.\ts  are  full 
of  (ireek  woi'ds.  The  forms  of  Egyptian  words  as 
given  in  the  hieroglyphs  are  often  considerably 
moditied  in  Cojitic ;  many  of  the  changes  are 
caused  by  iihonetic  decay.  The  Coptic  language 
ceased  to  be  spoken  about  a  century  ago.  See 
Copts. 

In  I'^gj'ptian  the  noun  has  two  genders,  mascu- 
line and  feminine :  feminine  nonns  usually  end  in 
f.     Plural  nouns  end  in  //  or /»,  and  arc  generally 

followed    by    |||  or   j.    In  Egyptian  nouns  have  no 

declensions,  and  the  cases  are  expressed  by  jiarticles 
placed  before  nouns.  .\djcctives  have  no  gram- 
matical forms  to  indicate  degrees  of  comparis<m. 
The  following  are  the  principal  Fgy]itian  numerals  ; 


,<=alll    xerat         A 
^^\    ftu  4 


Hill        tua 

llll'l        ^''" 

§     lllllll  sexef 


III 
III 
III 

paut 

n 

meti 

nn 

'taut 

nnn 

iiulb 

© 

shaa 

10 
20 

:«) 

100 


teb 
liefiiu 
heh 
shen 


1000 

10,(XJ(i 

l(KI,(KI(i 

1,000,00(1 

10,(HX),000 
1  : 


III!  veniennu  S 

nil 


The  personal  pronouns  are  :  mil.  or  ''nut/., 
I'lituk  (masc),  nitul  (fem.),  'thou;'  entiij,  'he. 
nttiis,  'she;'  ciiiidf-ii,  '  y(m  '  (plur.) ;  entimeii,  eiifii, 
'they.'  The  personal  siitti.xes  are  a,  'I,'  /•,  'thou 
(ina.sc.),  t,  'thou'  (fem.);  /,  'he,'  s,  'she:'  /'. 
'we;'  ten,  'you;'  sen,  set,  'they.'  The  Egyjitiaii 
\  erb  has  no  tenses,  moods,  voices,  conju;;ations. 
or  personal  endings.  The  exact  meaning  of  a  verb 
must  be  gathered  from  the  context  or  the  syntax 
of  the  sentence.  The  Egyptian  verb  is  often 
accompanied  by  one  of  the  following  auxiliary 
verbs:  du,  'be;'  nn,  'be,'  'to  arise;'  at-i,  'do;' 
riful,  'stand;'  td,  'give.' 

Considered  as  one  of  the  most  ancient  written 
languages,  Eg'yptian  throws  great  light  upon  com- 
parative philology,  the  relative  antii|uity  of  various 
words  aiul  locutions,  the  general  construi'tion  of 
language  itself,  and  the  development  of  i>ictnre 
writing  into  the  abstract  ciphers  of  sound,  called 
letters.  During^  the  19th  dynasty,  or  about  14O0 
B.C.,  many  Semitic  words  were  introduced  into  the 
language  by  the  success  of  the  Egyptian  arms  in 
the  East,  and  such  words  iis  biilu  for  ISrf/i,  'a 
house,'  iHukcitiirii  for  Migdol,  'a  tower,'  and  others, 
appear  :  they  are,  however,  rare  and  few  in  number 
compared  to  the  body  of  the  language. 

The  invention  of  hieroglyjihs,  called  Xeter  hhwii, 
or  '  divine  words,'  was  attributeil  to  the  god  Thoth, 
the  scribe  of  the  gods,  and  loni  of  the  hieroglyphs. 
Pliny  attributes  their  invention  to  .Menon.  The 
literature  of  the  Egyi'tians  was  in  fact  styled 
Hermaic  or  Hermetic,  (m  account  of  its  supposeil 
divine  origin,  and  the  knowledge  of  hieroglyphs 
was,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  mystery  to  the  ignorant, 
although  universally  employed  by  the  .sacerdotal  and 
instructed  classes.  To  foreign  nations  the  hieio- 
glyphs  always  remained  a  mystery,  altbiuigb  .Moses 
is'siipjiosed  to  have  been  versed  in  the  knowledge 
of  them  (  Philo,  ]'itii  Mci/sis).  TbeCireeks,  who  hail 
settled  on  the  coast  as  early  as  the  6tli  century  li.c. 
appear  not  to  have  possessed  more  than  a  colloquial 
knowledge  of  the  language  :  and  ;iltliongh  Solon. 
jSH  B.C.,  is  said  to  have  stuilieil  K.eyptian  iloct lines 
at  Sebenuytus  and  Hcliojiolis.  and  the  doctrines  of 
Pythagoras  are  thought  to  have  been  deriveil  from 
Egyjit,  these  sages  could  only  have  aci|uire<l  their 
knowledge  from  interpretations  of  hieroglyphic 
writings.  Hecata'us  (5'21  B.C. )  ami  Herodotus  (4,">(i 
li.c),  who  visited  Egypt  in  their  travels,  obtaineii 
from  .similar  sources  the  information  they  have 
atl'orded  of  the  language  or  monuments  of  the 
country.  Democritus  of  .\lidera.  indeed,  about 
the  saine  period  (459  B.C.),  described  both  the 
Ethiopi:in  hieroglyphs  and  the  Mabylonian  cunei 
form,  but  bis  work  has  disaitpeared.  After  the 
c(mi|uest  of  Egypt  by  .Vlex:inaer,  the  (Jreek  rulei-s 
be.ean  to  jiay  attention  to  the  language  and  history 
of  tbeii  subjects:  and  Eratosthenes,  the  keeper 
of  the  museum  at  .Mexaudiia.  and  .Manctho,  the 
high  priest  of  Sebenuytus.  drew  up  ai-counls  of  the 
national  chronology  and  history  friuu  hieroglyphic 
sources.  Cinler  the  Itonian  empire,  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  one  Chaueinon,  the  keeper  of  the  librarx 
at  the  Serapeum,  compiled  a  dictionary  of  the 
hieroglyphs:  and  both  Iliodiuiis  ami  Strabo  men 
tion  them,  and  describe  their  nature.  Tacitus, 
later  under  the  empire,  gives  the  acciuint  of  the 
monuments  of  Thebes  translated  by  the  Egj-ptian 


708 


HTEHOGI^Vrillf's 


iii'ioMt.H  to  (icriii.'uii<'ii> :  Imt  iifti-i  lii»  time  tlic 
Kiinwk'dije  iif  tliciii  licvoiid  K^tvpl  it.-i-lf  was  ex 
ceocliiij;ly  liiiiilol,  mul  ilin—  imt  ie.i|i|i('iir  till  tlu' 
tliiiil  and  siilisciiuiMil  I'eiiHirie.-  A.I'.,  wlit-ii  tlii-v  an- 
iiieiitioiu'd  l>y  .\iiiiiiiaiiii>  Mairolliiins,  wlio  M<it4^> 
till'  IraiislalioM  of  one  of  tlic  <ilicli>k>  at  linini'  liv 
line  lliMnia|>i<>ii,  and  l>v  .Inline  \  .'tll'^ill^.  llir  trails 
laliM'  into  Latin  nl  tlit-  a|iiH'rvidial  lll'i'  nl  .Mcxamli'i. 
will)  xi*>''<  lliiit  "f  another.  Hi'liipdoiiis,  a  ni>velist 
who  lloiiiished  4(KI  .\.l). ,  desciilies  ( iv.  .S)  a  hieiii- 
•{lyiihic  letter  written  liy  t^neen  Cnndaee.  The  lii-sl 
poMlive  iiifiiriiiatii)n  on  the  .siihjerl  is  liy  (lenient 
of  .\le\andria  ('ill  A.I).),  who  nienlions  the  syni 
li(diral  and  ]ihoiietie.  or,  as  hi'  lalU  it.  eyri(ilo;,'ir 
natnre  of  hiero^'ly|iliios.  I'orjihyry  (.'?()4  .\.I>.) 
divides  them  also  into  C(enoloj;ii'  or  |ilionetic 
an<l  eni^iinatic  or  symholie.  Iloraixdlo  or  Morns- 
Apollon,  wh(»  is  snpposed  to  have  Monrished  ahont 
.">(MI  \.l>.,  wrote  two  hooks  e.\planatoiy  of  the 
liiero;,'lyphs,  a  rnile,  illasscnted  oonfnsion  of  truth 
and  iietion.  in  which  jtre  i.'iven  the  inteipretaliini 
of  many  hiero^^ls  phs  anil  their  esoteric  mcanin;^. 
After  thisvwrilei  all  knowled;;e  of  them  disapjieared 
till  the  revival  of  lettei's.  At  the  he^iiinin;;  of  the 
17th  century  these  symhols  lii-st  .ittracted  atten 
tion.  and  aliout  Ui.V)  .\th.in;isius  Kircher,  a  learned 
Jesuit,  pretended  to  interpret  them  hy  va^'ue 
esoteric  mitions  ilerived  from  his  own  fancy,  on 
the  supposilion  that  the  hiero;,'lyphs  weie  idi'o 
■rraphic  — .'i  theory  which  h.irred  all  pio;;ress,  and 
which  was  held  in  its  full  extent  liy  the  learned, 
till  Zoeya  in  17f<7  fii'st  enuitciated  the  proposition 
that  the  ovals  or  cartouches  contained  royal  names, 
and  that  the  liieroj;lyiihs,  or  some  of  them,  were 
used  to  express  siiumis.  .More  monnments  were 
known,  and  more  correct  ideas  had  he^'un  to 
ilawn  on  the  Kuropean  mind  ;  and  the  disci)\ery 
by  the  French,  in  1790,  of  the  Hosetta  Stone,  a 
skill  of  lilack  liiusalt,  liavinj;  inscrilied  upon  it, 
first  in  hieroj;lypliics,  secondly  in  demotic  or 
enchorial  (a  cursive  popular  form  of  writing'  extant 
at  the  period  I,  and  thirdly  in  (Ireek.  a  decree 
of  the  ])riests  of  K;,'ypt  assemlileil  in  synod 
at  Memphis,  in  liononi  of  I'tolemy  \  .,  j;ave 
the  lii"st  clue  to  the  decipherment.  The  fii'st 
attempts  were  made  upon  the  demotic  text  liy 
Silvestre  de  Sacy  with  some  success,  but  it  was 
soon  discovered  that  the  demotic  was  not  purely 
alphabetic.  Crude  notions  of  the  iileo;,'ra|iliic 
nature  of  the  hiero^dyphs  prevailed  till  llr\'iiun;;, 
in  IHI.S,  lirst  j;ave  out  the  hypothesis  that  the  liieni 
fjlyphs  were  used  as  sounds  in  royal  proiier  names. 
He  was  led  to  this  conclusion  by  tracini,'  the  hiero 
glyphs  through  the  cui-sive  hieratic  to  the  more  cur- 
sive <Ieniotic  ;  and.  as  this  last  was  known  to  be 
alphabetic,  he  inferred  that  the  corresiiondin;,'  hiero- 
I'lyphic  signs  were  also  aliihalietic.  In  this  manner 
lie  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  lirst  hieroglyph 

in  the  name  of  Ftdemy  (£  ^  ^^^  l|(|  P  J  in  the 

Rosetta  Stone  (a  door)  represented  a  P,  the  second 
(hemisphere)  a  T;  the  third  (a  loop)  he  sn|iposed 
to  be  superfluous;  the  fourth  (a  lion)  he  read  OLE; 
the  lifth  and  sixth,  the  syllable  Ml  :  and  seventh, 
the  back  of  a  sCiit,  an  S.  rnaided  hy  bilingual 
monuments,  he  ess.ived  to  deci|iher  the  name  of 
IJerenice,  and  altogether  established  the  value  of 
live  hieroglyphs  as  lettei's  out  of  two  names,  but 
was  unable  to  proceed  further,  ('hampollion  (q.v.), 
in  18'2'2,  by  means  of  an  inscription  found  on  an 
obelisk  at  I'liihe,  which  had  at  the  b.ise  a  Creek 
inscription,  recognised  the  name  of  Cleopatra,  and 
by    comparison    with     that    of    I'toleiiiy.    at     once 

tiroved  the  purely  alphabetic,  not  syllabico  alplia- 
letic  iMitnrc  of  the  signs.  Extending  the  principle, 
he  read  by  its  means  the  names  of  the  Creek  and 
Roman,  and   fiiiallv  those  of  the  native  monarchs. 


It  was  soon  seen  that  tiie.snme  liieio;;lypli«  as  those 
employed  in  these  iiaiiies  were  exteiisivel\  used  in 
the  texts  for  winds,  and  these  words  turned  out 
in  most  iiistanei>s  (o  Ih-  aiialo;;iiiis  to  the  Coptic. 
Allhiiiigh  the  di~coverics  of  Cham|iollion  were 
leceixed  by  many  of  the  leained  in  Kinope  «itli 
ilistiusi,  \el  his  method  of  research  Has  slowly 
adiipted  by  Kosellini  anil  Saholini  in  iH'A'2,  and 
snbsei|nently  exlendeil  methodically  by  Lepsius  in 
IS.S7,  and  by  liiiiisen,  lliiicks,  l)e  lionge,  Itircli, 
Coodwin,  Cliabas.  Ihngsch,  and  others. 

The  melliod  of  iiitei  pielalioii  adopted  has  been 
~tiictlv  iiiductive,  the  \aliii'  of  the  characters  lieing 
ilcdiiced  from  the  ei|uation  of  sounds,  or  homo- 
phoiK's  of  similar  groups.  'I'lie  meaning  of  llie 
groups  or  wiirds  has  been  delermined  by  examining 
all  known  instances  in  which  they  occur  in  pas- 
sages capable  of  being  interpreted,  that  of  llie 
ideographs  by  observing  the  form  of  the  symbols; 
many  of  them  have  been  made  out  from  the  pic 
lures  which  they  explain,  or  the  phonetic  groups 
which  aciiimp.'iny  them.  A  careful  ciimparison  has 
lieeii  institnled  with  corresponding  Coptic  forms 
when  they  exist.  In  short,  a  careful  jirinciple  of 
induction  has  been  ajiplied  to  the  study  of  tlie 
hieroglyphs. 

The  discovery  of  another  trilingual  inscription, 
that  of  the  tablet  at  San  or  Tanis,  recording  a 
synodical  ai't  of  the  piiests  in  llie  reign  of  I'tolemy 
Kiiergeles  ll.,'J.SS  Hi.,  has  conlirmed  the  results 
obtained  bv  Egyjitologists,  the  meaning  of  almost 

all   the  words   having   1 n   previously  delermined  ; 

while  the   power  of  reading   all  ilociiments  ;ind  iii- 

scriiitioiis  alVoided  by  their  leseaiches  has  resulted 

ill  tlie  resuscitation  of  a  knowledge  of  the  history, 

science,   and    lili'iatiire  of  the   aiicieiil    I'^gyptian.s, 

The  study  has  long  passed   into   the  category  of  a 

recognised    branch    of    oriental    learning,    and    the 

researches    have    assumed    a    nioic    critical    form. 

This   has  been  owing    to    the   iinmber  of  students 

and   the  abnndance  of  the  material   which  exists. 

The  doiilits  with  which  the  interpretations  were  at 

liisl     received    li.ne    siiccuiiibed    to    the    conviction 

that  nothiii-  Imt  a  logical  system  of  interpretation 

I  couhl  have  obtained  such  results.     Whatever  doubt, 

'  in    fact,    may   exist    as   to    the    minor   details  and 

I  more  delicate  shades  <if    language,    all    the   grain- 

1   matical  forms  and  thrcefoiirllis  of  the  wiirds  of  the 

old  l''.g.\  ptiaii  laiigiia;;!'  have  been  established. 

The  hieroglyphs  stood  in  the  .same  relation 
111  the  ollii'i  two  forms  of  the  characters,  called 
hieratic  and  ilemotic,  as  type  does  to  handwriting. 
Their  use  was  cliielly  for  odicial  inscriptions  on 
public  or  private  monuments,  religions  formula' and 
prayers,  and  rituals  or  Hermetic  Hooks  (<|. v.).  The 
most  remarkable  hicrof;lyphic  iiiscriiilioiis  are  the 
texts  found  inscribed  upon  the  pyramids  of 
I'epi,  Tela,  and  Inas;  that  <if  I  iia,  recording 
the  coni|Uest  of  the  lands  of  the  negroes  at  the 
time  of  the  6tli  dynasty  ;  that  in  honour  of 
Klinumhetp  at  Henihassan,  recording  the  investi- 
ture of  his  family  with  the  order  of  the  gold  collar; 
the  campaigns  of  .Mimes  against  the  llykslios 
at  El-Kab;  the  annals  of  Thiithiiies  Ml.  at 
Kariiak  ;  the  campaign  of  Itamescs  II.  against 
the  Kliita.  and  the  treaty  with  them;  the  account 
of  the  tanks  for  gold  washings  in  the  reigns  of 
Seti  I.  and  Haineses  II.  at  Kouban  and  Itedesicli ; 
the  invasion  of  Egypt  in  the  reign  of  Meneptah  by 
the  allied  forces  of  the  Libyans  and  other  people  of 
tlie  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  :  the  star  risings  on 
the  tomb  of  Hameses  \'.:  the  journey  of  the  ark  of 
Khiiiis  to  liakhtan.  in  the  reign  of  Hameses  X.  ;  the 
aciount  of  Cambyses  and  Darius  on  the  statue  of 
the  ^■atican  ;  the  already  cited  synodical  act  of  the 
priests  in  honour  of  I'tolemy  Euergetes  II. :  and 
that  of  the  priests  as.sembled  at  .Memphis,  on  the 
Hosetta   Stone,   in   the   reign  of    I'tolemy  V. ;  the 


HIKKOGLYPHICS 


HIGGINS 


709 


sepulclnal  tal)lets  uf  tlie  family  i)f  I'aslien'iiiitali, 
anil  the  lim^  series  of  seimli-liial  talili'ts  nt  tin- 
Imll  Apis  fi)iiMil  ill  llie  Sera]ieioii,  reconliiij;  llie 
liiitli,  installation,  and  ileatli  of  the  hulls  from  the 
IStli  ilynasty  to  the  I'ei'siaiis. 

In  eoiiiii'i'tion  with  the  liiei'ot;ly|)liies  are  two 
forms  of  writing  tluMii  in  coininon  use,  first  the 
liirrdlir  writing',  or  a  cursive  form  of  hieroylyiihic. 
The  miinher  of  these  written  eharacleis  is  fewer 
than  that  of  the  hieroglyphs,  the  generic  ileterinina- 
tives  heing  more  employed,  and  the  voi'alic  comple- 
ments of  the  consonants  lieing  constant  ly  written  in 
order  to  distinguish  similar  forms.  This  writing  was 
more  extensively  used  than  the  hieroglyphic,  lieing 
employed  for  state  pajiers,  le^al  docnments,  memor- 
anda, accounts,  religious  liooks,  rituals,  and  all  the 
]iui  poses  of  jirivate  and  puhlic  life,  liooks  were  gen- 
erally written  in  hieratic.  It  commences  a.s  early  as 
the  4th  or  oth  dynasty,  and  terminates  only  alioiit 
the  3d  or  4th  century  of  our  era.  At  the  earliest 
period  it  is  occasionally  written  iierpendicularly, 
hut  it  was  afterwards  only  written  horizontally, 
and  has  generally  |iortiiiiis  in  red  ink,  correspond- 
ing to  our  initial  illuminated  letters  or  inlirics. 
Many  scholars  hold  it  iiroved  that  the  hieratic 
alphahet  gave  rise  to  the  I'lncnician,  and  have 
traced  the  I'lio'iiician  alphahet  from  hieratic  sources 
(as  in  our  article  Al.l'llAlsKr,  Vol.  I,,  where  on  page 
187  the  hieroglyphs,  the  hieratic  characters,  and 
the  I'ho'nici.an  alphaliet  will  he  seen  side  liy  side). 
Others  still  atlirin  that  the  precise  source  of 
I'lKcnician  writing  icmains  invoUed  in  ohscnrity. 
The  second  kiinl  of  hieroglyphic  handwriting  was  tlie 
ili-iitotif.  It  is,  like  all  cursive  hands,  more  difiiciilt 
to  decipher  than  the  hieratic.  It  wa.s  ii.sed  as  far 
hack  as  the  coiiimencement  of  the  2titli  dynasty,  or 
the  (ith  century  B.C.,  and  continued  in  u.se  till  the 
tid  century  .\.l>.  This  wa.s  the  hist  native  form  of 
writing  in  Hgypt,  the  early  Christians  having  intro- 
duced the  (Jreek  aljihahet,  with  a  few  characters 
horrow'  (I  from  the  ilemotie.  This  script  is  rarely 
used  for  puhlic  monnments,  although  it  aiipears  on 
the  Itosetta  Stone;  liutitwas  universally  employed 
for  contracts,  jiuhlic  documents,  and  occasionally 
for  religions  tormuhe,  owing  to  the  (lecrea,sing 
knowledge  of  hieroglyphics.  At  the  time  of 
Clemeut  it  was  the  Hist  learned  hy  lieginneis. 
With  it  the  (Jreek  language  hegaii  to 
puhlic  use. 

Besides  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  there  are 
those  of  the  Aztecs  en-  Mexican,  which  were  de- 
velo]ied  to  a  stage  far  ahove  the  rnile  pietnre- 
wiiting  of  the  hunting  trihes  of  American  Indians. 
The  system  was  mainly  pictorial,  lint  had  imide 
important  advances  toward  attaining  plionctic 
value,  especially  in  the  pi('ture-iiames  of  persons 
and  (ilaces.  The  simplest  kind  is  where  a  name 
meaning  '  liinl-mountain  '  is  re|>re.sented  hy  a  hi  id 
and  a  mountain  ;  another  stage  is  where  a  persinial 
name  of  live  syllalilesis  represented  hy  live  pictures, 
each  represcntiiig  a  thing  wlio.se  name  corresponds 
to  one  sylhilile  of  the  person's  name.  After 
the  Spanish  coni|iuwt,  the  Franciscans  used  the 
Mexican  symhols  for  teaching  Christianity.     Thus 


apiiear 


the   Lord's   I'rayer  in    Latin, 


H 


a  Hag 


pro- 
nounced Pinitti,  was  used  for  the  syllable  Pa  : 
Oa  ,  a  stone,  TcH  for  tr,  the  two  expressing  Pater  : 
:^  ,  a  cactus  fruit,  yor/itii,  for  Ni>ch  :  Jind  a  stone, 
Oo  ,  as  ahove  for  tc:  tlie.se  four  groups  expressing 
P(ili\x)  Xiii-htr,  (u-  Xii.ifrr :  and  so  forth.  Some 
of  the  missionaries  comiilained  of  their  dirticnlties 
when  overwhelmed  hy  converted  Mexicans  giving 
their  confessions  written  in  this  puzzling  manner. 
Some  have  alisurdly  atlirmed,  (nilced,  that  all  the 
Mexican  manuscripts  are  monkish  impostures. 
Th"  most  important — religious,  administrative,  his- 


torical— are  on  iiarchment  or  on  mague.v  paper. 
The  Toltecan  symhols  of  ( 'eiitral  Ameiica  were 
different  in  their  method  from  those  of  Mexico. 
— The  term  hieroglyphic  was  also  used  hy  the 
writers  of  emhlemata  or  devices,  s_\ mholising 
(inoinic  sentences  taken  from  the  (oeek  and  Latin 
poets,  and  having  no  relation  to  Kg\  ptian  liiero 
glyphs.  —  In  recent  times,  too,  the  asirological  al- 
manacs have  had  their  symlxdical  representations 
and  suimosed  prognostics  of  future  e\eiits,  which 
they  called  hieroglyphs. 

Z.,e{;a,  /A  Oriijiiie  Vb,li.-i,;,nim  ( fo.  Koine,  1797); 
Young,  Aii-hiriilwiia  (1817,  vul.  .wii.  p.  (iO)  ;  Eneiichip. 
Jlvitii II II ira  (>ftli  ed.  I ;  CliaiiipolHoii,  /'n'ris  ilit  Siislfiue 
Niiroii/ii/ihii/iii  (1S24),  <  I  ruin  inn  in  fjiiiplieinie  (1841- 
lil),  Difliimiiinrc  (1841);  l.cpsius,  111'  the  Ann.  lltV 
Iiistituto  Ari-li.  (J828);  liircli,  hitroiluHion  Ui  tin  Stmly 
iif  the  Hirroijliiiihirs  {  LS'i?  )  ;  IJrugscIi,  (Innnniiiirc  Diiiiu- 
tii/iie  (Berlin,  18.5.T),  Wmln-hnch  (18(17  118),  liraiimuitik 
11872);  De  llougij,  Ktnili:  irnnr  Sli'/r  /ii/iiplieinii  I18r),s|; 
Chahas,  r<i]iiiiits  Miiiiitiiii  il'llin-ris  (181111;  Xrilsilirijt 
{.iuwfiL  Spriirlic  ( 1803  74  ) ;  lliiii^un,  Eijiiiil'.:  I'liiri:  (  vol.  v. 
18(17);  Wallis  Uml^je,  Fint  Mrim  in  Jiiji/plnui  (  I8'J.5).  K.ir 
the  prinoipjil  works  reliifiiig  to  liieroglypliic  literature,  see 
Ibrahim  Hihiiy,  Hihliininiphii  of  Eijtipt  ami  lln  Soni/nn 
(2  vols.  Loiul.  J8S(j  .S7|, — For  American  picture-writing 
and  .Me.vican  hieroglyphics,  see  Schoolcraft's  works ; 
Kingsborougli,  Mij-iain  Antir/nitiix  11831  48|;  K.  H. 
Tylor,  AiikIiiiiii'  (18(11);  Im  Thurii.  Amiimj  the  luilians 
iif  (riiiiiiiii    (1883).     See    also    the    articles    At.PHABKT, 

(JHI.NA,  KciYPT,  W'RirlNli. 

Hieroiiyilliles,  one  of  the  niany  hermit  orders 
established  in  the  course  of  the  I3tli  and  14tli  cen- 
turies. The  Hieionymitesgrew  out  of  tln^Tertiaries 
or  third  order  of  Franciscans  (i|.v.).  Some  of  the 
followers  of  Thomas  of  Sienna,  one  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan rigoiists,  having  estalilislied  themselves  in 
variims  places  among  the  wild  districts  wliicli  skirt 
the  Sierra  Moiena  in  S]iaiii.  by  degrees  formed  into 
a  community,  and  obtained  in  1374  the  aiipioval 
of  Pope  (iiegory  XI.,  who  conlirmed  their  rule, 
which  was  founded  mi  that  of  St  Augustine.  The 
institute  extended  into  other  jirovinces  of  Spain, 
into  Portugal,  later  into  Italy,  'J'ynil,  and  liavaria. 

Hieronyiiiiis.    See  .)ki;o.mk. 

Hieropliailt,  the  priest  who  presided  o\ci  the 
mysteries  at  Flensis.     See  Mv.sTKIilKs. 

Hierosolyina.    See  Jeius.m.km. 

HiSi'tleil,  or  HliilioN,  KalI'H,  author  of  the 
I'lj/i/r/ii-dtiiroii,  a  general  chnuiicle,  in  7  books, 
detailing  events  from  the  beginning  of  the  world 
to  the  death  of  Edwanl  111.  Higden's  own  share 
in  the  work  is  believed  to  extend  down  to  l.'i'Jdor 
l.S'27  only,  the  rest  having  been  written  by  two 
cinitiuuatois.  Iligden  himself  was  a  monk  of  St 
Werlmrgh's  monastery  in  (liestcr;  he  is  said  to 
have  lived  I  here  sixty-four  years,  and  to  have 
died  in  13(54.  .An  English  translation  of  the  Po/i/- 
rhrom'roii  by  .lolin  Tri'V  is;i  was  jirinted  by  Caxdin 
in  1482.  This  and  another  early  translation,  with 
the  text,  have  been  edited  for  the  Hidls  series 
(9  Mils.  18()."i  8(1)  by  C.  liabington  (vols.  i.  ii. )  and 
Professor  I. nniby  (vols.  iii.    ix.). 

Hi^^jfilis.  Matthkw  .Iamks.  English  c.ssayist, 
better  known  by  his  principal  mini  ilf  jilunn-  of 
'  Jacob  ( (mniuiii,'  w  as  born  at  Henown.  County 
Meatli,  Ircdand,  on  4tli  December  1810;  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  New  College,  Oxford  ;  and  died 
at  Kingston  House,  near  Abingdmi.  on  14tli 
.\iigust  18(18.  His  inlelleclual  force,  his  humour 
ami  iriuiy  wi'ie  enlisted  in  the  warfare  against  the 
abuses  and  backsliilings  and  minor  evils  of  .-ocial 
and  public  life,  such  as  the  heaping  up  of  legal 
costs  as  sung  by  Thackeray.  He  wrote  no  great 
book,  but  wa-s  a  steady  contributor  to  a  series  of 
journals,  such  as  the  Xcir  Mniilhh/  iVai/iizinf, 
Moniiiiij  I'll  ran  irli\  Times,  ('(iriiliill,  fiifiiihiiiijli 
llcvieir.    Pull    Mull    dinette,    &.e.       He    )iartieu- 


710 


HIGGINSON 


HIGHLANDS 


laily  ■exri'llcil  in  the  iiii|ilicntii>ii  (if  tin-  most 
imiiUfiit  iiidiiiiiij!;  ill  ii  ilfiiiiiif  siiiiplicil.v  of  staU-  , 
iiieiit.'  He  was  u  iiinii  of  -^'i'Miitii' >taluie— (i  feel 
S  iiielies  lii^'li.  A  few  of  Ids  Mketclie.s  were  eiillecleil 
bv  their  authur,  and  |innled  for  privHte  eiii  nhiliiiii 
ill  IS.'>7.  They  ai)|ieaie<l  at;ain,  with  others,  ii> 
Exsiii/.s  ill!  Siiiiii/  i'/(/(/«vAv,  with  a  .Memoir  hv 
Sir  \V.  Stirling'  Maxwell  (  1S7.')). 

Hitfsllisoil,  Thomas  \Vi;s  rwoitrii.  an  Ameri 
can  Hiillicii,  wii^  hum  at  ( 'ainlirid;;e.  .Ma>*.'-a<-liM-etl^, 
•22d  Dciciidiir  IS-.';{,  ;,'railnated  at  llarvani  in  IS  +  I 
and  at  the  divinity  seliool  in  1847.  and  wa-- ordained 
in  the  >aine  year.  He  retired  frcnn  the  inini.-tiy  in 
18.">8.  Meanwhile  he  had  lieeii  active  in  thi-  anti 
slavery  a;;ilation,  and,  with  Theodore  I'arUer, 
Wendell  l'liilli|is,  and  other~.  had  heen  indii'led 
for  the  ninnler  of  a  man  killi'd  dnriii;;  an  atleijipt 
to  rescue  a  fii^citive  >lave,  hut  escaped  throiijjli  a 
flaw  in  the  indictment.  In  the  stnijj^de  to  make 
Kaiisa.s  a  free  state  he  took  a  conspicuous  part.  In 
the  civil  war  he  rose  to  the  coinniand  of  thi'  lii'st 
le^tiinent  that  was  raiseil  from  amon^'  the  foinier 
slaves.  He  afterwards  rctnrneil  to  litcialiirr,  and 
in  IHSO  HI  wa^  a  niciiilier  of  the  .Ma^sacliMsclls 
le;,'islature.  His  liooks  inclndc.  besides  histinies 
of  the  I'nited  States,  a  vobiine  of  lliin-diil 
Mriinjiiiil  liiiii/iii/i/iics,  and  a  translation  of  Epic 
tetns,  Otitdour  I'd/irr.-i  (l.Sli:^!:  Md/hniic,  (in  01  it- 
piiil  lioiiiiiiire  (lH(ii)|,  and  (>/(//iiirl  Diii/.s  (1873): 
Aiiiiji  l.ifi-  (II  II  ISIiiil.  Jiii/iiiiciit  (187(1):  At/iiiitir 
il.s'.M((/.v  (  is71  ) :  Com  III  I'll  Sciixe  iihuiil  }l'iiiiiiii  (  ISHl  ); 
a  Life  of  Maifiaiet  Fuller  ( 1884) :  T/n:  Muminh  uf 
/Vo.r//;.v  ( 188()l  :  and  Hint's  mi  Wrilini;  unit  Speech- 
)/('//.<//./(  1 8.S7). 

Ili^ll  Ooilliilissioil  <'oiirt,  a  court  or  jinlicial 
committee  estalilUlicil  in  I.Vill  l.y  (Jueen  Klizabeth  to 
investij;ate  ecclesiastical  cases,  the  members  beinK 
nominated  by  the  crown.  In  the  reifjn  of  .lames  I. 
dispute-  ;irose  between  the  comuiou  law  courts  and 
the  lli^b  <  'ommission  a~  to  the  posvcrs  of  the  latter. 
in  llil  I  Coke  decidcil  that  it  had  no  ri;;ht  to  line  or 
imprison,  save  in  cases  of  heresy  and  schism.  I,aud 
employeil  it  freely  to  enforce  nniforinily  and 
prevent  immorality  ;  but  the  number  of  dei^v 
puiii-lied  by  it  was  never  j;ieat.  In  two  years  of 
Its  j,'realesi  activity  mily  three  were  deprived  and 
seven  snspcndccl.  Complaints  were  in.ailc  ,i;,'aiii~l 
this  eMraordinary  tribnn:d.  the  counterpait  for 
ecidesiasiical  persons  to  the  Star  Chamber  fin-  lay 
ollendcis,  that  it  exceedeil  its  powers,  ami  was 
in  ilself  ille;;al  :  and  it  was  abolisheil  by  tin-  Lon;: 
Parliament  in  lt>41.  A  new  court  of  commissiiui 
foi-  iM'clesiastical  cases  was  estalilislicd  by  .lames  II. 
in  I68().  only  to  lie  abidishi'd  li>  the  I'.ili  of  l{i;.;lits 
(KiHOi.  'I'lie  lli-li  Comnii-sion  Court  established 
in  Sciiibiriil  in  HillN  was  ;iliidishecl  in  I6.'i8. 

lli<rli    roiirt    of   .liistioo.      See    Aiikm.. 

C'll  >M  1  |,•^.   CiiMMciN    I, AW.  .It  1)11  ATI  l!K  .\l   ts. 

lliullU;:it<'.  a  northern  suburb  of  London,  in 
the  county  of  Middlesex,  4^  miles  NNW.  of 
Killers  Cross  Station  by  rail.  Here  Ibicon  and 
('<deriil;.'e  died  ;  Whittin;;ton's  Stone  at  the  foot  of 
Hi;4hxati'  Hill  marks  tlii>  spot  where  Kick  heard 
Bow  Itells,  and  turned  a'iaiu  :  Colcrid^;c's  icmains, 
buried  in  the  olil  idiurcliyard,  arc  now  covered  by 
the  chapel  of  the  Hi;;h{;ate  j;rain mar-school  :  and 
ill  the  ;;ieat  cemetery  (C(Uiseciated  I8;«»)  have  been 
buried  l''arad;iy,  l.oni  Lyndhuist.  '(Jeoifje  Eliot,' 
and  many  other  fainons  persons. 

Hiulllaiuls.  a  term  applied  to  the  liijrher  iiart- 
of  a  country,  as,  for  example.  IIi;;blands  of  the 
Hudson,  in  the  stale  of  New  York  :  Imt  commonly 
u.sed  of  a  particular  district  in  Scoiland.  This 
district  has  no  political  or  civil  boundary.  Separateil 
by  only  a  vaj;ue  line  of  dem.ircatioii  from  the 
division  called  the  Lowlands,  the  Scottish  Hi]^h- 
lamls  may  be  brielly  described  as  that  portion  of 


the  north  and  north  west  of  Scotland  in  which  the 
Celtic  lan^Mia;;!'  and  maiinei's  have  less  or  more 
lingered  uiilil  modern  times.  T\\r  Ili;.djland  line, 
as  it  is  usually  called,  extciuls  dia;;onall>  across 
the  country  from  Nairn  on  the  .Mor.iy  I'irlh  to 
Dnndiarlon  i>ii  the  Civile:  but  the  mounlainons 
part    of   the   counties   of    Hanll,    Morav,    .\berdeen, 

Kincardine,    and    I'eith   are  also    nndci^-l I   to  lie 

includeil  in  the  dcsi;,'nation  Ili;,dilaiiils.  Caithness 
mi;,dit  be  exclndeil  as  beiiij;  a  ;;eneially  level 
country;  lint  throughout  the  Highlands  there  are 
rich  level  tracts,  none  being  in<in'  sn  than  the 
eastern  division  of  Koss  shire.  The  Ilcbriiles  (ipv.) 
or  Western  Isles  are  includeil  in  the  lli;4hlands,  but 
the  isles  of  Orkney  and  Shetlaml,  I  hough  to  the 
north,  are  distinctly  excluded,  by  reason  of  the 
Norwegian  origin  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  Highlands  are  full  of  loftv  hills,  some  green 
and  pastoral  with  traits  of  heath,  and  othci-s 
ruggeil  and  bare  :  seven  reach  a  height  of  4(Ml(l  feet 
and  u]iwards,  and  nearly  lifty  are  between  .TitX)- 
and  4(I(KI  feel.  liesides  the  grander  features, 
there  are  impetuous  mountain  torrents,  iiictnr- 
esipic  ravines,  and  valleys  or  glens,  lakes  of 
singular  beauty,  and  tiords,  or  narrow  arms  of  the 
sea  (like  the '  lakes,  called  lorlix).  Perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  feature  in  the  country  is  the  line 
of  valleys  from  Inverness  to  Kurt  William,  in 
which  lies  a  scries  of  navigiililc  lochs,  united  by 
aitilicial  channels  to  form  the  Caledonian  Canal, 
(irowing  uji  under  a  system  of  clanship,  the  state 
of  society  in  the  Highlands  was  antii|nale(l  and 
alien,  from  a  national  point  of  view  :  while  the 
country  was  almost  impenetrable  to  travellers  or 
to  any  species  of  tralllc.  The  lii^l  great  attempt 
to  refiirm  this  state  of  atVairs  was  Ihe  openin;^  np 
of  the  country  by  roads  in  diMcreiit  directions, 
under  the  superintendence  of  (ieneial  Wade,  about 
I72.')  '2().  The  next  great  act  of  ni(dioration  was 
the  abolition  of  Heritable  .Inrisdictions  (q.v.), 
including  the  ancient  privileges  of  the  heads  of 
clans,  about  1748.  And  Lastly,  nut  to  speak  of 
the  planting  of  schools  and  churches,  much  was 
done  by  the  establishment  of  the  Highland  and 
Agiicnituial  Society  in  1784.  Since  these  events 
the  ancient  jijilriarchal  .s\>tem  has  given  place  to 
imjirovcinents  as  regards  cominnnication,  agri- 
culture, dwellings,  education,  and  other  modern 
ciindilions,  including  a  gradual  siibstilntion  of 
En;;lish  for  the  (Jaelic  language,  (ileal  nnmbei-s 
of  the  Celtic  inhabitants  emigrated  in  the  last 
i|\iarlci  of  the  18th  ceiilnry.  .An  enormous  increase 
of  po]iul.'iliiin  had  arisen  with  no  coiiesponding  in- 
crease of  food.  The  moniitains  were  practically 
waste  :  the  discovery  that  sheep  throve  upon  those 
natural  pastures  led  of  necessity  totlie  lettingof  them 
to  such  tenants  as  could  supply  stock.  The  half- 
starving  )ieople  were  at  various  times  dispossessed, 
and  their  |.lace  l.-iken  by  stock  farmers  with  capital 
from  tlie  Lowlands:  tlie  'Sutherland  clearances,' 
which  have  been  the  subject  of  so  much  controversy, 
took  place  between  1810  and  182(1.  While  a  new 
character  was  thus  given  to  extensive  Highland 
pasturages,  the  value  of  estates  has  been  very 
remarkably  advanced  by  being  let  for  the  pursuit 
of  game  tii  sporlsineii,  chielly  persons  of  rank  and 
oiiulcnce  from  Kn;;laiid.  What,  therefore,  with 
improved  farming  and  shootings.  Highland  estates 
have  in  the  lilth  cenluiy  risen  immensely  in  value. 
Inverness  is  usiiallv  spoken  of  as  the  capital  of  the 
Highlands. 

The  physical  geography  of  the  Higliliimls  is  iliscus.sed 
uniler  (iliKAT  Bhitai.v:  see  also  .Scori.AXli.  The  clan 
»vstciii  is  treated  at  Clan,  and  the  language  ii'  the 
HiKhhuiils  at  Gaelic:  sec  aLso  Celts.  The  condition  of 
till-  Chokteks  and  the  measures  taken  for  aiiiclioratiiig  it 
form  the  subject  of  a  separate  article  :  and  L)EEH-KORE.sTS 
are  treated  under  that  head.     See  also  Agricl  LTUHE,  for 


HIGHLANDS 


711 


the  Highland  ami  Agiiciiltmal  Society  ;  Hebridbs  and 
articles  on  the  several  Hij^liland  counties  and  islands  ;  A. 
Geikie's  Scentiji  of  Srothind  {'lA  ed.  1X87);  Dr  James 
Browne's  ^w/o/'^  nf  thr  Hi'ihltfiKhani/  t/te  Hinhhintl  t'htit^ 
(4  vols.  ISHS;  re-edited  by  J.  S.  Keltie,  2  vols.  l«7ri);  the 
guide-books  by  Anderson,  Black,  Baddelcy,  Murray  ;  the 
Duke  of  .Argyll's  Siotlcnid  an  it  was  and  as  it  is  (1887). 

Hnail.ANIi  CosiI'MK.  -'['here  is  little  cloiilit 
iilmwt  tile  aiitiiiiiitv  lit'  the  'garli  of  oM  (iaul,' 
althoiijih  sevi'ial  writer.-;  have  adopted  the  theory 
that  the  kilt  was  iiitrodtireil  hy  an  En^^lislnnan 
early  in  the  18th  century.  The  idea  that  the 
kilt  is  modem  seems  to  have  i)riii;inated  with 
a  writer  in  the  Srot.s  Miif/nziiic  in  179H.  The 
original  dress  of  the  Hi;,dilander  was  the  Celtic 
Feilc-brcdrdti  (or  helted  plaid).  This  was  a  piece 
of  tartan  cloth,  '2  yards  hroad  and  4  lonj;, 
which  was  diawn  rouinl  the  waist  in  nicely 
adjusted  folds,  and  tightly  huckled  with  a  belt. 
The  lower  part  came  down  to  the  knees  in  mnch 
the  same  manner  as  the  modern  kilt,  while 
the  upper  part  was  drawn  up  and  adjusted  to  the 
left  shoulder,  so  that  the  right  arm  might  he 
perfectly  free.  This  upper  part  was  the  plaid, 
which  w.as  used  as  a  covering  for  the  shonlders  ami 
body  in  wet  weather;  and  when  the  use  of  both 
arms  was  reciuired  it  was  fastened  across  the 
breast  with  a  brooch,  often  curiously  enriched.  A 
brooeli  was  also  used  to  fasten  the  plaid  on  the 
left  shoulder.  To  attire  himself  in  the  belted 
plaid  required  on  the  jiart  of  the  Highlander  no 
small  amount  of  dexterity.  The  usual  way  was  to 
lay  it  on  the  Hour,  and  after  carefull\  arranging 
the  fohls,  to  lie  down  upon  it,  and  then  liuckle  it  on. 
The  late  J.  K.  Caniphell  of  [slay,  who  had  a  kilt 
and  plaid  in  one  made  for  a  fancy-ball  at  Bucking- 
ham Palace,  had  to  adopt  this  plan  -lying  down 
on  the  o\itstretched  clotli,  gathering  the  folds  up 
and  round  his  waist,  and  then  securing  them  in 
position  by  a  belt.  The  lower  end  was  fastened  at 
the  right  hip.  The  same  arrangement  may  lie 
seen  in  a  tiguie  by  (ieiuge  .Jameson  of  the  Earl  of 
Moray  engraved  in  Lord  .\rchiliald  Campbeirs 
Recun/.f  It/  A  ly////. 

The  utility  of  such  a  dress  in  the  Highlands  is 
obvious,  for  the  plaid  rendered  the  man  inditl'erent 
to  stoiiiis,  and  prepared  to  pass  a  night  in  the  o]ien 
air  in  the  most  inclement  weather,  while  the  loo.se 
unilergarment  enaliled  him  to  wade  rivers  or  ascend 
mountains  with  equal  ease.  It  was  thus  peculiarly 
ailapted  to  the  warrior,  the  hunter,  and  the 
sbepherd.  If  benighted,  the  Highlander  of  <ild 
would  ilip  his  plaid  in  water,  and  then  wra|i  it 
round  him,  the  woollen  (doth  swollen  with  moisture 
lieing  supposed  to  resist  the  \\ind.  while  the 
exhalations  from  the  body  during  sleep  surrounded 
him  with  a  warm  va|i<inr.  Heron's  Hi.t/uri/  of 
Srolhtiiil  says  that  'in  .\rgyle  and  the  Hebrid;e, 
before  the  middle  of  the  lifteeuth  century,  tartan 
was  manufactureil  of  one  or  two  colours  for  the 
poor;  more  varied  for  the  rich.'  The  author  of 
Cri'fi(i/iir  Miittris  roiirrrin iiif  Snitliinil,  who  w  |-ote 
jirior  to  lo!»7,  said  of  the  Highlanders  that  '  they 
delight  in  marbled  cloths  especially  that  have 
long  stripes  of  sundrie  colours;  they  love  chielly 
purple  and  blue.'  The  particular  .viV/.v,  or  patterns 
of  tartans  which  distinguish  eacli  clan,  must  have 
lieen  lixed  before  104."),  proliablv  before  l(i(K). 
.Martin  says  that  every  tribe  and  eveiy  island 
dill'ered  from  the  rest  in  the  fancy  of  making 
plaids,  as  to  the  stripes  in  bre;idth  and  colours. 
Tartans  may  generally  be  divided  into  ijitih  and 
red  according  as  these  C(dours  predominate.  The 
wonl  is  lield  hy  Skeat  to  be  deriveil  from  the 
Fr.  trirfidiir,  a  kind  of  linsey-woolsey  cloth. 
Lord  Lome  in  1889  discovered  at  Inveritray  <ild 
records  of  the  clan  Campbell  which  make  fre(|uent 
mention  of  tartans  ;  ami  tartans  worn  at  the  battle 


,  of  Kilsyth  (1645)  have  been  seen  by  living  wit- 

\  !iesses. 

The  Feilp-bmiriDi  is  now  abandoned  for  the /'(•//p- 
'"'".'/  [plilliiltcfi  or  filibeg)  as  more  convenient.  The 
ililieience  is  simiily  this,  that,  whereas  formerly  the 
lower  and  upper  parts  of  the  dress  were  attached, 
they  are  now  sejiarated.  The  lower  part  has  the 
folils  li.\ed  by  sewing,  and  is  known  as  the  kilt, 
which  is  probably  akin  to  the  Danish /.Z/^',  '  to  ttick 
up,'  though  the  (laelic  milt  means  apparel  in 
general.  The  sbouliler-plaid,  however,  is  now  worn 
more  for  ornament  than  use. 

The  original  garb  of  the  Highlanders,  tlien,  wa.s 
the  Fcile  hrciiciiii,  and  both  in  its  materials  ami 
arrangement  it  was  peculiarly  the  invention  of  the 
(iael.  Other  articles  of  the  costume  were  Celtic, 
and  are  now  jieculiar  to  Scotland,  but  were  not 
distinctively  Highland.  The  ^/((/.y  or  '  trews '  w'ere 
worn  by  gentlemen  when  on  horseback,  and  occa- 
sionally hy  others,  especially  old  men.  They  were 
breeches  ami  stockings  in  one  piece,  always  of 
tartan,  and  made  to  lit  very  close  to  the  Innbs. 
General  Stewart  (18'2'2)  said  that  his  grandfather 
always  wore  the  trews  on  hor.seback,  and  the  kilt 
at  home.  Then  tlieie  was  worn  a  waistcoat  and 
short-coat,  each  adorned  with  silver  butt<iiis,  ami, 
in  the  case  of  gentlemen,  with  lace  and  embroidery. 
A  large  purse  of  goats'  or  badgers'  skin  w.os  sus- 
pended from  the  belt,  and  answered  the  purpose 
of  a  pocket.  This  was  the  xpornni,  usually 
ornamented  with  silver  or  brass  work  ami  t.issel.s. 
lirogues  and  tartan  stockings,  fastened  with 
hroad  garters  in  rich  colours ;  a  dirk,  with  a 
knife  and  fork,  and  sometimes  a  sjioon,  stuck 
in  the  side  of  the  sheath,  and  a  pair  of  jiistolis 
completed  the  attire.  That  of  the  common  people 
(littered  only  in  the  deliciency  of  colours  and  of 
silver  ornaments.  The  Highland  garb  was  pro- 
scribed in  1747,  when  it  was  enacted  that  any 
person  who  should  wear  tlie  plaid,  li!ib(ig.  trews, 
or  shoulder-belts,  tartans  or  particolouied  stuH's, 
should  be  imprisoned  si.\  months  for  the  first 
ofl'ence,  and  on  second  conviction  be  transported 
for  seven  years.  This  harsh  law  was  rejiealed  in 
1782  at  the  instam-e  of  the  Duke  of  Montrose.  In 
tliis  act  occurs  the  lirst  formal  lecord  of  the  '  kilt. 

(ientlemen.  says  Stewart,  wore  one  or  more 
feathers  in  the  bonnet,  and  the  common  p(Hiple  a 
tuft  of  heather,  pine,  holly,  or  oak.  All,  however, 
had  the  right  to  a  .solitary  eagle's  plume,  whereas 
only  the  son  of  a  chief  could  wear  two  plumes,  and 
a  (diief  of  a  (dan,  three.  This  was  the  old  clan 
rule. 

The  plumed  bonnet  of  the  Highland  regiments, 
acc(U'(ling  to  Lord  .\rchibald  Campbell,  who  beaded 
the  successful  opposition  to  its  proiioscd  aliolition 
(1884),  is  an  ad.aptation  from  the  knights  of  medi- 
eval Europe.  On  the  island  of  Inishail,  Loch  .Awe, 
there  is  on  a  tombstone  (of  llith  century)  a 
figure,  with  long  sweeping  ostrich  plumes  such 
as  those  worn  by  (ierman  knights  in  Diirer's  draw- 
ings. Similar  plumes  were  .also  worn  by  the  Earl 
of  .Moray  in  Charles  ll.'s  time,  and  tbeie  are  also 
examples  of  it  in  'J'/ir  Hliii-1:  Hoiil:  of  'J'lii/iiioiit/i. 
liOgan  .says  that  the  Highland  soldiei-s  wore  short 
plumes  at  the  side  of  the  bonnet.  The  bead-dre.ss 
of  the  first  Highland  infantry  regiment  raised  was  a 
simple  bl:ud<  cap.  with  a  tuft  of  feathers  added  in 
j  token  of  gcntilit>  .iiid  the  right  to  bear  arms.  From 
I  this  the  leather  boniu't  seems  to  have  gradually 
!  (Iev(d(i]ied.  and  is  now  one  of  the  most  cherished 
distinctions  of  the  Highland  regdments.  When  in 
1884  the  War  Oflice  (iroposed  to  .abolish  it  there 
was  (|uite  a  storm  of  indignation  aroused,  and 
testimony  was  produced  in  abundance  that  as  a 
military  headgear  it  is  liglit.  cool,  dunible.  more 
serviceable,  more  economical,  and  more  pictures(]ue 
tb.'in  the  '  bearskin  '  of  tlie  liuaids. 


712 


TTIOIIXKSS 


1irT,\nY 


The  •  iniHlorii '  fii.-liii>ii  ol  tin;  kilt  (lililie;;)  is 
fiMiiiil  ill  ai'iiioiial  liciiiiii^s  of  the  Ihiiiii'tts  i>f  Levs 
( l&2ij )  ami  thi'  .Mackcnzie.s  of  <  'nul  ( ItiSKj ).  'rartaii. 
iLs  a  ilisliii;;iii>liin;,'  claii-iiiark,  scmmiis  tii  hi'  a 
Mirvival  of  toti'iiiisin.  ll  \va>  so  i'i>iii|iii.se(l  that 
a  iiiaii  ooiilil  tell  to  what  ilistiict,  a.s  well  a.s  to 
what  clan,  the  wearer  lieloiijjed. 

•See  SkftfhfX  *>f  the  Chaniclf  r,  Mtlitmrn,  uml  I'ri)nii1 
Stiitr  iif  tilt  Hi'jhInndeiK,  by  Majoi-giiiieral  l>«viil  Stvwart. 
Kor  ilt'tails  of  tin-  costume,  kc.  of  tlie  HighlamiiTs,  see 
Thf  .Sciittiith  (iart,  liy  .falltes  Loj^ail  ;  ( 'alulibell  of  Islay's 
Ttl/iy  of  thf  Went  H'uihhtmh ;  Thr  Hitthlttiiiti  rtt  nf  Scot- 
tfiiKt,  by  W.  F.  Skene  ;  HiMorii  of  thr  ffi;/hliniifs,  Hit/h- 
laiiil  Clan.1,  .(c,  edited  by  J.  S.  Keltie  ;  Th  lilmk  li'imk 
■  if  Tiiiimouth  :  Clan  Tiirtnun.  by  .luiiies  (Jraiit  (ISXd),  Si.Q. 
In  Thf  Htrnritu  nj  AfiiiiU  and  Waih  intU  Strtii/s  fif  Ccftir 
Trmtitinit  Lord  Al'clnb.dd  t'anipbcll  has  collected  an 
iiniiiense  amount  of  interesting  and  valuable  information 
bearing  upon  the  whole  subject. 

Hliim.AM)  |{ki:i.mi;nts.— The  orioin  of  the  lirsl 
of  these  rejiiiiients.  the  42il,  has  been  "iveii  uinlei 
the  lieail  iil.AiK  WaKH.  I'he  valuable  services 
of  this  ie;;iiiient  ein'onia^ed  the  ;,'iiveriitin'iit  to 
augment  the  force  :  and  accordilij;ly  seven  other 
lliohland  ie;iiiiients  were  soon  raised  -  viz.  the 
71st  in  1777:  the  7"2d,  or  Dnke  of  Albany's  Own, 
in  the  same  year;  the  74th   in    1787;  the  7Mth.   or 

I  toss  shire    lintls,    in    I7!i;i;    the   79th,    or  ('.•imeroii 
Hi^'hlamliMs.    in    IHd.". ;  the   (I2d,   or  (oinlon    Ilij^h 
lamlers,  in  I7!lli  ;  and  the  (l.'iil,  or  SntlierliiMd  llijih 
landi'i's,    ill    |S(M).      Ill    coiini'ction    with    the    teiii 
torial   reorganisation  of  ref;iments,   the  old  iinnier- 
ical     desi;;iiatioiis    have     been     ilropped,    and     the 
battalions   linked.      Tliiis    the    new     lilack    Watch 
(  lioyal  lli^ihlanders  )  coiiiinises  the  former  -I'Jd  and 
7.S1I   re;;imciits;    the   Ili;,diland    l-i;:lit    Infantiv.  71sl 
and  74tli  ;  the  Seafortli  lli;;lihimleis.  7il  ami  7Stli  ; 
the    (lordon    Hi;,'h landers,  7.')tli   and   ll'jil :    I'rincess 
Louise's    (Ar;;.\ll     and     Sutherland     llij;hlaiiders ), 
Hist    anil   !i:td.       The  (.lii.'en's  ( Iwii  ( ■aiueion    lii};li 
lamlers  (  7!ttli )  leiiiaiii  a  siiij,'le  battalion  iei;iiiient. 
The  iiiiiform   is  the   lli;;lilaml  dress,  with  feather- 
bonnet.       .V    lai;;e    proportion   of    the   otticei's   are 
Scotch  ;  of  the  men  about  79  per  cent,  are  Scotch. 

II  Kiifilish,  ami  10  Irish. 

lliu;lllH'SS.  a  title  of  honour  jjiveii  to  pi-iiices, 
>;iaiid  dukes,  and  iiiinor  reigning  ])oteiitates.  The 
title  '  Ili^diiiess'  and  sonietinies  '  Kiii;,dy  Ili;,'line.ss 
were  both  used  in  Kn;;laHd  fin-  the  sovereign  until 
the  reifjii  of  Henry  VIII.,  when  they  were  super- 
seded by  '  .Majesty.'  The  ehihlren  of  ein|>eroi-s 
are  usually  addresseil  as  '  ^■ollr  rinneiial  lli;.'liness,' 
of  kiii;.'sas  '  \mw  Hoyal  lli^diness.  whilst  mciiibers 
of  princely  families  have  the  titles  of  •  Serene  lli^'li 
lies,.  '  and  '  Ilij,'liness.' 

Hiu;ll-|iri«'St.   Ihe  chief  of  the   .lewish    priest 

1 1,    the  di;;iiity   being   hereditary   in    the    line  of 

Klea/ai,  the  son  of  Aaron.  The  lii;;li  priest  was 
only  allowed  to  marry  a  viroin,  and  one  who  was 
of  his  own  tribe.  Contact  with  anytliiiio  iineleaii. 
even  the  dead  bodies  of  his  own  parents,  w.as 
strictly  finbidden  to  him.  His  functions  consisted 
principally  in  the  ;;eiieral  administration  of  the 
sanctuary  and  of  all  that  belon;;eil  to  the  sacred 
service.  He  alone  was  alloweil  to  enter  the  Holy  id 
Holies  on  the  Day  of  Atonenieiit,  and  to  con.sult  by 
the  rriin  and  Thiimmim  (ipv.).  His  costume  wiv- 
of    surpiussinj;    splendour,    inirple-red.    purple  blue. 

scarlet,  golden,  and  white  lieing  the  pred inatiiig 

colours  of  the  epiiod,  girdle,  and  breastidate,  wliicli 
he  wine  above  robes  of  pure  whiteness.  His  revenue^ 
were  in  the  main  the  same  as  those  of  the  other 
priests;  but,  according  to  the  Talmud,  he  was  to 
lie  richer  than  these  in  virtue  of  his  e.\alted  position, 
and,  if  his  own  means  were  iiisutticiciit,  he  was  to 
be  )iiovi(led  with  means  by  his  bretliieii.  This 
points,  however,  to  post-exilic  times,  when  the  high- 
priest  had  e.xchangeil  his  character  of  /ni m its  inter  1 


iHiiis  for  that  of  priestly  head  of  the  nation,  llieieby 
iiecoiiiing  invest<-il,  in  so  far  as  the  jmlitical  sub 
ji'ction  of  the  .lews  In  a  foreign  power  would  admit 
111  it,  with  the  pierogativi'>  of  ancient  kingly 
jiower.      Neveitheless,  in   ihe  eyes  of  the  law.   the 

liigli  priest  was  only   tli pial  of  other   Israelites. 

It   is  doubtful  at  what  time  ll Ilice  of  Sniiini.  or 

\  ice  high  pi  iest.  wits  created.      See  I'lIIKsl. 

Iliifll  St'SIS,  the  open  sea,  including  the  whole 
extent  of  sea  so  far  iw  it  is  not  the  e.selnsive 
[iroperty  of  any  particular  country.  The  rule  of 
international  law  is  that  every  eonntry  liindering 
on  the  sea  has  the  exclusive  sovereignty  over  such 
sea  to  the  extent  of  three  miles  from  its  sliores  ; 
but  all  lieyiiml,  not  within  llnee  miles  of  sonic  other 
country,  is  open  01  cominon  to  all  coiintrie-.  The 
part  of  sea  within  three  miles'  distance  is  generally 
called  the  territorial  sea  of  the  iiinticular  coiintiy, 
•  n  mil II  i-liiiisiiiii.  The  distiiiction  has  little  etleet 
on  the  right  of  navigation,  but  as  regards  lishing  it 
is  otherwise.  Thus,  fondgii  lishermen  bine  iin  right 
to  lish  within  three  miles  of  the  Ibitish  10:1-1  with- 
out a  license  from  the  crown,  or  unless  some  -pecial 
treaty  lia-s  laiil  down  other  arrangement-.  See 
1'"ish'kkik.s,  ('uiii>i;i!Ai;k. 

Iliu;h  Steward,  a  title  given  to  several  im- 
portant olliceis.  Tjie  peer  appointed  by  the  crown 
to  jireside  at  the  trial  of  a  ]ieer  or  iieeress  for  treason 
or  felony  is  called  the  Lord  High  Steward  ;  and 
there  is  a  |ieniianeiil  otiicer  of  the  royal  hoii-eliold 
who  bears  llie  same  ilesignatioii.      The  iiiii\ei -ities 

of  I  )xfoid  and  I  'ainbridge  hav icli  a  high  steward, 

w  hose  duty  itis  to  assert  and  pintccl  the  privileges 
of  the  university  courts. 

Iliu:li-lr<-as<>ii.    See  TitKAsoN. 

IliKlnva.V.  in  Law.     See  HOADS. 

IliulnvayilM'll.  robbers  who  attack  passengers 
on  llic  iiiiblic  mail;  those  who  rob  on  foot  being 
further  ilistingiiislied  as  fool  pad-.  Kamoiis  Kiiglish 
highwaymen  were  Clauile  Dinal  (164;^  7IM,  Swift 
Nick  Nevison  (hanged  at  \wk  in  1(>H4),  Dick  Tiir- 
pin  (17l).">  S!l)  and  his  comrade  Tom  King,  and 
.lerry  .\lieishaw  (1773  9.")).  rnrpin's  famoii-  ride 
to  \  ork  is  a  myth,  bfuseil  on  a  story  told  of  Xevi- 
son,  whose  fame  has  even  gained  him  a  place  in 
Macaiilay's  lliatuiii  nf  Hiiiihiiid.  The  best  known 
romances  of  the  road  are  \V.  H.  .\iiiswoith  -  UooK- 
iniiiil  )ini\  lioril  I.ytton's  I'liiil  I'lifl'inil.  There  are 
lists  of  hooks  bearing  on  highwaymen  in  Sulis  nnd 
(Jiii'n'iK,  otli  series,  vol.  \  iii.  ;  and  biographical 
notices  of  most  knights  of  the  mad  ultimately  I'aiiu! 
Ill  ap|iear  in  the  pages  of  the  Xiiri/nlr  t'lili  iitlnr. 

■  ■ii;li  H><-oiiiIh-.     See  Wvciimhk. 

Ililai'ioil.  fniiiiiler  of  the  mmiastic  system  in 
I'alestine,  was  born,  according  to  the  account  of 
.lerome  (  which  is  adjudged  by  modern  crilicisiii  to 
be  no  longer  historical),  at  'I'abatha,  about  '290, 
eilncated  at  .\le\aiiilria.  and  converted  to  the  nioii 
astic  system  by  Si  .\iitlioiiy.  lie  then  li\eil  a-  a 
hermit  in  the  desert  between  (^a/a  ami  Kgypt  fur 
many  years,  and  linally  died  in  ('yiniis  in  ,S72.  His 
memory  is  celebrateil  on  'Jlst  Octolier. 

Hilary.  S-r,  liislmp  of  I'liitieis,  although  \>\  no 
means  among  the  most  voluminous  of  the  Latin 
I'athers,  yet,  from  the  nature  of  the  subject-  on 
which  lie  wrote,  cliielly  connecterl  with  the  .\iiaii 
controversy,  occnjiies  an  impoitaiit  |dace  in  the 
patristic  literature  of  the  A\  estern  Chinch.  He 
«;us  born  of  pagan  parents  at  Limoinim  (  I'oitiei- 1 
in  the  early  part  of  the  4tli  centiiiy.  Hi-  con- 
version to  Christianity  was  mainly  the  le-iilt  of 
his  own  study  of  the  prophecies,  and  lid  not  take 
place  till  he  was  advanced  in  life,  .\bout  the  year 
It.")'!  he  was  elected  bishop  of  his  native  city,  anil 
imineiliately  rose  to  the  first  jdace  in  the  animated 
contest  of  ]iai  ties  in  the  .Vrian  controversy.     Having 


HILARY 


HILL 


ri3 


provoked  tlie  tlis|il«'asiiie  of  the  couit  liaity,  lie 
wa.s  iiiiinisoneil,  ami  sent  into  exile  in  I'lirvgia: 
but  lie  appears  iij,'aiii  in  rlie  Cunni-il  of  Seleucia  in 
8.">9,  and  soon  afterwards  was  jierniitteil  to  resnnic 
]iossRssion  of  his  see,  where  he  ilied  in  867.  I'he 
<-linr<-li  hiiMs  his  day  on  the  13th  .lannary.  His 
most  important  work  is  that  on  the  Trinity,  hut 
his  three  addresses  to  the  Emperoi  ( 'onstantius, 
hy  their  vehemence,  and  liy  the  lioldness  of  their 
lanf,'ua;,'e,  have  most  attracteil  the  notirc  of  I'ritics. 
Hilary's  theolofiical  writings  are  especial  I  \  \alnahle 
for  the  history  of  the  Arian  [larty,  and  paiticularly 
for  the  doctrinal  variations  of  that  sect,  and  the 
successive  |ihases  thronj,'li  which  it  jiassed  between 
the  Council  of  Nice  aiul  the  lirst  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople. He  is  often  styled  '  Malleus  .\rian- 
oruni,'  and  the  '  .\thanasius  of  the  West,'  and  was 
formally  recognised  as  'universa' ecclesia'  doctor  hy 
I'ius  l.\.  in  IS.'il.  The  most  celelirated  of  the  hymns 
attrihuted  to  him  is  the  '  Beata  nobis  jjaudia  Anni 
reduxit  orbita,'  which  was  early  inserted  in  western 
liturgies.  The  En,::lisli  Hilary  term  begins  on  the 
Ilth  and  ends  mi  .'{Ist  .January. 

8ee  two  German  Lives  by  Keinkens  (1864)  and  Baltzer 
(1881);  ako  J.  G.  Cazenove's  Saint  Hilary  of  J'lnticrx 
mill  Siiiiit  Martin  of  Toiir.i  in  the  series  of  '  J'atliers  for 
Englisli  Readers'  (18831.  Tlie  best  edition  of  the  works 
of  St  Hilary  is  that  of  the  Benedictine  Doiii.  Coutant 
(Paris,  1(;!»3;  new  ed.  1844  4.5 1. 

Hilary  of  Aries,  St,  was  born  about  403. 

educated  at  the  celebrated  monastic  sc1i<h)1  of 
Lerins,  and  made  bishop  of  his  native  city  in  429. 
.^s  metropolitan  of  Aries  (A relate)  he  presideil  at 
several  synods,  and  especially  at  Orange  in  441, 
the  proceedings  of  which  involved  him  in  a  serious 
controversy  with  the  [lope,  Leo  the  (!reat.  .\ 
deposed  bisho|),  named  Cheliilonius,  having  carried 
an  appeal  to  Home,  a  council  was  summoned  by 
I'ope  I, CO,  at  which  Hilary  was  present,  anil  in 
which  the  condemnation  of  Clielidonins,  as  well  as 
that  of  another  bisliop,  Frojectus,  was  reverseil. 
Hilary,  however,  refused  to  submit  to  the  decision, 
aiul  soon  afterwards  rjuitted  Konie — a  proceeding 
which  drew  upon  himself  a  very  severe  animad- 
versiim.  He  did  not  ipiesticui  the  authority  in 
itself,  but  he  maintained  that  it  was  uncanonically 
exercised.  In  the  end,  however,  he  sought  .a  re- 
cimciliation  with  Pope  Leo,  and  the  disjiute  was 
brought  to  an  amicable  termination.  Hilary  died 
at  Aries  in  449,  and  was  caJioniseil,  his  day  being 
the  .-)tli  May. 

Hilda.  Sl-.  the  patroness  of  'Whitliy,  was  rlaugli- 
ter  of  Hciciic.  a  nephew  of  Edwin  of  Northumbria, 
and  was  baptised  at  fourteen  by  Paulinus.  He- 
called  by  liishop  Aidan  from  her  retreat  in  a  French 
monastery,  she  became  abbess  of  Heorta  or  Hartle- 
pool in  649.  Ill  tlie  year  (i.">7  she  founded  the 
taiiious  monastery  at  Streoueshalh  or  Whitby,  a 
double  bouse  for  nuns  and  monks,  over  which 
she  ruled  with  remarkable  wisdom  for  twenty-two 
years,  dying  in  680.  Scott's  Miirniiini  commem- 
orates the  belief  that  the  fossil  ammonites  found 
here  were  snakes  'changed  into  a  coil  of  stone' 
by  Hildas  |iriiyers.  Her  elbgy  still  stands  on  the 
ancient  seal  of  Hartlejiool,  ami  churches  preserve 
lifi-  name  bntli  there  ami  at  South  Shields. 

Hil«ll»iirK'liails<-ll.     See  S.\.\kMki.ninc;i.:n-. 

IlildcbraiHl.    See  (iitwioHV  \ll. 

Hildcil.  a  town  of  Ithenish  I'russia.  8  miles  SE. 
from  Diisseldorf,  has  woollen,  silk,  velvet,  ami 
car]>ct  manufactures,  calicfi-]>riiiting,  and  machine- 
shops.      r,ip.  7il46. 

Hildrslu'illl,  a  town  ill  the  I'lUssi.-ui  jirovince 
ol  Hanover,  stands  on  a  feeder  of  the  \\  e.ser,  24 
miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Hanover.  It  is  to  a  large 
extent  an  :iiitii|ue  town,  with  mirrow  streets, 
high-gablecl     hoiisi's    (ornamented     with    bav-win 


dows  and  carved  woodwork ).  and  iiiaiix  towers. 
The  churches  are  the  most  notable  buildings,  and 
lirst  amongst  them  stands  the  cathedral,  dating 
from  the  Ilth  century.  It  is  especially  intere.-ting 
for  its  aiitii|uarian  and  artistic  treasures,  as  the 
bnmze  gates  (lOl.j)  with  bas-reliefs,  the  chnrcli 
utensils,  the  so-called  Iriiiin  (i|.v. )  jiillar,  a  rose-tree 
said  to  be  a  thousand  \ears  old,  the  brazen  Christ 
]iillar  (10-22),  the  <-ariilon,  \c.  The  St  Codeliard 
Church  (1133  72)  and  St  Michael's  are  splendid 
examples  of  Itomaiicsijue  aii-liiti'ctnre.  'I'he  so- 
called  Teiiiplai  House,  the  town-house  {rircn  1440). 
and  certain  aiitir|ue  ])rivate  houses  are  interesting 
buildings.  Pop.  ( 1880)  2.-),887  ;  ( 1890)  33,481.  A 
bishop's  see  since  822,  Hildcsheiin  lirst  came  to 
Prussia  ill  1803,  and  linally  in  1.S66.  In  1868  a  very 
valuable  tind  of  Koniaii  silver  ware  was  iioole  near 
Hildeslieim.  See  works  bv  Liintzel  (  I8.")S  i,  Waehs- 
niiitii  (  1863),  Lacliner  i  1882),  and  Cuno  ( 1886). 

HilueilCeld.  .AdhLF.  theologian,  wa.s  born  2d 
.June  1823,  at  StapiieiibecU  near  Salzwedel.  studied 
at  Halle  and  IJerlin,  and  settled  at  .lena  a-  profes.sor 
of  Theology  (1850),  representing  the  liberal  school. 
Among  his  works  are  hooks  on  the  Clementines, 
the  Gospel  of  Mark,  the  Epistle  to  the  (lalatians, 
the  Apostolic  Fathers  (18.53),  the  fiospels  ( 1854), 
Das  Urrliristeiithiiiii  ( 185.) ),  the  .Jewish  Apocalyptic 
Writings  (1857),  Ezra  and  Daniel  ( 1863).  A'w'»//t 
Irstaineiition  extra Canuiirm  rcceptiiiii  ( 4  jiarts,  1866 ; 
2d  edition,  1876-84),  Messias  Jiahrurnm  (1869), 
Hennas  (1873),  an  Introduction  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment (1875),  and  the  Krt-rn/esr/iir/itr  ilrs  Cn/iris- 
tr nth  II ins  (1884).  Since  1858  he  has  edited  the 
Zritsrh  rift  fur  irissenscliaftlirhe  Theologie. 

Hill,  OrTAVl.\,  iiii]irover  of  working-men's 
houses,  was  the  grand-daughter  of  Dr  Soutliwciod 
Smith,  a  well-known  sanitary  reformer,  and  was  born 
about  1.8.38.  .She  laboured  amongst  the  London 
lioor  under  Frederick  1).  Maurice:  and  in  1864, 
supported  by  Mr  Uuskin.  she  commenced  her  great 
work  of  improving  the  homes  of  working-men  in 
the  sluiiis  and  dismal  alleys  of  the  iiietropidis. 
The  plans  she  ailo)ited  were  based  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  teaching  the  people  to  help  tliem-elves, 
by  inculcating  in  them  proper  notions  of  cleanli- 
ness, order,  and  self-respect.  Her  etl'orts  have 
been  crowned  with  singular  success;  the  houses 
which  have  been  improved  yield  a  good  )iercent;ige 
on  the  money  spent  in  etiecting  the  iiiiproveiiients  ; 
and  hundreds  of  people  have  bci-ii  helped  to  lend 
more  comfortable  and  better  lives.  Miss  Hill  h;is 
written  Hinnrs  of  t/ir  l.onilnn  J'liur  (1875).  ('"/' 
I'ljiiiiiiiin  Land  ami  utla  r  Essiifis  (  1878),  and  [lapers 
in  the  magazines. 

Hill,  Kkv.  1!ii\vi..\Mi.  a  poimlai  but  eccentric 
preacher,  was  liorn  12tli  August  1744.  at  H.iwke- 
ston,  the  si.xth  son  of  a  Sliropshiie  baronet. 
Whilst  a  student  of  St  John's  College,  Cain- 
liridge,  he  fell  uiuler  the  inlluence  of  Wliitehelil, 
the  .Methodist  jiieacher.  and  at  once  began  to 
tread  in  his  footsteps.  .\11  his  life  tbiongb  Hill 
retained  his  passion  for  open  air  pre.u-bin,:,' ;  and 
the  tirst  ten  years  after  bis  ordination  were  siieiit 
ill  itinerant  iireiu-bing  throughoiii  Englaml.  But 
having  built  for  himself  Surrey  Chapel  in  Black- 
friars  Koad.  London,  in  1783,  he  regularly  preached 
thereto  his  life's  end:  ami.  although  a  IMs>enter, 
he  used  the  services,  and  regarded  himself  a-s  a 
iiieinber  of  the  Church  of  England,  of  which  he 
had  indeed  been  ordained  a  deacon.  It  is  said 
that  the  'lirst  Sunday-schoid  in  the  metropolis 
was  established  by  Uowland  Hill  soim  after  the 
opening  of  Surrev  Chapel.'  He  died  on  11  til 
.\pril  1833.  Howland  Hill  was  .umloubtedlr- 
elonuent  and  posses.sed  a  rich  fund  of  genuine 
humour,  but  at  times  his  manner  verged  upon 
bnHooneiy.      His    Viltanc    Dialoijncs    (1801;    34th 


714 


llli.t. 


e<l.  l«:t!l:  hitost  fil.  1S71)  liits  l)ei'ii  m.I.I  in  liujie 
niiiiil>tM>.  Besides  tliis  lie  wrote  several  iPiUiijililets, 
as  I,ii/m.itiiir  Deliilnl  (1777),  A/>/ii)ii.itir  ()h.in-r,i- 
titm.i  ( l7iH)),  Spiiiliiiil  Cliiiimterixlirs  ( IKO.S;  'M\  ed. 
186<M  -oiiie  viiliimes  nf  Sirmoiis,  lli/iiiiis.  luid  otiiei 
works.  See  I.ives  l.v  Sidney  (Is.TH.  W.  .lonev 
(ls:Ui.  Slierniiiii  ( l'«.'>7  ),  Umonie  (1S,S1),  and 
Cliarlesworth  (1871):  2d  ed.  18S(i). 

Hill.  UiiWI.AM),  NlscilIM  llll.l.,  WiLs  son  of 
Sir.lolMi  Hill  of  llawUfston  and  nc^iili.'W  of  ilie  iire 
cedin;;,  and  \v;us  born  at  I'rees  Hall,  in  SliKipsliire, 
An^Mist  II,  1772.      Knterin',' the  army  at  lifleen.  he 

iiecanie   caiitain    at    twenty,    < niandi-d    ihe   iKIth 

re^Tiiienl  in  Sir  Italph  Alier<roinliy's  Kj;y|ilian 
e-\liediliori,  and  was  ;;azetted  liri;;adier-^;eneral 
in  1S(>:{  He  aeconi|ianied  Sir  .\rthnr  Welle>le\  to 
Spain  in  IHOS.  and  was  his  ri;;ht  arm  throii;;hout 
the  whole  Peninsular  war.  His  eondnct  and  cour 
a^'e  earned  liini  a  (MS.  in  IMI,  and  three  years 
later  he  was  niaile  Baron  Hill  of  .Mniarez  for  his 
caiilure  of  the  forts  <il  Alniare/.  .\l  Waterloo  he 
ieil  the  brigade  wliieh  swept  the  OliMJnard  from 
tlie  lield,  and  he  reniaini'd  with  the  army  of  oecn- 
palion  as  sei-ond  in  ecnnmand  until  it  evaenali'd 
the  Kreneh  territory.  He  siuceeded  \Vellin>;lon 
as  eoniniandi'r  in  i-hii-f  of  the  army  in  IS'iS.  Iml 
resijined  in  1842,  wljen  he  was  made  \'isi'onnt  Hill. 
He  died  nnniarrieil  at  Hardwieke  (lran;;e,  Shrop 
shire,  Decendier  10.  IS42.  and  was  sneceeded  m 
his  titles  and  estates  hv  his  nephew  Sir  Rowland 
Hill.  Bart.  See  his  Life  by  the  Uev.  Kdwin 
Sidney  {184.'>). 

Hill.  Silt  lidWl.AMi,  K.C.I).,  ori;;inalor  of  the 
tmiform  pi-nny  postafie  system  and  reformer  of 
till-    post  olliee,    was   born   at    Kidderminster  on  ."id 

!).■ nber    I7i).'i.      From   a  very   early  a;;e  down   to 

]s:v:,  he  tanj;ht  in  his  lathers' scl 1      from  181!)  in 

Ha/.lewooil.  in'ar  i!irniinj;liam.  a  srhool  house  built 
by  himself,  and  afterwards  at  Bruce  ( 'justle,  'I'dtten 
ham.      Howland    was   always  of   an   incpiirin;,'  and 
ambitions  turn  of  miml,  with  a  decided   talent  foi 
initiiitiuf,'  reforms.     At  lirst  he  busicil  him^cdl   with 
mechanical  and  oilier  inventions,  later  in   life  with 
(|iie~iiori>  of   public  concern.      In   l.S2ti  he  wii-s  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Society  for  the  Dilliision  of 
Iseful  Kiiowleil;;e.     After  he  had  ceased  to  teach, 
he  took  ail  interest   in  the  socialistic  scheines  that 
were  beiii;;  discussed  and   experimented  with   about 
that   time,  especially  by  liolpcrt   tlwen.      Then   his 
restless  mind    led   him    to  take  an   activi'   share   in 
the  colonisation  of  Soiitli  .Australia,  under  Wake 
liehl's  sNsleni  of  colonisin;;.      .\moii^;sl  other  thiii;;s 
bis  attention  had  been  drawn   at   ililVereiit  periods 
t<i  postal  ipiestions  ;   and  he  became  sensible  that 
there    existed    an    nrneiit    need    for   a   diiniiiution 
in    the   hi;;li    rates   of    posta^'e,    which    practically 
excluded    all    but    the    wealthy   from   postal   inter 
course.       Hi-   views   on    the   subject,   advocatin;.'   a 
low  ami  uiiiforin  rate  of  posta;;e.  to  be  prepaid  liy 
stamps,    between    all    places   in    the    British    Isles 
iri<-spective  of  distance,  were  published  in  the  form 
of  a   iiamiihlet,   PusluJ/iir  liifnini.   in    ls;!7.       His 
plan  was  eajjerly  takeii  up  by  Mr   Bobert  Wallace, 
JI.l'.    for    (Jreenock,    who    ;.'a\  e    essential    help    in 
JilLtlitiiiL'  the  case   tbrou^^li   ])arliaiiieiit.      Two  years 
later   Hill    was  attached    to    the    Treasury   for   the 
purpose    of     putting;     his     projected     reforms     into 
exeentioli  :  and  on    10th   .January  1.S40  the  present 
uniform     penny    rate-    came    into   fon'e.       (tn    (jtli 
May    following   stamped    envelopes    and    adhesive 
stamps    wi'ie    issued    to   the   jiublic,    but    the   ine 
ference     for    the     latter    w.is    soon     made     niani 
fest.        Ill      1841      the     Conservative     t;o\  ernmeiit, 
wliieli   had   consistently   opposed   the   reduction   of 
postage,    came    into   olliee.    and    in    the    followiii<; 
year,  tlirou;;h   the  iiiHueuce  of  certain  ;.'overnnient 
otticials   who    strongly    resented    all    innovations. 


llir,l,RR 

Itowland  Hill  was  disinissiMl  from  his  position, 
Kour  yeai>  later  a  slim  of  £l.'t,(MH),  raised  by 
public  subscription,  was  presented  to  him  iis  a 
lok<'n  of  public  I'steem  to  a  national  benefactor. 
In  the  same  vear  the  Liberals  ictuined  to  power, 
and  Hill  was  appointed  sccretaiN  to  the  I'ost- 
master  >;eiieial.  Ibis  olliee  was  excliaii;;ed  in  lsr)4 
lor  that  of  .secretary  to  the  poslotlice.  In  1864 
he  was  eompelled  to  resi^i  owiii;,'  to  ill  healtli, 
,iiid  was  then  awarded  a  pensiiui  of  t'2(IIMI  for  life, 
lo;^ethi'r  with  a  parliamentary  ^■raiit  of  t2(l,<MK). 
The  ellect  of  hi-  lefojiiis  in  the  I  iiilcd  Kin;;iloiii 
has  been  to  lai-c  the  number  of  inland  letters  from 
about  77  millions  annually  to  about  I'.KHI  millioiiH, 
or  about  twenty  live  fold,  and  it  may  be  stated 
generally  that  the  main  principles  of  his  plan 
ha\e  now  been  adopti'd  in  every  civilised  conutrv 
thidu^diout  the  wmld.  Sir  Bowland  Hill  was 
made  I  Kiii^dit  Commander  of  the  Bath  in  1S6(I. 
He  died  at  Hamjistcail  (.n  27lh  .\u;;ust  187!".  and 
was  biiricNl  in  Weslminster  .\libe\ .  .\mon;;si  the 
othei  impidvements  and    reforms  he  ell'eclcd  in  the 

liost-ollice  system  must  be  iiHMitioned  tl stablish- 

meiit  of  tbi'  book  post  (184,S|.  the  reform  of  the 
money  luder  olliee  (1848),  and  of  the  packet  ser- 
vice, and  a  multitude  of  minor  improvements  all'eet- 
iii^;   lhc>  administration  of  tie'  postal  service.      See 

the  article  I'li.sr  iiri'icK  ;  Sir  Bowland  Hill's  1 k, 

■/■/((  Sliilc  null  I'nix/iicis  nf  /'nun/  I'dfiliifir  {  \H4i); 
and  Ihe  Life  (IH,SO),  by  liis  nephew  G.  B.  Hill, 
which  includes  Sir  iiowland  Hill's  Ilixtiin/  of  l/ie 
I'nuiii  r<,.sl<i,ii:  His  eldest  brother,  M.VTTHKW 
Davkni'oht  Him.  (17!I2  1872),  rcc(M<lcr  of  Bir- 
iiiin;,diani  from  l.s:iil  to  bSlili,  distinguished  himself 
bv   his   labours  for  education   and    the    reformation 

of  ciiminids.     Sec  Me ir  by  his  ilau;;liteis  (  1878). 

Ilillall.  or  llli  l.\.  a  town  of  Turkey  in  .\sia, 
on  the  ii\cr  Kiipbiatc-,  11(1  miles  S.  of  l!a;;darl,  on 
the  site  of  Babxlon,  out  of  the  rnius  of  which  it  was 
built  about  IIIK)  A.I).  Taiinin.i;  and  the  iiianii- 
f.icluie  of  silk,  cottons,  and  wnollensaie  carried  on. 
The  populalioii  lluct nates  between  70011  and  15,000. 
Hilh'l.  called  H.MiAlil.I  I  ■  the  Babylonian  ')  and 
Hazakkn  (the  Elder'),  one  of  the  greatest 
ami  most  inlluential  doctors  of  the  .lewisli  law, 
wius  bom  aboiil  ()0  li.c.  in  Babylonia,  of  poor 
parents,  but  in  the  female  line  of  royal  (  Kavidian) 
ilesceul.  When  folly  years  old  so  runs  the  Tab 
miiilic  aeeoiiiit  he  mi;;iated  into  i'alestine  for  the 
purpose  of  slnilyin^  the  law  iindi'i  Sbeinaia  and 
Ablalioii,  the  -ireat  ma-sters  of  the  perioil.  Ki\e 
or  six  yeai's  after  Herod  had  luounled  the  throne 
Hillel  was  elected  prcsidenl  of  the  saiihcdrim. 
The  iaii;.'e  of  his  a<M|iiiicmcnts  is  said  to  have 
been  immense,  embracing  not  only  Scripture  and 
tradition,  but  nearly  all  branches  of  liunian  and 
snperbiiman  kiiowledj;e.  ^'et  he  wius  one  of  ihe 
meekesl,  most  moilesl,  kind,  and  simple  hearted 
men.  ilillcl  wius  the  lirst  who  collected  the 
numberless  Iradilioiis  of  the  oral  law,  and  arran^'ed 
tlieiii  under  six  heads  (see  MislINA).  Itctween 
him  ami  his  <ontempoiary  Shammai  and  their 
respective  followers  there  aro.se  a  spirit  of  keen 
ii\aliy,  the  latter  beiiit,'  advocates  of  },'reater  strict- 
ness and  ri^;oiii  ill  the  intennetation  of  the  law. 
Hillel  died  about  10  A.I).  His  doci line  has  often 
been  coiupareil  with  the  early  teachin;,'  of  .lesus. 
See  Uelitzsch's  Jemis  uml  llil'hl  CM  ed.  187!l). 

Hilh'r.  I'"ki:iiin.\nI),  inanist.  musical  coiiipo-er, 
and  u  I  iter  on  music,  was  born  at  I'lankforl  on- 
Main  oil  24111  Oclobei   ISll.      Having;  been  a  pupil 

,,1    II  HI el.  he  bewail  to  teach  in   his  native  town  ; 

liut  from  IS'J'.I  to  ls:«i  he  laboured  in  Paris.  The 
next  nine  yeai-s  he  spent  partly  in  llal\.  partly  in 
Cermany  :  it  wivs  dniint;  this  period  that  he  pro 
duced  his  best  work,  the  oratorio  Ihr  Xrrn/diinii/ 
1  roil    Jrnisdlciii    (18.39).     Then,    .after   three   years' 


IIILLKRN 


HIMALAYA 


715 


ser\  ice  as  muiiicipal  iiiiisic-ilirectiir  in  Diisst-ldoi-f 
(1.S47-50),  lie  iiroceedeil  to  Ccilo^'iie,  where  lie  filleil 
a  similar  post  until  his  death,  lOth  May  1885. 
Amongst  nearly  2(10  nmsical  woi'ks  whieli  he  ]iiili- 
lisheil  onlv  a  small  nnmher  have  retained  their 
looting.  But  as  a  writer  on  musical  sulijects 
Hiller  claims  a  hiylier  jilace.  His  VdniiKjni  ^iiiii 
SI  mil  mil  i/er  Hinnioiiir  viiil  ilis  Kuiiinijjinikles 
I  rith  ed.  ISHO)  is  e.xtensivoly  used  ;  and  there  is 
much  valuable  eiilicisin  iii  Aii.s  ciciii  Tuiilc/ifii 
iiiisi'rcr  Zcil  (I.SOS-TI),  monograidis  on  Beethoven 
11871)  and  Mendelssohn  (1H74:  '2il  eil.  1S7S), 
.Uiisi7,'rilisr/ie>i  mill  I'risiiiilirlii-s  {  I,S7<i),  Hriifi-  nii 
line  Uiir/ciKiinilr  (1877),  Kinislli-rlclicii  (1880),  and 
luliiiii-riiiiiishliilfir  {  1884  ). 

Ililleril.   WiLIIKNMIXE.      See  BlRfll-Pl'EIFFER. 

Ilill-fortS)  the  refuges  and  strongholds  of  the 
early  inlialiitants,  exist  in  every  country  of  Europe. 
Their  range  in  time  extends  from  the  early  pre- 
historic through  the  early  historic  periods  of  the 
racial  areas  in  wliich  they  are  founil.  They  have 
no  more  delinite  form  than  that  of  a  prevailing  hut 
irregular  circularitx .  The  site  selected  is  \isually 
enclosed  and  fortilicd  with  due  regard  to  its  special- 
ties of  situation  and  defensihility.  Sometimes  the 
fort  instead  of  occujiving  the  whole  hill  top  may 
occupy  only  the  most  ilefcnsihle  part  of  it.  In 
other  cases  tlie  whcde  eminence  uuiy  lie  surrounded 
hy  defensive  constructions  completely  encircling 
and  protecting  its  upper  portion.  Occasionall.v 
these  forts,  though  situated  among  the  hills,  are 
planteil  in  the  lower  ground,  commanding  an  ex- 
tent of  meadow-land  or  iiasture.  With  regard  to 
tlieir  construction,  the  hill-forts  are  usuallv  either 
earthworks  or  stoneworUs,  rarely  a  mixture  of  both. 
In  France  the  (iaulisli  forts  of  the  pre-Roniaii 
period  were  often  such  extensive  works  as  to  be 
termed  rippiilii  by  the  invading  Homans.  Thou'di 
liiiilt  of  drv-stiuie  masonry,  the  parts  of  the  walls 
most  exposed  to  attack  were  bound  together  hy 
great  logs  of  wood,  placed  both  longitudinally  and 
transversely  within  the  thickness  of  the  rampart, 
so  as  to  resist  as  much  as  possible  tlic  assaults  of 
the  battering-ram.  The  great  dry-built  stone 
rampart  of  the  prehistoric  fort  at  Burgliead,  in 
Elginshire,  is  similarly  sticiigthened  by  logs  of  oak, 
but  it  is  the  only  example  of  this  method  of  construc- 
tion yet  known  in  Scotland,  where  hill-forts  are 
perhaps  more  numerous  than  in  any  other  Knropean 
country.  They  are  geiicral!.\  called  ■duns'  (see 
Ul'X)  in  the  northern  ami  '  camps  '  in  the  southern 
districts,  where  the  older  term  survives  in  connec- 
tion with  a  number  of  the  principal  forts,  as  Dum- 
barton (I)iiii  Bliii'iiliiii),  l)undoiiald  in  .-Ayrshire, 
and  Dnnpcliler  in  Lothian,  not  to  mention  Dun 
Ediii  as  the  old  name  of  Kdiiiburgli.  .\iiion.g  the 
most  remarkable  of  the  hill  forts  of  Scotl.-ind  may 
he  nientioncil  those  of  the  two  Catcrlhuns  in  For- 
farshire -one  a  good  example  of  the  fint  with 
earthen  rampart,  ami  the  other  with  walls  of  dry 
stone— the  Tap  o'  Noth,  and  the  twin-summits  of 
Benachie,  each  with  its  massive  fortilicalions  of 
stone,  in  .Vbcrdeeiisliiic.  the  remarkable  stone  fort 
of  Dun  Tualhal  on  Driimniond  Hill,  overlooking 
the  junction  of  the  waters  of  the  Lyim  and  the 
Tay,  and  one  ecpially  remarkable,  called  Duu-da- 
lamli,  in  a  similar  situation  in  Laggan  on  the  Spey, 
Inverness-shire. 

Many  of  the  dry-stone  furls  in  Scotlanil  present 
I  he  peculiar  feature  of  a  partial  vitiifaction  of  the 
niatcrials  of  their  walls.  The  same  thing  has  been 
observed  in  eoni\eclion  with  similar  forts  in  Iridand, 
France,  and  Hungary.  The  allcmpt  to  account 
for  the  existence  of  this  peculiarity  has  given  rise 
to  much  sjieculation  and  coiitrovei-sy.  But  it  seeins 
to  be  clearly  established  that  the  .so-called  vitrilied 
forts  do  not  diller  from  the  other  clry-stone  forts, 
if  the  vitrifaction  be  not   regarded  as  a  process  of 


constnicti<in.  No  relevant  and  conclusive  evidence 
on  this  jioint  has  been  obtained  from  exaniiinition  of 
the  structures  themselves;  and  against  the  argu- 
ments in  su|ijport  of  the  view  that  the  vitrifaction 
was  iiitendecl  as  a  cementing  iirocess  we  have  to 
put  the  facts  (1)  that  no  fmt  Is  wholly  vitrilied; 
(■2)  that  where  vitrifaction  exists  it  occurs  in 
jiatches,  atl'ectiug  sometimes  a  portion  onlv  of  the 
thickness  of  the  wall  ;  an<l  (3)  that  when  it  occui-s 
on  the  exterior  surface  of  the  wall  the  upjier  parts 
are  sometimes  found  partially  vitrilied,  Imt  with 
no  tra<'e  of  vitrifaction  on  the  iiortions  underneath. 
Among  the  best  known  of  the  so-called  vitrilied 
forts  in  Scotland  are  the  Tap  <i'  Xotli  in  Aberdeen- 
shire, Craig  Pliadric  and  Dunbhairdgall  in  Inver- 
ness-shire, Knockfarril  in  IJoss-shire,  Dun  Mac 
risneachan  in  Argyllshire,  and  Finliaveu  in  For- 
farshire. In  Wales  stone  forts  are  most  numerous, 
while  in  England  earthworks  ]iredoiiiiiia|e.  The 
earthen  forts  of  Sussex  explored  by  Coloic-l  l>ane 
Fox  are  sometimes  of  c<iusideralile  m.-ignitndc,  that 
of  Cissbury,  for  instance,  enclosing  a  sjiace  of  60 
acres.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  of  prehistoric  migin. 
Some  of  the  stone  forts  of  Ireland,  especially  those 
of  the  Aran  Isles,  are  of  great  magnitude  and  well 
(irescrveil.  Photographic  views  of  them  are  given 
in  Loril  Diniraven's  book  on  Early  Irish  Arclii- 
tectuie. 

( 'onsult  also  I  )r  ( 'liristisoirs  '  Prehistoric  Forts  of  Peebles- 
shire,' and  'The  IJiins  and  Forts  of  Lome'  in  the  Fro- 
I'tediiiifx  of  thi  iSorii'lit  of  Aiitii/iiariin  of  Scutlniiil  (vols. 
xxi.  and  xxiii.);  '  Meiiiiiires  sur  Ics  Ouviages  de  Fortiti- 
catioiis  tiauloises.'  Kc.  in  the  t'mit/iti  Rniiin  ihi  Conorh- 
Ari'lnVDhiijiipii  ill'  Frniii'i,  at  'J'oulousc  in  1874  I  f.  4'J7); 
*Le.>    Canijis    IJornares    fortitiOs   en    Honyrie,'  by    F.  F. 


vomer.   111 


tlu 


'k'   Ri  ii'lii   of  the   <.'on^rc.><; 


of  Pre 


historic  .\rch:eoloyy  licld  at  Budapest  in  187(i  (vol.  ii.  p. 
68)  ;  ami  '  Helvctische  Denkiualer,'  by  I>r  F.  Keller,  in 
Mifflii'i/iiiii/eii  'let'  Aiitkittari»chvn  Gencfhrhfift  in  Ziirirh 
(vol.  xvi.  I. 

Hill  Mustard.    See  Bini.vs. 

Hilversillll,  a  village  in  North  Holland,  18 
miles  by  rail  SE.  from  Anisterdam.  manufactures 
woollens  and  carpets.      Pop.  (  1880)  P2,IH9. 

Hillialsi.Vil  (ludperly  Hiiiiii'liniu  \  from  iwiy 
Sanskrit  words  meaning  '  snow-abode ')  is,  strictly 
speaking,  the  southern  escarpment  of  the  great 
("entral-.Vsian  plateau  in  so  far  as  it  falls  between 
the  liiilns  and  the  Brahmaputra.  Thus  limited,  it 
extemls  ficmi  73'  to  '.l."i  E.  long.,  over  a  distance  of 
some  lodl)  miles.  The  Himalayas  are  not  a  single- 
range,  but  a  system  of  for  the  most  pari  parallel 
ranges  lying  obliquely  to  the  general  <lirection  of 
the  system.  They  front  the  plain  of  the  (Ganges 
in  northern  Imlia  like  a  stuiiendons  mountain  wall, 
ben<ling  back  in  the  west  like  a  scimitar,  the  sharp 
edge  turned  next  Imlia.  Dn  the  east  the  system 
is  connected  with  the  mountain-ranges  of  south- 
west China  and  northern  Ihiruia  and  Siani.  On 
the  north  it  is  backeil  by  the  lofty  jdateau  of 
Tibet,  which  ranges  in  elevation  from  l(),(MXl  to 
17,()00  feet.  At  its  north-western  extremity  it 
runs  up  into  the  Pamir  plateau,  from  «hicli 
radiate  also  the  Hindu  Kush  and  the  Kuen-Lun 
.Mountains.  The  southern  fool  of  (he  s\steni 
rests  upon  the  [ilain  of  IheCanges.  which  no\\  here 
rises  more  than  10(M)  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  edge  of  the  outermost  hills  is  skirted, 
for  a  distance  varying  in  width  from  10  to  lo  miles, 
by  a  belt  of  swampy  grass-laml,  traverse.l  by 
numerous  sluggish  streams.  These  in  man\  places 
overllow  ami  form  standing  swamjis,  fringi'il  with 
gigantic  reeds.  This  licit,  called  the  Taiai.  does 
not  extend  west  of  the  jioint  where  the  (laiiges 
breaks  thnnigh  from  the  mountains.  These 
districts,  owing  to  the  great  quantity  of  stagnant 
water  and  the  great  profusion  of  rank  vegetation, 
are  extremely   unhealthy  ;    many  parts   reek   witli 


716 


Iini  VI,AVA 


fevers  ol'  n  very  niiili>;"'i"l  type-  Ni'M  alM)\e  the 
Taiai  lies  a  lielt  nf  forest  of  alioiit  the  same 
wiiltli,  called  the  Itlialiai'.  Its  soil  eoiisist.s  r>f 
saiul,  liheiiilly  sirewii  with  sliiii^ile  lieds  ami 
lM)iilileis.  The  waters  of  the  niiiior  streams  thai 
eoiiie  down  from  the  hi;;her  mountains  are  ;;eiier 
iilly  ali^orlii'd  hy  (Ids  >iMin>;y  lalusslopr.  ■,\\\i\. 
passln;;  tlironj;h  it  iinilcrneatli  tli<'  snrfari-.  iicin 
mulate  a^'aiii  on  the  ii|)|ier  cd;.-!'  of  the  lower  lying 
Tarai. 

Aliove  the  Hhahar  rise  the  Ion)  hills  of  the 
Himalayan  system,  gi-ncrally  desi},'nateil  the  Siwa 
lik  Hills,  or  siih  Himalayan  ranges.  They  vary 
in  hciglil  from  :i  few  hnndreil  feel  up  to  4IMI(I,  and 
present  slei^p  faeces  to  tin'  plains;  {in  the  norliicr]! 
side  the  slope  is  genllrr,  lieing  mostly  nn't  at  short 
distances  from  the  summit  liy  the  southern  llanUs 
of  the  inner  ranges,  (lecdogically  thi'  Siw.iliU 
Hills  helong  to  the  Tertiary  formation,  and  to  the 
I'liooene  rather  than  to  the  .Mioeeiie  period.  Krinri 
the  ranges  near  the  .lunina  great  c|nantities  of 
fossils,  mostly  maniMials  and  reptiles,  all  land  and 
fresh  water  aninmls,  have  been  olitained.  It  is  cm 
the  north  side  of  the  Siwalik  foot  hills  tli.it  the 
first  mountains  appear.  They  rise  up  aliruptly  to 
elevations  ranging  for  the  most  part  from  7<HM)  to 
10,(XK)  feet,  and  cover  a  surface  /one  of  ."id  ndles  in 
lireailth.  This  division  embraces  a  large  nunilier 
of  irregular  riilges.  characterised  hy  gri-at  conj 
^dexity  ofgeologic.il  structure.  They  yicdd  marine 
tossils.  On  these  i-anges  -.tand  the  sanatoritims. 
such  as  Simla,  Darjiling.  .Minora.  \c.,  «liich  arc 
so  essential  to  Kuropeans  during  the  hot  months. 
The  spai'e  hetween  the  outer  ineinliei*s  of  these 
ranges  and  the  Siwalik  foot  hills  is  oc<'upicil  liy 
narrow,  shallow,  longitmlinal  valleys,  callcMl  Dun 
in  the  west  and  .Mari  in  Nepal.  They  arc  partly 
covered  with  loose;  shingle  and  liouldcrs,  partly 
worn  into  terrace  like  stejis,  partly  liniken  liy  low, 
olili(|Ucly  lying,  watei-shed  ridges,  which  throw  oH' 
numerous  small  streams. 

In  the  Himala.\as  proper  two  main  ax<;s  can  he 
iletermined  with  lolcrahle  distinctn.-s.  One.  the 
southiMii,  I'ontains  the  line  of  the  great  snowy 
peaks;  the  other,  the  northern,  forms  the  water 
shed  lietween  the  rivers  of  India  and  the  riveis  of 
Tibet.  The  mountains  in  the  simthern  chain  are 
amongst  the  loftiest  in  the  world  :  a  very  great 
number  of  them  e.xceeil  'JO, (MM)  feel  (.'i,'  miles)  in 
height.  One  of  these,  .Mmint  Kverest  i  --".I.OU'J  fcetl, 
is  the  highest  measured  moun(ain  in  tlie  world. 
Other  lofty  peaks  in  ( bis  division  of  (lie  Himalayan 
system  are  .Mount  (lodwin-.Ausien  ( •i.S.'ili."! ).  the 
second  highest  in  the  range:  Kini'Idnjinga  CiK.l.'ili): 
Dhawalagiri('J(i,-iHt)i  ;  Nanda  Devi  i  i^i.TlMI) ;  Trisul 
(23,40<)),  and  several  others  more  than  •J-2,(MH)  feet 
in  altitude.  The  chain  of  great  snowy  peaks  is, 
strictly  speaking,  a  series  of  mount.iiii  groups,  each 
of  which  is  connected  with  the  wateisheil  chain  to 
the  north  by  a  transverse  ridge.  I'uvered  with  snow 
and  freipiently  bearing  on  its  shoulders  pi'aks  that 
tower  up  to  the  height  of  •2:t,iHH>  feel,  (oaham. 
who  in  IS.S:)  ascended  Kabru  to  a  height  of  '2.'{,7<MI 
feet,  believi'd  that  there  are  other  peaks  which  will 
be  fouml  til  e.\cee<l  .Mount  Everest  in  altitude,  for 
the  eenlral  parts  of  the  system  ne.\t  Tibet  have 
not  yet  been  surveyed  or  even  e.\|ilorcd  with  any 
tiling  ajiproaching  t<i  thoroughne.ss,  mainly  beiause 
of  the  jealousy  and  exidnsiveness  of  the  Tibetan 
authorities,  widiiii  whose  territory  nmch  of  the 
loftiest  reghin  of  the  Himalayas  falls.  These 
transveixe  spurs  finm  the  northern  <diain.  termin 
atiiig  in  stupeinlons  mountain  knots,  form  ileep 
valleys  on  either  siile  in  the  space  between  the  two 
chains.  These  deep  valleys,  fringed  with  over- 
hanging glaciers,  are  the  cradles  of  the  great  rivers 
of  northern  India.  Here  are  the  sources  of  the 
Ganges  ami  the  Imlus  and  the  ISrahma|iuti'a,  and  I 


of  hundreds  of  rivei's  ami  streams  whose  waters 
eventually  reach  the  ocean  through  the  months  of 
these  three  great  channels.  The  rivers  of  the 
Himalayas  mostly  make  their  way  tlinmgh  tlie 
mountains  at  the  bottom  of  wihl  and  narrow 
gorges,  often  several  thousands  of  feel  deep,  (he 
path  Ihrough  thi'  various  chains  being  mostly  at 
light  angles  (o  the  sirike  of  the  riilgi-.  The  in- 
ilinalioii  of  the  riveis  is,  however,  nowlii-ic  very 
steep,  except  along  one  line  :  about  ten  miles 
soiitli  of  the  chain  of  great  peaks  the  rivei>  ilesccnil 
about  ,"i(MM(  feet  in  the  course  of  a  few  miles. 

This  iiidicat<-s  that  the  whole  region  must  at  one 
time  have  been  bodily  nphcaveil,  ami  before  the 
peiiod  of  uiilieaval  (here  existed  here  a  iiatur.d  liilge 
or  fold  of  tlic  earth.  ( 1  eulogists  indeed  bi-lii've  that 
the  entire  site  of  the  Himalayan  system,  taken  in 
its  widest  extent,  in  which  it  enibraccs  the  whole 
of  the  Tibetan  plateau  as  far  as  the  outer  Kuen- 
Lun  .Mountains,  was  in  distant  geologic  age-  the 
bed  of  a  vast  sea  or  ocean.  The  mountain^  are 
believed  to  be  the  result  of  the  action  of  niecliHiiical 
forces,  such  a-s  hori/oiital  compression  and  tension, 
combined  with  lateral  stress  and  stiain,  operating 
upon  till'  cooling  iriist  of  the  earth  in  a  regiim 
where,  owing  to  the  recent  evaiioralion  of  the 
ocean,  it  was  softest  and  most  pliable,  and  there- 
fore otVeied  least  resistance.  The  rocks  of  this 
jiail  of  the  system  are  principally  crystalline  gneiss 
ami  iiiiea  schist,  with  veins  ami  zones  of  granite 
iiitiuding.  I'be  snowy  region  of  the  Himalayas  is 
plentifully  stiiddcil  with  ghieiers,  some  of  tbeni 
of  great  extent  :  <me  has  la-en  surveyed  in  the 
western  ]>art  of  the  svsteni  .'Hi  miles  in  length.  In 
the  same  region  tliev' dcsceml  to  II. (MM)  and  I'J.IKX) 
feet,  in  the  eiislern  part  of  the  s\steiii  not  lower 
than  i;!,(HM)  and  14. (MM)  feet;  and  on  the  Tibetan 
side  thev  are  seliloiii  found  to  come  lower  than 
l."i.(MJ()  and  l(i,(MM)  feet.  This  ililleienee  is  partly 
due  to  the  ditl'erence  between  tin'  angles  of  ile- 
clivity  <in  the  mirth  ami  on  the  south  sides  of  the 
chief  ranges,  partly  also  t<i  ilitlerences  in  climatic 
conditions,  the  piinci]iiil  being  the  heavier  snowfall 
and  the  greater  rainfall  which  take  place  on  the 
sonth,  and  the  greater  dryness  of  the  atmo-|i|iere 
<in  the  Tibetan  plateau,  t 'onformably  with  these 
facts,  the  snow  line  ranges  higher  on  the  Tibetan 
side  than  on  the  Imlian  :  whereas,  on  the  water- 
shed chain,  it  seldom  descends  lower  than  IH,(){X) 
feet,  and  on  the  tableland  remains  at  'iO.tMMi.  on 
the  soiilhi'in  faces  of  the  nioiintains  it  runs  at 
l."i,(MMI  111  li;,(KM)  feet.  'The  watershed  chain  has 
been  little  explored  :  it  lies  chielly  vvidiin  'Tibetan 
territory.  The  only  exception  to  the  former  state- 
ment occurs  on  the  west,  where  the  .Mustagli 
range,  which  is  crossed  bv  the  pass  of  Karakoram 
(IS, ;{.")()),  towels  above  the  mountain  \,illi'y  of 
Kashmir,  forming  its  northern  wall,  ivs  the  I'ir- 
panjal,  a  range  of  the  outer  Himalaya  division 
rising  to  14. (MM)  or  l.'),(XX)  feet,  shuts  it  in  c,i>  the 
south.  This  watershed  chain  forms  an  almo.st 
continuous  line  of  peaks,  its  crest  being  jirobably 
over  IS, (KM)  feet  in  elevation.  .So  far  as  is  known, 
it  is  only  broken  by  one  pass  of  less  altitude  than 
16,CKM1  feet,  namely  the  Dras  pass  h'ailing  from 
Kashmir,  which  is  ll,:«Mlfeet  above  sea  level.  The 
Niti  Pass  (I(),li7()),  .south  ea-t  of  l.adak,  connects 
ilie  best  roads  from  India  and  from  Kast  'Turkestan. 
'The  Himalaya-s  |ll,^sess  few  lakes.  In  the  east, 
ncutli  of  Sikkim,  are  Vamdok-cho  or  I'aiti,  45 
miles  in  circumference,  with  an  island,  '2IMK>  to 
;i(XM)  feet  high,  in  the  centre;  and  ('lionito  dong, 
'2(1  miles  long  by  l(i  broad,  at  an  altitude  of  14,700 
feel.  .More  to  the  west  lie  the  li<ily  Tibetan  lakes 
of  Man,a.sarowar  and  Hakas  Tal.  vvliiih  givi-  liiith 
to  the  liver  Sutlej.  I'esides  these  there  are  .\;iini- 
tal  in  Kiimaon  ami  the  Lake  of  Kashmir.  In 
nearly   all    parts  of   the    Himalayas   metallic  ores 


HIMERA. 


HIND 


(17 


have  been  ascertaifieil  to  exist.  Hut  ^'nld,  inm, 
coppei,  ami  lead  are  the  niily  iiiineials  extiaeted. 
(Jold  is  Iar;,'('ly  mined  in  Tibet  ;  coiiiier  and  iron 
ore  are  worked  in  Knmaon  and  (larwlial. 

In  tlie  lower,  hotter,  and  moister  parts  of  the 
Himalayas,  ehieliy  towards  the  east,  the  Hora  is 
closely  relateil  to  that  of  the  Malay  I'eninsnia  and 
islancK.  Farther  west,  as  the  drier,  eoldei'  parts 
are  approached,  it  aiijiroxiniates  to  the  Euro|>eari 
Hora.  'Ml  the  lower  ranj^es  the  chief  vegetative 
forms  are  sals,  sissns,  bamboos,  ]ialms,  acacias, 
rhoilodendrons,  ferns,  orchids,  iVc.  in  the  east, 
and  oaks,  pines,  spruces,  firs,  cedars,  deodars,  and 
others  in  the  west.  On  the  hif,'hest  rani^es  tlje 
principal  trees  are  conifers  and  |iopla,rs,  with  a 
great  variety  of  alpine  plants.  The  European 
beech  does  not  grow  on  the  Himalayas.  Cultiva- 
tion does  not  ascend  higher  than  7000  feet,  except 
in  a  few  of  the  wannei  valleys.  The  jdants  of 
greatest  commercial  importance  cultivated  on  the 
Himalayan  slopes  are  tea  and  cinchona.  In  lespect 
of  its  fauna  this  region  is  one  of  the  richest  in  the 
world,  particularly  i]|  birds.  Among  the  more 
remarUalile  animals  may  be  mentioned  bears,  wild 
cats,  leopards,  tigers,  s\in-liears,  catdiears,  yaks, 
musk-deer,  wild  goats,  wild  sheep,  wild  dogs,  Hy- 
ing sipiirrels,  the  bamlioo-rat,  and  water-sln'ews. 
Insects  are  almost  as  numerous  as  birds. 

Within  Indian  territory  most  of  the  inhabitants 
of  these  mountains  are  Hindus.  The  Tibetan 
portions  aie  occupied  by  ]ie<ii)les  of  Turanian  stock. 
No  statement  can  be  given  of  the  total  number  of 
these  mountaineers  ;  many  of  them  live  in  remote 
valleys,  and  are  almost  unknown,  whilst  many 
others  dwell  outside  the  limits  of  the  Kritish 
dominions.  In  Himlu  mythology  these  majestic 
mountains  are  invested  with  great  sanctity. 
Thousands  of  pilgrims  travel  year  after  year  to 
the  holy  sources  of  the  Ganges.  The  temples  they 
visit  stand  beside  the  glaciers  from  which  the 
river  emerges,  at  (Jangotri,  Ke<larnatb,  and  liadri 
nath.  Other  tein|iles,  scrarcely  less  sacred,  stand 
beside  the  source  of  the  Jumna  at  Janmotri. 

See  Medlicott  and  BlanfonI,  Mitumil  of  the  Ueoloijfi  of 
India  (15  vols.  Calcutta,  1879);  J.  1).  Hooker,  Hiiiio- 
Imjaii  Joiirnuls  (2  vols.  Lond.  1854);  the  works  of  B. 
H.  Hodgson;  (Jodwin- Austen,  in  Joitni.  Ax.  Sor.  Btin/iil 
(18C7  7o)  anil  I'ror.  Uni,.  liein/.  Sor.  ( liSH.'i  and  l.S.Si); 
W.  W.  Graham,  in  /'r^c.  Jiot/.  Geufi.  Sor.  (1884); 
Clements  .Markliani,  Jiot/fc  hi  Tkihet  and  Mnnnin;/  hi 
Lhasa  i  187()) ;  T.  .Saunders,  in  Gtoii.  Mao.  ( 1877) ;  Sir  H. 
Stracliey,  in  Ro/t.  (tioii.  .Soc.  Jonrii.  ( vtil.  xxiii.) ;  Mcntoir.s 
of  (icolo'/ical  Siirrefi  of  India  ;  A.  Wilson,  Alunte  of  Sitoir 
(18751;  Strachcv,  Tlif  Himalaiio  {mm);  andSirAV.  M. 
Conway,  Climbina  in  tlic  Kornkonim  Hinialainis  (1894). 

Hilll'ei'cU  an  ancient  city  on  the  north  coast  of 
Sicily,  east  of  I'anornius  (ruleniiu),  ami  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Himera,  was  a  (ireek  colony 
established  049  A.l).,  and  destroyed  in  409  by  the 
Carthaginians,  who  afterwards  built  Thernia-  (  mod. 
TernuHi)  across  the  ri\'er.  StcsicliHius  was  a  native 
of  Himera,  Agathocles  of  Tliernue. 

Iliiiiilro.    See  ('AUTiiAfiK. 

IlilliyiU'itit*.  a  nann^  formerly   in   use  for  the 

language  of  the  ancient  Sabtean  inscriptioms  in  the 
south-west  of  Arabia.  See  AliABIAN  LaSOUACE, 
SaI1.1:aNS,  SkMITIC  L.VMil'AGE.S. 

IlilK'kle.y,  an  ancient  town  of  Leicestershire, 
:uid  partly  also  of  Warwickshire,  13  miles  SSW. 
of  Leicester,  its  parish  church,  with  a  beautiful 
oak  roof,  is  supposed  to  have  been  erected  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Kdward  III.  Hinckli'y  has  numn- 
factnres  of  cotton  hosiery  and  of  boots  anil  shoes. 
It  stands  on  the  old  Wailing  Street.  Poi).  (1H51) 
Bill  ;  (1891)9638. 

llillt'llliil*.  a  celebrated  churchman  of  the  9tli 
centuiy,  of  the  family  of  the  Counts  of  Toulouse, 


was  born  in  806.  He  was  ediuated  in  the  monas- 
tery of  St  Denis;  was  named  abbot  of  the  abbeys 
of  Compiegne  and  Si  ( lernLain  ;  and  in  84.')  w;us 
elected  Arcldiisliop  of  Kheirns.  I'.othadius,  llisbop 
of  Soissons,  and  suMVagan  of  Hincmai-,  depo.seil  a 
priest  of  his  diocese,  who  ai)pealed  to  Hincniar, 
as  nietropiditan,  and  was  indered  by  him  to  be 
restcued  to  otiice.  Iiothadius,  resisting  this  order, 
and  having  been  in  consei|Uence  excommunicatecl 
by  the  archbisho[i,  appeale(l  t<i  the  pope,  Nicholas 
I.,  in  8()'2,  who  at  once  ordered  Hincujar  to  restore 
Hothadius.  or  to  appear  at  Home  to  \  indicate  the 
.sentence,  I'ltimately  Nicholas  annulled  the  sen- 
tence. Hincniar.  aftei'  some  demur,  was  forced  to 
acrjuiesce,  and  Kothadius  was  restored  to  his  see. 
Hincniar  wrote  much  against  the  strong  predes- 
tinarian  \  lews  of  the  monk  (iottschalk,  whom  he 
uniteil  with  others  in  degrading  and  imprisoning, 
(iottsclialk  died  in  pri.son  after  eighteen  years'  con- 
linement. 
!  The  coniluct  of  Hincniar  is  also  historically  in- 
I  teresting  in  relation  to  the  tempmal  jiower  of  the 
medieval  papacy.  Under  Adrian  II.  a  (|uestion 
arose  as  to  the  suece.ssioii  to  the  s()\ereignty  of 
Lorraine  on  the  death  of  King  Lotliaire,  the 
pope  favouring  the  pretensions  of  the  Kmperor 
Lewis  in  op]iosition  to  those  of  Charles  the 
Hold  of  France.  To  the  mandate  which  Adrian 
addres.sed  to  the  subjects  of  Charles  and  to  the 
nobles  of  Lorraine,  accompanied  by  a  menace  of 
the  censures  of  the  church,  Hincniar  oH'ereil  a 
Hrm  and  persistent  opposition.  He  was  equally 
Hrm  in  resisting  the  undue  extension  of  the  royal 
prerogative  in  ecclesiastical  afl'airs.  When  the 
F.mperor  Lewis  III.  sought  to  obtrude  an  unworthy 
favourite  npcui  the  see  of  IJeanvais,  Hincniar  bcddly 
remonstrated,  and  fearlessly  denounced  the  iin- 
justiliable  usurpation.  Hincmar  died  in  the  vear 
S8-2. 

His  works  were  collected  by  the  Jesuit  Sirniond  (1(145), 
and  are  to  be  found  in  Migne's  Cut-ttns  Potr.  Conijt/. 
His  Anindes  Bt't'tiniani,  from  801  to  88:*,  are  in  vol.  i.  of 
Pertz's  MonnmenUt.  See  Prichard,  Jjife  and  Tinifu  of 
Hincmav  (1849),  and  German  works  by  Noorden  (18G2), 
Sdralek  ( 1881 ),  and  Schriirs  ( 1884). 

Hind,  the  female  of  the  Stag  (i|. v.) or  Hed  Deer. 
The  term  is  also  sometimes  aiiidied  to  the  female  of 
.some  other  deer — though  never  to  any  other  Biitish 
or  European  s|iecies  and  is  .sometimes  even  ex- 
tended to  female  antelopes. 

Hind,  John  Ku.sskll,  astronomer,  was  born  at 
Nottingham,  May  12,  18"2.S.  At  an  early  period  he 
liecame  an  enthusiast  in  the  study  of  astronomy, 
and  in  1840  obtained,  through  the  inHuence  of  I'ro- 
fessor  Wheatstone,  a  situation  in  the  Koyal  Obser- 
vatory ;it  Creenwich,  where  be  remained  till  .Iiine 
1844.  Hind  was  then  sent  as  one  of  the  I'ommission 
appointed  to  determine  the  exact  longitude  of 
A  alentiii,  and  on  his  return  became  the  observer  in 
Mr  liishop's  Observatory,  Kegent's  Park,  London. 
Here  he  calculated  the  orbits  and  declination  of 
more  than  seventy  planets  and  comets,  noteil  a 
number  of  new  movable  stars,  and  between  1847 
and  18,')4  <lisco\ereil  ten  minor  planets  (.see  I'l.AN 
KT(iuis).  In  18.")1  Hind  obtained  from  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  at  I'aris  their  Lalande  medal,  and  wjis 
elected  a  corresponding  member  :  in  18r>'2  he  oh 
tained  the  .Astnmomical  Society  of  London's  golil 
medal,  ami  a  iiension  of  f'iOO  a  year  from  the  Hritisli 
government  ;  in  I8.");{  he  undertook  the  editing  of 
the  Ncdiliitd  AliiiiiiiKr.  Hind's  scientilic  papeis 
were  generally  jmblished  in  the  Tiitiisiuiiuim  vf  the 
Ax/ronomiiii/  Sociiti/,  in  the  Cuiiijites  lioiilus  of 
I'aris,  ami  the  Asfro)iuiiii.sc/ic  Xavfin'rhtoi  of  Altona. 
.Vmong'st  his  works  are  A.itiuuoiiiical  focalm/nri/ 
(18,V2),  T/i>-  Coiiieis  (18.-)2),  T/ie  Solar  Si/.fl<>>i 
(18ri'2),  Illa.stiated  Loiithm  Aslroiioin;/  (1853), 
E/iiiie>it.\  of  Alydra  ( 1855),  .ind  Descriptive  Trmtise 


718 


HINDI 


HIP-JOINT 


OH  Coinrts  ( IRTiT ).  For  a  time  iireyideiit  of  the  Koyal 
AsliMiiDiiiicHl   Society,  lie  ilieil  'I'M  lleoeiiilier  IWto. 

IlilMli,    IllNDI'S'l'ANI.    IllNlll   ISM.       Si-e   InIUA. 

llill«ll4'.V.  II  town  of  l.aiicitsliire,  H  iiiile>  SB.  of 
Wif,Mii  Ipy  luil.  Tlieie  are  nuiiieroiis  ciiiil  work-'  in 
the  viriiiity  :  anil  the  cotton  niaTnifaciiiie  i>  lar;,'ely 
canieil  on."     Top.  ( 1851 )  oi'tSo  ;  ( 1,S!»1  )  I8,!t73. 

IlilMllI  Kll.sll  llhe  '  Inilian  )  auca.sus '  ol  Ale.x- 
aiiilei  the  (Heals  historians)  forms  the  we.stwaril 
coiitinnatiim  of  the  Himalayan  system,  of  which  it 
is  sometimes  reckoned  a  part,  ami  fnnn  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  ehiLsm  tlinnijrli  which  the  Indus 
breaks  its  way  to  the  plains.  It  strikes  oil'  from 
the  simth  west  an^'le  of  the  I'amir  plateau,  and 
exieiiils  westwards  for  .36.")  miles  to  the  M.imian 
valley  in  .\f;;hanislaM,  scparaliny  that  country  im 
the  sontli  from  Turkestan  on  tlii'  north.  Near  its 
point  of  ori^jiin  several  rivers  take  their  hirth  ;  the 
■Oxus  jfoes  ofT  north  west  throu;;h  Turkestan,  ami 
the  (ielmund  south  west  through  .\f;,diauistan. 
The  main  ran^'c  breaks  into  four  subsidiary  ridpes, 
and  has  a  total  width  of  about  '2(M)  miles.  lidiUe 
the  Himalayas,  it  sinks  suddenly  to  the  plains  of 
Turkestan  on  the  noith.  It  is  crossed  by  several 
passes,  at  an  aviMa^e  elevation  of  1'2,()0()  or  13,0(X» 
feet.  From  the  iSaiuian  valley  the  range  is  con- 
tinued westwanls  as  a  low  watei-slied  elevation, 
known  as  Koh  I  Haba.  (  KohiB.iba  is  .also  the  name 
of  a  peak  in  tlii>  Hindu  Kush.)  The  peak  of  Hindu 
Koh,  about  S(l  miles  to  the  north  of  th<'  city  of 
Kabul,  is  estimated  to  l)e  more  than  iO.IKXJ  feet 
alKive  the  se.a.  I'he  highest  point  in  the  range  that 
has  lieen  yet  iuea.sured  exceeds  •iS.OtK)  feet.  Tlie 
flanks  of  the  mountains  are  mostly  barren  and 
destitute  of  cultivation  ;  but  minerals,  especially 
iron.  c)ccur  in  great  abumlance.  j'hc  inhabitants 
consist  principally  of  Dards  (sec  It  akihsian  )  and 
Shins,  the  latter  the  descendants  of  the  i>riginal 
coloui-ts  of  the  country.  .\  loose  kind  of  .\Ioh.am- 
med.-uusm  is  the  prevalent  form  of  ndigion.  See  .J. 
Bidilulpli,  7V/7/C.V  iif  lliiiihi  Kii.ili  (('alcutta.  IHSOI. 
Conway  a.scen<lerl  Pioneer  Peak,  '2.3.()O0  feet,  and 
saw  others  higher  than  Everest.     See  HIMALAYA.';. 

Ilindiistnii.    Sec  India. 

Iliniioiii.  \ai.levof.     See  (Jehenna. 

Ilillll.V.  the  hybrid  prodnceil  between  a  Iioim 
ami  a  fi'Uiale  ass.  It  is  smaller  than  a  mnli-. 
but  the  liody  is  more  bulky  in  prop<uliou  to  the  le;.'~, 
And  its  strength  is  inferior.  It  is  less  vabi.ible  than 
the  mule,  although  it  is  more  docile.  The  liinu\ 
is  rare.  It  was  dcx-ribed  by  souk-  of  the  earliei 
naturalists  as  a  hylirid  between  the  o.x  and  the 
ass. 

llillO.ioSil-d4'l-l>IH|II0.  a  town  of  S|]aiu,  4."> 
miles  N.NW.  of  Cordova,  with  some  linen  ami 
woollen  manufactures.     Pop.  9.iOf). 

Hintoil,  .Iamks,  aurist  and  metaphysician, 
was  horn  in  |S2'J.  sou  of  a  Baptist  minister,  studied 
medicine  at  St  liartliolomew  s  Hospital,  and,  after 
much  travel,  settled  about  IS.">0  to  a  London  |uac- 
tice,  ultimately  becoming  a  specialist  in  aural 
surgery.  From  18(V2  till  IH74  he  was  a  lecturer 
on  this  department  at  (Juy's  Hospital.  He  died 
Kith  Oecendier  IH7.").  In  lii.s  lifetime  he  published 
Mini  iiiul  hi.s  Diriilingiitwe  (18.')9),  Llfr  iii  \afiin 
( lS(i->),  and  the  ^fl/■<ten/  i,f  I'nni  (  IHfi.'!)  :  and  after 
his  death  appeared,  with  other  works,  riiihisujilni 
lilt)/  /iefif/ioit  (1S.S1)  anil  J'/n-  I.mr  lirmker  nml 
Coming  of  Ihr  l.nv  (ljs84).  These  l)Ooks  contain 
striking  and  suggestive  things  enough,  but  tlieir 
author  evidently  took  himself  too  seriously  as  a 
metaphysician,  as  has  also  been  done  by  a  hand- 
ful of  disci]iles.  See  his  /,//'«■  and  Letters,  bv 
Ellice  Hopkins  ( 1.S78). 

UiOgO.      See  HVOr.O. 

Hip.     See  I{r)SE. 


Ilip-j<>int  i~  a  ball  and  socket  joint  lormed  l>y 
tlu'  leciption  of  the  ;;lobular  heail  of  the  thigh 
l)one  (or  femur)  into  the  deep  pit  or  cu|i  in  the 
<M'  iiiiiiimiiiiiliiiii,  which  is  known  as  x\\i'  initiiliiilnm. 
If  the  variety  of  the  movi'iucnls  of  this  joint  \  iz. 
Ilexiiui,  extension,  abduction,  addmlion,  ami  rota- 
tiim  in  w  aids  and  <iutwaids.  .-inil  a  I  the  same  time  its 
great  stren;:tli  ari-ciuisidcreil,  it  may  well  (daiin  to  Im- 
regarded  as  thi'  most  perfect  joint  in  the  whole  body. 
The  ri'uder  will  form  a  tolerably  ilear  conception 
of  the  lelative  forms  of  the  acetabulum  anil  the 
head  of  the  thigh  bone  from  a  ;;lance  at  the  ligiire, 
in  which  the  surrounding  parts  are  cut  away,  and 


Hip-joint : 


1,  2,  3,  ^K-lvic  IJ^iiiiieiitA ;  4,  5,  Ilic  ;;n>ater  ami  tesser  sacro- 
iscliiattc  foraiiiiiia ;  6,  the  cotyloiil  1j^'aiiii.|it ;  7,  the  miiod 
liKaliieiit ;  8,  the  cut  cilgc  of  the  Imver  part  of  the  capsular 
liKaiiieiit, 

the  thigh  bone  is  drawn  out  of  its  socket.  The 
ligaments  are  usually  described  as  live  in  number — 
the  capsular  I  consisting  of  circular  .■ind  longitudinal 
tibres,  of  which  tin-  most  iniporlant  arc  the  ilio- 
fciiioitil  or  y-shaipcd  hand  ),  tcrca  or  round,  cot.\  loid, 
and  transwi-se  ligament.s.  Of  these  the  capsular 
ligament,  su]i|ioseil  to  be  removeil  in  the  ligure, 
is  the  most  important,  and  extends  from  the  edge 
of  the  cu]>  to  tile  ciicuiiiference  of  the  neck  njion 
which  the  b.all  is  rallied,  enclosiii;;  the  bony  piut.s 
in  a  strong  sheath.  The  great  use  of  the  capsular 
ligament  is  to  limit  the  extension  of  the  hip  joint, 
and  thus  to  give  steadiness  to  the  erect  iiosture. 
The  Irns  or  round  ligament  is  in  reality  triangular 
ratliei  than  round,  and  has  its  a]iex  attached  to 
the  heail  of  the  thigh-lKine.  The  joint  is  much 
stien;:theneil  by  a  large  number  of  surrounding 
muscles,  some  of  which  are  of  considerable  power. 
The  experiments  of  \\eber  show  that  atmospheric 
pressure  is  the  real  jiower  by  which  the  head  of 
the  femur  is  retained  in  the  acetabulum  «  hen  the 
muscles  are  at  rest. 

DisKASK  111-  THE  Hll'-.ioiNT.— Hip-<li»ease  difl'ers 
in  many  jioints  of  importance  from  other  joint- 
diseases.  Its  connection  with  scrofula  is  more 
distinctly  marked  than  that  of  most  other  joint- 
disea.ses,  and  it  almost  alw.ays  occurs  before  the 
age  of  puberty.  It  comes  on,  in  children  or  young 
jiersons  of  a  Hciofulous  constitution,  from  very 
slight  causes;  thus,  it  is  often  traced  to  over- 
exertion in  a  long  walk,  a  sprain  in  jumping,  or  a 
f.all  :  and  in  many  cases  no  aiip.'irent  cause  can  be 
a.ssigned.  In  the  early  stage  of  the  disease  the 
whole  of  the  structures  of  the  joint  are  inllamed, 
and  by  proper  treatment  at  this  ]nriod  the  morbid 
action  may  be  sometimes  subdued  without  any 
woi-se  con.sequences  than  a  more  or  less  rigid  joint. 
Csually,  however,  absce.s-ses  form  around  the  joint, 
and  often  communicate  with  its  interior;  and  the 


HIPPARCHUS 


HIPPOCRATES 


719 


acetalniluiii  ami  tlw  head  ami  neck  of  the  thi^'h- 
liime  become  di-ime^'iateil,  suftciieil.  ami  ^'littv. 
Ill  a  still  iiiDie  aiUanced  stage  dislocation  of  tlie 
lieail  of  the  thifjh-hone  coiiiinoiily  occurs,  either 
from  the  capsular  ligament  hecoming  more  t)r  less 
destroyed,  and  the  head  of  the  hone  heiiij;  drawn 
out  of  its  cavity  by  the  action  of  the  surrounding 
muscles,  or  from  a  fungous  mass  sprouting  up  from 
the  bottom  of  the  cavity,  and  pushing  the  head  of 
the  bone  before  it.  It  is  of  extreme  importance 
that  tlie  symiitoms  should  he  detected  in  an  early 
stage  of  the  ilisease. 

As  the  disease  advances  abscesses  occur  around 
the  joint.  True  .shortening  of  the  limb  now  takes 
place,  which  at  the  same  time  becomes  aihlucted 
and  inverted.  From  this  stage,  if  the  health  is 
pretty  good,  and  the  lungs  are  sound,  the  patient 
may  be  so  fortunate  as  to  recover  with  an  anchy- 
losed  (or  immovable)  hiii-joint  :  but  the  proba- 
l)ility  is  that  e.xhaustion  and  hectic  will  come  on, 
and  that  death  will  supervene,  from  the  wasting 
inHuence  of  the  purulent  clischarges  occasioned  by 
the  diseased  bone.  The  duraticm  of  the  disease 
may  vary  from  two  or  three  months  to  ten  or 
more  years. 

As  the  treatment  must  be  left  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  surgeon  it  is  unnecessaiT  to  say  more 
than  that  the  most  important  points  are  /leifcct  rest 
to  the  affected  part,  which  may  be  cll'ected  in 
various  ways,  the  internal  administration  of  cod- 
liver  oil  and  tonics,  and  the  apjilication  of  counter- 
irritation  by  means  of  an  issue  behind  the  great 
trochanter. 

Hipitarclllis.  the  first  systematic  astronomer 
on  record,  was  born  at  Niciea,  in  Hithynia,  and 
nourished  between  160  and  125  B.C.  Of  his  per- 
sonal history  nothing  is  known  except  that  he 
observed  at  Rhodes.  The  only  authority  we  have 
regarding  his  researches  is  the  Si/iit<i.ris  of  Ptolemy : 
from  it  we  learn  that  Hipparchus  discovered  the 
precesshm  of  the  e(|uimixes  and  the  eccentricity  of 
the  sun's  path,  determined  the  length  of  the  s(dar 
year  and  the  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  re- 
spectively from  the  earth,  invented  the  planisphere, 
drew  up  a  catalogue  of  1080  stars,  and  fixed  the 
geographical  position  of  idaces  on  the  earth  by 
giving  their  longitude  ami  latitude.  .VII  that  we 
have  of  his  works  is  a  commentary  to  the  poetical 
description  of  the  stars  by  Aratus,  published  in 
Patavius's  Uraiiotur/in  (1630).  See  Delambre's 
Hislnirt'  tie  r Aatniiiiiinie  Aiieieiitie  (Paris,  1817). 

Ilipparioil,  a  fossil  genus  of  Erjuida^.  See 
Hill.'SK. 

Ilippias    and    lli|>par<*iiiis.        See    Pists- 

Tl;ATt'S. 

II  i  It  I>  U.        See 

l!(PNA. 

Ilipitocaiiipiis 

( ( Jr.  :  a  sea-monster 
on  which  the  goils 
rode),  commonly 

called   Ska-Hdk.sk,   a 
Uinus     of     curiously 
'    /i    i  I  '"odified  marine 

f    ft  v/^i   lishes,     which,     with 
'■■   hf/l  II"^    Pil.e-(ish    (q.v,). 
/y    I  ''ompose    the    family 
„ir^'  I      ;   Syngnathida',  belong- 
ing  to  the  order  I,o- 
phcdiranchii,      whose 
^ills  are  disposed   in 
lufts.      They    derive 
their     generic    name 
from  the  remarkable 
likeness  which  the  head  and  neck  bear  to  those  of 
a  horse,  or  perhaps  even  more  strikingly  to  those 
of  the  knight    in    a   set  of    chessmen.      Thev   are 


all  cliaracterised  by  the  prehensile  tail  devoid  of 
a  tin,  by  which  they  cling  to  the  stems  of  sea- 
weeds or  corals,  (M  even  to  each  other  ;  the 
boily  is  compresseil  and  more  <n"  less  elex'ated  ; 
the  shields  have  UKue  oi'  less  prominent  tuliercle.s 
or  spines ;  the  liin<ler  part  of  the  head  forms 
a  flattened  crest,  terminating  above  in  a  pro- 
minent knob  (coronet ) :  ipectoral  tins  and  a  dorsal 
lin  are  present.  The  males  have  a  pouch  beneath 
the  tail,  in  wliich  they  carry  the  eggs  until  they 
are  hatched.  As  in  all  other  lishes  of  the  order, 
there  is  a  long  snout,  and  at  its  extremity  a  small 
toothless  mouth.  The  fins  vibrate  with  great 
rapidity,  and  iiresent  the  appearance  of  a  rotating 
wheel  or  a  delicate  waving  web,  but  the  animals 
move  only  slowly  and  for  a  short  distance  at  a 
time,  usually  in  a  half  upright  imsture.  There  are 
about  twenty  species,  mostly  inhabiting  tropical 
.seas  ;  some  have  a  wide  area  of  distiibution,  as  they 
are  not  unfrequently  carrii'd  to  great  distances  by 
floating  materials  to  which  they  have  attaeheil 
themselves.  H.  nntiquonim  of  Australia,  the 
Atlantic,  and  Mediterranean,  is  occasionally  found 


Phyllojiteryx  eques. 

on  British  shores.  The  allied  genus  Phyllopteryx, 
of  which  three  species  are  known  from  Australia, 
is  remarkable  for  its  long  streaming  filament-^, 
which  very  closely  mimic  the  fronds  of  the  Tucns 
among  which  it  lives. 

HipporailipilS.     See  BRAIN. 

Hippoci'aiii  (riiiiiiii  Iliiijioeetitleiim,  'wine  of 
Hippocrates'),  an  aronuitic  medicated  wine,  for- 
merly much  used  as  a  cordial.  It  was  prepared 
from  white  wine,  Mavoured  with  cinnamon  and 
other  spices,  lemon  peel,  almonds,  &c..  and  sweet- 
ened with  honey  or  sugar. 

Hippoe'ratCS,  the  most  celebrateil  physician 
of  antiquity,  was  the  son  of  Heracleides.  who  was 
also  a  physician,  and  belonged  to  the  family  of 
the  .\sclepiada^.  Hippocrates  hini.self  being  either 
nineteenth  or  seventeenth  in  ilescent  from  .Kscu- 
lapius.  His  mother,  whose  nanu*  was  Plijvnarete. 
was  said  to  be  descended  from  Hercules.  He  was 
born  in  the  island  of  Cos.  piobably  .-ibout  460  n.c. 
He  is  saiil  to  have  been  iiistrncteil  in  medicine  by 
his  father  and  by  Hcrodicus,  ami  in  pliilosopliy  liy 
tiorgias  of  Leontini.  the  celebrated  sophist,  anil 
Democritus  of  Abdera,  whose  cure,  when  he  w;is 
mentally  deranged,  he  afterwar<ls  ell'ected.  After 
visiting  some  parts  of  (Jreece,  particularly  Athens, 
then  at  its  intellectual  zenith,  he  settled  in  practice 
at  Cos.  Hi'ilied  at  I.arissa.  in  Thcs^aly.  but  al  what 
age  is  uncertain,  dill'crent  ancient  autliiu's  staling  it 
to  have  been  at  8.'i,  !K).  104.  and  100  yeai-s.  Clinton 
{Fiixti  Hell.)  places  his  death  .S57  It.c,  at  the  age 
of  104.  We  know  little  more  of  his  pei-sonal 
history  than  that  he  was  greatly  esteemed  as  a 
physician  an<l  an  author,  and  that  he  raised  the 
medical  school  of  Ccs  to  a  verj'  high  reputation. 


720 


HIPPOCRKNK 


HTPPOLYTUS 


His  woi'k-'  «cn'  c|ii(itiMl  Ipy  I'l.iln.  wlio  ciniiiniieil 
liiiii  to  I'lilyclctus  iiiiil  I'liiiliit-,  ami  liy  Aiisiollc, 
will)  oalli'il  liiiii  "till-  ;,'ieat.'  VaiimiN  stmics  an- 
recorJe<l  nf  liim  \i\  (Iri-ck  wiilei-H,  ti)  wliicli,  liciii;; 
Ui)il<mlitO"llv  t'aliiiloiis,  it  is  iiiiiieoi'ssaiv  In  ailvcit  ; 
aii<l  w  liiiii  li-;;iMiils  ic^ardiii;;  him  in  llic  winks  iil 
Aial.jr  HiiiiTs.  wliii  tiMiii  liiiii  ■  ISnkr.it.'  wliilc  tin- 
Eiirii|ii'aii  slipi  V  ti'llrrs  nf  tlir  iiiiililli'  a;;rs  ri'li-liiati' 
liim  umliT  till'  Jiaiiir  of  '  V|iiMias,'  nml.  in  ilrliamr 
of  cliroiioli)f,'y,  make  liim  ]>riifi'ssi)r  of  im-ilicim-  at 
Homi",  with  a  mMilii'W  of  Homhous  nii'ilical  skill, 
whom  III'  (lespateiicil  in  his  own  steail  to  the  kiii^ 
of  Hiinj.'aiv. 

Til'-  wiiiks  lirarin;;  tin'  naino  of  IIi|i|ionati's.  anil 
t«rMii'cl  till'  IIi|i|MHTatir  ( 'olirrlion,  an-  nioir  than 
sixty  in  niinilit'i,  iiml  wcil-  ili\iili'il  liy  Mr  (iri'i-n- 
liill  into  eifiht  classes.  The  first  class  ciini|iriscs 
works  r,  itiiirity  written  hy  Ilij>iiocralcs.  inclmlin;; 
Proyiiosliru  :  A/i/iurixmi  :  Hr  .ilorl/is  I'lt/m/diilnis  : 
Dc  liiitiiiiir  Virtiix  ill  Mnrhis  Anitis :  />!■  A<n\ 
Af/m\,  !•/  /flirts:  anil  /f>'  Cn/tt'/ts  \'iihn'i-ilitis.  Some 
eminent  critics  ilonlit  the  •.'eniiincness  of  some  iioi 
tions  of  the  A/i/i'iii\iiii,  the  work  liy  which  llipiio- 
crales  is  most  |iii|iiilarly  known.  'I'lie  scconil  class  is 
cnnijioseil  of  works /(i/Vi/i/w  written  hy  ni|i|iiicrates. 
They  are  eleven  in  niimher.  anil  one  of  them  is  the 
well-known  ,1  iisjiiniiiiliiiii,  or  "  Hiiipocratic  Oath.  I 
The  others  consist  of  works  written  liefore  lli]i|io 
crates,  works  whose  author  is  coiijeclnieil.  works  , 
by  (|iiiti'  unknown  authors,  wilful  for;;eries,  iVc. 

For  anything.'  like  a  full  account  of  his  views  we  I 
must  refei"  to  the  \arioiis  wi'iters  who  ha\'e  treateil  1 
of  the  history  of  meilicine.  We  can  here  only 
mention  that  he  iliviiles  the  causes  of  ilisease  into 
two  principal  classi's  :  the  li|-st  consisting;  of  the 
influence  of  sejusons,  climates,  water,  situation,  \c.  ; 
anil  the  seconil  of  more  personal  causes,  such  a^ 
the  I'ooil  anil  e\ercise  of  the  iniliviiliial  patient. 
To  the  iiillueiice  which  ilill'erenl  climates  exert  on 
the  liuman  constitution  he  conliilentlv  asciihes 
both  the  conformation  of  the   boily  ami   the  ilis- 

So:jition  of  the  niinil,  ami  hence  accounts  for  the 
irt'erences  hetween  the  (Ireek  ami  the  le.ss  harily 
Asiatic.  The  four  lluiils  or  huniours  of  the  lK)ily 
(hlooil.  plile^'m,  yellow  liile,  ami  Mack  liile)  were 
regarileil  l>y  him  as  the  primary  siMts  of  ili.sea.se: 
health  was  the  result  of  the  ilue  coiuhination  (or 
cnisis:)  of  the.se,  the  ilisturhance  of  which  prmluceil 
illness.  When  a  ilisease  wivs  proceeilinj;  favour- 
ably these  huniours  umlerwent  a  certain  chan^;e 
(or  iijrtioii  ),  which  was  the  sif,'n  of  returnin;,'  health, 

as  preparing  for  the  exjiulsion  of  i liiil  matter,  or 

crisii,  these  crises  havin;,'  a  tenilencv  to  occur  at 
definite  perioils,  which  were  thence  called  '  critical 
days.'  His  treatment  of  diseases  was  cautious,  ami 
what  we  now  term  e.vpectant ;  it  consisted  chiefly 
and  often  solely  in  attention  to  diet  and  rej;iiiien  ; 
and  he  was  sometimes  reproached  with  lettin;;  liis 
patients  die  hy  doin;,'  nolliin;,'  to  keep  llieni  alive. 

The  works  of  Hippocrates  were  translated  at 
an  early  period  into  .Arabic.  They  were  first 
printed  in  a  Latin  translation  in  lo'i)  at  Konie. 
The  tirst  (ireek  edition  ( the  Aldine)  apjieared  the 
following;  year  at  Venice;  an  edition  by  .Merciiriali 
aj>lPeareil  in  l.jSH.  one  by  Foes  in  I.')!).'!,  and  one  by 
Van  der  Mnden  in  Kiii.').  Others  h.ive  appeared 
under  the  editorship  of  Chartier,  Kidin,  iVc.  The 
best  eiliiion.  with  an  .idmirable  French  translation, 
is  that  of  I, litre  (10  vols.  18:«l  til  ).  .A  scholarly 
edition  by  Krmeriiis,  with  a  Latin  rendering;,  was 
published  in  IS-IO-G.')  at  I'trecht,  at  the  e.viicn.se  of 
the  university  of  .Vnisterdam.  .\n  excellent  V.nn 
lisli  translation  of  the  Oniiiiiie  1l'<ii/,:s  nf  Ifi/ijia- 
rritti.i  Wits  published  in  1849,  in  2  vols.,  by  l)r 
Adaiii"  of  Hancliory.  .Vbenleenshire. 

HippocrOIH'  (derived  from  /lijijiiis,  'a  horse,' 
and  Lri^iie,  '  a  fountain  ' ),  a  fountain  on  the  northern 
slope  of  Mount   Helicon,  in  Greece,  .sacred  to  the 


Muses  ami  .\pollo.  which,  accordin;;  to  the  mvtliical 
account,  was  priHliiced  by  a  stroke  from  the  hoof  of 
the  horse  l'e;;a.sus  (ii.v.).  It  is  idenlilied  with  a 
spring  at  the  modern  Alakariolissa. 

IlilUtodailli  a.  the  beantifnl  daii^diter  of  ( Kno 
maus.  kin;;  of  I'isa.  in  Klis.  It  had  been  predicted 
to  her  father  that  he  should  be  slain  by  his  future 
son  in  law  :  he  therefore  stipiilaled  th.il  every 
suitor  of  his  ilaii;,'htei  should  run  a  chariot  race 
with  him,  and  that  dealli  should  lie  the  consci|Uence 
of  defeat.  .\t  len;;lh  I'elops  bribed  the  kin;;'s 
charioteer,  and  thus  succeeded  in  reaching'  the  i;oal 
I>efoie  (Knomaus,  who.  in  des]>air,  killed  himself. 
Hippoilamia  became  by  I'elops  the  mother  of  Aliens 
and  Tliycstes. 

lli|t|HMll'4>lll<'  ('o.  /li/i/ms,  'a  horse,'  and 
ilriiiii'ix.  'a  racecourse ' ).  the  (Jri'ck  name  for  the 
plai-e  set  apart  foi'  horse  and  chariot  races.  Its 
dimensions  were,  according'  to  the  common  opinion, 
half  a  mile  in  len;;th,  and  one-eij,'hth  of  a  mile  in 
breadth.  In  construction  and  all  the  most  im 
portant  iioints  of  anan^'cment  it  was  the  counter- 
part of  the  lionian  < 'ircus  ( ip  v. ).  See  also  (ll.VMflc- 
llAMKs,  ('i)Nsr.\NriM)i'].i-:. 

Ilippoi^rifl',  or  IIiiTipiaiM'ii  dir.  /(////"-.v.   -.i 

horse.' and  the  word  (///////i,  '^lillin'),  a  falinloiis 
animal,  unknown  to  the  ancients,  which  is  repre- 
sented by  modern  writers  as  a  Hiri;.'e(l  horse  with 
the  head  of  a  ;;riltin.  The  liiiipi);;rill  ti;;ures  as  the 
horse  of  the  Muses,  and  plays  a  conspicuous  role 
in  the  UrIttHilii  /•'iirtitsii  of  .Ariosto. 

Ilippol!^  tll^<  "■  •bi'stian  writei-  who  enjoyed 
;,'reat  iTJcl.iiiv  ill  the  lirst  half  of  the  'M  century, 
but  of  whose  peisonal  history  we  know  but  little 
with  certainty.  He  was  lioiii  most  likely  about 
I.Vi  1(10  A. IP.  and  died  about  2:),-)  or  "JHIi.  'I'lie  lii-sl 
to  mention  him  is  ICiisebius.  who  says  he  was  a 
bishojp  sonicwiiere,  atid  some  writers  have  placed 
his  diocese  in  .Arabia,  while  almost  all  the  eastern 
writers  style  him  IJishop  of  Home.  He  is  usually 
described  by  modern  writers  as  Hishop  of  I'ortns, 
near  I'ome,  but  for  this  title  there  is  no  evidence 
earliei  than  the  middle  of  the  Till  century.  He 
may  have  been  a  native  of  the  Fast,  and  he  is  said 
to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Iremins  :  but  this  may 
have  been  either  in  .Asia  .Minor,  in  (lani,  or  in 
Uome  itself,  which  Fusebius  tells  lis  that  Irenaiis 
visited  about  ITS.  .An  entry  in  the  Libeiian  ( 'atii- 
lofjne  of  bishops  of  Koine  tells  that  rontiann.s 
the  bishop  and  Hip|iolytus  the  piesliyter  were 
transpoited  as  exiles  to  the  mines  of  Sardinia, 
where  ere  Ion;;  they  perished,  their  bodies  beiiif; 
carried  back  to  Itoiiie.  rruilentius  ( .')tli  century) 
;;ives  a  dilleient  but  iiiiicli  less  credible  .■iccount 
of  the  martyrdom  of  Hip|polytus.  accordinj;  to 
which  he  was  lorn  in  pieces  Ipy  wild  horses  like 
the  llippolytus  of  mytholo;;y.  He  tells  us  that  he 
was  inleiteil  with  the  Novatian  heresy,  but  recanted 
on  the  way  to  martyrdom.  Such  was  the  un- 
satisfactory state  of  knipwleil;;e  when  the  recovery 
at  .Mount  .\tliips  by  .Minoides  .\Iyii.a.s  in  1842  of  the 
treatise  a^rainst  heresies  ciust  fresh  light  upon 
Hippolytus  as  its  presumptive  author.  It  wat- 
i-oiilained  in  a  Uthcentury  MS.,  and  when  pub- 
lished by  Miller  in  IH.'il  was  recoj;iiised  as  forming; 
part  of  the  fra;;ment  ascribed  to  Ori;;en  and  entitled 
the  I'liihisiiiiliiiiiiiiiii.  Its  appearance  ippenerl  up  a 
;;rave  discussion.  The  Ori;j;enistic  authorship  wiis 
soon  abandoned,  and  attempts  were  made  b.v  Haur 
to  ascribe  it  to  Cains,  by  I)e  Kossi  to  Tertullian, 
by  .Armellini  to  Novatian.  .lacobi  advanced  the 
claims  of  Hippolytus,  and  this  theory  was  sup- 
ported by  Hiinsen  and  Wordsworth,  and  so  conclu- 
sively proved  by  l)ollin;;er  as  to  persuade  almost 
every  scholar  save  Lipsius,  who  still  continued  to 
de.scrilie  the  author  as  Pseu(lo-Ori;,'enes. 

From  the  treatise  it.self  we  learn  that  the  autho 


HIPPOLYTUS 


HIPPOPOTAMUS 


721 


lived  at  Rome,  anil  took  an  arlive  [lait  in  cliuicli 
affairs  under  tlie  bishops  Zeidiyiinus  and  Callistus. 
Diilliiiger  points  out  tliat  throuj^liout  Hippolytus 
7iever  recofrnises  Callistus  as  liisliop,  and  treats  him 
oidv  as  the  founder  of  a  school.  Hcsides  he  assails 
his  moral  character  and  Ids  antecedents,  charging 
him  witli  dishoiii'sty,  with  criminal  laxity  of  dis- 
cipline, and  with  llie  I'atripassian  heresy  ;  while 
Callistus  again  retorted  n]>on  his  opponent  with  a 
counter-charge  of  Ditheism.  IJollinger  held  that 
Hippolytus  claimed  t*>  lie  the  real  Bishop  of  Home 
himself,  and  that  he  was  thus  the  lirst  antipope  in 
the  history  of  the  Itoman  ( 'hurcli.  This  would 
explain  the  circumstance  that  a  writer  so  learned 
and  outstanding  as  Ilippolytus  could  lie  taken  liy 
the  Kastern  ("hundi  for  tlic  actual  liishop  of  Komi', 
while  to  western  writers  who  did  not  receive  him 
as  such  he  seemed  guilty  imt  only  of  schism  hut  of 
heresy.  But  the  grave  ililliculty  remains  of  being 
obliged  to  believe  that  a  schism  so  seriou.s,  headed 
by  the  most  illustrious  theologian  of  the  time,  and 
lasting  at  the  very  lowest  live  or  six  years,  could 
have  occurred  without  its  being  known  outside 
of  |{ome,  and  still  further  could  be  utterly  for- 
gotten for  fifteen  centuries.  Again,  if  Hippolytus 
had  headed  a  ]iarly  so  inimical  to  the  authority 
of  the  bishop,  how  comes  it  that  his  name  has 
descended  without  a  stain  as  that  of  a  saint  and 
a  martyr?  l)r  Salmon  suggests  the  explanation 
that  Hijipolytus  may  have  been  the  head  of  the 
Greek  Chri.stians  at  Home,  and  that  as  such  lie 
may  have  been  specially  entrusted  with  some 
episcopal  functions — an  anomalous  state  of  matters 
which  would  come  to  an  end  with  the  necessity 
for  it.  His  attacks  on  Callistus  were  written  in 
(ireek  for  Greek-speaking  people,  hence  the  faiiit- 
ness  of  the  impression  they  made  upon  the  Latin 
world  ;  while  at  the  same  time  most  of  the  recollec- 
tions of  the  earlier  p.art  of  the  century  w  ere  lost  in 
the  severity  of  persecution  tinder  Decius  and  Vale- 
rian. At  anyrate  the  state  of  the  controversy 
shows  that  in  the  .'id  century  Christians  elsewdiere 
than  at  Home  itself  were  nut  much  interested  in  the 
i|Ui'stion  who  was  lUshop  of  llonie  at  all.  Hijipo- 
lytus seems  to  have  chaniiiioned  the  severe  and 
ultra-orthodox  party  in  the  Roman  Church,  ami  at 
the  least  to  have  been  bitter  and  prejudiced  as 
a  controversialist.  The  ecclesiastical  charges 
brought  against  Callistus  in  this  famous  treatise 
are  Ids  giving  easy  absolution  to  sinners  excom- 
municated by  Hippolytus  and  others,  admitting 
digamists  and  trigamists  to  the  ranks  of  the  clergy, 
allowing  the  clergy  to  marry,  and  permitting 
Christian  ladies  to  contract  illegal  marriages  with 
men  of  inferior  social  rank. 

The  date  of  Hippolytus  and  his  importance 
tainong  his  contempnraiies  are  jiroved  further  by 
the  statue  of  him  discovered  at  Kome,  im  which 
is  engraved  the  sixteen  years'  cycle  which  he 
invented  to  lind  the  time  of  Easter.  This  cycle  is 
an  erroneous  one,  the  error  being  of  such  a  nature 
as  coitld  not  fail  to  be  discovered  after  a  dozen 
years,  hence  it  follows  that  the  .statue  in  his  honour 
must  have  been  inscribed  before  that  discovery 
occurred,  about  '240  A.li. 

The  extant  writings  of  Hippolytus  were  first  collected 
by  Fabricius  (2  vols.  Haiiitmrg.  17Hi-bS),  and  liave  since 
been  printed  in  vol.  ii.  of  Galland,  Bibl.  Vtt.  Pat,^  aiul 
Vol.  X.  of  Migne's  Pair,  fir.  The  most  accessible  edition 
is  that  of  Lagarde  (1S.")S).  English  translations  of  the 
Jlffiitfition^  as  well  as  the  other  e.xtant  works  and  frag- 
ments. nvAy  be  found  in  Clark's  '  Ante-Nicene  Christian 
Library.'  Bishop  Lightfoot  thought  it  more  than  prob- 
able Hippolytus  was  the  author  of  tlie  famous  ^Iur;i- 
tori;in  Canon,  as  there  was  no  other  man  at  that  time 
at  Koine  capable  of  writing  it. 

See  Bunsen,  Hip/Mliitus  and  hin  Age  (1852;  2d  ed. 
18.5-t) ;  Christopher  Wordsworth,  -S'^  HippotniuA  and  the 
Church  of  Itomc  (1853  ;  2d  ed.  1880) ;  DoUiiiger,  Hippo- 
•254 


hllan  anil.  Kaflififiu  ( 185;i ;  Kng.  trans,  by  Plummer, 
1876);  \'i)l]iiniiv.  Hippo/ t/t us  u.  die  Jioiniifchc  2!eittjeTix}i!seiti 
(1855);  Lipsius,  Zm-  Qiutltiik-ritik  dm  Epiphanios 
(18(i5),  also  Dii  Qufllen  der  ultenfrn  Kttzi  i-ffcschichU 
(1875);  and  Harnack.  -^lo-  (Juclkn-krilik  dn-  OeschichU 
den  <fiu/i<tizi!imus  ( 187v>  74 ). 

lIil>I>OI>lia^y.  Hippoiihagi  (Gr.,  'eaters  of 
horse-Uesh ')  was  a  name  given  liy  the  Greeks  to  a 
Scythian  people,  living  north-east  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  and  to  a  Sarmatian  tribe  north  of  the  Euxine. 
In  some  parts  of  modern  Euro]ie  horse-tlesh  is  a 
regular  and  wholesome  article  of  diet.  In  France 
a  society  of  lii]i)iii]iliagists  was  formed  under  the 
auspices  of  Geoffrey  St  Hilaire  ;  in  bSliO  the  sale  of 
horse-flesh  in  the  Paris  markets  as  an  article  <if  food 
was  otticially  recognised  and  regulated  :  and  during 
the  siege  of  Paris  hor.se-llesh  was  gladiv  eaten  by 
all  who  could  get  it.  In  1872  about  od'OO,  in  189o 
over  3U,(I00,  horses  were  eaten  in  Paris  alone.  In 
Britain  an  act  was  pas.sed  in  ISS'J  regulating  the 
sale  of  horse-Uesh,  reijuiring  that  all  horse-Uesh  (or 
Uesh  of  as.ses  and  mules)  exposed  for  sale  shall  be 
expressly  so  described  in  legible  ami  conspicuous 
characters,  and  imimsing  a  penalty  of  £20  on  any 
one  breaking  this  rule,  or  giving  any  one  horseflesh 
wdio  has  asked  for  meat  other  than  horse-llesh. 

Hi|>I>0]tOtnillllS  (Gr.,  'liver-horse'),  a  genus 
of  artiodactyle  ungulate  mammals,  constituting  a 
family  by  itself.  Till  of  late  only  one  s|iecies  was 
known  as  now  existing,  although  the  fossil  remains 
of  others  indicate  the  greater  abutidance  and  wider 
distribution  of  the  form  in  other  periods  of  the 
earth's  history.  The  largest  and  best-Known  species, 
H.  oiiip/iibiiis,  is — or,  within  historic  ]ierioils,  has 
been — fouiul  in  almost  all  parts  of  Africa,  to  which 


Hippopotamus  amphibius. 

quarter  of  the  globe  it  is  entirel.v  conlined.  A 
smaller  species,  H.  /ihrrioisis  (distinguished  by 
some  as  ;i  distinct  genus.  Cluerojisis),  was  described 
in  1844  as  an  inhabitant  of  the  rivers  of  western 
Africa  within  the  tropics,  and  differs  from  the 
common  species,  and  from  all  the  fossil  .species,  in 
having  only  two  incisors,  instead  of  four,  in  the 
lower  jaw.  But  as  the  missing  teeth  occasionally 
exist  there  seems  no  valid  reason  for  separating 
this  form  generically.  The  common  lii{ipopotamus 
is  one  of  the  largest  of  existing  i|uadruiieds,  the 
bulk  of  its  body  being  little  inferior  to  that  of  the 
eleiihant,  although  its  legs  are  so  short  that  its 
belly  almost  touches  the  ground,  ami  its  height  is 
not  nnu'h  abo\e  live  feet.  It  is  extremely  aignatic 
in  its  habits,  living  mostly  in  lakes  or  rivers,  often 
in  tidal  estuaries  (where  the  saltness  of  the  water 
compels  it  to  resort  to  springs  for  the  purpose  of 
drinking),  .ami  sometimes  even  in  the  sea,  although 
it  ne\'er  proceeds  to  any  considerable  distance  from 
the  shore.  Its  skin  is  very  thick — on  the  back  and 
sides   more    than   two  inches ;    it   is  dark   brown 


HIPPOPOTAMUS 


HIPPURITES 


(all>ino  and  piebahl  iiuliviiluiils  have  lioeii  seen),  ; 
destitnte  of  liair,  and  exudes  a  reddish  lliiiil,  which 
has  licen  siiid  to  have  ^dven  rise  to  tlie  h'^teiidn  of 
sweating;  hlood.  The  tail  is  short.  The  feet  have 
each  fonr  toes,  nearly  e(iual  in  size,  and  hoofed. 
The  neck  is  short  and  thick.  The  liead  is  very 
larfie,  with  small  ears,  and  small  eyes  plaeeil  hi;;h, 
so  that  they  are  easily  raised  ahovi'  water,  without 
much  of  the  anim.nl  liein^  ex|iii.seil  to  view.  'I'lie 
mu/zle  is  very  larj;e,  roundi'd.  anil  tumid,  with 
lar^;e  nostrils  ami  ^'reat  lips  concealinj;  the  lar;;e 
front  teeth.  The  hiiipopotannis  cuts  {^rass  or  corn 
as  if  it  were  done  with  a  scythe,  or  hites  with  its 
strong  teeth  a  stem  of  considerahle  thickness  neatly 
thron;;h.  The  skull,  while  it  is  distin^;uished  hy 
remarUalile  iiecnliarities,  ciurespoiids  in  the  most 
impcirt.-inl  I'haracters  with  that  of  the  ho^'.  The 
re-sjiinition  of  the  hippopotanins  is  slow,  aii<l  thus 
it  is  enabled  to  si)end  much  of  its  time  uniler  water, 
only  coming;  to  the  surface  at  intervals  to  lireatlie. 
Itswims  and  dives  with  ^oeat  e.i.se,  and  often  walks 
alon>r  the  liottnm,  cumpletelv  under  water.  Its 
fooil  consists  ehielly  uf  the  jilants  which  ;;row  in 
shallow  waters  and  aliout  tin-  ]Mar;;lns  of  lakes  and 
rivers;  and  it  pmhalily  renders  no  unimportant 
service  in  prevent  in;^  slow  streams  from  hein^' choked 
up  by  the  luxuriance  of  tro|)ical  vegetation,  the 
enect  of  which  would,  of  course,  lie  an  increase  of  the 
extent  of  swampy  land.  It  often,  however,  leaves 
the  water,  chiefly  liy  ni^iht,  to  feed  on  the  hanks, 
an<I  makes  inroads  on  cultiv.ated  lields.  devourinj,' 
anil  trampliii;;  the  crops.  It  is  a^-re^'aricius  .animal : 
anil  the  havoc  wrou^;ht  liy  a  herd  of  twenty  or 
thirty  is  very  t;reat,  so  that  wherever  cultivation 
extends  war  is  wa;;ed  aj;ainst  the  hijipopotanius, 
and  it  disappears  from  rejiions  where  it  formerly 
abouniled.  Thus  it  is  no  lon^'er  found  in  Lower 
Egypt,  although  still  ahundant  farther  uj)  the 
Nile.  It  is  t.iken  in  pits,  which  are  digged  in  its 
usual  tracks;  it  is  killed  liy  poisoned  spears,  is 
pursued  hy  means  of  canoes,  is  harpooned,  .ami  is 
shot.  The  llesh  is  highly  esteemed  ;  the  fat,  of 
which  tliere  is  a  thick  layer  immediately  under  the 
skin,  is  a  favourite  African  delicacy,  and  when 
salted  is  known  at  the  Cape  of  Cood  Hope  as 
Zeekor  aprri;  (' Lake-cow  liacon').  The  tongue 
and  the  jelly  made  from  the  feet  are  also  much 
prized.  The  hide  is  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes; 
and  the  great  canine  teeth,  which  .sometimes  weigh 
8  or  even  12  11>. ,  are  particularly  valuable  as  ivory, 
and  are  a  very  considerable  article  of  African 
commerce. 

The  hippopotanins  is  lively  and  jil.ayful  in  its 
native  waters  ;  il  soon  learns  to  avoid  m.iii  ;  anil. 
when  it  cannot  retire  among  reeils  for  concealment, 
it  dives  and  remains  hmg  under  water,  raising  only 
its  nose  to  the  surface  when  another  breatli 
becomes  necessary.  The  female  may  sometimes  be 
seen  swimming  with  her  young  one  on  her  back. 
The  hippopotamus  is  generally  inolVensive,  but  is 
occasionally  roused  to  lils  of  rage,  in  which  it 
becomes  extremely  d.angerous,  particularly  to  those 
who  pui-sue  it  in  bo.ats.  The  voice  is  loud  ,and 
hai-sh,  and  is  likened  by  Burckhardt  to  the  creaking 
and  groaning  of  a  large  wooden  door.  Th.at  the 
animal  is  capable  of  being  tamed,  and  of  beconnng 
much  attached  to  man,  has  been  sulliciently  proved 
by  the  instances  of  living  siierimens  in  London  ami 
Paris.  The  lirst  specimen  brought  to  Kurope  in 
modem  times,  a  young  one  from  the  Nile,  .ariived 
in  London  in  IS'iO.  The  hippopotamus,  however, 
sometimes  aiipeared  in  the  spectacles  of  the  ancient 
Homans.  It  is  very  generally  supposed  to  be  the 
Behemoth  of  the  book  of  .lob. 

Fiissil  Sperie.'i.  -A  nundier  of  species  of  hippo- 
potannis  liave  been  described  from  the  later 
Tertiar>-  strata;  but  in  those  times  the  distribution 
was  not,  as  it  is  now,  limited  to  the  African  con- 


tinent. Their  renuiins  have  been  found  in  India 
and  Madaga-scar  as  well  as  Kurope.  They  occur  in 
fresh-water  marls,  and  in  the  hone-caves,  into 
which  they  liad  been  carried  for  food  by  the 
carnivorous  aiunuils  that  used  the  caves  as  dens, 
tine  species  found  in  Kngland  ami  in  considerable 
abundance  in  the  southern  countries  of  Kurope 
was  of  a  size  as  miub  grc^ater  than  the  living 
species  as  its  companion,  the  nuimmoth,  was 
greater  than  the  living  (dephant. 

Ilipniiru-  A<i«l.  CnlL.Nn;,,  is  a  comnound  of 
gre.il  niliTist  both  to  tlie  chenust  and  to  the 
pliysiologist.  It  derives  its  nanu-  from  its  having 
been  lirst  discovered  in  the  urine  of  the  horse,  and 
that  lluid,  or  the  renal  secretion  of  the  cow,  allords 
us  the  best  and  readiest  means  of  obtaining  it. 
The  crystals  of  hinpuric  .acid  are  moderately  large, 
colourh'ss,  but  subsei|uently  beconnng  ndlk-white, 
four  sided  ]irisms.  which  are  devoid  of  odour,  but 
liave  a  faintly  bitter  taste.  They  dissolve  readily 
in  boiling  water  and  in  siiirit,  but  are  onl.v 
sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water  and  in  ether.  It 
is  an  abundant  nornuil  constituent  of  the  urine  of 
the  horse,  cow,  shee]>.  goat,  bare,  elephant,  iv.c., 
and  most  pridiably  is  to  be  found  in  tlie  urine  of 
all  vcgi'lable  feeders.  In  the  human  urine  of 
healthy  persons  living  on  !in  ordinary  ndxed  diet 
it  occurs  in  very  small  i|uanlity,  but  it  is  increa.sed 
by  an  exclusively  vegetable  diet,  aiul  in  the  well- 
known  disease  di:ibeles. 

The  hippuric  acid  occurring  in  the  animal  organ- 
ism exists  in  comliiiiation  with  biises,  and  chiclly  as 
hippurate  of  soila  :uid  liippurale  of  lime.  The  last- 
named  salt  can  be  oblained  by  the  mere  evapora- 
tion of  the  urine  of  the  horse.  The  chief  interest 
of  the  substance  is  that  it  was  one  of  the  tii-st^  to 
be  discovered  of  a  long  series  of  complex  bodies, 
which  wc  now  know  are  formed  syntbeticall.v  in 
the  animal  body.  Hippuric  acid  readily  splits  into 
benzoic  acid  and  glycocoll.  If  benzoic  acid  is 
iidniinistcred  it  is  excreted  as  hippuric  acid,  com- 
bining with  glycocoll  in  the  body.  In  herbi\oions 
animals  the  lienzoic  acid  is  largely  deriveil  fiom 
the  food  ;  in  animal  feeders  even  in  starvation 
it  occurs  in  sm.all  amount  in  the  urine,  and 
we  nnist  therefore  conclude  that  its  forerunners 
may  be  derived  from  the  metabolism  of  the 
tissues.  Th.it  certain  bodies  closely  allicil  to 
benzoic  acid  may  be  so  formed  has  now  been  exjieri 
mentally  demonstrated,  while  glycocoll  can  also 
be  [iroved  to  be  so  iiroduced.  At  one  time  the 
belief  was  entertained  that  these  bodies  were  com- 
bineil  in  the  liver;  but  more  recent  research  has 
shown  that  the  synthesis  ehielly  takes  place  in  the 
kidneys. 

lli|M*lirit4'S.  a  very  remarkable  genus  of  fossil 
bivalves,  )iec\iliar  to  the  Cretaceous  strata,  and  so 
abundant  in  some  of  the  Lower  Chalk  beds  of  tin- 
Pyrenees  and  other  jilaces  that  the 
series  has  received  from  some  con- 
tinental geologists  the  name  of  Hip 
purite  Limest<me.  The  external  form 
of  the  shell  is  so  anomalous  that  the 
genus  has  lieen  tossed  .about  by 
natur.alists  in  an  extraordin.ary  man- 
ner; some  having  called  it  a  coral, 
others  an  annelid,  olhei-s  a  barnacle, 
and  so  on,  though  the  majority  liild 
it  to  be  at  least  a  mollusc.  The 
investigations  of  S.  P.  \\'ood\vard 
showed  that  the  Hipimrites  were  diver- 
gent bivalves.  The  right  v.alve  is  very 
large,  and  elongated  into  a  cone,  while 
the  left  valve  is  inconspicmius,  often  -A-  Hippurite. 
like  a  lid,  and  perforated  by  r.adiat- 
ing  canals.  Including  allied  genera  or  sub-genera 
— e.g.   Kadiolites  and  Caprinella — there  .are  over  a 


HIRIXG 


HIT 


r23 


hundipil  species,  all  restrifte<l  to  the  Clialk   and 
( 'liMlkiiwirl. 

IlirilliJft  'riio  Cdiitract  of  hiring,  called  in  the 
law  of  En;^land  l)ailinent  for  hire,  and  in  tliat  of 
Scotland  location,  is  of  two  kinds— the  hiring  of 
tilings,  as  wliorc  household  furniture  is  let  to  be 
used  in  the  ordinary  way  ;  and  the  hiring  of  work, 
as  where  a  tailor's  labour  is  hired  to  make  a  suit 
of  clothes.  In  hiring  of  the  lirst  kind,  hiring  of 
things,  it  is  the  rluty  of  the  person  letting  out  the 
thing  to  deliver  it  to  the  hirer,  to  refrain  from  in- 
terfering with  the  hirer's  use  of  the  thing  iluringthe 
subsistence  of  the  contract,  to  do  notliing  to  deprive 
the  hirer  of  the  use,  to  warrant  that  the  thing  hired 
is  fit  for  the  use  for  which  it  is  let,  and  to  keep  the 
thing  free  from  faults  and  defects  inconsistent  with 
the  proper  use  of  it,  and  in  suitabh'  order  and 
repair.  The  hirer  acquires  no  right  of  property  in 
the  thing  hired,  but  acquires  its  possession  and  the 
e.xclusive  right  to  its  use  for  the  period  of  the 
agreement.  He  has  to  use  the  thing  well  and  with 
care,  not  to  put  it  to  any  other  use  than  that  for 
which  it  is  let,  to  restore  it  at  the  expiry  of  the 
time  agreeil  on,  and  to  pay  the  sti)iulated  hire. 
The  contract  of  hiring  is  a  dirt'erent  .agreement  from 
those  made  under  what  is  known  to  tra<lers  as  the 
'  hii-e-purchase  '  system,  as  where  a  ]iiano  is  handed 
over  by  its  owners  to  a  purchaser  under  the  condi- 
tions that  a  certain  sum  shall  be  paid  jieriodicallv 
as  hire,  and  that  after  a  certain  number  of  sucli 
periodical  payments  have  been  made  the  jiiano 
shall  becomt'  the  property  of  the  ]ierson  making  the 
payment.  No  such  contract  as  one  of  '  hire-pur- 
chase' is  recognised  hy  law  ;  and  in  the  cases  which 
have  come  before  the  courts  under  this  system  the 
question  alw.ays  is  whether  the  contract,  whate\er 
it  may  be  called  by  the  parties,  is  legally  a  contract 
of  hiring  or  a  contract  of  sale.  The  answer  will 
depend  upon  the  particular  terms  of  each  agree- 
ment. These,  however,  are  usually  so  framed  as 
to  make  the  contract,  not  one  of  hiring,  but  one  of 
.sale  with  a  suspensive  condition  that  the  thing  de- 
livered shall  7iot  become  the  jiroperty  of  the  person 
to  wliom  it  is  sold  until  he  has  ))aid  the  full  numVier 
of  periodical  payments  bargained  for.  These  pay- 
ments, though  they  may  be  called  hire  by  the 
pai-ties  to  such  an  .agreement,  are  legally  only  so 
many  inst.alments  of  the  price  of  a  thing  sold.  A 
piano  or  other  article  delivered  under  such  an  agree- 
ment does  not  be<'ome  the  property  of  the  holder 
until  all  these  instalments  are  paiil  ;  and  it  cannot 
be  attached  by  the  creditors  of  the  holder  as  an 
asset  in  his  estate.  Nor  can  it  be  lawfully  sold  by 
the  holder.  It  rem.ains  the  property  of  the  person 
letting  it  out,  .and  he  can  recover  it  even  from  one 
who  has  |)urchased  it  in  good  faith  from  the  person 
by  whom  it  w.as  hired.  Hiring  of  the  second  kind 
above  mentioned,  hiring  of  work,  may  be  subdivided 
into  [n)  the  hire  of  services,  as  where  a  shoemaker 
is  emploved  to  inend  shoes  ;  (//)  the  hiring  of  care 
in  custoi'ly,  .as  where  warehoiiserLien  or  wharfingers 
are  employed  to  store  things:  and  (c)  the  hiring 
of  the  earriagi'  of  goods.  In  cases  cif  the  lirst  kind 
the  workm.m  is  bouml  to  do  tlu^  work  agreeil  on,  to 
do  it  .at  tlie  time  .agreed  on,  to  do  it  wcdl,  an<l  to 
use  an  .apiu'opri.ate  degree  of  care  in  performing  the 
particular  t.ask.  Kmployees  in  the  last  two  classes 
are  bouiul  to  t.ake  ordinary  care  of  the  goods 
entrusted  to  them,  .and  .are  responsible  fordam.age 
done  by  their  negligence.  See  .also  L.VXDLORD 
.\Ni>    Ti-.N ANT,    Inn,    M.ssri'.i!    ani)    Sekv.vnt, 

C.VIIlMKl;,  \-c. 

IIil'S4'lll>crs.  a  manufacturing  town  of  I'russian 
Silesia,  is  romantically  situated  at  the  intlux  of  the 
Zacken  to  the  liober,  lllG  feet  aliovc  sea-level, 
and  78  miles  WSW.  of  Breslau  bv  rail.  It  is  the 
centre  of  the  extensive   textile,  lace,   paper,  and 


other  iiiannfactures  of  the  district.  Pop.  (1875) 
12,'J70  ;  (1885)  15,622  ;  (1890)  16,1-24. 

Ilispaiiia.    See  Sp.mn. 

Ilispairiolu  ( 'Little  Spain').  See  Dominkas 
l{|-;i'i  lii.ic  and  Hayti. 

Ilissai*.  a  province  of  Bokhara,  from  which  it  is 
se]jai'.ated  by  a  southern  otlV^et  of  the  western 
prolongation  of  the  Thian-Shan  -Mountains.  This 
range  forms  its  northern  boumlary.  The  countrj' 
consists  of  a  series  of  valleys,  radiating  from  this 
mountainous  background,  and  lying  open  on  the 
south,  traversed  by  streams  which  llow  in  general 
south  or  son  til- west  to  join  the  (Ixus  or  Amu-Daria. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  yields  wheat,  llax,  cotton,  rice, 
an<l  g.arden  fruits.  Copper  and  rock-salt  abound. 
The  iuh.abitants  (number  not  exactly  known)  are 
chielly  I'sbegs  and  Tajiks.  Thev  exjiort  corn, 
salt,  ilax.  and  ^beep  to  ijokh.ara.  The  main  route 
from  India  to  liokhara  p.asses  through  the  province; 
and  Ilissar  has  its  chief  access  witli  liokhara,  2.30 
miles  to  the  north-west,  tiirough  a  celelirated  )i.ass 
called  Kcdduga  or  the  Iron  (iate.  The  province 
was  annexed  hv  the  emir  of  Ilokhar.a  in  1869.  The 
capital  is  the  town  of  His.sar,  with  15,000  inhaliit- 
ants,  on  the  Katirnihan  I'iver.  Its  peojilc  are 
noted  sword-makers. 

Ilissar.  the  capit.al  of  a  district  of  that  name  in 
the  I'unjali,  on  the  Western  .lumna  Canal.  102 
miles  \V.  of  Delhi.  I'op.  14,167.  The  .listrict 
of  Hissar,  lying  on  the  westein  verge  of  the 
Bikanir  desert,  lias  an  area  of  516.3  sq.  m.,  and 
its  soil,  wlien  watered,  is  fertile  and  produces  rice, 
millet,  barley,  grain,  wheat,  \c.  ;  but  it  is  m.ainly 
,a  .sandy  pl.ain,  verv  liable  to  suH'er  from  drought  in 
dry  years.     Pop.  ( 1891 )  776,006. 

Ilissarlik.    See  Troy. 

Ilistolo$;y  »( derived    from    the    Greek    words 

/linf.o.s,  'a  web  or  texture,'  and  logos,  'a  discoui-se') 

is  the  science  whicli   classifies  and   describes  the 

I  structural   or  morphological  elements   which   exist 

I  in  the  soliils  ami  fluids  of  org.anised  bodies.     It  is 

identical  or  nearly  so  with  gener.al  minute  anatomy 

.and  with  microsoqnc  anatomy.     Although  its  origin 

may  be  tr.aced  to  the  timesofM.alpiglii(  1628-94),  who 

discovered   the   Mood-corpuscles,   and  of  Leeuwen- 

I  hoek  ( 16.'?2- 172.3),  who,  with  comparatively  imper- 

!  feet  optical  means,  added  much  to  our  knowleilgeof 

[  the  minute  structure  of  the  tissues,  it   never  made 

[  any  definite  progress  till  the  second  decenniuin  of 

[  the  19tli  cenHirv.  when  the  compound  miero.sco))e 

I  began  to  assume  its  jiresent  improved  form.      It  was 

by  me.ans  of  this  mieroscopico-cliemical  examination 

that  the  structure  of  the  different  iKuny  tissues  was 

first  clearly  exhiliited,  and  it  was  thus  proved  that 

nails,  cow's  horn,  arid  whalebone  are   aggregations 

of   individual   cells.     Portions   of   the  .subject   are 

dealt  with  in  our  articles  on  BoNE,  Bkain,  Cir- 

CII.ATION,  DiGESTKIN.  CLAND,  JU'SCLE,  NERVOUS 

Systeji,  \c.  :  and  see  Anatomy.  For  Vegetable 
Histology,  see  Vegetahi.e  PHYSIOLOGY,  Bast, 
Leaf,  'I'issies,  Wdiid,  vVc 

111  Ceriu.aiiy  animal  histology  has  been  cultivated 
by  .Schwann,  Henle,  Valentin,  Hemak,  Kiilliker, 
Virchow,  Leyilig,  Krey,  and  a  host  of  others 
scarcely  less "  distinguished  ;  in  Holland  it  has 
been  actively  prosecuted  hy  Pondei's,  Harting.  and 
others;  I.ebert.  Maiull,  Uobin.  and  othei-s  have 
contrilmteil  to  the  French  literature  of  the  subject ; 
while  ill  Britain  the  names  of  Todd  and  Bowman, 
of  (ioodsir,  Quekett,  Bennett,  Sharpey,  Clarke, 
Wharton  .lones,  Beale,  and  Huxley  deserve  lionour- 
able  notice. 

Hit  (anc.  Is),  a  town  of  Turkey  in  .Asia,  on  the 
Kuphiates,  85  miles  WNW.  of  Bagd.id,  luvs  pits  of 
bitumen,  which  have  been  worked  from  time  im- 
memorial, and  naphtha-springs.     Pop.  about  2.')00. 


724 


HITCHCOCK 


IIITTITES 


llit«*ll<*04'k.  Kl>\VAltl>,  {geologist,  born  at  Deer- 
field,  Miussiulmsetu,  May  24,  1793,  was  Kiiooes- 
sively  ('<>iij,'iej;atioiial  pii-stor  iu  Conway,  Miussa 
olnisetts  (  IH'il  25),  professor  of  C'lieniiK(ry  ami 
Natural  History  ( 1  S2.'> -l.") )  ami  of  Natural  Tlieo- 
lofjy  ami  tJeolojiy  (184.5-04)  in  Amherst  (,'olle{;e, 
of  wliioli  lie  wa,s  also  president  from  1S4.">  to  1M.">4. 
He  dieil  on  27tli  I'eliniary  1SI)4.  He  wjis  state 
j;eolo;;ist  of  Miissaclnisetts  in  ls:t0-44,  and  of  Ver- 
mont in  18.")7-(il,  ami  pulilislied  very  full  repoils. 
as  well  a-s  a  volniiie  (and  snp|>lement )  on  llie 
Ichiiolugy  of  A'cir  Jiiiij/fiiif/ {]HM-H'-)).  In  IH.V)  lie 
was  eoniniissioned  l>y  tlie  state  to  visit  and  examine 
the  chief  u^;rirultural  srlniiils  of  Kuiiipe  {lli/mrf, 
18ol ).  Hilt  lie  cliielly  disliMi,'iiislieil  himself  ill  the 
geolo};ieal  ilepartnient  of  natiiial  tlieoloj^y,  wriliiij; 
l/tr  hfliiinnt  itf  ilenliH/if  iintl  its  ronnti'ttif  Si'i'  nrts 
(1H.")1),  which  iiad  a  very  wiile  liiculation  on  Iioth 
sides  of  the  Atlantic.  His  Eliniriiturn  liiii/ni/i/ 
(IS4I))  wius  also  popular  hotli  in  America  and  in 
England.  Hitchcock  took  an  active  part  in  fouml- 
iuf;  the  .American  .Association  of  (ieolo^'ists  and 
Naturalists,  ami  was  its  tii-st  ]iresiilent  in  1840. 
He  wius  also  one  of  the  fouinlation  meinhei-s  of  the 
National  .\cademy  of  Sciences  ( 1863). 

Ilitrllill.  a  thriving  market-tuwn  of  Heitlord- 
.shire,  on  the  Hiz.  through  the  Ivel  a  feeder  of  the 
(Juse,  32  miles  NNW.  of  London.  An  im])ortaiit 
railway  junction,  it  has  a  line  old  parish  church,  a 
modern  town-hall,  a  free  school  (1622),  a  Krieiids' 
school,  &c.  The  jirincipal  trade  is  in  corn,  malt, 
and  Hour  :  there  are  several  large  hreweries  :  and 
many  females  are  employed  in  stra"  iilidling. 
Lavender  lia-s  heen  grown  here  since  l.")6S,  and  com- 
mercially, for  lavender-water,  since  1823.  Hitchin 
was  a  place  of  some  conseiiuence  in  the  days  of 
King  .-Mfred.  It  was  the  original  seat  of  CUrtoii 
College  (<i.v.).      Pop.  ( 18,->1 )  .■)2.">8  :  ( 1891 )  8860. 

Ililopado'sa  ( lit.  °  salutary  counsel '  |.  a  famous 
colleclioii  of  failles  and  stories  in  Sanskrit  litera- 
ture, usually  a-scrihed  to  the  compilation  of  the 
lirahiiian  Vishnusarmaii.  It  is  a  popular  summary 
in  four  hooks  of  the  larger  work,  the  famous  J'lui- 
cluildiitni,  which  directly  ami  indirectly  hiLs  lieeii 
the  source  whence  a  rich  stream  of  folk-tales  has 
flowed  westwards  over  Eurojie.  An  edition  of  the 
te.\t,  with  an  English  translation,  wa-s  nuhlished 
1)V  K.  Johnson  in  1864;  a  French  translation  by 
E'.  Lancereaii  in  1882. 

Hitteroil.  .111  island  off  the  west  coa-st  of  Nor- 
way:  rirca.  -'113  sij.  m.      Po]).  2700. 

IIittit4's.  the  English  mime  of  a  peoiile  who 
waged  war  with  Egypt  and  Assyria  for  a  tliousand 
years,  and  who  moved  on  jiarallel  lines  with  the 
people  of  Israel  from  the  call  of  Ahrahain  to  the 
Captivity.  The  Hittites  have  .scarcely  any  record 
in  cliussical  history,  hut  in  late  years  we  have  much 
information  respecting  them  from  various  sources. 

First  in  order  and  importance  are  the  narratives 
of  the  Old  Testament.  When  the  Semitii-  tribe 
with  .\liraliaiii  at  their  head  moved  from  Haran  to 
Caiia^m  the  Hittites  inhabited  the  land  (tlen.  xv. 
20),  and  lifty  yeai-s  later  Abraham,  a  wandering 
sheikh,  imrchaseil  a  grave  for  his  wife  from  the 
Hittites,  who  were  then  in  pos.session  and  power  at 
Hebron  ((len.  xxiii.  4).  The  iiatriarch's  family 
continiieil  to  live  side  by  siile  with  the  Hittites  ; 
and  Esau,  the  hii/iiin\  the  grandson  of  .Vbrahani, 
married  two  Hittite  wives,  who  '  were  a  grief  of 
mind  unto  Isaac  and  to  Rebekah '  (Oen.  xxvi. 
3.j).  During  the  sojourn  in  Egypt  the  Israelites 
hail  the  promise  of  occupying  the  land  of  the 
Hittites  oft  rejieated.  and  fmm  the  bush  on 
Iloreb  the  pioniise  was  again  renewed  to  bring 
theiii  'into  the  place  of  the  Caiiaanites.  and  the 
Hittites,  and  the  Amorites.  and  the  I'erizzites, 
and  the  Hivites,  and  the  Jebusites'  (E.xod.  iii.  8). 


We  now  see  that  these  i>eoples  are  mcntiunecl 
in  their  topograjihical  order  as  viewed  from  the 
Egyptian  standpoint.  The  traveller  northward 
from  Egypt  liist  came  to  Camuiii,  then  he  reached 
the  Hittite  colony  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Hebron, 
and  linally  arrived  at  the  .lebiisites,  who  then  in- 
habited .lebus,  aflcrwarils  known  as  .lerusalein. 
.\fter  the  exodus  the  spies  found  'llie  Hittites, 
and  the  .lebusiles,  and  the  .\iiioriles  '  dwelling  in 
the  mountains  whither  they  had  been  driven  by 
successive  Egyptian  invasions.  The  Hittites  were 
conspicuous  among  those  who  opjiosed  .loshua's 
entrance  into  the  piomiseil  land,  and  the  serried 
lines  of  Hittite  chariots  were  scattered  in  con- 
fusion by  .loshua's  army  in  the  decisive  battle  by 
Lake  .Merom.  Hittite  caiitains  marshalled  and 
led  the  hosts  of  David  ami  Solomon,  ami  Hittite 
ladies  were  conspicuous  in  the  harems  of  the 
.same  renowned  moiiarchs  ( I  Kings,  xi.  I ).  King 
David  pushed  his  coii<|iicsts  and  extemled  lii» 
border  in  "the  land  of  the  Hittites'  (the  correct 
leading  in  2  Sam.  xxiv.  6  being  not  'J\ihtiiii-liii<lshi 
but  '  Ki(/i.s/i  Itf  till  llittilis')  ;  and,  in  the  time  of 
Jehoram,  Itenhailad  of  Dama-sciis  lied  headlong 
from  Samaria  with  his  Syrian  horde  when  an  alarm 
W!vs  raised  that  the  Hittites  were  coming  (2  Kings, 
vii.).  The  geographical  position  generally  of  tlie 
Hittites  in  the  time  of  .loslina  was  'from  the 
wililerness  and  this  Lebanon,  even  unto  the  great 
river,  the  river  Euidiiates  .  .  .  and  unto  the  going 
down  of  the  siin  '  ( .losh.  i.  1-4).  This  summary  of 
the  most  important  references  to  the  Hittites  in 
the  Old  Testament  covere  a  period  of  a  thousand 
yeai's. 

Next  in  importance  is  the  testimony  of  the 
I'^gyptian  ami  .Assyrian  inscriptions.  In  the  Egyp- 
tian inscriptions  tile  Hittites  stand  out  a>  rivals  of 
the  I'haiaohs  in  iieace  and  war  from  the  I2tli  to  the 
20th  dynasty.  .As  soon  as  the  key  was  found  to  the 
long  silent  leconls  of  Egypt  and  A.s.syria  the  veil 
began  to  lift  oil'  dark  coni incuts  of  history,  and 
the  forgotten  but  mighty  Ilillile  people  began  ta 
emerge;  and  now  in  the  increasing  light  from  Egypt 
ami  -Assyria  they  stand  before  us  in  broad  outline 
and  in  incidental  detail.  The  two  capitals  of  the 
Hittites  were  Kadesli  on  the  Oiontes  and  Car- 
cheniisli  on  the  Euphrates.  The  centre  of  their 
empire  was  in  the  north,  but  as  an  enterprisftig 
jieople  they  pushed  a  \ved"e-like  colmiy  down 
through  Syria  a.s  far  as  Hebron  and  Egypt. 
According  to  Ihiigsch,  the  Hittites  aippeared  on 
the  Egyptian  border  a.s  early  .is  the  12tli  dynasty. 
The  capital  of  the  Hvksos  clynasty  was  Zoaii  or 
Taiiais,  and  Mariette  (leclares  I  hat  one  of  the  Hyk- 
sos  dynasties  was  Hittite.  In  the  Old  Testament 
there  is  a  curious  statement  that  '  Hebron  was  built 
.seven  years  before  /oaii.'  This  casual  statement 
now  .seems  to  indicate  the  order  in  which  the 
Hittites  consolidated  their  advance  .southward. 
The  wave  of  invasion  reached  Hebron  ami  made  a 
loilgmeiit  then-  nine  years  before  it  swept  over  the 
border  ami  made  a  lodgment  in  the  land  of  tioshen. 
The  discoveries  at  Tel  el-Amariia  in  1887  throw 
additional  light  on  the  Hittites  in  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine, and  a  despatch  written  on  a  clay  tablet,  now 
at  Berlin,  contains  an  urgent  request  from  Egyp- 
tian otlicei^  in  Palestine  for  Egy|ptian  assistance 
against  the  Hittites,  then  marching  stpuilnvaiils. 

Tholhmes  111.  came  to  the  throne  about  1600  11. (\ 
The  monuments  of  his  reign,  one  of  which  stands 
on  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  are  very  numerous. 
In  the  hieroglyphics  of  Kaniak  there  is  a  detailed 
account  of  thirteen  campaigns  waged  by  this 
Pharaoh  against  the  Hittites.  tJieat  battles  were 
fought  at  .Megiddo,  at  Carchemish,  at  Kadesh,  and 
elsewhere,  and  the  Egyptian  records  boast  of 
victories  over  the  Hittites:  but  the  Hittite  resist- 
ance was  not  broken,  and  succeeding  years  saw 


HITTITES 


HO 


(25 


new  Egyptian  armies  inai-cliing  throujili  tlie  length 
of  Syria  against  tlie  hereditary  foe.  On  tlio  death 
of  the  great  Thothnies  the  Hittites  became  more 
forniidal)le,  and  after  about  lifty  years  of  constant 
wars  a  treaty  of  (leace  was  cnnchided  between 
Hameses  I.  and  Sapjel  the  Hiltite  king. 

Heti  I.  came  to  tlie  throne  two  Inmdred  years 
after  the  death  of  Tliotlimes  III.,  and  he  at  once 
mardied  against  tlie  Hittites  as  the  '  avenger  of 
broken  treaties.'  The  ih-tails  of  this  sanguinary 
campaign  are  depicted  in  tlie  battle  scene  on  the 
north  side  of  the  great  temple  of  Karnak.  At  this 
period  the  Hittites  were  dominant  in  Syria,  for  one 
of  the  iii.scriptions  declares  that  Syria  was  brought 
into  subjection  through  Pharaoh's  victory  over  the 
Hittites. 

Kameses  II.,  the  Pharaoh  of  the  ojiiiression,  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Seti  I. ,  and  carried  on  the  war  in 
many  campaigns.  Many  temples  are  adorned  with 
the  recoiils  of  his  acliieveuients,  the  chief  of  which 
was  his  famous  battle  with  the  Hittites  at  Kadesh. 
Pentaur  was  present  with  the  Pharaoh  as  war- 
correspondent,  and  he  has  recordeil  the  events  of 
the  day  in  the  world's  most  ancient  epic.  A  copy 
of  the  epic  adorns  many  temples  in  Egypt,  and  is 
written  on  a  papyrus  roll  now  in  tlie  British 
Mu.seuni.  Kheta-sira  had  assembled  his  con- 
federates and  allies  from  many  lands,  even  from 
Trov,  and  the  battle  ended  in  a  draw,  followed  by 
an  oll'ensive  and  defensixe  treaty,  and  a  dynastic 
alliance.  Kheta-sira  treats  with  the  Pharaoh  on 
equal  terms,  and  his  name  stands  lirst  in  the  world's 
oldest  treaty,  which  was  written  in  Hittite  on  a 
silver  plate,  Egyptian  translations  of  which  have 
come  down  to  us.  Kheta-sira  went  down  into 
Egypt  witli  his  eldest  daugliter,  who  became 
Pharaoh's  ijueen,  and  tlius  inaugurated  an  era  of 
peace. 

Mineptah,  the  Pharaoh  of  the  E.xodus,  loyally 
maintained  the  treaty,  and  '  sent  wheat  in  ships  to 
preserve  the  lives  of  the  Hittites.'  Mme  than  a 
hundred  years  later  Rameses  I  IT.  waged  a  cruel  war 
in  the  land  of  the  Hittites,  and  it  is  leconled  on  the 
temple  of  .Medinet  Abou  that  lie  brought  back  into 
captivity  the  king  of  the  Hittites.  We  thus  learn 
from  the  Egyptian  inscriptions  that  the  Hittites 
were  rivals  of  the  Egyptians  from  the  I'itli  to  the 
20th  dynasty.  The  shock  of  Egypti.-ui  invasion 
exhausted  itself  at  Kadesh  and  raichemisli.  liut 
the  centre  of  Hittite  power  lay  lieyond  in  the  liroad 
plains  and  liighlands  of  Asia  Minor,  and  so  they 
iiad  fresh  armies  and  abumlant  wealtli  to  enable 
them  to  withstand  tlio  might  of  Egypt  for  a  thou- 
sand years. 

The  Hittites  occupy  an  important  place  in  the 
As.syrian  inscriptions.  Tlie  reign  of  Saigon  of 
Agiide  has  been  placed  about  the  l!)tli  century  li.f. ; 
and  one  date  has  been  decipliered,  which  if  correct 
would  fix  that  reign  aliout  3S00  n.C.  Even  as  early 
as  the  reign  of  Sargon  I.  the  Hittites  were  a  for- 
midable power,  ami  it  has  been  supjiosed  that  in 
the  time  of  the  19th  dynasty  in  Egypt  the  Hittites 
occuiiied  Mesopotamia.  When  we  come  to  the  era 
of  Tiglath-iiileser  I.,  aliout  li:!0  ii.c,  the  Hittites 
were  ]iaiaiiioiint  from  the  Euidiiates  to  the  Lebanon. 
Tiglath-pileser  I.  drove  back  the  Hittites  from  his 
borders,  and  for  a  time  made  them  tributaries,  but 
they  soon  threw  ort'  the  Assyrian  yoke,  and  a  des- 
perate struggle  for  supremacy  was  waged  for  four 
hundred  years  between  the  empire  of  Assyria  and 
that  iif  the  Hittites.  The  reign  of  Assur-nasir-pal 
(SS;i  ,S.").S  li.c. )  i^  largely  a  record  of  wars  with  the 
Hittites.  His  sou.  Shalmaneser,  undertook  thirty 
campaigns  chielly  'in  the  land  of  the  Hittites.' 
The  war  continued  to  the  close  of  the  king's  reign, 
and  was  carried  on  liy  the  kings  who  succeeded 
iiim  ;  and  one  hundred  years  later  the  As.syrians 
were   still   in   deadly   coiitlict   with    the    Hittites. 


I'he  Hittites,  who  lirst  afipear  in  the  As.syrian 
inscriptions  in  the  reign  of  Sargon  I.,  were  destined 
to  disappear  from  history  in  the  reign  of  his  name- 
sake. .Sargon  II.  came  to  the  throne  in  721  it.C, 
and  his  hist  year  was  distinguished  by  the  capture 
of  Samaria  and  the  captivity  of  the  Israfdites,  and 
four  Years  later  (717  B.C.)  he  brought  the  empire  of 
the  flittites  to  a  close  by  the  defeat  of  Pisiri  and 
the  capture  of  Carchemisli. 

Thus  ended  the  mighty  empire  of  the  Hittites, 
having  rnaintained  its  e.xistence.  defying  all  enemies, 
longer  than  the  empires  of  I'abylon,  or  Assyria,  or 
Greece,  or  Rome.  The  fact  that  tlii>  frontier  towns 
of  the  Hittites  had  continued  their  resistance  to 
the  Assyrian  arms,  in  almost  yearly  campaigns, 
throughout  successive  centuries,  suggests  that  the 
Hittite  empire  must  have  been  strong  in  resources 
beyond  the  frontier ;  and  the  mention  of  over  300 
geographical  Hittite  names,  in  the  inscriiilions, 
shows  how  extended  that  doiiiinion  mu>-t  have  been. 
In  November  1872  the  writer  of  this  article  suc- 
ceeded in  making  casts  of  the  famous  Hamah  (fpv.) 
inscriptions,  which  he  declared  to  be  Hittite  remains. 
The  theory,  at  first  received  with  incredulity,  is  now 
admitted,  and  sculptures  of  the  same  character  are 
now  found  to  exi.st  throughout  the  length  and 
breadth  of  Asia  Minor  and  northern  S.\ria,  fiom 
Hamah  on  the  Orontes  to  Eyuk  by  the  Halys,  and 
from  Carchemisli  on  the  Euphrates  to  the  Euxine 
and  the  .Egean.  A  beginning  has  been  made  in 
decipherment,  but  the  first  steps,  though  sure,  are 
slow.  There  is  no  room  for  doubt  as  to  their  Hittite 
origin.  The  cuneiform  inscri]itions  were  called 
Assyrian  before  (h'otefend  made  the  liapjiy  guess 
that  led  to  their  decipherment.  The  hieroglyiihics 
were  called  Egyptian  before  Champollion  and  liirch 
began  to  unravel  the  mysteries  of  the  I'osetta 
Stone ;  and  it  does  not  seem  a  violent  supposition 
that  the  remarkable  inscriptions  'in  the  land  of  the 
Hittites'  may  have  been  produced  by  the  warlike 
but  cultured  people  who  once  inhabited  the  land. 

A  set  of  Hittite  in.scriptioiis  and  sculptures  may  be  .seen 
in  Tlie  Eiapire  of  (he  Ilillitis,  by  tliu  i.rescnt  writer 
(1.SS4  ;  2d  ed.  1886),  as  well  as  chapters  on  Hittite  geog- 
raphy, art,  and  learning,  religion  and  nationality.  See 
also  .'Sayce,  The  Hittites  :  or,  the  Stori/  of  a  Foiyotten 
People  (  K.  T.  S.,  1888) ;  L^on  de  Lantsheere,  Leg  Hittites 
(Brussels,  1892);  Conder,  The  Hittites  and  their  Lan- 
iiuayc  (189S). 

Hitzis;.  1'EEDIXAND,  a  German  biblical  scbidar, 
was  lioni  2.3d  .lune  1807,  at  Haiiingen,  in  Haden.  and 
educated  at  Heidelberj,',  Halle  (where  the  intluence 
of  Gesenius  determined  him  in  favour  of  Old  Te-ta- 
ment  studicsK  and  Giittingen.  In  1S33  he  was 
called  to  Zurich  as  professor  of  Tbeology,  and  in 
18(31  returned  to  till  the  similar  chair  at  Ileiilellicrg. 
The  first  work  which  established  his  fame  was  Ins 
commentary  on  Isaiah  (1833).  liesides  a  transla- 
timi  of  the"  Psalms,  with  a  commentary  (1835-36), 
he  furnished  for  the  Excgrti.si-hcs  Hfoii/hiirli  :iim  A. 
T.  the  commentaries  on' the  twelve  miiMU-  ]iro]diets 
(18.38:  +th  ed.  1881),  on  .leremiah  (1841).  Ezekiel 
( 1847  ).  Ecclesiastes  ( 1S47).  Daniel  ( \HM),  the  Song 
of  Solomon  (  18.5.t),  Proverbs  ( 18.-18),  and  dob  (1875). 
This  able  and  combative  rationalistic  critic  is  also 
known  by  Die  Jufiidinif/  (ics  Altihabets  (1840), 
rraeschirhc  iimt  .Vi/t/iokitfie  t/cr  P/iilisfncr  {\Mo), 
Gcsrhichtc  r/e.s  Volhs  Isnicl  (18(>9-70),  \c.,  and  by 
numerous  contributi<ms  to  the  learned  journals. 
He  died  at  Heidelberg,  22d  January  187.'>. 

Ilivitl'S  ( '  villagers'  or  'midlan<lers' ),  a  Canaan- 
itish  peo]ile,  the  ni.ain  body  of  which  lived  in  the 
region  from  Lebanon  and  llermon  to  Hauiath.  but 
who  had  colonies,  apjiarently  iscdated,  in  southern 
Palestine,  as  at  tiibeon. 

lI'LnSSa.     See  I,H.\S.SA. 

Ho.     See  HOANG-HO. 


726 


HOADLY 


HOBART    PASHA 


lloadlv.  ItKN.lAMIN,  En<;liHli  prelate,  v/aa 
born  ill  \\  L.storliaiii,  in  Kent,  Ni)veiiil>i'r  14,  1076, 
and  eilucatuil  at  Catherine  Hall,  C'ainliriil'ie,  of 
wliicli  lie  became  tutor  after  taking'  liis  de^^ree  of 
M.A.  Two  yeai-s  after  that  event  he  was  chosen 
lecturer  of  St  Mildred  in  the  Poultry,  London,  and 
with  this  ollice  two  yeai-s  later  still  coniliined 
that  of  rector  of  St  I'eter-lel'oer.  iloadly  li^'ures 
amongst  the  |iriM<'i|iiil  controvei-sial  wilte|-s  of  the 
18th  century,  rankin;;  ainon^'st  the  'rationalists,' 
and  defendin;;  the  cause  of  civil  and  relijrioiis 
liberty  a;;ainst  lM)th  the  crown  ami  the  cler^ry.  He 
carried  on  a  controversy  with  Dr  Atterbury  on  the 
extent  of  the  obedience  due  to  the  civil  power  by 
ecolesiiLstio  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  tlii'  applause 
of  the  House  of  Coniiiious.  His  Low  Church  prin- 
ciples made  him  an  oppoiiciit  of  Sachevcrell,  whiun 
he  contemleil  a^;ainst  in  the  pulpit.  .\>  a  reward 
for  his  attitixle  in  this  matter,  and  for  his  zeal 
against  the  doctrine  of  non-resistance,  lie  wa-s 
made  a  hero  of  by  the  Wlii;,'s.  Throu'.di  their 
instrumentality  he  was  in  1710  |ire,seiited  to  the 
rectory  of  Streatham  in  Surrey  ;  ami  in  I71.'>.  when 
the  accession  of  (leoijic  I.  hail  secund  the  triiiiiipli 
of  Wliij;  principles,  Hoadly  wa.s  made  liisliop  of 
Banj^or.  In  1717  he  preached  before  the  kin;,'  a 
sermon  on  the  te.\t  '^ly  kinfjdom  is  not  of  this 
world,'  ill  wlii<li  he  endeavoured  to  show  that 
Christ  had  not  dele<;ated  his  powers  to  .any  ecclesi- 
astical authorities.  Out  of  this  ori;.'iMated  tlie 
famous  l!aiij;oriaii  Controversy,  le^'anliii;.'  which 
Hallani  says  that  it  wa-s  'mana^'ed,  perhaps  on 
both  sides,  with  all  the  chicanery  of  ]polemical 
writei-s,  and  is  disjiustim,'  both  from  its  tediousness 
and  from  the  manifest  unwillingness  of  the  dis- 
putants to  speak  in;,'enuously  what  they  meant.' 
The  coiitrovei-sy  branched  oil'  into  such  .-i  multi 
plicity  of  side-issues,  and  produced  such  an  extra 
ordinary  number  of  pamphlets  (in  .Inly  1717  alone 
no  less  than  seventy  four  appeareil).  that  the  main 
question  became  almost  irrecoverably  lost  in  a 
taiifile  of  extraneous  matter.  The  public  excite- 
ment it  cre.-ited  is  said  to  have  been  so  ^rreat  that 
business  in  London  was  virtually  at  a  standstill 
for  some  days.  The  dispute  bad,  however,  one 
important  coiise(|Uence — tlie  inileliiiite  ])roro;.'ation 
of  Convocation  (ipv.).  In  1721  Iloadly  was  trans 
ferred  to  the  see  of  Hereford,  in  1723  to  that  of 
Salisbury,  and  in  \~:U  to  that  of  Wiiiche.ster.  He 
died  at "  Chelsea,  April  17,  17(11.  His  rnlUrtrd 
WurKx  were  |nil)lished  by  lii.s  son  in  177.'?.  with 
Life  luelixed. 

IloailS!-llO  ( '  'S'ellow  Kiver').  or  simply  Iln.  one 
of  the  principal  rivers  of  Cbina.  more  than  .'ilMHI  miles 
in  Ienj.'ili.  rises  in  the  plain  of  Odoiitala,  south  of 
the  Knell- Lull  .Miuintains,  and  Inv-a  tortuous  course, 

'.d.  III.  i.p  • 
tr  of  the 
of  Chili-li,  which  it  crosses,  the  Yellow  Hiver 
flowed  until  recently  eastward  to  the  ocean,  G50 
miles  ilistant.  in  .■J4  lat. :  but  in  IS."!!-.)."?  this  way- 
ward anil  turbulent  stream,  which  is  wiiil  to  have 
shifted  its  course  nine  times  in  2.')()0  years,  turned 
oil"  near  Kaifuiij;foo  in  a  north-eiisterly  direction. 
Since  then  it  discliaij;es  its  waters  into  the  Culf  of 
Pecliili,  some  .")()0  miles  north  of  its  former  mouth, 
the  mountainous  juovince  of  Shan-tun-;  lying 
between  the  two.  The  river  is  little  used  for 
I  navigation.  Chinese  vessels  being  unable  to  stem 
I  its  ini])etuous  current.  In  some  parts  of  its  eastern 
course,  as  in  the  ca-se  of  the  l*o,  the  river-lied 
is  above  the  great  plain  through  which  it  Jiasses. 
The  embankments  iei|uisite  for  averting  inunda- 
tions are  a  .source  of  never-ending  expense  to 
the  government,  and  their  yielding  to  floods  a 
frequent  cau.se  of  desolation  to  extensive  districts 
of  country.  In  1SS7,  by  a  dreadful  inundation  in 
Uo-nan,    '  China's   sorrow '    destroyed    luillioas   of 


descrilied  in  the  article  China,  Vol.  III.  iip.  IK4,  l.S.5. 
From    the    southernmost    corner   of    the    province 


lives.  The  measures  siiljseouentiv  taken  by  the 
Chinese  government  to  regulate  tlie  course  of  the 
river  proved  futile.  .-Miout  170  miles  of  the  upper 
coui'se  of  the  Hoang-ho  were  explored  for  the  (iret 
time  by  I'rejevalsky  in  1880.  The  vast  quantity  of 
sediment  conveyed  to  the  sea  by  this  river,  giving 
it  its  colour  and  name,  is  taken  u|i  in  that  part  of 
its  course  which  lies  lictwcen  the  luovinces  of 
Shan  lisi  and  Shenhsi  ;  beyond  wliicli  its  waters 
are  remarkably  clear. 

lloar«',  Sii!  HiniAiiii  Cm.T,  aiitii|uary,  was 
born  at  Slourhcad,  in  Wiltshire,  on  iltli  December 
1758.  The  son  of  a  banker,  and  after  his  accession 
to  the  baronetcy  in  1787  a  gentleman  of  wealth, 
he  devoteil  his  leisure  time  to  travel  and  antiquarian 
pui-suits.  The  results  of  his  labours  in  these  de- 
partments appeared  in  a  translation  of  (iiraldus 
Cambielisis  (1808),  .1  C/nxsiin/  'J'niir  //innii/li  Ildly 
and  Sirily  (18l!t),  Atiricit  UUtuni  of  U'lZ/.f/iire 
(1812-19),  and  .Vot/mi  llisloni  i,f  Smill,  Wiltshire 
(1822-44).  He  died  at  Stouriiea'd,  Mttb  .May  1838. 
See  Grnltcmriii'.i  Miiqiiziiir,  ,)uly  l.S,'t8. 

lloiir-Ci-ost.     See  I)i;\v. 

Iloilivsciu'ss.    See  Throat. 

Iloal/iii.    See  Tocraco. 

lloliart  (till  l.s,sl  known  as  Ilobart  Town), 
the  capital  of  TaMiiaiiia.  stands  on  the  estuary  of 
the  Ilerwciit,  about  12  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  the 
south  of  the  island.  The  city  forms  nearly  a 
square,  built  on  several  hills,  covering  an  area  of 
about  IS(H)  acres.  A  line  marine  view  may  be 
obtained  Ironi  Mount  Plea.sant.  Hesides  (iovern- 
meiit  House,  the  houses  of  iiarliament,  and  the 
government  ollicial  buildings,  ilobart  has  a  museum, 
library,  two  catliedrals.  tliirtv  live  chuichcs,  and 
is  well  supplied  Mitli  schools,  liospitals,  and  hotels. 
The  hospital  for  the  insane  is  at  Cascade,  2  miles 
distant.  The  water-supply  is  derived  from  springs 
on  Aloiint  Wellington.  'I'be  town  is  lighteil  with 
gas,  and  tramways  have  been  laid.  The  park 
known  as  the  Queen's  Domain  has  line  drives, 
and  covci-s  KKX)  acres.  In  Fianklin  (Jaidens,  in 
the  centre  of  the  town,  are  statues  to  .Sir  J. 
Kranklin,  a  former  governor  of  Tasmania,  and  Dr 
Crowtlier.  The  line  natural  harbour  and  quay 
accommodate  ships  of  the  laigest  size  ;  and  tliere 
are  three  lirst-cla.ss  patent  slips.  The  cooler  and 
more  invigorating  air  of  Hidiart  attracts  large 
numbers  of  summer  visitors  from  Australia.  Tlie 
chief  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  Hour  and 
jam,  tanning,  and  iron  foiiiiding.  Hobart  has 
railway  communication  with  Laiince>tiiii.  !.'(.'<  miles 
ilistant,  and  frequent  steam  communication  with 
Melbourne  (44.'{  miles  NW. )  and  Sydney,  and  iiorts 
in  New  Zealand.  Founded  in  1804,  the  town 
was  incorporated  in  1857.  The  suburbs  include 
New  Town,  (,)iieenborough,  Wellington,  (Jlen- 
orchy,  Hisdon.  and  Hellerive.  About  half-a-dozen 
dailv  and  weeklv  iiewspa]iei>  are  published.  Pop. 
( 1871  )  Hl.0!t2  :   (1891  )  24,!KA-). 

Ilobart  I'aslia.theHos.  Ar(;f.srisCnAKi,ES 
Hoiiai:i-IIam1'Ipi;n,  thinl  son  of  the  Karl  of  Buck- 
inghamshire, was  born  at  Walthamon-the- Wolds, 
in  Leicestershire,  on  1st  April  1822,  and  in  1836 
entered  the  Hrilisb  navy.  He  first  served  against 
the  slavers  in  Itiaziliaii  waters,  then  in  the  Italtic 
during  the  Crimean  war,  and  there  materially 
■•Lssisted  in  the  capture  of  ISoiii;irsiind.  in  the  attack 
on  Abo,  and  in  the  bombanlment  of  Sveaborg. 
Shortly  after  the  conclusion  of  the  war  he  retired 
on  haif-jiay.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in 
America  he,  as  '  Captain  Roberts.'  took  comniand  of 
a  blockade-runner,  ami  several  times  got  through  the 
naval  cordon  th.at  the  North  had  established  along 
the  co.osts  of  the  Soutbem  States,  bis  adventures 
'  being  most  exciting  and   liLs   escapes   marvellous. 


HOBBEMA 


HOBBES 


727 


Lastly,  lie  entered  the  service  of  Turkey  ( 1867),  ami 
for  his  great  services  in  cliecking  the  Greek  blockaile- 
iiinners  to  Cri'te  in  tliat  year  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  i)asha  and  made  admiral  of  the  Ottoman  fleet. 
(.)n  the  outbreak  of  tln^  Itusso-Turkish  war  (1S7S) 
he  took  command  of  tlie  TurkLsh  lilack  Sea  fleet. 
After  each  of  these  last  pieces  of  active  service  his 
name  was  struck  off  the  IJritisli  Admiralty  list,  Init 
on  each  occasion  suhseiiucntly  restored.  He  died  on 
I9th  June  IS.SU  at  Milan.  He  wntln  S/cclrAcs  from 
Ml/  Lifi:  (edited  h.v  his  wiilow,  1SS7),  and  a  hook 
entitled  Stvei-  Ciiii;//i/  (1867),  giving  an  account 
of  his  e.xploits  during  the  civil  war  in  America. 

llob'beilliU  MKixriKitT,  landscape-iiainter,  born 
in  16.'i8,  ju'ohaldy  at  Amsterdam.  Few  particulars 
of  his  life  are  known.  He  Ls  helieved  to  have 
studied  art  under  Jacob  Kuysdael,  whose  name 
appears  as  a  witness  to  his  marriage  at  Amsterdam, 
2d  October  1668,  to  Eeltije  Vinck,  who  predeceased 
him  in  1704.  He  died  in  poverty,  and  was  buried 
in  the  Westerkerkhof,  Amstenlani,  14th  December 
17lt!).  His  art  usually  deals  witli  i|uiet  subjects  of 
I>utch  cottage  and  woodland  scenery,  and  these 
are  treated  with  a  skill  which  entitles  the  artist 
to  rank  along  with  Kuysdael  at  the  very  head  of 
the  landscape-painters  of  Hollaml.  His  works  are 
.subdued  in  tone,  and  finished  with  extreme  care, 
yet  with  a  singularly  free  and  s))irited  touch,  and 
are  excellent  in  comiposition  and  lighting.  Their 
figures  were  executed  liy  Berchem,  Adrian  \'ande- 
velde,  anil  Lingelbach.  Smith  has  catalogued  14'2 
of  his  works,  which  nowconnnand  very  large  prices, 
small  landscapes  from  his  hand  having  fetched 
from  t'.")00l)  to  £10,000.  Seven  of  his  works  are  in 
the  Nation.-d  (iallery,  London,  and  of  these  'The 
Avenue,  Jliddelharnis,  Holland,'  formerly  in  the 
Peel  and  Vander  Pot  collections,  is  an  exi|uisite 
example.  See  E.  Michel,  Hobbenia  et  Us  Pa  i/sar/istes 
(/(■  s„„  rp//i/«(1890). 

Ilobbes.  TliciMA.S,  was  born  at  Malmesbury  on 
the  .'ith  April  1.">SS,  and  was  the  son  of  the  vicar 
of  Charlton  and  Westport  adjoining  that  town. 
About  the  age  of  fifteen  lie  was  entered  at  Magdalen 
Hall,  Oxforil,  where  he  was  put  through  the  usual 
c<mrse  of  Aristotelian  logic  and  physics.  His 
intellectual  interests  remained  entirely  unawakened, 
and  long  afterwards  he  attacked  the  universities  in 
no  measured  terms  for  their  failure  to  keeii  pace 
with  the  time.  At  the  age  of  twenty,  having 
taken  his  degree  and  ((uitted  Oxford,  he  was 
recommended  to  Lord  Hardwick,  afterwards  Earl 
of  Devonshire,  as  tutor  to  his  eldest  son.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  an  intimate  connection  with 
that  great  family,  which  lasteil  through  his  long 
life.  In  1610  he  went  aliroad  with  his  |iuiiil,  and 
made  the  tour  of  France  and  Italy.  After  his 
return  he  still  continued  to  live  with  the  t'avendish 
family,  and  his  residence  in  London  aft'oided  him 
o]iportiinilies  of  becoming  aci|uainted  with  ISacon, 
Herlierl  of  riierburv,  lien  Jonson,  and  other  dis- 
tinguished men  of  the  time.  The  first  ambition  to 
awake  in  him  was  that  of  the  scholar,  and  he 
devoted  his  ,-ibuiidant  leisure  to  a  critical  reading 
of  the  classical  jioets  and  historians.  The  outcome 
of  these  studies  was  his  translation  of  Thucydides, 
which  appeared  in  1628,  when  he  had  already 
reacheil  the  mature  age  of  forty.  The  Civil  AVar 
was  alreaily  looming  in  the  distance,  and  in  the 
choice  of  subject  we  may  discern  Hobbes's  strong 
interest  in  politics — ;in  interest  which  ultimately 
dominated  his  whole  philosopliy.  The  Earl  of 
Devonshire  died  in  11126,  and  to  Hobbes's  great 
grief  the  second  earl,  his  pupil,  followed  his  father 
to  the  grave  in  1628.  Next  year  Hobbes  accepted 
an  engagement  iis  travelling  tutor  to  the  son  of 
Sir  Gervase  Clifton,  and  in  this  capacity  paid  a 
second   visit   to  the   Continent ;    but  in    1631  his 


connection  with  the  Devonshire  family  wius  re- 
sumed. By  the  desire  of  the  dowager  countess 
he  undertook  the  education  of  the  young  earl,  the 
son  of  his  former  jiupil,  then  only  thirteen. 
From  1634  to  1637  ihey  travelled  abroad,  and  on 
this  occasion  Hobbes  came  into  contact  with 
Galileo  in  Italy,  while  in  Paris  he  was  admitted 
to  the  scientific  and  philosophical  circle  of  which 
Pere  Mersenne  was  the  centre. 

Since  1629,  when  chance  introduced  him  to  a 
copy  of  Euclid's  E/ci/iciits,  he  had  been  an 
ardent  student  of  geometry,  and  about  the  same 
time  or  a  little  later  he  began  to  be  |>owerfulIy 
drawn  to  the  new  '  mechanical  philosophy '  of 
(Galileo.  In  motion  and  the  laws  of  motion  he 
seemed  to  see  a  universal  jirinciple  of  explana- 
tion, and  when  he  returned  to  England  in  1637 
it  was  with  the  outline  of  a  comprehensive 
philosophical  .system  already  before  bis  mind. 
Descartes,  whose  DUroumc  on  Method  appeared  in 
that  year,  was  also  an  adherent  of  the  new  idiysics, 
but  limited  and  supplemented  its  explanations 
by  the  subjective  principle  of  self-cousciousness. 
Hoblies  did  not  occupy  himself  (except  incident- 
ally) with  the  jihilosopbical  i|uestion  of  knowledge, 
but  contented  himself  with  giving  an  objective 
explanation  of  sensation  and  all  mental  facts  in 
terms  of  motion.  Regarded  as  the  object  of  science, 
the  world  consisted,  in  Hobbes's  view,  of  natural 
bodies  ( inanimate  and  animate )  an<l  political 
bodies,  or  organised  aggregates  of  living  men. 
Natural  philosophy  and  civil  philosophy  therefore 
cover  the  whole  ground  ;  but,  as  the  explanation  of 
civil  institutions  is  to  be  found  in  the  nature  of 
man,  man  stands  out  from  among  all  other  natural 
bodies,  and  forms,  as  it  were,  a  bridge  between 
nature  and  society.  Accordingly  Hobbes  idaimed 
three  systematic  treatises,  TJc  (Jorporc,  Dc  lloniine, 
Dc  Give :  but  the  pressure  of  political  events 
prevented  him  from  publishing  his  ide:is  in  their 
natural  seouence.  and  some  parts  of  tlie  scheme 
are  much  less  fully  workcil  out  than  others.  On 
his  return  to  England  he  continued  to  live  with  the 
young  Earl  of  Devonshire,  and  was  on  intimate 
terms  with  Lord  Falkland,  Hyde,  and  othei's 
engaged  in  the  political  struggles  of  the  time. 
The  need  of  a  political  philosophy  which  would 
put  an  end  to  anarchy  by  a  true  theory  of  the 
governing  power  became  every  day  clearer  to  him, 
and  in  1640  he  wrote  'a  little  treatise  in  English' 
in  defence  of  the  royal  prerogative.  This  is 
preserved  in  MS.  undei-  the  title  of  2'/ic  Elements 
of  Law,  Natural  and  I'u/itii/iie,  and  is  i<lentical 
with  the  two  treatises,  Ilmnan  Xatiire  and  Ik  Cor- 
lioic  I'uliiieo.  published  separately  ten  years  later. 
Fearful  lest  the  Parliament  should  take  notice  of 
Ids  treatise.  Hidjlies  fled  in  the  .same  year  to  Paris, 
w  liich  continued  to  be  his  home  till  1651. 

He  wiis  welcomed  by  his  scientific  friends,  and 
Mersenne  induced  him  to  contrilmte  to  De-cartes' 
Mi-ditatioiis  a  series  of  criticisms  thereon.  But  the 
political  needs  of  the  time  still  lay  nearest  his 
Iieart,  and  in  1642  appeared  the  l)e  Cio.  a  fuller 
statement  of  his  theory  of  government.  \'ery  few 
co]iies  of  this  edition  were  struck  off.  and  the  hook 
appeared  with  a  new  title  in  1647  as  Elementa 
I'/tilvsojj/iii-a  de  Cin:  In  16.J0  appeared  the 
tw<i  treatises  already  mentioned,  and  in  1651  he 
issued  a  vigorous  English  translation  of  lUn  Lie  Cive 
[J^ltilosopltieal  liiit/unetits  nntrei'iiiitf/  iiorei'timent 
and  Sueieti/)  by  way  of  introduction  to  the  com- 
prehensive English  work  on  which  he  had  been 
engaged  for  several  years,  l.eriat/ian  was  iirintetl 
in  England,  and  appeared  in  the  summer  of  1651. 
Its  rationalistic  criticism  and  its  uncompromising 
reduction  of  religion  to  a  denartment  of  state 
mortally  ofl'ended  the  royalist  clergy  of  the  e.\ile<l 
ctuirt.      Hobbes  had   been  inathenmtical  tutor  to 


728 


HOBBES 


HOCCLEVE 


Prince  Clmrles  in  KHT,  and  tin:  latter  iilwavs  cnn- 
tinncil  to  take  a  friemllv  interest  in  liis  old  pre- 
ceptor ;  lint  on  tlie  |iii)>licatioii  of  I.rriiit/iiiii  tlie 
author  \v;li  iiifornicil  that  the  yonn^;  kiiij;  refnsed 
to  see  him.  With  constitntioiml  timidity  he  once 
more  took  refii;.'e  in  lli^'lit.  lie  relnrneil  to  Kii;; 
lanil  in  the  etnl  of  Itiol,  and  sent  in  his  snli- 
mis.sion  to  the  government  of  the  ('oniinonwefilth, 
it  lieinj;  one  of  the  principles  with  which  Liriiil/mn 
conclndes  that  an  ordinary  citizen  has  a  ri^;lit  to 
turn  to  a  new  |iower  that  can  ^'ive  ]irotection,  how- 
ever little  he  may  approve  of  the  eircnmstances  of 
its  orij;in.  IIoMies  settled  in  I,oniloii  to  work  out 
the  remaining'  parts  of  his  scheme.  The  Vc  Curjxnr 
appeared  in  Iti.M,  and  the  I)c  Homiiir,  a  rather 
perfunctory  revision  of  the  old  I/iiiii<in  Nature 
(with  expansion  on  the  side  of  oiitical  theory),  in 
1658.  Kroin  l(i.'>4  onwards  Ilolihes  was  enf;atred 
in  almost  perpetual  controversy,  hist  with  I'.r.im- 
hall  <ui  lilierty  ;ind  necessity,  and  then  with  W.ird, 
Wallis.  and  I'.oyle  in  defence  of  his  own  hopelessly 
in<lelensil)le  nialliiMuatical  ideas,  which  involved 
the  (|uadraturc  of  the  circle  and  similar  alisurdities. 
The  second  controversy  dragged  over  a  ipiarter  of  a 
century,  Hidihes's  last  lilow  hein;.;  delivered  after 
lie  had  completed  his  ninetieth  year,  .\fter  the 
Restoration  Charles  granteil  him  .i  pensiiui  of 
£100,  and  is  said  to  liave  lieen  .always  delij;lited 
with  the  old  man's  wit  ami  repartees,  liut  the 
l)isho|is  anil  the  church  party  looked  with  no  favour 
upon  the  author  of  LiirlntliaH.  A  series  of  attacks 
upon  the  hook  hegan  to  appear,  and  it  wa.s  coii- 
demneil  liy  the  Ftouse  of  Coniinons  in  Kitifi.  Three 
of  his  later  works— /Jc//fi;HO</(,  The  Coiiiiiiini  l.nii.t, 
and  a  iiielrical  llixtnrin  Err/rsidx/ini,  all  written 
alpout  1(170  lie  was  ohliged  to  leave  unpiililished 
(thoiij^li  Hihi-ianlh  issueil  surreptitiously  from  the 
press  just  hefore  liis  death).  A  collected  edition 
of  his  Latin  works  in  1668  had  to  appear  at 
Amsterdam.  At  the  age  of  eighty-four  Hohhes 
amused  himself  liy  writing  an  autohiography  in 
Latin  verse,  ami  williin  the  next  three  years  he 
conipletetl  a  verse  translation  of  the  Ilioil  ami  the 
Oi/i/ssci/.  In  107.")  he  left  London,  ami  the  rest  of 
his  days  were  spent  at  Hanlwick  ami  Chatsworth, 
the  two  Derliysliire  seats  of  the  Devonshire  family. 
He  died  at  llaidwick  on  the  4th  Deceniher  1679,  in 
his  ninety-second  vear. 

Holilies  stands  Uetwecn  liacon  and  Locke  as  the 
second  in  order  of  time  of  the  great  l-'.nglish  philo- 
sophers, hut  he  st.anils  a]iart  from  both.  It  is  liy 
his  contrihutiims  to  scientific  psychology,  to  ethics, 
and  to  politii'al  theory  that  he  taki-s  rank  as  an 
original  thinker.  In  the  present  century  attention 
has  lieen  drawn  afresh  to  his  acute  jisychological 
analyses  hy  .lames  Mill  and  the  Kiii;lish  assiK'iation- 
ists.  His  ethical  theory,  Uased  on  pure  sellishness 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  arhitiary  prescription 
of  a  sovereign  iiowcr  <m  the  other,  iletermiiied 
negatively  the  wliide  course  of  ethical  speculation 
in  England  for  a  Inimlred  years,  ('iiinherland,  Cuil- 
wortli,  and  Clarke,  ami  in  .a  somewhat  less  degree 
Sh.aftesliiiry  ami  Itiitler,  are  in  the  (irst  instance 
critics  anil  op|)oneiits  of  Holihes.  His  political 
absolutism,  however,  is  the  most  faimnis  part  of 
his  speculations.  The  state  of  nature,  he  argues, 
is  a  state  of  war  and  insecurity  (liniiin  lininixi 
liipii.i).  Moved  by  a  desire  to  escape  frmii  the 
intolerable  evils  of  such  a  condition,  human  beings 
enter  into  .a  species  of  contract  by  which  they 
snrreniler  tln-ir  inilividiial  rights,  and  constitute  a 
state  under  an  .absolute  sovereignty.  The  sovereign 
power  need  not  be  monarchical  MlKiugh  Mobbes's 
individual  preference  is  for  that  form  of  ^'overn- 
ment),  but,  wlnitever  form  it  assume,  it  is  abs(diite 
ami  irresponsible.  It  was  far  from  the  intention  of 
Hobbes  to  justify  tyranny,  but  Lfrialhim  was  to 
him  like   'a  mortal  god,'  the  only  guarantee  for 


security  and  settled  j,'overiiim-nt.  The  theory  wiis 
substantially  adojiteil  by  Siiinoza  ;  and,  stripped  of 
their  acciilcnlal  leatures,  llidibes's  ethico-poliiii'al 
idea.s  had  great  inlluence  upiui  the  philosophical 
Radicals  of  the  liltli  century.  No  account  of 
Hobbes  woiilil  be  complete  which  omitted  to 
mention  his  admirably  clear  and  trenchant  style. 
A  collecteil  edition  of  his  works  was  piiblisheil  by 
Sir  \V.  .Molesworth  in  16  vols.  ( lK3!t-4,-)  |.  The  Ik-sI 
account  of  his  life  and  his  place  in  the  history 
of  thought  is  to  be  found  in  I'rofessor  ('room 
Kidiert.son's  Jlohheji  (Blackwood's  'Philosophical 
Classics,'  1886). 

Hobby.    See  Fai.cox. 

llobhoilS4>.  doii.s  Cam,  the  friend  of  Ityron, 
was  lioiii  ill  1786,  and  was  educated  at  West- 
minster ami  Trinity  College,  Cambriilce.  His 
Ji>iiniiji  tliriiiifili  AllxDiia  irith  Lord  jii/ron  he 
published  in  l.M.'i.  An  advanced  Liberal  in  poli- 
tics, he  stood  for  Westminster  in  1S18  witliout 
success,  but  was  returned  by  ,a  large  majority  in 
18'20,  and  sat  later  f(U-  both  Nollingham  and 
Harwich.  Successively  Irish  .Secretary,  I'ii-st 
Commissioner  of  Woods  and  Forests,  and  Presi- 
dent of  the  Hoard  of  Control,  he  succeedeil  to  his 
father's  baronetcy  in  18.31,  was  created  l!ar<m 
liroughton  in  l.S.")l,  and  died  without  male  heirs, 
.■{(1  . 1  line  ISIiit,  when  the  iieeiage  became  extinct, 
while  the  baronetcy  passed  to  his  ne]diew. 

Ilo'hokt'll.  a  city  in  New  .Icrsey.  on  the  west 
bank  of  ihc  Hudson  Itiver.  adjacent  to  .lersey  city, 
and  opposite  New  \'ork,  with  wliii'h  it  is  coniiecte<l 
by  .several  steam-ferries.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the 
Pelaware,  Lack.awanna,  and  Western  Kailroail, 
and  has  a  large  shipping  tradi',  especially  in  coal ; 
iron-castings  and  lead-iiencils  are  among  the  prin- 
cipal iiiaiiufactiires  ;  nml  threi'  lines  of  Kuro]iean 
steaiiishi|is  start  from  the  port.  The  Stevens  In- 
stitute of  Technology  here  is  one  of  the  chief 
schools  of  its  kind  in  the  I'nited  States.  Pop. 
(1880)  30,999;  (1890)  4:1,648.  The  name  of  this 
city  comiiieiiiorates  in  the  New  World  a  village  to 
the  southwest  of  .-\ntweip,  with  a  new  fori  and 
new  docks, 

llobsoil-.lobsoil,  .1  term  ;:iveii  by  Kiiglish 
soldici-s  in  liidi.i  to  the  .Moliarram  festival  :  being 
a  corruiitioii  of  the  Sliiite  cry  (see  SlIJIIKS),  la 
//ii.sitit .'  ]'ff  //osfti'u.  The  name  was  adopted  for 
the  .\iiglo-Iiidian  glossaiy  bv  Colonel  '^'tile  and  Mr 
liurnell  (  1886). 

H«M"«'I«'Ve.  or  OcfLKVE.  Thomas  (probably  so 
naiiM'il  from  tlie  village  of  Hocdoiigli  in  Northum- 
berland), an  Knglish  poet  of  whom  but  little  is 
known  save  that  he  was  iKirn  .about  13t>8,  was  a 
clerk  in  the  Kxcliei|uer.  and  w.as  writing  verse  so 
late  as  1448.  His  chief  work  is  a  free,  and  it  must 
be  confessed  tedious,  veisiim  of  the  //r  Uniiniine 
Priin'iiuntt  of  .Fgidiiis  Ivom.-Liiiis.  over  fn'e  thousand 
lines  in  length,  ami  written  in  Ch.aucer's  seven-line 
stanza.  A  jirologue,  about  one-tliinl  of  the  whole 
in  length,  begins  the  Avork,  and  here  the  author 
tells  us  a  good  deal  .about  himself  and  his  troubles. 
The  most  interestiiig  p,a.s.«.age  is  that  in  which  he 
speaks  out  his  grief  lor  the  ileatli  of  his  great  master 
Chaucer,  the  '  lloiire  of  eloimence  '  and  '  niirroiir  of 
friictuoiis  entendement.'  The  poem  was  edited  by 
T.  Wright  for  the  lloxburghe  Club  in  1860.  Many 
other  poems  are  a-scribed  to  Hoccleve,  some  still  im- 
printed. .Some  of  these  .are  stories  from  the  '.V.vte 
linmrnionim,  .o-s  that  of  .lonath.as,  sim  of  King 
Darius,  and  the  wicked  woman,  which  w.as 
modernised  by  W.  lirowiie  and  printed  in  his  S/irp- 
hi'iiriLi  Vijii  (1614),  where  he  pays  his  original  a 
most  graceful  jioetical  compliment  far  beyond  his 
deserts.  His  Mitinr  Pnrnu  and  his  t'nmjilihit  have 
been  editerl  by  Dr  Fiirnivall  for  the  Early  Engli-sh 
Text  Society. 


HOCHE 


HODOGRAPH 


r29 


HorhCt  Lazare,  nne  of  the  most  eminent 
geiicials  of  tlie  French  Koimhiic,  was  born  of 
poor  jiarents,  '25th  June  ITO.S,  at  Montreuil,  a 
tanliour;;  of  Versailles.  Enlisting'  at  sixteen,  he 
rajiiiliy  olitained  promotion  hy  his  coiirajie  and 
caiiacily,  and  was  ;;ivfn  in  17!Ki  the  i-orriuiand  of 
tlie  army  of  the  Moselle,  for  his  defence  of  DiinUirU 
a{;ainst  the  Uuke  of  York.  Here  lie  tried  to  cut 
otr  the  eommunication  between  the  I'rnssians  and 
Austrians,  and,  although  foiled  by  the  sn])erior 
forces  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  yet  managed  to 
drive  the  Austrians  out  of  Alsace.  His  next  im- 
portant service  was  putting  an  end  to  the  civil  war 
in  La  Vendee,  wliich  he  aecomplisiie<l  witli  great 
pru(lence  and  moileration.  He  was  appointed  to 
connnaiKl  the  troops  in  the  unfortunate  ex]>e<lition 
for  the  coni|uest  of  Ireland  (1700),  but  the  ships 
were  soon  scattered  by  the  storms.  Soon  after  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  army  of  the  Sambre 
and  Meuse.  On  the  ISth  A|)ril  17117  he  crossed 
the  Khine  at  Neuwied,  and  had  defeateil  the 
Austrians  in  several  battles,  when  bis  career  was 
stop|ied  by  the  armistice  concluded  between  the 
Archduke  Charles  and  Bonaparte  at  Leoben.  After 
the  l.Sth  Fructidor  he  was  suddenly  taken  ill  in  the 
cam))  at  Wetzlar,  and  died,  l.Hth  September  1797. 
There  are  Lives  by  Ilousselin  (17!)S),  Dourille 
(1844),  Uesprez  (1858),  and  Dutemjile  (1879). 

Iloclielaga.    See  Montreal. 

Iloclllicilll,  a  town  of  Piussia,  in  Hesse- 
Nassau,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mn,ine,  3  miles 
E.  of  Mainz.  Here  is  produced  the  excellent  white 
wine  known  as  Hoc/i/teimer,  whence  was  derived, 
before  1025,  the  English  name  ffurk,  now  applied 
loosely  to  almost  any  white  Rhenish  wine.  I'op. 
2804.  ' 

Ilocllkirrll,  or  HocHKlRCHEN,  a  village  in 
Saxony,  a  few  miles  E.  by  S.  from  Bautzen,  was 
the  .scene  of  a  battle  between  the  Austrians  and 
I'rnssians  (14th  October  1758)  during  the  Seven 
Years'  War.  Frederick  IL,  with  ,an  army  of  :i(t,(l()0 
strong,  was  attacked  under  cover  of  a  thick  fog  by 
Marshal  Daun,  with  65,000  Austrians,  and  com- 
j>elled  to  retire  to  the  heights  of  Drehsa.  Frederick 
lost  9000  men  killed  and  Woundeil  ,and  101  cannon. 
He  and  most  of  his  generals  were  wounded,  and 
Marsh.-d  Keith  and  I'rinee  Francis  of  Brunswick 
were  killed.     The  Austrians  lost  GOOO  men. 

Hortastiidt.    See  Blenheim. 

Hock.     See  HocHiiEiM,  ^VINE. 

Il04'ktidc,  or  HoKETiuK,  a  [lopular  anniversary 
which  used  to  be  celebrated  on  the  Momlay  and 
Tu(wil.'iy  following  the  second  Sunday  after  Kaster. 
On  one  day,  generally  on  the  Tuesday,  the  women 
held  the  roails  and  streets,  and  stojiped  all  men 
who  came  their  way,  and  having  bound  them 
with  cords,  only  set  tliem  at  liberty  after  they  had 
jiaid  a  small  sum  of  money.  On  the  other  day 
th('  men  had  their  turn,  and  collected  from  the 
women.  The  custom  goes  back  to  the  l.'ith  century, 
but  became  obsolete  in  tlie  18tli.  For  a  curious 
survival  or  reminiscc^ice  of  the  custom  still  prac- 
tised at  Hungerford,  in  Berkshir(r,  see  Chtdiihers's 
Jiinniiil,  1888. 

lIo(l4'i<la,  a  seaport  of  "N'enien,  in  .\rabia, 
situated  on  the  Red  Sea,  whence  are  expiu'teil 
cotlee,  hides,  cattle,  fruits,  and  mother-of-pearl. 
Pop.  about  20,000. 

llodgC.  ClIAlM.Ks,  an  American  theologian, 
was  born  in  I'hiladelphia,  28th  December  1797. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  ('(dlege  in  1815,  and 
in  1S22  became  a  professor  in  the  Princeton  Theo- 
logi(^al  Seminary,  where  he  remained  till  the 
close  of  his  life.  He  was  foumler  and  long  the 
editor  of  the  Princeton  Bcpirw :  and  besides  num- 
erous essays,  &c.,  he  was  the  author  of  commen- 


taries on  Romans,  Corinthians,  and  Epliesians,  of  a 
liistoiy  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  America 
(1840),  and  of  the  well-known  Systniiiiilir  J'/nuloffy 
i'.i  vols.  1871-72),  now  a  stanilard  work  of  the 
Calvinistic  churches.  In  1872  he  was  jnesented  with 
a  sum  of  .*] 5.000,  and  a  professorshiji  bearing  his 
name  was  founded  in  his  honour.  Hi'  ilied  19lh 
June  1878.  See  Cliavles  Hoili/e,  by  K.  1/.  Patten 
(1889).— His  .son,  Akchihald'  Ali-:xani)KK  ( 1823- 
86),  succeeded  his  father  at  Princeton  in  1878. 
He  wrote  Outlines  of  Tlteoloijy  (1860),  works  on 
the  Atonement  and  tlie  Confession  of  Faith,  and  a 
Life  of  his  father  (IS80).  His  PopvUtr  J.nlures 
were  published  in  1887. 

IIo(l$>;kill.  Thomas,  D.C'.L.,  born  of  Quaker 
stock  at  Tottenhain  in  1831,  became  a  banker  in 
Newcastle,  but  is  known  for  [lali/  unci  lier  hiradcrs 
(vols,  i.-vii.  1880  99)  and  other  learned  works. 

llodgkillSOII.  Eaton  (1789-1861).  a  Man- 
chester engineer,  became  the  great  authority  on 
iron  beams,  nii<l  was  professor  of  Engineering  in 
University  College,  London, 

llodst'SOII,  r>i;iAN  HotGHTON  (1800-95),  orien- 
talist, was  horn  near  Mac(deslield,  entered  the  East 
India  Company's  service  in  1818,  was  Resident  in 
Nepal  from  1820  to  1843,  and  settled  in  England  in 
18.58.  He  wrote  sonu;  170  very  \.aliiable  papers  cm 
the  ethnology,  languages,  and  zoology  of  Nepal  ami 
Tibet,  sent  home  3.54  MSS.,  on  which  our  know- 
ledge of  northern  Biiddliism  is  mainly  based,  and 
made  a  collection  of  10,500  birds.  He  was  F.  R.S., 
iVc.     See  Life  by  Sir  W .  Hunter  il89(i). 

IIodogTnpIl  (fir.  hodos,  'away')  of  a,  mov- 
ing particle  is  the  curve  passing  through  the 
extremities  of  those  lines  which,  drawn  from  a 
fixed  point  as  origin,  rei>reseiit  in  direction  and 
magnitude  the  velocities  of  the  particle  at  the 
difierent  points  of  its  path.  It  is  a  velocity  dia- 
gram of  a  iiarticular  kind.  Just  as  the  tangeni; 
to  the  path  at  any  ]ioint  gives  the  direction  of 
motion  of  the  yiarticle  at  that  point,  so  the  tangent 
to  the  liodogiaph  at  the  corresponding  point  gives 
the  direction  in  which  the  velocity  is  changing 
— i.e.  the  directi<m  of  the  acceleration.  Thus, 
if  the  bodograph  is  a  str.aight  line  with  oriLiin  any- 
where outside  it,  we  see  that  the  acceleration  is 
constant  in  direction,  for  a  straight  line  is  its  own 
tangent.  Another  conclusion  ,at  once  deducible  is 
that  the  velocity  resolved  perpendicular  to  the 
direction  of  the  acceleration  is  always  llie  .same, 
being  given  by  the  perpendicular  from  the  origin 
upon  tlie  line.  If,  in  this  case,  the  acceleration  is 
also  constant  in  amount,  we  obtain  the  liodogiaph 
of  the  paraliolic  motion  of  a  iirnjectile.  As 
another  simple  case,  let  the  hodogra|ih  be  a  circle, 
centres  t lie  origin.  Here  the  speed  of  tlie  particle 
in  its  jiatli  must  be  constant  ;  and  furtlier,  the 
acceleration  is  perpendicular  to  the  velocity,  liaving 
the  eti'ect  of  changing  the  directiim  (Uily  of  motion. 
If,  in  this  case  .also,  the  accelerati<ui  i>  ^'iven  as 
constant  in  amount,  then  the  line  representing  the 
velocity  in  direction  must  rotate  uniformly.  Hence 
the  path  must  be  such  that  the  angle  between  the 
tangents  at  two  points  must  be  proportional  to  the 
length  of  the  arc  joining  them.  In  technical 
language,  the  path  must  be  a  plane  curve  of  c<ui- 
stant  curvature— i.e.  either  a  straight  line  m  a 
circle,  oli\iously  the  latter  in  this  case.  Thus, 
under  an  acceleraticm  constant  in  amount  and 
always  periiemlicular  to  the  direction  of  motion, 
and  to  a  hxed  direction  in  sjiace.  the  partiide  will 
describe  a  circle  w  ith  constant  speed,  the  radius  of 
the  cinde  being  a  third  ]iroiiortional  to  the  magni- 
tude of  the  acceleration  and  the  speed.  The  name 
liodogiaph  was  invented  by  Sir  AV.  R.  Hamiltmi, 
who  made  many  elegant  apjilications  of  its  pro- 
perties to  dynamics.     In  virtue  of  the  aberration  of 


730 


HODOMETKU 


HOFFMANN 


light,  even-  star  (Icsciilie.s  a  projection  of  the  htMlo- 
grapli  of  the  earth's  inotion  in  its  orhil — i.e.  the 
projertion  of  a  cireU".  The  |irci|ierties  of  the  lio<h)- 
graph  are  treated  in  all  nio<lern  treatises  on  tiie 
aynaiiiics  or  kinenialii-s  of  a  jiarticle. 

Hodometer.    See  I'euo.metkr. 

Ilodsoii,  -Ma.iou  William  Stki'hkx  Kaikks, 
En}.'lish  sohlier,  usnallv  known  ils  Hodson  of  Hoil- 
son's  Horse,  was  horn  at  Mai.seniore  Conrt,  near 
Gh)ucester,  on  lilth  .Mareh  1821.  t'hoosinji  the  lifi- 
of  a  soMier,  he  joined  the  Indian  army  in  1S4.J,  ami 
immediately  ;,'ot  his  lirst  exjierience  of  warfare  in 
the  liattles  of  the  lirst  Sikh  war.  In  IS47  he  was 
amxiinted  .second  in  command  of  the  I'nnjah  corps 
of  Onides,  a  hody  of  irrejinlar  native  troops  raised 
for  the  protection  of  the  north-west  frontiers  of 
India  against  the  maraudinj;  hill  trihes.  From 
1849  to  18.3'2  Hodson  Wius  employed  in  the  work 
of  civil  government  in  the  Pnnjal).  Then,  heing 
made  comm<i.ii<lant  of  the  (Inidcs  corps,  he  did 
excellent  servici>  on  the  turbulent  frontier.  Hut  in 
18.">(i  In*  was  depri\"e*l  of  his  cominanil  on  account  of 
irregularities  in  the  regimental  accounts  and  of  his 
unjust  treatment  of  the  troops  ami  natives  under 
his  authority.  In  the  crisis  of  the  .Mutiny,  however, 
lie  wjis  a|>uointed  he:ul  of  the  intelligence  depart- 
ment in  tiie  army  engaged  before  Delhi,  and  Wius 
comniissione<l  to  raise  a  new  regiment  of  irregular 
cavalry,  which  became  known  as  Hodson's  Horse. 
With  this  bo<ly  of  men  Hodson  took  part  in  the 
siege  of  Delhi  and  in  the  sul).sei|uent  operations 
down  to  the  siege  of  Lucknow.  After  the  fall  of 
Delhi  Hodson  discovered  the  .Mogul  sovereign  and 
his  sons :  these  last  he  ,shot  dead  with  his  own 
hand  at  the  time  of  capture.  He  himself  was  shot 
on  11th  -March  18.'>S,  during  the  lussault  on  a  royal 
palace  in  Lucknow,  and  ilieil  on  l\n-  followiii''  day. 
As  a  leailer  of  irregular  native  soldieiy,  Hodson 
W(m  uni|ualilled  praise  for  his  Iioldness  and  skill  ; 
his  wild  troopers  were  warmly  attached  to  him. 
I5ut  he  seems  to  have  been  of  an  imperious  temper, 
which  .sometimes  led  him  to  commit  acts  of  violence 
anil  injustice.  In  money  matters  he  wa-s  certainly 
inegalar  ;  and  he  has  been  accused  of  '  looting '  in 
war. 

See  Rev.  G.  Hodson's  H'xlmii  uf  Hwlaou's  Horse  (4tli 
ed.  18^U);  and  compare  K.  Uosworth  Smith's  Lift  uf 
tiord  Ldvrcitce  (especially  appi-ndi.x  to  vol.  ii.  ;  Gth  ed. 
188.")),  .iiid  T.  K.  E.  Holiiie.'''s  Fuiir  Fumouh  Soldiers 
(18S'J),  though  none  of  the  three  is  absolutely  satisfactory 
in  his  Cbtiniate  of  Hodson's  character. 

Iloeveil,  -Ian  va.v  ueF!,  Dutch  naturalist,  was 
Ihihi  (m  !»tli  February  1801,  at  Hotterdam.  After 
studying  meilicine  at  Leyden,  and  zoology  at  I'aris, 
he  established  himself  jus  a  physician  in  his  native 
town  :  and  in  18:{.")  he  wiis  elected  to  the  profe.s.sor- 
.sliip  of  Zoidogy  at  Leyilen.  He  ilied  on  10th  -March 
1808.  His  most  important  work  is  llamlboil:  iler 
iJierhiiiidr  (1827-3:!),  of  which  a  .-.econd  edition, 
entirely  rec.ist,  ajipeared  in  1840.  and  an  English 
translation  by  f'lark.  with  important  ailditicms  by 
the  author  and  the  editor,  in  18.')ti-.')8.  ilost  of  his 
other  works  are  memoirs. — His  brother,  CoRXKLLS 
PmVS    VAX    DEK    HdKVKX    (1792-1871),    wa.s     ))ro- 

fe.s.s<u-  of  Medicine  in  the  university  of  Levden 
( 1824-71  ).  and  the  author  of  Jjc  Jlistu'ria  Jlcdirinw 
(1842),  De  HUtoria  Morburum  (1846),  and  other 
im|iortant  works  on  pathology  and  the  liLstory  of 
medicine. 

Hofi  a  town  of  Bavaria,  on  tlie  Saale,  30  miles 
NE.  of  Baireuth,  luus  extensive  manufactures  of 
ironwares,  cottons,  and  woollens  :  cloth  has  l)een 
made  here  since  the  1.5th  century.  "There  is  a 
hos|>ital,  founded  in  1202.  Hof,  almost  entirelv 
rebuilt  since  its  destruction  by  lire  in  182:{,  is 
closely  associated  with  .Jean  I'aul's  earlier  years. 
Pop.  ( 1875)  18,267  ;  ( 1890  )  24,445. 


Ilofer,   -AxDiiEAs,   the    patriot    leader  of  the 

'r>rcdesc  in  1H(J!I,  was  born  at  St  I.eonhard,  in  the 
valley  of  I'asscier,  on  22d  November  1707.  I'or  a 
century  and  a  half  his  forefathers  had  been  land- 
lords of  the  inn  '  \\n  Sainl.'  .•Mthough  little  higher 
in  the  social  scale  than  a  peitsjint,  his  force  of 
character  wa.s  such  that,  when  in  1809  he  sum- 
moncil  the  peoiile  of  the  'ryr<dese  valleys  to  amiK 
to  drive  out  the  French  ami  the  Bavarians,  they 
respondeil  with  alacrity  ami  enthusiasm,  eager  to 
show  their  love  fm-  their  emperor  and  the  holy 
church.  In  seven  weeks  he  twice  defeate<l  the 
Bavarians,  twice  expelled  them  from  Innsbruck,  and 
linally  swept  them  clean  out  of  the  Tyrol.  An  the 
armistice  concluded  between  Austria  and  France 
after  the  battle  of  Wagram  left  Tyrol  aiul  Vorarl- 
berg  out  in  the  cold,  the  French  again  inundated 
their  valleys  with  .some  40,0(X)  men.  But  again 
Hofer  in  eight  days  routed  the  foe  and  retook 
Innsbruck.  For  the  next  two  months  Ilofer  wa« 
the  actual  military  governor  and  civil  ruler  of  his 
native  laml.  By  the  peace  of  Vienna  (October  14) 
the  emperor  of  .-Vustria  again  left  Tyrol  and  Vorarl- 
berg  at  the  mercy  of  his  enemies.  Hofer,  after  soTue 
hesitation  sus  to  the  wisilimi  of  submission,  once 
more  took  u|>  arms  :  but  this  time  the  French  and 
Bavarians  were  too  strong  for  him.  They  steadily 
subdued  one  valley  after  another;  and  Hofer, 
seeing  that  the  struggle  wiis  hopeless,  disbanded 
his  followers  ami  took  refuge  in  the  mountains  in 
the  end  of  November  I.S09.  But  two  months  later 
his  hiding-|dace  Wii>  betrayed  to  the  French,  and 
Hofer  Wius  captured  on  27lh  .January,  carried  to 
.Miintna,  tried  by  court  martial,  and  shot  on  20tli 
February  1810.  The  'Sandwirth'  or  'landlord  of 
the  Sanil '  still  lives  in  the  memory  of  his  |ieople, 
and  is  the  hero  of  many  patriotic  ballads.  His 
statue,  by  Sclialler,  stands  in  Innsbruck. 

Sec  Honiiayr,  I)ii.i  Lmut  Tirol  (184.'i);  I'iger,  O'e- 
ifchirhle  Tiroht,  vol.  iii.  ( l.s,SO);  and  inenioirs  by  VS  eidinger 
(:<d  ed.  IWil  ).  Heigel  (1874),  and  .Staiiiiifer  (1874). 

Ilofl'inailll.  Al'GU.ST  Heixkicii,  commonly 
calleil  llon.\i.vNX  vox  Fali.ehslehex,  \mei  and 
philologist,  wius  born  2d  .April  1798, , 'it  Fallersleben, 
in  the  district  of  Liineburg.  At  (iottingen  and  Itonn 
he  occupieil  himself  with  iihilological  an<l  literary 
studies,  especially  the  study  of  his  native  language 
ami  literature.  From  1830  to  1838  he  was  keeper 
of  the  university  library  of  Bre>lau,  .anil  professor 
of  the  (ierman  Language  there  from  18.3.").  The 
publication  of  his  ViiholitiDelie  /,/<v/cr  ( Inpolitical 
Lays)  in  1842  cost  iiiin  his  ]>rofessorsliip.  F'or 
.some  years  he  led  a  wandering  life  in  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  Italy,  until  in  1860  he  became 
librarian  to  the  Duke  of  Hatibor  at  the  ca-stle 
of  Korvei,  on  the  Weser,  where  he  died  on  19th 
.January  1874.  His  princiiial  philological  .an<l 
antii|uari.an  works  are  Horn  lidejirw  (l8;!0-62), 
Iteiiiehc  I'o.v  ( 18:i4),  (iexrhirhtr.  ilcs  Jjciilar/icii  Kireh- 
nilireU  (18.32:  3il  ed.  1801),  collections  of  ancient 
German  Political  (1843)  and  Social  (1844)  songs, 
Sjiciiileii  ziir  Dcutsclien  Literntunjcscliichle  (1844), 
Die  iJeiitxrlir  I'hiloloefie  (18.36),  and  Findlinfie 
( 18.i<(-lK)  t.  Hotl'mann's  own  poetry  often  approaches 
good  \'iilh:\liriler  in  its  simplicity,  tenderness,  and 
playful  banter ;  and  for  these  songs  he  produced 
many  admirable  tune-s.  His  political  poetry  con- 
tributeil  to  the  preiiaration  of  the  ]iolitical  fer- 
mentation of  1848.  The  deilirhte  appeared  in  1834 
(8th  ed.  187.")),  and  he  published  numerous  collec- 
tions of  songs,  JUS  Alleittnmtisrlie  Lieilcry  SfjhUiten- 
linler,  Kindrrlialcr,  iVc.  He  wrote  an  autobio- 
grajihy  in  0  vids.  (Mciii  Leljoi,  1868-70).  See 
Wagner's  lloffinmtn  von  Fallcmleben  (1869-70), 
ami  (lottschall.  PortriiU,  vol.  v.  (1876). 

Ilofriiinilll.  F.i'.x.sT  Theodok  Wiliielm,  Ger- 
man   writer,    musical    composer    and    critic,    and 


HOFFMANN 


HOGARTH 


731 


raiioatuvist,  was  born  at  K<)iiii;sl>erg  on  24tli  Janu- 
ary 1776.  (Later  in  life,  to  s^liow  his  admira- 
tion of  Mozart,  lie  snlistituteil  for  Willielni  the 
name  Amaileus. )  Holl'mann  (jualilied  himself  for 
a  legal  oareer.  anil  in  177il  was  appoint eil  assessor 
in  a  court  at  Poscn.  IJut  his  irrcstrainalile  love  of 
caricature  got  him  into  trouble  with  his  superiors, 
and  he  was  degraded  to  an  inferior  post  at  I'loek. 
Recovering  ground  again,  for  he  was  all  his  life 
long  most  exemplary  in  the  discliarge  of  his  olijcial 
duties,  he  was  transferred  to  Warsaw  ( 1804)  ;  but 
the  occupation  of  that  city  by  the  French  two  years 
later  threw  him  entirely  out  of  office.  For  the 
ne.\t  ten  years  he  led  a  very  precarious  existence, 
being  often  on  the  verge  of  want,  yet  always  paint- 
ing, comjiosing  music,  and  leading  a  wild  and 
merry  life.  His  great  ideal  was  to  live  for  ami  by 
art,  especially  nmsic,  and  in  1808  he  was  for  two 
months  director  of  the  theatre  at  Bamberg.  Dur- 
ing these  sanie  years  he  wrote  a  remarkalde  es.say 
on  Mo/art's  Don.  Jitnn^  and  composed  an  opci^a  on 
Foucjuc's  llmlinr.  In  1S1,>  he  was  eiuibled  to 
resume  his  career  in  the  .service  of  Prussia  :  anil 
from  1816  down  to  his  death  in  1822  (25th  June) 
he  held  a  high  position  in  the  supreme  cmirt  at 
Berlin. 

His  career  as  an  author  did  not  ]iroperIy  begin 
until  1814.  But  his  tales  cannot  be  rightly  un- 
derstood without  some  acquaintance  with  the 
strange  personality  of  the  writer— a  little  restless 
man,  with  a  Ki>man  nose  and  thin  lips,  and  hawk- 
eyed,  a  brilliant  talker,  full  of  diollery  and  wit, 
vain,  wayward,  fantastic  to  an  extreme,  the  child 
of  impulse,  and  the  bond-slave  of  his  wild  imagi- 
nation. Educated  on  the  dreams  and  ideals  of 
German  romanticism  at  the  i)erioil  of  its  most 
e.xuberant  growth,  be  became  himself  the  arch- 
priest  of  ultra-tierman  romanticism.  At  Posen,  at 
Warsaw,  at  Bamberg,  and  in  his  last  years  at 
Berlin,  he  was  the  brilliant  centre  of  the  literary 
and  artistic  Bohemianism  of  the  jilace.  Amid  the 
riot  and  revelry  at  I'osen  he  learned  two  of  the 
lasting  les.sons  of  his  lifetime,  to  wit,  that  comjiany 
— amusing  company — and  much  rum  were  essential 
to  his  hainiiness.  A  lierce  hater  of  dullness,  Hotl'- 
mann  waged  incessant  war  ujion  the  stitt-neckeil 
sticklers  for  routine  and  commonplace  convention- 
alism, and  upon  tlie  dilettanti  who  dealt  so  glibly 
in  the  phrasemongery  of  art-criticism.  His  wit 
constantly  bubbled  over  in  irony,  ridicule,  sarcasm, 
and  was  often  Ijoth  savage  and  malicious.  His 
imagination  was  inexhaustible,  but  utterly  mi- 
disciplined,  wild,  and  fantastic,  yet  wonderfully 
vivid.  Apart  from  music  and  [)ainting,  nothing 
fettered  his  interest  so  keenly  as  the  extravagant 
and  the  marvellous,  tlie  grotesipie,  the  weird,  and 
the  horrilile.  .\n  im)>ressionist  above  all  things, 
Holi'manns  literary  strength  lies  in  his  power  of 
graidiic  and  vivid  description  :  be  descrilies  what 
he  actually  saw  and  felt,  and  he  describes,  as 
a  painter  i)aints  pictures,  in  the  spirit  of  concrete 
i-ealism.  He  used  to  affirm  that  he  did  actually 
see  the  imps  and  hobgoblins  and  nightmare  aji- 
paritions  which  his  ]ierfervid  imagination  conjured 
up  before  him.  In  short,  Holi'manns  tempest- 
tossed  soul  was  put  in  such  jeiipanly  by  his  un- 
controllable imagination,  conjoined  with  his  lack 
of  firm  luinciple,  that  it  liarely  escajjed  being 
wrecked  ujiou  the  rock  of  insanity. 

His  shorter  tales,  upon  which  his  reputation  as  a 
writer  mainly  rests,  were  mostly  published  in  the  collec- 
tions entitled  J'liaiil<isie.stuHr  in  Calliit's  Manicr  (1814), 
NachMiickc  (1817),  and  Die  Serapioiislirikhr  (1819-25). 
His  lonj;cr  works  include  Elixiire  (lis  7'()i//i/,s(lSl(! ;  Eng. 
tran>:.  1824),  Siltsuim'  J.iidi'it  tines  TltmterdircHors 
(1818),  Klein  Zuchcs  (1819),  and  LclKiisonsiehtcn  des 
Kiitirs  Min-r  (2  vols.  1821-22),  this  last  being  partly 
autobiographical.     Of  his  fairy  tales  Dcr  O'oldcnc  Top/ 


was  translated  by  Carlyle  (1827).  Hoffmann's  Auaje- 
wdhfte  Srhrijten  api»eared  in  10  vols,  in  1827-28,  the 
latest  and  the  most  complete  edition  of  Ins  iregammdU 
Sclu-ifleii  in  15  vols,  in  1879  8:5.  Collections  of  his  tales 
have  been  translated  into  English  in  1821)  (Gillies),  1885, 
with  biography  (Bealby),  and  188t)  (Ewing).  His  writ- 
ings, and  translations  and  imitations  of  them,  have  been 
very  po]jular  in  France.  See  Hitzig,  ffoffmnnn's  Leheii 
(1823):  Fmick's  Erinneriwijen  (IS.'iG);  and  Carlyle"s 
Mi.teeiiuncous  Es.iai/-i,  vol.  i. 

IIoHlliailll.  Fi;ii;i)l;irii,  a  (ierman  physician, 
was  born  at  Halle,  19th  February  1060,  and  died  in 
that  city,  12th  November  1742.  On  the  conclusion 
of  his  studies  at  Jena  and  Erfurt  he  commenced 
practice  at  Minden  in  Westphalia  in  168."),  but 
three  years  later  removed  to  Halberstadt.  In  1093 
be  was  appointed  to  the  professorship  of  Medicine 
in  the  newly-constituted  university  of  Halle.  He 
gained  a  Euro)iean  reputation  as  a  ]>ractitioner, 
and  was  liody  physician  to  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia. 
His  medical  theories  are  now  for  the  most  part 
antiquated,  though  some  of  his  pharmaceutical 
preparation.s,  once  highly  esteemed,  are  still  in 
use.  The  most  important  of  bis  works,  Meiliciiia 
RutiniHilis  Systeinalird  (9  vols.  4to),  was  |mblislie(l 
in  1718-40.  His  Uj/cru  Omnia  were  jirinted  at 
Geneva  in  1740,  in  six  folio  volumes,  with  three 
supplementary  volumes  in  1753-60. 

Hofilllf.  one  of  the  chief  towns  of  the  Arabian 
district  of  El-Hasa,  situated  a  short  distance  inlaiul, 
over  against  the  islands  of  Bahrein  in  the  Persian 
tJulf.  It  has  a  fortress,  believed  to  have  been  built 
by  the  Carmathian  princes.  It  has  been  iu  the 
hands  of  Turkey  since  1872.     Pop.  25,000. 

Huflliauil,  Aliir.sT  Wilhklm,  chemist,  was 
born  at  Giessen,  Sth  Ajiril  1818.  After  obtaining 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  philo.sophy,  he  became 
assistant  to  Liehig  in  the  laboratory  at  Giessen. 
When  the  Royal  College  of  Chemistry  wa-s  estab- 
lished in  Lonilon  in  18-15  Hofmann  was,  on  Liebig's 
recommendation,  made  superintendent  of  the  new 
institution  ;  and  from  18.j6  to  1865  he  was  chemist 
to  the  royal  mint.  In  1865  he  went  to  Berlin  as 
profes.sor  of  Chemistry.  His  contributiims  to 
the  scientilic  journals  here  and  in  tlermany  are 
mainly  on  organic  chemistry.  Ittwas  in  the 
course  of  these  researches  that  from  co.al  jiroducts 
he  obtained  aniline  (see  Axilixk,  Dveisg).  He 
devoted  much  time  .and  labour  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  theory  of  chemical  tyi)es.  His  Intiu- 
(liirfiun  to  Modern  C/icmistri/ {]H(}'>  ;  7th  ed.  1877) 
led  to  great  reforms  in  the  teaching  of  cliemistry. 
He  wrote  on  'J'/ie  Life-xrork  of  I.icbiy  (1876),  and, 
in  German,  on  the  work  of  the  chemists  Wiihler 
(1883)  and  Dnmas  (  1885),  as  also  C/umiac/ie  Kiin- 
nenintiin  (1882).  Ennobled  in  1888,  he  died  5th 
May  1892. 

H«>fllinilll,  JoH.\XN  Chki.sti.vx  K.\rl,  theo- 
logian, was  liorn  at  Nuremberg,  21st  December 
1810,  studied  at  Erlangen  and  Berlin,  and  having 
been  docrnt  and  extra-ordinary  professor  of  Theology 
at  Erlangen,  was  called  as  profe.s.sor  to  Rostock, 
whem;e,  in  1845,  he  returned  to  Erlangen.  He  was 
ennobled  in  1857,  ami  died  20th  December  1877. 
In  his  numerous  works  he  maintained  an  unswerv- 
ing Lutheranism,  the  chief  being  the  work  on 
prophecy  (Wriastiipinfi  niid  Er/iil/iaiif,  1841-44) 
and  the  defence  of  Cliristianity  from  its  records, 
l>er  Schi-ijtbeiveis  {1>>:)-Z-:>I.>;  2d  ed.  1857-60). 

lIos>  !^>"L'  Bo.vi;  (Wild),  Pu;.  In  Scotland  a 
sheep  tliat  has  not  yet  lost  its  first  fleece  is  called 
a  Hog  or  Hogg  :  a  sheep  two  years  old  is  a  Hogget. 

H<>y;:irtll.  \\'ii.I.i.\m,  a  celebrated  painter, 
engraver,  and  pictorial  satirist,  born  in  Bartholo- 
mew Close,  London,  on  the  10th  November  1697, 
served  bis  apprenticeship  to  a  silversmith  named 
Ellis  tiamble,  in  Cranbourne  Alley,  Leicester  Fields, 
and  studied  art  at  Sir  James  Thornhill's  .-chool  in 


732 


HOGARTH 


HOGG 


James  Street,  Ciivent  (iardeii.  Alioiit  1720  lie  «et 
up  for  iiiiiiself.  II i«  lii-st  emidoymeiit  wius  t<i  eiifirnve 
coiit.s  of  (inns,  crests,  sli()|i-liills,  \c.,  after  wliieli  lie 
bejtan  to  ilesij;n  pLites  for  the  liooksellei's,  the  chief 
of  which  are  the  illustrations  to  (!ra>'s  edition  of 
lludihi'is  (1720).  lie  next  trieil  his  liaiiil  at  por- 
trait-paintin*;,  and  soiui  had  ample  eMij>loynient  for 
what  are  calleil  •conversation  pieces,'  lint  lie  never 
cared  ;;ieatly  for  this  lir.anch  of  art.  In  .March  172!) 
lie  married  cl.indestinely  the  ilaiii,diter  of  Sir  .lames 
Thornhill,  ami  slMMtly  afterwards  he^an  to  display 
liLs  extraordin.irv  facnltv  for  depictinj;  the  vices  and 
follies  of  his  tinie.  In  1730-31  he  painted  '  .\  Har- 
lot's Pro;,'re.ss,'  ,a  series  of  si.x  pictures  which,  like 
many  of  his  other  works,  wa.s  en^^raved  hy  him.self. 
It  wius  pnlilished  in  .Vpril  1732.  The  '  Harlot's 
Profjress  '  was  followed  hy  oilier  moral  liistoiics  and 
satiric  ilclineations,  such  as  '  .\  .Midni;,'lit  .Modern 
Conversation'  (173-1),  '  Soutlnvark  Kair '  (1735), 
'A  Rake's  ProL'iess '  (1735),  'The  Distre.s.sed  I'oet' 
(1730),  'The  r'oiir  Time.s  of  the  Day,'  and  the 
'Strolling.;  .Vctre.sses  dics.sing  in  a  llarn '  (1738). 
Concurrently  with  these  Hof,'arth  maile  more  than 
one  attempt  to  ccmijiete  with  the  popular  history- 

Sainters  of  his  day,  and  with  far  less  success  pro- 
uced  the  large  canva-ses  still  in  St  Hartlioloniew's 
Hospital — the  'Pool  of  Bethesda'  and  the  '(!ood 
Samaritan,'  hotli  executed  in  1736;  ami  he  also 
produced  several  portraits.  The  .scries  of  graphic 
satires  was,  however,  continued  by  the  '  Knraged 
Musician'  (1741)  and  the  famous  'Marriage  li  la 
Mode'  (his  ni.aster|iiece ),  six  jiicturcs  now  in  the 
National  Gallery,  and  engraved  l>y  various  hands 
in  174.5.  '  Industry  and  Idleness,'  twelve  i)lates, 
followed  these  in  1747  ;  '  Calais  (late,  orO  the  Ko.isl 
Heef  of  ( )1.1  England  !'  ( 174S1 )  came  next,  and  in  17-50 
the  line  plati;  known  familiarly  as  the  '  .M:irch  to 
Fincliley.'  The  minor  plates  of  '  lieer  Street '  ami 
'Gin  Lane"  and  the  set  called  'The  Progress  of 
Cruelty'  belong  to  1751.  In  17.52  he  published  the 
Anuly.iis  of  Beimtij,  a  treatise  containing  many 
shrewd  remarks,  but  confused  and  illiterate  in  its 
style.  It  had  only  a.s«cc<ls' f/'c,<//»ir.  After  this  lie 
returneil  to  his  graver,  jirodncing  (with  the  aid  of 
Orignion  and  others)  the  four  prints  of  the  '  Klection 
Series'  (l7-5.t-5H),  tlie  'Cockpit'  (1759),  and  other 
pieces.  In  1 757  he  was  appointed  sergeant-painter 
to  the  king.  In  1762-03  an  unhappy  excursion  into 
politics  involved  him  in  a  miscr.able  quarrel  with 
Wilkes  and  Churchill,  the  result  of  which,  on  his 
side,  was  the  well-known  portraits  of  Wilkes,  and 
of  Churchill  ;\s  a  bear  ('The  Bruiser'),  liy  this 
time  his  health  was  failing.  He  composed  a  tail- 
piece to  his  works,  '  Kinis,  or  the  Bathos,'  .March 
1764;  and  in  October  of  the  same  year  died  at  his 
house  in  Leicester  Fields.  He  wius  buried  in  Cliis- 
wick  churchyard,  under  an  epitaph  hy  Garrick. 
Not  far  oil'  still  stands  the  little  villa  which  he 
long  occupied  as  a  summer  resilience. 

There  are  portraits  of  Hogarth  by  himself  in  the 
National  ami  National  Portrait  (Jalleries,  and  most 
of  his  pictures,  which  now  enjoy  a  iiiiich  higher 
repute  for  tecliniqne  than  formerly,  are  preserved 
in  public  iM-  private  collections  in  Britain.  His 
powers  of  invention  and  combination  were  extra- 
ordinary :  and  a-s  a  humorist  and  social  satirist  with 
the  pencil  he  has  never  been  snrp.ossed.  There  can 
he  no  doubt  also  that  he  genuinely  desired  to  a.s.sist 
by  his  work  in  the  reformation  of  m.anners. 

His  prints  ran  he  studied  in  the  collections  of  Bovdell 
(1700).  or  of  liaUlwin  and  Cradock  (18-20--22).  Bio- 
graphical studies  of  hiin  have  been  jmblished  by  G.  A. 
Sala  ( IMt'ifi)  and  the  |ircsent  writer  ( 1.1S!I!)2).  The  best 
cuimiieiitaries  on  his  engravings  are  tu  bu  found  in  John 
Ireland's  Ho;iarth  IlluMralnt  (17;U-9«);  Liclitenbcrg's 
Anji/uhrHtiie  Erktaruinj  (revised  edition,  l,S."»0-.53) ; 
Nichols  and  Steevens'  freiiuine  Works  (1S08-17);  and 
F.  G.  .Stephens'  Cutnl'-ifiur  of  the  Satirical  Prints  and 
Drawiwjs  in  the  British  Mnxpttm^  vols,  ii.-iv. 


lluilSa  d.vMEs,  Scottish  poet,  wiui  born,  in  a 
cottagi-  near  the  parish  chnrcli  of  Ettriek,  Selkirk- 
shire, in  the  year  1770.  The  exact  date  of  his  birth 
is  unknown  ;  and  rather  singularly  he  himself 
asserted  it  to  have  been  the  '25tli  daiiuary  I77'2.  It 
is  beyond  i|nestion,  however,  that  he  was  baptised 
on  Olli  llecember  1770.  He  was  the  second  son  of 
Kobert  Hogg,  farmer  and  shepherd,  by  Margaret 
l.aiillaw,  who  was  a  distant  relative  of  William 
or  '  Willie'  Laidlaw,  the  amanuensis  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott  and  author  of  'Lucy's  Flitting.'  llogi''» 
education  wius  conducted  in  a  very  irregular 
fashion,  owing  to  his  being  taken  from  school  at 
intervals  to  help  his  father  in  tending  sheep.  His 
schooling — according  to  his  own  statement — 
amounted  in  all  to  about  six  months  ;  he  learned 
to  read  the  Bible,  but  not  to  write.  .Meanwhile, 
however,  bis  mother  had  lilled  his  imagination 
by  telling  him  '  tales  of  kings,  giants,  knights, 
fairies,  kelpies,  brownies,  &c.'  In  the  intervals 
of  work  he  seems  to  have  educated  himself,  ami 
when  lie  was  about  sixteen  years  of  age  a  perusal 
of  J'he  (Initir,  Slirjihird  ami  /.//''  (ind  Admitiirrx 
i/' Sir  Wtlliiim  ll'ii/Ziirr  kimlled  his  )ioctical  fancy. 
Hogg  himself  says,  however,  that  it  was  not  till 
1796  that  he  attempted  to  write  verses,  ami  'for 
.several  years  his  compositions  consisted  wholly  of 
.songs  and  ballads,  made  up  for  the  lasses  to  sing 
in  chorus.'  In  18(M)  one  of  his  poems,  '  Donald 
M'Don.ild,"  having  for  its  subject  the  threatened 
invasion  of  Gre.il  Ibitain  by  the  fust  N'a|ioleon, 
was  published  aiionymoiisly.  The  f(dlowing  year, 
having  visited  Kdinbuigh  to  sell  his  employer'.s 
sheep,  lie  had  iirinted  in  pamphlet  form  Scnttixh 
I'listoriiis,  I'linns,  Soni/x,  ct-c.  Of  this  small 
volume  a  thousand  copies  were  thrown  off,  but 
no  imjiression  «.as  made  upon  the  public  by  it. 
.\t  tins  time  Hogg  contem|dated  emi>;ialion  to 
the  island  id'  Harris,  and  wrote  a  '  Farewell  to 
Kttriik.'  His  scheme  fell  through,  but  he  was 
fortunate  enough  to  make  the  acriuaintance  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott— then  Mr  Scott,  sheriff  of  Selkirk- 
shire. Having  written  out  several  ballails  from 
his  mothers  recitation,  lie  sent  them  to  Scott, 
who  gave  them  a  place  in  the  third  volume  of  his 
It'iri/rr  Mhi.'ilrrl.-iii,  which  apjieared  in  IS0.3.  The 
same  year  Constable,  acting  on  Scott  s  advice, 
published  a  volume  of  ver.se  entitled  The  Moun- 
tain liorit,  and  also  a  treatise  of  a  different 
kind  entitled  llong  on  Slieep.  The  two  between 
them  brought  him  £.300,  which  he  sunk  in  a 
farm  that  proveil  a  total  I'ailiiie.  .Vfter  several 
years  of  vicissitude,  in  which  he  trieil,  without 
success,  to  run  large  stock  farms,  Hogg  repaired  to 
FMinbnrgh  and  entered  delinitely  on  a  literary 
career.  He  published  in  1810  a  .second  volume  of 
poems,  The  Furml  Miiixlrel,  which  jnoved  a 
failure,  and  started  a  weekly  paper.  Tin:  Sjn/, 
which  lasted  for  a  few  months.  .Meanwhile  he 
seems  to  h.ave  gone  into  business  as  a  land-agent, 
but  here  again  to  have  met  \\itli  no  success.  In 
I  SI  3,  however,  he  published  his  greatest  work, 
T/ie  Quccn'n  W'ahr.  and  at  once  obtained  cordial 
recognition  from  the  critics,  Jeffrey  declaring  in 
the  Kilinltur(jh  Reriev  that  '  no  doubt  can  be 
entertained  that  he  is  a  poet  in  the  highest 
acceptation  of  the  term.'  Hogg  had  made  the 
friendship  of  Harriet,  Duchess  of  liuccleueh, 
and  in  acciirdaiice  with  her  deathbed  reijiiest 
her  husband  granted  liim,  on  the  payment  of 
a  nominal  rent,  one  of  his  farm,s  known  in- 
differently <as  Mossend,  Eltrive  Lake,  or  Altrive. 
Had  he  given  himself  np  to  this  farm  and  to 
literature  Hogg  would  probably  have  been  a  well- 
to  do  .as  well  as  a  happv  man.  But  he  hampered 
him.self  by  taking  the  ncigbboiiriiig  farm  of  .Nloiint 
Benger,  and  was  more  or  le.ss  in  pecuniary  diffi- 
culties to  the  end  of  liLs  days.    He  was  \ory  liajiiiy, 


HOGMANAY 


HOHENSCHWANGAU 


733 


however,  in  liis  domestic  life.  In  1820  he  manied 
Margaret  I'liillips,  the  (hmghter  of  a  tenant-farmer 
in  Annandale,  whom  lie  had  met  at  the  liouse  of 
lier  hrotherinlaw,  Mr  (Iray,  one  of  the  teachers 
in  the  Ili;;h  School  of  K(Unlinr<,'li.  Slie  jiroved  an 
admiralile  wife,  altlioMj;h  she  was  some  twenty 
years  yonnjjer  than  her  hushaiid.  Ho};g  now  pro- 
'dnc<Ml  in  ra|iid  succession  a  numher  of  works  l>otli 
in  verse  and  prose.  Of  the  former  the  chief  are 
Madiir  of  the  Mijui;  The  I'ihfriins  uf  the  Sun,  Qiiecii 
Hymk,  and  the  Border  drirlniid ;  of  the  latter  The 
Brownie  of  Bodsbcch,  Winter  EreiriiKj  Talcs,  'The 
Three  Perils  of  Man,  and  The  Three  Perils  of 
Wonuni.  It  seems  doubtful  whether  he  was  the 
sole  author,  or  along  with  LooUhart  the  joint- 
author,  of  the  remarkahle  Cimfcssioiis  of  u  Justified 
Sinner,  otherwise  known  as  The  Prirale  Memoirs 
and  Confessions  of  a  Fanatic,  published  in  his 
name.  Hog^'  was  at  this  time  a  well-known 
figure  in  Edinburgh  society ;  Avas  the  intimate 
friend  of  Professor  Wilson,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and 
Lockhart,  althougli  he  had  his  ditlerenees  with 
all  three :  wrote  considerably  for  Blael; irood' s 
Mufjazine,  and  was  tlie  basis  of  the  famous 
'Sheplierd  '  of  the  Noetes  Andjrosianie.  In  the  end 
of  IS.SI  he  ]iaid  a  visit  to  London  to  arrange  for 
the  ]iul)lication  of  a  complete  edition  of  his  works. 
He  remained  for  some  weeks  in  the  metropolis; 
was  entertained  to  dinner  by  the  Highland  Society 
of  London,  and  in  other  ways  lionised.  He  died 
at  Altrive,  November  21,  18.3.5. 

Hogg  once  described  himself  to  Seott  as  '  the 
king  of  the  Mountain  and  Fairy  School '  of  poetry, 
anil  this  dehnition,  egotistic  though  it  is,  holds 
good  so  far  as  Scotland  is  concerned.  Of  his 
)naHterpi(H;e,  'Kilmeny,'a  leading  critic  of  to-day. 
Professor  Saintsliury,  has  saiil  that  it  is  '.such 
poetry  as,  to  take  Hogg's  contem]>oraries  only, 
there'is  none  in  Kogers  or  Crabbe,  little,  I  fear,  in 
Southey,  and  not  much  in  Moore.'  Some  of  his 
liallads,  such  as  'The  Witch  of  Fife,'  and  a  few  of 
his  songs,  es|)ecially  '  When  the  Kye  Coiiies  Ilame,' 
belong  to  the  immcu'tal  jiart  of  Scottish  if  not  of 
Knglish  literature.  The  late  Professor  Ferrier's 
description  of  Hogg  as  'after  Burns  {i/ro.rinnis  sed 
lani/ii  iiilrrrcdlo)  the  greatest  poet  tliat  had  ever 
sprung  from  the  bosom  of  the  common  people '  is 
now  the  universally  accepted  verdict  of  criticism. 
Hogg's  prose  is  much  more  uneipial  th.an  his 
l>oetry  ;  a  strong  thongli  coarsish  humour  is  its 
most  notable  characteristic. 

The  cliicf  jiutliorities  on  the  life  of  Hogg  arc  his  auto- 
biogra])liy  and  Meiiwriiils  of  James  Hotjg,  the  Kttrick  Shep- 
herd, edited  by  his  daughter,  Mrs  Garden  (1885).  Pro- 
fessor Wilson  preti.Ked  a  short  Memoir  of  Hogg  to  an 
edition  of  his  works  published  after  his  deiitii.  Another 
edition  in  two  large  volumes  by  T.  Thomson  appeared  in 
181J.5.  The  Memoir  of  Dr  Kobert  Chambers  by  L>r  \A'illiam 
t'hambers  throws  liglit  on  Hogg's  life  in  Edinburgh  ;  and 
.see  Mrs  (Miphant's  William  Blaekirood  and  his  Sons 
n8!*7l.  A  notable  recent  criticism  of  Hogg  is  Professor 
S;Miitsl.iuv'>  in  his  K.sinis  in  Kii'ilish  IJtirnture  (18'.IU). 

IIoiU;iliaiiay,  a  name  applied  in  Scotland  to  the 
last  day  of  tlie  year,  the  31st  of  December,  often 
celebrated  with  holiday  festivities  in  connection 
with  the  New-year's  Day.  In  the  Scotland  of 
former  days  it  marked  the  couimencement  of  a 
holiday  of  uiiroarious  joviality,  a  kiiul  of  annual 
Saturnalia,  in  whiidi  the  New  Year  Mas  ushered  in 
with  the  most  boisterous  revelry,  accompanied  by 
many  (piaint  and  tiiiieliououred  ceremonies.  The 
origin  of  this  name  is  altogether  uncertain,  and 
many  iille  etymologies  have  been  ottered.  These 
the  curious  will  find  ill  Chambers's  Bool,'  of  Days. 

ll<>;u:-iiiit.    See  Cob-nut. 

Iloi!;  I'llllll,  a  name  given  in  the  West  Indies 
to  the  fruit  of  certain  species  of  Spondias  trees  and 
shrubs   of   the   natural    order   Anacanliacea',    also 


called  Spanish  Plum  and  lirazilian  Plum.  !i.  pnr- 
piirea  and  .S'.  lutea  are  the  species  generally  called 
Hog  Plum  ill  the  West  Indies,  because  their  fruit.s 
are  a  common  food  of  hogs,  which  revel  in  their 
abundance.  A  much-esteemed  Itrazilian  dish  is 
lirepare<l  of  milk,  curds,  sugar,  and  the  pulp  of 
the  fruit  of  iV.  tnherosa,  from  which  also  a  refresh- 
ing beverage  is  made  for  use  in  fevers. 

HoSS-rat,  or  HUTIA  (Capn/mi/s),  a  genus  of 
porcuiiiiie  like  rodents  ( Hystricoiiiorpha)  of  the 
family  Oi-toilontida-.  The  body  is  from  '20  to  '22 
inches  long,  covered  with  hmg  very  harsh  fur,  con- 
sisting of  a  mixture  of  black  and  yellow  hairs  ;  the 
tail  is  st(mt  and  rounded  and  slightly  hairy,  and 
is  u.scd  for  support  in  sitting  erect  or  for  aid  in 
climbing  trees.  They  are  nocturnal  or  crepuscular 
animals ;  their  food  is  almost  entirely  vegetable. 
Three  species  are  known,  two  inhabiting  Cuba, 
and  one  Jamaica,  where  they  are  found  in  large 
numliers  in  the  dense  forests  on  trees  or  in  thick 
underwood.  The  negroes  use  them  for  food,  captur- 
ing them  by  snaring  or  hunting  them  with  dogs. 

Hogshead,  an  old  English  measure  of  capacity, 
no  longer  in  use,  but  eipiivalent  for  wine  to  63 
gallons,  for  ale  and  beer  to  51  gallons.  In  the 
Uniteil  States  the  word  now  signifies  a  large  cask. 

Hogiie.  C.\PE  L.\.    See  La  Hooue. 

IIolll'lllilHleil,  a  village  of  300  inhabitants  in 
Upper  Bavaria,  '20  miles  E.  of  Munich,  famous  for 
the  victory  gained  there  by  70,000  Freiudi  under 
Moreau  o\  er  60,000  Austrians  under  the  Archduke 
John,  .3d  December  1800.  Moreaus  army  took  up 
a  position  on  the  plateau  between  the  Isar  and  the 
Inn,  and  the  Austrians  on  the  right  b.-ink  of  the 
Inn.  The  Austrian  main  body  advanced  amidst 
drifting  snow,  and  attacked  the  divisions  <d'  (Irenier 
and  Grouchy  with  the  utmost  fury  ;  but,  the  French 
receiving  considerable  reinforcements  under  Ncy, 
the  as.sailants  were  driven  back,  and,  being 
attacked  in  the  rear,  were  totally  routed.  The 
\  ictory  was  likewise  decided  at  other  ])oints  in 
favour  of  the  French,  who  were  onlv  ju'eventcd 
from  imrsuit  by  inclement  weather,  bad  roads,  and 
the  short  winter  day.  The  .\ustiians  and  their 
Bavarian  allies  lost  17,000  men  and  74  guns;  the 
F'rench  had  ."jOOO  killed  and  woumled.  Campbell's 
immortal  lyric  will  keep  the  details  of  this  hattle 
from  ever  being  forgotten.  See  Schleifer,  Die 
Hehlaeht  bei  Hohenlinden  ( 188.5). 

IlolU'lllolie.  a  former  Cerman  principality  in 
Franconia,  now  coni]irise<l  chietly  in  Wiirtemberg, 
partly  also  in  Ba\aria. 

HollCllsohwailii'ail.  a  royal  cistle  in  Bavaria, 
55  miles  SW.  of  Munich,  near  the  right  bank  of 
the  Lech,  and  the  southern  fnuitier  of  the  king- 
dom. It  stands  in  a  beautiful  and  romantic 
district,  '2933  feet  above  sea  level.  It  w;is  pur- 
chased in  18.32  by  the  crown-prince  Maximilian  of 
Bavaria,  who  restored  it  in  tne  style  of  a  magni- 
licent  medieval  feudal  castle.  The  interior  cimtains 
several  superb  halls  decorated  with  frescoes  and 
wall-paintings  by  eminent  Cerman  artists.  A 
castle  called  Schwanstein  occupied  the  same  site 
as  early  :is  the  12th  century  ;  a  second  was  erected 
in  Ih'.ii  47  ;  and  the  existing  buihling  is  the  third 
castle.  On  another  crag  over  against  Holien- 
.seliwangau  stands  the  cjistlc  of  Neuschwaiistein, 
which  was  built  in  186!t-7l  on  the  site  of  the 
castle  originally  called  Hidien.scliwangau  by  King 
Louis  of  Bavaria,  in  the  Early  I!omaiicsi|Ue  style. 
This  castle  too.  a  most  magniliccnt  and  "Kuoantic' 
structure,  contains  sujierb  w;ill-paintings,  and  dis- 

1)lays  the  utmost  splendour  in  its  internal  liftings. 
t  was  for  some  time  the  favmnite  residence  of  the 
recluse  king,  Louis  II.  See  Zwickh,  Hcncii- 
chicmscc  und  Xcunchuaiistcin  (1886). 


734 


HOHENSTAUFEN 


HOLBEIN 


HoheilstailiVll.  a  »;eiiiiiiii  ^)I•iIlcely  lioiise, 
iiiciiiliers  of  wliicli  liel<l  the  iiiiiienal  tliroiic  from 
IV.tS  to  \'2.'A.  Till'  fouiuler  of  the  faniilv  was 
FliKDKiticK  vox  Hi  KKN,  who  lived  al)out  tlie 
iniclille  of  the  Uth  eeiitiiry.  His  son  Kiederick 
asHiiineil  the  name  of  Hohenstaufeii  from  a  CH-stle 
whieh  he  Imilt  on  the  hill  of  Staufen  Cii+d  feel), 
25  miles  E.  of  Stiittj;ait.  He  «ns  investeil  with 
the  ilueliy  of  Swaliia  hy  the  Emperor  Henry  1\'., 
and  ilurinj;  the  ahseiice  of  the  latter  in  Italy  acted 
as  vicej,'erent  of  the  em]iire.  Krederiek,  at  his 
death  in  llOo,  left  two  sous — Frederick  II.  th<! 
One-eyed,  and  Conrail.  The  former  was  conlirmed 
in  the  duchy  of  Swaliia;  and  in  1112  the  latter 
receiveil  the  dnehy  of  Franconia.  After  the  ilealh 
of  Henry  \'.  this  emperor's  family  estates  fell  to  the 
House  of  Holienstaufen  :  and  Lothaire  of  Saxony 
was  elected  his  successor  in  the  eTuiiire.  Lothaire 
revoked  the  •;rants  made  to  the  Holienstaiifeiis, 
and  thus  gave  rise  to  a  furious  war,  in  which 
Frederick  (his  hrother  Conrad  heing  ahsent  in  the 
Holy  Land)  had  to  encounter,  single  handed,  the 
whole  power  of  the  emperor,  the  House  of  Zlihrin- 
gen,  anil  Henry  the  I'roud.  Duke  of  liavaria  and 
Saxony,  .\fter  Conr.ads  return  fortune  at  lii-st 
seemed  to  favour  the  hrothers,  hut  in  1135  they 
were  compelled  to  submit  and  plead  for  the 
emperor's  forgiveness.  They  were  then  put  in 
pos.se.ssion  of  all  their  estates.  Conrad,  in  1I3S, 
wius  elected  emperor  of  (iermaiiy  as  t'onr.ad  III. 
The  .succeeding  em|>eroi-s  of  this  familv  were 
Frederick  I.  (1152-9(J).  Henrv  VI.  (liOO-DT), 
Philip  I.  (119S  1208),  Frederick  II.  (1212-50),  and 
Connul  IV.  (1250-54).  Manfred,  half  brother  of 
the  last  named,  lost  his  life  in  the  battle  of  Bene- 
vento  (1206),  whilst  asserting  his  rights  to  the 
throne  of  the  Two  Sicilies  ;  and  Conradin,  scm  of 
Conrad  IV.,  was  jint  to  death  (126S)  by  Charles 
of  Anjou  for  earning  on  the  struggle.  See 
Itaumer,  Gisrhiihte  i/cr  Jlo/iciistniifcii  (5th  ed. 
I87.S);  (Jkk.m.v.ny  ;  and  the  articles  on  the  several 
emperors. 

Ilolieiistoill,  a  Saxon  town,  with  textile  in- 
dustries, 12  miles  NE.  of  Zwickau.      I'op.  liM27. 

llolieilZOllcrn,  two  united  princiiialities 
(Hechingen  and  Sigmaringen)  of  south  tJermany, 
but  belonging  to  Prussia,  cim.sist  of  a  narrow  strip 
of  land  entirely  surrounded  bv  Wiirtemberg  and 
Baden.  Area,"  441  sq.  m.  :  pop.  (1S90)  OG.OSo, 
mostly  Homan  Catholics.  The  territory,  whose 
surface  is  generally  mountainous,  stretches  south- 
east from  the  Black  Forest,  across  the  Neckar 
anil  the  Danube.  The  principal  in<lustrie.s  are 
agriculture  and  the  rearing  of  cattle.  Iron  ore, 
gypsum,  salt,  ami  coal  e.xLst,  as  well  as  some 
mineral  springs.  The  seat  of  government  is 
Sigmaringen  (4146). 

The  Ilolicnzollcrn  familv  traces  its  de.scent  from 
Count  Thassilo,  w  ho  lived  about  the  beginning  of 
the  "Jth  century,  and  founded  a  castle  near  Hechin- 
gen, on  the  Zoilern  hill  in  the  Swabian  Alb,  whence 
his  descendants  derived  their  patronymic.  About 
1165  the  first  separation  took  place,  Frederick  W. 
founding  the  elder  or  Swabian  anil  Conrail  III.  the 
younger  or  Franconiau  line.  The  elder  line  w.as 
sulMlivided,  in  1576,  into  the  branches  of  Hechingen 
and  Signuuingen.  Frederick  VI.,  the  representa- 
tive of  the  younger  line,  in  1415  received  from  the 
Emperor  Sigismuml  the  investiture  of  the  elector- 
ate of  Brandenburg,  thus  founding  the  reigning 
dynasty  of  Prussia.  The  two  branches  of  the  elder 
line  continued  unbroken  till  1849,  w  hen  the  reign- 
ing nrinces  ceded  their  respecti\e  rights  and  prin- 
cijialities  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  who  agreed  to 
pav  them  annual  pensions.  See  Germany,  Vol.  ^'. 
p.  184. 

Uoist.    See  Lifts. 


liokitika.  the  capital  of  Westland,  New  Zea- 
land, and  the  chief  town  on  the  west  coiLst,  is  the 
chief  centre  of  a  gold-producing  and  agricultural 
district.     Poji.  2178. 

Il<>kll>ai.     See.lAl'AN. 

lloliiraillllllS,  a  genus  of  lishes,  in  charactei-H 
and  ilistributiiin  similar  to  the  ('ha'lodons  (i|.v.). 
They  are  reniarkaMe  for  the  great  U-auty  and 
symnu'try  of  their  coloui-s.  and  for  their  excellence 
as  articles  of  food.  The  body  is  compressed,  and 
the  gill-cover  bears  a  strong  spine.  liut'  of  the 
best  known  of  the  forty  s|>ecies,  called  Enijieior  of 
,Ui)iini  by  the  Dutch,  is  H.  iiiiiirruttir,  one  of  the 
most  esteemed  lishes  of  the  East  Indies,  rivalling 
the  salmon  in  llavour.  Its  greatest  si/.e  is  ftlK)Ut  15 
inches  long  ;  its  colour  is  deep  blue,  with  ininierous 
narrow  bands  of  iirange.  the  pectoral  lins  black,  the 
tail  bright  yellow.  In  beauty  it  is  rivalled  by  an 
allied  .syiecies,  H.  iliacatithiis,  of  similar  distribu- 
tion. 

Ilolhnoll.  P.MI.  IlKINItlCIl  DlKTHICll,  BaIIIiS 
Ii'.  iiliilosopher,  and  one  of  the  French  encyelo- 
]i:idists  of  the  18th  century,  wa-s  born  of  wealtlij 
parentage,  at  Heidelsheim,  in  the  Palatinate, 
in  172.3.  .\t  an  early  age  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  continued  to  reside  during  the  remain- 
der of  his  life.  He  died  21st  June  1780.  As 
Ilolbacli  was  remarkable  for  his  agreeable  social 
qualities,  and  kept  a  good  table,  the  most  eminent 
thinkeis  and  writei-s  of  the  day,  such  as  Condorcet, 
Itideiot,  Diiclos,  Helvetius.  Baynal,  Kousseau, 
Bun'iin,  \c.,  were  in  the  habit  of  .assembling  at  his 
house.  The  witty  Abbe  (ialiani  callid  Ilolbacli 
the  miiilir  tl'li/itrl  of  philosophy.  Here  specula- 
tion, it  is  said,  was  carried  to  such  daring  lengths 
that  Billion,  D'.Menibert.  and  Housseau  were  com- 
pelled to  withdraw  from  the  circle.  Ilolbacli 
was  the  zealous  chamiiioii  of  naturalism,  and  con- 
tended not  only  against  Christianity,  but  against 
every  positive  religion.  His  |iriiiiipal  work  is 
the  Si/s/i'iiir  f/e  la  Nature  (2  vols.  1770).  In  it 
the  author  endeavoui-s  to  expound  the  natural 
principles  of  morality,  and  to  investigate  the  origin 
of  the  conllicting  opinions  on  virtue  and  vice.  He 
discusses  the  maxims  of  religious  morality,  and 
takes  a  rapid  survey  of  social  and  savnge  life. 
He  t<iuches  on  the  so-called  'social  compact,' 
and  in  the  course  of  his  observations  tries  to 
prove,  among  other  things,  thai  self-interest  is 
the  ruling  motive  of  man,  and  that  (bid  is  only 
an  ideal  being,  created  by  kings  and  jiriests. 
The  malerialisiii  of  the  French  ji/iilnsn/i/irs  of  the 
18tli  century  is  nowhere  iiioie  )ieriiicious  and  paltry 
than  in  the  Writings  of  Holbach.  It  is  but  lair  to 
slate  that  his  life  was  better  than  his  books.  He 
was  a  man  of  good  heart,  and,  in  spite  of  his 
theories,  of  most  unsellish  bencMilence.  When 
the  .lesuits  fell  into  disgrace  during  the  reign  of 
l.,ouisXV.,  Holbach,  though  he  hated  their  system, 
and  had  written  against  them  in  the  days  of  their 
prosperity,  made  his  house  an  .i-sylum  for  his  old 
foes  when  the  clouds  gathered  round  them.  See 
an  article  by  .1,  Morley  in  the  Fortniyhthi.  1877. 

Ilolbcacll.  a  market-town  of  south  Lincoln 
shire,  71  miles  by  rail  ENK.  of  Spalding.  It  has 
a  tine  Decorated  church,  with  a  spire  189  feet  high  : 
and  Koiiian  remains  have  been  found  here.  Pop. 
of  p.trish  ( 1851 )  5191  ;  ( 1881 )  5190. 

Ilollll'ill.  Hans,  the  younger,  one  of  the  most 
celebraled  of  painters,  was  Inini  at  Augsburg  in 
1494  or  (  more  likely )  1495,  the  son  of  Hans  Holbein 
the  elder  (c.  1460-1524),  also  a  jiainter,  and  known 
by  such  works  as  '"The  Basilica  of  St  I'jiul,' 
now  in  the  Augsburg  Callery.  He  was  in.structed 
in  art  by  his  father,  and  his  earlier  elToits  were 
inlluenced  by  the  works  of  Hans  Burgknmir,  who, 
according    to    such    authorities    as    Stetten,    was 


HOLBEIN 


735 


his  maternal  uncle.  The  lirst  painting's  that  can 
with  certainty  he  attrilmted  to  Holhein's  hauil 
are  two  panels  of  an  altarpiece  in  tlie  ahove- 
named  collection.  Various  Madonna  pictures 
which  hear  traces  of  the  influence  of  the  school 
of  Memliuf;,  and  a  votive  work  in  memory  of 
Burgomaster  Ulrich  Schwartz,  were  painted  in  the 
immediately  following  yeai-s  ;  hut  the  finest  of  the 
artLst's  productions  executed  in  Augsliurg  wa.s  the 
altarpiece  for  the  niona-stery  of  St  Catharine  ( lol.')- 
IG),  now  in  the  Pinakothek,  Munich,  Renaissance 
arcliitectural  ornamentation  of  great  l>eauty  l>eing 
skilfully  introduced. 

Ahout  1.510  Ilolhein  was  at  work  in  Ba-sel,  hut 
he  does  not  appear  to  have  settled  there  till  1520, 
when  he  received  the  freedom  of  the  city,  and 
heeame  a  memher  of  the  guild  Zum  Hiinmel, 
which  his  elder  hrother  Amhrosius,  also  a  painter, 
had  joined  three  years  previously.  During  the 
interval  he  was  painting  in  Zurich,  and  in  Lucerne 
— where  he  decorated  the  interior  and  exterior  of 
the  resilience  of  the  mayor,  .Jacoh  von  Ilertenstein, 
with  paintings  now  only  known  through  ilraw- 
ings  which  were  executed  hefore  the  huilding 
was  destroyed  in  1824.  It  is  i>ossilile  that  he  also 
<luring  this  period  made  a  lirief  visit  to  Milan  ; 
and  the  influence  of  the  nuostei's  of  northein 
Italy,  especially  of  Mantegna  and  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  can  he  traced  in  his  suhsequent  productions. 
Among  the  more  important  works  executed  at 
Ba.sel  are  the  |)Owerful  portraits  of  the  Burgo- 
master Jacob  Meier  and  his  wife ;  while  the 
relitfious  .subjects  of  the  period  include  eight  scenes 
of  the  Passion,  painted  upon  a  panel,  ranked  very 
highly  by  Woltmann,  though  Kumohr  and  Wornum 
are  unaVile  to  regard  them  as  Holhein's  work,  and 
the  do<u-s  of  the  organ  of  Basel  Cathedral,  paintetl, 
upon  canvas,  with  stately  figures  of  saints  aiul 
bishops.  All  these  works  are  now  in  the  Basel 
Museum.  To  1522  is  due  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant of  the  masters  religious  pictures,  the  Madonna 
and  Child  with  St  I'l-sus  and  St  Martin  of  Toui-s 
(or  perhaps  St  Xicliolas),  painted  for  the  church  of 
Keuchen,  near  Solothurn  ;  and  to  ahout  the  same 
date  is  assigned  the  great  work  commissioned  by 
that  Jacob  Meier  whom  Holbein  had  already  painteii, 
and  representing  the  merchant  with  his  wife  and 
family  Kneeling  before  the  Virgin  and  Child.  The 
jncture  exists  in  two  slightly-varying  versions  at 
Darmstadt  and  at  Dresden,  of  which  the  former  is 
the  liner,  anil  is  now  generally  admitted  to  be  the 
original.  His  mural  decorations  of  '  The  Peasants' 
Dance '  and  \  arious  classical  subjects  on  the 
facades  of  a  house  in  the  Eisengas.se,  and  those 
in  the  town-hall,  are  now  known  only  through 
sketches  and  a  few  surviving  fragments.  He  also 
executed  noble  portraits  of  IJonifacius  Amerhach, 
professor  at  Basel,  in  the  museum  there  ;  of  Fro- 
benius,  the  printer  ;  and  two  distinct  portraits  of 
Erasmus  and  one  of  Melanchthon.  Another 
intere.sting  memorial  of  the  intercoui>^e  between 
Erasnnis  and  Holbein  is  a  copy  of  the  '  Prai.se  of 
Folly,'  published  by  Krohenius  in  1514,  in  which 
the  margins  are  enriched  by  a  series  of  vigorous 
and  humorous  pen-sketches  l>y  Holbein.  It  Ls  now 
in  the  Basel  Museum. 

During  his  residence  at  Basel  Holbein  was  largely 
employed  upon  designs  for  the  wood-engravei-s, 
probably  indeed  it  was  mainly  with  a  view  to  such 
work  that  he  settled  there.  '  In  addition  to  about 
twenty  alphabets  of  richly  ornamental  letters,  he 
designed  over  300  woodcuts,  including  jirintei-s' 
devices,  title-borders,  and  such  general  illustrations 
a-s  those  to  Adam  Petri's  editions  of  Luther's  New- 
Testament  (1522  and  1523),  to  Thomas  Wolffs 
issue  of  the  same  work  (1523),  and  to  Petri's 
etlition  of  Lnther's  Old  Testament  (152.'J):  as  also 
the  large  single  woodcuts  of  '  Christ  bejiring  the 


Cross'  and  'The  Kesurrection,'  and  the  two  scarce 
subjects  of  'The  Sale  of  Indulgences'  and  "The 
True  Light,'  which,  like  some  other  of  his  works, 
show  the  artist's  warm  sympathy  with  the  Reforma- 
tion. His  most  important  woodcuts,  however — the 
noble  series  of  '  The  Dance  of  Death  '  anil  the  '  Old 
Testament  Cuts  ' — though  probably  executed  at  this 
time,  were  not  issued  till  a  later  period,  the  liret 
editions  of  both  being  published  at  Lyons  in  1538. 
It  was  formerly  believed  that  Holbein  was  en^aver 
as  well  as  designer  of  the  woodcuts  associated  with 
his  name,  but  it  is  now  generally  conceded  that  he 
only  designed  and  drew  them. 

In  the  end  of  1.526  or  the  beginning  of  1527  Hol- 
bein visited  England,  when  he  was  introduced  by 
Erasnms  to  Sir  'JThoma.s  More,  then  in  high  favour 
with  Henrj-  VIII.  He  now  began  his  great  .series 
of  portraits  of  the  most  eminent  Englislimen  of  his 
time,  the  studies  for  many  of  which  exist  in  the 
cabinet  of  eiglity-seven  masteily  drawings  by  hLs 
hand  in  the  royal  collection  at  Windsor.  In  various 
ways  these  drawings  throw  valualile  light  upon 
his  methods  of  work  ;  the  fact,  for  instance,  that 
many  of  them  bear  written  notes  of  the  colours  of 
their  details  proves  that  he  was  accustomed 
to  execute  his  finished  oil  portraits  trum  such 
charcoal  and  chalk  sketches  a.s  these,  and  not 
directly  from  the  life.  Excellent  autotype  repro- 
ductions of  these  drawings  have  been  issued  by 
the  South  Kensington  Department.  Aniimg  the 
most  notable  of  his  oil  portraits  executed  in  Eng- 
land are  'Archbishop  Warliam.' of  which  versions 
exist  at  Lambeth  Palace,  in  the  Louvre,  and  in 
the  possession  of  Viscount  Dillon  ;  ■  Sir  Henry  ( Juild- 
ford,'  in  the  royal  collection  at  AVind.sor  :  '  Nicholas 
Kratzer,'  the  king  s  astronomer,  in  the  Louvre  :  and 
'The  Family  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  now  lost,  but 
known  thr<mgli  various  copies  and  through  the 
original  sketch,  now  in  the  Ba.sel  Museum. 

On  his  return  to  Ba.sel  (1529)  Holbein  painted 
the  group  of  his  wife  and  two  children  now  in  the 
museum  there  ;  and  in  the  follow  ing  year  again 
took  up  his  work  in  the  council-hall,  executing 
powerful  mural  subjects  of  '  Kehoboam.  ■  Sanmel 
and  Saul,'  and  '  Hezekiah,'  works  now  destroyed. 
Probably  in  the  beginning  of  1.532  he  again  visited 
Limdon,  whence  a  pressing  invitation  fmni  the 
Basel  council  was  inetl'ectual  to  withdraw  him. 
At  first  he  was  much  employed  in  London  by  the 
German  merchants  of  the  Hanseatic  League,  many 
of  whose  portraits  he  executed.  Sketches  still 
remain  for  the  decorations  which  he  designeil  for 
the.se  traders  of  the  steelyard  on  the  occasion  of  the 
marriage  of  the  king  to  Anne  Boleyn  ;  which,  with 
'Tlie  Triumphs  of  Riches  and  of  Poverty,'  were 
almost  the  only  symbolical  subjects  executed  at 
this  period,  to  which  are  also  due  the  great  portrait 
group  at  Longford  Ca--tle  known  as  'The  Ani- 
l)a.s.sadors,'  probably  representing  Sir  Thomas 
AVyatt  and  John  Leyland.  the  portraits  of  Thomas 
Cromwell,  and  the  cxouisite  circular  miniatures 
of  Henry  and  Charles  BraniUm,  sons  of  the  Duke 
of  Suffolk,  in  the  royal  collection  at  Windsor. 
He  also  executed  many  masterly  designs  for 
metal-work,  and  such  drawings  for  the  wood- 
engravei-s  as  the  title-])ages  of  Coverdale's  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  (  1535)  and  of  Hall's  Chronicles 
(154S).  From  a  letter  from  the  |)oet  Bourdon 
to  Solimar,  dated  153(i,  we  learn  that  Holbein 
at  that  time  held  the  appointment  of  royal 
painter  to  Henry  VIII.  :  and  in  this  capacity  he 
executed  at  Whitehall  Palace  a  mural  painting  of 
the  monarch  and  (^uecn  .lane  Seymour,  with 
Henry  \"ll.  and  Elizabeth  of  York,  ilestroye<l  in 
the  fire  of  lfi9S,  of  which  a  copy  by  \'an  Leeniput 
exists  at  Hampton  Court,  while  a  portion  of  the 
original  cartoon  is  at  Hardwick  Hall.  This  latter 
work  ami  the  large  sized  miniature  in  the  possession 


736 


HOLBERG 


HOLDEN 


of  Kail  Siifiicer  are  ii'-ianloil  l>y  Woltiiiaiiii  u-s  tin- 
only  siiiviviiij;  aiitlientie  portraits  of  the  king 
from  Holla-in's  liaml  ainoiij;  the  iiiaiiy  bearin;^  liix 
name.  His  dclieate  anil  exijuisite  portrait  of 
yiieen  .lane  Seymour  is  in  the  lielveilere,  \'ieniia. 
To  tile  same  periotl  i>  referable  the  ailmirable  half- 
length  of  Sir  Nicholas  ( 'arew,  Master  of  rhe  King's 
Horse,  al  Dalkeith  I'alaee.  ami  the  noble  portrait 
of  Iluliert  Morett,  the  jeweller,  formerly  attributed 
to  Leonarilo,  in  the  Dresileii  (ialler.v. 

Holbein  mils  repeateiUy  employed  abroad  on  the 
kings  service.  In  l.V{8  he  «a.s  ilcs|)atclied  to  the 
court  of  the  Xetlierlands  to  paint  a  likene.ss  of 
Christina  of  Denmark,  who  had  been  proposed  its 
a  successor  to  .lane  Seymour  ius  i|ueeii  to  Henry 
VIII.  In  a  threeliours'  sitting  he  executed  a 
sketch  '  very  perlliglit  :  and  from  this  he  prodin'cd 
tlie  noble  full-length  in  the  possession  of  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk.  This  work  is  one  of  the  painter's 
choicest  masterpieces,  most  attractive  in  the 
quietude  of  its  execution  and  in  its  rendering  of 
lemiiiiiie  sweetness  and  iniioceiici'.  In  the  s.-ime 
year  he  appeal's  to  have  been  in  Burgundy  ui>oii  the 
king's  business  :  and  in  .Julv  l.VW  he  was  despatched 
to  tile  court  of  C'leves,  where  he  painted  Anne  of 
Cleves — •expressed  her  imaige  veiye  lyvel.ve  ' — in 
a  work  now  in  the  Louvre  ;  while  about  \'A0  lie 
executeil  the  striking  portrait  of  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  uncle  of  Queen  Catharine  Ilowanl,  of 
which  the  original  is  at  Wimlsor,  and  an  old 
co|).v  is  preserved  at  .\rundel  Ciistle.  The  bust 
work  upon  which  Holliein  was  engaged  was  the 
picture  of  '  Henrv  VIII.  granting  a  Charter  to 
the  MiLsters  of  the  Barber-Surgeons  Company,' 
still  preserved  in  their  guildhall.  It  was  left 
incomplete  at  the  time  of  his  death  bv  the 
plague,  which,  as  the  discovery  of  his  will  by  Mr 
Black  in  ISlil  has  proved,  occurred  in  London 
between  7th  October  and  2i)th  November  \.'>i'.i, 
eleven  years  earlier  than  w:us  previously  believed. 

Holbein  is  seen  at  his  highest  in  his  ixirtrailuie  ; 
and  in  this  department  his  expressional  power,  his 
veracity  and  dignity,  and  his  nolile  technical 
qualities  of  unerring  ilraughtiuanship,  subtle  and 
perfect  moilelling,  and  richness  and  force  of 
colouring  entitle  him  to  rank  with  the  greatest 
masters.  It  is  his  power  as  a  portraitist  that  gives 
value  and  inipressiveness  to  his  religious  subjects. 
He  has  little  of  the  imaginative  force,  the  visionary 
power,  which  stamps  the  works  of  an  artist  like 
Dlirer ;  but  his  foot  treads  very  lirmly  upon  the 
earth,  and  the  faces  and  forms  which  he  bestows 
uiion  liis  .sacred  pei'simagesare  full  of  li<imely  truth, 
and  a  simple,  moving  jiathos.  .As  an  ornamentalist 
he  ranks  as  the  equ.al  of  the  greatest  Italian 
masters,  his  work  of  this  cla.ss  being  distinguisheil 
by  easy  seizure  of  form,  great  nobilitv  of  design, 
and  the  most  exuberant  ricliness  of  fancy. 

Many  works  by  llolliein  were  included  in  tlie 
South  Kensington  Portrait  Exhibition  of  1860, 
in  the  Koval  Academy  Ohl  Masters'  Kxliibition 
of  ISHO,  aiid  in  the  Tudor  Exhibition  of  18<M): 
but  in  all  of  these  exhibitions  man.v  portraits 
were  quite  erroneously  attributed  to  his  brnsh. 

See  Hofhcin  itnd  sfiiu  Ztit :  tlex  Kiiimtlerg  FttniiUf, 
Lthen,  Itnd  tichaffen,  by  Alfred  AVoltniann  (2d  ed.  Leip. 
1874- 7I> ;  English  trans,  of  the  first  edition,  by  F. 
E.  Bunnett,  Lond.1872);  and  Some  Arrnunl  of  the  Li/c 
and  M'orlis  nf  H^nui  Holbein,  by  K.  X.  Womuin  '  Loiicl. 
is<;7  •. 

llollHTg;,  Lidwk;,  B.\ron  Holbehc;,  the 
creator  of  modern  D.inish  literature,  was  bom  at 
Bergen  in  Norway,  3d  De<'ember  1684.  He  took 
his  degree  at  Copenhagen,  .and  spent  .some  fourteen 
yeai-s  partl.v  as  priv.ate  tutor  and  |iartly  in  travel, 
in  the  coHi-se  of  wliich  he  visited  Engl.aml  (where 
he  studied  two  years  at  Oxford  ),  Trance,  Italy,  and 
Germany.     In  1718  he  was  appointed  professor  of 


Metaphysics  at  Copenhagen,  Iml  in  17'itl  exchanged 
that  chair  lor  the  more  lucrative  one  of  Elo(|iieiice. 
The  woiks  that  laiil  the  loumlation  of  his  fame 
were  satirical  poenis—lii-st  and  foremost  the  serio- 
comic epic,  written  in  iambics,  of  I'cilir  I'tiiirs 
(17I!»"J((),  in  which  he  ridicules  the  pedantic 
stillness  and  stiipiility  of  eontemporaiy  life  and 
thought,  ami  after  this  llniii  MiLLil.si  n's  Jr.sliiiff 
J'ufiti.s  {  1722)  and  Uun.s  MiLKi  Isni's  Mt'tmitur/i/wsi'ji 
(1726).  But  in  1721  the  lii-st  Danish  theatre 
was  opened  at  Copenhagen,  and  Holberg  tried  his 
hand  at  comedy-writing,  with,  as  it  turned  <Mit, 
marvellous  success.  His  excidlent  light  comedies, 
on  .account  of  their  genuine  wit,  comic  humour, 
anil  skilful  character-drawing,  are  counted  by  the 
Danes  amongst  the  best  things  in  all  their  litera- 
ture. They  were  publisheil  l>y  their  author  in  a 
collected  form  in  1723-2."),  and  again,  with  live 
new  plays  addetl,  in  I7.'{l-i>l.  In  1730  Holberg 
liecaine  juofessor  of  History,  and  seven  years  later 
qua'stor  of  the  university;  and  in  17-i7  he  Wiis 
ennobled.  He  died  at  ( 'openhagen  on  28th  .lanuary 
17.34.  Perhaps  the  most  noticeable  feature  in  Hol- 
berg's  character  is  the  vei-satility  of  his  genius. 
After  1724  he  again  turned  his  pen  to  history, 
and  wrote,  amongst  other  books,  a  History  of 
DeniiKiil;,  a  (lenniil  C'/iiin/i  J/ixtori/,  a  llistoiij  of 
the  Ji'irs,  and  Contitiirttln-r  IliiiffniphU's  of  ih'C(tt 
Mm  (111(1  ]\'iiiiini,  all  greatly  esteemed,  ]iarticularly 
the  lirst.  Then  in  1741  he  produced  another 
classic  of  Danish  literature,  the  satirico-humoristic 
romance  A /V/.v  Kliin's  Sulitcrruufim  Joii/iiii/:  and 
lastly  he  wrote  serious  rellective  works,  Morul 
Tlioi((ilit.s  (1744)  and  Ejii.st/is  ( 1748-.'")4).  llis  Auto- 
hioi/i(i/i/iif  (1727-43)  shouhl  also  be  mentioned. 
J'ci/ir  I'iKiis,  the  Siihtcirdiicdn  Joiiriicij,  and  the 
Autiihio(jiiiiihii  have  been  translated  into  English. 

The  best  critical  cilitiiui  of  his  ('umuliii>  is  tliat  pub- 
lished bv  the  Holbirj;  .Society  in  8  vols.  1848-.">3  (new  cd. 
1884).  See  the  inonofe'raplis  by  lUhbck  (181.5  17),  Wer- 
laua'(18;i8),  I'rutz  (18.57),  and  (J.  Hrandes  {HulOen/  and 
fiini  Zfilii(no.wiit,  ISurhn,  188,'>). 

Ilok'roft.  Thiim.vs,  playwright  and  novelist, 
was  born  in  London,  10th  Decemlier  I74.'>  (o.s.). 
His  father,  in  wbom  fondness  alternated  with  fury, 
was  by  turns  a  shoemaker,  hcuse-dealer,  and 
pedlar;  and  he  himself,  after  three  years  as  a 
Newmarket  stable-boy,  then  eight  as  shoemaker, 
schocdmaster,  and  servant-secretary  to  Cranville 
Sliarpe,  in  1770  turned  strolling  player.  He  never 
was  much  of  an  actor,  best  in  low  coniedy  and  idd 
men's  parts  :  and,  after  .settling  in  London  (1777), 
he  gradually  took  to  authorship.  Atu-i/n,  or  the 
GciitUimiii  Coincdidii  (1780),  was  the  lirst  of  four 
novels  ;  Dnjiliiltii  ( 1781 ),  id'  u]iwards of  thirty  (days. 
Of  the  latter,  The  Follies  of  a  Duij  ( 1784),  adapted 
from  Beauniarehais"  Marixi/i  dc  Fiyoro,  brought 
him  more  than  CWH) :  and  The  Uond  to  lliiiii  ( 1702), 
i'1.300.  Between  these  befell  the  great  sorrow  of 
his  life,  the  death  of  his  eldest  son,  William 
(1773  80),  who  having  robbed  his  father  of  £40, 
and  been  found  by  him  on  an  .(Vinerican-bound 
vessel,  sliot  himself:  for  a  twelvemonth  the  stern, 
strong  man  hardly  i|iiitted  the  liou.se.  An  ardent 
if  jjeaeeable  democrat,  ill  1704  he  was  tried  for 
liigh-tieiuson  with  Hardy,  Home  Tooke,  and  nine 
others.  The  proceedings  fell  through,  but  the 
animosity  of  party  spirit  entailed  a  run  of  ill-luck 
at  the  tlieatres,  which,  combined  with  unfortunate 
speculations,  led  Holcroft  to  .sell  oil'  his  books  and 
ell'ects  (1799),  and  to  retire  for  four  years  to 
Hamburg  and  Paris.  He  died  23d  March  1809. 
See  the  interesting  Afrmoirx.  written  by  himself, 
and  loiiiinued  by  Hazlitt  (1815);  al.so  Kegan  Paul's 
IIV///'-»,  Godwin  (1876). 

Iloldeilt  SiK  Is.\.\C,  one  of  the  inventors  of 
lucifer  matches  and  of  important  moililications  in 
wool-carding  machinery,  was  born  7th  May  1807,  at 


HOLDERNESS 


HOLINSHED 


737 


■ —'^  1 

Huilet.  Kenfiewshiie,  lii~  father  having  l«?en  a 
Cuiiibeilainl  fanner  aud  leaJiiiiner.  While  a  worker 
in  a  fottim-iiiill  in  Paisley,  he  titled  himself  for  tlie 
post  of  an  assistantteaolier,  lii-st  at  Leeds,  then 
at  Hu.lilerstield,  and  latterly  at  Keatling.  Findiii- 
Hint  and  steel  inconvenient  when  he  got  ui;  at 
4  A.M.  lo  pursne  his  studies,  he  hit  on  the  iilea 
of  putting  sulphur  under  e.xplosive  material,  wlikli 
solveil  ihe  problem  of  the  lueifer  match.  The 
principli>  he  expounded  to  his  i)Upils  at  Reading 
in  l.S-.'H,  and  tlirougli  them  it  seems  to  have  be- 
come known  in  London.  Holden  was  not  hini- 
.self  aware  that  lueifer  matclies  had  been  made 
nearly  two  ,\ears  before  by  .lohn  Walker,  a  chemist 
of  .St'ocktoii-onTees,  who  sold  them  in  April  1H27 
at  one  shilling  and  twopence  a  box.  While  bo(>k 
keeper  in  a  worsted-mill  at  Bingley,  Yorkshire 
(18*1-46),  Holden  became  po.ssessed  with  the  am- 
bition of  inventing  wool-combing  machinery.  In 
1N46  he  joined  with  .Mr  Lister,  who  had  done 
much  lo  improve  the  .sy.stem  of  wool  combing,  in 
starting  :i  mill  at  St  Denis,  near  Paris.  The  rude 
wool-coml>nig  by  steel  teeth  was  done  away  with 
by  Holden's  square  motion  machine  in  1850.  Lister 
retire<l,  and  the  firm  became  Isaac  Holden  &  Sons 
in  lS5!t,  and  the  Alston  works  near  Bradford  were 
founiled.  After  the  expenditure  of  about  £50,(MK) 
in  experiments,  Holden's  wool-combing  machinery 
biought  him  both  fame  and  fortune.  Holden  wa.s 
member  for  Knaresborough  1865-68,  for  the  Xorth- 
west  Killing  188-2-85,  and  for  the  Keighley  division 
of  Yorkshire  from  1885.  He  was  made  a  baronet 
iu  189:i,  and  preserved  his  vigorous  heaUh  till 
shortly  before  his  death  on  13th  Augu.st  1897. 

lloUleriiess,  the  name  of  a  parliamentar\ 
division  (incluiling  Beverley)  and  of  a  wapentake 
in  the  East  Kiding  of  Yorkshire.  Poij.  of  the 
former,  41,298  ;  of  the  latter,  25,000. 

Holdins*  fl's  term  in  Scots  law  used  to 
denote  the  manner  in  which  heritable  estate  is 
holilen,  anil  corresponding  to  Tenure  (q.v.)  in 
English  law.  See  also  FEf,  and  AoRlCULTrRAL 
Holdings  Act. 

Uolibnt.     See  H.\LIBlT.  | 

Holiday,  in  Law,  means  Sunday,  ChrLstmas- 
day,  (ioixl  Friday,  and  any  other  day  ai>pointed 
for  a  public  festival  or  fast.  In  Catholic  times  ' 
holidays  were  numerous ;  but  modern  legislation 
and  custom  have  consideraljly  reduced  their  num- 
ber. (Jf  late  years  the  importance  of  holidays  to 
working  people  has  been  recognised,  and  acts 
have  been  pa.ssed  increasing  the  number  of  bank 
holidays.  When  a  bill  of  exchange  falls  due  on 
a  Sunday,  payment  must  be  made  the  day  pre- 
vious. If  it  falls  due  on  any  of  the  bank  holi- 
days, the  bill  is  i)ayable  the  day  after.  In  Eng- 
land the  courts  excuse  a  man  for  not  giving  notice 
of  dishonour  of  bills  of  exciiange  not  oidy  on 
Sunday,  (lood  Friday,  and  Christm.'us-day,  but 
also  even  on  the  festival  days  of  his  own  reli- 
";ion  ;  and,  though  there  has  been  no  ilecision  in 
Scotland  on  the  subject,  the  same  rule  would 
no  doiibt  be  api)lied  lo  fa-st-days  prescribed  by 
ditlerent  sects,  and  a  notice  sent  on  the  day  fol- 
lowing would  suliice.  But  as  a  general  rule,  and 
in  all  other  respects,  it  may  be  laid  down  that 
no  sect,  established  or  unestablished,  nor  any 
court  or  public  boily,  has  any  power  whatever 
to  declare  a  holiday  which  h.os  any  legal  ett'ect, 
or  which  can  bind  the  public  or  the  rights  of 
third  parties.  Nothing  but  an  act  of  parliament 
hii»  that  etl'ect,  ami  not  even  a  proclamation  of  the 
crown  would  be  stiliicient.  Hence  it  is  that  when 
a  solemn  national  fast  is  proidainied,  which  is  to 
be  put  on  the  same  footing  as  a  Sunday,  it  reipiires 
a  special  act  of  p.arli.anient  to  ni.ike  it  binding  on 
the  public  in  ni.itters  of  business.  See  B.-VXK 
255 


HoLID.WS  ;  and  for  ecclesiastical  and  popular  holi- 
days, see  Festivals. 

Holinshed,  K.aI'H.vel,  an  English  chronicU-r, 
belonged  to  a  goo<l  Cheshire  family,  and,  according 
to  Wood,  was  educated  at  one  of  the  universities, 
and  became  a  minister  of  God's  word.  He  ajinears 
also  to  have  been  steward  to  Thomas  Burnet  of 
Bromcote,  iu  Warwickshire,  and  died  between  15S0 
and  1.584.  The  work  with  which  his  name  is  con- 
nected is  The  Chronicles  nf  Enqlaml,  Scutlaml,  'mil 
IieJond,  published  in  two  folio  volumes  in  1577. 
This  edition,  together  with  its  predecessor,  the 
<  hronicle  of  Hall,  was  the  direct  source  from  wliicli 
Shakespeare  drew  the  materials  for  his  English 
historical  plays.  If  we  except  the  history  of  Kinij 
Jtihn,  which  stands  by  itself,  these  form  a  regular 
historical  sequence  of  English  kings  from  Kichard 
II.  to  Henry  VIII.,  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  .alone 
omitted  as  unsuitable  for  diamatic  representation. 
And  it  is  not  a  little  interesting  and  signilicant  that 
these  cover  exactly  the  same  period  as  HalTs 
Chronicle — a  period  full  of  great  action  and  tragical 
cata-strophes  profoundly  touched  with  pathos. 

The  first  edition  of  Holinshed  contained  many 
woodcuts  which  were  omitted  in  the  second  edition 
(3  vols,  folio:  usually  bound  in  two,  1.586-87),  as 
well  as  a  number  of  passages  cancelled  by  order  of 
the  Privy-council  a-s  disagreeable  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. These  castrations  were  published  separately 
in  black  letter  like  the  original,  by  Dr  Drake  in 
1723,  and  are  inserted  in  their  proper  places  in  the 
splendid  edition  of  the  Chrnnirle  published  in  six 
4to  volumes  (1807-8).  This  last  edition  has  the 
|)arlicular  merit  of  an  exceptiimally  full  index. 

Holinshed  was  Ijy  no  means  the  only  writer  of  the 
work  wliicli  bears  his  name,  and,  indeed,  its  whole 
history  is  not  a  little  interesting.  Early  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  the  queen's  i)rinter,  Reginald 
Wolfe,  a  German  by  birth,  plannetl  '  a  L'niversal 
Cosmogiaphie  of  the  whole  world,  and  therewith 
also  certain  particular  histories  of  every  known 
nation,'  and  for  the  histoiical  part  of  the  work  had 
engaged  Raphael  Holinshed  among  other  men. 
When  the  gigantic  work  was  nearly  completed 
Wolfe  died,  after  twenty-tive  years'  labour  at  his 
.scheme.  Those  who  were  to  bear  the  cost  of  print- 
ing the  whole  now  took  fright  at  the  expense,  and 
resolved  to  do  only  so  much  of  it  in  the  meantime 
as  related  to  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 
Holinshed  having  the  histoiy  of  these  countries  in 
hand,  api)lication  was  made  lo  Harrison  to  furnish 
the  descriptions  of  Britain  and  England  to  be  pre- 
fixed to  the  whole.  Of  the  three  volumes  in  the 
second  edition,  the  first  is  made  up  of  these  and 
Holinshed's  own  history  of  England  till  the  Con- 
quest. The  second  contains  the  Description  of 
Ireland  by  Richard  Stanihurst,  the  translator  of 
Virgal  s  ^/icid  into  English  hexameters,  himself  a 
Catholic  and  the  uncle  of  Archbishop  Tssher  ;  then 
the  history  of  Ireland  to  its  Conquest,  adapted  from 
Giraldus  "Cambrensis,  by  John  Hooker  or  Vowell, 
uncle  of  the  Judicious  Hooker  :  next  the  history  of 
Ireland  to  the  year  1509  by  Holinshed  :  its  con- 
tinuation to  15-47  by  Stanihurst  ;  and  thence  to 
1586  by  Hooker.  The  second  vohime  contains 
further  the  Description  of  Scotland  by  Harrison  ; 
the  history  of  Scotland  by  Holinshed,  down  to  1571, 
and  by  Francis  Boteville.  or  Thin,  the  Lancaster 
herald,  with  the  help  of  others,  from  1571  to  1586. 
This  was  m.ainly  compiled  from  Bellenden's  trans, 
lation  of  Boece,  .lohn  >Iajor,  and  the  continuation 
of  Boece  by  John  Ferreri.  The  third  volume  is 
made  up  of  the  history  of  England  from  William 
the  Conqueror  down  to  1577  by  Holinshed,  and 
from  1577  down  to  1.586  by  the  fann)us  antiquarT 
Stow,  Fr.  Thin,  Abraham  Fleming,  .ami  others.  In 
the  nuwlera  six-volume  edition  of  1807-8  these  are 
more  conveniently  arranged  :  the  first  four  volumes 


■3P 


HOLKAR 


HOLLAND 


beinj;  .li'vote<l  to  the  liislory  <>t  liii^'liitul,  the  liflh 
to  Kcothinil,  the  sixth  to  Iifhiiul,  each  having; 
the  Iiescii|iii"n  of  its  proper  ooiuitry  prelixed. 

Holiiisheil  wius  an  honest  ami  imlnstrionx  man, 
an<l  had  the  ailvantaf'e  of  iieini;  able  to  eonsnlt  the 
iiianusei'ipt.s  of  Lelaml.  In  tlie  '  Fieiaee  to  the 
Keailer,'  at  the  lie;.'inMintr  of  the  third  vohinie  of 
the  secoml  edition,  he  says  :  ■  My  speerh  is  plain, 
without  any  rhetmical  show  of  elo<|iience,  having' 
rather  a  rej;ard  to  simple  truth  than  to  ileekin>.' 
words.'  Ami  in  his  eonclnsion  to  the  rei^n  of 
Eli/aheih,  .Vlirahani  Kleniin^r.  the  contrihutor  of 
many  valna))le  notes  tlirou;.'liout  the  i-ntire  work, 
desorilies  with  modest  trutlifiilness  those  who  ha«l 
laho  tred  t<i;;ether  as  •  men  of  i  ommendahle  dili- 
jjence,  though  not  of  deepe.sl  juilf;ment.' 

llolkar.  the  name  of  a  powerful  Maiiratta 
family,  ilie  memhers  of  which  have  at  various  times 
heen  formiilalile  eneniies  to  the  liritish  empire  in 
India.  The  founder  of  the  family  wius  Mulhar  Itai) 
llolkar,  who  was  iMirn  in  the  Deccan,  109.3,  and. 
haviiii;  trained  by  his  valour  the  favour  of  the 
I'l'ishwaii.  ■ihtaineil  from  him  the  western  half  of 
Malwa,  with  ladore  for  liis  eajiital.  See  IxDORK, 
Mahh.vtt.vs. 

Holl,  Frank,  K.  A.,  portrait  ami  subject  painter, 
was  born  in  Kentish  Town.  4tli  .July  IS-to,  .a  son  of 
Francis  Holl,  .\.lt.A.  (1SI,5-S4|.  the  well  known 
en^'raver.  lie  wxs  eduejiteil  at  I'niversity  t'olle^'e 
School,  Lomlon,  and  in  IStiO  entered  tin-  schools  of 
the  Koyal  .\cadeniy,  where  he  won  ^'old  ami  silver 
medals,  in  1S6;1  a  two  years'  scholarship  forthebe.st 
historical  p.iintin^  by  his  '  .Vbrahaiii  about  to  sacri- 
fice Isajic,  ,ind  in  IStJ.S  the  travellinj;  studentship  of 
the  Academy  by  his  subject-idcture  of  '  The  Lord 
;;ave,  and  the  l.^rd  hath  taken  away.'  Four  years 
prt^viously  he  had  lie^'un  to  exhibit  iji  the  Koyal 
.\cadeniy  with  a  portrait  of  himself  and  a  subject 
picture,  'Turneil  out  of  Church.'  These  were  fol- 
lowed by  various  ellective  i/e/ire-subjects  dealin;,' 
almost  invariably  with  pathetic  scenes  from  modern 
life,  such  lus  ■  1  am  the  Itesurreciion  ami  the  Life 
(  1872), 'Want —the  Pawnbroker'sShop'(187.S).  'Her 
First-born '  ( ISTb  I,  '  New;:ate— Committed  for  Trial ' 
(1878),  •  thilerol  to  the  Front'  (18.>«J),  •  Ueturned 
from  the  Wars' (1881),  •  Deserted '(1884).  Hewa.s 
elected  .\.U..\.  in  1878,  and  K.A.  in  1884.  About 
1.S77  he  turned  his  attention  to  portraiture,  and 
.speeilily  attained  immense  |io|)ularity  in  this  de- 
partment, his  works  beinj;  marked  by  a  powerful 
if  rather  heavy  touch,  an  ellective  chiaroscuro, 
and  by  much  di;^nity  of  style,  though  they  possess 
little  sweetness  of  colour,  and  are  somewhat  marred 
by  the  recurrence  of  opaipie  blaekne.ss  in  the 
sfiadows.  Amonjif  the  most  important  of  his  por- 
traits may  Imj  named  '  Sir  Henry  Kawlinson  '  (  1881 ), 
'Duke  of  Cambridge  ■  (1883),  'Prince  of  Wales' 
(18841,  -Duke  of  Cleveland'  (1886),  'Sir  (;.  (t. 
Trevelyan  '  (I887l,  and  •  W.  E.  t;iadstone,'  'Sir 
William  Jenner,'  and  '  Lord  Spencer  '  (  1888).  His 
health  sutl'ered  from  his  incessant  artistic  pnxluc- 
tion.  and  he  died  31st  July  1888.  A  collection  of 
over  fifty  of  his  works  was  brou!.dit  to>,'ether  in  the 
winte-  exhibition  of  the  Koyal  .\cadeniy.  I.S89. 

Holland*  the  popular  ami  {.'enerally  accepted 
name  of  a  country  wnicli  is  otticially  descril>ed  lus 
'  Netherland.'  or  The  Netherlands,"  apjilie-s  to  a 
maritime  kingdom  lying  between  50'  43'  and  .53' 
36'  N.  lat.,  and  3°  22'  and  T  16'  E.  long.  It  is 
bouniled  on  the  N.  by  the  North  Sea,  E.  by 
Prussia,  S.  by  Belgium,  \V.  by  the  North  Sea.  Its 
greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is  195  miles, 
and  its  greatest  breadth  from  west  to  east  IKl 
miles.  It  contains  rj.630  s(|.  m.— little  more  than 
one  tenth  of  the  size  of  (neat  Britain  and  Ireland. 
Luxemburg  was  long  included,  but  this  grand- 
duchy  had  a  distinct  government  as  a  si>iiarate  state. 


and  Hidland  only  |M>s.sessed  a  dynastic  intiTcst  in  it, 
which  piusseil  away  with  the  death  of  William  III. 
in  1890  (see  Li  xkmih  i;i;  |.  The  following  table 
gives  the  population  of  HollamI  in  1888,  the  area 
of  the  provinces,  and  the  provincial  capitals  : 


Ai*«  III 

1-..1.  Ill  I8S8. 

l-r...li...«l 

S..rih  nralnnt.. 

.  19<0 

.'.10, -.MO 

BnlB-li'-Dilc. 

(iiii-lilerlaiKl 

1950 

.Ml.STS 

Anihciii. 

s.,iiili  Il..llai„l  . 

1100 

»l:i.4l>6 

Til.   Hau'uc. 

N'.rtli  Uullaii'l.. 

.  lllTO 

sl«,-Je3 

lluirli'iii. 

Z<-;lllltld  . ,    . 

800 

■xt.ur 

Mi.|.|.-ll.iiri-. 

Utn-clit  . 

.■.30 

L'lS.lkSS 

Utn-clil. 

Krifslaiiil 

1-J*0 

a3ri.O:'.o 

lA'Cuvi-nnleii 

Ov«Ty.s.s,-l. 

1-.1I0 

Lti.'i.wH; 

/wolli- 

4Jn)iiiii>:ru 

BUO 

•J7ll,O.V2 

(:niiiiii>;i.-ii. 

I>r.-iitlii- 

W.O 

130,  JOS 

Asuen. 

LiiuljurK  

...    8tt) 

SBO.iei 

Mustrielit. 

12,630  4,&06.(KIJ 

-At  that  date  the  population  of  Lu.xemburg(2l3,(KM() 
wa.s  also  under  the  king  of  the  Netherlands.  At 
the  census  of  1889  the  total  pnpulation  of  the  Nether- 
lands \v;is  4,5!  1.415  :  in  1H1I5  it  was  4,795.li4li. 

Thus,  in  spite  of  increased  emigration  to  .\iiie- 
rica  North  and  South,  and  .\fricH,  the  ]iopula- 
lion  shows  .379  inhabitants  to  the  si|miri'  mile. 
Ilollaml  is  the  most  densely  )ieopled  country  of 
Europe,  after  Saxony  ( f)05  inhaliitaiits  to  sf|.  m.  I 
and  Belgium  (.5.58).  The  population  is  thinnest 
in  the  ea.stern  provinces,  and  densest  in  North 
and  Soutli  HollamI,  wheie  it  averages  abnut  xjO 
per  s(|uare  mile.  .\lM>ut  three  lifths  of  the  ]>opula- 
lion  are  I'lotestants,  and  two  liltlis  Koiiiaii  Catho- 
lics, besides  100,000  .lews. 

In  1895  there  were  eight  to>vns  with  more  than 
40,000  inhabitants— viz.  Amsterdam,  the  capital, 
450.(K)0  :  Kotterdani,  •235,IKKI :  I'lie  Hague,  lesi- 
dence  of  tlie  royal  family  ami  seat  of  the  govern- 
iiiiMit.  ISO, (1(1(1;  Itreciit,  !)3.(KMI  ;  tooningen, 
1)0,000;  ll:uirlem,  5»,000 ;  Arnliem,  53,0(X) ;  and 
Ley  den,  45,000. 

I'/ii/.sira/  yl.v//er/.  — Vidtaire's  words,  '  C'linnids, 
ruiKiiij,  aptly  descrilie  the  leading  feature^  of  the 
countn  — tlat"  full  of  water  and  w.aterways.  swarm- 
ing with  ai|uatic  birds.  Like  Etrypt,  Hcdland.  in 
its  greater  part,  is  a  delta  formed  by  the  allu\ium 
dei)Osite<l  by  the  great  rivers  that  How  through 
it  into  the  North  Sea.  But  Holland  is  not  only 
fiat  :  it  is  also  liidlow.  and  this  explains  its  name 
-  Hollowlanil.  In  a  large  measure  the  soil  lies 
umler  the  level  of  the  water,  salt  or  otherwise. 
.\long  the  canals  the  meailows  are  10  or  12 
fei't,  sometimes  more,  beneath  the  water-line  ; 
by  the  sea,  at  high  tide,  there  may  be  a  diller- 
enee  in  the  level  of  the  soil  and  of  the  ocean 
of  (juite  25  feet  or  more.  Of  course  all  these 
lands  have  to  lie  protecteil  by  einbnuknient,s  or 
dykes,  the  tops  thereof,  broad  and  Hat,  lieing 
use<l  for  cairiage-roads  and  foot-paths.  The 
cimstant  battle  of  the  llidlanders  against  the 
watery  idement  finds  expre.s.siim  in  the  motto  of 
the  pKivince  of  Zealand:  /.intur  rt  iiiieii/o  .'  They 
utilised  till-  mighty  rivers,  the  Khiiie,  Waal,  iiuc' 
Ma«s.  that  traverse  and  fertilised  their  country,  at 
an  early  date :  and  they  have  covered  the  lane' 
with  a  nefwink  of  canals  that  is  pinbably  iiuiqae 
in  the  whole  worhl.  .\pai1  from  forming  conveni- 
ent boundaries,  these  canals  serve  a  twofoli'  pur- 
pose :  they  are  mostly  navigable  for  small  craft, 
and  they  help  to  irrigate  the  land.  Large  wind- 
mills are  posted  at  the  main  points  to  pump  out 
the  siiiierlluous  water;  hence  they  form  a  conspicu- 
ous feature  of  Dutch  lamLiapes.  ((tlier  wiiidiiiills 
near  the  towns  ami  villages  frei|uenlly  work  for 
iliHerent  puriioses,  but  they  are  one  and  all  remai|k- 
able  till  their  peculiar  shape  and  the  enormous  size 
of  their  -aiN.  one  single  sail  reaching  often  to  120 
feet.  The  canals  also  provide,  when  frozen,  an 
important    medium   of   communication   to  skaters. 


HiJLLAHB^ 


i 

r^.,ffuphual  Jta^-t  fii'-.-^T  J'w' 

i;<Tm^  JTff/-^  Xi  -  >'•»  Z>'y^< 

M 

Vtija-a^lG 

Railwari  rrprnxiUtd  tkus  — 

_ 

.Ji. 

Lon^tude 


Grtenwici 


WAR. CHAMBERS. LIMITED   LONDON  &EDtNBUR6H. 


HOLLAND 


739 


Some  of  theiii  ilate  back  for  centuries ;  the  most 
ancient  is  certainly  the  fossa  Dntsi  in  the  ea.st, 
ma<le  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  ami  referred  to  hy 
Tacitus.  Many  canals,  re^ilateil  liv  locks  (which 
were  i)robal)ly  known  in  Holland  a  hundred  years 
l)efore  they  were  intro<laced  into  Italy  in  the  I.")th 
century ),  connect  the  parallel  rivers,  and  the  Yssel 
f<nins  a  link  between  the  Rhine  an<l  the  canals  and 
meres  of  Friesland.  The  latter  are  va.st  and  some- 
what .shallow  lakes.  Thus  it  is  possible  to  travel 
on  water  through  the  whole  of  Holland.  The  )u-in- 
cipal  canals  are  the  North  Holland  ('anal,  from 
Amsterdam  to  Den  Helder,  51  miles  long ;  the 
AVilliam's  Canal,  through  North  IJrabant  and 
Limburg,  which  has  a  length  of  7U  miles;  the 
North  Sea  Canal,  from  Amsterdam  to  Ymuiden, 
on  the  Geruian  Ocean  ;  and  the  canal  from  the 
Maas,  near  Rotterdam,  to  the  so-called  Hoek  van 
Holland,  named  the  New  Waterw.iy,  which  now 
enables  ocean  steamers  to  reach  Rotterdam  at  all 
times.  We  have  already  described  the  most  iiu- 
portant  (see  C.VS.^D,  and  we  will  only  add  here 
that  in  1890  it  was  proposed  to  ilo  away  with  the 
locks  on  the  North  Sea  Canal,  making  it  a  level 
navigable  channel  for  ocean-steamers  from  end  to 
enil.  The  cutting  and  maintaining  of  canals  in 
Holland  is  one  of  the  chief  functions  of  the  AVater- 
stjtat,  a  public  department  that  is  carried  on  under 
an  independent  minister  of  the  crown,  and  is 
entirely  conlined  to  hydraulic  engineering.  The 
reclamation  of  land  by  the  drainage  of  lakes,  and 
by  pushing  back  the  sea  and  creating  what  are 
styled  'polders,'  is  likewise  a  lea<Iing  feattire  in 
the  operations  of  the  AVaterstaat.  These  newly- 
reclaimed  polderlands  always  fetch  high  i)rices 
amongst  the  a''ricultural  cbisses,  as  was  the  ca.se 
with  the  Haanem  Lake  (ij.v.)  pcdder,  which  wa-s 
sold  in  plots  at  such  prices  that  the  state  made 
an  excellent  bargain.  The  draining  of  Haarlem 
Lake  will  be  eclipsed,  should  the  scheme  of  laying 
<lrv  the  Zuider  Zee  (i|.v.),  which  involves  an  esti- 
mated outlay  of  £26,iK)ii.O0O,  be  carried  out.  This 
would  enrich  Holland  with  a  new  luovince  of  about 
one  and  a  half  million  acres. 

The  maintenance  of  dykes  by  the  Watei-staat 
forms  another  task  of  vital  moment ;  the  safety  of 
the  state  depen<Is  upon  their  constant  strength  and 
resisting  power  where  there  are  no  hills  or  dunes  to 
ott'era  natural  protection  against  the  encroachments 
of  water.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  ocean 
is  H(dland"s  most  treacherous  and  formidable  foe  : 
the  rivers,  when  swollen  by  heavy  rains  or  falls  of 
snow,  are  much  more  dangerous.  As  the  liver 
beds  naturally  rise  by  alluvial  dei>osits,  the  em- 
bankments have  to  be  made  higher  and  higher. 
In  times  of  peril  a  special  dyke  service  is 
organised,  and  headquarters  are  kept  informed 
night  and  day  by  a  body  of  Waterstaat  engineers, 
who  direct  t)ieir  trained  workmen  to  the  iioinls 
that  are  more  immediately  threatened.  I)vkes 
form  a  very  e.xpensive  item  in  the  budgets  of 
Holland.  Half  a  million  pounds  will  not  cover 
the  animal  cost  to  the  state.  Besides,  many 
ilykes  are  almost  entirely  maintained  out  of 
local  rates.  The  most  formidable  and  costly 
sea  dykes  are  round  the  western  co;i,st-liiie  of 
Walclieren  Island,  ami  near  Den  Helder  in  North 
Hollauil.  These  dykes  are  veritable  ramparts, 
formed  by  piles  at  the  base,  which  support  a 
superstructure  of  earth  and  stimes.  The  annual 
cost  of  keeping  one  in  rei)air  freijuently  reaches 
£S(M)n  to  t;iO,()00.  Despite  the  care  and  pre- 
c-auticms  of  ever  vigilant  and  ingenious  men,  dis- 
asters through  inundatiims  form  but  t<«)  familiar 
a  feature  in  the  history  of  Holland.  A  series  of 
irruptions  of  the  ocean  created  the  Zuider  Zee  be- 
tween 1170  and  ISOo.  As  Goldsmith  says  in  his 
Trarcller,   the    I)ntcliiiian   has    'scooped    out    an 


emi>ire  '  from  the  ocean,  and  the  old  Dutch  iiroverb 
that  God  inaile  the  sea  but  the  Hollander  tlie  land 
holds  true  to  this  very  day. 

CoiiuniiiiiriitioiiH. — The  ohlest  railway  of  Holland 
is  the  line  connecting  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam 
by  way  of  Leyden,  which  was  commenced  in  IH37. 
The  principle  of  state  railways  was  .settled  in  1860, 
and  extended  in  1S73  and  1875.  The  w  hole  cimntry 
is  now  covered  by  a  network  of  railways  built  out 
of  state  funds,  and  in  1.S90  there  were  WM)  miles 
open  for  traflic.  They  are  not  worked  liy  the 
government,  but  by  a  company,  which  pays  the 
treasury  a  certain  imiportion  of  the  net  profits. 
There  are  several  juivate  railways,  Imt  the  present 
tendency  is  to  make  them  state  jiroperties.  The 
C(mntry  roa<ls,  mostly  paved  with  bricks,  are  broad 
and  excellent,  but  tolls  are  still  maintained.  The 
cdil-fashioned  way  of  navigating  the  canals  in  irck- 
si/i II itcii,  or  boats  drawn  by  horses,  or  men  and  even 
women,  along  a  towing-)iath,  is  tending  to  disa|)]iear. 
The  number  of  i)a.ssengers  carried  by  state  and 
private  railway  lines  in  ls94  was  over  ■24,30(J,(»00. 
During  the  year  1894,  130,000,000  letters  and 
4.385.0(X)  telegrams  were  forwarded.  Postal  savings- 
banks  were  instituted  in  ISSl  ;  in  1895  the  deposits 
amounted  to  32,250,000  guilders. 

C/iiii(itc,  AgriniUitn .  riDiliirc,  <t-c. — The  climate 
of  Holland  is  much  like  the  climate  of  England, 
especially  in  its  fre(|uent  and  rapid  changes  ;  but, 
as  a  rule,  the  Dutch  summer  is  hotter  and  the 
Dutch  winter  colder.  Ague  is  prevalent  in  the 
low  lying  regions  of  the  west,  and  foreigners  are 
particularly  liable  to  sutler  from  its  ravages. 

Agriculture  in  its  various  branches  forms  one 
of  the  leading  pui-suits  of  the  Dutch.  In  1896 
there  were  25,555  farm-owners  and  farm-tenants. 
Land  tenure  is  similar  to  that  in  France,  and  fee- 
sim]ple  with  |ie!V.sant-piopiietorslii]i  the  rule.  Cattle- 
rearing  and  dairy-farming  have  been  the  Dutch 
farmer's  chief  occupations  fnrni  time  immemorial. 
This  explains  why  arable  land  in  Holland  only 
covei-s  an  ari'a  of  '2, 1.50,(KX)  acres,  while  meadows 
cover  2,800,000  acres.  The  farm-stock  in  the 
year  1S86  consisted  of  272,700  horses,  1,530,800 
head  of  cattle,  802,700  sheep,  1.161,'2<K)  goats,  and 
4.58, '200  pigs.  Dutch  slu'ej),  very  large  in  size,  were 
formerly  exported  to  England  in  gieat  numbers, 
until  disease  slo]iiied  the  trade,  and  the  same 
thing  hapjiened  with  cattle.  In  1889  the  British 
I'rivy-council  again  authorised  the  importation  of 
live  Dutch  cattle  and  sheep.  Dutch  farmers  have 
siiflered  heavily  through  cattle  disease,  which  was 
at  its  worst  in  1874 ;  but  the  g'overnnient  has 
succeedeil  in  stamping  it  out  entirely.  Dutch  beef 
and  Dutch  milch-cows  are  mucli  esteemed  in 
England  and  in  .\iuerica.  The  United  States  and 
Smith  Africa  buy  many  horned  cattle  in  Holland 
for  breeding  purposes,  also  Friesland  horses,  which 
are  extremely  strong,  and  Holland  trotters.  Dairy- 
farming  had  fallen  oil  very  much,  especially  in 
Friesland.  once  famous  for  its  butter,  Ijecause  the 
Dutch  dairy  farmers  clung  to  antiquated  methods, 
ami  so  were  outstripped  by  foreigii  competitors. 
H<dlaiid,  formerly  one  of  the  chief  markets  for 
ilairy  produce,  has  now  become  the  iirinci|ial 
pidilucer  of  butler  substitutes.  I!ut,  taught  by 
disiLstrous  exiierience  and  the  exanijde  of  Deli- 
mark,  the  Dutch  d.iiry -farmers  are  at  last  intro- 
ducing the  'factory  system'  and  other  improve- 
ments. Holland  exjxuted  in  1895  butter  to  the 
value  of  .t'l,4O3,0<K),  and  cheese  to  the  value  of 
.fl,160,tK)0.  The  ci>mnion  Dutch  cheese  comes  from 
Gouda,  and  the  round  balls  are  from  E<lani  in 
North  Hidland.  The  staple  agricultural  proilucts 
are  wheat,  rye,  oats,  potatoes,  beet -root,  chicory, 
Hax.  and  tobacco.  The  use  of  modern  implements, 
such  !\s  steani-iiloughs,  &c. ,  is  now  s])rea»ling 
raiiidly,  like  the  application  of  artificial  manures. 


740 


HOLLA  M> 


The  soil  of  Hollaiid  is  not  uiiifoiiiily  fertile. 
Large  tracts  of  limd,  esiieciiilly  in  tlie  eastern  pro- 
vinces,  are  sini|ily  lietilli  ;  anil  tlie  wasle  liinils  of 
Holliiml  covereil  an  area  of  more  than  1,7IK(,<XKI 
acre.s  in  1S97.  A  smielv  ha>  heen  foumled  for  the 
atlorestation  of  these  tracts.  'I'he  orehanls  of  I!o> 
k(H)|i.  i«ro<luein;i  excellent  frnit,  like  the  prolihc 
district  of  Westlanil,  shonid  he  nienlioned.  lis  also 
the  famous  ciiltnre  of  Dntch  bulbs  at  liiiarleni  and 
the  surrounding;  ilistiicts. 

iV/Hf (Y(/*.  — As  may  be  readily  Udieveil,  min- 
erals are  scarce  in  H<dland  ;  but  valuable  clay  for 
the  manufacture  of  tiles,  l)ricks,  and  potteiy  is 
found  everywhere  in  great  abundance,  and  the 
making  of  the  famous  (dd  Delftware  is  now  reviv- 
ing. Coal  is  workeil  in  I.imliurg,  and  al.so  a  soft 
.sandstone. 

Miniiifaftures,  Jndiijitri'x,  tir. — The  chief  manu- 
factures are  linen,  woollen,  cotton,  and  silk  fabrics, 
paper,  leatlier,  gla,ss,  iVc.  Leyden,  Tilburg,  and 
Veenendaal  are  famed  for  vvocdlen  blankets,  wool- 
dyed  pilot,  line  cloths,  and  friezes ;  s  Hertogen- 
Ijosch  ( Bois  le  Due)  for  linens  and  rich  chuiiasks. 
t'alicoes,  shirtings,  ihills.  table-cloths,  striped  dimi- 
ties, (Sic.  are  made  at  Almelo,  Amersfoort,  ami 
other  leading  towns.  E.vcellent  imitation  Smyrna 
carpets  are  manufactureil  at  Deventer,  and  imita 
tion  Scotch  and  other  kinds  are  made  at  Delft,  iVc.  : 
turkey-red  varus,  dyeil  silks,  and  .silk  stud's  at 
Itoermond,  t  treclit,  Ilaiirlem,  I'i.c.  :  leather,  ghtss, 
firearms  at  Miuistricht  and  Delft:  iron  founding, 
rolling  ami  hanuiiering  of  lead  and  copper,  cannon 
founding  are  carried  on  at  The  Hague,  &c. 
Hreweiics  .are  numerous  (.141  in  18S7):  Jliddel- 
burg,  Bois-le-Duc,  Amsterdam,  Nimegnen,  I'iic. 
have  important  ones,  those  of  Boisle  Due  and  Am- 
.sterdam  nianufaoturing  large  fjuantitics.  Waalwijk, 
Heusden,  and  surrounding  districts  manufacture 
boots  and  shoes,  (iin  is  distilled  at  Schiedam, 
Delft,  Hotterdam,  and  .\msterdani.  The  distilleries 
of  gin  ( °  llollanils ')  fcnni  an  important  branch 
of  Dutch  industry,  over  5(H)  existing  at  the  end  of 
1897.  The  liqueur  factories  are  of  national  import- 
ance. Amsterdam  once  hail  the  largest  diamoml- 
cutting  trade  in  the  worhl,  lO.llOO  i)er.sons  depending 
on  that  branch  of  industry  :  but  latterly,  owing 
to  various  causes  (the  dearness  of  rough  stones 
being  one  of  them),  the  trade  has  fallen  oH'.  Sugar- 
refining  was  carried  on  by  11  establishments  in 
18!)."),  and  there  were  then  also  ;t(.t  beetroot  sugar 
factories,  oO  salt-works,  and  nearly  600  l>reweries. 
The  manufacture  of  cocoa  has  assumed  enornmus 
proportions  in  the  host  few  years,  and  there  are 
large  works  at  Weesp,  at  .Aijislcrdam,  and  at 
Kotterdam.  North  Brabant  is  the  princinal  centie 
of  the  Dutch  margarine  trade,  ex|>orte(l  to  Eng- 
land in  immense  i|uantities.  Something  like  nine 
tenths  of  all  the  margarine  sent  to  England 
(value  £2,498, .■)0<J  in  lS9fi)  comes  from  Holland. 

FIshcrici. — The  fisheries  of  Holland,  although  no 
longer  so  important  as  at  one  time,  are  still  no<e 
worthy.  At  the  end  of  ISiCi  they  gave  employ 
ment  to  17,6.'>0  men  and  boys,  on  boaid  5189 
ve.s.sel.v  The  herring  -  lisherv  produce  annnallv 
between  3,00(>,<KIO  aiirl  4,(KKI,(KJ0  barrels  from  the 
North  Sea  alone,  and  :}00,00<»  tons  of  salt  herrings 
may  be  exported  in  a  single  year.  Trawling  is 
extensively  re-sorted  to.  'Dutch  coopering'  has 
l)een  virtually  abolisbeil  by  the  international 
North  Sea  Conventions  (see  C'ool'KKAGE).  Between 
•25.«(X),0OO  and  :«,(XX).000  oysters  are  annually 
taken,  and  a  fiuirth  thereof  exporteil  to  England. 
The  fisheries  of  Holliind  are  estimated  to  yield 
annually  i.'J.tNHi.lVHK 

ImfKnts,  ICi'in/its,  anil  .'ihij/jihifi. — The  Dutch  are 
no  longer  the  '  carriers  of  Europe,'  but  their  earn- 
ing trade  is  still  very  considerable.  The  total 
imports   into   Holland    and    exports    tjience    were. 


in  1S94,  i"l-.'l,7.'><l,tN'<land  l'9.S.O(iO,tKKi:  and  the  im- 
ports from  and  exports  to  the  I'nited  Kingdom  in 
1894  were  l'27.t>llll,4(Kt  and  ts,7s7..-i()0  respectively. 
Holland  ol  all  lOuropean  connlries  iloes  the  largest 
amount  of  foreign  trade  per  heatl  of  p(»pulatioii  ; 
in  188S,  f."?7,  7s.  D.d.  per  heiul  (more  than  thrice 
that  of  Creat  Britain  and  Ireland).  In  I8<)5  the 
mercantile  ni.uine  coiisisteil  of  4'25  sailing  ves- 
sels of  a  buiden  of  1 1U,8U0  tons,  aud  1S7  steamers 
of  18:}.(KMI  tons. 

J.'iiiiiiii,  Ediiendiliiit:,  dc. — The  revenue  of  1890 
Hits  estimated  at  about  £10. 109,(KM).  ami  the  ex- 
penditure at  £1 1, 250,(100.  The  Ea-st  Indies  revenue 
for  18!M)  was  estimateil  at  £10,677, (HX),  the  expendi- 
ture at  £11,7(K).()(K).  The  East  India  colonies,  once 
a  bnrilen,  were  long  a  source  of  |irolit,  but  are  now 
a  burden  again.  I'rom  18.')0  to  ami  with  1874 
£25.376,218  wiis  paid  oil  fiom  the  natiomil  debt. 
In  1880  the  debt  amounted  to  £78,601,216,  and  the 
anniml  interest  payable  on  it  wa.s  £2,328,000 :  in 
1888  the  debt  proper  was  upwards  of  £88,000,(KlO, 
besides  £1,2.')0,000  in  paper  money.  The  annual 
charge,  even  after  a  recent  reduction,  wa>  still 
estimated  at  £2,5S1.(HH)  for  18!H).  The  great  bulk 
of  the  national  debt  is  held  in  Holland  :  the  mitional 
pros]ierity  is  increasing,  and  an  enormous  amount 
IS  invested  in  foreign  funds  and  American  railways. 

Co/uiius. — The  cohmies  of  Hollaml  are  stated  to 
have  an  area  of  unw.ards  of  70O.OO0  sq.  m.  (more 
than  three  times  tlie  area  of  the  I  lermau  emidre), 
with  a  iiopnlation  of  about  .•»0,(XI0.0(XI.  They  fall 
into  two  gionps  :  (1)  the  Ea-st  Indian  pos.ses,sions, 
inclmling  .Java  and  Mailuni.  Sumatra,  the  Mo- 
luccas, Celebes,  Timiu-,  parts  of  Borneo,  and  the 
westeni  part  of  New  (iuinca ;  and  (2)  the  West 
Indies,  of  which  the  chief  are  Surinam  ami  Cur- 
acao. The  factories  on  the  coiust  of  (^Jiiinea  were 
disposed  of  by  sale  to  (Ireat  Britain  in  1872.  The 
principal  colonies  are  treated  at  length  in  separate 
articles. 

Gnmniiieiil. — The  government  of  Holland  is  a 
limited  conslitulionaT  m<marcliy.  The  modern 
Gioiiihrct,  or  Constitutional  Law,  of  1848,  was 
altered  in  1887  to  suit  new  electoral  and  other  re- 
<|uirements.  The  crown  is  the  executive  power; 
legislation  is  vested  in  the  States-general.  The 
king  jiresiiles  at  a  couiudl  of  state,  whose  members 
are  ajipointed  by  him.  Its  functions  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  I'rivy -council  in  Britain.  He  al.so 
selects  niuiisters,  who  countei-sign  all  royal  decrees, 
and  whose  responsibility  is  settled  by  a  special  law. 
The  States-general  is  ilivided  into  a  first  and  a 
second  chamner.  The  second  chamber  consists  of 
one  hundred  members,  the  first  chanilier  of  fifty 
members,  the  former  being  elected  by  ilircct  siilT- 
rage,  the  latter  by  the  provincial  councils  from 
among  the  liiLdie.st-taxed  citizens  in  the  state,  or 
those  that  hold  or  have  held  important  public  iiosts. 
The  members  of  the  second  chamber  are  elected 
for  four  years.  Only  male  subjects  tbirtv  years 
old,  in  the  full  pos.session  of  their  civic  riglits,  are 
eligible.  Each  member  receives  by  way  of  salaiy 
£166  a  year,  ami.  besides,  a  .stipend  for  travelling 
anil  incidental  expen.ses  during  each  .session.  The 
member^'  of  the  first  cbandier  are  elected  for  a 
term  of  nine  years.  No  one  can  be  a  member  of 
the  two  chamWrs  simultaneously.     Ministers  may 


sit  in  both,  but  only  iios,sess  a  con.snltative  voice. 
The  second  chamber  alone  has  the  right  of  amend- 
ment and  of  initiating  legislation.  All  judges 
are  appointed  by  the  crown  for  life.  There  is  a 
supreme  tribunal  (at  The  Hague),  and  ministers, 
members  of  the  States-general,  and  certain  high 
olticials  can  \>e  arraigned  only  before  it.  There  is 
no  state  religion,  but  the  state  supports  financially 
the  dillerent  chuiches. 

/v/'/<y(^/o//.  — I'rimaiy  instruction  is  provided  by 
the  stiite  in  all  pl.-ices  where  it  is  required.     Private 


HOLLAND 


741 


schools  are  freely  pennitteil,  Init  subject  to  inspec- 
tion ;  anil  teachers  must  rjualifv  for  their  task  nmler 
a  {government  examination.  There  are  ancient 
universities  at  Leyilen,  Utrecht,  ami  (Ironin^'en,  ami 
since  1S77  a  new  university  at  Aiustenlaiii.  supiiortcil 
liy  the  municipality.  Tlic  four  universities  liave  uji- 
warils  of  .SOOO  students.  There  are  Latin  scliooU  in 
the  leailinLT  munici|)alities.  There  are  also  the  Royal 
Military  and  Naval  .Vcademy  at  Breda,  ami  that 
for  engineers  and  the  Indian  civil  service  at  Delft, 
liesides  seminaries  in  several  places  for  the  trainin;; 
of  the  Roman  ''atholic  cler^iy,  i)i:c.  The  state  jiays 
30  per  I'cnt.  of  the  expenditure  im  the  puldic 
schools,  and  the  communes  or  parishes  70  per  cent. 
In  1S9.5  there  \\ere  over  3000  elementary  puhlic 
schools,  1351  elementary  private  schools,  and  about 
loO  secondary  schools.  The  pupils  in  the  ]iulilii' 
elementary  schools  number  475,000.  About  60(1,000 
idiililren  under  twelve  receive  some  sort  of  school 
I'dncation,  but  10  per  cent.  none.  There  is  no  com- 
pulsory attendance  in  H(dlanil,,ind  manycan  neither 
read  nor  write  (5  per  cent,  of  illiterate  recruits). 

Armi/,  Navy,  ic. — The  strenjrth  of  the  regular 
army  in  Europe  is  aliout  6'2,000  men,  and  of  the 
<'olonial  army  about  40.0<M)  men,  some  15, IKK) 
thereof  being  Europeans.  Dutch  troops  are  not 
allowed  to  be  sent  to  India.  The  Dutch  home  army 
is  composed  of  volunteers,  and  of  a  \arying  propor- 
tion of  men  ilrawn  by  lot  for  hv(a  years'  service. 
There  is  also  a  local  force,  called  Sr/ixtterij,  <lra\m 
by  lot  from  those  between  twenty-five  and  thirty- 
four  years  of  age,  to  assist  in  keeping  order  in 
peace,  and  in  ease  of  war  to  act  as  a  mobile  corps, 
and  clo  garrisim  duty.  North  and  South  Holland 
can  be  inundated  at  short  notice. 

The  royal  navy  on  1st  January  1897  consisted  of 
120  men-of-war,  24  being  ironclads.  Six  are  large 
cruisers,  each  of  3400  tons,  built  of  iron  and  steel. 
There  are  also  numerous  torpedo  boats  for  the 
defence  of  the  coasts  and  river-mouths. 

History. — AViout  a  century  and  a  half  before  our 
era,  a  Teutonic  people,  known  to  the  Romans  as 
the  Batavi,  and  who  came  from  Hesse,  occupied 
the  laud  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Waal.  At 
this  time  the  Frisians  occupied  the  country  north 
of  the  Rhine  to  the  Elbe.  The  Batavi  an<l 
Frisians  differed  little  in  appearance,  manner  of 
life,  and  religion.  They  clotlied  themselves  with 
skins,  Kshed,  hunted,  and  leil  a  pastoral  life ; 
were  faithful,  frank,  chaste,  and  hospitalile.  The 
.s(mgs  of  the  bards  composed  their  literature  and 
histoiy.  Warlike  and  brave,  they  selecte<l  their 
leader  for  his  courage  and  prowess,  and  were  armed 
with  a  bow  and  a  short  spear.  They  worshipped 
the  sun  and  moon,  and  held  their  meetings  in  con- 
secr.ated  woods. 

The  Romans  having  subdued  the  Belga-,  next 
attacked  the  Frisians,  who  agreed  to  pay  a  tribute 
of  ox-hides  and  horns,  but  continued  restless  and 
rebellious.  The  Batavi  became  allies  of  Rome, 
ivaying  no  tribute,  but  supplying  a  volunteer  con- 
tingent, chiolly  of  cavalry,  wliich  w,as  renowned  for 
its  impetuous  bravery,  and  helped  to  win  the 
battle  of  Rhaisalia  for  C'a'sar.  About  70  .\.i). 
Claudius  Civilis,  a  Batavian,  made  a  bold  ellbrt 
to  overthrow  the  Roman  jiower  in  Rhenish  or 
(termanic  Ganl,  but  failed  in  the  end.  Roman 
supremacy  endured  until  the  4th  century,  when  the 
inroads  of  the  Salic  Franks  were  followed  by  the 
Saxons  and  other  tribes.  The  Franks  took  posses- 
sion of  the  Iiisii/a  Bataconiii),  .and  the  name  of 
the  Batavi  vanished.  Christianity  spread  among 
these  tribes,  ami  even  the  Frisians,  who  were 
violently  opposed  to  it,  were  forcibly  converted  by 
Charles  Martel.  At  the  end  of  the  Stii  century 
all  the  Low  Countries  submitted  to  Charlemagne, 
who  built  a  palace  at  Ninieguen.  on  the  W;uil. 
The  tVuilal  system  now  began  to  develop  itself,  and 


dukedoms,  counties,  lorilships,  and  bishoprics  arose, 
the  bishops  of  Itrecht,  the  dukes  of  (iuelderland, 
and  the  counts  of  Holl.inil  being  among  the  most 
powerful  of  these  jietty  ruhus,  who  owned  but  very 
little  allegiance  to  their  lords.  During  the  9th 
and  loth  centuries  the  districts  of  the  modern 
Xetherlamls      belongeil      to      Lotharingia,      which 

j  acknowledged  alternately  French  and  German 
sovereignty.  The  nucleus  of  the  countship  of 
Holland,  and  the  beginning  of  its  ))ower,  were  the 
work  of  Dirk  III.,  who  died  in  10.39.  Count 
William  II.  w.as  even  niaile  King  of  the  Romans 
I  I24.H)  throu;;li  the  inlluence  of  I'ojie  Innocent  IV. 
The  Crusades  weakened  the  power  and  resources  of 
the  nobles  and  prelates,  so  that,  during  the  middle 
ages,  cities  began  to  jussume  imiiorlance,  strengthen 
themselves  with  walls,  and  choose  their  own  rulers. 
In  1 384  the  earldom  of  Flamlers  iiii,ssed,  through 
marriaj;e,  to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  whose  griind- 
son.  I'hilip  the  (iood,  u)iide  it  his  s]iecial  life-ellort 
to  form  the  Xetherlamls  into  a  powerful  kingdom. 
He  bought  Namur,  inherited  Brabant  with  Lim- 
burg,  and  compelled  .Jacoba  of  Bavari.a  to  resign 
Holland  and  Zealand.  Charles  V..  as  heir  to  Bur- 
gundy, inherited  and  united  the  Netherlands  under 
Ills  sceptre.  He  fostered  trades  and  industries  in 
the  Low  Countries,  and  under  his  rule  they  attained 
a  great  ]iros]ierity,  whilst  cities  like  Bruges  and 
(ihent  reached  the  zenith  of  their  wealth  and 
power.  But  he  also  tyrannised  over  the  land  with 
.an  iron  will  and  hand,  drained  the  life-blood  of  the 
nation  for  his  continual  warfare,  and  depopulated 
north  and  south  by  an  impl.acable  Imiuisition,  which 
it  is  computed  ]iut  to  ileath  in  various  forms  at 
least  l(KJ,000  persons  for  heresy.  \'et  he  was  at 
times  po]iular  with  the  people.  He  sjioke  their 
langviage.  He  always  remained  a  Fleming  :  and 
Ghent,  after  attempting  to  betray  him  and  rising  in 
rebellion  against  him  in  1539,  owed  her  ultimate 
escape  from  the  destruction  which  .\lva  counselled 
entirely  to  the  fact  of  the  emperor's  citizenship. 
His  Sim  Philip  II.,  who  succeede<l  to  the  throne  in 
Octol)er  15.")5,  was  a  character  of  the  very  o])posite 
ty|ie.  A  .Spaniard  liorn,  he  remained  a  Castilian 
to  his  dying  day — austere,  harsh,  narrow,  domi- 
neering, fanatical.  He  never  spoke  a  word  of 
Dutch,  nor  did  he  un<leistivnd  the  people.  With 
Philip  II.  commenced  that  terrible  and  desperate 
and  long-fought  struggle  of  Hollaml  ami  Spain 
which  tin.ally  resulted  in  the  throwing  olf  of  the 
.Sp.anish  yoke,  in  the  establishment  of  a  free, 
strong,  and  prosperous  commonwealth  among  the 
marshes  of  the  low-lying  delta.  This  heroic 
contest  of  the  few  against  the  many,  of  a  hand- 
ful  of    isolated    burghers    against    the    combined 

I  forces  of  the  most  powerful  state  in  Europe,  has 
excited  a  wonderful  auicMint  of  interest  in  the 
civilised    world.      .Motley,    with    the    now    count- 

!  less  editions  of  his  great  work,  I'lic  ttise  of  the 
Dutch  Ifc/iiib/ic,  anil  its  continuation,  has  done 
more  to  popularise  the  story  of  the  so-called  Eighty 
Years'  War  of  the  Low  Conntries  against  Spain 
than  any  of  his  predecessors. 

I'hilip  II.  only  remained  in  Holland  for  four  brief 
years  and  then  left  it.  never  to  return,  ap]ioinling 
as  regent  M.argaret  of  I'arma,  mother  of  the  famous 
Fariiese,  and  a  natural  ilaughter  of  Charles  \., 
with  a  council,  to  which  belongeil  Viglius.  Berlay- 
mont,  the  afterwards  notorious  Cardinal  Granvella, 
Bishop  of  .Arras — all  friends  and  tiatterers  of  the 
young  king  and  enemies  of  the  people — as  well  as 
Fgmont,  who  had  w(m  the  battles  of  St  (,'ucnlin 
iuiil  Gravelines  for  I'hilip.  and  the  king's  lieutenant 
in  llollaml,  Zealand,  and  I  trecht.  young  William 
of  Orange,  then  completely  unknown  to  fame.  .\s 
the  latter  took  leave  of  Philip,  who  was  embarking 
at  Flushing  to  return  to  Spain,  the  king  bitterly 
complained  to  him  of  the  opposition  already  maui 


742 


HOLLAND 


fenteil  Hj;iiiii.-i  his  meiisurcs.  These  were  iiiiiiiily 
the  iiiaiiileiiniireof  ii  staiiiliii^' Spiiiiish  ariiiv  itml  of 
the  Iiii|iiisiti<iii  — l«)lh  contrary  to  the  hiws  lunl  |>rivi 
levies  ol  the  peoiile.  its  well  as  to  his  own  solemn 
vows  hetore  tLsreinlin^;  tlie  throne,  t  tran^'e  tried  to 
persnaile  the  kiii^'  dial  he  hail  nothing  to  ilo  with 
the  resistanee  roni)ilaineil  ol,  as  the  Kstates  were 
nclin^  on  their  own  res|ioiisil)ilily  when  lliev  had 
]>etitioiieil  his  majesty.  Whejenpon  I'liilip  seizeil 
the  I'rince  of  Oran-ie  hy  the  wrist,  shakin;;  it 
violently,  and  exchiimio;,'  in  Spanish.  AV  Ins 
Estin/ox,  iiui  rot,  ro.1,  ms !  ('Not  the  Estates,  Imt 
yon,  yon,  yonl).  The  Uin^'  on  this  menioialde 
oocivsion  showed  as  much  persiiieiicitv  ;us  his  rei;,'n 
hetrayed  perveiseness  and  perlidy.  (n  Williiiin  of 
Oranjfe,  then  only  twenty  six  yeaiN  old  and  six 
yeaix  his  jnnior,  Philip  had  truly  rero^;nised  his 
woi-st  foe,  his  most  daii;j;erous  opponent,  and  the 
soul  of  the  comiii;;  strn;,';4le  a;;ainst  the  royal 
authority.  The  kind's  secret  correspondence  is 
there  to  conlirm  this  view.  IJorn  on  Kith  .\pril 
I53;t,  William  licloni_'eil  to  an  ancient  family  ruliu;; 
a  small  princip.ility  in  the  south  of  !•' ranee  (see 
OR.VNijk),  hut  his  ancestors,  iiri;,'inally  vassals  of 
the  pope,  hail  setlleil  in  the  Netherlands,  where 
they  occupied  hi;:li  functions  under  tin-  princes  of 
the  House  of  llur^'unily.  William  had  lieen  a 
favourite  with  Cli.-ules,  whom  he  ai'companied 
everywhere.  It  w.is  thus  that  William  had  heeu 
ahle  to  ae(|uire  that  i)rofounil  knowled;,'e  of  the 
military  art,  and  to  j;ia.sp  the  intricacies  of  the 
prevalent  occult  diploni.acy  in  which  he  afterw.ards 
l>roved  himself  such  a  consummate  master.  It  was 
while  he  was  hunting'  with  the  kiii^'  of  b'rance  in 
till'  Korest  of  N'iucenncs  that  Henry  II.  communi 
cated  to  William  of  (lran;;e  the  liendish  |dot  France 
and  Spain  had  concocted  to  ni:uss;icre  all  the  I'ro 
testants  in  hotli  e(Mintries.  Honrv  II.  did  not 
know  then  the  man  to  whom  he  had  heen  so  cmn 
municative  :  he  li.ad  s]ioken  to  William  the  Silent. 
The  prince  never  lietr.aved  the  le.ast  emotion.  He 
hnrii'd  in  his  hosoni  the  project  of  a  crime  \\'liich. 
altlu>u^'li  a  devout  Catholic  himself  (tlion;;li  a 
I'rotestant  afterwards),  he  had  resolved  to  prevent 
at  all  hazards.  He  saw  the  storm  cominj;.  He 
ilctermineil  to  face  it,  to  devote  his  fortune,  his  best 
powers,  and  his  life  to  the  cause  of  the  wi-ak  ai,'ainst 
the  str<m^',  of  the  free  against  crushin;,'  ilespotisni, 
tifilitin;.'  I'liili|i  with  his  own  weapons,  and  liavinj; 
hut  one  nolile,  sidfsacriliriu;;  ambition-thc  welfare 
anil  the  liberty  of  the  people. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  I'hilip  was  betraved  by 
tho.se  in  whom  he  had  most  implicit  conlnlence. 
and  that  William  of  Oran^'e  knew  of  all  the  kinfi's 
intentions  .and  inovenients.  Thus  he  was  .aware 
that  .\lv.i  had  collected  an  army  in  Italy  by  the 
orders  of  I'liilip  in  order  to  extirpate  an  abumin.iblc 
rebellion  of  heretics  by  sword,  .and  re  establish  the 
Iniiuisition.  The  prince  warned  his  friends  E^'iuont 
and  Hoorn  in  good  time  against  the  imminent 
danger  ;  but  they  heeded  not  what  he  said,  and  paid 
for  their  folly  on  the  scall'old  of  Brussels  a.s  siMin  .xs 
Alva  had  arrived  there  with  10,()0()  picked  troo|is 
and  had  established  his  t'onneil  of  Troubles.  Tlii> 
was  no  better  than  a  council  of  butchers,  .and  by 
means  of  it  20,()«X)  iimllensive  burghers  were  hurried 
to  their  doom.  William  esca]>ed  to  (Jermany  in 
order  to  organise  the  national  defence  with  his 
hrothei-s.  Hut  his  task  was  well-nigh  hojieless. 
What  could  he  do  with  a  handful  of  half  paid  and 
under-fed  hirelings?  In  l.")72  the  jiosition  of  all'aii- 
could  scarce  have  been  more  desper.ite.  The 
Spaniards  were  absolute  masters  of  the  hand,  and 
the  people,  crushed  under  a  reign  of  bloody  rajiinc. 
hail  ceiused  to  hope  f<u-  deliverance,  when  the  Imld 
capture  of  Uriel,  bv  the  IJegg.ars  of  the  Sea,  on  the 
1st  of  -Vpril  l.">7'2 — a  great  date  in  Dutch  history, 
duly  honoured  in   1872 — changed  the  whole  lu-pect 


of  alhiirs.  They  were  maraiidei's,  those  Beggars  of 
the  Sea,  desperadoes  clinging  to  the  broad,  hospit- 
iJile  ocean,  after  iiaving  lieeii  driven  from  the  land 
by  the  Spaniard  ;  but  they  were  also  patriots  who 
had  adojiled  as  a  title  of  honour  the  oppi'ohrious 
epithet  that  iterlavmonl  had  given  them  when  they 
were  petitioning  tlie  regent  for  the  maintenance  of 
their  righl.s,  and  they  held  Uriel  for  '  Father 
\\'illiam.'  Their  daring  capture  heeaine  the  sign 
of  a  general  revolt,  and  .soon  William  the  Silent 
wius  again  at  the  head  of  allairs,  'in  the  name  of 
the  king,'  still  nominally  m.aintaincd  a.s  the  ruler 
of  the  land.  Orange's  projecis,  which  consisted 
of  a  junction  with  the  French  Huguenots,  were 
indeed  direfully  frustrated  by  tin-  hnleherv  of  St 
Bartholomew.  The  southern  portiim  of  the  Low 
Countries  could  not  be  deli\eieil  from  the 
dntches  of  the  enemv  and  were  for  ever  lost  to  the 
cause  of  freedom;  but  the  noilli  continued  the 
struggle  singlclianded,  and  al  last  ,\l\a  had  to 
depart  in  disgust  without  having  accomplished  his 
mission.  His  successors  could  do  nothing  to  retrieve 
Philip's  fortunes  or  damp  the  inspiriting  inlluence 
which  the  heroic  defence  of  towns  like  Haarlem, 
Levden,  and  .\lkm.iar  had  infused  into  the  burghers 
of  the  new  slate.  The  military  chest  of  theSjianish 
commanders  was  always  empty,  as  tin'  liiitch, 
nuLsters  on  the  sea,  cut  oil  all  supplies,  ami  revolts 
were  frei|neiit  among  the  S|>anisli  soldiery.  (Jttavio 
F'arnese,  Duke  of  I'arma,  who  succeeded  lo  the 
lieutenancy  in  Io7H,  saw  but  luie  way  of  settling 
the  ijuestion,  and  that  was  the  fiueible  removal  of 
William  of  ( liange.  I'liilip,  who  had  held  all  along 
the  same  sinistci-  designs,  was  only  loo  eager  lo 
fall  in  with  this  plan.  In  .Iniie  l.'iKdtlieic  apjieaied 
that  infamous  ban.  which  dcclaieil  William  a 
traitor,  a  miscreant,  and  an  outlaw,  imtting  a  heavy 
price  iipmi  his  head  (2.'>,()<)0  gold  crowns),  and  pro- 
mising the  king's  pardon  and  titles  of  n<d>ility  to 
whosoever  might  be  foniiil  willing  to  rid  the  land 
of  him.  William  replied  in  his  famous  A/iulo<iii  : 
but  he  w.as  not  alile  to  cope  with  :i  royal  a.ssassin. 
Numerous  attempts  against  llie  prince's  life  were 
made,  and  although  they  failed  for  a  time,  the 
hravos  work  Wius  Kiiallv  accomplished.  J!altlia.sar 
(Jerards,  the  miserable  instrument  of  a  royal  mur- 
derer, shot  William  dead  with  a  jiistol,  purcha-sed 
with  the  very  money  the  luince  hiul  given  him  by 
way  of  alms  io  a  '  poor  Calvinist.'  This  tiHik  place 
at  Delft  on  12lli  duly  l.')S4,  near  the  lop  of  a  stair- 
case which  has  been  preserved  in  the  same  stale 
ever  since.  Geralds  wa-s  arrested,  tortured,  and 
linally  imt  to  death  in  an  atrocious  manner;  hut 
no  expiation,  however  awful,  could  bring  to  life 
again  the  noble  patriot. 

The  blow  was  crushing  and  irrcjiarable,  yet 
William  might  lia\c  fallen  at  a  moment  even 
more  critical  to  Holland  Ih.an  duly  I.JS4.  He  did 
not  leave  his  country  in  a  state  of  paralysed  chaos. 
The  I'nion  of  I'treclit,  accomplished  in  daiinary 
1.379,  had  cemented  the  alliance  of  the  noithern 
provinces  handed  together  against  the  king  of 
Spain  :  and  the  solemn  declaration  of  duly  l.')HI.  by 
which  the  free  Ni'therlamls  for  ever  rcnouuced  their 
allegiance  lo  I'hiliii  II.,  had  virlnally  completed 
William's  bisk  of  deliverer.  His  manifesto  of 
renunciation  and  denunciation  wmild  alone  have 
sulliced  lo  stamp  him  as  a  man  of  genius  in  the 
eyes  of  posterity.  It  is  a  remarkably  clear,  bold, 
and  spirited  defence  of  a  people's  lights  against  the 
daimid  lights  of  the  aiioiiitcd  king  at  a  time  when 
the  former  had  been  forgotten.  Vet  William's 
doom,  far  from  undoing  bis  work,  as  I'liilip  and 
I'arma  hoped,  only  teniled  to  make  it  more  dur- 
able. The  bloody  deed  seemed  to  sjmr  the  whole 
nation  to  a  revolt  fiercer  than  ever.  Maurice 
of  Na.s.sau  followed  in  his  father's  footsteps,  and 
the   successes   of    the    Duteh,    especially    at    sea. 


HOLLAND 


743 


became  more  numeioiis.  Parma,  indeefl,  took 
Antwerp  after  a  loiij;  -^ie^je.  l>ul  faileil  In  ell'eet 
a  junotioii  witli  the  Armada  in  l.lss,  as  the  Hol- 
landers ]>revented  his  Heet  from  leaving  the  Selieldl ; 
and  wlieii  the  g'eat  f^eneral  died  in  1592,  six 
years  l)efore  his  master,  he  had  not  accomplislied 
his  mission.  Piiilip  111.  was  not  more  fortunate, 
.and  oould  do  nothing  hetter  than  si),'ii  in  I(iO!)  the 
twelve  years'  arnnslii-e  with  the  '  rehels,'  who  were 
already  masters  of  the  sea,  had  laid  the  foundations 
of  their  great  Indian  enii>ire  by  the  estahlishment 
of  tlie  East  Inilia  ('om|>aiiy  in  Ui0"2,  ami  practically 
had  made  their  own  conditions.  Maurice  had  lieen 
against  the  armistice,  hut  he  was  overruled  liy  the 
States,  who  wanted  peace  for  trjiding.  Unfortu- 
nately, the  breathing  time  to  l()21  was  in  a  large 
measure  tilled  up  with  religious  and  i)olitical  dis- 
sensions between  the  adherents  of  (lomarus,  the 
orthodox  Lutherans,  and  the  Arminians,  tlie  nnhler- 
niannered  followers  of  Arminius,  to  whom  Hugo 
(Irotins  and  other  celebrated  men  of  the  time 
belonged.  These  disputes  culminated  in  the  perse- 
cution of  the  Arminians,  who  were  forced  to  Hee, 
like  Unili\is.  or  were  put  on  tlieir  trial  for  high- 
treason,  like  Olden  Barneveldt,  the  (irand-peusion- 
ary  of  Holland,  ami  one  of  her  most  distinguished 
sons,  who  was  beheaded  in  1(5 IS  with  the  approval 
of  Maurice.  But  these  internal  trotibles  did  not 
check  the  progress  of  the  new  republic.  Maurice 
died  in  162.5,  and  his  lirothei-  Frederick  Henry 
finally  freed  his  country  from  the  Spaniards,  who 
in  164S  were  compelled  to  recognise  the  'rebels'  as 
an  independent  nation  by  the  treaty  of  Munster. 

In  this  epoch  lies,  perhaps,  tlie  period  of  Hol- 
land's greatest  material  and  intellectual  develop- 
ment. Her  ships  could  be  seen  everywhere,  and 
tlie  Dutch  had  heci>me  the  general  carriers  of  the 
■Nvorlil's  trade.  Amsterdam,  grown  powerful  and 
rich,  was  the  Venice  of  the  north,  where,  liesides 
commerce  proper,  both  banking  and  sto<d<broking 
reached  a  nourishing  stage  at  an  early  period. 
From  this  emporium  started  the  Meets  of  the  great 
trading  companies,  and  the  vessels  of  intrepid 
exjdorers  like  Huilson.  Heemskerck,  Houtman, 
Leiiiaire,  Tasm.an,  and  many  others.  Dutch 
agriculture  and  floriculture,  gaining  new  experi- 
ence and  teaching  fresh  methods,  grew  famous, 
and  so  did  many  branches  of  science  and  in- 
dustry. The  first  optical  instruments  came  from 
Holland,  and  Huygeus  gave  us  the  pendulum-clock. 
Arts  and  letters  llourislied,  and  the  names  of 
Erasnnrs,  (Irotius,  \'ossius,  liurnian,  (;ronovi\is, 
Boerhaave,  Spinoza,  Huygens,  Hembrandt,  <'uyp. 
Van  der  Heist,  Holibema,  Potter,  and  many  more 
became  known  and  illnstri(ms  far  beyond  the 
national  frontiers.  The  art  of  printing,  perhaps 
not  a  glory  of  Holland  in  its  inception  (see  PlUN T- 
INO),  liad  at  anyrate  attained  a  high  degree  <if 
perfection  there  in  the  17th  century,  as  the  names 
of  Plantin  and  Kl/evir  testify.  The  liberty  of  the 
press,  secured  at  an  early  date,  led  to  the  establish 
ment  of  numerous  newspapers,  Dutch  and  foreign. 
The  foreign  news-sheets  of  Holland,  mostly  pub 
lished  in  Krench,  were  sent  all  over  the  world,  as 
they  contained  the  Latest  intelligence  and  things 
tliat  were  not  allowed  to  appear  in  iiriut  elsewhere. 
The  Giizi'ttc  (/(•  Lfjiile  was  among  the  oldest  and 
most  powerful  of  tliese  early  journals  ( l(i8()-l!SU). 

The  rising  power  of  Holland  had  the  natural 
result  of  creating  envy  and  cupiility  in  her  nearest 
neighliours.  The  lirst  serious  antagonism  came 
from  England,  where  trade  and  navigation  were 
also  rapidly  coming  to  the  front.  Both  countries 
were  then  pure  commonwealths  -Cromwell  ruling 
in  England,  ami  (he  ( Irand  ]ieusionary  .loliii  de 
^Vitt  having  virtually  the  destinies  of  the  I'nited 
Provinces  in  his  hands  since  the  death  of  Frederick 
Henry's  son,  the  last  stadtholder  before  William 


III.  Cromwell's  Act  of  Naviwation,  which  aimed 
at  the  destruction  of  Holland's  monopoly  in  the 
carrying  tr.ade,  led  to  the  great  naval  war  of 
l(i.vi-54,  <luring  which  twelve  important  battles, 
more  or  less  decisive,  were  fought,  and  hotli  nations 
distinguished  themselves  by  the  intrepid  darin- 
of  their  commanders  and  seamanshi|i.  Vet  other 
wise  the  result  was  barren,  though  the  names  of 
I)e  Knvter,  Tromp,  Evertsen,  and  Van  llalen 
shone  forth  ever  afterwards.  These  hostilities 
between  Holland  and  England  were  renewed  when 
Charles  II.  ha<l  been  restored  by  (Jeneral  Monk  : 
but  the  war  of  l(i(i4-()7  remained  as  undecisive  as 
its  predeces.sor,  despite  De  Ituyter's  daring  feat  of 
sailing  up  the  Medway.  which  cau.sed  for  a  while 
wild  panic  in  the  British  capital. 

An  ensiling  war  with  Franco,  now  allied  with 
England  against  the  United  Provinces,  was  much 
more  serious,  as  De  Witt  had  done  his  best  to 
strengthen  the  navy,  but  at  the  cost  of  a  totally 
neglected  army.  The  liosts  of  Louis  XIV.,  under 
captains  so  famous  as  Conde  and  Turenne.  made 
short  work  of  all  resistance  that  Holland  could 
otter  on  laml,  although  De  Kuyter's  Meet  kept  the 
allie<l  .s(|uadrons  at  bay,  and  tluis,  probaldy,  saved 
his  country  from  political  annihilation.  At  the 
most  critical  juncture  a  violent  popular  reaction 
set  in  against  De  Witt  and  his  brother  Cornells, 
and  in  favour  of  the  young  Prince  of  Orange,  who 
had  been  held  back  by  their  [larty.  .bdiii  de  Witt, 
one  of  the  most  clear-headed  and  bold  statesmen  of 
his  day,  was  inurdercd  as  a  traitor  liy  an  infuriated 
mob  at  The  Hague,  and  the  stadtholdershiii  re- 
established in  the  person  of  a  prince  then  (WTii) 
only  twenty-two  years  of  age.  But  the  people's 
instinct  had  been  right  after  all,  for  William  Ill.'s 
accession  proved  the  salvation  of  Holland,  as  it 
also  accomplished,  later  on,  the  political  regenera- 
tion of  England.  The  fortunes  of  the  war  changed 
inime<liately  with  William  at  the  head  of  affairs. 
He  showeil  himself  an  able  tactician  and  a  still 
more  skilful  diplomatist.  By  dexterously  nianteuv- 
ring  between  Hollan<rs  enemies  he  managed  to 
gain  time  anil  isokate  France.  At  last,  in  1678, 
Lonis  \1\'.  was  comjielleil  to  sign  the  treat>  of 
peace  of  Nimegnen,  as  William  had  liecome,  for 
the  time  being,  the  ally  of  the  king  of  England, 
by  his  marriage  with  JIary,  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  York.  William  was  not  satisfied  with  wliat 
the  peace  of  Niiueguen  gave  to  Holland  ;  and  the 
following  years  were  passed  in  preparing  for  the 
great  events  which  he  no  doubt  saw  nipidly  ap- 
]iroaching.  The  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
ilooded  Holland  once  more  with  iiolitical  refugees, 
who  here  found  a  new  fatherland,  and  who  subse- 
(piently  bellied  to  light  the  battles  of  Europe 
against  their  common  tyrant.  In  the  English 
Kevolution  of  1688  by  William  III.,  many  of  these 
Ilugueiiols  played  an  .active  ami  prominent  part. 
To  llollanil  the  inauguration  of  tlie  new  eia  in  Eng- 
land ilid  not  mean  peace,  but  it  meant  an  honour- 
able alliance  and  security  from  further  encroach- 
ii'ents  of  the  French  king.  The  Dutch  troops 
fought  bravely  in  the  battles  of  England,  even 
after  Williams  death  in  1702;  and  Kamillies, 
Ondenaide,  ami  Malplaciuet,  which  saw  Louis's 
greatest  humiliation,  were  as  much  Dutch  vic- 
tories as  La  Hogue  was  an  English  victory. 

The  ]ieacc  of  I'tiecht,  in  17IS,  marks  the  close 
of  Holland's  activity  as  a  great  power  in  Europe. 
For  her  the  ISth  century  was  the  century  of  de- 
moralisation and  decay.  After  William's  death 
she  liecame  a  republic  once  more  :  the  stadtholder- 
shiii was  reestablished  in  1747,  liut  it  made  no 
dill'erenci'  in  the  ilow  nward  coui-se.  The  National 
Convention  of  France  having  deidared  war  .against 
(ireat  Britain  ami  the  stadthohler  of  Holland  in 
1793,  French  armies  overran  Belgium  (1794) ;  tUej" 


744 


HOLLAND 


were  welcomed  liy  tlie  so-ealU-d  patriots  of  tin- 
United  Province.-*,  and  William  V.  and  liis  family 
(January  I7i).")i  were  obliged  to  escape  from  Sclie- 
veninj,'i'ii  to  En<;land  in  a  lisliinji-wniack,  and  the 
French  rule  hegan.  The  I  nited  Provinces  now  lie 
came  the  Hatavian  Kepulilic,  payin;;  ei;,'lit  and  a 
half  millions  sterling  for  a  I'reneh  army  of  'J.^.tHHt 
men,  besides  givin},'  up  important  parts  of  the 
country  along  the  Belgian  frontier.  After  several 
changes  Louis  Honapitrte,  .")th  .June  18<>(i,  was 
appoinle<l  king  of  Holland,  but,  four  yeai-s  later, 
was  obligeil  to  resign  liecause  he  refused  to  be  a 
mere  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  Prench  emperor. 
Holland  was  then  added  to  the  eninire,  and  formed 
into  seven  departments.  The  fall  of  Napcdeon  I. 
and  the  dismemberment  of  the  Prench  empire  le<l 
to  the  recall  of  the  Orange  fannly  and  the  forma- 
tion of  the  southern  and  northern  provinces  into 
the  ill-managed  kingdom  of  the  Nelhcrlan<ls, 
which  in  IS.'JO  was  broken  up  by  the  secession  of 
Belgium  (i|.v.).  In  IS.'t'J  peace  was  linally  concluded 
with  Belgium ;  but  almost  immediately  .after 
national  discontent  with  the  government  showed 
itself,  and  William  I.  in  1S40  abdicated  in  favour 
of  his  son.  Holland  lieiiig  moved  by  the  revolu- 
tionary fever  of  KS4S,  King  William  II.  granted  a 
new  constitution,  acconling  to  which  new  chambers 
were  chosen,  but  they  hail  scarcelv  met  when  lie 
died,  March  1849,  and  William  \)l.  (born  1817) 
ascendeil  the  throne. 

The  liill  for  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  in  the 
Dutch  West  Indian  possessions,  passed  in  I8()2, 
ilecreed  a  compensation  for  each  slave,  ,ind  came 
into  force  in  IstiS.  The  expenses  of  this  emancipa 
tiim  came  to  £l,()(>.")..S(i(i,  and  the  number  of  slaves 
set  free  was  abcuit  4'2,000,  of  whom  35,000  were  in 
Dntcli  (Juiana. 

In  186."J  the  naval  powers  bought  up  the  right 
of  the  king  of  Holland  to  levy  toll  on  vessels 
navi;^'ating  the  river  Scheldt  (q.v. ),  the  king  of 
Belgium  binding  himself  also  to  reduce  the  har- 
bour, jdlot,  and  other  charge.^  on  shipping  within 
that  kingdom.  In  1868  the  Luxemburg  (q.v.) 
qiiestion  was  settled  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to 
Holland.  Next  year  capital  punishment  wius 
abolished.  In  1872  a  new  treaty  with  England, 
deliiiing  and  limiting  the  s|diere  of  inliuence  and 
action  of  Britain  and  Holland  in  the  liulian 
Archipelago,  and  removing  the  restrictions  of  the 
treaty  of  1824  as  to  Sumatra,  was  hdlowed  liy  a 
war  with  Atcheen,  until  then  an  independent 
Malay  state  in  North  Sumatra  (see  Atcheen),  a 
war  that  severely  taxe<l  the  military  and  linancial 
resources  of  the  Dutch-Indian  government,  and  is 
still  carried  on,  in  a  moditied  form,  the  so  calleil 
cimquest  of  1873  7.')  notwithstiiiuling.  Williiim  HI. 
having  no  living  male  issue,  the  succession  lo  llie 
I'lown  was  vested  in  tlie  Princess  of  Orange,  Wil- 
helniina,  the  only  child  of  the  king's  second  mar- 
riage, born  in  1880.  For  many  years  the  great 
question  of  internal  )iolilics  was  the  new  coiisti- 
tntion.  which,  promulgated  November  30,  18S7, 
increased  the  electorate  of  Holl.and  by  no  less  tliar 
200,0tKI  voters.  A  revision  of  the  school-laws  in  a 
.sectarian  sense  was  carried  in  18S9.  In  1888  the 
qneen,  Emma  of  Waldeck,  hail  been  appointed 
regent  in  the  event  of  the  king'.s  demise:  and  cm 
the  death  of  the  king  (23d  November  ISIMl),  when 
Luxemburg  ceased  to  be  conneeteil  with  the  crown 
of  Hollaml.  the  Princess  Willielmina  became  queen. 

/,iiiii/ii(i(/c  mill  Lifn-of  III r,- -ihitch  is  an  essential 
link  in  the  chain  of  Teutonic  languages,  a  wmnler 
ful  storehouse  of  old  and  expressive  f  Jermanic  wonls 
and  phra-ses.  It  lia.s  been  said  that  Old  English  is 
Dutch,  and  to  no  other  nation  is  the  study  of  the 
Netherlandish  more  interesting  than  to  the  Eng- 
lish. Without  a  knowledge  of  Dutch  it  is  almost 
impossible   to   properly   iindei-stand   the   historical 


development  of  English.  It  is  a  comnion  mistake 
to  supipose  that  Dutch  is  merely  a  (ierman  dialect. 
.\s  a  language  it  hits  existed  as  long  as  Oerinan, 
and  iia.s.seil  tlmuigh  the  same  series  of  evidiitions. 
ll  possesses  many  allinities  with  Oeiiiian.  because, 
like  I''risian,  Danish.  \c.,  it  sprang  from  ihi'  (  oiiimon 
leutonic  stock  (see  DllVll  ;  and  for  the  iclalion 
of  Dutch  and  Low  (iernian  to  High  (ieriiian,  see 
tiEli.MANV,  Vol.  V.  ji.  ISB)  :  but  between  modern 
High  Oerinan  and  moilerii  Dutch  there  is  h —  simi- 
larity in  vocalinlaiy  than  between  moilern  English 
and  modern  NelherhiMilisli,  allhoiigh  the  pidiiuiicia- 
tioii  dillcrs  much  more  in  the  lulter  cim-.  Three 
great  iiiMiods  of  development  must  lie  ilislin- 
guished  in  the  Netherlandish  language,  as  in 
the  Oernian  ;  the  lirst  was  the  period  of  inception, 
or  of  (Jld  Netherlandish,  when  doubtless  various 
Teutonic   dialects   existed   among   the   tribes   and 

Iieoples  that  had  penetrated  westward  from  the 
■;ilic  and  the  ( »der.  A  curioii-  relic  of  tlii-  ancient 
Netherlandish  exists  in  a  fragmentary  translation 
of  the  Psalms,  dating  from  the  !Uli  century.  It 
does  not  seem  to  belong  t<i  any  one  language,  but 
'  looks  like  an  attempt  at  combining  ihi-  ilialeets 
then  exi.sting.  The  second  ]ieiiod  comprises  the 
Middle  Netherlandish,  which  ileveloped  soini  after 
the  nth  cenlurv,  and  became  the  popular  tongue 
',  of  a  very  considerable  area,  s])reading  far  beyond 
I  the  Hliine  in  the  eiust,  and  covering  not  only  the 
'  greater  |iart  of  Belgium,  iis  it  now  exists,  but  also 
I  the  muthern  ])ortioiis  of  prance,  where  (tid  Dutch 
I  persists  to  this  very  day  in  the  villages,  with  the 
woiididiis  tenacity  of  popular  tongues.  The  second 
iieriod  is  rich  in/iili/irnix  anil  loiiiances  of  chivalry, 
but  these  were  nearly  all  of  foreign  oiigin.  mostly 
Prench  and  some  English.  .Among  them  «e  name 
Fn'finiit^  llimmu  I'tni  Lmn'i'luf ,  \Viili-in:iit,  J-'fun's 
en  Ji/iiiirrjiini;  all  repnliiished  of  late,  but  not 
easily  understood  without  a  dictionary  of  Middle 
Netherlandish.  Itciiinnl  (see  Hkv.sauh  THE  Pox) 
is  a  truly  national  epic  of  considerable  importance. 
But  the  most  ]>romineiit  representatives  of  .Middle 
Nethcrlaiiilish  lilcr.iluic  are  .lakob  van  Maerl.ant 
(I3lh  ceiitnry)  and  .Ian  IJoeiidale  (  I4lli  century). 
The  former  was  the  author  of  the  famous  Spii'ijliel 
Ili.storiiicl :  the  latter  wrote  didactic  poems,  the 
best  known  of  which  is  ])cr  l.il.rii  Siiiiiilnl.  To 
this  period  al.so  belong  .Ian  van  Heelu  s  descrip- 
tion of  the  battle  of  Woeringen  and  Melis  .Stoke's 
chronicles  of  llollaiiil. 

The  origin  of  new  Netherlandish  or  Dutch  is  to 
he  found  with  the  Jiiilrrijhir.i,  whose  rise  can  l>e 
traced  to  the  cominencenient  of  the  l.'jtii  century. 
They  were  mainly  lovers  of  letters  anil  the  theatri- 
cal art,  banded  together  in  Kiuitii.s,  'chambers,' or 
clubs,  for  the  purpose  of  study  and  mental  recrea- 
tion. In  the  course  of  lime,  when  the  troubles 
with  Spain  arose,  these  clulis  no  doubt  also  became 
centres  of  political  agitation,  and  this  led  to  their 
siip]iressioii  in  the  southern  provinces;  but  in  the 
norlli,  as  soon  a.s  political  treedoni  had  been  at- 
tained, they  developed  into  literary  associations  of 
considerable  ini]iortance.  The  most  famous  was 
the  'chamber'  called  ///  Lirfilr  Ji/oci/ciit/e  {  'thriv- 
ing in  love')  at  .Amsterilam,  to  which  t'oornhert 
(I.V22-n0),  Sjiiegel  ( I .i4!>- 1 (i  1 2 ),  and  Hoenier  Vis- 
scher  (1.547-1020)  belonged,  the  latter  a  literarj' 
merchant,  and  the  f.ather  of  two  ladies  who  be- 
came celebrated  for  their  learning  amongst  the  men 
of  letters  of  that  period.  Coornhert,  Spiegel,  and 
VisM'her  in  l.'>84  caused  a  Dutch  gTammar  to  be 
published,  and  this  may  be  called  the  foundation- 
stone  of  modern  Netherlandish.  Hooft  (  1.581-1647) 
w.as  the  lirst  to  recognise  the  worth  of  his  mother- 
longiie  and  to  write  a  classical  Dutch  in  which 
he  strove  to  eliminate  a-s  much  as  possible  all 
foreign  elements,  although  a  great  admirer  of 
cla-ssical    lore    and    foreign    literature,    especially 


HOLLAND 


745 


Freneli  ami  Italian.  At  Muiileii  he  foniicil  a 
literary  cliili  wliieh  exerciseil  very  ^reat  iiiHiieiice. 
Hool't  wrote  his  Hislriririi.  but  he  also  excelled  in 
poetry  anil  in  the  ilraiiia.  Anion;;  his  famous 
conteni|ioraries  is  Vondel  (lo87- 1(179)-  "ho  is  eon. 
sidered  the  greatest  of  Holland  s  poets,  and  who. 
indeed,  soars  high  in  his  dramas,  still  i)erfonned 
before  appreeiative  audiences  in  our  days.  Milton, 
it  is  said,  borrowed  from  Vondel,  an<I  2>as.sages 
taken  from  the  masler]>ief'es  of  the  two  poets  cer- 
tainly bear  a  cuiioiis  resemblanpe.  Vondel,  some 
of  whose  dramatic  works  have  been  translated  into 
German  and  English,  was  a  very  prolific  poet. 
Yet  his  po(!try  can  hardly  be  called  so  popular  as 
that  of  .Jacol>  Cats  (1.577-16()()),  whose  maxims 
were  for  a  long  time,  with  the  Hible,  the  only  book 
found  in  e\-ery  cottage.  Cats  is  witty,  but  coarse  ; 
and  Ihedcro,  whose  comedies  deserve  mention,  is 
scarcely  better  in  this  respect.  Van  der  (Joes, 
who  composed  a  beautiful  poem  on  .Amsterdam, 
ranks  among  the  best  of  Vondel's  disciples  ( 1(U7- 
84);  Oudaen  (16'28-!I2)  is  noted  for  his  political 
poems  and  his  dramas  ;  Constantyn  Huygliens,  the 
father  of  the  great  mathematician,  for  his  epigrams 
and  Ills  didactic  poetry  (the  Kuniililncitirh.  '  com- 
Howers,'  is  still  read  and  ailniired);  and  JJrandt, 
for  his  historical  writings. 

This  is  the  great  period  of  literary  activity  in 
Holland  previous  to  the  revival  which  marked 
the  end  of  the  ISth  century.  Writers  who  were 
desirous  of  being  read  beyond  the  limits  of  their 
vernacular  had  to  use  Latin  ;  and  Erasmus,  Boer- 
haave,  Grotins,  Spinoza,  to  mention  only  a  few  of 
the  most  famous,  would  scarcely  have  been  so  well 
known  had  they  written  exclusively  in  the  lan- 
guage of  Vondel. 

The  18th  century  is  the  period  also  of  literary 
decadence  in  Holland  ;  the  onlv  great  names  are 
those  of  Feith  and  Ililderdijk '( 1756-lS.Sl ).  The  ' 
latter  wrote  poetry  such  as  has  not  been  equalled 
since  in  the  I)utch  language,  and  it  is  a  national 
loss  that  his  great  epic  poem.  The  Drjitnirtioii  nf 
the  First  Wm-ld,  remained  nntinished.  Bilderdijk 
also  ranks  high  as  a  historian,  and  his  iihilological 
studies  deserve  credit,  though  his  learning  was 
soiiiciiiiies  misled  by  his  ingenuity.  .\niong 
Bilderdijk's  contemi>oraries  are  Helmers,  whose 
]iatriotic  songs  against  the  French  created  in 
Holland  as  )irofounil  a  sensation  as  Kiirner's  in 
(Terniany,  and  the  two  literary  ladies,  Deken  and 
Bekker,  whose  novels  (one  of  them  translated  into 
German),  written  in  conjunction,  are  true  pictures 
of  Dutch  life  in  those  days.  The  iioenis  of  Tollens 
( l7SO-18."i(i)  came  later,  and  still  retain  their  hold 
on  the  popular  fancy  (especially  in  the  words  of 
the  national  liymn)  notwithstanding  the  apiiear- 
ance  of  numerous  still  more  modern  conipetitoi's. 
among  whom  we  can  mily  mention  here  \'an  Beers. 
Beets,  Da  Costa,  Sehimmel,  Hofdijk,  and  .1.  Van 
Lennep.  Sehimmel  is  also  noted  for  his  dramas 
and  historical  romances,  the  jdots  whereof  he  loves  | 
to  place  in  Knglaml,  when  not  in  Hnlland.  Beds 
has  been  truly  called  the  Charles  DicUens  of  the 
Dutch,  as  his  inimitable  Camcrti  Ubm-Kiu  (sketches 
of  Dutch  life)  proves.  These  two  authors  are  not 
unknown  in  Englaml  and  America,  as  portions  of 
their  work  have  been  translated.  So  have  some 
of  the  stirring  novels  of  \'aii  l.ennep.  Hofdijk. 
who  died  in  ISSS,  is  known  foi-  his  faithful  and 
eloi|uent  historical  writings  not  less  than  for  his 
lyrical  jioetry.  I'otgieter,  Ter  Haar,  Heye,  Ten 
Kate,  and  many  others  have  each  excelled  in  a 
particular  branch  of  poetry,  .\mong  noteworthy 
novelists  we  nnist  mention  Ilendrik  Conscience,  , 
'Mi-.s  Wallis'  (a  daughter  of  Dr  (tp/oomer),  ami  ! 
Mrs  llosbooiu  Toussaint ;  and  we  cannot  conclude 
without  paying  a  tribute  to  the  undoubted  gifts  , 
•of    'Multatuli'    (Douwes    Dekker),    whose   Mttx  i 


lliu-iikinr  hius  been  translated  inlo  nearly  every 
European  language.  '  .Maarlen  .Maartens  '  writes 
powerful  novels  in  English  :  and  Maeterlinck  has 
been  called  'the  I'Memish  Shakopeare.'  In  law  and 
theology  the  names  of  Opzoomer,  Kuenen,  and 
Kern  are  almost  as  well  known  without  a.s  within 
the  kingdom. 

In  this  necessarily  rapid  sketch  we  have  made  no 
distinction  between  Dutch  writers  in  Belgium  and 
Dutch  writers  in  Holland.  In  fact,  there  is  no  dis- 
tinction :  they  express  their  thoughts  in  the  same 
language.  The  words  '  Flemish  '  and  '  Flemlander' 
have  been  invented  by  the  French,  ami  only  serve 
to  obscure  what  is  a  fact — viz.  that  there  never  has 
been   a   greater  ditferenee  between   the   Dutch    as 


taught  at  Antwerp  and  the  Dutch  as  taught  in 
.\msterdam  than  lietween  Boston,  Edinbuigh,  or 
.Manchester  English.  There  have  been  slight 
varieties  in  the  spelling:  butthese  have  disappeared 
since  the  orthograjihy  of  IS64  h.os  been  adopted  in 
both  the  north  and  the  south,  and  modern  Nether- 
landish is  now  the  language  of  some  7.<MKI.(KX) 
Netherlanders,  of  whom  •2,.i()0,000  politically  behuig 
t«  Belgium.  This  is  jierfectly  well  understood  in 
the  two  cmintries  themselves,  where  Dutch  philo- 
logical and  literary  congresses  are  annually  held  in 
a  northern  ami  a  southern  centre  by  turns.  In 
Belgium  there  are  more  Dutch  than  Walloons,  and 
the  Belgian  consliiution  does  not  recognise  a  pre- 
lionderating  French  language.  No  doubt  the  Dutch 
Belgians  have  only  latterly  insisted  upon  the  main- 
tenance of  their  rights  in  this  respect  ;  but  ever 
since  the  so-called  '  Flemish  movement'  commenced 
they  have  steadily  gained  ground,  and  all  the 
French  encroachments  are  being  swept  away. 
Dutch  is  being  taught  everywhere  in  the  schools, 
and  a  knowledge  of  Dutch  is  essential  in  many 
functions,  even  in  those  of  the  king,  who  was 
taught  Netherlandish  by  the  great  novelist  Hendrik 
(Conscience.  The  latter  was  one  of  the  prime 
movers  in  the  Dutch  reaction  in  Belgium,  where- 
with the  names  of  Willems,  Blommaert,  Snellaert, 
Snieders,  Hiel,  Van  Beers,  \-c.  will  for  ever  remain 
associated — some  as  fiery  |)oets,  some  as  noted 
prose-writers. 

For  statistics,  consult  the  annual  Starttsnlmnnal:,  which 
possesses  a  semi-official  cliaracter  :  tlie  jmblications  of  the 
Dutch  Statistical  Society,  Ainsterdaiu,  particularly  Jaar- 
f'ijfcr^i,  a  statistical  annual  in  French  and  Dutch,  in  two 
parts,  one  of  which  deals  with  the  colonies ;  the  Alfi'- 
iiieene  'Stalistiek,  in  several  volumes,  which  is  an  official 
survey  of  the  kingdom,  with  full  particulars,  but  now 
somewhat  antiijuated  in  many  detail.-; ;  tlic  annual  re- 
ports of  Britisli  consuls  in  the  Xctherland.>  ;  the 
AbnaiHick  tie  ffotha,  &c.  For  general  descriptions  and 
travel,  see  the  works  of  Montegut,  Esquiros.  and  particu- 
larly Henri  Havard ;  his  volumes  in  pleasant  French 
(three  of  which.  Tin'  Heart  nf  H,,ll, mil.  Pirtiirtxqii,  //../- 
/anil,  and  'J'lit  Demi  i^ific.i  of  tin  Zviider  Zee,  exist  in  Eng- 
lish )  have  nuich  contributed  towards  propagating  sound 
knowledge  of  the  land  and  people.  D'.\uiicis*  lllhinda 
( trans,  into  English )  is  also  useful.  For  history,  the  writ- 
ings of  I'rescott,  Motley.  Thorold  Kogers,  W.igeuaar, 
the  very  valuable  collections  of  Gachard  and  Groen.  the 
histories  of  Th.  Juste.  iJilderdijk,  Fruin,  Arend.  Xuijens, 
Hofdijk.  &c.  (all  in  Dutch,  except  Juste,  who  wrote  ui 
French)  should  be  consulted.  The  most  accessible  liter- 
ary history  is  Schneider's  iie-tehichte  tier  NiedirL  Litcra- 
liir  (Leip.  18X8),  which  is  also  the  best  in  many  ways. 

Ilollailda  in  ciuitradistinction  to  the  kingdom 
of  that  mime,  is  the  oldest,  wealthiest,  ami  most 
populated  part  thereof,  forming  two  provinces. 
North  and  South  Holland.  The  province  of  North 
Holland  has  , an  area  of  1070  sq.  ni.,  and  a  population 
of  Omi.Kiti  ill  ISfl"),  It  comprises  the  peninsula  to 
the  west  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  also  the  islands 
that  fringe  this  great  gulf  on  its  northern  side. 
To  the  west  North  Holland  is  bounded  by  the 
German  Ocean,  and  to  the  south  by  the  province 


746 


HOLLAND 


HOLLES 


oi  Soutli  llollaiiil.  This  lalU'i  imiviiice  liax  an 
iiifii  of  llG'i  w|.  III..  Iviiij;  lietwecii  tin-  (k-riiiiiii 
)  )<'<Ntii  iiiiil  tlu"  imiviiifi-.s  of  yCealiinil,  I  In-clil.  himI 
N'oitli  lir.il.iint.  It  had  a  iioinihilinn  of  l,0-2l,SSO 
ill  IS!).').  The  |>o)iuhiti)in  of  liolli  North  and  Soutb 
Holhiiid  i.t  hii);ely  ajjiicultiiial.  It  i>  in  thex' 
piiivinces  that  tlie  hest  ooin  i.s  t;i'o\vn.  the  heM 
catth'  reared,  ami  the  hest  dairy  |irodni'0  hriini;hl 
to  market.  But  a-s  the  hirjj;e.st  towns  of  the  kinj,' 
«h>iii  ( Aiiisterilain  and  Hotterilani )  are  also  situated 
in  the  two  proviiioes,  its  chief  trade  and  indiislries. 
with  nearly  tlie  whole  of  its  shipping,  are  civrrieil 
on  ill  iIk'Iii. 

Holland.  ori<nnally  a  line  kind  of  linen  Tnanii- 
factnred  in  the  Netherlands,  and  now  a  roarsr 
linni  f.iliric.  imMeai-hed  or  dyed  lirowii,  which  is 
ii^i-.l  t'lir  ciiveriMy  furniture,  &c. 

Holland.  I'.vursoF.    See  LiNroLXsiiiiiK. 

Httlland,  Loru.  Hi;MtY  KicH.MiD  V.\.s.s.\i,i. 
I'lix,  ihinl  IJaron  Holland,  I'.Ii.S.,  was  horn  at 
\\  interslow  House,  Wills,  in  ITT.'t,  ami  succeeded 
to  the  title  mi  the  death  of  his  father,  the  second 
haron,  in  1774.  He  went  to  Eton,  and  thence  to 
Christ  Church.  He  was  trained  for  pulilic  life  hy 
his  celelirated  uncle,  Charles  .lames  l''o.\,  after 
whose  death  he  held  the  post  of  Lord  I'rivy  Se.-il 
in  the  Crenville  ministry  for  a  few  months.  He 
then  shared  the  loiij;  hanishinent  of  the  \Vhi^;s 
from  the  councils  of  tlieir  .soveiei^;n.  Durin;^'  this 
long  and  dreary  interval  Holland,  to  use  the 
lanjiuage  of  Macaulay,  w.is  the  'constant  protectoi 
of  all  oppressed  races  and  i)ersecuted  sect.s. '  He 
lield  unpopular  opinions  on  the  war  with  France  ; 
strove  zealously  to  militate  the  severity  of  the 
criminal  code ;  made  war  on  the  slave-trade ; 
threw  his  heart  into  the  strujr^le  .a^ainsl  the  Corn 
Laws;  and,  altliouf^li  an  aiisiocial,  hilioiiri'd  to 
extend  the  lilicrlies  of  the  suhjecl.  In  ISHO  lie 
hecame  Chancellor  of  the  iJuchy  of  Lancaster  and 
a  niemlier  of  the  reform  cahinet  of  liarl  llrey,  and 
these  posts  he  also  held  in  the  Melhourne  ministry. 
He  dieil  at  Holland  House,  Kensinj,'ton,  October 
22,  1.S40.  He  wrote  hiographies  of  (luillen  de 
Ca-stro  anil  Lo|ie  de  Vej;a,  translateil  Spanish 
comedies,  prepared  .a  life  of  his  uncle,  and  edited 
the  memoirs  of  Lord  Waldegrave.  —  His  wife, 
Eliz.vbetii  V.\ss.\i.i,  ( 1770-1. S4.'i),  dau^ditcr  of  a 
wealthy  .lamaica  planter,  married  in  \'>^(i  Sir 
Godfrey  Wehster  :  Vmt  the  marriai,'e  was  <li.ssolved 
in  17!)7  for  her  adultery  with  Lord  Hollaiul,  who 
immediately  married  her.  She  wiis  distinguished 
for  beauty,  conversational  j,'ifts,  and  autocratic 
ways:  and  till  the  end  of  her  life  her  house  was  a 
meetinjjplaee  lor  lirilliant  wits  and  tlistiiif^uishcd 
statesmen. — Their  son,  the  fourth  Lonl  llolland 
(1802-59),  edited  two  works  by  his  father,  Forcir/ii 
liniuini-sixiiris  (  1850)  and  Mriiinirs  nf  thr  IVhir/ 
Pmtii  (18o+).  See  the  Princess  Marie  Lichten- 
stein's  Holland  House  (1873). 

Holland.  Siu  HknrV,  iihysician,  was  born  at 
KniH-lord,    Cheshire,   on    27tli   October   17S.S,   and 
stuilied   at   Edinbur;,di.      He   wrote  a  liook  on   his 
three  years'  Tranl.s  in  Albnnin,  Thessnly,  settled  in 
London    in     181G,    and    soon    became   one   of    tin- 
recognised    heads   of    his   profession.     In    1828   he 
was  elected  a  Eellow  of  the  Koyal  Colle;,'e  of  Pliysi 
cians ;     in     1.S40    lie    was    appointeil    physician  in 
ordinary  to  the  I'lince  Consort,  and  in   18.52  physi 
cian-inordinary   to  the  t^ueen.      In   the   followin;; 
year  he  w.os  created  a  liaronet.     His  Mirlinil  \oli\ 
and  lltjlcctionx.   published    in   IS.'ttI,   consist   of   .S4 
e.s.says   upon  various  departments  of  medicine  and 

1>8ycliology  ;  it  Irns  pa-s.sed  thron^di  .several  eilitions. 
n  18o2  appeared  ('Imiitfis  on  Minliil  I'hiisinlririi/, 
which  are  expansions  of  those  es.says  in  his  former 
work  which  treated  of  '  that  imrticnlar  part  of 
human  physiologj-  whicli  comprises  the  reciprocal 


187(»,  with  Koswell 
fonniled    Siribnn's 

successfully  till  his 
In     this    nia<.'a/.ine 

liininimsth-  (1873), 
and  yir/iii/irs  Min- 


artioiis  and  relations  of  mental  and  InMiily  pheno- 
mena. Other  IxHiks  from  his  pen  are  A°.v.v»v.s  un 
Srknti/ir  Sidtji'ts  (1802)  and  Hn  ullnliiinii  of  I'list 
I.iji  (1S71).  Holland  died  at  Lomh.ii,  27tl'i  Octo- 
ber I87.'{.  He  w.is  related  in  dillerent  defiiees  to 
.losiah  Wedmvood,  Mrs  (laskcdl,  and  ('harles 
Darwin,  and  married  for  his  second  wife  a  clanj;liter 
of  Sydney  Smith.      See  Kxi  T.sKORH. 

Hollanii.  Hkniiv  Sciirr,  ]ireiudier  and  then- 
lofjian,  was  Inini  at  Leilhury,  in  Herefordshire,  in 
I.S47,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  llalliol.  He  took 
lirst  cljuss  honours  in  187(1,  ami.  after  bavin;;  been 
theological  tutor  at  ( 'liristcliurch  and  select 
preacher,  he  became  canon  of  Triiro  in  1882  and 
canon  of  St  I'anl's  in  1884.  He  has  published  some 
reiiiarkalde  volumes  of  sermons,  including  l.oijiv 
iini'  /.i/i-  {\X><2). 

Holland.  ■Iosi.mi  Ciliii<:I!T,  an  .\nierican 
author,  wjus  born  in  lielchertown,  Ma.s.saelinsetts, 
24th  .Inly  181(1,  and  graduated  at  the  Berkshire 
medic;il  colh-ge,  at  I'ittslield,  in  1844.  He  soon 
abandoned  his  profession,  however,  and  after  lifteeii 
months  as  a  school  superintendent  at  Hichmmid, 
Viririnia,  became  lussistant  eilitor  of  the  Spring- 
lield   Ji'i/iiih/iniii,  of  which   he  was   part  proprietor 

also  from   1851    to    1860.      In   '   " 

Smith   and   the   Scribiiers,    he 
Mantlihi,  which  he  c<indiicteil 
death,  '  12tli     October     1881. 
aji|ieared    his    niivids,  Aitliiii- 
Thr  S/un/  of  Hir.noiiLs  {]S7r>), 

I'irn  (  18^1)).'  Ilis  Tiinolhti  Titinnili's  Letters  (1858) 
went  through  nine  editions  in  a  few  months ;  and 
this  sale  Wiis  exceeded  by  his  Life,  of  Lineoln  hikI 
his  most  popular  poems.  liiller  Sireef  (1858), 
Kidliiinii  (1807),  and  The  mistress  of  the  Manse 
(1S74).  Most  of  his  works  have  been  republished 
in  Ibilain.     See  the  Life  by  Mrs  I'lnnkett  ( 1894). 

Holl.'nnl.  I'llIl.KMDN,  styled  'the  translator- 
general  ol  his  agi-.'  was  born  at  Chelmsford,  in 
E.s.-.ex,  in  l.VrJ.  He  became  a  Eellow  of  Trinitv 
I'oUege,  Cambridge,  and  in  l.'iKl  look  at  that  uni- 
versity theilegiee  of  .M.  I>.  He  afterwards  practised 
medicine  at  Coventry,  and  in  lti'28  wius  appointed 
lie.ad-niaster  of  the  free  school  there.  He  died  on 
iUli  Kebruary  ll).'i7.  His  more  notable  translations 
were  Livy,  I'liny  s  Sulnrnl  J/istori/,  Suetonius, 
I'lutarch's  Muni/s,  .\nimianus  Marcellinus.  Xeini- 
plion's  Ci/ro/iin/id,  and  Camden's  J'nliiiiniii.  His 
son,  Henry  Holland,  a  iKiokseller  in  London,  pub- 
lished Heroolm/ia  .Ih7//<v(»«  ( lli'20)and  lidsiliotogia 
(1018). 

Hollands.    See  Gin. 

Iloll.-ir.  Wknceslai.s  (ie07-77),  etcher.  See 
E.Miu.wiNC,  \ol.  IV.  p.  :!80. 

Holies.  DeNZIL,  Loiiu,  one  of  the  'live  nieui- 
bers,'  was  the  son  of  the  Earl  of  Clare,  and  was 
born  at  Houglit<m,  in  Nottinghanishire,  in  I.'>99. 
He  entereil  parliament  in  l(i'24,  and  at  once  joined 
the  [livrty  oppo.sed  to  the  king's  government.  On 
.March  2.  10'29,  he  was  one  of  the  members  who 
lielil  the  Speaker  in  his  chair  whilst  resolutions 
were  jiiussed  against  Arniinianism  and  tonnage 
and  poundage.  For  this  act  he  was  condemned 
hy  the  Court  of  King's  Bench  to  pay  a  fine  of  one 
lliou.sand  marks,  and  to  be  inipixsoned  in  the 
Tower  during  the  king's  pleasure:  he  reni.ained 
there  about  a  twelveiuonth.  He  was  one  of  the 
members  of  |iarliameiit  whom  Charles  accused  of 
high  treason  and  att<'iiipted  to  arrest  in  1042.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  charged 
lo  hold  Bristol  ;  but,  dreading  the  .supremacy  of 
the  army  more  than  he  dreaded  the  luetensions  of 
the  king,  Holies  was  a  stea<ly  advocate  of  peace. 
He  «as  a  foremost  leailer  of  the  Presbyterian 
party.      For  having  in   1047  propo.sed  to  cUsliand 


HOLLOW  AY 


HOLLY 


747 


tlie  army  lie  was  accused  of  hij,'li  tiea-son  ;  l>ut, 
leaving  his  native  land,  lie  fouml  refuge  in  Nor- 
mandy. Again,  after  a  brief  return  visit  to 
Kngland  in  tlie  following  year,  he  went  hack  to 
Brittany,  and  stayed  there  until  Cromwell's  ilcath. 
On  his  rea]i|iearance  in  Kngland  Holies  set  to  work 
to  efi'ect  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  ;  he  was  the 
spokesman  of  the  commission  delegated  to  carry  the 
invitation  of  recall  to  Charles  II.  at  lireda.  In 
1001  he  was  created  a  peer  as  Lord  Holies  of  Islield 
in  Sussex.  His  last  important  [inhlic  duty  was  the 
negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  ISredain  1007.  .Vlthough 
thus  employed  in  the  service  of  the  crown,  Holies 
still  clung  faithfully  to  his  love  of  liherty,  and 
remained  staunch  in  his  support  of  the  governing 
rights  of  parliament  ;  and  as  Charles's  propensities 
towards  ahsolutism  became  more  iironounced  Holies 
leaned  more  to  the  opposition.  He  died  on  ITtli 
Kehrnary  1680,  a  man  of  linn  integrity,  a  lover  of 
his  country  and  of  liberty,  '  a  man  of  great  courage 
and  of  as  great  pride.  He  had  the  soul  of  a  stuo- 
biu-n  old  Roman  in  him.'  See  Memoirs  written  by 
himself  (109!))  ;  also  S.  H.  Gardiner's  History. 

Holloway,  a  district  of  London,  in  the  parish 
and  parliamentary  borough  of  Islington,  on  the 
N.,  h.as  a  pojiulation  of  47,92+. 

Holloway  C'ollcsi*?.  situated  at  Mount  Lee, 
Egham,  Surrey,  near  Virginia  Water,  is  an  insti- 
tution founded  in  ISS.S  by  Thomas  Hollowav 
(1S00-S3),  patentee  of  H(dloway's  pills  and  Hol- 
h)way's  ointment  (see  Al)yKi;TlsixG ),  for  the  pur- 
pose of  sup])lyin";  a  suitable  education  to  women 
of  the  middle  classes.  The  building,  which  is 
constructed  in  the  I'^rencli  Renaissance  style,  was 
openeil  by  the  Queen  in  ISSfi.  The  management 
is  vested  in  the  hands  of  twelve  governors.  Hollo- 
way  also  founded  a  sanatorium  or  hospital  for  the 
mentally  atHicted  lielonging  to  the  middle  classes. 

Holly  (//''.'•).  ■'<■  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of 
the  natural  order  Aqnifoliaceic,  chietly  natives 
of  temperate  climates  ;  with  evergreen,  leathery, 
shining,  and  generally  spinous  leaves  :  small  Howers 

which  h.ave  a  four-  to 
five-toothed  calyx,  a 
wheel-shaped  four-  to 
live-cleft  corolla,  four 
or  live  stamens,  and 
the  fruit  globose  and 
Heshy,  with  four  en- 
live  stones  (■nuts). 
The  Common  Holly 
(/.   (iqiiif'tliitin),    the 

0  n 1 y  K  u  ro  pean 
species,  and  a  native 
also  of  some  parts  of 
Asia,  is  a  well-known 
ornament  of  woods, 
parks,  and  shrubber- 
ies in  Britain,  the 
still'ness  of  its  habit 
being  so  compensated 
l>y  the  abundance  of 
its  branchlets  and 
leaves  a.s  to  make  it 
one  of  the  most 
beautiful  evergreens. 
It  is  found  as  a 
native  plant  in  Scot- 

1  an  d.  al  t  h  ongh 
Ihitaiu  is  nearly  its 
iKM'tliein   limit  :    and  j 

and    displays   greater 

than  in  the  southern 

ofti'U    appc-iring 

onsidi'iabh'    size. 


liranch  of  Coiuinon  Holly 

( Ilex  aqiUfoliuM  )  : 

a,  a  flower. 


it    attains    a 
luxuriance   in 


greater    size 

the  northern 
parts    of    its    geogr.aphic    rangi' 
in    the    former    as    a    tree    of 
20   to    ')()    feet     high,    whilst    in    the    latter   it     i 
generally   a    mere    bush.       It    prefers   light    soil- 


There  are  numerous  varieties  of  holly  produced, 
or  at  least  perpetuated,  by  cultivation,  exhibiting 
great  diversity  in  the  leaves,  of  which  the  Ha/i/r- 
liofj  Ilullji  may  be  mentioned  as  extremely  sinuous 
and  siiinous,  whilst  others  are  prized  for  their 
colour,  golden,  silver-blotched,  i^c.  The  flowers 
of  the  common  holly  are  whitish,  axillary,  nearly 
umbellate,  and  often  dio'cions  by  abortion  of  the 
pistil  ;  hence  the  barrenness  of  certain  varieties, 
and  <iccasionally  also  of  individual  trees  of  others 
which  are  reniarkalile  for  having  the  stamens  only 
or  the  jiistils  only  perfect  as  the  case  may  be  :  the 
feunier  of  course  never  bear  frnit.  The  fruit  is 
small,  scarlet,  rarely  yellow  or  white.  The  abund- 
ance of  the  fruit  adds  much  to  the  ornamental 
character  of  the  tree  in  winter,  and  allbrds  food 
for  birds  :  but  to  man  it  is  iinrgati\e,  emetic,  and 
iliuretic,  and  in  larger  r|nantilies  poisonous.  The 
leaves  are  inodorous,  have  a  mucilaginous  bitter 
and  somewhat  austere  taste,  and  have  been  used 
medicinally  in  cases  of  gout  and  rheumatism,  as  a 
diaphoretic,  .and  also  as  an  astringent  and  tonic  to 
correct  a  temlency  to  diarrliu>a,  iVc.  The  leaves 
anil  small  branches,  chojiped,  are  sometimes  userl 
for  feeding  sheep  in  severe  winters.  The  root  and 
bark  are  emollient,  exijcctorant,  and  diuretic. 
ISirdlime  (ij.v. )  may  be  made  from  the  inner  bai  l<. 
The  wood  is  almost  as  white  as  ivory,  very  hard 
and  fine-grained,  and  is  used  by  cabinetmakers, 
turners,  mnsical-instrument  makers,  Ac,  and  some- 
times for  wood  engraving.  Handles  of  tools  and 
handles  of  metal  teapots  .are  very  often  made  of 
it.  Tlie  holly  is  often  jilanted  fin-  hedges,  as  it 
bears  clip]iiiig  well,  and  makes  ,an  excellent  fence. 
A  holly  lieilge  may  either  be  kejit  low,  or,  as  is  the 
case  at  Tyninghame,  in  East  Lothian,  alIowe<l  to 
grow  to  the  height  of  20  m  .30  feet.  In  the  garden- 
ing of  former  days  hollies  were  often  clijiped  into 
fantastic  shajies.  The  name  holly  used  to  be  derived 
from  the  very  .ancient  use  of  the  branches  .and  berries 
to  decorate  churches  at  Christmas  (said  to  be  con- 
nected originally  with  the  Koman  Saturnalia),  from 
which  the  tree  was  called  Holy  Tree.  Really  li<dly 
(O.  E.  liuljiti )  shows  the  same  root  as  in  Irish  rid/aoi, 
(Jernian /(»/.v.-,  Old  Erench  /io»/./- (see  EvERCRKKXs, 
.and  the  illustration  there).  The  .American  holly 
(/.  ojinr{()  is  common  ahuig  the  Atlantic  coast  from 
Maine  southwards. — .Mate  (ipv.),  or  Ptirru/iini/  Tm. 
is  the  le.af  of  a  South  American  sjiecies  of  holly  (  /. 
pnrarfiiensis).  I.  romitoria  has  been  erroneously 
named  South  Seo  I'eii,  from  the  iiniires.sion  that 
it  w.as  the  same  as  /.  /itmii/xeiisis.  The  Indians 
smoked  it  as  a  substitute  fiu-  tobacco.  /.  mssinr 
and  /.  Diiliiioii  are  n.atives  of  the  same  region  of  the 
I'nited  States.  /.  ijoiiijdiilifi,  which  grows  in  the 
provinces  of  Minas  tieraes  .and  S:\o  I'.aiilo,  Brazil, 
lias  leaves  which  have  been  substituted  for  Para 
guay  Tea.  The  fruit  of  /.  mm-utirunn  contains  a 
great  (luantity  of  tannin,  and  mixed  with  a  ferru- 
ginous earth  is  used  to  dye  cottim. 

According  to  the  Darwinian  tliecuy  of  the  origin 
of  thorns,  spines,  and  prickles,  these  structures 
serve  either  as  a  protection  against  the  attacks  of 
the  larger  animals  (the  view  ex]ires.sed  in  Soutliey's 
'  Holly-tree ' )  or  ;vs  climbing  organs.  The  <ancestoi> 
of  the  holly  are  siipjiosed  to  have  had  spineless 
leaves  which  were  eaten  by  large  browsing  animals, 
and  thus  the  holly  ran  the  risk  of  extermination, 
until  some  individuals,  dwarfed  and  checked  in 
growth  from  the  losing  of  their  tender  shoots, 
developed  spines  which  protected  them  from  the 
attacks  of  .animals.  These  spine-producing  hollies 
h.ad  an  advant.age  over  their  spineless  neighboni'S 
and  became  the  survivoi-s.  In  support  of  this 
theory  is  the  fact  that  many  varieties  of  holly 
above  a  certain  height  develop  leaves  without 
spines;  and  this  is  explaineil  by  s.iying  that  these 
leaves  were   bevoml   the   reach   of  animals  which 


748 


HOLT-YTTOCK 


HOLMES 


attiiokeil  till!  |>liiiit,  ami  tlnTofore  spines  were 
nut  foniicil  uii  tlie.se  liij;lier  loaves  liefiuise  tliey 
were  uiiiiecesMuy.  A  iimre  recent  view  nf  the 
ori^'in  of  s|iines  ilenies  alto;,'etlier  the  ii>;eiify 
of  iiiiiiiiHls.  Ai-ooriliii;;  to  this  view  the  hitter 
nature  iif  liiilly  leaves  is  sullieient  to  repel  any 
animal  Iroiii  niakin;^  food  of  them.  The  pres 
enee  or  ahsence  of  spines  on  the  leaves  is  the 
result  of  the  metaholisni  of  the  plant.  Those 
phuit.«  which  have  fjrown  in  rich  soil  nniler  favour- 
ahle  I'limatic  eomlilions  are  vi^'oroiis  inili\  iihials 
with  lar;;e  spineless  leaves:  wliiii-  hollii-  wliich 
have  ;.;rown  in  poor  soil  umler  nnfavoiiralile  cmi 
(litions  have  shrnhhy  stems  anil  small  eiuleil  spiny 
leaves.  The  former  plants  are  healthy  ami  well 
fed  ;  the  latter  half  starved  and  ill  roinlitioiied. 
The  former  are  the  lii;;lily  analiolic,  the  latter  llie 
kataliolie  individuals. 

llollyllUCk  {A/l/i<r(i  ro.ien),  a  plant  of  the 
natural  order  .Malvaci'M',  eomnionly  referred  to  the 
same  genus  with  the  Mai-sh  .Mallow  (i|.v.).  It  has 
a  tall,  straiglit,  hairy  stem  ;  hearlsliapeil,  creiiate, 
wrinkled,   live-   to  seven-angled   leaves,   ami   large 

axillary  lloweis 

almost  without 

-talks ;  the  leaves 
iliminishing  into 
liracts,  and  the 
iip]>er  part  of  the 
stem  forming  a 
■-pike:  the  (letals 
hairy  at  the  l>a.se. 
The  hollyhock  is  a 
native  of  the  Medi- 
liMianean.  is  to  he 
si'i'ii  in  almost  every 
garden  in  Imlia.  and 
has  lieeii  niiieli  cul- 
tivated in  gardens 
in  iiiitain  from  a 
\ery  early  jieriod. 
.\t  present  it  is  a 
favourite  Mower, 
and  varieties,  the 
result  of  cultiva 
tion,  are  very 
numerous.  It  varies 
much  in  the  colour 
of  the  tlowei-s,  and 
doulde  and  semi 
doulde  varieties  are  common.  It  is  an  autumnal 
Hower,  continuing  till  the  frost  sets  in.  The 
plant  is  a  hiennial  or  perennial,  l>ut  in  the  latter 
condition  lasting  only  foi-  three  or  four  years  in 
a  healthy  state.  The  stem  rises  to  a  height  of 
8-1j  feet,  unhranching,  or  nearly  .so.  Since  IS70- 
7o  the  plant  has  all  hut  succnmhed  to  what  is 
known  ;us  the  hollyhoik  disease,  caused  liy  a 
species  of  fungus  (I'uccinia)  wliiili  attacks  the 
leaves  and  linally  proves  fatal,  unless  prompt 
measures  are  adopted  to  arrest  its  progress. 
Sulphur  dusted  on  the  ali'ected  leaves  has  proved  the 
most  ellectual  cure.  The  libres  of  the  plant  have 
been  made  into  yarn,  hut  it  is  not  yet  certain  if  it 
is  really  valuable  for  cultivation  on  this  account, 
or  for  the  manufarture  of  iiajier.  It  is  not  improb- 
able that  it  might  be  cultivated  with  lulvaiitage 
to  all'ord  green  fodder  for  cattle,  which  are  very 
fond  of  its  leaves,  and  the  leaves  are  priMluced  in 
•jreat  abundance  if  the  plant  is  prevented  from 
flowering.  The  llowers  are  ninciliigincms  and 
demulcent,  and  arc  sometimes  used  like  those  of 
mallows  and  inai-sh  mallows.  The  leaves  yield  a 
fine  blue  dye. — The  Cliine.se  Hollyhock  {A._i-liiiicii- 
sis)  is  an  allied  specie-s. 

HoIniail.'I.VMES,  '  the  BlindTraveller,' wa-s  born 
Ijtii  iiciulii-r  17!S6,  anil,  entering  the  navy  in  1798, 


Hollyhock  ( Althrva  mnea  . 


had  risen  to  be  a  lieutenant  when,  in  IMIO,  the  loss 
of  sight  compelled  him  to  ipiit  the  service.  Yet, 
being  of  an  active  tempeiament,  he  in  IHIO  "21 
travelled  through  I'laiiie,  llaly,  and  the  countries 
louching  on  the  Kliine.  Kiicoiiiaged  by  this,  he 
iiinceived  the  plan  of  tr.ivelling  round  the  world, 
and  had  penetrated  to  Irkutsk  in  Siberia,  when  lie 
was  arrested  lus  a  spy  by  the  Kiissian  government 
and  carried  back  to  the  frontiei-s  of  I'olaiid. 
Neverlheless,  undaunted  by  this  failure,  he  again 
set  otr  in  IS27.  and  this  time  elb'ctively  accoiii- 
plisheil  his  purpose.  Finally,  he  visited  the 
countries  of  son ili  east   Kiirope.      He  died  at    l.oii- 

d -i'Mh   .Inly    IH.")7.      He    piiblislied    .l„iiniii/.s   of 

his  successive  journeys,  which  contain  much  more 
useful  information  than  cmild  be  expected  from  the 
ciiinnisi.iiiii's  under  which  it  was  gathered. 

Iloilllhy  House,  a  tine  Tudor  mansion,  6i 
miles  N\\.  of  Northampton,  was  Imilt  by  Sir 
Christopher  llatton  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  It 
was  sold  to  .lames  I.,  and  was  for  four  months  in 
1(>47  the  prison  of  Charles  I.  (<|.v.).  It  was  dis- 
mantled in  lli.V2. 

lloliiK's,  tjLiVEH  Wendell,  born  in  Cam- 
bridge, .Massachusetts,  August  29,  ISO!),  was  the 
son  of  liev.  .Miiel  and  Sarah  (Wendell)  Ilolme.s. 
His  father  was  a  Congregational  e..|.)ii»iii  isim  in  ii.s. 
minister,  the  author  of  Aiimtis  of  iiy  J.  ii  Liiipiucott 
Aincn'ra  and  other  works  ;  his  C"i"i">iy 
mother,  descended  from  a  Dutch  ancestor,  was  re- 
lated to  many  well-known  families  in  New  Knglanil 
and  New  York.  He  entered  Harvard  Collcj;!' at  the 
age  of  sixteen,  .'iiid  graduated,  in  what  became  a 
famous  class,  in  IS2i).  He  began  the  study  of  law, 
but  after  a  year  gave  it  up,  and  entered  upon  the 
study  of  medicine.  After  the  customary  cour.se  at 
the  medical  school  of  Harvard  he  siient  over  two 
veal's  in  I  he  hospitals  and  schools  of  Eurooe.  chielly 
in  Paris  :  mid  on  his  return  home  look  llie  degree 
of  M.I),  in  IHSli.  Three  years  later  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  Analomy  and  I'liysiology  at  Dartmouth 
College,  but  after  two  years'  service  he  resigned 
and  eiigageil  in  general  practice  in  Boston.  He 
married  in  1840  Amelia  Lee  Jackson,  daughter 
of  a  justice  of  the  .•supreme  Court  of  Massachu- 
setts. (Three  children  were  bmnof  the  marriage, 
of  whom  one,  (t.  W.  Holmes,  jun.,  serM'd  as  a 
caiitain  in  the  civil  war,  and  is  a  juilge  and  an 
eminent  writer  upon  legal  subjects.)  In  1S47  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Anatomv  at  Harv.ird, 
which  place  he  held  until  I8S2.  He  was  highly 
respected  as  a  man  of  science,  and  beloved  as  an 
instructor  ;  but  as  time  went  on  his  literary  genius 
(|uite  overbore  his  professional  zeal,  and  it  is  as  a 
poet  and  essayist  that  he  will  be  remembered. 

He  beg.an  writing  verse  while  an  undergraduate, 
but  his  lirst  ed'orts  were  not  remarkable.  While 
in  the  law  school  he  contributed  to  the  Culliijiim  a 
few  ]ioenis  of  a  light  and  humorous  character  which 
lirst  gave  indications  of  his  future  power:  among 
these  are  '  Kvening,  by  a  Tailor"  and  'The  Height 
of  the  Itiiliciiloiis. '  There  is  a  reminiscence  of  his 
life  in  I'aris  in  the  tender  ]ioem  beginning  ■.Ah, 
Clemence  1  when  I  saw  thee  host.'  .\  little  later  was 
written  'The  Last  Le.if,' which  contains  one  iierfect 
stanza,  and  which  from  the  blending  of  quaintness 
and  pathos  is  iierliaps  the  most  fortunate  ami 
characteristic  of  his  minor  |)oeiii.s.  Kor  some  years 
the  muse  visited  him  by  stealth,  the  votary  fearing 
fiU'  his  |irofessional  rejiutation  in  a  town  so  noted 
for  propriety.  .\  small  volume  of  these  early  poems 
was  pulilislied  in  IHStj.  Twenty  years  pa-ssea  with 
desultory  ell'orts  and  a  slowly-growing  power,  when 
by  the  publication  of  Thr:  Aiitnrrnl  nf  tin  liirnl.fiist 
Tiihli-  (  I.S.)7-o8)  he  became  suddenly  famous.  No 
literary  event  since  the  Xoi:tcs  had  more  strongly 
atl'ecteil  the  reading  world.     The  success  was  due 


HOLMES 


HOLOTHURIANS 


749 


to  its  fresh,  unconveiitloiial  tone,  its  playful  wit 
anil  wisiloni,  and  to  the  lovely  vignettes  of  verse. 
Apait  from  the  merits  of  thought  and  style,  the 
pages  have  the  charm  of  personal  conlidences  ;  the 
reader  l)ecomes  at  once  a  jiupil  and  an  intimate 
frienil.  The  tone  assuiiii'il  is  egotistical,  but  the 
force  and  the  comeily  (as  every  man  with  imagina- 
tion sees)  are  hound  up  in  that  assumption.  TIk 
I'rofessor  iit  flu:  Uivakfiixl  Taldc  (1M.')S.")9)  was 
written  upon  the  same  lines  and  has  iiualities equal 
to  those  of  its  predecessor,  hut  it  deals  with  deeper 
'piestions  aiul  in  a  less  familiar  way.  Tlic  Pud  nt 
the  Bi-eal.J'iisi  Ttihlc  ( 1S72)  takes  the  reader  into  the 
region  of  religious  and  pliiloso|>hical  ideas.  'Clod 
is  Love'  is  the  Ueynote  of  its  doctrine.  His  first 
ell'ort  in  liction  was  EUli:  I'cimcr  ( 1859-(i0),  a  study 
of  hereditary  impressions  and  tendencies*.  The 
UiKinUdii  AiKjrt  (ISliT)  is  a  picture  of  rural  New 
England.  A  Alurtal  Aiitipdthij  was  written  in 
1885.  It  is  scarcely  a  novel  as  the  term  is  gereially 
understood,  hut  there  is  a  thread  of  story  on  which 
the  authoi-  hangs  his  oUservations,  as  he  had  done 
hefore  in  the  Autocrat.  Tlie  introduction  to  this 
hook  is  autohiographical  and  historical,  and  gives 
a  delightful  view  of  (.'amhridge  as  it  was  in  the 
author's  hoyliood,  and  a  sadly  annising  account  of 
early  American  literature.  The  w(Mks  hefore  named 
appeared  in  the  AtUiiitlc  Munthlij,  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  founders.  He  wrote  for  it  also  many 
occasional  essays  and  poems.  Besides  tlie  early 
volume  (1836),  he  puhlished  Soiiijs  in  Many  Kei/x 
(1862),  Soiifja  of  Many  Seit-mim  (1870),  The  Iron 
Gate  (1880),  and  Before  the  Curfew  (1888).  His 
other  (prose)  works  are  Currents  find  Counter-cur- 
rents (1S61),  Souiulinys  from  the  Atlantic  (1864), 
Bonier  Lines  of  Knoiekilyc  (186'2),  Mer/iauisni.  in 
Thony/U  and  Morals  ( 1871 ),  and  Memoirs  of  Motley 
( 18791  and  Emerson  ( IS.S.'i ).  Our  Hundred  Days  in 
Enro/ic  {  1887)  is  an  account  of  a  visit  made  in  1886, 
during  wliich  he  recciveil  honours  from  the  univer- 
sities of  Cambridge,  ().\l'ord,  and  Edinburgh.  The 
article  EmeI!.S(iX  in  I  his  work  is  from  his  pen. 
Universally  beloved,  he  died  peacefully  in  his  arm- 
chair in  his  library  overlooking  Candiridge,  on  ihe 
7tli  October  1894.  ' 

It  is  difficult  to  make  a  summary  of  the  traits  of  a 
wi  iter  so  versatile.  By  his  own  generation  he  will  he 
remembered  as  a  great  talker,  in  the  highest  siuise. 
His  intellect  was  keen  and  ]iowerful  ;  his  observation 
instinctive;  and  his  enthusiasm  and  eneigy  would 
have  carried  through  a  man  of  less  brilliant  parts. 
His  verse  is  melodious,  compact,  and  rounded  by 
ar*  ;  its  (iallic  liveliness  tempered  by  the  even 
measure,  and  enforced  by  the  point,  of  the  ISth 
century.  There  is  not  in  it  a  trace  of  the  manner 
of  recent  English  poets.  Still,  in  its  thought,  its 
humanity,  and  its  suggestions  of  science,  it  is  seen 
that  he  is  a  man  of  his  own  century,  and  among  the 
most  advanced.  .\moug  siiecimens  of  his  varicil 
])Owers  may  be  cited  'The  Last  Leaf,'  already  nu'n- 
tioned,  '  Tlie  Chambered  Nautilus,'  '  (Jrandmother's 
Story '(of  the  liattle  of  Bunker's  Hill).  'Sun  and 
Shadow,'  '  Eor  the  Burns  Centennial,'  'On  lending 
a  Punch-bowl,'  and  'The  One-hoss  Shay.'  He  is 
especially  ha]ipy  in  liis  (ributesto  brother  (loets — 
as  to  Longfellow  and  Lowell,  .and  to  Whitlicron 
his  seventieth  birthday.  During  the  civil  war  he 
wrote  many  impassioneil  lyrics  in  defence  of  the 
Union — probably  the  best  patriotic  songs  of  the 
time.  Of  his  prose  it  may  lie  said  that,  whatever 
may  be  the  .sunject,  it  always  engages  attention, 
and  is  always  siii  yi  nrris.  The  reader  feels  him- 
self in  contact  with  a  strong  mind,  full  of  the  fruit 
of  reading,  and  with  a  character  that  is  full  of  sur- 
prises. The  choice  of  wor<ls  is  ilirected  by  a  poet's 
inevitable  instinct,  and  the  general  treatment  is 
both  precise  and  delicate.  In  the  essay  "pon 
Mechanism    in    Tlioiiglit   and   Monds   there   is  an 


acuteness  and  subtlety  which  might  have  made  a 
metaphysician  ;  only  that  might  have  deprived  the 
world  of  one  of  its  most  original  and  delightful 
essayists.  There  are  degrees  of  value  in  his  works, 
but  it  appears  that  his  fame  will  rest  chiefly  upon 
The  Autocrat,  The  I'lofessor,  and  certain  of  lii> 
poems.  Of  his  writings  in  general  it  should  lie  said 
that,  though  his  sparkling  wit  and  flowing  humour 
are  eviileiit  to  the  most  casual  reader,  a  closer 
.study  reveals  other  qualities  which  give  him  a 
place  among  the  great  writers  of  the  time. 

The  collected  (  '  Riverside '  )  edition  of  his  works  ex- 
tends to  13  vols.  (l«<)l-9-2).  There  are  Lives  by  ■«'.  S. 
Kennedy  (ISSS),  Emma  E.  Brown  (1X84),  and  .J.  T. 
.Mcir.se,  jun.  (2  v..N.  IK'.li; ). 

llolOCCpllali.      See  CARTILAGINOfS  FI.SHE.S. 

Ilololcriie.s.    See  Judith. 

■lMlo$;ra|>li.    See  Deed. 

IIoIO|ttyt'llilIS  (<;r.  IkjIos,  'all,'  ami  ptyrhi', 
•wrinkle  ),  an  extinct  genus  of  (ianoid  fishes  from 
Devonian  and  Carboniferous  strata,  type  of  a  family 
the  members  of  which  are  remarkaole  for  their 
sculptured  or  wrinkled  scales  and  extraordinary 
labyrinthine  tooth  structure. 

HolotllliriailS  (Holothurioidea),  a  class  of 
.'inimals  belonging  to  the  sub-kingdom  Echinoder- 
niata  (q.v.),  from  the  other  mendicrs  of  which  they 
are  readily  distinguished  by  a  more  or  less  worm  like 
ap]iearancc.  They  are  ]iopularly  known  as  Sea- 
cucumbers  or  Sea-slugs.  The  word  holutlioiirion  wa.s 
used  by  Aristotle  for  a  nuirine  animal  which  we  aie 
now  unalde  to  identify,  and  the  Latinised  form  Wius 
appropriated  as  a  generic  title  by  Linnaus  in  17">8. 
flis  genus  was  practically  coextensive  with  the  pres- 
ent cla.ss.  .As  in  all  Kchinodermata,  the  .symmetry 
of  the  adult  body  is  ap]iarently  pentagonal,  but, 
insteatl  of  presenting  the  ajjpeaiance  of  rays  diverg- 
ing in  one  plane  from  a  conimon  centie,  these  are 
bands  running  along  the  sides  of  a  cylinder.  Very 
frequently  iheyare  not  ei|uidistant  from  each  other, 
and  then  the  radiate  symmetry  pa.sses  over  into  :\ 
bilateral  one.  The  most  connuou  .arrangement  is 
for  three  rays  to  be  ap]iro.\imated  to  each  other  on 
the  ventral  and  two  on  the  dorsal  aspect.  The 
body  of  a  Holothurian  consists  of  a  sac  of  leathery 
cimsistency  (whence  the  name  Scytoilernuita  some- 
times used  for  them  ),  nuide  up  of  a  cuticle,  layers 
of  cells,  connective  tissue,  nerve-fibres,  and  calcare- 
ous plates  and  muscles.  The  calcareous  plates  are 
the  sole  remnants  of  the  skeleton  which  is  so  largely 
developed  in  other  Echinoderms.  They  are  of  vari- 
(Uis  shapes,  resembling  w  heels  in  Chirodota,  plates 
and  aucliors  in  Synapta,  and  spines  in  some  other 
genera  ;  in  P.s(dus  there  are  overlapiiing  scales. 
The  mouth  is  (U'dinarily  at  one  end  of  the  body,  hut 
occasionally  on  the  ventral  .surface  ;  it  is  surrounded 
by  a  ring  of  tentacles  whose  number  is  some 
multiple  of  live,  and  opens  into  a  gullet  surnmnded 
by  a  circle  of  calcareous  plates.  The  digestive  tract 
is  ordimirily  disposed  in  a  loop  ;  the  last  portion 
before  the  vent  (cloaca)  is  a  large  space,  which  hivs 
been  observed  to  contract  rhytlinncally.  To  it  are 
a]ipended  (except  in  two  subdivisions)  a  pair  of 
branched  outgrowths,  the  lespiratmy  trees,  anil 
certain  processes  of  unknown  function,  known  as 
the  Cuvicri.'in  organs. 

The  gullet  is  surrounded  by  the  ring-shaped  cen- 
tral nervous  .system,  and  also  by  a  tube  belonging 
to  the  ambulacral  or  water-vascular  system,  which 
is  so  generally  distributed  among  the  Echinoder- 
mata.  It  gives  oft'  a  branch  forwards  to  each  ten- 
tacle, and  semis  one  backwards  almig  each  of  the 
five  radii  of  the  Ixidy,  to  supi)ly  the  tube-feet,  the 
principal  locomotor  organs,  'rhe  annular  tube  beai's 
also  a  reservoir,  the  Polian  vesicle,  and  communi- 
cates either  with  the  body-cavity,  or  sometimes 
with  the  outside  by  means  of  a  canal.     The  sense- 


750 


HOLOTHURIANS 


HOI.T 


or>;ans  roiisint  of  audilmy  vewicle.-.  situattil  ni'iir  tin- 
antvrior  end  of  tlie  l«"ly,  anil  ountaiiiin^'  wiiiall  I'al- 
careous  roi'iiUHclt'K  (oliilitlis),  aiul  of  the  tentacles 
above  nicntioiuvl.     These  may  Ih;  either  hiinple  or 


«,  SeinidiaKmnuiiatic  view  of  the  visewii  ut  u  Uulutkurian  be- 
li>iigiii}:  Ut  tlie  Aspidochirotjf-  Pnijecting  from  tlie  upi^r  nu\ 
are  tlie  tentacles,  lower  <lown  tln'  calcflreous  ring,  and  still 
lower  in  the  middle  line  the  two  Polinn  vesicles.  The  intestine 
is  shown  jjussing  in  n  loo])  Ut  the  hinder  end  of  the  IxNly  ;  dnr- 
ing  iKirt  of  its  eonrse  it  is  seen  to  be  attached  to  the  l»ody-wall 
by  a  mesentery.  Two  respiratory  trees  ont-n  into  its  expanrlefl 
t'Tmniation  or  cloaca,  which  is  connected  to  the  walls  of  the 
bo<ly  by  radiating  muscular  bands.  I,4tngitiidinal  muscles 
pass  fr>>m  the  anterior  to  the  jmsterior  end  of  the  animal.  To 
the  right  is  the  branched  genital  gland  with  ita  duct.  (From 
Leunis.) 

b,  Phftllophortu  uriut,  one  of  the  DendriichirotH',  ^(l  rat.  size(fi-om 
Leiiuis);  e,  Itohthiirin  lubulo»i,  one  of  the  Aspidnchirota-, 
Jth  nat.  size  (from  Leunis);  d,  itiuinijthtmtit  muUthiU»,  one  of 
the  abys-sal  ELasipo<la,  ^d  nat.  size  (fVrun  Theel);  e,  calcareous 
wheel,  from  the  nitegnmcnt  of  ('hir-tlola  iturpurm,  magnitied 
1<J0  diameters  (frnm  Theel);  /,  tf,  plate  and  anchor  of  Syimitta 
iy-telii,  highly  ntagnitied  (fmru  nieel);  h,  larval  form 
( Auricularia)  of  H'ttorlinria  tubuloiia,  highly  magnifle^l  ( fmm 
Kelenka). 

branched,  and  in  a  few  ca.ses  they  are  furni.slied 
with  snckeis.  In  the  Ela!<ipoila  tactile  otf^an.s  are 
pre-ent  in  the  form  of  doisal  )>apill:i'. 

The  f;enerative  or-^'ans  consi.st  of  a  bunch  of  tnltes, 
with  one  end  closed  ;  their  duct  opens  either  within 
or  jiL'st  outside  the  circle  of  tentacliw.  The  e^'f; 
develops  as  a  rule  into  a  curiously  formed  bilaterally 
synimetrii'al  larva,  formerly  ilescribeil  as  a  distinct 
animal  tinder  the  name  Auiicularla.  In  a  few 
cases  the  development  is  direct  ;  in  Ciicmmiria 
crocea  the  younK  are  borne  among  the  tentacles  of 
the  parent,  whilst  in  Psn/iis  iji/d/ijiifrr  they  are 
carried  in  a  special  pouch  on  the  back. 

The  cla-<.s  is  subdivided  a-s  follows  : 

I.  Elasicoda,  primitive  deep-sea  forms  :  bilaterally  synnuetri- 
cal ;  tube-feet  on  the  ventral  surface,  papillie  on  the 
dorsal.  Xo  respirat^iry  trees.  A  very-  large  number  of 
genera  and  species  have  been  obtained  by  the  Challenger 
and  other  rleep.sea  exp**ditions. 
H.  Pedata.  with  well-ileveloysvi  tube-feet  and  papillie. 

(1 )  AspidiK-liirotje,  with  tentacles  bearing  a  disc,  and  ten 
ealc;ire<ius  plates  round  the  gullet.  Tlie  genus 
Ilohithuria  as  now  understoofl  belongs  here 
(2)  Dendripchirotje,  with  arbore.scent  wntacles 
—  e.g.  Cucumaria,  Psolus. 


111.   Ai-oi>A,  devoid  of  tube-feet  and  lu^iillie. 

(1)  I'neumonuphoni,  with  respirat^jry  trees— e.g.  Mol- 
|iadia.  (*J)  Apneuniuna,  with  neiUier  radial  w-ater- 
vascular  canals,  respinttory  trees,  rtor  Cuvleriau 
organs— e.g.  .Synajita,  Chirodotn. 

The  Holothurians  are  all  marine,  and  have  a 
world-wiilc  distribution  ;  traces  of  them  lia\e  been 
found  fossil  as  far  back  a.s  the  (■arboniferous 
ib'iiosits  of  Scotland.  They  cither  take  in  laige 
<|iiantities  of  sand  and  absorb  the  nut]  ilive  matters 
mi.\eil  w  ith  it,  or  devour  small  animnK.  <  )ii  strong 
contiaction,  caused  by  sudden  irritation,  the  wlnde 
digestive  canal  anil  its  appendagi-s  are  not  unfre- 
■  luently  ejected  ;  but  these  are  regenerate<l  after  a 
time.  In  some  species  the  cloaca  is  inliabiteil  by  a 
~iiiall  paru.sitic  lish  of  the  genus  ricrasfer.  Tre- 
pang  ( (j.v. ),  or  ln'ihc-ili-iiiir,  a  gieat  delicacy  among 
the  Chinese,  consists  of  ilried  Holothurians. 

Holstcill.  formerly  a  duchy  belonging  to 
Denmark,  and  at  the  same  time  a  member  of  the 
(iermaiuc  (dnfedcration.  wa.s  annexed  in  IStiG  to 
Prussia,  which  incoriiorateil  it  in  the  ]proviiici'  of 
Sleswick-IIdlsli'iii.  It  Ls  separated  fiom  Sles«ick 
on  the  N.  by  the  river  Kider  ami  tlu'  North  lialtic 
(anal  ;  is  bounded  on  the  V..  by  the  IJallic  S<'a,  the 
territory  of  I.iibcck.  and  the  duchy  of  l.mieiiburg  ; 
on  the  S.  by  the  Ilambmg  territoiy  ami  the  Kibe; 
and  on  the  \V,  by  the  North  Sea.  One  eighth  of 
the  .surface  consist.s  of  marshes.  The  central  dis- 
tricts are  occupieil  by  an  undiilatiiig  plain  traversed 
from  north  to  south  by  a  low  heatliy  and  sandy 
ridge.  The  soil,  with  the  exception  of  several 
tracts  of  .sanil  and  heath,  is  veiy  fruitful,  especially 
in  the  marslic-.  Tlie  climate  and  naluial  pimluc- 
tions  closely  resemble  those  of  similai-  districts  in 
the  north  of  (iermany.  Salt  and  gypsum  are  the 
only  minerals  found.  Peal  is  plentilul.  .Agricul- 
ture and  the  rearing  of  cattle  aie  the  chief  employ- 
ments, though  market  gardening  tlouiishes  in  the 
neiglibouiliood  of  .Mtona  ami  Hamburg,  and  ship- 
ping in  (he  seaport  low  lis,  and  lisliing  along  the 
coasts,  especially  for  oysters  in  the  North  Sea. 
Area,  3237  sip  in.  ;  poji.  about  .")C((,(KX) — mostly 
Germans  of  the  Low  German  stock.  The  history 
of  Holsteiii  w  ill  be  noticed  under  .SlesWick. 

Ilulstoil.  Kaki.Chkistian  Johanx,, an  eminent 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Giistrow  in  Mecklen- 
burg-Schweiiii,  Slst  March  iN'i.j.  Ho  studied  theo- 
logy and  iihilology  at  Leipzig,  iierliii.  and  Kostock, 
and  became  in  1S.V2  a  teacher  at  the  Kostock  gym- 
naMum.  In  1H70  he  was  called  to  the  IJern  High 
School  as  an  e.Mra-oidinary  professor,  ne.xt  year 
became  ordinary  professor,  and  in  l?i76  <dieyed  a 
call  to  a  similar  iiosl  at  Heidelberg.  His  startling 
ccmtribution  to  Pauline  theology,  jiiiiii  Erdmiiliiiin 
lies  I'diitiis  mill  I'lliiis  (  KS67),  was  followed  by  Das 
Ju-aiH/iliiiiii  {/cK  J'liiiliis  (vol.  i.  1880),  /)/<  (/rei 
itrsjfrttttfilii'hciiy  iioi'h  iimn'srhrirhi'ncii  Ei'iimji  /ii:n 
(1885),  and  Die  Si/iiojUisi:he>i  Eniiiqdicn  nacli  der 
Form  ihics  hihallx  { If586).     He  died'27th  .Jan.  1897. 

Holt.  SiK  .loilN,  Lord  Chief-justice  of  the  Court 
of  King's  lieiich,  Wius  born  at  Thame  in  Oxfordshire, 
on  30th  llecember  1642.  After  leading  a  wild  life 
as  a  student  of  Uriel  College,  Oxford,  lie  entered  at 
Gray's  Inn,  reformed  his  manners,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  l(ili3.  He  ligured  as  counsel  in  most 
of  the  slate-trials  of  that  period,  and  generally  a-s 
pleader  for  the  defendants.  In  1680  he  was  made 
recorder  of  London  and  king's  serjeant,  and  was 
knighted.  On  the  accessiim  of  Wiliiam  III.  he  wa-s 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  lord  chief  justice  of  the 
King's  Hencli,  and  tilled  the  jiost  to  his  life's  end. 
He  died  .'iil  March  1710.  Sir  .John  Holt  occupieH 
an  lionour.'ible  place  among  the  dignitaries  of  the 
English  bench  on  two  account*.  Contrary  to  the 
pr.actice  of  his  predece.s.sors,  he  treated  those  who 
appeared  before  him  with  unifonn  fairness  and 
justice.     Although  politically  a  Whig,  Holt's  judi- 


HOLTZENDORFF 


HOLYOAKE 


751 


oial  caieer  wa.'*  entirely  tree  from  tlie  >ti;,'iiia  i)f  party 
Mas  or  intri;,'ue.  He  distinguislieil  liiinself  liv  his 
couratjeoiis  defence  of  tlie  powers  of  liis  ottioe  aj;aiiist 
l>oth  crown  and  parliament,  and  his  ilecisions  were  | 
marked  Ijy  conspicuous  aliility  and  unbendini,'  inte;;- 
rity.  See  Life  (17li4)and  llrjun-ls  nf  (.'iisrs  ih-liir- 
miiial  liij  Sir  John  Hull  frixu  WSS  In  1710  ( IT.'iS). 

Iloltzcinlorll',  FltANZ  VON,  a  (icrman  writer 
on  law  subjects,  was  born  14th  October  l.S'29,  at 
Vietmannsdorf  in  Bramlenlmr;,'.  Educated  for  the 
law,  he  practised  in  the  courts  at  lierlin  till  \H'>~, 
when  he  became  a  lecturer  on  law  at  the  university. 
Made  professor  there  in  18(11,  he  was  in  1S7."?  called 
to  Munich.  He  is  known  as  au  author  on  several 
brandies  of  law,  and  especially  as  an  advocate  for 
the  reform  of  prisons  and  penal  systems.  Anioni; 
his  numerous  works  may  be  mentioned  one  on 
ileportation,  and  another  cm  the  Iiish  prison 
system  (1859);  Die  Prinripieii  i/er  Pu/iti/,-  (\mi)): 
ilnet/eldjiddie  der  Jiee/itsiri.ssi'ti.sr/irift  (IHIO  "1  :  4th 
ed.  1882);  Ham/liiie/i  des  Deiifxrheii  Stntfeerht^ 
(1871-77);  and  Hidtdbwhiles  Volh-rrerhls  (\'i9,a). 

HoItZIIiailll.  Adolf,  a  celebrated  (lernianist, 
was  born  at  Carlsruhe,  '2(1  May  1810,  lirst  studied 
theoloj;y  at  IJerlin,  then  Old  (ierman  |ibilolo','y 
<inder  Schmeller  at  Munich,  and  next  Sanskrit  under 
I'urnouf  at  Paris.  In  l.S.j'2  he  was  ajipointed  jiro- 
fessor  of  the  German  Langiiage  and  Literature  at 
Heidelberg,  where  he  died,  3d  July  1870.  Amonj;  his 
numerous  contributi<ins  to  philolnyy  .are  Uehn- dm 
i/riee/i.  Uf-fpruiir/  des  Iiid.  2 Vc /7.r(7'.sr.v  ( 1 844 ) ;  hid. 
.S'w/e/i  (•  84.5-47 )  ;  Kclten  nnd  Genmiiien  (\H'>'t),  in 
wliich  Ijotli  are  maintaine<l  to  have  been  ori<j;inally 
identical;  and  Uidrrsiirhtiii</eti  idjcr ilns yiOc/ iiiir/en- 
lii'd  (1854),  in  which  the  views  of  Lachmann  are 
assailed.  His  last  work  was  a  projecteil  .1  Itdeidtsejie 
(Ivdiiiiiintik.  After  his  deatli  Holder  edited  from 
his  papers  (ierinnn.  Altertuniri-  (187.3),  DeiitsHu: 
JTi/t/io/iif/ic  (1874),  and  Die  alt  ere  Eddci  (1875).— 
Of  his  lirothers  two  attained  eminence,  Karl  Hein 
rich  Alexaufler  (1811-65)  as  a  lecturer  and  writer 
on  applieil  mathematics:  and  Karl  .lulins  ( 1804  77  ) 
as  a  preacher  and  ecclesiastic  at  Carlsmhe. 

HoltZlllilllU,  Heineich  Julhs,  an  eminent 
tlieolo>;iaM,  was  .son  of  the  I  iernianist  Adolf  Holt/.- 
manu.  He  was  born  at  Carlsrulie,  17th  May  18.T2, 
became  in  18(il  extra-ordinary,  iu  ]Sli5  ordinary  iiro- 
fessor  of  Theology  at  Heidelber",  and  olieyed  in 
1874  a  call  to  the  theological  faculty  at  Strasburg. 
Holtzmann  set  out  as  an  exponent  of  the  '  Venuit- 
telungtheologie,'  but  grailually  let  slip  its  as-sumji 
tions,  and  now  stands  one  of  the  chief  representa 
tives  of  the  more  advanced  modern  school. 

Aiuonf;  liis  writings  are  Kmum  mid  TrtnUtion  (Wb'd), 
Vii  Siiiiujitischcii  Emiiuelicn  (18(j:i),  Kritik  iIct  Ephcurr- 
und  Kolosserhriefe  (1872),  Die  Fustom/hrir/e  (lUS'l),  and 
an  introduction  to  the  New  Testament  (1,S85).  IJesides 
these  he  prepared  the  New  Te-stanient  portion  of 
linn.sen's  Hiheliri  rk  :  published  two  vulumes  of  sermons 
(18(15  and  187H);  alon^'  with  G.  Welier.  Heseliichtc  dis 
Volkes  Jsrael  (18(17);  and  with  Ziipliel.  the /,frito/i/»i' 
Theohijie  und  Kirekenwescii  ( 1882  i.  He  has  also  con- 
tributed extensively  to  the  theological  reviews. 

Holy  AlliaiK'e.  a  league  f(n-nied  (1816)  after 
the  fall  of  Napoleon  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia, 
Austria,  and  I'russia,  whercliy  they  pledged  them- 
selves to  rule  their  ]ieoples  like  fathers  of  fannlies, 
and  to  regulate  all  national  and  intermitional  rela- 
tions in  accordance  with  the  princiides  of  Christian 
charity.  But  the  alliance  was  made  in  actual  fact 
a  means  of  mutual  encouragement  in  the  mainten- 
ance of  royal  and  imperial  alisolulism,  an<l  :in 
instiument  for  suppressing  free  instilutiims  and 
checking  the  asiiirations  iity  political  liberty  strug- 
gling into  realisation  amongst  the  nations  of  the 
('ontinent.  The  league  ilied  a  natural  death  after 
the  lai)se  of  a  few  years. 

Holy  C'oait  of  Treves.    See  Thevks. 


Holy    <;llOSt.      See  Si'IlMT,  (KEEDS. 

Holy  iii-ail.    Seet;i;.ui.. 

Holy  Grass  (Hieruehloe  buriulin),  a  sweet- 
smelling  grass  belonging  to  the  tribe  PhalariJea', 
about  a  foot  high,  with  a  brownish  glossy  lax 
l)aniele.  It  is  sometimes  strewed  on  the  Hoor^  of 
chunhi's  on  festival-ilays,  whence  its  name. 

Holybead.  a  seaport  (once  a  parliamentary 
borough)  of  An'desey,  North  Wales,  is  situated 
on  a  small  island  of  the  same  name,  60  miles  K. 
of  Dublin,  85  \V.  of  Chester,  and  '264  N\V.  of 
London.  Although  r(!cenlly  much  improved,  it  is 
slill  a  primitive,  irregularly-built  (own.  It  i-  the 
termiinis  of  the  Lonrlon  and  North-Westeiii  Kail- 
way  ( 18.50),  and  the  iiort  for  the  mail  steam-packets 
lo  Dublin,  which  )ierforin  the  voyage  in  about  four 
hours.  The  shipping  acccnumodation  con>i>ts  of  a 
harbour  with  two  divisions,  and  a  roadstc^ad  shel- 
tered by  a  breakwiiter.  The  harliour  was  cMendeil 
in  1873-80.  and  the  quay  lengthened  to  4000  feet. 
The  roadstead  or  harbour  of  refuge  ( 1847  73),  with 
an  area  of  about  400  acres,  is  jirotected  from 
the  sea  on  the  north  by  a  solid  masonry  wall, 
rising  38  feet  9  inches  above  low-water  mark,  and 
backed  by  a  strong  rubble  mound  (.see  1Ji;e.\k- 
\y.\TEK,  Vol.  II.  p.  413).  I'o}'.  ( 1875)  .5622  ;  (  1891 ) 
8726,  employed  iu  the  coasting  trade  and  in  ship- 
building and  rope-making.  Till  1885  Holyhead 
united  with  Amlwch,  Beaumaris,  ami  Llangefni  in 
sending  one  member  to  ])arliament. 

Holyheau    Island,    lying    west    and    forming 
part   of   Anglesey,    is   8   miles    long  by  3i   broad. 
Area,     9658    sq.  "acres;    po)!.    (1891)    961(1.       The 
island   is  separated   from   Anglesey  by   a   narrow 
sanely  strait,  crossed  by  a  causeway,  along  which 
iiin    the    Holyhe.ad    road    anil    the    Chester    and 
Holyhead    Railway,    and    arched    in    the    centre 
for  the   tide   to  pass  beneath.     The  surface  is  for 
the  most  part  rocky  and   barren.     On   the  north- 
west coast   are  two  islets,    the   North   ami    South 
Stacks,  the  latter  with  a  lighthouse,  whose  light, 
197  feet   above   high-water,    is  seen   for  20   niiles. 
The  Stacks  and  the  north  coast  are  hollowed  out 
into  magnilicent  caves,  the  haunt  of  sea-fowl. 
Holy  Island,  or  Linimsiahne,  a  small  island 
I  of  Northumberland,  94  miles  SE.  of  Berwick-on- 
'  Tweed.     It  is  3  miles  long  by  IJ  broad,  and  Inos  an 
area  of  2457  acres.     At  low-water  it  can  be  reached 
by  \v.alking  across  the  sands,  a  distance  of  3.\  miles; 
at  high- water   the  strait  covered  by  the  ^ea  i>  IJ 
mile  wide.     The   village  (poji.  680)  is  guarded   by 
the  castle,  built  about  1.500,  and  still  iu  good  repair. 
1  The  island  is  chieHy  interesting  for  the  ruins  of  its 
1  Benedictine  priory  churcli.     Tins  was  built  in  1093 
i  ont  of   the   materials    of    the    ancient    cathedral, 
j  erected  here  in  the  7th  century,  under  the  auspices 
of  Bishop   Aidan.      Here  a  ccnup.-uiy  of  Columb.an 
monks  established    thenis(dves.   and  grew  into  the 
!  famous  priory  of  Lindisfarne,  the  luminary  of  the 
I  north,    the    lona    of    England.       It    reached    its 
greatest    glory    under   St    Cuthbert    (q.v.).      The 
'  cathedral   suffered    severely    from    the   ravages   of 
I  tlie   Danes,   and    w;is    gradually   allowed    to    fall 
i  into  ruins  as  Durham  giew   into  importance.     In 
!  August    1887    three    thousand    barefooted    pilgrims 
i  crossed  the  sands  to   Lindisfarne.      See   works   by 
'  <;.  .lohuston  (  18.53)  and  F.  H.  Wilson  (1870). 

\     Holy  Land.    See  Palestine. 

Holyoake.  Oeoroe  .Iacob,  a  zealous  lalwurer 
for  bettering  the  ccnidition  of  W(uking'-men.  a  writer 
on  co-o|ieration,  ami  the  fiuindei  of  'Secularism, 
a  system  which  bases  duty  on  consiileration^  purely 
Imiuau.  relies  on  niateri,a1  means  of  imjii-ovement, 
and  justifies  its  beliefs  to  the  conscience,  irres|)ective 
of  atheism,  theism,  or  revelation.'  He  wa.s  bora 
at  Birmingham  lui  13tli  .\pril   1S17.      During  the 


752 


HOLYOKK 


llol.V    WATKR 


cimnit'  of  hi.-  lile  lie  lias  lillcil  viiriims  otlieo  aiicl 
taken  an  active  !^liarc  in  various  pulilic  inovtMiiiMit.-. 
Hf  taiij;lit  iiiatlii-niatic.--  at  tlie  Mcrlianic.-'  Institu- 
tion in  Kii'iiiin^'liani,  lectured  on  liolicrt  Owens 
socialist  system,  acted  as  secretary  to  the  liritish 
conlin^tent  that  went  to  the  assistance  of  (Jari 
lialdi,  edited  the  liinsoiirr,  was  cliielly  instrn- 
mental  in  ^ettin;;  the  lilll  le;,'alisin;;  seenlar  allii- 
mations  [lassed,  projected  the  li;;lit  on  tin'  clock 
tower  of  the  I'ailiaiiienl  House,  and  exerted  him 
self  on  liehalf  of  settlers  in  Caiuida  and  the  luiled 
States,  services  reco^'nised  hv  Mr  Uladstoni'  and 
the  Canadian  ■;i>^'e''''nient.  Holyoake  W(us  the  liust 
person  imjirisoucil  in  Ent,'lanil  on  a  cliar;;e  of  atheism 
(  1H41  I.  lie  was  presidi'Ut  of  the  Carlisle  Con^:ress 
of  the  Co  iijieralive  Societies,  ISST.  (In  the  suhjed 
of  co-oj)eration  he  has  written  Histori/  nf  Co-oiitr- 
atiun  III  RuiliiUilc  ("2  parts,  1857-72),  flistory  uf 
Co-oficrut iuii  ill  Eiiii/ii III/  ['2  Yi>]s.  1875-79;  new  ed. 
vol.  i.  lS8ti),  and  Se/f/u/ji  ii  Hiniitreil  Yciiis  Aijn 
(1888).  Other  works  from  his  ]ien  are  TluLiiiiitt 
of  Atlici.siii  (  I8U1 ).  Trial  of  T/ici.si,i  ( 1877),  Life  of 
Juseiili  Uiiyiier  .V/ty/ZitHS  ( 1881 ),  Hu.stilr  ami  Gener- 
ous Toleration,  a  Jfiston/  of  Miiidlesborougli,  Sixty 
Years  of  an  Atjitator's  Life  ( 1892),  i"tc. 

Hol>4>k<'.  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  8  miles  N. 
of  SpriiiL.'lield,  on  the  Connecticut  Kiver,  which  is 
here  crossed  hy  a  ilain  over  KXM)  feet  Ion;,-  and  falls 
60  feet  in  Ie.ss  than  a  mile,  supplying;  immensi' 
water-power.  Holyoke  is  a  j,'reat  seat  of  the  iia|  er 
making'  trade,  and  li.os  a  score  of  ]iaper-iiiills,  lie 
siih's  numerous  cotton-factories  .and  woollen-mills, 
several  grist-mills,  and  manufactures  of  metal  and 
woodi'u  wares.  It  contains  a  line  cily-liall  of 
granite,  and  a  lar;;e  number  of  e.\cellent  schools. 
Pop.  (1870)  I0,7:«':  (1890)35,6.37. 

Holy  Roiiiaii  Eiiipire.  See  Human  Empikk, 

Chiikii  IIi.sicii:n  . 

Ilolyrooil,  an  aliliey  and  palace  of  Edinburgh. 
Ill  till'  year  1 128  King  David  1.  of  .Scotland  founded 
at  Kilinliurgli  an  abbey  of  canons  regular,  of  the 
order  of  St  Augustine.  Acconling  to  the  legend,  it 
w,i.s  loundeil  on  the  spot  where  the  king,  whilst 
hunting  on  Uood  Day  in  the  fourth  year  of  his 
reign,  in  the  forest  that  then  surrounded  Edin 
liurgli,  was  thrown  from  his  horse  and  nearly  gored 
by  a  hart,  and  was  only  saved  by  a  mysterious  hand 
puttin"  a  tlainin^  cross  Ijetween  him  ami  the 
animal,  at  tiie  sight  of  which  the  hart  lied  away, 
leaving  the  king  safe.  The  abbey  wa.s  dedicated 
to  the  Holy  Cross  or  l><)od,  a  casket  of  gold, 
elaborately  w  rouglit  and  shaped  like  .a  cross,  which 
was  brought  to  Scotland  by  .Margaret,  wife  of 
Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland,  alxmt  1070.  This 
casket  wiLs  held  in  great  veneration  as  containing 
a  s|ilinter  of  the  true  Cross,  and  bi'came  one  of 
the  heirlooms  of  the  kiiigdoin.  The  llLai-k  Kood 
of  Scotland,  as  it  wjus  called,  wsis  cjiriied  before 
the  army  of  David  11.  when  he  invadeil  Eng-. 
land  in  i:U6,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
English  at  the  battle  of  Neville's  Cro.s.s.  The 
victors  placed  it  in  the  shrine  of  St  Cuthbert  in  the 
catheilral  of  Durham.  .\t  the  time  of  the  Kefor- 
niation  it  dis.ajipeared,  and  nothing  h,i.s  been 
known  about  it  since.  The  abbey  clinich  was 
built  in  the  Noriiian  and  early  Cotliic  styles.  The 
abbey  was  several  times  burned  by  the  English, 
especially  in  1544  (when  the  transepts  were  de- 
stEoyed  )  and  1.'547.  At  the  Keformation  the  nionas 
tery  was  dis.solved  :  and  the  abbey  church  having 
lieen  rejiaireil  wa.s  henceforth  used  .as  the  parish 
church  of  the  Canongate.  In  11)87  .lames  VII., 
having  built  another  narish  church  for  the  Canon 
gate,  converted  the  abliey  church  into  the  chapel 
royal  of  Holyrood.  It  wa.s  plundered  and  burned 
by  the  mob  at  the  Revolution  in  1688,  and  rem.ained 
in  neglect  until  I'M.     In  that  year  it  was  repaired 


and  riMifetl ;  but  the  HM>f  was  too  heav\  I'oi  the  walls, 
and  it  fell  in  1768.  Since  then  tiie  chapel  hiui 
lieeii  left  in  a  8Uit«  of  ruin.  The  vault,  built  a.s  a 
burying  place  for  the  royal  family  of  Scolhuid, 
contained  the  a-shes  of  David  II..  .lames  ll.,T)ameH 
\'..  and  of  many  other  royal  ami  historical  peixon- 
ages,  such  its  the  Duke  of  Albanv,  Lord  Darnlev, 
\c._ 

The  abbey  of  HolyroiMl  early  became  the  iH'ca- 
sional  abode  of  the  Scottish  kings.  Uobert  liruce 
and  Edward  I'.aliol  hidd  parliaiiieiits  « itliin  its  walls, 
.lames  11.  wtus  born  in  it,  crowned  in  it,  married  in 
it,  buried  in  it.  The  foundations  of  the  palaie, 
aiiart  from  tin' abbey,  were  laid  about  l.'iOl  by  .lames 
I  v.,  who  made  IMiiibiiigli  the  capital  of  Scotland, 
llenceforlh  llolymod  I'alace  wiis  the  chief  seat  of 
the  Scottish  sovereigns.  It  was  mostly  destroyed 
by  the  English  in  1544,  but  immediately  after- 
war<ls  rebuilt  on  a  larger  scale,  t^iieeii  .Mary  took 
up  her  abode  in  the  palace  when  she  leturneil  from 
Kraiice  in  l.'ilil.  Here,  in  1.566,  Ki/.zio  wius  torn 
from  her  side  and  murdered.  It  wius  garrisoned 
after  the  battle  of  Dunbar  in  16.'>()  by  Cioniweirs 
troops,  who  burned  the  greater  part  of  it  to  the 
grounil.  It  wius  rebuilt  by  Charles  II.,  from  the 
designs  of  Sir  William  liruce  of  Kinro.ss,  between 
1671  and  1679.  After  the  accession  of  James  \'I. 
to  the  tliioiie  of  Englanil  it  ceiLscil  to  be  occupied 
as  a  peniiaiient  royal  residence.  I!ut  Ceorge  IV. 
held  Ids  court  in  it  in  1822,  and  t^iieen  Aictoria 
occasionally  spends  a  night  within  its  walls.  At 
the  luesent  day  the  disposition  of  the  rooms  in  the 
older  portion  seems  to  be  niiicli  the  same  as  in  the 
lime  of  IJueen  Mary.  The  picture-gallery,  contain- 
ing badly  painted  'portraits'  of  fabulous  Scottish 
kings,  and  a  few  genuine  works  of  art,  pos.se.sse« 
romantic  interest  as  the  scene  of  the  balls  anil  recep- 
tions of  Prince  Charlie  in  1745. 

The  palace,  with  it-s  )>recincts  and  park,  was 
in  Catholic  times  a  sanctuary  for  all  kinds  of 
olleiiders,  but  afterwards  the  juivilege  of  Sanctuary 
(i|.v.)  Wits  ex  tended  to  none  except  insolvent  debtors. 
De  l^uincey  is  the  most  illustrious  person  who 
iiMiiled  himself  of  the  privilege.  lint  now.  fioni 
recent  anieliorations  in  the  laws  allecting  debtors, 
especially  the  Debtors  (Scotland)  .\ct,  1880,  the 
protection  ha-s  no  longer  legal  validity.  See  ///*- 
ttiriral  Desrrijitimi  of  the  Moiiasli  n/  a  ml  ('Impel 
UoyitJ  of  Holyrood  //oii.se  (1819),  and  D.  Wilson, 
Memorials  of  Kilinlnirylt  ( I84S). 

Ilolv  S<-|Mll<-|iro.  KsKiliTs  111- THK,  an  order 
of  kiiiglilliooil  iiisiiiiited,  probably  by  I'oiie  .-Xlex 
aniler  ^  I.,  for  the  guardianship  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre, and  the  relief  and  protection  of  pilgrims.  On 
the  recapture  of  .lenisalem  by  the  Turks  the 
knights  retireil  to  Italy,  and  settled  at  Heriigia. 
For  a  time  united  with  the  Ilos]iitallers,  the  order 
was  lecont-tituted  (  1814)  in  Kiance  and  in  I'oland. 

Holy  Spirit.    See  Simhit. 

I       Holy  Welter,  in  the  Honian  Catholic,  as  al.so 

I  in     the    (ireek.     I{us.sian,    and    oriental    cliiirches, 

'  signilies   water   ble.s.sed    by   a  juiesl  or   bishop  for 

certain  religious  uses.     \\'ater  is,  almost  of  its  own 

nature,  a  lilting  symbol  of  jmrity  ;  and  accordingly, 

in  most  of  the  ancient  religions,  the  use  of  lustral 

or    purifying   water  not  only   formed    part    of    the 

I  public  worship,   but  also  entered    largely  into  the 

personal  acts  of  sauctilication  prescribed  to  indivi- 

j  duals.     The  .Jewish  law  contained  many  ]>rovLsioii» 

to  the  .S41111C  ell'eot  :  and  our  Lord,   by  establishing 

bajitisiii     with    water    .o-s    the    neces.s.arv     form    of 

iiiiti.ition  into  tlie  religion  instituted  by   liim,  ^;ave 

his  sanction  U>  the  use.     The  u.sage  of  sprinkling 

the  hands  and  face  with  water  before  entering  the 

sanctuary,  prescribed  in  the  Jewish  law  for  those 

I  ceiemoni.'illT  unclean,  was  very  early  adojited  in  the 

1  Christian   church.     It   Ls  expressly   mentioned    by 


HOLY    WEEK 


HOME 


753 


Tertulliaii  in  the  end  of  the  "id  century.  And 
that  the  water  so  employed  was  blessed  hy  the 
priests  we  learn  from  St  .Jerome,  amon^'  othein, 
and  friiiii  the  Apostolical  Constitulions.  Althou^di 
it  is  dillieult  to  ll\  the  precise  time,  it  cannot  he 
doubted  that  the  iiraclice  of  min;,dinj,'  salt  with  the 
water  is  of  very  ancient  origin.  In  the  Western 
Church  there  is  a  solenju  hlessiiig  of  water  in  the 
service  of  Holy  Saturilay,  but  the  ceremonial  is 
repeated  by  the  priest  whenever  necessary.  Holy 
water  is  placed  in  licnitiers  (q.v. )  at  the  doors  of 
churches  that  worshippers  may  sprinkle  them- 
selves with  it :  befoie  liiyh  )iia>s  on  Sundays  the 
celebrant  sjirinkles  the  peojile  with  holy  water; 
and  it  is  nsed  in  nearly  every  blessinj;  <;iven  by  the 
church.  Instructed  Catholics  refjard  the  use  of 
holy  water  chietly  as  a  me.ans  of  snj,'f;esting  to 
the  mind  the  necessity  of  internal  ]iurity ;  and 
althou};h  it  is  su]iposed  to  derive  from  the  bless- 
inj; a  special  efKcacy  for  this  end,  yet  this  efii- 
cacy  is  held  to  be  mainly  subjective  and  of  a 
character  entirely  distinct  fiom  that  ascribed  to 
the   sacramental   rites  of  the  church.     See  Bkne- 

DICTION. 

Holy  Week,  the  week  immediately  preceding 
Easter,  and  specially  consecrated  to  the  eommenmra- 
tion  of  the  Passion  of  our  Uedeemer.  This  institu- 
tion is  of  very  early  origin,  and  the  name  Holy 
Week  is  but  one  of  many  l)y  which  its  sacred 
character  has  l)een  described.  In  English  use  it 
is  called  'Passion  Week'  (a  name  appropriated, 
in  Roman  use,  to  the  week  before  Palm  Sunday). 
It  was  also  called  the  '  (ireat  Week,'  the  'Silent 
Week,"  the  'Week  of  the  Holy  Passion,'  the 
'  Vacant  Week,'  the  'Penitential  Week.'  In  the 
Roman  Cathoiie  (_'hurch  the  special  cljaracteristics 
o/ the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Week  are  increased 
solemnity  andglofim,  penitential  rigour,  and  mourn- 
ing. If  any  of  the  ordinary  church  festivals  fall 
therein,  it  is  deferred  till  after  Easter.  All  in- 
strumental music  is  suspended  in  the  churches,  the 
altars  are  strippe<l  of  their  ornaiuents,  the  pictures 
and  images  are  veileil  from  public  sight  :  manual 
labour,  although  it  is  no  longer  entirely  ]>rohibited, 
is  by  miiny  persons  voluntarily  suspended  ;  the 
rigour  of  fasting  is  redoubled,  and  alms-deeds  and 
other  works  of  mercy  sedulously  enjoined  and 
practised.  All  church  services  of  the  week,  more- 
over, breathe  the  spirit  of  mourning,  some  of  them 
being  sjiecially  devoted  to  the  commemoration  of 
particular  scenes  in  the  Passion  of  our  Lord.  The 
days  tlins  specially  solemnised  are  Palm  Sunday, 
Spy  Wednesday,  Holy  (or  Maundy,  q.v.)  Thursday, 
Good  Friday  (q.v.),  Holy  Saturday.  Holy  Thurs- 
day in  the  Roman  Catliolic  Church  is  specially 
designed  as  a  commemoration  of  the  Last  Supper, 
and  of  the  institution  of  the  eucharist,  althcmgh 
there  are  seveial  other  features  peculiar  to  the  day. 
To  Holy  Saturday  belongs  the  solemn  blessing  of  lire 
and  of  the  water  of  the  baptismal  font  :  and  from 
the  earliest  times  it  was  set  apart  for  the  baptism 
of  catechumens,  ami  for  the  ordination  of  canili- 
dates  for  the  ecclesiastical  ministry.  From  the 
'new  lire,'  struck  from  a  Mint,  and  solemnly  blessed 
on  this  d.-iy,  is  lighted  the  Paschal  Light,  which  is 
regarded  as  a  symbol  of  Christ  risen  from  the  dead. 
This  symbolical  light  is  kept  burning  during  the 
reading  of  the  gosjiel  at  mass  throughout  the 
interval  between  Easter  and  Pentecost.  It  must 
be  added,  however,  that  in  many  instances  the 
primitive  institution  of  the  Holy  Week  was  per- 
verteil,  and  that  the  suspension  of  labour,  de- 
signed for  purposes  of  devotion,  was  turne<l  into 
an  occasion  of  amusement  not  infrequently  of  a 
very  questi(mable  character.  Such  abuses  are  now 
universally  discountenani'cd  by  the  ecclesia-stical 
authorities.  See  Fasts,  KK.STiy.\i.s :  and  Fe,asey"s 
Ancient  Eiirjlish  Holy  Wcih  C€rciiio?iia/  (189~). 
'2.5G 


HoIyM'<'ll  (  Welsh  'J'reJ/'i/ii  11071 ),  a  parliament- 
ary borough  and  market-town  of  Flint-sliire,  North 
\\'ales,  on  an  eminence  1.")  miles  NW.  of  Chester. 
It  is  the  seat  of  uumenms  lead,  iron,  copper,  and 
zinc  mines,  an<l  lia-s  smelting-worUs  for  the  ex- 
traction of  these  metals,  manufactures  of  ])a|)er, 
liannel,  and  llonum  cement,  and  lanyards  and 
breweries.  The  borough  unites  with  those  of  Flint, 
.Mold,  \c.  in  returning  one  member  to  parlia- 
ment. Pop.  (1881)  :um):  (1891)  .3018.  Holy- 
well owes  its  origin  to  the  renowned  well  of  St 
Winifred,  which,  until  dinjinished  by  drain.age 
works,  was  estim.ati'd  to  deliver  47IM)  gallons  of 
water  per  ndimte.  The  Perpendicular  cliapel  over 
the  well  is  attributed  to  Margaret,  mother  of  Henrj- 
VII.  It  is  still  a  jdace  of  ])ilgrimage  fm-  Roman 
Catholics.  See  Pennant's  Histon/  of  HulytncH 
(1790). 

Homage  ( t*ld  Fr.  ;  Low  Lat.  hotmiticmii  :  Lat. 
liiinid,  'man')  is  the  service  ilue  from  a  knight  or 
viissal  to  his  lord  in  feudal  times,  the  va-ssal  pro- 
fessing to  become  his  lord's  man.     See  Fkiualism. 

Hoiiihiir;!;.  or  IIoMUfiui  vor  deh  Hoiik,  a 
town  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Hesse-Nas.sau, 
is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Taunus  Mountains, 
8  miles  NXW.  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  It  lia-s 
be.atitiful  environs,  and  is  frecjuented  by  about 
1'2,000  visitors  annually  on  accimnt  of  its  mineral 
waters.  The  springs,  live  in  number,  possess  saline 
and  chalybeate  properties.  They  are  considered 
eflective  in  cases  of  disordered  liver  and  btoni,ach, 
for  luemorrhoidal  and  menstrual  disorders,  and  for 
g<mt,  rheumatism,  scroful.a,  and  skin  disea-se.s. 
AlHJUt  400,000  bottles  are  sent  a«ay  annually. 
The  gaming-tables  were  suppressed  in  187'2.  Pop. 
(187.'i)  8294;  (189.-))  0274.  See  works  by  Schick 
(  14th  ed.   1,S8.-))  and  Will  (  1880). 

Homo,  the  name  of  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
eelebr.ated  of  the  historic  families  of  Scotland. 
After  the  Conquest  Cospatrick,  the  great  Earl  of 
Northumberland,  took  refuge  in  Scotland,  and 
received  from  Malcohu  Canmore  the  m.anor  of 
Dunbar,  and  large  estates  in  the  Merse  .and  the 
Lothians.  Patrick,  the  second  son  of  the  third 
Earl  of  Dunbar,  inherited  from  his  father  the  manor 
of  Greenl.aw.  and  hiiving  injinied  his  cousin,  d.augli- 
ter  of  the  fifth  earl,  obtained  with  her  the  lan<ls 
of  Home,  from  which  his  desceiulants  took  their 
designation,  .\fter  the  overthrow  of  the  earls  of 
IVunliar  and  March  in  14.')6  the  Homes  succeeded 
to  a  ]>ortion  of  their  vast  estates  and  to  a  great 
deal  of  their  power  on  the  eastern  Marches.  Sir 
Alexander  Home  w.as  created  a  peer  by  .James  III.  ; 
but,  disapiiointed  in  his  attempt  to  appropriate 
the  revenues  of  Colilingh.am  Priory,  he  joined  the 
disaffected  nobles  who  rebelled  against  dames,  ,and 
took  ]iart  in  the  battle  of  Sauchiebnrn,  where  the 
king  was  killed.  The  second  baron  obt.ained  estates 
and  important  ottices  from  .James  IV.  Along  with 
Lord  Huntly  he  commanded  the  vanguard  of  the 
Scottish  .army  at  Klodden,  and  routed  the  English 
right  wing.  He  was  almost  the  <mly  Scottish 
noble  who  returned  unhurt  from  that  battle.  He 
was  induced  by  fair  pnunises  from  the  Regent 
Albany  to  visit  Holyrooil  along  with  his  brother 
William  in  15U>,  and  tlx'y  were  arresteil,  tried  for 
tre.a-son,  and  condemned  ami  executed.  The  for- 
feited title  and  estates  were  restored  to  his  brother 
George  in  l.'i'J'i  :  but,  though  the  f.amily  took  a 
prominent  part  in  public  affairs  during  the  troublous 
times  of  l^ueen  Slary  and  the  great  civil  war, 
they  never  reg,aine<l  their  former  inlluence.  Their 
extensive  estates  dwindled  down  to  a  ]iatrimony  of 
'2000  .acres,  and  they  .sank  into  insignificance.  l5ut 
the  niiirriage  (183'2)  of  the  eleventh  earl  to  the 
heiress  of  the  Douglas  estates  restored  the  decayed 
fortunes  of  this  ancient  house.     These  estates  now, 


754 


HOME 


HOMKR 


aceonling  to  the  Uuiiiiisday  Book,  yield  a  rental  of 
f47,7"21  a  year. 

lloilKN  Daniel  Di'Nolas,  siiiiitiialist,  was 
liiini  near  Kiliiiliurgli,  Mareli  20,  ISXl,  and  was 
taken  by  an  aunt  to  the  I'nited  States,  where  l>y 
18.jO  he  hail  lieennie  a  fanions  niedinm.  He  lieijan 
the  ^>tudy  of  nii'diciiie,  Imt  was  pei-suailed  liy  his 
friends  to  praetisu  sjiiritualisni  instead  ;  and  in  IS.Vi 
he  removed  to  Lonilon  to  carry  on  his  'mission.' 
Home  was  a  prolicient  in  mesmerism  ami  sncli- 
like  sciences,  and  to  table-tnrnin^'  and  spirit- 
rajipin};  he  added,  for  advanced  disciples,  speaUin;; 
;;liosts,  and  a  display  of  his  own  i>owei's  of  lloatin;,' 
in  the  air.  He  niinle  many  converts,  thon};h  not 
all  the  ^^reat  |icople  he  claimeil.  He  was  |>resented 
at  several  courts,  and  to  the  pope  ;  and  he  joined 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  hut  was  nltiniatcly 
expelled  for  spiritualistic  practices.  In  IS(it)  he 
aecedeil  to  a  Mrs  Lyon's  snj,'j;estion  that  he  should 
liecome  her  ailopted  son,  she  assi^'ninj;  to  him 
i:(K),(KXJ:  hut  this  money  his  lickle  patroness  after- 
wards compelled  him  to  restore,  and  the  lawsuit 
discreilited  Home  ;.;rcatly,  though  he  was  scarcely 
to  hiame  in  the  matter.  He  died  at  .Antenil.  "ilst 
June  l.SSti.  He  |)ul)lished  two  series  of  Imidnilx  of 
mil  !,//'<•(  1803  and  I87'2),  and  Lights  ami  S/itidoirs 
of  Spintualism  (1877);  see  also  D.  D.  Hoine:  hU 
Life  and  Mission  (1888),  ami  a  conlinmiticm,  The 
Gift  uf  D.  D.  Home.  ( 1890),  both  by  his  widow. 

UoilU'.  HliSKV.     See  Ka.MKS  (LoltD). 

Home.  -liiiiN,  a  Scoteh  cler^'yman  and  draniati.st, 
was  born  at  Leith  in  172'2.  He  graduated  at  the 
Kdinburgh  L'niversity  in  1742,  and  three  years  later 
entereil  the  churcli.  He  was  ]iresent  as  a  volunteer 
on  the  king's  side  when  the  royalists  were  routed  liy 
the  young  Pretender  at  Kalkirk,  and  was  carried  a 
nrisoner  to  the  ca.stle  of  Donne,  wlience  he  eti'ected 
Ills  escape.  In  1747  he  wius  a]>]>ointed  minister  of 
Atheist  aneford,  near  Haddington,  where  he  pro- 
duceil  in  1747  the  tragedy  of  Agis,  and,  after  the 
lapse  oi  live  yeais.  Dmiff/fis,  a  trageily  founded  (be- 
fore the  publication  of  Vcicy  a  He/ itj  lies )  on  the  ballad 
of  ( ;il  .M(urice.  Kacli  of  these  plays  wa«  successively 
rejected  by  (iarrick  ;  liut  Doiif/las,  brought  out  at 
Edinburgh,  met  with  instant  and  brilli.ant  succes.s, 
and  evokeil  equal  entluisi.asni  when  placed  on  the 
London  lioards.  Its  production,  howe\  er,  gave  such 
oH'euee  to  the  Presbytery  that  the  author  thought  fit 
to  re.sigii  his  uunistry,  and,  withdrawing  into  Eng- 
land, he  became  private  secretary  to  tlie  Earl  of 
llute,  who  procured  him  a  pension  of  £:vut  a  year. 
The  success  of  iJuiitjIiis  induced  (iarrick  not  only  to 
accept  Home's  next  play.  The  Hiegc  of  Aqiiilein, 
but  to  bring  out  the  earlier  work,  Ac/is.  Home's 
other  works  are  Jhe  Fatal  Diseoeery,  A/onzo, 
Alfred,  occasional  poems,  and,  in  iirose,  A  llislonj 
of  the  Rebel  I  ion  of  n.',.5.     He  died  in  1808. 

Hi>me  is  the  last  of  our  tragic  poets  whose  works 
for  anv  time  lield  the  stage.  The  ilrama,  purified 
from  the  licentioHsnes.s  of  Wycherley  and  Congreve, 
had  become  frigid  and  lifeless  in  the  hands  of  .Vildi- 
son,  Kowe,  ,and  Johnson,  and  the  enthusiasm  with 
which  Doiiijlas  was  greeted  was  due  to  the  generous 
warmth  of  domestic  feeling,  the  chiv.alrovis  anhmr 
and  mitural  pathos  which  Home  infuseil  into  his 
work.  His  writings  are  remarkable  for  the  inter- 
esting character  of  their  plots,  for  lucidity  of  lan- 
guage, and  for  occasional  Hashes  of  genuine  j)oetry  ; 
but  he  did  not  succeed  in  entirely  iILscarding  the 
pompous  ileelamation  of  his  forerunnei's.  In  his 
ilay  lie  enjoyed  the  praise  of  all  and  the  friemlship 
of  the  most  clistingiiished  ;  Collins  dedicated  to  him 
his  ode  on  the  Highland  .supei-stitions,  and  Burns, 
with  more  zeal  than  judgment,  said  that  he 

SletJiodised  wild  Shakfspeare  into  plan. 

The  taste  of  his  time  is  not  that  of  ours,  but  the 


dramatists  who  disphu-ed  him  turned  to  comedy, 
and  he  has  hail  no  succe.s.sor  of  ei|ual  fame.  See 
the  Life  bv  Henry  Mackenzie,  |>reti.\eJ  to  his  works 
(3  vols.  18221. 

lloilM'  4'oilllti<'S.  the  counties  over  and  into 
which  l.iijidun  has  c.\tcmled-- .Middlesex,  Herlford- 
sliiii'.  Essex,  Kent,  Surrey.  The  south  eastern 
circuit  (see  .X.ssiZK)  is  still  sometimes  c.dleil  the 
'  Home  Circuit,'  though  it  includes,  besides  the 
home  counties  (except  .Middlesex),  also  Cambridge- 
shire, Norfolk,  and  Snll'olk. 

lloiiK-lvii.     See  Kay. 

lloiiH-  Ollicc.    See  Seckktauy  OK  State. 

Homer.  The  poems  of  Hmuer  dill'er  from  all 
other  known  poetry  in  this  that  they  constitute  in 
themselves  an  encyclopa'dia  of  life  and  knowli'dge  ; 
at  a  time  when  knowledge,  indeed,  such  as  lies  be- 
yond the  bounds  of  actual  experience  was  extremely 
limited,  but  when  life  was  singularly  fresh,  vivid, 
■and    ex])ansive.       The    only    poems   of    Homer    we 

iiosse.ss  are  the  IliatI  and  the  Oili/ssii/,  for  the 
lomcric  Ui/iniis  ami  other  produclions  lose  all  title 
to  stand  in  line  with  these  woinlerful  winks,  by 
rea.s(m  of  conllict  in  a  multitude  of  parliculai's  with 
the  witness  of  the  text,  !us  well  as  of  their  poetical 
infeiiority.  They  evidently  belong  to  the  period 
that  follows  the  great  migration  into  Asia  Minor 
brought  about  by  the  Dorian  ciini|uest. 

The  dieliini  of  Hi'iodiitiis  which  jilaces  the  date 
of  Homer  400  years  before  his  own,  therefore  in  the 
9th  century  K.c,  was  little  better  than  mere  con- 
iecture.  Common  i>i>inioii  has  certainly  presumed 
nim  to  be  posterior  to  the  Dorian  cominest.  The 
Hymn  to  .Apollo,  however,  which  w.is  the  main 
prop  iif  this  (>]>iiiiun,  is  assuredly  not  his.  In  a 
work  which  attempts  to  turn  recent  discovery  to 
account,  1  have  contended  that  the  fall  of  Troy 
cannot  luoperly  be  brought  lower  than  about  1250 
H.r.,  and  that  Homer  may  probably  have  lived 
within  liftv  years  of  it  (Ilomerie  Syiiehroiiism, 
L  vi). 

The  entire  presentation  of  life  and  character  in 
the  two  poems  is  distinct  frmii.  and  manifestly 
anterior  to,  anything  niiule  known  to  us  in  (ireece 
under  and  after  that  ci>ni|uest.  The  study  of  Homer 
h.is  been  darkened  and  enfeebled  by  thrusting  bivck- 
wards  into  it  a  vast  injuss  of  matter,  belonging  to 
these  later  periods,  and  even  to  tin?  Koman  civil- 
isation, which  was  diU'erent  in  spirit  and  Mhieh 
entirely  lost  sight  of  the  true  position  of  Creeks 
and  Trojans,  and  inverted  their  moral  Jis  well  as 
their  martial  rel.ations.  The  name  of  (ireeks  is  a 
Koman  name  :  the  people,  to  whom  Homer  h.is 
given  immortal  fame,  are  Achaians  both  in  designa- 
tion and  in  manners.  The  poet  iiaints  them  at  a 
time  when  the  spirit  of  national  life  was  rising 
within  their  borders.  Its  lirsl  edorts  had  been  seen 
in  the  expeditions  of  .\cli.iian  native.-  to  ciiiii|uer  the 
-Vsiatic  or  Egyptian  immigrants  who  had  nniler  the 
name  of  Cmluieians  (etymologieally,  'foreigners') 
founded  Thebes  in  Ko'otia,  and  in  the  voyage  of 
the  ship  Ari/o  to  Colchis — which  was  probably 
the  seat  of  a  colony  sprung  from  the  Egyptian 
empire,  .and  was  therefore  regarded  as  hostile  in 
memory  of  the  antecedent  aggres.sh)ns  of  that 
empire.  The  expedition  against  Troy  was  the 
beginidng  of  the  long  chain  of  conllicts  between 
Euiope  and  Asia  which  eml  with  the  Turkish  eon- 
quests,  and  with  the  reaction  of  the  last  300  years, 
and  especially  of  the  19th  centuiy,  against  them. 
It  re]>re.sents  an  ell'ort  truly  enormous  towards 
attaining  nation.ality  in  ide:i  and  in  practice.  Clear- 
ing away  (distruclions,  of  which  the  cause  has  been 
partially  indicated,  we  must  next  observe  that  the 
text  of  llomer  was  never  studied  by  the  moderns  as 
a  whole  in  a  searching  manner  until  within  the  bust 
two  generations.      Eroni   the  time  of  Wolf  there 


HOMER 


I  00 


was  infinite  controversy  about  the  works  ami  the 
authorshiii  witli  little  jwsitive  result,  excej)!  the 
estalilisliiiient  of  the  fact  that  they  were  not  written 
but  hanilecl  ilown  In'  iiieiriory — an  opiTalion  aided 
and  methodised  1)V  the  liij,di  |iositi<in  of  bards  :is 
sucli  in  (ireece  (more  properly  Aehaiis,  and  after- 
wards Hellas),  by  the  formation  of  a  separate  school 
to  hand  down  these  part  icularsonj;s,  and  by  the  great 
institution  of  the  ( lames  at  a  variety  of  points  in 
the  country.  xVt  these  centres  there  v.ere  public 
recitations  even  before  the  ]ioenis  were  com]iosed, 
and  the  uncertainties  of  inilividnal  memory  were 
limited  an<l  corrected  by  competition  carried  on  in 
presence  of  a  ])eople  eminently  endowed  with  the 
literary  faculty,  and  by  the  vast  natiimal  import- 
ance of  hamlin;;  down  faithfully  a  record  which  was 
the  chief  authorilx*  touchinj;  the  religion,  history, 
political  division.-.,  and  manners  of  the  country. 
-Many  diversitie.-*  of  te.\t  arose,  but  there  was  thus 
in  continual  operation  a  corrective  as  well  as  a 
disintegrating  process. 

The  (Jeruiaus,  who  had  long  been  occupi<-d  in 
framing  careful  monographs  which  contracted  the 
contents  of  the  Homeric  te.'ct  on  niiiny  particulars, 
such  as  the  Ship,  the  House,  and  so  forth,  have  at 
length  supplied,  in  the  work  of  Dr  E.  lJuchh<dz,  a 
full  and  melhodieal  account  of  the  contents  of  the 
te.xt.  This  work  would  till  in  English  not  less  than 
si.\  octavo  volumes. 

The  (Jieeks  called  the  poet  poietes,  the  'maker,' 
and  never  «  as  there  such  a  maker  iis  Homer.  The 
work,  not  exclusively  but  yet  pre-eminently  his, 
was  the  making  of  a  language,  a  religion,  and  a 
nation.  The  last  named  of  these  w.as  his  dominant 
idea,  and  to  it  all  his  methods  may  be  referred.  Of 
the  first  he  may-  have  been  little  conscious  while  he 
wrougiit  in  his  oIKce  as  a  bard,  which  was  to  give 
delight. 

Careful  observation  of  the  text  exhibits  three 
powerful  factors  which  contribute  to  the  coniposi- 
ti<m  of  the  nation.  First,  the  I'ela-sgic  name  is 
a-ssociated  with  the  mass  of  the  people,  cultivators 
of  the  soil  in  the  Greek  [leninsula  and  elsewhere, 
thinigh  not  as  their  uniform  designation,  for  in 
Crete  (for  example)  they  appear  in  conjunction 
with  Achaians  and  Dorians,  representatives  of  a 
higher  stock,  and  with  Eteocretaus,  who  were  prob- 
ably anterior  occupants.  This  Pela-sgian  name  com- 
mands the  symi)athy  of  the  poet  and  his  laudatory 
epithets  ;  but  is  nowhere  used  for  the  higher  cla-ss  or 
for  the  entile  nation.  The  other  factors  take  the 
command.  The  Achaians  are  properly  the  ruling 
cla-ss,  and  justify  their  .station  by  their  capacity, 
liut  there  is  a  third  factor  also  of  great  ])OWer.  We 
know  from  the  Egyptian  monuments  that  lireece 
had  been  within  the  sway  of  that  primitive  empire, 
and  that  the  I'ha'uicians  were  its  maritime  arm,  as 
they  were  also  the  universal  and  apjiarently  exclu- 
sive navigators  of  the  Mediterranean.  Whatever 
came  oversea  to  the  Achaian  land  came  in  connec- 
tion with  the  PImiiician  name,  which  was  used  by 
Homer  in  a  m.anner  analogous  to  the  use  of  the 
word  Frank  in  the  Levant  during  modern  times. 
But  a-s  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  knowledge  is  gradu- 
ally opened  u]i  to  us  we  lind  Ijy  degrees  that  I'ho- 
nicia  conveyed  to  (ireece  Egyjjtian  and  Assyrian 
elements  together  with  her  own. 

The  rich  materials  of  the  Creek  civilisation  can 
almost  all  be  traced  to  this  medium  of  conveyance 
from  the  East  and  South.  Creat  families  which 
stand  in  this  lussociation  were  founded  in  (ireece 
and  left  their  mark  upon  the  country.  It  is  prob- 
able that  they  may  have  e.\ercised  in  the  lii-st 
instance  a  power  delega'ed  from  Egypt,  which  they 
retaineil  after  her  inlluence  iiad  passed  away. 
Building,  metal-working,  navigaticm,  ornamental 
arts,  natural  knowledge,  all  carry  the  PlKcnician 
impress.      This  is  the  third   of  the  gresit  factors 


which  were  combined  and  evolved  in  the  womlerful 
nationality  of  (Ireece,  a  power  as  vividly  felt  at 
this  hour  ;us  it  was  three  thousand  years  ago.  But 
if  I'ho'nicia  conveyed  the  seed,  the  soil  was  Achaian, 
and  on  account  of  its  richness  that  peninsula  sur- 
pa.ssed,  in  its  developments  of  human  nature  and 
action,  the  .southern  and  eastern  growths.  An 
Achaian  civilisation  was  the  result,  full  of  freshness 
and  power ;  in  which  usage  had  a  great  sacredness, 
religion  was  a  moral  sjiring  of  no  mean  force,  slavery 
though  it  existed  was  not  a.ssociated  with  cruelty, 
the  worst  extremes  of  sin  had  no  |dace  in  the  life 
of  the  people,  liberty  had  an  informal  but  very  real 
place  in  puldic  institutions,  and  manners  reached 
to  umch  refinement  :  while  on  the  other  hand  fierce 
pa-ssion  was  not  abateil  by  conventuinal  restraints, 
.slaughter  and  Ijondage  were  the  usual  results  of 
war,  the  idea  of  iirojierty  was  but  very  partially  de- 
lined  ;  and,  though  there  were  strong  indeterminate 
sentiments  of  right,  there  Ls  no  word  in  Homer 
signifying  law.  I'pim  the  whole,  though  a  very 
imperfect,  it  wa.s  a  wonderful  and  noble  nui-sery  of 
manhood. 

It  .seems  clear  that  this  first  civilisation  of  the 
peninsula  wiis  .sadly  deviu-tated  by  the  rude  hands 
of  the  Dorian  con<|uest.  Institutions  like  those  of 
Eycurgus  could  not  have  been  grafted  ui)on  the 
Homeric  manners ;  and  centuries  elapsed  before 
there  emerged  from  the  political  ruin  a  state  of 
things  favourable  to  refinement  and  to  progress  in 
the  (ireece  of  history:  which,  though  in  so  numy 
respects  of  an  unef|ualled  splendour,  yet  had  a  less 
firm  hold  than  the  Achaian  time  uiion  some  of  the 
highest  social  and  moral  ideas,  tor  example,  the 
position  of  women  lijul  gre.itly  declined,  liberty  was 
perhaps  less  largely  conceived,  and  the  tie  between 
religion  and  morality  was  more  evidently  sundered. 
After  this  sketch  of  the  national  existence  which 
Homer  describeil,  and  to  the  consolidation  of  which 
he  powerfully  ministereil,  let  us  revert  to  the  state 
in  which  he  found  and  left  the  elements  of  a 
national  religion.  A  clo.se  observation  of  the  poems 
pretty  clearly  shows  us  that  the  three  races  which 
combined  to  form  the  nation  had  each  of  them  their 
distinct  religious  traditions.  It  is  al.so  plain  enough 
that  with  this  diversity  there  had  been  antagonism. 
As  sources  illustrative  of  these  ]iroiiositi(ms,  which 
lie  at  the  base  of  all  true  comprehension  of  the 
I  religion— which  may  be  called  (Jlympiau  froiu  its 
central  seat — I  will  point  to  the  numerous  signs  of  a 
system  of  Nature-worship  a-s  prevailing  among  the 
Pelasgian  mas-ses ;  to  the  alliance  in  the  War  be- 
tween the  Nature-powers  and  the  Trojans  as  against 
the  loftier  Hellenic  mythology  ;  to  the  legend  in 
Iliiul,  i.  ;5!)(i-412,  of  the  great  war  in  heaven,  w  hich 
symbolicallv  describes  the  collision  on  earth  between 
the  ideas  wliich  were  locally  older  and  those  liegin- 
ning  to  surmount  them  ;  and,  finally,  to  the  tradi- 
tions extraneous  to  the  poems  of  comgietitions 
between  ditl'erent  deities  for  the  local  allegiance  of 
the  people  at  ditl'erent  spots,  such  iis  Corinth,  to 
which  I'lucnician  inlluence  had  brought  the  I'osei- 
don-worship  before  Homer's  time,  and  Athens, 
which  somewhat  later  liecame  peculiarly  the  seat 
of  mixed  r.aces.  I  have  s]ioken  of  N.ature-worship 
as  the  Pel.a.sgian  contriliution  to  the  composite 
Olyinjiian  religion.  In  the  I'lnenician  share  we 
lind,  as  might  l)e  expected,  both  Assyrian  and 
Egyptian  elements.  'I he  best  imlicalion  we  pos- 
sess of  the  Hellenic  function  is  that  given  by  the 
renuvrkable  prayer  of  Achilles  to  Zeus  in  J/im/, 
j  xvi.  "JS.S-'i+S.  This  ])rayer  on  the  sending  forth 
'  of  I'atroclos  is  the  hinge  of  the  whole  actiiui  of  the 
poem,  and  is  preceded  by  a  hmg  introduction 
(■J2U-2.'{2)  such  as  we  nowhere  else  find.  The 
tone  is  monotheistic ;  no  partnership  of  gwls 
,  appears  in  it ;  and  the  immediate  servants  of  Zeus 
I  are  describe<l  .-us  interpreters,  not  a»  priests.     From 


756 


HOMKI! 


suvL'iiil  iiiilicatiiiiiM  it  iiiav  lie  ^'utlieied  tliiit  tin- 
Hellenic  system  was  less  ]iiiestly  tliari  the  Troir. 
It  seems  to  liji\"e  heeii  an  esiieeial  oIKee  of  Homer 
to  harmonise  ami  comlune  these  clivei>e  elements, 
ami  his  Tliearehy  is  as  remnikalile  a  woik  of  art  a- 
tlie  terrestrial  maehinery  iil  the  |ioem.  He  hius  pro 
fciiniclly  iiM|iresse<l  upon  it  the  human  likenes- 
ol'ien  calleil  anlhropomorphie,  ami  whii'li  supplied 
the  liiusis  of  (Jreek  art.  He  has  repelleil  on  all 
siiles  from  his  classical  ami  central  system  the 
rnit  of  nature  and  of  animals ;  lint  it  is  prohalile 
that  they  kept  their  place  in  the  local  worships  ol 
(he  country.  His  Zeus  is  to  a  conslderalile  extent 
a  monarch,  while  I'oseidon  and  several  other  deities 
hear  evident  marks  of  liavin^'  l:ad  no  superior  al 
earlier  epochs  or  in  the  countries  of  their  ori;,'in. 
He  arranges  them  partly  !us  a  family,  partly  as  a 
commonwealth.  The  gods  properly  ( )lympian  cor- 
resnnnil  with  the  Bonle  or  ccmncil  upon  earth  : 
while  the  ordei-s  of  less  exalted  spirits  are  only  sum 
moned  on  great  oicasions.  He  indicates  twenty  as 
tluMiumher  of  Olympian  gixls  projier,  following  in 
this  the  Assyrian  idea.  But  tliev  were  far  from  hold 
ingan  ei|ual  jdacein  liisestimatum.  Foradeitysncii 
as  A|ihrodite  hronght  from  the  Etist,  and  intensely 
tainted  with  sensual  passions,  he  indicates  aversion 
anil  contempt.  15ut  for  A|>ollo,  whose  canlinal 
idea  is  that  of  cdiedience  to  Zeus,  and  for  .\thcnc, 
who  represents  a  profound  working  wisdom  that 
never  fails  of  its  end,  he  has  a  deep  reverence.  He 
assorts  and  distriliutes  religions  traditions  with 
reference  to  the  great  ends  he  had  to  pursue  ;  care- 
fully, for  example,  separating  Apollo  from  the 
sun,  with  which  he  hears  marks  of  h.iving  heen  in 
other  systems  icientilieil.  Of  his  other  greater  gods 
it  may  he  said  that  the  ilondnant  idea  is  in  Zens 
policy,  in  Here  nationality,  and  in  I'o.seidon  iihysical 
force.  His  Trinity,  which  is  conventional,  and  lii~ 
I'nderworlil  ajipear  to  he  borrowed  from  .\s,.yria, 
and  in  some  degree  from  Egypt.  One  licentious 
legend  appears  in  Olynipos,  hut  this  lielongs  to  the 
Uiiyssrii,  and  to  a  Phienician,  not  a  Hellenic  circle  of 
idea.s.  His  Olympian  assemhly  is,  indeed,  largely 
representative  of  human  .appetites,  tastes,  and  ]ias- 
sions  ;  hut  in  the  government  of  the  world  it  works 
a.s  a  body  on  behalf  of  justice,  and  the  suiiplianl 
and  the  stranger  are  peculiaily  objects  of  the  care 
of  Zens.  Accordingly  we  find  that  the  cause  which 
is  to  triumph  in  the  Trojan  war  is  the  just  cause  : 
that  in  the  Oth/ssci/  the  hero  is  led  through  sutl'er- 
ing  to  peace  and  prosperity,  and  that  the  tirrilile 
retribution  he  inllicts  h;is  lieen  njerited  liy  iTinie, 
At  vaiious  |)oints  of  the  system  we  trace  the  higher 
tr.aditions  of  religion,  and  on  passing  down  to  the 
classical  period  we  lind  that  the  course  of  the 
mytholo.'y  has  heen  a  downward  course. 

The  Troic  as  coin|iared  with  the  Acliaian  man- 
ners are  to  a  great  extent  wh.it  we  shonli!  now  call 
Asiatic  its  ilistinguished  from  European.  Of  the 
great  chieftains,  Achilles,  Dionied,  .\jax,  Mcne- 
laos,  anil  Hatroclos  appear  chietly  to  exhibit  the 
Acliaian  ideal  of  humanity  :  Achilles  especially,  and 
on  a  colossal  scale.  Odys.seu.s,  the  tnany-sided 
man,  ha*  a  strong  Phrenician  tinge,  though  the 
dominant  colour  continues  to  be  Greek.  And  in  his 
house  we  liml  exhibiteil  one  of  the  noblest  among 
the  i-li:iracteristics  of  the  poems  in  the  sanctity  and 

f>erpetuity  of  marfiage.  Indeed,  the  ]iurity  ami 
oyalty  of  Penelope  are,  like  the  humilitv  approach- 
ing to  penitence  of  Helen,  rpiite  unmatched  in 
antif|uity. 

The  plot  of  the  Iliiid  has  been  the  subject  of 
mudi  criticism  on  account  of  the  long  absence 
of  Achilles,  the  hero,  from  the  action  of  the  poem, 
lint  Homer  had  to  bring  out  Achaian  cliar.acter  in 
its  v.arious  forms,  and  while  the  vastiie.s.s  of  Achilles 
is  on  the  stage  every  other  Achaian  hero  must  be 
eclipsed.     Further,  Homer  was  an  itinerating  ndn- 


strel,  who  had  to  adapt  himself  to  the  sympathies 
and  traditions  of  the  dillerent  portions  of  the 
I'ountry.  Peloponne.sos  was  the  seat  of  power,  and 
its  iduefs  iu-c|uiieil  a  prominent  position  in  the  lliuil 
by  what  on  these  grounds  we  may  deem  a  skilful 
arrangement.  Itut  most  skilful  of  all  is  the  line 
ailjustment  of  the  balani'c  as  Ix'tween  (Ireek  and 
Trojan  warriors,  it  will  In-  louml  on  close  inspec- 
tion of  details  that  the  .Vchaian  chieftains  have  in 
truth  a  viust  military  su|(eriority  ;  yet  by  the  use  of 
infinite  art  Homer  luis  contrived  that  the  Trojans 
shall  play  the  part  of  serious  ami  considerable  antag- 
onists, so  far  that  with  divine  aid  and  connivance 
tliey  icduce  the  foe  to  the  point  at  wliiih  the  in- 
tervention of  .\chilles  becomes  necessary  for  their 
deliverance,  and  his  su|iremacy  .as  an  exhibition  of 
colossal  luiiidiooil  is  thoroughly 'maintained. 

Tlie  plot  of  the  (}(/i/s.sii/  is  admitteil  to  he  con- 
secutive ami  regidar  in  structure.  'Thejeare  certain 
diflerences  in  the  mytln)log.v  which  have  been  made? 
a  grouml  for  supposing  a  separate  authorship, 
lint,  in  the  lirst  place,  this  would  do  nothing  to 
explain  them:  in  the  second,  they  lind  their 
n.atnral  ex|ilanation  in  observing  that  the  scene 
of  the  wamlerings  is  laid  in  other  lands,  beyond 
the  circle  of  Ach.aian  knowledge  and  tradition, 
and  that  Homer  modilies  his  .scheme  to  meet  the 
ethnical  variations  as  he  gathereil  thi'in  from  the 
trading  navigators  of  Phieiucia.  who  alone  conlil 
have  supplieil  him  with  the  information  required 
for  his  purpose'. 

That  inlormation  was  probably  ccdoured  more  or 
less  by  ignorance  antl  by  fraud.  Itiit  we  can  trace 
in  it  the  sketch  of  .an  imaginary  voyage  to  the 
iKUthern  regions  of  Euroiie,  and  it  has  some  re- 
markable features  of  internal  evidence  sujijiorted 
l>y  the  f.acts,  and  thus  pointing  to  its  genuineiu'ss. 
In  latitudes  not  descriliecl  .-is  separ.ate  we  have 
reports  of  the  solar  clay  apparently  contiadictor>. 
In  one  case  there  is  hardly  any  night,  so  that  the 
shepherd  might  earn  iloiible  wages.  In  the  other, 
cIoikI  .and  ilarkness  almost  shut  out  the  day.  liut 
we  now  know  both  of  these  statements  to  liave  a 
basis  of  scdid  trtith  on  the  Norwegi.an  coast  to  the 
northward,  at  the  dillerent  seasons  of  tlie  midnight 
sun  in  summer,  and  of  Christmas,  when  it  is  not 
easy  to  read  at  noon. 

The  value  of  Tlomer  as  a  reconler  of  antiquit.v, 
as  o])ening  a  large  and  distinct  chapter  of  primitive 
knowledge,  is  (mly  imw  coming  by  degrees  into 
view,  as  the  text  is  more  carefully  ex.anuneil  ami 
its  parts  comp.ared,  and  as  other  liranchcs  of  ancient 
stmly  are  developed,  especially  lus  in  A.ssyria  and 
Egypt,  and  b.v  the  remarkable  discoveries  of  IJr 
•Scldiemann  at  Hissarlik  and  in  (Jreece.  Hut  the 
appreciation  of  him  .-is  a  poet  h.'is  never  failed, 
though  it  is  disappointing  to  tiixl  that  a  man  so 
great  .as  .\risto])hanes  should  desi'iibe  him  simply 
as  the  b.ird  ol  battles,  and  sail  to  think  that  in 
many  of  the  C'hri.stian  centuries  his  works  should 
have  slumbered  without  notice  in  hidden  reposi- 
tories. His  ]dace  among  the  greatest  poets  of  the 
world,  whom  no  ime  supposes  to  be  more  than 
three  or  four  in  numl>er,  has  never  been  i|uestii>ned. 
f'onsidering  him  as  .anterior  to  all  literary  aids  and 
training,  he  is  the  most  remarkalde  phenomenon 
among  them  .all.  It  may  be  well  to  s]ieiif.y  some 
of  the  points  that  .are  peculi.arly  his  own.  One  of 
them  is  the  great  simplicity  of  the  stnicture  of 
his  nund.  With  .an  incomparable  eye  for  the  world 
around  him  in  all  things  great  .and  sm.all,  he  is 
.abhorrent  of  everything  speculative  and  abstract, 
and  what  may  be  called  pliilo.so]ihies  have  no  place 
in  his  works,  almost  the  solitary  exception  being 
that  he  employs  thought  as  an  illustration  of  the 
ra])iility  of  the  journey  of  a  deity.  He  is.  accord- 
ingly, of  .all  poets  the  most  simjile  and  direct.  He 
is  also  the  most  free  and  genial  in  the  movement  of 


HO.MK    RULE 


HOMILY 


757 


his  verse  :  giatelul  iiiiliire  seems  to  j^ive  ti)  him 
spontaneously  the  perfection  to  which  <;ieat  men 
like  Virgil  ami  Milton  hail  to  attain  only  hy  elloit 
intense  ami  snstaineil.  In  the  high  olhc.e  ot  draw- 
ing human  ehaiacter  in  its  nniltituile  of  forms  ami 
colours  he  seems  to  have  no  si'rious  rival  ex;'e|it 
Shakespeare.  We  ("ill  him  an  epic  ]ioet,  hut  he  is 
instinct  from  lieginning  to  c-ml  with  the  spirit  of  the 
ilrania,  while  we  liml  in  him  the  sceils  ami  rmliments 
even  of  its  form.  His  function  as  a  reciting  minstrel 
greatly  aided  him  herein.  Again,  he  had  in  his 
language  an  instrument  unrivalled  for  its  facility, 
suppleness,  and  versatility,  for  the  large  range  of 
what  would  in  music  he  called  its  register,  so  that  it 
emhraced  every  form  and  degree  of  human  thought, 
feeling,  and  emotion,  and  clothed  them  all,  from 
the  lowest  to  the  loftiest,  from  the  slightest  to  the 
mo.st  intense  and  concentrated,  in  the  dre.s.s  of 
exactly  ai>propriate  style  and  language.  His  metre 
also  is  a  perfect  vehicle  of  the  language.  If  we 
think  the  range  of  his  knowledge  liiriited,  yet  it 
was  all  that  his  country  and  his  age  possessed,  and 
it  was  very  greatly  more  than  has  heen  supiiosed 
hy  readers  that  dwelt  only  on  the  surface.  So  long 
as  the  lamp  of  civilLsatiim  shall  not  have  cea-sed  to 
hurn,  the  Iliitd  and  the  (Jdj/ssei/  must  hold  their 
forward  [jlacc  among  the  hrightest  trea-sures  of  our 
race. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  any  satisfactory  account  of  the 
Homeric  bibliograpliy,  not  only  from  its  extent,  but  from 
the  frajjmcntary  manner  in  wliicli  for  the  mo.st  part  the 
subject  has  been  handle<l,  and  throuj^h  the  rapid  e.\ten- 
sion  ot  the  field  by  the  importation  of  new  knowledge 
from  sources  apparently  remote,  whicli  brings  with  it  new 
lights.  The  works  ot  Blackwell  and  Wood,  the  latter  of 
whicli  attained  to  celebrity,  will  show  how  .slender  was 
the  a/ipnratu.t  criticiis  of  tlieir  time.  Tliirlwall,  Grote, 
and  Jlitford,  who  is  now  antiquated,  contain  good  ideas, 
but  Grote  condemns  as  ]>ure  myth  or  fable  much  that  is 
now  gradually  taking  historic  form,  and  vivisects  the 
liiad  by  resolving  it  into  an  Achilleis  and  an  llias.  The 
first  English  writers  who  indicated  a  study  of  the  text  at 
once  comprehensive  and  appreci.Ttivc  were  Keble  in  his 
fndeetiuues  J'oiticw,  and  Colonel  Mure  in  his  Historii  of 
the  Literatim  of  Urecee.  Mr  Kobert  Brown's  Poseidon 
is  a  good  example  of  method  in  tracing  the  origin  of  the 
Olympian  deities.  Nagelsbach  rendered  an  essential 
service  by  dividing  for  the  first  time  the  Homerixchc  from 
the  Nnchhnmeriiehe  Thinfotiir.  ilure  first,  I  think,  taught 
the  need  of  large  and  careful  collection  of  matter  frouL 
the  text ;  and  this  process  has  been  carried  to  its  con- 
sumiEiation  by  Dr  Buchholz  of  Berlin,  whose  collection 
of  the  reulieii  or  contents  ot  the  poems  umst  have  been 
the  work  of  at  least  twenty  yeai-s.  This,  however,  is  a 
meagre  notice  of  a  literatiure  which  might  ot  itself  form 
the  study  of  a  life. 

Editions  :  Dindorf ;  Naiick ;  Bekker ;  La  Koche ; 
Ameis;  Monro  [Tliad);  VaXey  ( II  iad ) ;  Leaf  (Iliad); 
Merry  ( Odimeii) ;  Hayman  ( Orfys.vcy).  Dialects.  Guam- 
5IARS,  DiCTIOXAKIES,  CO.NCOKDANCES,  &c. :  IJelhriick's 
Himiartisrhe  Forschnnijen  :  Monro's  Hoincrii-  tlraiiiniay  ; 
liciderlein's,  .\utenrieth's,  .and  Ebeling's  Dictionaries; 
Liddell  and  Scutt.  capital  for  Homer  though  not  Homeric 
ex  profcsso :  Preudergast's  Concordance  to  the  Iliad ; 
Dunbar's  Concordaiur  to  the  Odyssey  and  the  Hi/itins  ; 
Seberus,  Index  Homerirus,  Hki.I'-books  :  Niigelsbach's 
Hoinerisehe  Tkeodifiie ;  Gladstone's  Studies  on  Hoiner, 
Primer^  and  other  Homeric  works  ;  Jebb's  Introdnetion 
to  Homer  :  Matthew  .Vrnold's  hectares  on  Translation 
of  Homer.  Translations  INTO  English:  Iliad  (veTse) 
— Chapman,  Pope,  Cowper,  Lord  Derby,  Blackie.  Wors- 
ley  and  Conington,  Way,  Wright.  Green;  Iliad  (prose) 
— Leaf,  with  Myers  and  Lang;  Odi/ssiy  (verse) — Pope, 
Chapman,  William  Morris,  Worsley,  Lord  Carnarvon, 
AVay,  Schomberg,  '  Avia  ;'  Odyssey  (prose  ) — Butcher  and 
Lang.  For  information  on  various  mattei-s  connected 
with  Homer  and  tbe  Homeric  poems,  see  the  articles  in 
this  work  on  AcHiLLE.s,  Helen,  Troy,  Uly.sse.s,  &c.  ;  also 
Greece,  Vol.  V.  p.  390. 

Home  Klllf.     See  Ireland. 

UoiUesU'iul.  By  the  Homestead  Act  of  1862 
every  citizen  of  the  United  States,  native  or  natural- 


ised, who  lia.s  reached  the  age  of  twenty-one  yeai-s, 
or  is  the  head  of  a  family,  is  entitled  to  claim  one- 
(piaiter  section  ( IGO  acres)  of  any  of  the  puhlic 
lands  that  are  surveyed  and  otlier\vi.se  unappro- 
]iriated.  The  sole  condition  attaching  to  what  is 
virtually  a  gift  from  the  government  to  the  settler 
is  live  years'  re.sideuce  upon  the  property,  something 
of  course  being  done  to  improve  it.  A  title  is  then 
granted  by  the  general  land  oflice  in  Washington. 
Except  in  the  ca.se  of  non-paynn^nt  of  the  moderate 
registration  and  other  fees,  the  hoinesteiul  is  abso- 
lutely exem|)t  from  forced  sale  for  debt  ;  the 
object  of  this  provisi(m  being  to  guard  the  interests 
of  women  and  children.     See  PlsKKMl'TION. 

lIoilie.>stead,  on  the  Monongahela  Hiver.  in 
Pennsylvania,  S  miles  SK.  of  Pittsburgh  by  rail,  is 
the  main  seat  of  the  great  iron  and  steel  works  of 
the  Carnegie  Company,  employing  40,000  men.  The 
labour  riots  of  1892  amounted  almost  to  civil  war. 
Pop.  of  the  '  post-village  '  ( 1880)  592  ;  (  KS'IO)  791 1. 

Homicide.  See  Jcstifiablf.  Homicide, 
Maxsi.acohter,  Murdek,  Is.saxitv. 

Homildoil  Hill,  a  battlefield  in  Northumber- 
land, 1  mile  NE.  of  Wooler.  In  1402  Earl  Douglas 
at  the  head  of  10,0(X)  Scots  had  ravaged  England 
as  far  a.s  Newcastle,  and  was  returning  laden  with 
booty,  when  on  14th  September  he  was  intercepted 
by  an  English  army  under  Hotspur  and  the  exiled 
Earl  of  March  and  Dunbar,  so  posteil  himself  upon 
Homildon  (Humbleton)  Hill.  Hotspur  wa.s  eager 
for  a  headlong  charge,  but,  by  Maicli's  advice,  the 
bowmen  were  set  to  |)lay  upon  the  Scots,  who 
'  stood  long  like  deer  in  a  jmrk  to  be  butchered,' 
and,  too  late  descending  to  come  to  close  (puartere, 
sustained  an  irretrievable  defeat.  Douglas  him- 
self was  wounded  in  five  places,  and  wits  taken 
piis!)ner,  with  four  other  earls,  two  barons,  and 
eighty  knights.     See  HENRY  I\'. 

Homily  (Gr.  homiliu)  primarily  signifies  a  dis- 
course belli  with  one  or  more  individuals,  but  in 
ecclesiastical  use  it  means  a  discourse  held  in  the 
chunh.  The  luactice  of  ex|daining  in  a  po|)ular 
form  the  lessons  of  Scripture  read  in  the  synagogues 
liad  prevailed  among  the  Jews,  and  appears  to  have 
been  adopted  in  the  Christian  churches  from  the 
earliest  times  ;  but  we  have  no  sample  of  this  form 
of  composition  earlier  than  the  homilies  of  Oiigen 
in  the  3d  century.  The  early  Christian  homily 
may  be  descrilied  as  a  popular  exposition  of  a  por- 
tion of  Scripture,  accompanied  by  moral  retleetions 
and  exhortations.  It  dilieis  from  the  sermon  (Gr. 
liiijus,  Lat.  uratio)  in  following  tin;  order  of  the 
scriptural  text  or  narrative,  insteiul  of  being  thrown 
into  the  form  of  a  rhetorical  discourse  or  a  didactic 
essay.  The  name  homily  is,  however,  very  frei|Uently 
used  almost  as  a  synonym  for  sermon  :  and  Hmiti- 
Irtlrs  is  that  branch  of  theology  which  deals  with  the 
rules  for  composing  sermons  and  discourses  of  any 
kind,  sometimes  called  'sacred  rhetoric'  .\ncient 
collections  of  homilies  or  /tumi/ieirio  are  very  numer- 
ous ;  the  most  notable  being  that  conii>iled  about 
782  by  Paulus  Diaconus,  under  Charlemagne's 
authority. 
1  The  Homilies  of  the  Church  of  England  are  a 
j  collection  of  sermons,  the  hi'st  part  of  which  was 
I  pulilished  in  l.')47,  the  lirsl  year  of  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI.,  to  be  read  in  the  churches,  partly  in 
order  to  supply  the  defect  of  sermons,  but  partly, 
also,  to  secure  uniformity  of  doctrine,  and  to  gu;vid 
against  the  heterodoxies,  old  and  new,  which  at 
tliat  time  threatened  the  umonsolidated  church. 
The  second  jiart  was  published  in  1.">G2.  at  the  same 
time  with  the  Articles,  umler  Elizabeth.  The  .'tttli 
Article  declares  that  '  the  liook  of  Homilies  doth 
contain  a  godly  and  wholesome  doctrine,  and  neces- 
sary for  these  times.'  The  titles  are  enumerated 
in  the  article,  and  are  twenty -one  in  number.    The 


r58 


HOMINY 


HOMCEOPATHY 


lioniilies  are  not  now  reail  in  I'liurclips ;  but  tlieic  in 
no  l.iw  to  prevent  their  lieini;  so  rea«l,  anil  tliey  lire 
frei|uently  aiiiiealed  to  in  controversies  ;f*  to  llie 
doctrine  of  the  An<;liean  Church  on  the  iKiints  of 
which  they  treat.  The  precise  degree  of  authority 
due  to  them  is  matter  of  doul>t. 

Iluilliliy.  a  preparation  of  niai^tc,  coarsely 
^'roiui'l  .iii'l  l>oih>d  :  a  Iciml  of  Indian  corn  porridge. 

lloiiKM-4'rral.    See  Hetekocehcal. 

lloilHl'opiltliy  {Iminition,  'like;'  pathos,  'dis- 
ease'), a  medical  doctrine,  which  teaches  that 
diseases  should  lie  treated  or  cured  hy  ilru^s 
ca))al»le  of  producing.'  similar  sym|itimis  of  ilisordcred 
health  to  tliose  presentcil  hy  them  :  or,  as  it  is  cum- 
nionly  nhrased,  '  likes  should  he  treated  hy  likes,' 
or  let  likes  he  cured  hy  likes — gimilUi  siniilihiis 
ciiniiliir. 

The  earliest  mention  of  this  doctrine  occurs  in 
one  of  the  hooks  attrihuted  to  Hipi)ocrates,  who 
tau;;lit  that  some  diseases  were  cured  hv  similai's 
and  some  l>y  contraries.  He  illustrated  tiie  former 
hy  pointing  to  mandr.ake  as  a  cure  for  mania  ; 
'  ;iive  the  patient,'  he  says,  'a  dr.au^'lit  made  from 
the  root  of  mandrake  in  a  smaller  dose  than  is  sulli 
cient  to  produce  mania.'  Kcferenee  is  al.so  m.ade  to 
the  doctrine  of  similars  hy  several  medical  authors 
durinj;  the  centuiies  that  followed.  In  17:J8  Stahl, 
a  Danish  army  surgeon,  wrote  that  '  the  rule  •gener- 
ally acted  upon  in  medicine  to  treat  hy  means  of 
oppositely  acting  remedies  is  (|uite  false,  and  the 
revei'se  of  what  ought  to  lie  ;  I  am,  on  llie  contrary, 
convinced  that  disea-ses  will  yield  to  and  he  cured 
hy  remedies  that  produce  a  similar  allection. '  The 
celehrated  V<in  Stoerck,  in  17'>'2,  urgeil  the  same 
rule  iis  a  rea-son  for  using  stramonium  in  insanity. 
Though  impressed  with  the  importance  of  this 
doctrine,  these  writei-s  took  no  steps  towanls  ren- 
dering it  available  in  the  jiractice  of  medicine.  To 
do  this  was  reserved  for  Samuel  Hahnemann  (q.v.), 
who,  in  IT'.lli,  in  an  essay  entitled  '  Suggest  ions  for 
a.scertaining  the  ("urjvtive  Powers  of  Drugs,'  ]uib- 
lished  in  lliifiliiiiirs  .loiiriinl,  then  the  leading 
medical  periodical  of  Europe,  showed,  ,as  the  result 
of  a  series  of  researches  and  experiments  extending 
over  six  ye.ai's,  tliat  in  this  iloctrine  lay  the  key  to 
the  selection  of  specilically  acting  medicines;  of 
medicines,  that  is,  which  cure  by  exercising  a  direct 
inlluence  upcm  the  parts  di.sea.sed,  as  distinguished 
from  those  which  relieve  by  what  is  termed  their 
'  derivative  '  action.  For  example,  it  was  I  hen,  and 
is  now,  customary  to  endeavour  to  control  eongi'sticm 
of  the  brain  by  jiurgatives,  by  me<licines  opc-rating 
not  on  the  brain  but  upon  the  bowels.  Hahne 
niann,  on  the  other  hand,  ;isserted  that  congestion 
of  the  brain  wius  most  f|uickly  and  certainly  cured 
by  prescribing  .small  doses  of  a  medicine  which  pre- 
vious experiment  had  proved  to  have  a  special 
inlluence  upon  the  circulation  in  that  organ— a 
direct  methoil.  The  nature  of  tliis  intlnence.  h'' 
further  sliowed,  must  be  one  of  siini/iintf/.  This 
similarity  w.as,  he  pointed  out,  recognised  1>y  the 
symptoms  indicating  the  nature  of  the  disea.sc- 
proce.ss  on  tlie  one  hand,  and  tlio.se  ni,arking  the 
action  of  the  drug  when  taken  by  persons  in  onli- 
nary  health  on  the  other. 

This  doctrine,  then.  ap))lies  solely  to  that  )iart  of 
the  trc.atment  of  disease  which  relates  to  the  use  of 
medicines  ;  and  further,  it  is  restricted  to  prescrib- 
ing medicines  in  diseases  which  .are  not  dejiendent 
for  their  existence  on  some  mechanical  cause,  such 
as  the  presence  of  a  mass  of  undigesteil  fo(«l  in  the 
stomacli,  or  of  a  st<me  in  the  bladder.  To  those 
parts  of  treatment  whicli  are  concerned  with  nurs- 
ing, dietetics,  hygiene,  the  use  of  water  in  various 
M'ays,  electricity,  mass.age,  Arc,  homo'oi>athy,  as 
such,  Ijears  no  reference ;  though  those  ]diysici.ans 
who  have  adopted  it  attach  great   inijiortance  to 


these  therapeutic  measures.  Homujopalliy  has 
I  solely  to  do  with  the  selection  of  drugs  when  these 
are  needed  for  direi'tly  cnraliie  pur|ioses--a  sutfi- 
I  ciently  wide  range  truly  I  Hahnemann's  claims  tn 
distinction  as  a  therapeutist  rest  not  merely  on  his 
I  having  recognised  this  iloctrine  as  u  rule  of  ilrug- 
i  selection  in  a  wide  range  of  disciLses — this  hail  been 
done  to  .souie  extent  liy  othei-s.  :is  he  himself  has 
inlmilti'd  -but  upon  hi-  having  rendered  it  possible 
to  aiijily  it  in  practice;  as  he  wrote  in  IHIO,  'no 
one  has  as  yet  taiKjIit  this  honncopalhic  therapeutic 
doctrine.'  If  it  were  true  that  the  symptoms 
evoked  by  a  drug  shouhl  regulate  its  employment 
in  di.sease,  the  .symptoms  which  drugs  will  cause 
must  needs  be  ascertained.  Hence  the  study  of 
drugs  by  making  experiments  with  them  upon 
healthy  persons— drug  proving,  .is  it  is  termed — lie- 
came  a  cardinal  jioinl  in  the  leaching  of  Hahne- 
mann. It  forms,  indeed,  lln'  Jir.it  maxim  of 
homo'opathy. 

Further,  if  a  medicine  is  to  be  used  that  will  pro- 
I  duce  a  condition  like  that  which  it  is  intended  to 
1  cure,  it  is  olrvious   that    it  must    be  prescribed  in  a 
'  dose  smaller    than    thai    in   whicli  il    is  capable  of 
I  pioiliicing  such  a  cundition.     This  much  was  clear 
i  to  Hahnemann  when  he  lii-st  applied  homo'opathy 
at  the  bedside.      During  the  lirst  three  or  four  years 
of  his  doing  so  he  used  doses  of  from  three  to  four 
ffniins  of  .such   medicines  as  nux  vcunica  and  vera- 
trum    powder  ;  of    .iriiiia  powder    he  gave   '  a   few 
grains  ; '  of  ignatia,  fnim  three  to  seven  grains,  and 
soon.      .As  his  experience  in  the   use  of  medicines 
ujion    this  biisis  increa-sed  he  found  that  far  more 
minute  doses  than  tlie.se  were  allsutlicient,  and  in 
18(Mi    he    writes    of    his    giving    Inindredtlis,    thou- 
.sandths.  and  milliontlis  of  the  (ju;uiiities  rei|uircd 
to  obtain   the  antipathic  or  allopalliic  action   of  a 
ilnig.      In  grailii.it iiig   his    doses     Hahnemann    fol- 
lowed where  his  experience  seemed  to  lead  him.  his 
one  desire  apparenllv  iM'iiig  to  give  no  more  niedi- 
cine  than  was  absolutely  nece.s.sary  for  the  cure  of 
disea.se. 

What  is  the  safest,  surest,  and  liest  dose  in  which 
to  prescribe  a  hoiiKeopathically  chosen  medicine  is 
a  i|uestion  upon  which  there  is  a  great  ilitlcrence  of 
ojiiiiion  among  those  who  have  studied  the  subject. 
'1  he  iiiily  princiides  upon  which  there  is  any  una- 
nimity among  tlieni  are  that  the  dose  to  cure  mu.st 
be  smaller  than  that  which  will  produce  a  condition 
like  that  to  Ih;  treated,  and  that  ilillerent  per.sons 
are  susceptible  to  the  inlluence  of  widely  iliHering 
dose.s.  'I  he  ne<'essity  for  the  dose  being  a.  small 
one  is  the  sn-miil  maxim  of  homicopatliy.  The 
lliiiil  is  that  medicines  must  be  prescribed  in  the 
form  in  which  they  were  taken  when  '])riiveil' — i.e. 
when  the  experiments  were  made  which  revealed 
the  kind  of  action  they  have  upon  healthy  persons. 
This  is  essential,  because,  however  well  acquainted 
such  experiments  may  render  the  physician  with 
medicines  individually,  they  teach  him  nolhing  of 
what  the  action  of  such  medicines  will  be  when 
combined  with  one  or  more  others.  He  has  no 
means  of  .a.seertaining  what  would  Ir-  the  inlluence 
exercised  upon  the  action  of  his  'base'  by  the 
'corrective'  or  the  '  luljiivant '  of  the  ordinary  pre- 
.scriptioii  combination  of  drugs. 

To  accmint  for  or  explain  the  oinrfiix  oprrandi 
of  a  hiiiiiMopathically  selected  medicine  several 
theories  have  been  advanced.  Hahnemann  put 
forward  one  which,  however,  he  at  the  s.ame  time 
declared  that  he  regarded  as  of  no  imiiortance.  So 
far  no  explanation  hitherto  attein]ited  has  met  with 
any  general  acceptance  from  those  who  admit  the 
truth  of  the  doctrine.  It  is  as  an  ultimate  fact  in 
therapeutics,  the  reality  and  value  of  which  can 
only  be  :i.scert.ained  by  putting  it  into  practice  at 
the  bedside,  that  homo'opathy  has  always  lieen 
regarded,  rather  than  sts  .1  speculative  idea  to  he 


HOMOEOPATHY 


r59 


deinoiistiateil  or  lefuteil  liy  theoretical  discussions 
or  a  priori  arguments.  Hence  it  is  to  tlie  results  of 
e.\])prience  in  einjiloyint,'  lionid'opatliically  selected 
medicines,  especially  in  epidemics  notoriously 
attended  by  a  great  mortality  under  tlie  usual 
metliods  of  treatment,  that  those  who  advocate  this 
uictliod  apjieal  to  sustain  tlieir  position. 

Kor  example,  in  1836  cholera  was  devastating 
Austria,  when  a  petition  was  presented  to  the 
government  to  allow  homo'opatliy  to  he  tested.  Dr 
Flfi-i-lin]anM  was  accunlingly  ordered  to  lit  up  a 
hospital  in  the  (Iiimpcndorf  suhurh  of  Vienna  for 
the  reception  of  cholera  |)atients  to  he  treated 
homfeopathicall.v.  The  result  showed  that  whereas 
70  i)er  cent,  of  tho.se  treated  in  the  ordinary  way 
died,  Dr  Fleiscliniann  lost  only  33  per  cent. 

Again,  in  yellow  fcvi^-,  in  1S7S  the  American 
Institute  of  Homo'o]iathy  appointed  a  commission, 
C(Hisisting  of  physicians  who  had  had  ex]iericnce  in 
dealing  with  this  disease,  to  ascertain  the  mind)er 
of  cases  treated  hoimeopatliically  during  the 
ejiidemie  of  that  year,  and  the  rate  of  mortality 
amongst  them.  The  re|)ort  showed  that  in  and 
around  New  Orleans  3914  cases  were  treated,  with 
a  loss  of  2GI,  being  a  mortality  of  only  6'(iper  cent, 
in  this  singularly  fatal  form  of  disease. 

Lastly,  in  the  city  of  Melbourne  tyiihidd  fever 
recurs  in  e|)idemic  form  everv  year.  Tlie  Mclhonnie 
Hnaldoi  April  20,  l.S«!),  gave' the  following  hospital 
statistics  of  tv])hoid  for  tliree  seasons.  During 
these  three  epidemics  tlie  MellHMirne  hospital,  with 
318  beds,  received  ilS2  cases  of  tyjihoid,  of  which 
LSI,  or  15'31  percent.,  died.  The  Alfred  Hospital, 
with  144  be<ls,  admitted  il98  cases  ;  of  these  135,  or 
13o2  per  cent.,  were  f.atal.  The  Homa'opathic 
Hosjiital,  with  00  beds,  leceived  554  cases,  of  which 
49,  or  8 '84  |)cr  cent.,  die<l. 

Anotlier  .argument  in  support  of  the  contenti(m 
that  hoiiici'opathy  alibrds  a  real  basis  on  wliich  to 
select  a  meilicine  is  drawn  from  the  fact  that 
Hahnemann,  when  appealed  to  in  1832  to  suggest 
the  medicines  most  likely  to  be  useful  in  cholera, 
without  e\er  having  seen  a  case,  but  merely  from 
.studying  the  symptoms  of  .some  that  were  reported 
to  him,  an<l  comparing  these  symptoins  with  those 
produced  by  medicines  he  had  ex]ieriniented  with, 
nameil  <'aiiiphor,  copper,  and  white  liellebore  as  the 
remedies  :  and  tliese,  with  the  single  addition  of 
arsenic,  have  since  been  found  to  lie  more  service- 
able in  cheeking  the  disease  than  any  others.  It 
is  consequently  urged  that  for  a  jirinciple  of  drug- 
selection  to  en;»ble  the  jdiysieian  to  indicate  before- 
hand the  appropriate  remedy  in  an  entirely  new 
form  of  disease  is  a  strong  proof  of  its  trutli,  and 
evi<lence  of  its  value. 

Finally,  honueopathists  contend  that  the  un- 
acknowledged adoption  of  many  of  tlie  |iractical 
results  of  their  teaching  by  jihysicians  who  pro- 
fessedly rejiudiate  honneopathy  is  an  additional 
|iroof  that  this  teaching  is  sound.  The  text-books 
on  Materia  Meilica  which  are  now  most  po]iular  in 
the  meilical  schools,  the  IIiuiilliiiiiL  <if  Thi-niiieiitirs.  \ 
by  Dr  Siilney  Kinger,  and  Dr  Lauder  lirunton's 
Materia  Midica,  Pliariiiarolomi,  (tiid  TlicrajHiilir.s,  \ 
abound  with  recimimeiiilations  for  the  use  of  medi- 
cines in  diseases  in  wliich  they  were  lirst  l<nown  to  ; 
be  of  service  through  homo'opathy.  Of  these,  the 
usi-  of  aconite  in  iiillammatory  fever  is  one  of  the 
most  cimspicuons.  'I'liat  il  would  be  found  capable 
of  reducing  the  fever  with  which  acute  iiillamma- 
tions  are  usually  ushered  in  was  an  inference  drawn 
by  Hahnemann  from  the  exiieriments  that  he  had 
made  with  it;  and,  when  iiuiilishing  his  conclusion, 
he  foretold  that  it  would  entirely  supersede  the 
necessity  for  blood-letting,  then  so  constantly 
employed  in  such  cases.  It  M-as  the  endorsement 
of  this  statement  by  Dr  I'wins — who  hail  to  i 
some  extent  tested  the  worth  of  homa-opalhically  1 


selected  medicines — at  a  meeting  of  the  London 
Medical  Society  in  1830  that  so  shockeil  the  iiiein- 
bers  ])icsent  as  to  iiuluce  them  to  pass  a  resolution 
precluding  all  reference  to  lionioeopathy  at  any 
future  meeting.  To  use  aconite  in  small  doses  in 
acute  inllanimatory  fever  is  thorouglily  lionujco- 
jiathic,  and  is  at  the  same  time  a  very  common 
practice  now  among  those  wlio  deny  that  hoiiKco- 
pathy  is  of  any  value  to  the  ])hysician.  Many 
other  medicines  there  are  that  are  very  generally 
used  liy  o]i]ioiH;'!its  of  homo'Opathy  in  conditions  to 
which  they  are  homo'oiiathic,  and  in  which  they 
were  originally  made  known  to  be  useful  by  those 
who  practise  homo'o])atliicaIly  ;  such,  for  example, 
as  arsenic  in  gastric  irritation,  ipecacuanha  in 
vomiting,  corrosive  sublimate  in  dysentery,  bella- 
donna in  quinsy,  \c. 

A\  bile  hoiiKcopatliists  accept  tlie»se  appropriations 
as  so  many  tributes  to  the  truth  of  their  doctrine, 
and  look  upon  them  as  important  advances  in  thera- 
jieutics,  at  the  same  time,  in  the  absence  of  any 
knowledge  on  the  ]iart  of  those  who  use  them  of 
the  doctrine  which  led  to  their  emidoyment,  they 
regard  them  as  calculated  to  give  rise  to  disap- 
pointment in  .some  instances.  They  do  so  for  the 
reason  that  all  c;i.ses  of  a  given  form  of  disease  are 
not  so  precisely  similar  as  to  admit  of  cure  by  the 
same  medicine.  Thus,  to  give  belladonna  in  all 
quinsies,  while  of  advantage  in  many,  would  be 
useless  in  some,  because  all  cases  of  quinsy  do  not 
resemble  that  produced  by  belladonna.  Some  are 
more  like  that  occasioned  by  mercury,  others  that 
of  the  ]>oison  of  the  honey-bee,  or  of  one  of  the 
smpent  poisons,  others  that  of  the  I'liytolia-ca  dr- 
candra,  and  so  on  ;  and  it  is,  the  honucopathist 
argues,  only  when  tlie  doctrine  of  homo'opathy  is 
strictly  adhered  to  in  each  iiidiridiia/  iii.sfa/ice  of  ;i 
disease  that  that  success  >vhicli  he  contends  will 
follow  his  niethoil  can  be  looked  for. 

From  the  date  of  the  ]uiblication  of  Halinem.anirs 
first  essay  on  HomoMijiathy  the  opposition  this  doc- 
trine has  met  with  from  the  great  majority  of  the 
profession  in  Great  Britain  has  been  of  the  most 
determined  and  persistent  character.  Of  late  years 
the  intensity  of  the  bitterness  of  feeling  which  this 
controversy  aroused  has  lieen  somewhat  mitigated, 
m  jierhaps  the  influence  of  public  opinion  ha-^  pre- 
\ented  its  indulgence  to  the  same  extent  as  formerly. 
The  last  attempt  to  deprive  a  physician  of  his 
hospital  appointment  on  the  ground  that  he  was 
treating  his  p.atients  homaopathically  failed,  wliile 
several  open  adherents  of  this  iloctrine  are  to  be 
found  holding  public  health  and  poor-law  appoint- 
ments. The  number  of  those  who  in  (.'reat  Britain 
admit  that  they  practise  homo'opathy  has  never 
at  any  one  time  exceeded  300.  The  chief  hospit.al 
where  lioimcopathy  is  practised  is  the  Lomlon 
HomaHipathic  (1850),  Avitli  ninety  beils  and  a  large 
out-])atient  department.  There  are  similar  institu- 
tions at  iJirmiiigham,  Liverpoid,  Bath,  I'lymouth, 
Bournemouth,  Kaslboiiine,  aiul  Bromley:  and  a 
convalesceiil  home  in  connection  \\ith  the  London 
Hospital  has  recently  been  opened  at  Ka.'-tb(uirne. 
In  addition  to  these  there  are  abiuit  a  hundred 
liomo'opatliic  disiiensaries  in  dift'erent  parts  of  the 
country. 

Ill  the  I'uited  States  of  America,  where  public 
opinion  is  more  powerful  than  ]irofessional  fceliii". 

hoij ipathy  lia>  s|iicad   rapidly  and  widely,  and  It 

i>  (stim.ated  that  marly  one-fourth  of  the  c|iialilied 
piaititioneis  of  medicine  in  that  country  have 
adojited  it.  There  are  over  fifty  liospitals  and 
nearly  jis  many  dispensaries  ;  and  the  journals 
devoted  to  homceonatliy  exceed  a  score  in  number. 
It  is  tauglit  in  thirteen  medical  c(dleges  and  in 
three  of  the  universities.  In  Kurope  there  i>  only 
one  univei'sity  where  there  is  ,a  chair  of  Homoo- 
pathy — viz.  at  Budapest. 


760 


ii():\inT,oGY 


HONDURAS 


Though  llHliiieiiiiuiii  i»  >luiiniiiice>l  by  iiiiiiiy  u-s  u, 
'fanatic'  aiul  a  '  knave,'  ami  iiotwillisuindin;;  tliat 
huni<L'<>|iaUiy  lias  very  j;cnerally  l«'en  net  asiile  as 
a  'fiaiiil,'  no  (inr  can  slmly  llic  liistiiry  i>f  nieillriric 
,  ilui'iii;;  llie  l!)tii  century  witliout  perceiving;  tlie 
I  powerl'iil  inlluence  it  lias  liail  on  the  fjeneral  pnw- 
tice  lit  tlie  medical  piolessicin.  \\liile,  iliiiiiiH  tlie 
tii-st  lifty  years  iif  the  century,  lionneiipalliy  was 
gra<liially  lieiHimin;.'  nii>re  frec|uently  practised,  the 
weapiins  ciimmmily    used   a^iaiiisl   iliseitse  were  ol 

the  most  formidalde  cliiuader.     I!l liii^;  liy  lancet, 

leeches,  and  cii|)pin;;  jjliisses,  merciiiialism,  pnij;a- 
lives,  <S.c.  were  in  eoiistiint  use.  The  profires-s  of 
hoinu'opathy  in  Austria,  and  the  assuiiiptii)n  on 
the  part  of  some  physicians  that  it  wius  a  purely 
nejj;ative  mode  of  treatment,  the  success  of  which 
was  line  to  the  omission  of  all  drii;.'s,  led  lo  that 
scepticism  in  medicine  which,  orij;iiiatiii;,'  with 
Skoda  in  Vienna,  prevailed  ihrou^'lnuU  the  profes- 
sion diniii;;  ihe  next  twenty  years.  'I'laeelios' 
took  ihe  place  of  I  he  lancet,  hreailpills  f.iriiicd  a 
siilistitnte  for  pni'jialives,  ami  'ptisans'  did  iluty 
for  mercnry.  As  the  literature  of  homienpalhy 
increased  a  revival  of  interest  in  the  u.se  ot  ilru^js 
followed  :  and  during  the  Last  twenty  yeais  the 
method  of  slmlyin;;  the  actions  of  ilru};s  orif,'inally 
8U";f,'ested  and  curicd  out  hy  llahiLemann  has  lieeii 
adopted  to  a  very  larjje  extent,  under  the  ilesi^na- 
tion  of  pharmacolofiy  :  while,  for  ]>iactical  piir|poses, 
the  uses  of  druj;s  proposed  by  hoiiiccopathists,  and 
set  forth  in  their  journals  and  puhlisheil  works, 
have,  as  has  Hlrea<ly  Ween  staled,  licen  very  l.arf,'ely 
followed.     See  the  article  Mkdicink. 

The  chief  authorities  on  hoinocopatliy  are  :  Tfn  fiUtorti 
of  Hoiitn.itpiithti :  it.H  ih-itiin  and  CvtitftcU,  l>y  Dr  Aiiieke, 
translated  hy  I>r  A.  K,  IJrvsdalc ;  Lectures  on  Honuso- 
palhii.  by  I)r  Dudgeon ;  Hommoimtliii :  iu  J'niicii>le, 
Methwl,  and  Future,  by  Dr  Pope;  Fifl.n  Jt'itimux  fur 
heiml  n  llomuinpath,  by  Dr  lUirnett;  A  Muuuttl  fif 
Theraj>€utic»,  by  Dr  Hujjhes  ;  A  Muntial  of  l*hariiutcn- 
di/nomicg,  by  Dr  Huj;lies.  T/ie  Hotufho/xttfiic  Rrrinr  aiuI 
The  ffomfroimlliie  World  are  published  loontbly. 

Homol<>!!V.  See  An.vluhv,  and  U  vi:\viNiAN 
Thi;mi:v.  \-,,I."III.  p.  U,S9. 

HoillUOIIsiail  (Or.  humii.1,  'the  same,'  and 
otini'i,  'siilistance')  ami  HoMoloisi.vx  (Ur. 
homiiiii.i,  'like.'  and  uiisiit,  'substance'),  two 
terms  that  lon<;  clistiacted  the  iirimitive  cliuicli 
in  connection  with  the  Arian  ami  seini-Aiian  ciui- 
troveisies.      See  AriILS,  CkkEDS. 

Iloiliop'trra  (Or.  homos,  'the  same,  iiui- 
form;'  iiteruii,  'a  winfj'),  a  divisicui  of  the  insect 
order  Heniiptera  (ii.v. ),  iucludint;  Coccus  insects, 
Aphidi-.,  ('icad;i.s,  iVc.  (q.v. ). 

Iloiiiotaxis.    See  Coxtemi'dh.vneitv. 

H«»iiis.    See  Hems. 

lloililll,  one  of  the  central  provinces  of  f'liina, 
desobued  in  1HS7  by  the  inundation  of  the  tloan;;- 
ho.      See  CHINA,  ifoANCHO. 

Hoiiawar.  a  small  seajiort  on  (lie  Malabar  or 
\vest  coast  of  India,  is  a  town  in  the  district  of 
North  Kanara.  in  the  jiresidency  of  Itcuiiliay,  and 
is  :ilii  hiiles  SSE.  of  Uonibay.     I'op.  (iU.'iS. 

llwiHlliras,  a  Central  .\meiican  republic,  since 
IS!).")  confederated  with  Nicaia;,'iia  and  Salvailor  as 
jiart  of  the  I'epuldica  Mayor  de  Centro- .America,  lies 
IM'tween  Nicaratrna  and  San  Salv.ailor  ami  (Juate- 
ni.ila.  and  is  lioumlcd  on  the  N.  and  NE.  by  thi- 
Bay  of  lloiidnr.i-  ami  the  Caribbean  Sea.  having; 
here  a  coast  line  of  some  4(M)  miles;  while  on  the 
S.  the  15av  of  Konseca.  over  ")()  miles  lon^  and 
about  ."?()  wide,  o|iens  to  the  l'acifi<'.  The  area  of 
Honduras  is  calculated  at  46,.")0()  sip  ni.  :  the  jiop. 
is  stated  at  4.3.5,1100.  E.xcept  for  a  narrow  strip 
of  swamp. land  ahmg  either  coast,  the  country 
is  a  tableland,  its  series  of  elevated  plateaus 
broken  by  broad  ant)  fertile  plains  and  valleys,  or 


risin;;  to  mounlainridifes  that  reach  KtMM)  feet 
,  (liij;hest  peak,  the  Montana  de  Selaone,  10,I'2U 
feet).  There  are  mi  active  volcanoes.  The  Cordil- 
leras proper  traverse  the  country  irrc;;ularly  in  a 
north-west  and  south-east  direction.  Honduras  is 
watered  by  innumerable  streams,  tliou<;h  llie.se  are 
siddom  navijjable.  and  then  only  for  short  ilistances; 
the  Wanks  or  Segovia,  which  forms  for  many  miles 
the  boundary  with  Nicarafina,  has  a  lenjith  of  ,"t,">0 
miles.  Iloatan  ami  the  otln'r  fertile  liay  Islanils 
(i|.v.),  oil  till'  north  I'oasI,  belong'  to  Ilondiiias,  a- 
well  as  two  small  isbinds  in  the  liay  ol  I'luiseea. 
The  climate  is  hot  on  the  coast,  where  also  fever 
pievails  ;  but  in  the  hi^dilands  the  teiiipeiatiire  is 
low,  and  in  the  jirincipal  towns  the  mean  is  74  K. 
In  the  mountains  heavy  frosts  encrust  the  leaves  of 
the  pine  and  oak  forests  in  November  and  Decem- 
ber ;  but  snow  has  never  been  known,  (ienerally 
speakiii;;,  the  rainy  season  e.vtends  from  May  to 
November.  The  flora  ami  fauna  are  very  nearly 
the  same  as  those  of  (Jiiiitemala  (ipv.);  but  in 
Honduras  the  raisin;;  of  cattle  is  an  important 
industry,  while  a;;iicullure  receives  no  such  atten- 
tion as  in  (iuatemala.  In  minerals  Honiliiias  is 
the  richest  of  the  Central  .Vmeiican  republics. 
Silver  ores  in  almost  every  variety  are  abundant  ; 
;,rolil  is  washed  piinci|ially  in  I  Hancho,  and  mined 
ill  one  or  two  places;  rich  iron  ores  ;ire  foiiiKl, 
mostly  iiiaKuelic  ;  al.so  copper,  antimony,  platinum, 
/inc.  and  tin.  There  aie  beils  of  li;;nite  in  Ciacias 
department,  and  famous  opals  that  are  second  only 
to  those  of  Ilun;.'arv.  The  mineral  resources  have 
never  been  pidperly  developed,  but  now  that 
.several  North  .Vmeriian  and  other  forei;.'ii  com- 
panies are  at  work,  and  espciialiy  siiii'e  a  wa^ion- 
road  lias  been  constructed  from  the  I'acilic  coast  to 
I  Yusc.'iran  ( 1'22  miles),  by  whiih  heavy  nnuhinery, 
I  can  be  conveyed  into  the  heart  of  the  silver  belt, 
there  is  every  prosiiect  of  .scieutilic  inethoils  lieing 
successfully  .ipplied.  Tbe  exports  in  Isil.'i.  mostly 
to  the  I'nited  .Stales,  and  I'ousistin;;  chielly  of  <-attle, 
fruits  anil  coco.i-nuts,  indiaiulilicr.  saisapaiilla, 
timber,  and  imli;,'o,  exceeded  l.8(Jil,000  doMars. 
The  import-s  may  be  estimated  at  l..'>(iO.(Kio  didlars. 
,  The  republic  is  divided  into  thirteen  depart- 
;  inents.  I'nder  the  re\  i.seil  constitnlioii  of  I.S94 
(after  the  -uccessful  revoliiiion  of  that  year), 
the  president  is  elected  for  lour  years,  and  is 
iUssislcd  by  six  ministers;  and  Ihe  le;;isl;ilive 
1  power  is  vested  in  a  congress  of  thirty  seven  dep- 
uties. The  ipiesident,  however,  is  for  all  piiictical 
lPUr|ioses  a  dictator.  The  active  army  eonsist-s  of 
o(M)  men.  the  militia  of  rilHK).  The  tinances  of  the 
country  are  extremely  embiirra^sed.  partly  owin;; 
to  wai>  with  tbe  two  neiKbboiirin;;  slates  in  1H72- 
76;  while  three  lo;ins  contnicted  on  heavy  terms  in 
I  London  and  I'aris  in  l.sii7  70,  for  tbe  juirpose  of 
making;  an  interoceanic  i;iilway.  have  left  Hondiiiius 
saddled  with  a  foiei;;n  debt  of  f.''),39S,.'>70.  exclu- 
sive of  the  interest,  which  has  been  accumulating; 
since  l,S7'2:  and  for  this  there  is  only  a  line  from 
I'uerto  Cortez  to  San  I'edro  .Siila  (.■<«  miles)  to 
show.  Tbe  internal  debt  is  relumed  at  ■2.74.'). 000 
dollars.  The  revenue  for  the  year  ls!l.')  was  put  at 
I..V>0.000  dollars,  the  expenditure  at  l..')4:i,000 
dollars. 
i  Ilondiints  w.us  dLscovered  by  (olunibus  on  his 
fonilli  voya;;e,  in  l.')02,  and  dcnves  its  mime  fiiini 
the  Spanish  liimil urns,  'depths.'  in  allusion,  accord- 
in;;  to  the  common  account,  to  the  dilliciilty  he  e.x- 
periemed  in  lindiii;;  amlioia;;e  on  its  coast.  There 
are  nunieroiis  pyramids  and  other  reiiiain.s  of  the 
.•iniient  inhabitants.  Honduras  threw  olf  the  yoke 
of  Spain,  with  the  rest  of  Centr.-il  .America,  in 
IH'21,  ami  became  indepemlent  on  the  dissolution 
of  the  confederation  in  isriil.  I'evolutions  and  fre- 
I  i|nent  wars  «itli  (Juatemala  and  San  Salvador 
I  ended  only   iu    1876,  since   wlieu    a    considerable 


HONDURAS 


HONEY 


rei 


imjirovement  is  visible.  Kducation  is  nominally 
compulsory,  and  there  are  primitive  state-scliools 
in  the  towns  and  large  villages,  besides  a  college 
in  Tegucigalpa  and  Comayagua.  The  whites  are 
very  lew  in  number,  the  Indians,  negroes,  and 
mixed  races  including  all  but  some  (iOOO  or  7000  of 
the  population.  On  the  Mosf|uitc)  coast  there  is  a 
considerable  population  of  so-called  '  Caribs  (q.v. ). 
There  are  no  towns  of  any  imi)ortance,  the  largest 
being  the  capital,  Tegucigalpa,  with  12,<X)0  inhabit- 
ants. The  ports  are  Amapala,  on  the  Bay  of 
Fonseca,  Puerto  Cortez  or  I'uerto  Caballos,  Umoa, 
ami  Tni.xillo.  There  were  lifty-six  post-otlices 
in  1890  aiKl  1800  miles  of  telegraphs,  both  main- 
tained at  a  considerable  loss  ;  and,  besides  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  interoceauic  railway,  a  line  is  pro- 
jected between  Puerto  Cortez  and  Truxillo,  through 
a  rich  fruit  district. 

Hee  SU-phen^,  Tnrid'-iit^  of  Travel  in  Central  America 
{New  York,  1.S41):  S<iuier,  JVotes  on  Central  Amt-rica 
(New  York,  1855),  and  Bandiiras  (Lend.  1870);  Wells, 
Ex/ilorations  and  Adrentaris  in  Honduras  (New  York, 
1857);  *Soltera.'  A  Ladies  Ride  across  Sjxiniifk  Hondu- 
ras ( Lend.  188i)  ;  aud  Lombard,  The  Ntio  Honduras 
(New  York,  1887). 

Honduras.  British.    See  Belize. 

lloilt',  William,  a  vei'satile  and  industrious 
Knglish  writer,  was  born  at  Bath,  June  .3,  1780. 
He  had  but  little  education,  and,  after  some  years 
of  hopeless  ijrudgery  in  London  as  a  lawyer's  clerk, 
at  twenty  started  a  book  .and  print  shoji  there.  But 
his  busy  mind  was  too  full  of  all  kin(is  of  extrane- 
ous ju'ojects  for  success  in  business  ;  and  after  no 
long  time  savings-bank  schemes  and  lunatic  asylum 
inipiiries  brouglit  him  to  bankruptcy.  He  struggled 
bravely  to  get  bread  for  his  already  numerous 
family  by  writing  to  various  papei-s,  started  the 
y/v(rei'/(V,  and  next  the  Reformist's  Itrr/i.stcr  (Feb- 
niary  I — October  2.3,  1817),  which  quickly  carried 
his  name  across  England  I)y  its  brilliant  political 
s(]uibs  and  parodies,  and  liy  the  caricatures  of 
Cruikshank.  On  the  18th,  19tli,  and  20tli  Decem- 
ber 1817  \n:  was  subjected  to  three  separate  trials 
before  special  juries  for  publishing  things  cal- 
culate<l  to  injure  ]mblic  morals  and  bring  the 
Prayer-bo<ik  into  contempt.  The  i)rosecnti<m  was 
of  course  really  political  rather  than  religious,  and 
the  strongest  jnessure  was  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
court,  yet  Hone  was  ji<*piitted  on  all  three  counts, 
after  defending  himself,  weak  in  health  as  he  was, 
with  remarkable  vigour  and  ability  for  over  six 
lioui-s  each  day.  Among  the  more  successful  of  his 
later  satires,  all  illustrated  liy  (/ruikshank,  were 
Tlir  Poiitiral  House  t/uit  Jurk  huitt.  The  Queen's 
Miitriinoiiiat  Ladder  (for  Queen  Caroline),  'J'hc 
Man  ill  the  Moon,  and  T/ie  Po/itiea/  Shoirniait. 
Works  that  revealed  much  reailing  in  obscure  chan- 
nels were  the  Ajiomjplial  Xeir  Testament  (1820) 
and  Aiii-irnt  Mi/steries  E./pliiined  (  182.S).  The 
Ei-erii-dai/  /ioi//.- '( 182ti),  Tahle-lionk  (1827-28),  and 
Year-hi)iih  (1829)  contained  riidi  stiu'es  of  informa- 
tion on  manners  and  antitpiities.  into  which  most 
later  miscellaneous  writers  ui)on  folklore  and  ])opu- 
lar  tr.aditions  have  burrowed.  Yet  their  .stout- 
hearted i-omiiiler  at  the  end  found  himself  in  a 
debtor's  jail,  from  which  his  frien<ls  extricated  him 
to  start  him  in  a  cott'ee-house — also  a  failure.  In 
18:iO  Hone  edited  Strutt's  S/iorts  and  Pastimes,  an<l 
contributed  later  to  the  Peiiiii/  Maijaziiie  and  the 
Patriot.  In  his  Ia.st  years  he  swung  back  to  the 
devout  theology  of  his  mother's  hearth,  ami  often 
preached  on  Sundays.  He  died  at  Tottenham,  (ith 
November  1842. 

Hones.    See  Whetstones. 

HonostV  {Liinaria),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  (."'rucifene,  of  which  two  species, 
natives    of    the    south   of    Europe,    L.    annua   or 


biennis  and  L.  rediriva,  have  long  been  cultivated 
in  British  How  er-gardens,  on  account  iiartly  of  the 
beauty  of  their  flowers,  ami  partly  of  the  curious 
appearance  of  their  large  flat  seed-i)«uches 
(silicules),  or  lather  their  large  oval  membranous 
dissepiments,  which  are  very  persistent,  resemble 
polished  films  of  mother-of-pearl,  and  are  fre- 
quently used  as  mantelpiece  and  table  ornaments. 


Honesty  {Lunaria  Ijifnnix)  in  seed. 

The  origin  of  the  Engli-sli  name  is  doubtful.  Some 
of  the  older  English  poets  mention  the  plant  as 
Liinaric — '  in  sorceries  excelling  ; '  for  it  was 
reckoned  among  herbs  potent  for  magic. 

Honey  is  a  sweet,  thick  liquid  ]>ro(luced  by 
bees  and  other  insects  of  the  same  genus.  The 
working  bees  gather  the  nectar  from  the  nectaries 
of  llowers,  and  also  sweets  fnuu  other  sources  when 
nectar  is  scarce,  which  they  carrj-  home  to  the 
hive  in  the  crop  or  honey-bag.  Here  it  appears  to 
undergo  a  transformation,  by  which  it  iiecomes 
honey  before  it  is  disgorged  into  the  cells  of  the 
ccmib.  Vet  the  change  is  such  that  many  of  the 
distinctive  characteristics  of  the  various  materials 
can  be  traced  in  the  manufactured  honey.  Tims 
we  lind  clover  and  heather  honey  easily  distinguish- 
■able,  the  clover-honey  being  a  clear  white — almost 
greenish-white — fluid  liquid  ;  while  that  obtained 
from  the  heather  has  a  rich  amber  colour,  and  is 
much  more  viscid,  so  that  it  cannot  be  slung  from 
the  combs  without  destroying  them.  The  flavour 
and  coKtur  of  other  llowe)*s  can  also  be  distinctly 
traced  in  various  honeys,  such  as  that  made  from 
the  Howei^  of  the  ivy  and  that  from  honey-ilew, 
the  produce  of  the  Aiihides.  which  m.ay  be  seen  in 
summer  in  the  form  of  a  sticky  liquiil  (Ui  the  leaves 
of  the  lime  ami  other  trees.  In  default  of  better 
food  bees  .sometimes  resort  to  this  houey-ilew.  But 
it  imparts  a  blackish  hue  to  the  honey  and  a  dis- 
agreeable flavour. 

Honey  contains  dextro-glucose  ami  l:e\  o-glucose, 
cane-sugar,  as  also  gummy,  wa.xy.  colouring  matter, 
and  essential  odorous  oils,  along  with  water  and  a 
minute  quantity  of  mineral  matter  and  ]K>llen. 
The  proportion  of  crystallisable  sugar  increa-ses 
with  the  age  of  the  honey,  so  that  in  time  it 
ac(|uires  a  granular  ccmsistency.  Ex)iosure  to  light 
and  cold  increiv^es  this  tendency,  which  is  stronger 
in  some  kinds  of  pure  honey  than  in  others. 

.As  an  .article  of  commerce  and  for  human  ciui- 
sumptiim  honey  is  presented  Vntth  in  the  comb  and 
as  run  honey.  The  run  honey  is  separated  from 
the  wax  of  which  the  storing  cells  are  composed. 


762 


HONEY-BUZZARD 


HONEY-EATER 


liy  tlip  ('i>iitrifii";al  t'xlraotor,  i>r  1>\  llic  iiiorr  tedious 
and  k'ss  |i(;rl'fct  iiietliixl  <>t'  cutting;  llio  i-iiinli  in 
pieces  and  iiinninj;  the  honey  throti^di  a  ha<;  placcil 
near  a  tire.  The  liest  form  of  eonililioiiev  is  thai 
whioli  is  termed  vir^rin  honey.  It  i.s  contained  in 
iinre  while  cells  of  very  thin  wax.  These  cells 
nave  nevi-r  heen  used  l>v  the  hecs  for  any  other 
pnr|ii>se  than  the  stor.i;.'e  of  honey.  When  the 
cells  have  heen  |>reviously  used  for  the  incubation 
of  e;,'jfs  and  the  development  of  liees  throntih  the 
larva  sta<;e  they  hecome  discoloured  and  much 
thicker  in  the  walls,  and  after  rei>eated  use  in 
lireedin;;  they  lieconie  i|nile  hiack.  Conihhoney 
in  dark  coloureil  cells  is  of  very  inferior  i|uality. 

Krorn  the  remotest  times  honey  has  licen  em- 
ployed as  an  article  of  food.  And  to  the  ancients, 
who  were  unacquainted  with  su^rar,  it  was  of  more 
inijiortance  than  it  now  is.  'A  land  llowin;.' with 
n)ilk  and  honey'  oH'ereil  the  lii;;liest  conceivahle 
ailvantafjes  to  the  ea.stern  mind.  The  honey  of 
llyiiiettus,  a  mountain  in  Attic.i,  and  of  llyMa,  n 
mountain  in  Sicily,  were  of  olil  held  in  lii;.'h  repute, 
douhtless  in  cousecjuence  of  the  wild  thyme  and 
other  fra;;r;int  herds  jirowinj;  upon  them.  The 
honeys  of  Narhonne  and  of  t'liamonix  for  similar 
reivsons  are  now  held  in  hijih  estimation,  a,«  also 
the  heather-honey  of  Scotland.  Taken  in  moderate 
(|nantity,  honey  is  nntiitive  ami  mildly  laxative. 
.Some  few  kinds  possess  poisonous  iiropcrties,  such 
as  that  of  the  IJrazilian  wasp  and  the  honey  of 
Trelii/.ond  ;,'atliered  from  the  Abulia  iiitntii'n.  Much 
adulterated  honey  is  sold  -.  see  Al)ll,'rKli.\TI()X. 

As  a  ileuiulcent  and  flavourinj;  a;,'ent  honey  is 
\ised  in  many  preparations  of  medicine.  It  is  also 
used  in  the  preparation  of  several  poj)ular  sweet- 
meats .ind  in  the  manufactuie  of  some  kinds  of  ale. 
Meail  is  a  fermented  lii|Uor  made  from  the  w,ashin;;s 
of  the  comlis  from  which  honey  has  heen  extracted. 
Lar;,'e  i|uanlilies  of  honey  are  annually  imported 
into  (!re:it  Ilritain  from  Auu'rica,  especially  fnnn 
Californi.a,  where  many  larj;i!  hee-farms  exist.  See 
liKlc  :  .-irhl  lor  the  Honey  Ant,  see  AXT. 

il<»IN\V-lMU/:ir4l.  or  Bb:i:-KITI-:  (Pnnis  api- 
VOIII.S),  one  of  the  l'alconida>,  allied  to  both  kites 
and  huzzarils,  hut  with  many  peculiarities,  such  jus 
the  thick  featlierin;;  of  the  siilcs  of  the  head  ilown 
to  the  base  of  the  bill.  It  winters  in  .Vfrii'a,  and 
breeds  in  the  wooiled  districts  of  north  Kurope, 
ran;;iiij,'.  however,  as  far  east  as  China  and  .lajiaii. 
To  Britain  it  is  usually  only  a  visitor,  and  that  not 
very  commonly  ;  but  there  are  records  of  its  occa- 
sional breeding;  here.  Howard  S.iiinders  tells  how 
collectors  of  '  Ihilish  '  specimens  paiil  f.>  for  a 
collide  of  ejjijs.  or  t'K)  f(n-  a  pair  ot  old  biril.s,  till 
the  breeding;  virtually  ce.a.sed.  The  honey-buzzard 
owes  its  name  to  its  habit  of  plundcrinj;  the  nests 
of  bees  and  wasps  for  the  sake  of  the  larva:,  and 
apparently  also  the  honey.  It  also  devours  };nibs 
of  many  kinds  and  various  small  animals.  The 
nest,  often  founded  on  that  of  .some  other  kite,  is 
situated  on  some  leafy  tree,  and  may  be  further 
concealeil  by  a  coveriuK  of  leaves,  which  arc  re- 
placed as  they  wither.  The  ej;;;s,  usu.ally  two,  are 
laid  in  .June,  which  is  late  for  a  bird  of  prey.  The 
genus  incluiles  a  few  other  species. 

Iloiieyouilllt  .llotll.  or  Bei:  MOTH  [flullrriu), 
a  ^enus  of  small  moths  in  the  s.ime  family  as  the 
Grass  moths  ( Cr.^nibusi,  and  noteworthy  for  the 
habit  some  of  the  species  hiive  of  infestin;;  bee- 
hives. There  they  deposit  their  ej;-?* ;  and  the 
larva'  feed  on  the  honeycomb,  throu^:h  which  they 
make  tunnels  lined  with  silk.  In  a  ciuiier  of  the 
hive  the  cocoons  are  spun,  ami  the  nielaiiiorphoses 
accomplisheil.  There  are  two  brooils  in  the  year, 
and  the  later  iiup.T  sleep  tlirou;;li  the  winter.  The 
best-known  species,  (1.  iiiclloinlla,  is  a  satiny  moth, 
about  an  inch  acr<iss  the  Avinf,'s.     When  tliev  occur 


in  numbers  they  are  very  iiijuriiuis  or  even  fpiite 
fatal  to  the  hive.  They  appear  to  enjoy  immunity 
from  the  stings.     A  smaller  species  ( G,  alvcaria)  is 


Honeycomb  Moth  ; 

(I,  Galleria  nifllnnclln  :  h,  larva  ;  c,  piinji ;  d,  larva  working  its 

way  tliroiigli  lioiicyculiib  ;  c,  Cialleria  alvearia. 

also  distin<;uishcil  by  some  authorities.  Humhle- 
bce  nests  arc  infested  as  well  as  bee-hive.s. 

lloiU'.V-dov,  a  viscid  saccharine  exudation 
which  is  often  foniul  in  warm  dry  weather  on  the 
leaves  and  stems  of  plants,  occurrinj;  on  both 
trees  ami  herbaceous  plants.  It  is  often,  but  not 
always,  jissociated  with  the  presence  of  Aphides, 
Cocci,  and  other  in.sects  which  feed  on  ihi'  juices  of 
plants,  and  its  How  is  a.scribed  to  their  punctures; 
Imt  the  ruiilure  of  the  tissues  from  any  other  cause, 
such  as  the  state  of  the  weather,  seems  also  to 
jiroiluce  it,  ami  warm  dry  weather  seems  to  be 
necessary  for  the  ]uoduction  in  the  sap  of  that 
superabundance  of  sujr.'ir  which  is  thus  thrown  oil'. 
Aphides  themselves  exude  by  certain  peculiar 
orjjans  (see  Al'liis)  drops  of  a  llnid  which  is  called 
honey<lcw,  which  probably  dilleis  cmisiilerablv 
from  the  direct  exudation  of  the  plants  <ui  wliicii 
they  feed,  but  niin;;lcs  with  it  where  they  abound. 
Honey-dew  is  often  so  abundant  as  to  fall  in  droi>s 
from  one  leaf  to  another  on  to  the  firound,  some- 
times fallint;  from  trees  even  as  a  copious  shower. 
DilliMciit  kinds  of  iiianiia  are  the  dried  honey-dew 
or  saciharine  cxmlation  of  cert.ain  |>l:ints.  See 
Ma.n.va.  But  M'ly  jienerally  this  exudaticui.  .as  it 
dries,  coats  the  surface  of  leaves  ami  br.inches  with 
a  clammy  lilm,  to  which  everything  brought  by  tin' 
atnios|ihere  adheres,  and  on  which  moulds  and  other 
small  fiin^i  soon  ^'low,  and  thus  the  pores  of  the 
plant  are  cloj.'^ed  and  its  health  is  impaired, 
(larileners  are  therefore  careful  to  wash  olV  iioney- 
dew  with  the  .syringe.  Oran^'c  and  lemon  planta- 
tions .sometimes  suller  j;reat  injury  from  the  abund- 
ance of  honey-dew  ;  and  it  has  proved  a  cause  of 
very  ;;reat  loss  in  the  colVee-plantations  of  Ceylon. 

Honey-eater,  or  Hoxiiy-.siTKKli,  the  name 
of  a  larjie  family  of  birds  (Meliphajiida"),  trilie 
Tenuirostres,  order  Insesstnes,  characterised  by 
their  loiij;,  sharp,  slender,  curved  bills,  .and  their 
lonj;  cleft  extensile  ton^jue  terminatiu;.'  in  a  pencil  of 
bristle-like  lilaments.  They  are  entirely  conrnicd  to 
Australia  and  the  islands  included  in  the  Australian 
region,  where  they  are  very  abundant,  living  on 
honey  and  insects,  which  they  are  particularly  well 
adapted  for  gathering  from  the  flowers  of  such  trees 
as  the  Kucaly|itus  ami  Banksia.  Twenty-three 
genera  ami  I'.KI  species  are  enumerated.  Several  of 
the  genera  .are  conlined  to  Anstrali.a,  othei>  to  New 
Zealand,  .and  a  few  range  over  the  whole  Austialian 
region.  In  Imlia  and  Africa  they  are  replaced 
by  the  Sun-birds  ( Nectariniida').  They  are  birds 
of  active    habits    an<I     generally    very    beautiful 


HONEY-GUIDE 


HONEYSUCKLE 


r63 


pliiiiiafre.  Olio  sijeoies,  ciilleil  by  the  Australians 
the  Killeiiian  or  Kille-hird  (Mehp/ifif/ii  or  I'llluri.s 
])((r<((li.sc)(s),  is  said  to  he  the  most  gor^^cously- 
lihiiiiageil  of  all  known  hinls  ;  the  female  is  more 
sombre  in  dress.  Another  species  [Rlyznntha 
mc/aiwp/in/s)  is  called  the  IJelMiinl,  because  its 
voice  resembles  the  tinkling  of  distant  sheeiJ-hells. 


iS'tw  Holland  Hoiify-eater  (MelipJiu;i"  Nunc  J/olliiniJier). 

To  this  family  is  referred  the  Parson-bird  or  Tui 

( I'riist/iniinr/rrii  Xonr  Zeclanrlirr ),  a  bird  larmier  than 
a  lilackliinl,  and  of  a  bluish  or  fji'eenish-black 
cohiur,  with  white  streaks  on  the  back  of  llie  neck, 
a  white  spot  on  each  wing,  and  two  tufts  of  snow- 
white  downy  curly  feathers  ornamenting  tlie  sides 
of  the  throat.  Unlike  most  of  the  Melipliagida>  it 
is  a  bird  of  line  song.  It  has  also  groat  powers  as  a 
iiiockiiig-bird,  readily  learns  to  speak  many  words, 
and  liecomes  very  familiar  in  domestication. 

Iloiiey-gllide,  Imhcwtor,  or  MoRoc,  a  genns 
of  birds  (Indicator)  formerl.v  classed  as  cuckoos, 
and  to  an  extent  jiartaking  of  (heir  habits,  but  now 
ranked  as  a  small  separate  family  ( Iiidicatorid;e), 
perhaps  most  nearly  allied  to  the  woodpeckers  ancl 
barbets.  Of  eleven  species  known  eight  are 
peculiar  to  Africa.  They  are  all  birds  of  similar 
coloratiim,  being  generally  of  a  dull  gray  tinged 
with  yellow  or  olive  ;  they  vary  considerably  in 
size,  tlie  larger  species  measuring  about  8  inches  in 
length,  the  smaller  not  exceeding  four  inches. 
Tlicy  have  aci|uired  their  name  from  their  habit  of 
guiiiiiig  men  to  honey,  a  curious  instinct  prompting 
tliciii  to  hop  from  tree  to  tree  before  the  traveller 
who^e  notice  they  have  succeeded  in  attracting  by 
Muttering  and  uttering  a  peculiar  cry,  and  to  lead  to 
a  id.ice  where  a  bees'  nest  may  be  foun<l.  The  cry 
is  said  to  change  in  character  on  reaching  the 
localily  of  the  nest. 

Honey  Looiist  Trt'C  (  Gleditschia  triacanthos) 
—also  known  ,-is  the  Swket  Locf.ST  and  Bl.vck 
Locrsr,  and  in  Ibitaiii  as  the  TllUKK-TIKiRNED 
AcAci.v — a  lofty  and  beautiful  tree  of  the  natural 
onler  Leguininosa',  suli-order  Ciesalpiniea',  a  native 
of  the  valleys  of  the  Alleghanies  and  of  the  basin 
of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  not  found  wihl  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  North  America,  although  often 
|>lanled  for  orn.ament  in  the  vicinity  of  habiiatioiis. 
The  llowcrs— which  are  small,  greenish,  .-uid  in 
spikes — ha\  e,  when  perfect,  six  stamens  anil  one 
pistil,  hut  are  very  generally  unisexual.  The  leaves 
are  twice  iiinnate,  without  terminal  leallets,  the 
numerous  small  leallets  ^'iviiig  a  peculiar  graceful- 
ness to  the  foliage,  whicli  is  of  a  light  shining  green. 
The  tree  is  furnished  with  numerous  sharp  triple 
spines.  The  pods  are  long.  Hat,  penilulous,  often 
twisted  :  the  seeds  huge,  brown,  ami  enveloped 
in  a  pulp,  which,  when  the  pod  is  ripe,  is  very 
sweet.  Sug,ar  has  been  made  from  it,  and  wlien 
fermented  it  yields  an  intoxicating  lieverage  in 
use   among    the    .American    Indians.      The    lionev 


locust  attains  a  height  of  70  or  80  feet.  Trees  of 
large  size  are  to  be  .seen  in  some  parts  of  IJritain. 
The  wood  resembles  that  of  the  Locust  Tree  (<|.v.), 
or  False  Acacia  (liubtmn  jmi'iiilacacia),  but  i.s  more 
coarse-grained. 

lloilcy-.stOUC,  or  .Mki.litk,  a  mineral  of  re- 
markable characters  and  composition,  found  in 
connection  with  brown  coal  (generally  .accompanied 
by  suliihur)  in  several  places  in  Germany.  It 
occurs  in  s(|uare  octahedrons,  looks  like  a  honey- 
yellow  resin,  and  may  be  cut  with  a  knife.  It  is 
a  niellate  of  alumina,  consisting  of  mellitic  acid, 
alumin.a,  and  water. 

Ilwiioy.siickle  {Loniccra,  or,  according  to  some 
botanists,  t\iiirifolium,  whicli  others  make  a  sub- 
genus of  Lonicera),  a  genus  of  iilaiits  of  the  natural 
order  Caiuifoliacea-.  They  are  shrubs,  often  twin- 
ing, .and  have  the  flowers  two  en-  more  together  in 
axillary  heads.  The  calyx  is  short  and  .5-tootlied  ; 
the  corolla  tubular-funnel  shaped,  .5-cleft,  generally 
two-li]iped  ;  the  fruit  a  2-  or  3-celled  berry,  con- 
t.aining  one  or  very  few  seeds.  The  C'oininon 
Honeysuckle,  or  Woodbine  (I..  Prn'rlyiticiiiitii),  h- 
very  abundant  in  woods  and  thickets  in  most  parts 
of  liritain.  On  account  of  its  beautiful  cream- 
coloured  whorls  of  liowers,  and  their  deliciiuis 
fragrance,  it  is  often  ])lanteil  in  shrubberies  and 
trained  against  walls.  It  is  said  to  be  the  '  twisteil 
eglantine'  of  ililtou.  The  ]ilienomeiia  observed  in 
its  growth  lia\e  been  adduced  in  proof  of  a  /)cr- 
ixplivc  poircr  m  plants;  the  branches  shooting  out 
till  they  become  unable  to  bear  their  own  weight; 
and  then,  on  their  meeting  with  .any  other  br.anch, 
twining  around  it,  from  right  to  left  ;  but  if  they 
meet  only  with  one  another,  twining  in  dilierent 
directions,  one  to  the  right,  and  another  to  the  left. — 
Very  similar  to  ttiLs  is  the  Perfoliate  Honeysuckle 


Pcrfohate  Honeysuckle  {Loiiicem  raprif<iliu,ii). 
o,  flower;  /',  fruit. 

{L.  aipvifoliinii ),  with  jialer  whorls  of  (lowers,  .and 
remarkalde  for  having  the  upper  leaves  united  so 
that  ail  <ipposite  pair  form  one  leaf,  through  the 
middle  of  which  the  stem  passes.  This  peculiarity 
is  cmilined  to  the  Hower-bearing  shoots,  and  does 
not  occur  on  the  young  runnel's  ;  it  is  also  most 
perfect  nearest  the  llower.  This  species  is  a  native 
of  the  south  of  Europe,  but  is  now  naturalised  in 
many  parts  of  lirilain,  .and  much  pl.inted,  as, 
although  less  powerfully  fragr.ant  than  the  Common 
Honeysuckle,  it  llowcrs  earlii'i.  There  are  numer- 
ous other  species,  natives  of  Kurope,  Siberia,  .and 
North  America.  The  Kly  Honeysuckle  (A.  Xi/lns- 
Iriim)  is  an  erect  shrub,  a  native  of  Kurope  and 
-Asia,  scarcely  indi,i;enous  in  llritain.  but  common 
in  shrubberies.  Its  branches  are  not  unfre<|uently 
used  in  some  parts  of  Europe  for  tubes  of  tobacco- 
]iipes;  .and  it  is  ssvid  to  niake  good  hedges  in  diy 


764 


HONFLEUH 


HONOLULU 


soilti.  Otlier  cii-ct  siiecies  are  iiol  uiitiecriu'iitlv 
plaiiU'it  ill  sill ul.lieiies.— The  'rriiiiincl  Ilonev- 
suckle  { L.  sviii/u-rviirim),  called  in  Aiiieiica  tlio 
Coial  Hoiii'VKiickle,  i«  a  native  of  the  sonlhern 
slates  t>f  Ndith  Ainerjca,  iil'len  |ilaiiteil  in  liiiUiin 
on  acroniil  of  its  lieaiilifnl  (lowers,  reil  on  the  oiit- 
.siile,  and  scarlet  within,  wliiih,  however,  liave  no 
fraj;iance.  It  is  a  Iwinin;,'  evergreen  shruh.— The 
herries  of  the  honey  suckles  are  nauseous.— '["lie 
name  honeysuckle  is  also  •;iveii  to  shriihs  very 
dillerent  from  this  j;enus,  Imt  of  which  the  flowers 
ahoiind  in  honey,  as  to  species  of  Hanksia  in 
Australia.  Aznlra  rlscosa  is  calle<l  Swamp  Honey- 
suckle ill  North  America.  See  also  riiKNcii 
HONEYSUCKLK. 

Iloilfloiir.  a  seaport  in  the  French  ilepartment 
of  Cahados,  is  situated  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
Seine  estuary,  i>pposite  to  ll;ivre,  from  which  it  is 
7  miles  distant.  It  is  irre-^ularly  Imilt.  dirty,  and 
linintere.stinj;.  There  is  a  school  of  hydio;.'r.i|diy, 
and  one  of  its  churches  is  a  celebrated  jilace  of 
pilf,'rimaj,'e  to  sailors.     The  commerce  of  Ilonllciir, 

once   of    -h    ;;reater    imiiorlance    than    .at    the 

inesent  time,  has  been  absorbed  in  >;reat  nieiusnie 
i).v  Havre,  lint  the  harbour  ami  its  approaches 
were  greatly  improved  in  IS74  SI,  and  there  is  slill 
a  considerable  export  of  e;;;,'s,  butter,  ]ionltry, 
corn,  and  cattle,  mostly  to  Kn^jland,  and  import 
of  iron  ami  coal,  and  of  timber  from  Norwa.v. 
The  iirinci|ial  mamifactnres  are  leather,  cast- 
melal,  and  iidineil  sn;,'ai.  There  are  also  rope-  ! 
walks  and  shipliuilding  yards.     Pop.  9265.  | 

lloili^-koiiu;.  or  HiAXii-Ki.vxc  ( 'sweet  waters"), 
an  island  of  southern  China  belonjjin;;  to  (ireat 
Ibilain.  situated  on  the  east  side  of  the  river 
(aiitcMi,  and  aliout  90  miles  S.  by  K.  from  the 
city  of  Canton.  It  consists  principally  of  a  ru;,'^'ed  ' 
rid^;e  of  j;ranitic  rocks,  extending  from  north- 
west to  southeast,  and  has  an  area  of  29  s(|.  in.  i 
liarren  and  desolate,  with  .scarce  any  traces  of 
cnllivation,  the  island  itself  presents  a  striking' 
conlrasl  with  the  beauty  of  its  harbour,  a  nia;;nill- 
cent  sheet  of  water,  10  si|.  m.  in  extent,  one  of  the 
linest  in  the  world,  which  stretches  belwccn  the 
nortliern  shore  of  llonj;  konj^  and  the  peninsula  of 
Kowloon  lui  the  ojiposite  mainland.  The  straits 
that  sejiarate  the  two  are  scarcely  half  a  mile  wide 
on  the  east,  but  e.xpaml  greatly  towards  the  we.st.  | 


riisii  Miles 


% 


...r#-. 


Ciilfinsan 


\JijfongHit. 


^^     aM         — ^r,  sT(/fflm  ^_.^^_v. y-u..4,..« 
c*     I     t"'""-  ^^^^^ 
A^  ■     |;    ^  Shingahimoijn  Pij^-. 

It  is  to  the  excellence  of  its  harbour,  to  the  fact 
that  it  has  been  made  a  frcie  poit,  and  to  its  lieinj; 
the  headc|Uarleis  of  European  tinance  in  eastern 
Asia,  that  Honi^-konjx  owes  its  importance  as 
the  principal  eomnieroial  entrepot  of  sonthcin 
China,  if  not  of  ea-stern  Asia.  The  annual  value 
of     the     merchanilise     brouj;ht     into     lion;:  kon;: 


ports  exceeds   flit,OlM).(MKl,  imd   lhi>   value  of  that 

carried  thence  is re  than  t22,0(K),000.    The  trade 

between  Hon-fkoiif;  and  (ireat  Ihitain  amounts  to 
a  value  of  ,')  inillion  ipouiids  slerlin;;  for  export.s 
from  IIon;rkonj,'.  ami  more  than  If  inillion  for 
imports  into  lloiiK-koii},'.     The  principal  objects  of 

nierce  are  opium   ( iinpinted  )  and   tea  and  silk 

(boih  exported);  tin-  Chinese  trade  in  lliesi.  List 
two  commodilii's  is  aliiiost  exi-lusivcdy  in  the  hamls 
of  llon^rkon;;  merchants.  Oilier  ailiclcsof  trade 
are  sn;;ar,  Hour.  ri<-e,  salt,  hemp,  copper,  lead,  iron, 
woidlens,  eartlienware,  nutoil.  amber,  cotton, 
sandalwood,  ivory,  betel,  vcfjetables,  live-stock, 
^'lanite,  and  shipping  stores.  Tlic  last  named, 
to^rejher  with  su;,'ar,  rum,  ice,  and  ropes,  are  the 
chief  nianufactnies  on  the  island.  Iliui;,'-konK  is 
in  re;;ular  steam  coiiiniuni<-ation  wiili  Ijimpe, 
India,  Siii;;ai>ore,  .Australia,  Japan,  Canada  (Van- 
couver), and  San  Kraiici.sco.  livery  year  several 
thousand  Chinese  coolies  pass  thrimj'h  the  pint 
Lioin;;  abroad  and  returniii';  home.  In  the  live 
years  ending'  IsiMi  the  emi;,'iaiits  averaged  66.700 
annually  :  in  1,S94  the  iiiiiiii;.'rants  were  more  than 
Oli.OOO,      Tlie    mean    auniial   lempi-ratuie  is    7.">     K. 

''he  -ui er  is  hot   and  gemially   rainy  ;   but  the 

islainl  is  not  unhealthy  upon  ll'ii'  whole,  except 
at  <-erlain  seasons.  In' 1894  it  was  lavageil  by  a 
bubonic  plugue  like  that  of  the  Middle  .\ges  (see 
Kilel's  Kitriipe  in  C/iiiiii:  f/ii:  J/istini/  (</  Iliiiiij-Kniiq, 

1H9.")).     Th lerslorms  are  frei|nent.  ami  ly pinions 

occasionally  wojk  u're.it  havoc.  An  obseiv^iioiy  is 
maintained  on  the  island.  Kroiii  oCMMI  in  1.S4I  the 
inhabitants  increased  to  .■{7.0r)S  in  I.Sfil.  and  to 
123,:>ll  in  isiil,  to  I2.3.S9S  in  I,S7I,  to  100,402 
in  bSSl,  and  •.'21.441  in  1891 -2I0.99.">  being  Chinese 
(partly  I'.rili^b  sniijects),  ami  1901  Indians.  l)f 
the  whites,  half  are  of  I'drtuguese  origin,  anil 
a  third  Knglisli.  Hong  kiuig  is  the  seat  of 
a  IJiitish  governor  and  is  a  Ihitish  naval  station 
(see  CiiAl.iNd  SiATKiNS).  The  city  of  \'ictoria, 
the  capital  of  the  island,  stretches  some  4  miles 
along  till"  northern  sluue,  and  from  its  situation 
on  the  slopes  and  tenvices  of  the  hills  overlooking 
the  harbour  ami  its  handsome  streets  and  houses, 
is  justly  iMitilleil  to  be  called  one  of  the  (iiiest 
cities  in  the  Kast.  Here  dwell  all  the  Kuropeans 
and  most  of  the  Chinese  porlicm  of  the  ]ioi>ula- 
tion.  ( til  the  mainland  the  extremity  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Kow  loon,  embracing  an  area  of  2.'i  sip  in., 
w.Lscedi'd  to(iii«it  liritaiii  in  I.Stil,  .and  now  forms 
administi.ilively  p.art  of  the  de|iendency  of  Hong- 
kong. The  i>l.ind  was  lirst  occu|iierl  liy  (Ireat 
liiitain  in  1S4I,  and  was  secured  to  her  in  the 
following  year  by  the  treaty  of  Nanking. 

Hoilil4>ll.  aiuarkel-town  and  municipal  borough 
(IS4t))  of  llcMiiisliire,  neai-  the  left  bank  of  the 
Otter,  17  miles  by  rail  KNIC.  of  Exeter.  F'fiur 
times  devastated  by  lire  between  1747  and  1797,  it 
is  a  moilern  well  built  jdace  ;  but  its  old  parish 
church,  on  a  hill,  contains  a  line  oak-screen,  erected 
in  I4S2  by  llishoji  Courtenay  of  Exeter.  'I'lie 
famous  lloniton  lullowlace,  a  nianufactiire  intro- 
din-cd  here  by  l''leniish  refugees  in  the  middle  of 
the  Kith  ii'iitury.  is  still  a  specialty  of  the  district 
(see  Lack).  The  beautiful  vale  of  Honiton  is 
famous  for  its  butter.  Himiton  w.as  ilisfranchised 
in  isds.     Pop,  ( ls.-)l  )  8427  :  ( 18!ll  )  .S21G. 

■■oiiollllll,  the  capital  of  the  Hawaiian  or 
Sandwich  Islands,  is  situated  i>n  the  southern 
coast  of  the  island  of  Oahu.  It  is  at  once  the  seat 
of  government  ami  the  commercial  centre  of  the 
Hawaii.an  sl.ite  ;  but  it  was  mil  originall}'  the 
capital,  and  its  iiniiortance  is  of  modern  growth, 
being  due  to  the  fact  that  its  harbour  is  the  only 
really  well  projected  port  in  the  Archipelago. 
The  liarbmir.  wliiidi  has  attracleil  to  Honolulu  lirst 
whaling   vessids   and    snlisecpiently   traders   of   all 


HONORARIUM 


HOOD 


765 


kinds,  is  not  u  lar^<^  (inf.  It  is  enteieil  tliioniili  lui 
oj'Oiiiii^-  in  the  conil-reef,  is  150  yav<ls  wide  at  the 
entrance,  and  extends  t'i)i'  ratiier  move  than  a  mile 
in  a  ncn-th  and  south  iliii-ction.  The  town  stands 
close  to  tlie  shoic,  on  a  na,rrow  plain  at  Ihc  mouth 
of  the  Nuuanu  valley,  which  runs  lia<'li  hclween 
clilt's  iTito  the  main  rann'e  of  Kastern  .Mountains. 
The  strip  of  Hat  laml  on  which  the  town  is  huilt 
is  naturally  hare  and  ilrv,  and  the  miumtains,  which 
protect  the  liarhour  from  the  norlheasterly  trade- 
winds,  also  keep  off  the  rain,  so  that  the  rainfall 
at  Honolulu  is  much  smaller  than  in  some  other 
|iarts  of  the  islands.  Water-works,  however,  supply 
irrigation,  which  keeps  the  ^.jardens  of  the  town 
lirij;ht  with  llowcrs  and  foliage.  The  centre  of  the 
town  is  well  laid  out  in  rectangular  streets,  with 
houses  built  in  I'^uropeau  style;  nu)st  of  the 
a]ipliances  of  civilisation  are  to  he  found,  notahly 
tele[ili(ines  ;  there  are  line  government  huildings, 
anil  an  interesting  puhlii'  lihrarv.  The  climate 
is  pleasant,  the  least  healthy  time  lieing  when 
.southerly  or  south-westerly  hreezes  blow  ;  food- 
supplies  are  plentiful;  ami  ships  running  l)etween 
America  and  Asia  (iv  Australasia  con.stantly  call 
at  the  port.  The  population  is  e.stimated  at  over 
20, (XM),  including  a  large  numher  of  foreigners;  for 
the  tr.ade  is  almost  entirely  in  foreign  hands,  and 
the  town  is  descrilied  as  •  having  a  thoroughly 
American  aspect.'     See  .also  H.\w.vir. 

Honorarium.    See  Fkks. 

Iloiiorilis.  Fl.wifs,  second  son  of  the  Roman 
emppr<jr,  Theodosius  the  (Ireat,  was  horn  in  .SS4. 
On  the  death  of  his  father  the  empire  was  divided 
between  him  and  his  brother  Arcadius,  Honorius 
receiving  the  western  half,  with  Rome  as  his 
capital.  Being  only  ten  years  old,  he  was  put 
uiuler  the  guardiansliip  of  Stilicho  (q.v.),  who  was 
the  lie  fiidii  ruler  of  the  western  em]iire  until 
•tO.S.  After  th(>  death  of  Stilicho,  who  had  been 
tlie  strong  bulwark  of  western  Rome  against  the 
barbarian  invasions,  Alaric  the  (ioth  overran  Italy, 
and  besieged  Itonie,  an<l  took  it  in  410.  A  new 
(■hampion  of  i\w  empire  arose  in  Constantius,  who 
A\as  aiijuiinted  the  colleague  of  Honorius  in  the 
consulship,  ami  received  in  nnirriage  (417 )  the  hand 
of  his  sister  I'lacidia,  along  with  a  share  in  the 
em|iire.  But  he  did  not  long  enjoy  his  good 
fortune,  as  his  death  took  place  a  few  months 
after.  Thereafter  things  went  from  bad  to  worse 
in  the  empire,  and  the  weak  Honcnins  lost  his 
hold  of  the  fair  jirovinces  beyond  the  Aljis,  whilst 
.\frica  was  a  seething  caldron  of  re\(dt  and  civil 
war.  The  tirst  emperor  of  the  West  died  in  4'2.'j, 
at  Ravenna,  w  liich  he  had  made  his  capital  in  403. 
See  .T.  B.  IJurv's  llisloni  of  the  Liitcr  I'umtoi 
Etiijiirr  (ISOO).  ■ 

Honorius  I.,  "ho  suc<-eeded  liiuiiface  V.  as 
liisliop  of  RoiiLc  ill  G'2."i,  was  born  of  a  consular 
family  in  Campania.  His  name  is  connected  with 
the  history  of  the  |iaschal  controversy  in  Ireland 
and  with  that  of  the  early  Anglo-Sa.xon  Church. 
During  his  pontilicate  tlu^  bishopric  of  York  was 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  an  archbishojuic,  and  the 
festival  of  the  Elevation  of  the  Cross  was  insti- 
tuted. At  the  height  of  the  Monothelite  (q.v.) 
controversy  Hcmorius,  at  the  suggestion  of  Ser- 
gius,  patriarch  of  Constantino]de,  abstained  frimi 
condemnnig  the  new  doctrines,  and  for  his  luke- 
warmness  in  so  doing  was  stigmatised  as  a  heretic 
at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (tiSO).  He  died 
in  t;;iS,  and  w.as  succeeded  by  Severinus.  Some 
letters  of  his  are  preserved  in  kabbe's  Collcctio 
Cuiicilioriim,  vol.  iii. 

Honour.  M  aid.s  of.     See  HofsKiior.i). 

Honournble,  a  title  given  in  the  I'nited 
Kingdom  to  the  younger  sons  of  Karls,  and  all  the 
children   of    Viscounts   and    Barons ;    to    Maids  of 


Honour,  Lords  of  Session,  the  Supreme  Judges  of 
Kngland  and  Irehinil.  For  the  persons  entitleil  to 
be  styled  'Honourable,'  'Most  Honourable,'  and 
'Right  Honourable'  respectively,  see  ADDRESS 
(FniijMs    OK).      In    America   cust(mi    attaches    the 


if   Honourable  to  the   names  of 


,     judges,    members   of    congresi 
functionaries. 

See  S.\Lf 
ITIL.\TI0X. 
NlKOL.Vls 


overnors  of 
and   other 


I'ES :  and  for 


title  1 
stativ 
pulili 

Honours.  Milii Aitv. 

Ilomiurs  of  War,  see  C.\P1 

HoutlH'ini,  JciH.vNx  J^iKOL.vis  vox,  was 
born  at  Tie\es,  27th  January  1701.  He  \va.« 
educated  in  the  Jesuit  school  of  his  native  city, 
studied  canon  law  at  Louvain,  and  afterwards 
taught  it  for  ten  years  at  Treves,  of  which  .see  he 
became  sullragan  liishop  in  1748.  He  is  the  author 
of  two  works  on  the  history  of  Treves,  liistoriii 
Trevirensis  Dipluiimtiiia  (3  vols.  17">0)  and  Fin- 
ilniiiuin  Ili.sfun'a'  Trcn'roijiix  {'2  \()ls.  1757).  But 
he  is  (diietly  memorable  for  a  theological  essay  in 
Latin,  On  the  State  of  the  Church  mid  on  the 
Liijitimatc  Authority  of  the  Roman  Ponti//'  {\'^S). 
This  he  published  under  the  noiii  i/r  plume  of 
Justinus  Febronius,  whence  the  system  of  church 
government  which  the  work  ]iropounds  has  been 
called  Febronianism.  His  scheme  may  be  de.sciibe<l 
as  an  exaggerated  form  of  (Jallicanism,  with  the 
democratic  element  of  Congregationalism  super- 
added. The  work  was  condemned  by  Clement 
XMl.  immediately  after  its  appearance.  When  it 
became  known  in  1778  that  Hontheim  was  the 
author,  Pius  VL  required  from  him  a  retractation 
of  his  doctrines.  But  three  years  later  in  his  Com- 
iiiciiliin'us  Hontheim  repe.ated  bis  old  views.  He 
died  at  Montquintin  in  Ijuxembonrg,  September  2, 
1790.     See  O.  Mejer,  Febrimliis  (Tiibingen,  1SS5). 

Hontliorst.  GeR.VRD  V.\N,  Dutch  painter,  born 
at  I'trccht  on  4tli  November  l.")ilO,  and  died  there 
on  '27th  April  16.56.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
painters'  guild  of  Utrecht  (16'2'2-37)  and  of  that  of 
The  Hague  (16.37-52).  He  twice  visited  England 
(1620  and  16'2S),  and  ]iaintcd  portraits  of  the  royal 
family  and  an  allegory  (now  at  Hamjiton  Court). 
He  also  found  patrons  in  I''di/abeth  of  Bohemia 
ami  the  ]irinces  of  Orange.  His  best  jiictures 
are  imitations  of  Caravaggio.  whose  works  greatly 
induenced  him  whilst  studying  in  Rome ;  lie 
was  ]iarticulaily  fond  of  iiainting  interiors  dimly 
illumined  by  lamps  or  candles.  The  '  Liberation 
of  St  Peter,'  the  '  Martyrdom  of  St  John,'  the 
'Musician,'  the  'House  in  the  Wood,'  and  the 
portraits  of  Mary  de'  Medici,  the  king  and  ijueeii 
of  Bohemia,  and  the  Duke  of  l>U(d<iiigliaiii  may  be 
taken  as  repre.sentative  of  his  skill.  —  His  brother 
\VlLLI.\.M  (1004-66),  an  historical  and  portrait 
painter,  worked  for  the  court  of  Berlin  from  1650  to 
1664. 

Honvt'd  ( '  Land-defenilers'),  the  name  given  in 
Hungary  under  the  earlier  kings  to  the  national 
chamiiions.  In  the  summer  of  1848  the  term  was 
reviveil,  and  ajijilied  lirst  to  the  levolutionaiy 
armies,  and  after  the  organisatimi  of  the  Hungarian 
landwehr  in  1868  to  that  body  of  men. 

Hoo<i.  The  academic  hood  is  a  modification  of 
the  monks'  cowl :  the  right  to  wear  hoods  is  bestowed 
by  iiniversiti<'s  and  by  certain  chartered  colleges, 
and  till'  value  and  source  of  the  wearer's  degree 
are  indicated  by  the  material,  shape,  and  ccdour  of 
the  hood.  A  very  comiilete  list  of  university  and 
other  degrees  and  hoods  is  given  in  Whitaker''s 
Alillillliirk. 

Hood.  MorsT.    See  C.\.scade  R.\nge. 

H<tod.  ALEX.vxDElt,  Lord  Bridport,  admiral, 
born  in  17'27,  was  the  younger  son  of  the  vicar  of 
Tliorncombe,  near  .\xiiiinster,  and  younger  brother 
of  the  more  famous  \iscount   Hooil.     The  date  of 


766 


HOOD 


liis  entry  iiiUi  the  seivire  wif  17-il.  Itntli  the 
HoikIn  entered  iiii<lcr  tlie  iiutriina^i'  nf  Ailniiiiil 
Smitli,  calleil  '  Toui  nf  Ten  Tliuiisnml.'  There 
has  heen  some  cunfii.sinn  hetween  the  exphiils 
of  the  liriilhers — thiisi  a  victory  at  Ilyeres,  in  com- 
niaii<l  of  I  he  Aiiifluitc  in  IT'^T.  Ini>*  Iteen  eiToneonsly 
atlrilmleil  to  the  yonn^'er  lirother.  In  I74(i 
Ah'Xiiiuler  lloml  lieo.iiiie  lieutenant,  ami  in  I7''0 
atlaine<l  the  command  of  the  I'lhuc  (liorr/r  (!I0 
};nn^s).  After  service  in  the  Meiliieriancan  ami 
Channel  under  Saunders  and  UawUe,  lie  a^^ain 
<lisiin^uishcd  himself  in  1760,  while  in  eoniniand 
of  the  Miitiini  frigate  (3"J  ^'uns  |,  hy  recaptiirin;; 
from  the  French  the  Wttnricl:^  a  (ifl  };nn  slii|i. 
formerly  En;,'lisli,  hut  now  armed  with  'M  f;iiii>. 
Durinf,'  the  war  of  American  imieiiendcnce  lie 
Herveil  much  under  Kepiiel,  Kodney,  and  Howe  in 
the  Channel  and  the  Strait  of  (Jihrallar.  In  the 
notorious  Kejipel  court-martial  he  appeared  not 
wholly  to  his  creilit.  Durinj:  the  French  revolu- 
tionary war  he  served  in  the  <'hannel  with  distinc 
tiim,  having'  a  share  in  1704  in  llie  '  j,doriiins  lirsl  of 
June'  ott' I'sh.mt,  and  afterwards  in  commaml  of 
hlockadinj,'  sipiadrons.  He  attained  lla^'  rank  in 
1780,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  liaron  lirid- 
port  of  Cricket  St  Thomas,  Somerset,  in  1706,  and 
Visci>iint  l!ri.li)ort  in  1800.  He  dieil  3d  May  1S14. 
See  the  Xnrul  C/ironir/c,  vol.  i.  :  the  Hev.  T. 
Kep|)el"s  Lifr  nf  Lord  Krjijiil ;  and  Lord  Ihidpoit's 
Letters,  edited  hy  Hann.-iv  for  the  Navy  Jieconls 
Society  ( ISn.'ii. 

Hood,  •JiilIN  Hell,  an  American  general,  wa.s 
horn  at  Owingsville,  Kentucky,  1st  .lune  18;}1, 
graduated  at  West  I'oint  in  Is.j.'},  and  saw  some 
service  against  the  Indians.  He  entered  the  Con- 
feilerate  army,  commanded  a  hrigade,  and  was 
severely  wounded  at  Gaines's  Mill,  at  (lettyshurg, 
anil  at  Cliickamauga,  where  he  lost  a  leg  and  was 
made  lieutenatitgeneral.  He  comniandeil  a  corps 
under  tJeneral  .1.  E.  Johnston  in  the  retreat  to 
Atlanta,  ami  in  July  1804  succeeded  liini  in  com- 
mand of  the  army.  On  Septemher  1  he  wa-s  com- 
pelled to  evacuate  the  city,  and  leave  tlie  roail  free 
tor  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea.  He  yet  made  a 
Ijohl  attempt  to  cut  Sherman's  communications, 
and,  though  worsted  at  Franklin  im  Xovemher  .'!(), 
pushed  as  far  north  as  Nashville  :  hut  here  he  was 
again  defeated  hy  Thomas  on  Decemlier  10,  and 
at  his  own  request  lie  was  relieved  of  command. 
He  died  iu  New  Orleans,  30tli  August  1879.  Flis 
personal  experiences  were  ]>uhlibhed  posthumously 
as  Adcanre  ami  Itelrcat  ( 1880). 

Hood,  KoiiiN.     See  Robin  Hour). 

Iluod,  S.v.MlEL,  Viscount  Hood  of  AVliitley, 
admiral,  elder  brother  of  Lend  Hridport,  was  horn 
at  Thorncomhe  in  I7'24,  and  entered  the  navy  in 
1740  under  Commodore  Smith  on  hoard  the  liumiieij. 
He  was  promoted  lieutenant  in  1746,  commander 
in  li.")4  after  seeing  good  service,  and  post  cjijitain 
in  1750.  While  in  that  rank  he  commandecl  the 
Ve.tliil  frigate  of  .'W  guns,  in  which  he  t<x)k  fi 
French  frigate  of  eipial  force  after  a  liercely-con- 
tcsted  action.  After  much  other  service  at  sea 
he  W!us  ULade  commissioner  of  Portsmouth  ilock- 
yard  in  1778.  In  1780  he  w;ls  promoted  to  Hag 
rank,  ami  sailed  almost  at  once  in  command  of 
a  si|uailron  to  reinforce  the  North  .American  and 
West  Indian  stations  under  the  orilers  of  Kodney. 
He  remained  in  these  waters  till  jieiice  was  signed  : 
ami,  ius  they  were  the  great  scene  of  the  naval  war, 
he  had  many  opportunities  of  distinguishing  him- 
self. In  April  1781  he  fouglit  an  action  with 
De  Gra.sse  off  the  Diamond  Kock,  and  in  July 
of  the  same  year  —  Koilney  having  gone  <m 
leave  —  was  engaged  umler  Admiral  (iravea  in 
the  hattle  off  the  Chesa^ieake.  In  January  1782 
he   was    hack    in   the   \\  est   Indies,   and   showed 


himself  a  tactician  of  the  most  hrilliant  kind  by 
the  ma.sterly  series  of  nnimcuvres  hy  which  he 
outwitted  I)e  (ira.s.se  in  the  iu-tions  fought  in  the 
Ha-sseterre  Koiuls  oil' the  island  of  St  Kitts.  When 
Kodney  arriveil  to  take  command  «ith  the  re- 
inlorccments  friun  Krigland,  Hooil  hecaiiie  again 
his  si'i'ond  in  command.  In  that  rank  he  hml  a 
iiiiispicuous  share  in  the  winning  of  the  decisive 
vict(M-y  of  the  12th  .Vpril,  commonly  calleil  the 
I  hattle  of  Dominica.  The  hruni  of  the  preliminary 
I  action  of  the  !Uli  fell  on  liis  division.  an<l  <m  the 
12tli  he  led  the  rear  of  the  English  line.  For  his 
services  on  this  occlusion  he  Wius  made  liaron  Hood 
of  Catherington  in  the  Irish  pci'ragi'.  In  1784 
he  stood  jigaiiist  I'ox  for  Westminster,  ami  was 
elected.  He  hecame  a  Lord  of  the  Ailmiralty  in 
1788.  When  the  great  revolutiiuiary  war  hroke 
out  in  1793,  he  was  appointed  to  the  Meiliter- 
ranean.  In  that  position  he  directed  the  occiipa- 
ticm  of  Toulon  and  the  suhseijuent  operations  in 
the  Culf  of  Lvons  and  on  the  coast  of  Corsica. 
He  hauled  <lo\'vn  his  Hag  in  17!l.'i.  in  1700  he 
was  made  \iscount  Hood  in  the  peerage  of  Great 
Kritain.  an<l  he  ilied  at  liath,  27th  June  1810. 
Lord  Hood  hail  the  reputulion  of  lieing  a  con- 
summate tactician.  Nelson,  who  served  umler 
him,  considered  him  the  ablest  of  our  admirals  in 
the  early  years  of  the  war,  and  it  is  said  (hat  a 
plan  he  drew  up  for  an  attack  on  a  I''rencli  Meet 
at  anchor,  which  wius  prevented  by  foul  winds, 
had  some  share  in  inspiring  the  plan  of  attack 
ailopted  in  the  battle  of  the  Nile.  See  A'<(c«/ 
Vliruiiicle,  vol.  ii.  pp.  1-40;  Mundy's  lioiliiey ; 
Nelson's  Letters  uiitl  Dcsputchcs ;  James's  Xaval 
liifitorjf. 

Hood.  Thomas,  jioet  and  humorist,  was  born 
on  the  -IM  of  May  1700,  at  No.  31  the  Poultry,  in 
tlie  City  of  London,  where  his  father  carried  on  the 
business  of  a  publisher  in  partnership  with  a  Mr 
Veriior.  Thomas  Hood  the  elder  wius  a  native  of 
iScotland,  the  son  of  parents  in  humble  circiim- 
stances,  near  Krrol,  on  the  north  hank  of  the  Tay, 
between  Perth  and  Dundee.  Originally  bound 
apprentice  to  a  book.seller  in  Dundee,  he  had  pro- 
ceeded to  Loiiilon,  and  liiially  bcc.imc  member  of 
the  linn  just  mentioned.  He  was  himself  a  man  of 
some  turn  for  authorship,  and  even  wrote  a  cmiiile 
of  novels  now  fi>igotlen,  so  that  his  more  Jis- 
tinguisheil  son  wa-s  born,  as  he  expressed  it,  "  with 
ink  in  his  blood.'  The  elder  Hood  married  the 
sister  of  Mr  Sands,  an  engraver  of  some  reoute, 
from  whom  Thomas  Hood  probably  receiveil  his 
first  impulse  towards  art  and  artistic  associations. 
To  Thomas  Hood,  the  piililisher,  and  liis  wife,  were 
born  a  family  of  si.v  children,  two  sons  and  four 
daughters,  of  whom  Tliomius  was  the  second  son. 
There  was  a  tendency  to  consumption  on  the 
mother's  side,  for  the  malady  was  fatal  to  the  elder 
son  James  and  to  two  of  the  daughters,  and  in  the 
se"|Uel  to  .Mi-s  Hood,  and  w;us  at  the  root  of  tlio.se 
complicated  di.sordei's  which  made  the  life  of 
Thoniiis  Hood  'one  long  diseiuse.'  The  father  con- 
tracted a  chill  while  nursing  his  elder  son,  and  dietl 
after  a  few  days'  illness  in  1811,  when  Thomas  was 
only  twelve  years  old,  leaving  the  widow  and  re- 
maining children  in  reduced  circumstances. 

In  his  Litcntrif  Iieminisectif€.s,  ;\  discursive 
autobiography  written  by  Hood  in  18.'?0,  and  pub- 
lished in  the  first  .series  of  Iliiiurs  Otru,  he  tells  us 
that  he  owed  his  earliest  in.struction  to  two  maiden 
ladies,  of  the  name  of  Ho^'sflesh.  who  had  a  small 
school  in  Token  House  Varil :  that  he  was  then 
sent  to  a  suburb.in  boarding-school  (the  'Clapliam 
Acailemy '  of  his  famous  Ode),  and  ultimately  to  a 
day-school  at  Clerkenwell,  where  his  mother  went 
to  reside  after  her  liusbamls  death.  His  education, 
ordin.arilv  so  chilled,  closed  at  this  point :  and  after 
the  age  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  his  own  keen  and 


HOOD 


767 


catliolic  love  of  rending'  was  tlie  founilalion  of  that 
sinj^nlar  versatility  and  resource  which  marked 
both  his  jioetic  and  his  humorous  vein.  Kor  the 
next  two  years  of  his  life  there  is  some  uncertainty 
as  to  his  pursuits.  According  to  his  own  account, 
he  was  now  ]daced,  through  the  inllucnce  of  a 
frienil  of  the  family,  in  a  merchant's  counting- 
Iwmse  in  the  city,  Imt  his  health  proving  unalile  to 
stand  the  conlinement  to  the  desk,  he  was  shi]iped 
oil'  to  Dundee,  where  relation.s  of  his  father  were 
living,  among  whom  he  resided  for  some  three 
years,  from  IS).")  to  I.SIS. 

These  three  yeai-s  were  important  in  Hood's  life. 
The  threatened  consuiription  was  for  a  time  warded 
off — the  boy  led  the  healthiest  of  outdoor  lives  in 
llshiiig  and  boating — he  had  .ample  leisure  besides 
both  for  reading  and  sketching,  and  he  began  to 
jiiactise  his  (len  both  in  verse  and  prose  in  the  pages 
of  local  newspajiers  and  magazines.  In  1818  he 
retuineil  to  London  with  his  health  ap]iarently  re- 
established, and  entereil  the  studio  of  his  uncle,  the 
engraver.  After  a  short  ■apprenticeshi]!  of  only  two 
years  he  began  to  work  on  bis  own  account,  until, 
the  literary  instinct  beginning  to  wax  far  stronger 
than  the  grajduc,  he  seems  to  have  discovered  where 
lay  till"  true  lield  for  his  genius.  About  the  same 
time  the  I.iiiiilnii  3/i'i/ii:iiii\  losing  its  e<litor,  .lohn 
Scotl,  and  passing  into  the  hands  of  Taylor  and 
Hessey,  Thomas  Hood,  then  a  young  man  of  two- 
and-twenty,  was  appointed  sub-editor. 

Nothing  more  propitious  for  Hood's  genius  could 
have  happened.  It  emancipated  him  for  ever  from 
the  engraver's  desk,  the  drudgery  and  constraint 
of  which  were  seriously  affecting  his  health,  and  it 
threw  him  at  once  into  a  society  of  writers  best 
lilted  to  call  forth  all  that  was  best  in  him.  He 
now  found  himself  in  daily  companionship  with 
such  men  as  Procter,  Gary,  Allan  Cunningham,  De 
l.biincey,  Hazlitt,  and,  above  all,  with  Charles  Lamb, 
with  whom  ,a  close  friendship  sprung  up,  destined 
to  be  one  of  the  best  inlluences  of  Ht)od's  literary 
life.  It  was,  however,  the  intimacy  with  John 
Hamilton  Iteynolds,  whose  sister  he  married  three 
years  later,  that  more  than  all  the  rest  served  to 
encourage  and  train  Hood's  poetic  faculty.  John 
Keats  had  died  early  in  1821,  the  year  that  Hood 
joined  the  magazine,  and  it  does  not  appear  that 
they  ever  met;  but  iteynolds  hail  been  the  clo.se 
fiicml  and  disciple  of  Keats,  and  Hood  jiassed  at 
once  uiiilcr  the  same  fascinating  inlluence.  I?e- 
tween  July  1S21  and  July  1823,  besides  other  and 
lighti'r  contributions  to  tht;  London,  Hood  wrote 
and  jiublished  in  the  magazine  some  of  the  finest 
of  wiiat  may  be  called  the  poems  of  his  Keatsian 
period — Li/ciis  tlic  Centaur,  the  Tit'o  Peacocks  of 
llidfont,  the  Oilc  to  Autumn,  and  others — poems 
which  have  never  materially  increased  Hood's 
fame  with  the  ordinary  reader,  chielly  because 
Hooil  the  huminist  a|)iieals  to  a  larger  audience 
than  Hood  the  poet,  and  the  world  is  always  in- 
disposed to  allow  credit  to  a  writer  for  gifts  of  very 
opposite  kinds.  .\nd  although  in  the  class  of  sub- 
jects, and  in  the-  very  titles  of  these  poems,  as  well 
as  in  turns  of  phrase  and  vcrsilicalion.  the  inlluence 
of  Keats  is  unmistakable,  the  poems  show  i|uite 
as  markedly  the  result  of  an  e.ir  ami  taste  forme<l 
upon  a  loving  study  of  the  narrative  poems  of 
Sliakespeare.  And  '  over  all  there  hung  '  a  tender 
melancholy  observable  in  all  Hood's  serious  vei"se, 
engenilered  in  a  personality  on  which  from  the 
beginning  there  rested  the  shadow  of  impending 
fate.  In  spite  of  real  and  original  poetic  i|Uality, 
these  i)oenis,  issueil  anonymously,  failed  to  attract 
notice,  and  when  in  1827  he  produced  them  with 
others  of  still  liner  quality  in  book-form,  the 
\()lume  fell  .all  but  de.ad  from  the  pres.s. 

A  diirerent  fate  attended  an  earlier  venture  in 
1S25,  when  Hood  .and  his  brother-in-law  Kevnolds 


published  (also  anonymously)  the  little  volume 
entitled  Odes  and  Addresses  to  Great  People. 
While  writing  serious  poetry  in  the  London  it  had 
fallen  to  Hood's  lot  to  act  a.s  '  comic  man '  or 
humoious  chorus  to  the  magazine,  and  its  such  to 
invent  facetious  answers  to  correspondents,  real  or 
imaginary.  Among  these  he  had  inserted  a  bur- 
lesque Vde  to  Dr  Kitelicncr,  exhibiting  a  verbal 
wit  of  quite  dillerent  llavour  from  the  ordinary. 
The  success  of  this  trille  seems  to  have  »ug''ested  a 
collection  of  similar  odes,  to  which  Keyn<)ld.s  con- 
triliuted  a  few.  But  Hood's  w,a.s  far  the  infue 
conspicuous  share,  revealing  a  wealth  of  humorous 
ingenuity  that  at  once  attracted  notice.  t'oleridL;e 
wrote,  attributing  the  book  to  Lamb,  as  the  only 
writer  he  knew  eap.able  of  the  achievement.  The 
book  |)assed  r.apidly  through  three  editions,  and 
pr.actically  determined  the  chief  occupation  of  Hood 
tor  the  remainder  of  his  short  life.  His  musical 
melancholy  verse  had  brought  him  no  recognition. 
His  lirst  facetious  etl'orts  had  gained  him  an  audi- 
ence at  once.  From  that  day  forth  the  vein  thus 
opened  w.as  to  be  worked,  in  health  and  in  sick- 
ness, with  the  grain  and  against  the  grain,  for 
twenty  years  of  anxiety  .and  struggle. 

For  Hood  hail  married  in  1824  contrary,  it  is  to  be 
feared,  to  all  counsels  of  jirndence.  The  marri.age 
was  one  of  truest  .affection,  but  it  could  hardly 
h.ave  been  acce])table  to  Mrs  Hood's  f.amily,  for 
Hood  had  no  means  of  sui)i)ort  but  his  pen,  and  his 
health  was  already  matter  of  serious  an.xietv.  The 
m.arriage  soon  ]iroduceil  strained  relations  with  the 
Keynoldse.s,  and  in  the  eml  a  complete  estrange- 
ment from  Hood's  early  friend  and  brother-in-law. 
The  Odes  and  Addresses  Mere  followed  in  1826 
by  the  lirst  series  of  Whims  end  Oddities,  where 
Hood  lirst  exhibited  such  graphic  talent  as  he 
])ossessed  (  he  said  of  him.self  that,  like  Pope's  '  t.ape- 
tied  curtains,'  he  was  'never  meant  to  draw')  in 
t\\ese  pietiire-ijuns  oi  \\\\k\\  he  seems  to  have  been 
the  inventor.  A  second  series  of  Whims  and 
Oddities  ap])eared  in  1827.  dedicated  to  Sir  \V .alter 
Scott,  followed  without  delay  liy  two  volumes  of 
Satioual  Tales,  the  le.ast  characteristic  and  notice- 
able of  Hood's  writings.  In  1829  he  edited  The 
Gem,  one  of  the  many  fashionable  annuals  then  in 
vogue — a  remarkable  little  volume,  for  be.siiles 
Charles  Lamb's  '  Lines  on  a  Child  dying  as  .soon  as 
born,'  written  on  the  death  of  Hood's  lirst  child,  it 
gave  to  the  world  HooiWi  Kiii/cne  Aram,  the  lirst 
of  his  poems  show  ing  a  tragic  force  of  real  indi\  iilii- 
ality. 

Hood  and  his  wife,  who  i)assed  the  first  years  of 
their  married  life  in  Robert  Street,  Adelphi,  left 
London  in  1829  for  a  cottage  at  \Vinchmore  Hill,  a 
few  miles  north  of  the  metropolis,  where  he  schemed 
the  tir.st  of  those  comic  animals  which  he  produced 
yearly  and  singlehaiuled  from  1830  to  1839.  In 
18:i2  he  left  Winchmore  Hill  for  an  old-fashioned 
lioH.se  at  AVanste.ad,  in  Essex,  forming  jiart  of  the 
old  historic  mansion.  W.aiistcad  House,  where  the 
romantic  scenery  of  the  park  and  neighbourhoml 
furnished  him  with  a  background  for  his  one 
novel,  Ti/lneii  Hall,  written  duiing  the  next  two 
vears,  and  published  in  three  volumes  in  1.S.34 — a 
story  of  a  conventiomil  melodramatic  type,  with 
<an  underplot  of  cockney  life  and  manners,  not 
without  many  touches  of  Hood's  peculiar  charm, 
but  on  the  whole  a  failure.  He  never  repeated 
the  experiment  of  prose  ronumce. 

In  1834  the  failure  of  ;i  publisher  plunged  Hood 
into  serious  money  difficulties  by  which  he  was 
lianipercd  for  the  rest  of  his  lite.  .Vfter  the  birth 
of  bis  second  child,  a  son.  in  .laiiuary  )83,'>,  and  the 
dangerous  illness  of  Mi's  Hood  whieli  followed,  the 
family  went  abroad  and  settled  fiu-  two  years  at 
Coblenz  on  the  Hhiue.  and  for  the  next  three 
vears  at  Ostenil.     During  these  five  vears  HtMxi, 


768 


HOOD 


HOOGHl.Y 


8tnit,'j;liiit;  ii^iiiiiKt  the  slow  piofjiu.-s  of  u.  filial 
iliseiiwe,  ciintiiiucil  to  proiliice  Iiik  Coiiiif  Annuals 
anil  other  li;;hter  matter,  and  schemed  his  Vp  the 
J{/iiiu\  a  limiioroiis  aeeoiiiit  of  tlie  [iroceediii^.'s  of 
an  Kiijilish  family  in  (Jerniany,  told  in  lettei's,  unil 
too  oh\noiisly  imilateil  from  Jlnni/i/irti/  Cliii/.ir. 
This,  when  iiiiMishi-d  in  IMS'.l,  al  once  hit  the  |pnlplic- 
taste,  Imt  seems  In  have  l)ron;.'lit  litlU'  iirolit  to  ils 
authin-,  who.  .ipii.irently  ilestitnte  of  all  hnsiness 
faculty,  sniiereil  thronj;hont  his  career  from  the 
misfortunes  or  the  superior  sa-^acity  of  liis  ]>iih- 
lUliers.  The  siitlerin-.'s  of  Hood  during  these  live 
years  were  very  terrihie.  and  are  otdy  hinted  liy 
lii.s  son  anil  ilan;;hter  in  their  memoir  of  their 
father.  In  an  nn|iMlili>hed  letter  to  his  wife  in 
April  IS4(),  written  during  a  teniporary  visit  to 
England  from  the  house  of  his  j;enerous  friend,  the 
lirst  Charles  Wentwortli  Dilke,  he  writes  :  '  I  (ind 
my  position  a  very  cruel  cme  -after  all  my  stni;;i,'les 
to  he,  as  I  am,  almost  moneyless,  and  with  a  very 
dim  prospect  of  j;ellinK  any,  hut  l>,v  the  sheer 
exercise  of  my  pen.  What  is  to  he  ihme  in  the 
meantime  is  a  ijuestion  I  ask  myself  without  any 
answer  hut — Bruges  jail.  .\t  the  very  moment  of 
being  free  of  Bailey,  am  I  tied  elsewhere,  hand  and 
foot,  ami  hv  sheer  necessity  ready  to  surrender 
myself  that  slave,  a  hookseller's  hack  1 ' 

By  the  kinilness  of  friends  Hood  w.os  enahleil  to 
return  to  Kn;;land,  with  security  from  his  credit<Ms, 
in  1.S40.  Diseiuse  of  lungs  and  heart  was  now  so 
far  advanceil  that  the  fatal  issue  was  only  a  ipies- 
tion  of  time,  lint  he  continued  to  struggle  on 
hravely  and  cheerfully  for  live  veal's  longer.  In 
1841  he  was  oti'ered  hy  Colhurn  the  editoi-sliip  of 
the  Xeir  Moiitlihi  Mnrimhir  at  a  salary  of  £3(X)  a 
year,  a  post  which  he  (illed  for  two  years,  when,  a 
ditVerence  arising  with  the  proprietor,  he  resigned  the 
editorship,    and    in    .laiiuary    1S44   started    a    new 

Seriodical  of  his  own,  /[(/di/'.i  Muiil/i/i/  .Miif/ii:i)n\ 
estineil  to  lie  his  la.st  literary  venture.  Meantime 
in  the  Chri-stnias  nuniher  of  Puni-li  (1S4.3)  had 
appeared  the  'Song  of  the  Shirt;'  and  in  Howrx 
Mdfjazine.  during  its  brief  career,  there  followed 
the  '  Haunted  House,'  the  '  Lay  of  the  LalKmrer,' 
and  the  '  Bridge  of  Sighs,'  proving  that,  a-s  the  dark- 
ness of  his  own  prospects  deepeneil,  the  symjiathies 
with  his  kind  deepened  also,  and  (piickened  bis 
finest  genius.  Only  a  few  months  after  the  starting 
of  the  magazine  a  notice  to  the  sub.scrihers  had  t4i 
tell  that  tlie  health  of  the  editor  was  raiiiilly  failing. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  year  his  friends  use<l  their 
interest  with  the  government  of  the  day.  and  in 
November   Sir    Robert    I'eel    wrote    announcing   .a 

fension  to  Mrs  Hood  on  the  civil  list  of  fltK)  a  .year, 
n  the  number  of  the  magazine  f<u-  Kebruary  1845 
appeared  Hood's  l.-vst  contribution,  the  touching 
lines,  prophetic  of  bis  approaching  enil,  beginning  : 


Farewell  life — my  senses  swim, 
Anrl  the  world  is  growing  dim, 


and  ending  : 

O'er  the  earth  there  comes  a  bloom. 
Sunny  li^ht  for  sullen  gloom. 
Warm  pi-rfume  for  vapours  cold  — 
I  smell  the  rose  ab"ive  the  mould  \ 

After  three  more  months  of  increasing  jiain  and 
distress,  Thoma-s  Hood  clied  at  Devonshire  Lodge, 
Fincbley  Koail,  on  the  3d  of  May  1845.  He  was 
buried  in  Kensal  fireen  Cemetery.  His  devoted 
wife,  broken  in  health  with  the  h)ng  attendance  on 
her  husband,  surviveil  him  only  eighteen  niimths. 

Hood  ])n«luceil  in  twenty-four  years  an  amount 
of  ])rose  anil  vei-se  of  which  at  least  one  half  the 
world  might  willingly  let  die.  Of  the  other  half, 
all  the  serious  poetry  is  remarkable,  and  a  small 
portion  of  first-rate  e.xcellence.  Lyrics  such  a-s  the 
'  Song  of  the  Shirt,'  the  '  Bridge  of  Sighs,  '  Eugene 
Aram,*  the  song  beginning  'I  remember,  I  reniem- 


U'r,  the  hiiii^e  where  I  wa>  born,  and  the  "iMe  to 
.Melancholy'  are  of  an  assured  immortality.  His 
liiimoroiis  vei-se— and  in  the  Ik'sI  of  it,  as  in  'Miius 
Kilmaiiscgg,' are  often  blended  poetry,  jiathos,  and 
even  real  tragic  jiower  -is  of  a  kind  that  HoimI 
absolutely  created.  Not  <uily  was  he  the  most 
pridilic  and  successful  punster  that  ever  used  that 
lorm  of  wil.  bul  he  liiriu'd  it  to  pui|>oses  of  which 
no  one  had  ever  supposed  il  c:i|iable.  It  liccame  in 
his  hands  the  most  naliiral  and  <d>vious  vehicle  for 
all  his  better  gifts.  The  trnlh  is,  he  brought  to  it 
the  traiisliguring  power  of  real  imagination,  and, 
instead  of  its  degiiuling  whatever  oliject  it  touched, 
in  his  hands  it  minislered  to  the  noblest  ends. 
V.\fU  in  the  'Song  of  the  Shirt,  when  his  deepest 
sym|iathies  were  invohed,  he  uses  the  pun  with 
almost  magical  eliect,  its  where  the  jMMir  needle- 
woman, eonlined  to  her  sipialid  garret  wlien  all 
nature  is  lieckoning  her  forth,  exclaims: 

And  niidiTneath  my  t-iives 
I  The  brooiliii;;  swallows  cliliK, 

As  if  lo  show  me  their  sunny  backs, 
!  And  iH-it  me  with  the  spriliK  ! 

It  w.is  Hood's  misfortune  tl-.at  the  necessity  of 
writing  f<u"  bread  compelled  him  to  write  con- 
stantly below  his  Ipetter  genius.  But  he  has  left 
siilbcient  to  found  a  durable  fame  as  a  writer  of 
rare  individuality,  who.  using  a  discrediled  method, 
made  it  delightful  by  ibc  imagination  of  a  true 
poet  and   the  liumanitv  of  a  genuine  lover  of  his 

'  kind. 

The  best  account  of  Hood's  early  life  is  to  I>c  found  in 
his  Litrrari/  JUininisccin-rf.  publislied  in  the  first  series  of 

'  Homl'ii  Own.  The  Memoir  by  his  son  anil  ilnus;hter  is  the 
chief  source  of  information  about  liis  lat^-r  life,  but  is  a 
poor  and  unsatisfactory  book.  Lat<r,  in  ISti.'i.  .Mr  .;Uex- 
auiier  ICUiot,  in  a  modest  work  entitled  I/uu>l  in  Sfiitiaiiil, 
has  collected  from  persons  and  documents  previously  un- 
consultcd  some  very  interesting  details  of  Hood's  early 
residence  in  Dundee,  and  of  a  sucoiul  visit  of  a  few 
weeks  paid  by  hun  to  that  city  not  long  before  his 
death. 

Ilowfs.  The  healthy  soundness  of  the  horse's 
fool  is  niaiidy  preserved  by  pemiittinjt  it  to 
■'low  uninjured  by  the  rasp  and  knife  (see 
Hoii.sE-sii()KlN<;),  a"d  kept  clean  by  being  wa.shed 
witli  cold  water;  all  other  jvpidicatiinis  arc  in- 
jurious  and   destroy   the   toughness   of   the    'horn 

I  surface."  Softness  and  brittleness  <if  the  hoof, 
which  are  fruitful  sources  of  cracks  and  Corns 
(ipv.),  m.ay  lie 
for  several  hours 
kept  cool  and  moist  by  freipieiit  ajiplications  of 
cold  water,  and  by  encouraging  a  more  he.tlthy 
growth  of  horn  by  occasional  mild  blisters  round 
the  corollary  band.  Cracks,  or  sand-cracks,  as 
tliey  are  termed,  mostly  occur  amongst  horses  much 
upiin  the  road,  cau.se  lameness,  and  constitute  un- 
soundness. When  serious  and  recent,  poulticing, 
thinning  away  of  the  crust  about  the  crack,  and 
perfect  rest  are  essential.  After  tlie  earlier  heat 
and  tenderness  are  removed  a  hot  iron  slioiild  be 
drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  crack,  both  above 
and  below,  .so  a-s  to  separate  the  diseased  from  the 
sound  horn.  Waxed  thread  or  line  wire  should  be 
wound  round  the  hoof,  and  a  .sound  growth  of  horn 
stimulated  by  a  blister  round  the  corimet.  The 
hoi-se's  hoofs"  are  too  hard  and  coai-se  to  be  em- 
ployed for  the  making  of  the  better  class  of  combs 
ami  buttons,  for  which  purpose  the  hoofs  of  cattle, 
to  the  value  of  nearly  f.")0(K»,  aro-aiinu.ally  imported 
into  Britain.  They' are,  however,  largely  used  by 
manufactiirei-s  of  prussiate  of  pota.sli  and  artificial 
manures.     See  KooT. 

Iloosllly,  or  HCci-f,  a  river  of  Bengal  Proper, 
the  most  westerly  of  the  channels  by  which  the 
Ganges  reaches  the  sea,  and  commercially  the  most 
important.     Taking  its  distinctive  name  near  the 


'    remedied    by    placing     the    feet 
IS   dailv   in    tiiick    woollen   swabs. 


HOOGHLY 


HOOKAH 


769 


town  of  Saiitipur,  it  has  a  soutlierly  course  of  04 
miles  to  Calcutta,  and  a  further  course  of  81  miles 
in  the  same  direction  to  the  Hay  of  Bengal.  ISeing 
a  deltaic  river,  the  Ilooghly  is  much  subject  to 
being  silted  up,  and  is  only  kept  open  to  naviga- 
tion by  the  vigil.ant  exertions  of  a  special  staff  of 
river  engineers.  Even  with  all  tlieir  care  the 
stream  is  fre(iuently  dangerous,  owing  to  shifting 
quicksands  and  moving  banks  and  channels.  In 
si)ite  of  these  ilrawbacks  vessels  drawing  26  feet 
of  water  are  safely  taken  up  to  Calcutta  by  the 
Calcutta  pilots.  At  its  mouth  the  Hooghly  has  a 
width  of  1.5  miles.  The  Bore  (q.v.)  of  the  river 
freipicntly  attains  a  height  of  7  vertical  feet.  See 
map  at  Calcltt.^. 

Hooghly  (Hurili),  a  city  of  Bengal  Proper, 
capital  of  a  district,  stands  on  the  right  or  western 
bank  of  the  river  Hooghly,  25  miles  bv  rail  north 
of  Calcutta.  Pop.  (1891)  of  Hooghly 'with  Chin- 
sura,  ininicdiately  to  the  south,  33,OU0,  uuistly 
Hindus.  Here  is  a  college  for  English  and  Asiatic 
literature,  founded  by  a  Hindu. 

Hook.    See  Fl.sH-HODK.     For  theHoOK(HoEK) 

OF  HllLL.VNU,  see  PiOTTKKD.VJI. 

Hook.  James  Clarke,  painter,  wa.s  bom  in 
Lonihm  on  21st  November  1819,  his  mother  being 
a  daughter  of  Adam  Clarke,  the  Biblical  com- 
mentator. He  entered  as  a  student  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1836,  gained  the  first  medals  in  the 
Life  and  Painting  Schools  in  1842,  and  in  1845  was 
awarded  the  travelling  studentship  of  the  Koyal 
Academy  for  '  Kizpah  watching  the  Bodies  of  the 
Sons  of  Saul.'  He  returned  home  after  a  stay 
of  eighteen  months  in  Italy,  and  for  some  time 
jiainted  .scenes  from  Italian  history  and  literature, 
mostly  connected  with  Venice,  together  with  some 
few  suggested  by  Shakespeare's  plays  and  the 
Bible.  Jlost  of  these  were  romantic  in  feeling, 
dramatic  in  treatment,  and  brilliant  in  colouring. 
In  18.50  Hook  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the 
Koyal  Academy,  and  ten  years  later  full  Acade- 
mician. In  the  meantime  he  had  begun  to  work 
at  subjects  connected  with  the  lives  of  the  peoj)le, 
more  especially  pieces  illustrating  seafaring  life. 
His  powers  in  this  line  of  study,  liis  most  charac- 
teristic and  his  best,  are  illustrated  by  the 
'Widow's  Son  going  to  Sea,'  'Ship-boy's  I^etter,' 
'  Coast-boy  gathering  Eggs,'  '  Lull",  Boy,'  '  Carting 
for  Farmer  Pengelly,'  '  I'ickling  Trout,'  'A  Mer- 
maid,' amongst  many  others.  Jlr  Hook  is  also  a 
skilful  etcher.    See  the  Art  Journal  Aitnitul  of  1888. 

Hook,  TiiKODoi'.E  Edward,  prince  of  jack- 
piuldings,  wa.s  born  in  London,  22d  September 
1788,  second  son  of  the  Vauxhall  composer,  James 
Hook  (1746-1827),  by  his  first  wife,  the  beautiful 
Miss  Madden,  who  died  in  18U2.  His  elder  brother, 
Dr  James  Hook  ( 1771-18'28),  became  in  1802 
chaplain  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  in  18'25  Dean 
of  AX'orcester,  and  was  himself  the  author  of  a 
couple  of  novels.  Theodore's  education  was  almost 
limited  to  a  year  at  Harrow  and  matriculation 
at  Oxford ;  but  while  yet  a  minor  he  achieved 
celebrity  as  the  author  of  thirteen  successful  comic 
operas  and  melodramas  (1805-11),  as  a  punster 
and  matchless  improi'ixutorc,  and  as  a  practical 
joker — his  greatest  performance  the  Berners  Street 
Hoax  (1809),  which  took  in  the  Lord  Mayor,  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  and  hundreds,  thousands  of 
humbler  victims.  SiU'li  talents  claimed  recogni- 
tion, and  in  time  the  'little  pet  lion  of  the  green- 
room '  gained  the  cntrrr  of  vcrv  high  .society.  The 
Prince  Regent  himself  remarlied  that '.something 
must  be  done  for  Hook;'  and  in  1812  that  some- 
thing was  found  in  the  post,  worth  .£'2000  a  year, 
of  treasurer  to  the  Mauritius.  There  Hook  fared 
gloriously,  until  in  1818  a  grave  deficiency  wa.s 
detected  in  the  public  chest ;  lie  was  arrested  and 
257 


sent,  almost 'penniless,  to  England.  An  acquaint- 
ance, meeting  him  at  St  Helena,  said,  '1  hope 
you  are  not  going  home  for  your  health.'  '  Why,' 
answered  Hook,  '  I  am  sorry  to  say  they  do  think 
there's  .something  wrong  in  the  chest.'  Himself 
he  a.scribed  the  'unfortunate  defalcation'  to  a 
black  clerk,  who  had  conunitled  suicide  ;  anyhow, 
though  criminal  proceedings  were  dropried,  in  1823 
he  «as  pronounced  a  crown  debtor  lor  £12,000, 
and  was  again  sold  up  and  arrested.  In  1825  he 
was  released  from  the  King's  Bench,  but  not  from 
the  debt ;  however,  he  made  no  effort  to  discharge 
it.  Meanwhile,  in  18'20,  he  had  started  the  Tory 
John  Bull,  whose  chief  aim  was  to  vilify  Queen 
Caroline,  and  which  in  its  palmy  days  brought  him 
fully  £'2000  per  annum.  Satjiiiq.i  and  Doings  (9 
vols.  18'24-28)  yielded  other  i40()0,  and  nine  more 
three-volume  novels  followed  between  1830  and 
m.VJ— Maxwell,  the  halfautoliiographical  Gilbert 
Oiiriici/,  Jack  Brarj,  &c. — four  of  them  first  appear- 
ing in  the  Sew  Monthhj  Maijazine,  of  which  Hook 
was  editor  from  18.36.  So  he  lived  for  a  time  in 
great  style ;  and  even  after  debt  ilrove  him  from 
St  James's  (1831)  he  still  dined,  diced,  cirank,  and 
made  sport  in  clulis  and  titled  houses,  whilst  the 
woman  he  had  betrayed,  the  mother  of  his  five 
children,  was  left  to  the  loneliness  of  the  cottage 
at  Fulham.  Shakespeare  ha.s  nothing  more  pitiful 
than  Hook's  words  to  the  friend  who  had  caught 
him  in  deshabille  :  '  AVell,  you  see  me  ii-s  I  am  at 
last — all  the  bucklings,  and  paddings,  and  wash- 
ings, and  brushings  dropped  tor  ever — a  poor  old 
gray-hairetl  man,  with  my  belly  about  my  knees.' 
He  was  only  fifty-two  then,  and  a  week  or  two 
later  he  died,  '24th  August  1841.  He  is  buried  in 
Fulham  churchyard. 

See  his  Life  and  Remains,  by  the  Rev.  R.  H.  Dalton 
Barliam  (2  vols.  1849),  and  Ixickbart's  C«ar(er?i/ article 
(May  1843  ;  reprinted  18.51). 

Hook,  Walter  FARQi'tiAR,  ecclesiiustical  his- 
torian, was  born  in  London  in  1798,  son  of  Dr 
James  Hook,  afterwards  Dean  of  Worcester.  He 
wa-s  educated  at  Winchester  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  took  orders  in  1821,  and,  alter  holding 
some  minor  preferments,  wa.s  appointed  vicar  of 
Leeds  in  1837.  Here,  mainly  by  his  energy  and 
enthusiasm,  no  fewer  than  twenty-one  new 
churches  were  built  in  Leeds,  as  well  as  twenty- 
three  parsonages  and  twenty-seven  schools,  while 
the  parish  church  was  rebuilt  at  a  cost  of  £28,000. 
In  1850  Hook  was  made  Dean  of  Chichester  by 
Lord  Derby.  His  leanings  towards  Tractarian- 
ism  brought  him  no  little  unpopularity ;  but 
throughout  life  he  maint.iined  a  liigh  ideal  of 
devoted  churchmanship.  He  died  '20th  ()ctober 
1875.  A  memorial  church  at  Leeds,  which  cost 
£'25,000,  and  ^\■as  designed  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott,  was 
consecrated  in  1880. 

Dean  Hook's  works  arc  An  Ecclesiastical  Biography, 
containintj  the  Lives  of  Ancient  Fathers  and  Modern 
Divines  (8  vols.  1845-52) ;  A  Church  Dictionary  (8th  ed. 
1859)  ;  The  Cross  of  Christ  (1873);  The  Church  and  it» 
Ordinances  (4  vols.  1876);  and  Archbishojis  of  Canter- 
bury (12  vols.  1860-76).  See  his  Life  and  Letters,  by 
Dean  Stephens  ( 2  vols.  1878 ;  new  ed.  1S'J6 ). 

llookall  (from  Arabic  huqqa,  through  the 
Hindustani ;  the  Persian  lali/un  :  also  called 
Xargilch,  from  Persian  iiririjil),  the  water  tobacco- 
pipe  of  -Vrabs,  Turks,  Persians,  Hindus,  anil  other 
orientals.  It  consists  of  a  bowl  inr  the  tobacco, 
a  water-bottle,  and  a  long  flexible  tube  ending 
in  the  mouth])iece.  A  wooden  tulie  leads  from 
the  bottom  of  the  head  or  bowl  down  into  the 
water  in  the  bottle,  and  the  flexible  tube  is  con- 
tinued ilownwards  by  a  stiff"  tube  into  the  space 
above  the  water  in  the  bottle.  Thus  the  smoke  is 
cooled  before  it  reaches  the  mouth  of  the  smoker, 
'lany  of  these  pipes  are  beautifully  decorated,  or 


r70 


HOOKE 


HOOKER 


even  enonisUMl  witli  yems.  The  /iiihlile-biibhlr  of 
Iinliii  ( iiiiiiu'il  Iroiii  till,' sound  iiniilui'ed)  is  a  similar 
but  sini|ilt'r  water  |ii|ii'.  nnule  of  a  c(MM>a-iinl  lilleil 
with  walei,  luiil  two  short  wooih'n  tiilx's  at  ri<;hl 
angles,  one  ;,'oin;,'  into  the  water,  the  other  merely 
pa.«siMj;  inside  the  t(>]i  of  the  shell. 

Ilookt',  HoiiKliT,  an  En^dish  natural  |ihili> 
soplier,  horn  at  I'reshwater,  Isle  of  \\ij,dit,  .hily 
18.  Itiri.'i,  and  eiliieated  under  Hushy  at  West- 
Miinster,  aiul  .-it  Christ  Chunh,  OxI'okI.  lie  en- 
joyed tlie  i)atrona^e  of  the  Hon.  Itidjert  IJoyle, 
and  hel|ie(l  him  to  construct  his  air  ]iump.  In 
I6t>2  he  was  a|)|>ointed  curator  of  ex|ieriments  to 
the  Koyal  Society,  and  in  l(i77  became  its  secre- 
tary ;  in  1(56.)  professor  of  tSeonietry  in  Oresham 
College,  IvondoM  ;  ami  after  the  ^'reat  lire  of  KiOG 
he  .icted  a.s  survey(U'  during'  the  works,  and  thus 
••vecumulateil  several  thousand  jiounds,  which  be 
hid  .away  in  an  old  iron  chest.  lie  died  at  (iresham 
t'ollege,  March  ."{,  1703.  Ilooke  wius  a  man  of 
extraordinary  inventive  jjenius,  and  h.os  justly 
I>een  considered  as  the  ^'reatest  of  philosophical 
nieclianics ;  the  wonderful  sa^'acity,  n.iy,  almost 
intuition,  he  showed  in  deducing  correct  {{eneral 
laws  from  iiiea;;re  i)reniises  li.as  never  before  or 
since  been  ei|Uallcd.  There  was  no  important  in- 
vention by  any  j>hilosopher  of  that  time  which  was 
not  in  part  anticipated  by  HooUe.  His  theory  of 
"ravilation  subsei|uently  formed  part  of  Newton's; 
he  anticipated  the  invention  of  the  stcam-enj;ine, 
and  the  discovery  of  the  laws  of  the  constrained 
motions  of  planets.  Amonj;  his  own  completed 
discoveries  are  the  law  of  the  extension  and  com- 
prc.s.sion  of  chistic  bodies,  '  iil  tcii.iiit  sic  ris;'  the 
simplest  theory  of  the  arch  ;  the  balance  siiring  of 
watches  and  the  anchor-escapement  clocks ;  the 
permanency  of  the  temperature  of  boiling  water, 
rile  quailn.nt,  telescope,  and  microscope  arc  also 
materially  indebted  toliim.  Crooked  in  his  person, 
he  w.os  upright  in  char.actcr,  althoui;li  siditary  and 
penurious  in  his  habits.  His  controversies  with 
Hiivjieiis.  Hevelitis,  and  others  brought  him  but 
little  credit. 

Ilooki'r.  MovXT,  a  peak  in  the  Canadian 
Rockies,  l."i,(>90  feet  high,  situated  on  the  east 
bouj]ihuy  of  lirilish  Columbia. 

Ilookt'r,  dosKl'ii,  an  American  general,  wa.s 
Ixnii  at  Hadley,  Massachusetts,  l.Stli  November 
1814,  grailuatcd  at  West  Point  in  1S.S7,  and  served 
with  distinction  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  gaining 
the  brevets  of  captain,  major,  and  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  his  captain's  commission.  In  IS.Vi  he 
retired  from  the  army,  and  bought  a  farm  in  Cali- 
fornia; but  in  ISIil  he  ottered  his  services  to  the 
Union  government,  and  was  at  once  appointed  a 
brigadier-geueral  of  volunteers,  ami  major-general 
in  IHti'J.  He  commanded  a  <livision  of  the  3d  corns 
in  the  IVniiisiilar  cami>aigii,  ami  won  for  himself, 
by  his  coolness  ami  gallantry,  the  nickname  of 
'Fighting  .loe.'  In  the  battles  of  .lime  I.S(i2, 
during  the  famous  '  change  of  base,  his  division 
rendered  important  services ;  and  it  was  his  defeat 
of  Kwell  (.Viignst  27)  that  comiielled  the  enemy  to 
evacuate  Manassas.  Advanceil  to  the  command  of 
the  1st  corps,  he  gallantly  carried  the  [losition  on 
the  right  of  the  gap  at  South  .Mountain  ;  and  he 
opened  the  battle  at  Aiitietam,  where  he  wivs 
wounded,  ami  won  his  |iromotion  to  the  grade  of 
brigadier  general  in  the  regular  army.  He  com- 
manded the  centre  grand  clivision  in  Biiniside  s 
unsuccessful  att.ack  on  Fredericksburg  in  December 
1862:  and  in  .laniiarv  1863  he  sncci'cded  him  in 
the  commaml  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  With 
this  force  (about  120. (Kill  men)  be  w.n.~  conlident  of 
etfecting  Lees  <Ieslruction  ;  and  about  the  end  of 
Ajiiil,  throwing  a  detachment  of  30,(ttt0  men 
across  the  Rappahannock  below  Fredericksburg,  he 


crossed  at  the  fords  above  with  his  main  body,  and 
marched  through  the  Wilderness  to  near  Clmn- 
cellorsville,  where  he  awaited  Lees  attack.  'J'he 
Confederate  troops  numbered  barely  r>(l,()(K(,  but 
the  greater  jiart  ol  this  force,  iimlcr  .lackson  (<^.v.), 
turned  the  National  tiank,  and.  attacking  the  rear 
on  .May  2.  threw  part  of  Hookers  army  into  con- 
fusion. (In  till'  following  ilay  an  impetuous  attack 
by  the  whole  Confederate  line  drove  Hooker  from 
the  lield,  and  he  withdrew  to  the  north  side  of  the 
ri\er.  This  defeat  and  retreat  were  regarded  at 
hcadcpiartei's  as  inexcusable  ;  and,  in  spite  of  his 
skilful  management  of  his  army  when  Lee  invaded 
Pennsylvania,  he  was  sii]>ei-seded  by  Mc.ade  before 
the  eml  of  .June.  In  November,  with  the  20lli 
corps,  he  gallantly  carried  Loid;out  Mountain,  and 
took  part  in  the  at laik  on  Missionary  l!id;;e.  He 
aci'ompiinied  Sherman  in  his  invasion  of  (ieiugia, 
and  served  till  the  fall  of  Atlanta.  He  was 
brevetted  major-general  in  the  regular  army  in 
-March  1865,  and  in  1868,  having  become  inca)>aci- 
latcd  by  paralysis,  retiicil  with  the  full  rank  of 
major-general.  He  died  31st  October  187il.  I'n- 
fortunate  in  his  one  separate  command.  Hooker 
still  retained  too  much  self-esteem  to  be  altogether 
a  inoilel  lieutenant;  yet  this  failing  has  been 
nearly  forgotten  in  the  memory  of  his  personal 
bravery,  his  skill  a.s  an  organiser,  and  his  un- 
doubtedlv  important  services. 


llook4'r,  Sii! 
Sm  \\  ii.i.iAM. 


.lo.sEI'H.      See   II mill     HimiKER, 


ll4M»kor,  l!i(ii.\ni),  the  greatest  of  Fnglish 
]ihiloMiiiliical  theologians,  wius  born  in  or  near  the 
city  of  Exeter  about  the  end  of  March  l.'i,")4.  At 
!in  early  age  he  showed  a  '  quick  apiiiidieii.sion  of 
many  perplexf  parts  of  learning,'  and  through  the 
inllucncc  of  his  uiule.  .lolin  Hoidier  or  \'owel 
(  b'/J.")  lliOl),  chamberlain  of  (be  city,  was  brought 
under  the  notice  of  .Jewel,  liishoii  of  Salisbury, 
and  .sent,  partly  at  his  expense,  to  his  own  college, 
that  of  Corpus  Christi,  Oxford,  where  Walton 
tells  us  he  was  admitted  a  clerk  in  l.'iU7.  After 
his  patrons  death  in  l.')71  he  was  befriended 
by  Sandvs,  IJislio])  of  I^ondon,  who  committed 
his  son  l^lwin  to  his  care.  Another  pupil  wsis 
(ieorge  Cranmer,  graiid-neidiew  of  the  archbishop, 
and  both  became  famous  men,  and  remained  his 
constant  friends  in  later  life.  In  his  nineteenth 
year  Hooker  became  schidar  of  lii.i  college,  gradu- 
.ated  M.A.  in  1077,  ami  was  soon  after  admitted 
Fellow.  His  progress  in  learning  is  seen  by  his 
intimacy  with  Henry  Sa\ille,  and  by  his  being 
chosen  in  1.'57!).  in  theillnosof  the  Hebrew  professor, 
to  reail  the  lecture.  Three  months  Later  Walton 
tells  us  that  he  was  for  a  short  time  expelled 
by  the  vice-]iresident  for  some  forgotten  college 
quarrel,  .along  with  his  tutor  and  friend.  Dr. John 
Rainolds,  but  soon  .after  restored.  After  about 
three  years'  residence  he  took  orders,  and  ere 
long  was  appointed  to  jireach  at  St  I'aul's  Cro.ss. 
This  ncces.sity  appears  to  have  been  a  severe  ordeal 
to  his  modest  nature,  the  more  so  that  the  weather 
liroved  very  unfavourable  for  his  journey  ;  but, 
says  Walton,  'a  warm  bed,  and  rest,  and  drink 
]iroper  for  a  cold,  given  him  by  Mrs  (.'liurchman 
[the  Sliunaiiiile  at  whose  house  the  lueacliers 
were  loilged  |.  .iiid  her  diligent  attendance  added 
unto  it.  enabled  him  to  ]icrforiii  the  ollice  of  the 
day,  which  was  in  or  about  the  year  1581.'  lint  the 
scheming  willow's  kindness  proved  too  much  for  the 
simidc-minded  scholar.  He  was  led  intoamarnage 
witli  her  daughter  Joan,  who  brought  him  neither 
bi-auty  nor  portion,  was  'clownish  ami  silly'  in 
Woods  jdir.ase.  and.  what  was  woisc.  proved  both  a 
shrew  and  a  scold.  Kvery  reader  knows  ^^'altoIl's 
account  of  the  visit  of  Sandys  and  Criiniuer  to  their 
old  master  at  his  living  of  br.ayton-Beaiiclianip,  in 


HOOKER 


771 


I?iiol<iiij;li!iinsliire,  whither  he  liail  retired.  They 
fo  .11(1  him  temliii};  the'sheep,  his  Hoiaoe  in  Ills 
h.iiiil,  ami  not  long  after  they  rcacheil  the  house 
Kii-liaril  «as  called  from  their  com|iaiiy  to  rock  the 
cradle.  Soon  after  tliis  Hooker  was  transferred, 
at  the  recnmniendation  of  Archliishop  Sandys,  and 
lhroii;;h  the  inlliicnci'  of  Whitfrift,  to  the  >Ia>ter- 
>hi|i  of  (III'  Toiiiiile.  against  a  .strcin<;  etlort  iriade  to 
promote  the  afternoon  re.ader  Travers,  a  ]ironiinent 
I'nritan  leader.  The  union  of  the  <olleague.s,  as 
might  have  heen  e.xpected,  was  not  a  happy  one. 
Travel's  was  the  more  popular  preacher,  if  the 
less  profound  thinker,  and  Fuller  tells  us  that 
'the  congregation  in  the  Temple  elihed  in  the 
forenoon  and  flowed  in  the  afternoon.'  The  ser- 
mons of  Travers  soon  became  attacks  ujion  what 
ho  considered  the  latitudinariauism  and  errors  of 
Hooker,  and,  indeed,  as  Fuller  says  pointedly  else- 
where, '  the  pulpit  spake  pure  Canterl>ury  in  the 
morning,  and  Geneva  in  the  afternoon,'  a  state  of 
mattei's  that  Whitgift  soon  put  an  end  to  by  silenc- 
ing Travel's.  The  liery  Puritan  appeahnl  to  the 
<  'oiincil  with  a  series  of  set  charges  against  Hooker's 
doctrine,  and  Hooker  answered  him  with  masterly 
conclusiveness  and  temperance.  But  lia\  ing  been 
<lrawii  into  this  personal  controversy  against  his 
inclination,  he  felt  it  to  he  his  duty  to  set  forth  the 
larger  ijue.stion  of  the  real  fundamental  basis  of  all 
church  government,  and  to  this  eiul  desired  Whit- 
gift  to  remove  him  to  some  rpiiet  living,  '  where  I 
might  behold  tiod's  blessing  spring  out  of  my  mother 
oartli,  and  eat  my  own  liread  without  ojiposition-s.' 
Accordingly,  in  1591  he  accepted  the  living  of  JJos- 
conibe,  six  miles  from  Salisbury,  becoming  also 
sub-dean  and  prebendary  of  Saruin  :  and  here  he 
linislie<l  four  of  the  proposed  eight  books  of  the 
Iaiii's  of  I'.ri-lcaiastiral  Pa/if  i/,  which  were,  however, 
not  published  till  1.59+  in  a  small  closely-iirinted 
folio.  The  year  after  he  removed  to  the  living  of 
Bishopsborne,  three  miles  from  Canterbury,  where 
lie  remained  till  his  death,  unconscious  of  his  glow- 
ing fame,  a  parish  juiest  of  unexampled  humility 
and  devotedness.  His  fifth  book  ap])eai'eil  in  loOT, 
but  the  author  did  not  live  to  complete  his  work, 
dying  about  the  end  of  the  year  IWJO,  of  a  cold 
caught  in  a  passage  by  water  betwixt  London  and 
<;ravesend.  Almost  his  last  words  were  ii))on  the 
'  blessed  obedience  and  onler  of  the  angels,  without 
which  ])eace  could  not  be  in  heaven,  and,  oh  that 
it  might  be  so  on  earth  I'  He  w.as  buried  in  his  own 
church,  and  left  bis  widow  and  four  ilaugliters  be- 
hind him.  Sir  William  ('ow]icr.  great-grandfather 
of  the  liist  Earl  Cowper,  built  him  a  monument  in 
lionie  cinirch,  and  in  a  poetical  epitaph  of  his  own 
com])osi(iim  applies  to  Hoidier  the  fainons  term 
jiKiivioiis,  which  \\ ill  ne\er  be  dissociated  from  his 
name. 

.Vt  the  time  of  his  death  the  last  three  hooks 
^vere  believed  to  be  nearly  compli'te,  but  if  so,  they 
were  soon  lost,  the  blame  of  which  was  laid,  appar- 
ently with  some  justice,  upon  Hooker's  widow  and 
her  I'uritan  relatives,  who  were  suppu>ed  to  abhor 
the  theology  cmit.ained  in  them.  Some  months 
after  his  death  the  rough  drafts  of  the  completed 
liooks  that  remained  were  reluctantly  given  up  to 
the  archbishop,  and  by  him  entiiisted  to  Hooker's 
frieml,  Dr  Spen-cr,  to  prepare  for  publication.  The 
latter  reprinted  the  lirst  live  books  in  1(!04.  but  his 
further  labours  were  interrupted,  and  .ifter  his 
appointment  to  be  president  of  Corpus  ( 1H07),  lie 
entrusted  the  papers  for  transcription  to  a  young 
scholar  named  Henry  .lackson.  wiio  issued  sonm  of 
the  .ycraioH.v  (I(il2r4).  Hut  Spen.-er  died  in  1614, 
bcfineatliing  the  ]ia)iers  'as  a  |uecious  legacy  '  to 
Dr  King.  Bishop  of  London.  Soon  after  his  death 
ill  l(i'2l  they  were  claimed  by  Abbi.t  for  Lambeth 
Lilirary.  where  they  remaincil  till  Laud's  commit- 
tal for  liiglitreas(Mi,  when  the  lihrarv  was  handed 


over  tiif>t  to  the  custody  of  Prynne,  next  of  Hugh 
Petei-s.  Thereafter  the  fate  of  the  original  papers 
is  unknown,  in  lli4S,  as  Wood  tells  us,  but  more 
likely  in  1051,  the  sixth  and  eighth  hooks  were 
publisheil  at  London,  describeil  a.s  'according  to  the 
most  anthentiijue  copies,'  and.  indeed,  we  have  good 
grounds  for  believing  that  this  text  is  substantially 
genuine,  being  to  a  certain  extent  guaranteed  to 
us  by  liislio]!  Andrewes  and  Archbishop  Usslier. 
Kilt,  unfortunately,  as  Kehle  points  out,  in  its  pres- 
ent iVnin  the  sixth  book  is  an  entire  deviation  from 
its  subject,  which  should  have  been,  according  to 
the  plan  of  the  whole  treatise,  a  discus.sioii  of  the 
claim  of  lay  elders  to  a  share  in  church  goveriinieiit, 
whereas  about  nineteen-twentieths  of  the  whole  is 
taken  up  with  a  series  of  dissertatiims  on  Primitive 
and  Piomish  penance,  in  their  several  parts,  con- 
fession, satisfaction,  alisolution.  Now  Hooker's  dis- 
cussion of  lay  elders  wouhl  be  just  the  part  of  liis 
work  most  displeasing  to  the  Puritans  of  his  time, 
and  the  presumiition  is  jierfectly  reasonable  that 
this  ])art  of  the  original  work  was  destifiyed.  At 
the  same  time,  a.s  Keble  points  out,  the  sixth  book 
bears  even'  mark  of  being  Hooker's  work,  though 
it  is  not  in  its  jilace  .as  a  part  of  the  Ecclc.sinsiiad 
roliti).  The  seventh  an<i  eighth  Inioks,  however, 
bear  even*  mark  of  being  substantially  genuine; 
the  former  a]>peared  first  in  1602,  in  the  new  edition 
of  Hooker  issued  by  Gauden,  the  soidisaiit  author 
of  the  Eihon  Bctsilihe,  and  not  entirely  a  rea.ssuring 
editor.  The  famous  Life  by  Walton  was  written 
for  a  second  edition,  issued  in  1006,  in  order  to 
correct  the  inaccuracies  in  the  life  provided  by 
Gauden.  AValton's  account  of  the  saintly  and 
simple-niinded  theologian  is  one  of  the  linest  ])ic- 
tures  in  the  whole  range  of  English  biograjiliy, 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that  in  this  case 
he  was  not  sketching  from  life,  and  Keble  pointed 
out  that  the  super-simplicity  and  excessive  nieek- 
',  ne.ss  and  temperance  attributed  to  him  harmonise 
hut  indiH'erently  with  the  masterly  intellect,  the 
incisive  irony,  and  keen  humour  that  were  in 
Hooker.  All  earlier  editions  of  Hooker's  works 
were  superseded  by  that  of  Keble,  ]>ublislied  by 
the  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford,  in  1830,  cont.aining 
also  '\A"alton's  Life  and  an  exhaustive  preface  from 
his  own  pen.  Of  this  work  the  Tlh  edition,  revised 
Ijy  Dean  Church  and  Canon  I'aget,  was  issued  in 
three  volumes  in  18S8.  Of  the  lirst  book  alone 
there  is  an  edition,  with  an  admirable  introduction 
and  notes,  by  Dean  Church  (1868). 

Hooker's  Lavs  of  Ei-rlcsiastiral  Politi/  is  the 
earliest  great  philosophical  work  written  in  the 
English  tongue,  and  is  a  noble  monument  of  massive 
prose  no  less  than  of  profcmnd  thought  and  masterly 
logic.  The  style  is  neither  artilicial  nor  involveij, 
but  as  well  ordered  and  Avell  sustained  throughout 
as  the  thinking  itself,  while  it  is  capable  of  a  gTave 
and  modulated  rhythm  that  rises  at  times  into  the 
region  of  serene  yet  impassioned  eloquence.  As  a 
thinker  be  is  Judicious  in  the  highest  sense  of  the 
«ord,  and  his  work  forms  a  broad  and  enduring 
foundation  adequate  for  the  church  of  a  great 
nation.  Hs  fundamental  idea  is  that  of  the  unity 
and  all-embracing  nature  of  law,  considered  as  the 
manifestation  and  development  of  the  divine  order 
of  the  universe.  The  paramount  law  which  domin- 
ates the  univei-se  is  itself  but  the  outward  exjires- 
sion  of  the  government  of  God.  and  is  ever  identical 
with  calm  and  temperate  reason.  lie.a.son  is  the 
criterion  by  which  even  revelatiim  is  to  be  distin- 
guished as  to  what  is  eternal  and  immutable  and 
what  is  variable  according  to  the  nece.S'';ities  of 
expediency.  There  is  a  broad  distinction  between 
natural  and  supernatural  law,  but  ImiIIi  sniiplement 
and  coinidete  each  other,  both  have  their  place 
ill  the  interpretation  of  the  ways  of  (iod  to  man. 
.\uth(uitv  must  ever  be  alloweil  great  wci'.dil  in  the 


772 


HOOKER 


Koverniiient  of  tlie  world,  Imt  it  must  ever  be  kept 
in  liiinnony  ami  coiiforiiiity  with  reason.  A  neces- 
sity of  ]i(ility  may  l>e  lielil  in  all  clmrrlies  and 
fjovernment.s  without  hohlin^  any  one  lixed  fi»rni  to 
be  necessary,  for  these  forms  are  not  ixifiiral  but 
posit  ire,  and  therefore  alterable  and  subject  to  ex- 
jjcdiency  as  interpreteil  by  temperate  reason.  Jiut 
the  eternal  facts  of  morality  are  necessjiry  and  self- 
evident  postulates  of  the  ilivine  j.'overnment  of  the 
world,  and  thus  rest  on  verities  that  cannot  be 
shaken.  The  whole  furnishes  a  conclusive  answer 
to  the  Puritan  extreme  and  exaggeration  of  the 
central  position  of  Protestantism,  the  makinj;  of 
Scripture  the  sole  f^iide  of  human  conduct,  which 
rests  and  depends  rather  on  the  concurrence  ami 
co-operation  of  all  the  various  sources  of  knowledfie 
that  Divine  I'roviilence  has  provided  for  man.  It 
is  not  too  much  to  .say  that  it  is  mainly  to  Hooker's 
work  that  .An^'lican  theolo;;y  owes  the  tone  and  the 
direction  that  it  has  never  since  entirely  lost. 

His  tirst  book  is  built  on  a  broad  foundation  of  first 
principles  ;  his  second  and  third  form  iiolemic  c<irol- 
laries  to  the  lirst  :  and  in  the  fourth  and  lifth  we 
have  his  derailed  ilelVn<'e  of  I'hurch  disiipliiu?  and 
ritual  ;  while  the  last  two  contain  a  defence  of  its 
povernment  and  its  relation  to  the  state.  The  lifth 
book  is  a  comjilete  apology  for  the  Anglican  Church 
and  its  usa<;es,  .stampe<l  throui,diout  with  charac- 
teristic breadth  ami  w  isdom.  Hooker  maintains  the 
bijih  relijjious  value  of  ritual  interpreted  by  the 
principle  of  symbolism,  and  kept  in  harmony  with 
primitive  usuge  so  as  to  carry  with  it  tin.'  weight 
of  undivided  authority,  yet  a-sserts  the  right  of  the 
living  authoritv  within  the  church  itself  both  to 
enact  and  t<i  dispense,  in  order  to  avert  anarchy 
and  disruption.  In  his  defence  of  Kpisconacy  in  the 
seventh  book  he  shelters  himself  behind  no  divine 
right  or  assumption  of  formal  scriptural  authority, 
but  maintains  its  superiority  as  a  form  of  church 
government,  both  from  its  undeniable  antii|uity  and 
its  (practical  utility  in  actual  experience.  In  his 
eighth  book  Hooker  discusses  the  question  of  tlie 
royal  supremacy  and  the  mutual  relations  of  church 
and  state.  To  him,  as  to  Ariu)ld  an<l  Staidey, 
church  and  state  are  merely  co-extensive  terms,  an<l 
men  owe  civil  duties  to  the  whole  community  as  a 
state,  spiritual  duties  to  it  as  ii  church.  The  royal 
supremacy  is  notliing  more  than  the  assertion  of 
national  unity  and  indeiienilence  as  against  mere 
sacerdotal  ])retensions,  the  whole  body  politic  under 
its  executive  head,  the  crown,  being  eijually  con- 
cerned in  the  framing  of  all  laws  allecting  the 
church,  itself  consiilercd  but  as  a  i)art  of  a  greater 
whole.  (In  tliis  i|uestion  modern  conditions  have 
entirely  shifteil  the  ba.ses  of  discussion,  and,  whether 
rightly  or  wrongly.  Hooker's  <lream  of  a  church  and 
state  one  and  imlivisible  now  seems  to  English- 
men little  more  than  a  devout  imagination. 

IlOOkrr,  Tho.m.\S,  one  of  the  founders  of  Con- 
necticut, was  born  at  Marktield,  Leicestershire,  in 
158G,  studied  at  Cambridge,  and  became  a  T'ellow 
of  Emmanuel  College,  and  was  for  four  yeai-s  a 
curate  at  Chelmsford.  Ejected  for  nonconformity, 
he  lived  in  Holland  until  1G.33,  when  he  went  to 
Ma.ssacliusetts,  and  received  a  charge  at  Cam- 
bridge. In  1G3G  he  removed  with  his  congregation 
to  Connecticut,  and  founded  the  town  of  Hartford, 
where  he  died,  Ttli  July  1(>47.  Hooker  was  a  man 
of  great  inlluence  in  New  England,  ami  published 
m.-iny  sermons  and  polemical  wnrk.s.  .\  selection, 
with  a  Life,  was  printed  at  Itojtoii  in  1849. 

Hooker.  Siu  Wii.i.i.vm  Jackson,  a  celebrated 
English  botanist,  was  born  at  Norwich  in  1785.  Of 
indepemlent  means  from  an  early  age,  he  devoted 
himself  to  natural  .science.  His  first  work  wis  a 
Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Ice'iiiir/  in  ISll,  written  Ironi 
memorv,   his  diaries  an  1  collections  having   been 


burned.  It  proved  so  popular  that  a  second  edition 
was  called  for  in  1813.  He  married  in  181."),  i  nd 
settled  first  at  Halesworth  in  Sullblk,  but  wius 
appointed  by  the  crown  to  the  chair  of  liotany  at 
(Ila-'gow  I'niver.sity  in  IS'20.  In  1S41  he  wa* 
appointed  director  of  the  Koyal  tiardens  at  Kew, 
and  bis  energy  and  enthusiasm  exti^ndi'd  it  enor- 
mously. He  w.is  made  K.H.  in  ls;i(l.  .Already 
E.K.S'.  in  ISIO,  he  became  later  D.C.L.  of  (lxf(ud, 
LL.I).  of  (Ilasgow,  and  an  honorary  member  of 
most  foreign  scientific  societies.  He  exercised 
much  inlluence  in  lH>lanical  appointments  and  in 
naming  naturalists  to  accompany  exploring  expe- 
ditions. His  herbarium  and  his  admirable  library 
were  given  to  Kew.  lie  dicil  .August  12,  LSti,"!. 
His  name  survives  in  Mount  Hooker  in  the  Hocky 
Mountains,  and  in  Hookeria,  a  natural  order  of 
mosse.s. 

His  Brllixk  Junfiermnnuiic  (ISlfi);  his  edition  of 
Curtis's  ]''lom  Lotidiiicnxiti  (1817-28);  Miinrotof/ia 
Jirit'iititica  (1818),  in  conjunction  with  Ur  T.  Taylor; 
and  Miisci  A'jrofi'ci  (1818-20)  were  his  chief  cnrly  works. 
Later  books  were  Kjcotif  I'loru  (1822  27);  the  llrilish 
flora,  witli  l>r  Walkcr-Arnott  (1830);  Icunes  filinim, 
Willi  Dr  Ureville  (1829  31);  Jcoma  J'Iniituruin  (1837- 
54);  Spcfits  Filirnm  (184G-G4):  and  Fifirm  Ejcntiru; 
(1857-59).  Yet  he  found  time  in  his  busy  life  to  edit 
the  Botauicttl  Mttfjaziuf  (1827-G5),  the  Lmtdon  Journal 
of  Botanv  (1842  48),  and  the  Journal  of  Botany  and 
kew  Miaiclhinii  (1849-57). 

Sir  Jo.si:i'n  Daltox  IIooKEn,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, and  also  an  ennnent  naturalist,  wjus  born  at 
Halesworth  in  Suffolk,  June  30,  1817.  He  was 
educated  at  the  High  Sclioid  and  university  of 
(Ila-sgow,  ami  graduated  a-s  M.I),  there  in  1839. 
He  next  joined  the  antarctic  expedition  of  the 
Krchits  and  Terror,  returning  after  a  four  years' 
absence  to  superintend  the  publication  of  his 
magistral  Flora  Anturelica  ( 1844  47  ).  J  lorn  .\'or(c 
Zelaniliii-  (  1853-55),  and  Flora  Tasmania'  (I.SGO). 
He  acteil  for  .some  time  a-s  substitute  for  Professor 
(iraliam  in  the  chair  of  Hotaiiy  at  Edinburgh 
University,  was  appointed  in  184G  botanist  to  the 
Geological  Survey  of  (!reat  Britain,  and  next  year 
started  on  a  botanical  expedition  to  the  Himalavius, 
which  occupied  him  for  three  years.  His  lliina- 
Idi/an  Journals  ( IH'yi  )  contains  the  narrative  of  this 
ex|pedition,  and  the  llliodwlendrons  of  the  Si/./:ini- 
Jlinialai/u  { 1849-51 )  illustrates  the  most  remarkable 
additions  which  be  made  to  the  ornamental  plants 
of  our  gardens  on  this  occasion.  With  Dr  Thom- 
son of  the  Calcutta  liotanic  tJardens  he  undertook 
a  Flora  Jnilira  (vol.  i.  1855),  still  a  sjjicndid 
fragment.  He  iiubllshed  later  a  llora  of  IJritish 
India  (1874).  In  1871  he  made  an  expedition  to 
Morocco,  ascended  the  Great  Atlas,  the  summit  of 
which  had  never  before  been  reached  by  a  Euro- 
pean, and  brought  back  a  valuable  c<dlection  of 
plants.  His  Tour  appeared  in  1878.  In  1877  he 
accompanied  Dr  Asa  Gray  in  .i  scientilic  tour 
through  Colorado,  Utah,  and  California. 

Dr  Hooker  was  appointed  iussistant-director  at 
Kew  Gardens  in  1855,  and  on  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1865  he  succeeded  him  as  director.  He 
succeeded  him  also  in  thoee  liberal  ideas  which 
have  made  Kew  the  real  centre  of  the  botaniial 
world.  He  was  president  of  the  liritish  Associa- 
tion meeting  at  Norwich  in  18G8,  and  in  his  much- 
debated  address  professed  himself  entirely  an 
adherent  of  Darwin.  Erom  1873  to  1878  he  was 
president  of  the  Koval  Society.  w:vs  made  C.IJ.  in 
1869  and  K. C.S.I,  in  1877.  He  is  also  LL.D.  of 
Candiridge,  Dublin,  Edinburgh,  and  (Masgow,  and 
D.C.L.  of  (txford.  One  of  his  best-known  works 
is  his  useful  Students'  Flora  of  the  liritish  Islands 
(1870);  his  most  important,  the  Genera  I'lanl- 
arum,  in  conjunction  with  George  Hentham  (3 
vols.  1862-83).    See  an  article  in  A'<(/»/c(  vol.  xvi.). 


HOOKS    AND    EYES 


HOOPOE 


r73 


Hooks  and  Eyes.  Tliese  .lipss-fasteners 
■went  iisimI  iimcli  more  largely  atiout  1800  and 
for  soinc  km^tli  of  time  previously  than  they  are 
now,  owinf;  to  a  chan}j;e  in  the  fashion  of  ladies' 
dresses  hy  wliieli  Imtlons  have  to  a  great  extent 
taken  their  ]ilaop.  Hooks  anil  eyes  Nvere  formerly 
mad(!  Iiy  hand  by  bending  llie  wire  of  which  they 
are  formed  into  the  proper  shape  witli  pliers.  I5nt 
for  many  years  they  have  been  made  by  machines, 
wliich  are  complex  in  their  details.  Hy  one  kind 
of  machine  the  wire  is  first  drawn  ofl'  a  reel,  next 
cut  to  the  re([uircd  lengtli,  then  by  a  sinker  forced 
into  a  slot  l)y  wliicli  it  is  bent,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  two  ends  are  formed  by  cams  into  the 
lateral  loops.  This  is  the  process  for  an  eye,  but 
a  hook  requires  an  additional  benil,  and  this  is  pro- 
duced by  another  slot  and  sinker.  Makers  of  these 
articles  do  not,  however,  all  use  the  same  kind  of 
machines.     See  also  F1.SH-HOOKS. 

llooh'.  Jons,  translator  and  dramatist,  was 
born  at  .Moorfields,  London,  in  17'2",  and  at  the  age 
of  seventeen  became  a  clerk  in  the  East  India 
House,  where  he  remained  until  1783.  Hi;  pub- 
lished translations  of  the  Jcninnlcm  I)i:licered 
(17():!)  and  Ittuuldo  (1792)  of  Tasso,  the  dramas 
of  Metastasio  (1767),  and  the  Orlando  Furioso  of 
Ariosto  ( 1773-83).  This  last  Southey  speaks  of  as 
'that  vile  version  of  Hoole's,'  and  Scott  describes 
the  translator  himself  as  '  a  noble  transmuter  of 
"old  into  lead.'  His  drannis  were  Cyrus  (1768), 
Tiiiuiiitln-s  (1770),  and  Clroniix  (1775) — all  of  them 
failures,  altliough  Johnson,  who  was  Hoole's  friend 
and  s])oke  well  of  Ids  verses,  praises  the  la-st  in  a 
complimentary  letter.  Hoole  died  2d  April  1803. 
See  AHrrd<j(cs  uf  Ihe  Life  of  John  Hoole  (1803). 

Hoop  Ash.    See  Nettle-iuee. 

Iloopei*.  JoHX,  an  English  bishop  and  martyr, 
was  Imrn  in  Somersetshire  about  140.^,  and  educateil 
at  Merton  College,  Oxford,  whence  in  1518  he  pa.ssed 
to  a  t'istercian  monastery  at  Gloucester.  The  read- 
ing of  Zwingli  made  him  a  Reformer,  and  having 
for  some  time  served  as  chaplain  to  Sir  Thomas 
Arundel  he  twice  went,  in  15.39-40,  for  safety's  sake 
to  the  (.'(mtinent,  and  after  travelling  in  France  and 
Germany  married  ami  settled  for  three  years  at 
Zurich.  '  In  I.')49  he  returned  to  Englaml,  and 
became  a  jiopular  preacher  in  London.  In  I.mO  he 
was  appointeil  liishopof  Gloucester,  and  f<M'  hisdifli- 
culty  about  the  oath  an<l  his  objections  to  wearing 
the  episcopal  haliit  was  imprisoned  for  some  time  in 
the  Fleet.  His  labours  as  a  bisho))  were  inces.sant, 
and  he  wore  out  nature  in  devotion  to  his  duty. 
In  1552  he  received  the  bishopric  of  Worcester  in 
connniiidam.  Next  year  at  the  commencement  of 
Mary's  reign  he  was  connnitted  to  the  Fleet,  anil 
after  eighteen  months'  imprisonment  was  tried  for 
heresy  ami  condemned  to  death.  He  was  burned 
at  the  stake  at  Gloucester,  I'ebruary  9.  15.")5,  his 
sulVerings  being  nnudi  prolonged  by  the  use  of 
green  wood.  His  Enrh/  ]l'ri/inr/s  were  edited  by 
the  Kev.  Sanniel  Carr  in  1843;  his  Lain-  Writinqs, 
by  the  Kev.  Charles  Neviuson  in  1852,  both  for 
the  r.uk(!r  Society. 

llooi>ill£-roiia;ll  (or  WiinoriNG-cmc:il  :  tech- 
nically, I'rrlnsnis)  is  an  infectious  and  e]iidemic 
disease,  mostly  attacking  children  under  ten, 
especially  in  spring  and  autumn.  Its  earliest 
symptoms,  which  usually  appear  live  or  six  days 
afler  exposure  to  infection,  are  those  of  a  com- 
mon cold,  as  lioivrseuess,  a  watery  dis(diarge  from 
the  eye.s  .and  nose,  oiipression  of  the  cliest,  a 
short  dry  cough,  and  nune  or  less  feverishness. 
This  stage,  which  is  called  the  cutarr/ml,  lasts  a 
week  or  ten  days,  when  the  fever  remits,  and  the 
cough  becomes  more  troublesome,  is  worse  at 
night,  and  occurs  in  paroxysms  consisting  of  a 
series  of  short  expiratory  pull's  followed  by  a  deep 


inspiration  of  air  through  the  contracted  cleft  of 
the  glottis  (Larvnx,  q. v.),  causing  the  character- 
istic 'whoop.'  'riie  attack  usually  terminates  in 
the  expectoration  of  glairy  mucus  or  in  vomiting. 
During  the  fit  of  coughing  the  face  becomes  red  or 
livid,  the  eyes  project,  and  the  child  seizes  some 
person  or  object  near  him  for  support.  These  par- 
oxysms occur  at  uncertain  intervals,  and  between 
them  the  child  returns  to  his  play,  takes  his  food 
with  good  appetite,  and  exhibits  little  or  no  sign 
of  illness.  'I'lie  di.sea.se  reaches  its  height  at  about 
the  end  of  the  fourth  week,  after  which  the  par- 
o.xysnis  diminish  in  frequency,  and  the  i>atient 
shows  signs  of  improvement.  The  second  stage 
may  last  from  two  to  eight  weeks,  and,  if  no 
relapse  occur,  is  succeeded  l)y  what  may  be  termed 
the  convalescent  stage,  the  duration  of  which  is 
yery  variable. 

'This  is  one  of  those  diseases  which  seldom  occur 
more  than  once  in  a  lifetime;  and  hence  it  jirob- 
ably  is  that,  a-s  few  children  escape  it.  it  is  com- 
paratively rarely  noticed  in  adults.  Morbid  ana- 
tomy has  failed  to  throw  any  direct  light  upon 
its  special  seat.  The  proportion  of  deaths  to 
recoveries  has  not  been  satisfactorily  determined, 
but  when  there  is  a  severe  epidenuc  the  mortality 
due  to  this  disease  is  often  very  great,  the  ]>rospect 
being  woise  in  the  very  young  and  in  patients 
afiected  with  rickets.  This  mortality  is  in  reality 
due  rather  to  the  bronchitis,  pneumonia  (or  inflam- 
mation of  the  lungs),  and  convulsions,  which  are 
frequent  complications  of  hooping-cough,  than  to 
the  disease  itself. 

The  treatment  of  hooping-cough  consists  in 
general  measures  to  prevent  coniplicjVtions,  and  in 
special  tieatment  for  shortening  the  disease  and 
diminishing  the  violence  of  the  spasms.  The  child 
should  be  kept  in  the  house  with  the  teniiierature 
about  60"  F.,  while  quiet  and  the  avoidance  of  excite- 
ment must  be  enforced.  The  diet  should  be  simple, 
nutritious,  and  not  too  starchy.  If  the  natural 
vomiting  be  not  sufficient  to  relieve  the  chest  and 
stomach  of  nmcus  an  occasional  emetic  of  ipeca- 
cuanha or  sulphate  of  cojijier  nnist  be  given.  The 
lM)wels  should  be  kept  moderately  ojien.  In  the 
catrirr/ial  stage  a  simple  expectorant  is  all  that  is 
needed,  but  when  tlie  whoop  is  develojjed  give 
belladonna  in  large  doses.  Alkalies  are  also  use- 
ful, and  bromide  of  ammoninm  if  nervous  .sym])toms 
com]ilicate  the  spasms.  As  hooping-cough  h:is  the 
i  characteristics  of  a  germ  disease,  antiseptic  iidiala- 
I  tions  and  sprays  seem  to  oiler  good  grouml  for  hope 
'  in  shortening  the  malady.  Stimulating  liniments 
such  a.s  Roche's  Embrocation  are  useful  if  the  catarrh 
of  the  chest  is  severe,  and  in  the  stage  of  decline 
alum  is  of  benefit  internally.  During  cimvales- 
ceiicc  nothing  is  so  important  as  a  change  of  air, 
while  precautions  are  taken  against  glandular 
enlargements  by  building  up  the  system. 

Uoo|IOC  {I'pi'pa),  a  genus  of  semi-terrestrial 

!  insectivorous  birds  of  the  family  Upupidie,   tribe 

Tennirostres,   and   order   Insessores,   most    nearly 

related  to  the  Ilornbills,  but  nresenling'  a  stron<' 

'  contrast  to  those  ungainly  bints  by  their  graceful 

'  carriage,  elegant  figure,  and  beautiful  crest.     They 

are  most  characteristic  of  the  Ethiopian  region,  but 

they  are  found  in  central  and  scnithcrn  Euroiie  and 

in  Asia  as  far  as  Ceylon  and  Mongolia.     "The  six 

species  are  most  at  home  in  desert  country,  where 

'  tlieir  sand-coh)ured  plnm.age  is  a  protection  to  them. 

]  The  Common  Hoopoe  (C/tiipa  ejm/i.s)  is  about  a 

;  foot  long  ;  its  plumage  exhibits  a  hue  mixture  of 

white,  bnlf.  and  bl.ack  ;  on  the  tawnycoloureil  head 

is  an  cnonnous  erectile  crest,  the  feathei-s  of  which 

have  a  black  tip  beyond  a  narrow  white  bar.     The 

plumage  of  the  female  is  a  little  paler  in  colour 

'  than  that  of  the  male.     This  bird  yisits   Hritain 

'  during  the    spring    and    autumn    migration,    but 


774 


HOOPS 


HOP 


8(>l(li>iii    lii'coils   ill    any    |>iii't    of    tliu    isluml.      The 
HiiopiH'  ili'iivi's  its  imiiif  I'liiiii   tlie  voiv   lre(|Ui'iit 


[loe  ( Upupa  epopa). 


utterance  of  tlie  souiul  liwj-hoo-hoo  wlii<li  it  pro- 
duces, pulling  out  tlie  sides  of  its  neck  ami 
hamiiienii!,'  on  the  tfrouml  with  its  hill  at  each 
note. 

Hoops.    Sec  Crinoline. 

Hooril.  ii  (locayiu;;  town  ami  seaport  of  North 
Holland,  on  a  hay  of  the  ZiiiderZoe,  27  ...iles  NNE. 
of  Amstcrilani  hv  rail.  In  the  ITlli  centiiiy  it  had 
20,0U()  iidialiitai'its,  and  .still  it  is  full  of  aiitii|ue 
ejirved  houses;  Imt,  like  the  other  'doiul  cities 
of  the  Ziiidei-  Zee,'  it  has  {.Meatly  fallen  otl'  in 
prosperity.  There  is  still,  however,  a  trade  in 
butter  liiid  cheese.  Here  the  larj;e  nets  for 
lierringlishiii';  were  invented.     I'op.  II, Mil. 

lloosiU-    Moillllaill.    a    part   of    the   (irecn 

Mountain  ran;.'i'  in  western  Miissachusetts,  throu<;li 
wliicli  is  pierced  the  most  notable  railway  tunnel 
in  America.  The  Hoosac  tunnel,  which  has  a 
len^'th  of  verv  nearly  5  miles,  was  commenced  in 
IS.11  for  the  line  between  IJoston  and  Albany,  was 
twice  abandoned,  anil  was  linally  opened  in  1875, 
havinj,'  cost  the  state  of  Massachusetts  about 
$18,(KKJ,000.     See  TUNNEL. 

Hoovo,  or  distention  of  the  stomachs,  but 
particularly  of  the  rumen  or  fii-st  stomach,  with 
gas,  is  a  cominoii  complaint  anionfr  cattle  and 
sheep,  and  results  from  the  eatinj;  of  food  to  which 
the  animal  li:is  been  unaccustomed,  frum  wet 
clover  or  vetches,  or  from  any  easily  fermentable 
food.  Relief  generally  follows  walking  exercise, 
friction  on  tlie  belly,  and  a  dose  of  any  ordinary 
stimulant,  which  for  a  cow  may  consist  of  a  couple 
of  ounces  of  turpentine,  whisky,  ether,  or  ginger, 
to  which  should  also  he  addeil,  in  order  to  clear 
the  bowels  of  the  oll'ending  food,  a  laxative,  such 
as  a  pint  of  oil  or  a  pound  of  salts.  A  fourth  or 
fifth  of  these  (iiiantities  will  sutUce  for  sheep. 
The  introduction  of  the  piobang,  with  the  small 
end  downwards,  allows  the  escape  of  gas  when  there 
is  little  food  in  the  stomach.  If  simple  remedie.s 
fail,  tlie  breathing  becomes  ilLstressed  and  the 
animal  stupid  :  the  gas  may  with  safety  be  allowed 
to  cscajie  by  an  external  opening  miule  at  a  point 
intermediate  between  the  last  rib,  the  lumbar 
vertebra',  and  the  prominence  of  the  haunch, 
either  with  a  caniila  and  tivichar  or  a  large  jiocket 
or  table  knife.  For  several  days  after  an  attack 
of  hoove  the  digestive  organs  are  apt  to  be  ea-sily 
deranged,  and  the  animal  must  have  soft  and  digest- 
ible food,  and  an  occa-sional  dose  of  siin]ile  laxative 
medicine. 

The  hoi-se's  bowels  when  distended  with  gases 
are  now  jiunctured  with  the  best  results. 


Wo\t  {.II II lit II 1 11.1  lii/iiiliLs),  a  |iereiiiiial  diiecioiis 
plant  of  the  natural  order  (  annabiniicea',  the 
only  species  of  its  genus.  It  has  long,  rough, 
twining  stems,  and  stalked  .'t-  to  ."ilobed  rough 
leaves,  and  is  a  plant  of  liiMiiiant  growth  and 
aliundaiit  foliage.  The  male  lloweis  grow  in  loose 
biaiicliing  axillary  panicle-s,  ami  consist  of  live 
stamens  sinroiindcd  by  a  o-lolied  peiianlh.  The- 
female  lloweis  are  in  slrnhilis,  or  cones,  with  large 
persistent,  concave,  entire  scales,  which  enlarge  as- 
the  fruit  ripens.  The  part  of  the  hop  so  much 
used  in  brewing,  and  sohl  iiiidci  (he  name  of  ho|is, 
is  the  ripened  cone  of  the  female  plant,  I'diiale 
plants  alone,  therefore,  are  cultivated  to  any  con- 
siderable exient,  it  being  enough  if  a  few  male 
plants  are  scattered  over  a  Held. 

Tlie  hop  is  liist  mentioneil  by  I'liny  as  one  of 
the  garden  ]ilaiils  of  the  Komans,  who  ate  the 
young  shoots  as  we  eat  asjiaiagus ;  as,  indeed, 
many  country  jieople  in  England  do  at  the  present 
day.  It  is  a  native  of  Kiirope  and  of  some  jiarts  of 
Asia,  a  doubtful  native  of  liritaiii  and  ol  North 
America.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  .south 
of  Englunil,  the  total  area  under  hops  being  tiG,69(> 
acres  in  ISSO,  and  r)7,724  in  lSS!t  (Kent,  35,487; 
Sussex,  7282:  Hereford,  ()8.")(l ;  Worcester,  2939; 
Hants,  2905:  Surrey,  2101,  iVe.).  Hops  are  also 
(j;iown  to  a  considerable  exient  in  tiermauy 
( 1 10,000  acres ),  riance,  I'landers,  and  southern 
Russia,  and  now  successfully  in  the  Vnited  States 
(•10,8(K)  acres  in  I8M);  about  foiii-lifths  in  western 
New  York  I.  and  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand. 

The  i-ultivalion  of  the  hop  w.-us  introduced  into 
Knglaml  from  l''landers  in  the  time  of  Ileiiiy  \'III., 
bill    did    not    liccome    siillicient    for    the    supply  of 

the  kiiigd till  the  end  of  the  17tli  cenliiiy.      For 

.some  time  after  hops  began  to  be  used  in  brewinjt 
a  strong  |>rej  lid  ice  existed  against  the  innovation; 


Hop  {Humulut  lupulim). 

and  parliament  wa-s  petitioned  against  hops,  as  'a 
wicked  weeil.  that  would  spoil  the  taste  of  the 
drink,  ami  endanger  the  people.' 

The  hop  reiiuires  deep  rich  soil  on  a  dry  bottom, 
and  succeeds  best  in  a  sheltered  situation  with  a 
south  or  south-west  aspect :  yet  then'  should  be  a 
free  circiilalion  of  air.  The  groiiml  is  generally 
well  |iiilverised  and  manured  to  a  eoiisiderable 
depth  by  the  plough  or  spade  before  planting.  The 
plants  iiie  Usually  .set  in  stools  of  from  three  to 
live,  a  few  inches' apart,  in  rows  six  feet  asunder, 
with  the  same  space  between  the  stools.  They  are 
obtained  from  cuttings  or  suckers  taken  from  the 


HOP 


HOPE 


/  <o 


healthiest  old  stools,  and  are  usually  idanted  out 
somewhat  closely  in  iiiiisinj,'  lines  for  twelve 
months  liefore  heiii^'  ]d:inled  jierinanently.  They 
niaUe  very  little  j,'rowtli  the  lirst  year,  and  not 
until  th(,'  third  year  do  they  come  to  full  hearing, 
when  from  four  to  six  poles  from  14  to  IS  feet  lon^ 
are  rerpiired  for  each  stoid.  The  most  favoured 
tiniher  for  hop-poles  is  Spanish  chestnut,  which  is 
extensively  ^'rown  in  hop-districts  as  ;oi)pice-\vooil 
for  this  ])urpose.  The  poles  are  set  to  the  plants  in 
sprin;L;  before  growth  commences,  .ind  removed 
when  the  stalks  are  cut  away  in  autumn.  The 
plants  are  then  dressed  with  manure,  and  the  soil 
between  the  stools  is  stirred  lightly  with  the 
fork.  In  (iermany  the  poles  are  fewer  and  nuicli 
taller  than  in  England — from  23  to  '27  feet  high. 

The  cones  are  known  to  be  lit  to  gather  when 
they  acquire  a  brown  amber  colour  and  lirm  con- 
sistence. The  stalks  are  then  cut  at  the  base,  and 
removed  along  with  the  poles  ami  laid  horizontally 
on  frames  of  wood,  to  each  of  which  is  attached  by 
tenterhooks  a  large  bag-like  cloth  into  which  the 
hops  fall  a,s  they  are  picked  by  women  and  chil- 
dren, who  are  employed  in  gieat  numbers  at  this 
work.  When  picked  the  ho])s  are  immediately 
conveyeil  to  the  kiln  to  be  dried,  as  otherwise 
they  are  liable  to  heat  and  l)ecome  spoileil  in  a 
few  hours,  especially  Avhen  they  are  picked  in  a 
moist  state.  The  operation  of  ilrying  hops  is 
similar  to  that  of  drying  malt,  and  the  kilns  are 
of  the  same  construction.  Great  care  is  required 
in  drying  to  prevent  overheating,  by  which  the 
essential  oil  is  liable  to  be  volatilised.  The  hops 
are  spread  on  hair-cloth  from  8  to  1'2  inches  ileep, 
and  when  the  ends  of  the  stalks  have  become 
shrivelled  and  dry  they  .ire  taken  oH"  the  kiln,  and 
laid  on  a  wooden  Hoor  till  they  become  quite  cool, 
when  they  are  put  in  bags  or  pockets. 

The  produce  of  no  British  crop  is  more  precarious 
than  that  of  the  hop.  In  a  good  season  it  may  be 
as  much  as  20  cwt.  per  acre,  in  a  bad  season  none 
or  at  most  perhaps  2  or  3  cwt.  The  plant  has  many 
enemies,  both  insect  and  fungoid  parasites,  which 
prey  upon  it,  and  destroy  the  crop  season  after 
season.  It  is  calculateil  that  on  an  average  the 
hop-erop  fails  every  live  or  seven  years.  This, 
in  conjunction  with  the  heavy  expense  of  the  (ii-st 
formation  of  a  (dantation,  prechules  any  but  those 
having  considerable  capital  from  taking  up  its 
cultivati<ui.  But  the  produce  of  plentiful  years, 
if  properly  preserved,  may  be  kei>t  to  meet  the 
denumd  when  scarcity  may  raise  the  price  from 
£2  or  £:i  to  i'20  or  £30  per  cwt. :  conse((uently  to 
those  who  can  wait  few  crops  are  equally  jnotit- 
able. 

The  best  varieties  of  the  hop  are  the  Hill  Golding, 
the  Eivst  Kent  (iolding.  Golden  Hops,  Jones's  Hops. 
Grape  Hops,  and  Earnliam  White  Bine.  The 
Goldings  are  the  best  and  richest.  The  Jones's 
are  valued  for  their  habit  of  short  growth,  requir- 
ing shortiM-  pedes.  The  Colegates  and  Grape  Hops 
are  hardy  and  prolific  on  poorer  soil  than  any  of 
th<!  others. 

The  tibre  of  the  stems  Ls  employed  to  some 
extent  in  Sweden  in  the  manufacture  of  a  coarse 
kind  of  cloth,  white  ami  durable  ;  but  the  fibres 
are  so  dillicult  of  separation  that  the  stems  require 
to  be  steeped  in  water  for  a  wlnde  winter. 

The  fruit  of  the  hiq>  is  a  little  init.  not  larger 
than  a  gr.ain  of  mustard-seed,  ami  between  its 
outer  shell  and  the  kernel  there  is  a  small  quantity 
of  a  peculi.ar  graiuilar  substance  which  also  exists 
as  a  .sort  of  etHorescence  on  the  surface  of  the  scales 
themselves  ;  much  of  the  value  of  the  hop  depends 
upon  the  abundance  of  this  substance.  It  is  not  a 
meri'  powder,  but  each  grain  is  a  little  organised 
cellular  body,  of  an  oval  or  round  form,  and,  when 
seen  under  the  microscope,  having  a  reticulated 


surface.  The  powder  cimtains  some  10  per  cent,  of 
liqiuUnc,  the  bitter  jirinciple  to  which  h<q>s  seem 
to  owe  their  tonic  properties.  The  oil  of  hops 
is  sedative,  anodyne,  and  narcotic  ;  the  plea.santly 
aromatic  odour  has  sonu'what  of  the  same  qualities, 
hence  the  value  of  pillows  stufled  with  hops  in  cases 
of  mania,  sleeplessness,  iVc.  The  bitter  principle  is 
not  narcotic,  but  tonic.  The  oil  and  bitter  principle 
combine  to  make  hops  more  useful  than  can)omile, 
gentian,  or  any  other  bitter,  in  the  manufacture  of 
Ijeer  ;  hence  the  medicinal  value  of  i:.ilni  IuijiiipaI 
or  hitter  beer.  The  tannic  acid  contained  in  the 
strobiles  or  cones  of  Mowers  also  atlds  to  the  \alue 
of  hops,  particularly  a.s  causing  the  preci|>itation  of 
vegetable  mucilage,  and  consequently  the  clearing 
of  beer.  Hop  hitters  are  used  as  a  tonic.  See  also 
Beer. 

Until  the  year  1862  hops  paiil  an  excise  duty, 
and  formed  an  important  part  of  the  revenue, 
although  a  very  variable  crop,  owing  to  the  scriou.s 
check  it  is  liable  to  from  insects,  fungi,  diseases, 
and  the  weather.  Large  quantities  of  hops  are 
importeil  into  the  United  Kingilom  for  home  use 
and  for  exportation  to  the  colonics  and  other 
countries.  In  1896  lio|>s  imported  amounted  to 
207,041  cwt.  of  a  declared  value  of  £591,482. 
The  annual  exportation  of  hops  is  about  20,000 
cwt.,  chietly  to  Australia,  Belgium,  and  the  United 
States. 

HOP-FLE.A,  or  TOOTH-I.EGGED  BEETLE  (Phyllo- 
trcta  or  Hultira  rum-intxt),  a  very  small  coleopter- 
ous insect,  not  quite  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long, 
which  often  does  much  mischief  in  hop-planta- 
tions in  spring,  devouring  the  tender  tojis  of  the 
young  shoots.  It  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the 
turnip-Hy  (Phyllotreta  nemornm),  so  destructive 
to  turnips. 

Hop-fly  (Aphis  ox  Phorodon  hiiiiuili),  a  species 
of  Aphis  (q.v. )  or  plant-louse,  important  on 
account  of  tlie  injury  it  inflicts  in  some  seasons  on 
the  hcqi-plantations.  The  general  colour  is  pale 
green,  as  the  common  name    green  My "  indicate.s. 


Hop  A]iliis  {Ap/iiif  hiiiiititt )  : 

a,  b,  wiii;;<Ml  fem.'iie,  imtuml  size  ami  ina^iiitied ;  f,  rf,  l.irva  or 

'liit,'  nutural  size  and  magnified  (from  Miits  Onnerod). 

The  males,  which  are  winged,  aiq)ear  in  autumn, 
and  pair  with  wingless  females.  These  lay 
eggs,  which  develiqi  next  sjiring  into  swarms  of 
winged  females.  These  produce  partheim-geneti- 
cally  and  viviparously  great  mimbci's  of  larvae 
'  lice '  or  '  nits,'  which  usually  renniin  wingless, 
but  rapidly  mature,  and  soon  liecome  the  virgin 
and  viviparous  parents  of  fresh  swarms.  Males  and 
sexnal  reproduction  reap]>ear  in  autumn.  Both 
larva-  and  adults  ruin  the  plants.  \o  ellicient 
method  of  jireventing'the  ravages  of  this  pest  has 
yet  been  discovered  :  but  the  benellcial  service  to 
man  of  lady-birds  and  other  natural  foes  of  this  fly 
hii-s  been  long  and  widely  recognised. 

Hope.  Thomas,  author  ami  connoisseur,  was 
horn  in  I><mdon  in  1774.  While  still  a  youth  he 
travelled  over  a  large  portion  of  Kurope,  Asia,  ami 
Africa,  and  collected  many  4lrawings,  cliielly  of 
buildings  and  sculptures.  In  England  he  first 
attracted  attention  by  the  splemliil  decorations 
which  he  bestowed  on  the  interior  of  his  mansion 


776 


HOPE-8COTT 


HORACE 


in  Ducliess  Street,  I'orllaiul  I'lace,  Liiiuliin,  a 
ilescri|)tion  of  wliich  iiiipeuiwl  in  his  luxik  on 
Household  Furniture  ( ISOJ).  In  IHOfl  lie  pnWlislied 
Costume  of  the  Ancients  ami  Arehiterture  of 
T/iealres,  in  1812  Modern  Coslumex,  ami  in  1X19 
(anonynionsly)  Aniislusius,  or  Memoirs  of  n 
Moilcrn  llreek  tit  the  close  of  the  JSth  Century. 
Tliis  hust  work  is  liis  masterpiece,  ami  liy  many 
was  ascribeil  to  Lord  IJyron,  who  was  ^'reatly 
llatlereJ  hy  the  rnmour.  It  is  certainly  a  hrilliant 
ami  erudite  ))erformance ;  still  it  want.s  the 
ilramatic  vis  of  a  j^enuine  work  of  ^'cniiis.  Hi>pe 
died  ;td  February  IS.Sl,  leavin;;;  behiml  him  a  very 
heterodox  but  rather  eloquent  essay  On  the  Oriyin 
and  Prospects  if  Man  (1831),  ami  an  Historical 
Essny  on  Architecture  (  183j). 

His  third  son,  ALEXANDER  JamES  HehKskoIU)- 
Hope,  born  in  1820,  was  educated  at  Harrow  and 
Trinity  ('olle;;e,  t'anibrid^'e,  where  he  ^'nuliiateil 
I!.A.  in  1841.  lie  wa-s  twic*(."onservative  member  for 
Maidstone  (184l-r)2,  1857-59),  and  for  Cambridjre 
Kniversity  from  1SG8  till  his  death  on  2(ltli  OctolnM- 
1887.  In  1880  he  was  sworn  a  privy  cimnoillor, 
and  in  1881  Dublin  I'nivei-sity  created  him  an 
lumorary  Ll.,.1).  A  zealous  Hij;li-('liurchman,  lie 
w.as  the  principal  founder  of  St  Au^^ustine's 
nus.sionary  collef,'e  at  Canterbury  (q.v.),  and 
published  several  works  on  church  topics,  as  well 
as  two  novels,  Strictlji  Tied  U/i  (1880)  and  The 
lirandrelhs  (1882).  He  was  also  a  proprietor  of 
the  Siiturdiii/  I'ecicw. 

Ilope-Srutt.  James,  third  son  of  the  Hon.  Sir 
Alexander  Hope,  and  grandson  of  the  second  Earl 
of  HopetouM,  Wius  born  .at  Marlow  in  1812,  and 
from  Kton  proceeded  to  Christ  Church,  Oxfonl. 
He  contented  himself  with  a  pa.ss  dc'jree  ( 1832), 
but  K"t  •■>  fellowship  at  Merton  ;  and,  called  to  tlie 
bar  in  18.S8,  soon  made  a  jjreat  parliamentary 
practice.  In  1847  he  m.arried  Mit-s  Lockhart,  <m 
whose  succession  six  yeai-s  later  to  Abbotsford  he 
a-ssumeil  the  additional  surname  of  Scott ;  and  in 
1851  both  lie  and  his  wife  were  admitted  into  the 
Hom.an  comminiiiui.  He  died  in  London,  29lh 
April  187.3.  His  Life  by  Hobert  (»rnsby  (2  vols. 
1884)  is  specially  interestinj:  fi>r  the  glimpses  it 
■rives  of  mi'n  like  Newman  and  Gladstone. 

ilopiliil.  Michel  de  l'.     See  1..'H6i>ital. 

Hopkins.  .loiiN.     See  Sterxhold. 

llo|lkills.  diiiis.s,  w.as  born,  19lh  May  1795, 
in  Aiiiie  .\rundel  c(mnty,  Maryland,  where  his 
p.arents,  (JmikcMs,  gave  him  a  fair  education  and 
the  training  of  a  farmer.  At  the  age  of  seventeen, 
however,  he  went  to  B.altimore,  there  became  a 
grocer,  and  in  1822  foundeil  the  bouse  of  Hopkins 
and  Itrolhers.  I'roni  the  grocer's  business  he 
retired  in  1847  with  a  large  fortune,  which  he 
enndoyed  in  banking  and  railway  operations.  In 
1873  lie  gave  property  worth  .*4,.5(H),(MIO  to  found 
a  free  hospital  :  he  presented  Haltimore  with  ,a 
public  park,  and  he  also  g.ave  over  $3,0()0,(KJ0  to 
found  tlie  .lolins  Hopkins  T'niveniily  in  IJaltiinore 
(q.v.  I.      He  died  December  24,  187.3." 

Ilopliiiis,  Mattiikw.     See  Witchcraft. 

Hopkins.  Samiel,  D.D.,  born  at  'Water- 
bury,  September  17,  1721,  graduated  at  '\'ale 
College  in  1741,  studied  theology  with  Jonathan 
Edwanls,  and  from  1743  to  17G9  was  settled  as 
pastor  of  Housatonnuc  (now  Great  Harrington), 
Mass.achusetts.  He  then  removed  to  Newpmt, 
where  be  dieil  December  20,  180.3.  His  vritings 
include  a  life  of  President  Edwards,  s.  rinons, 
addresses,  a  treatise  on  the  millennium,  and  his 
System  of  Doctrines  ( 1793) ;  the.se  were  reimblislicd 
with  a  memoir  by  Dr  E.  A.  Park  at  Boston  (3  vols. 
1854) ;  and  an  earlier  edition  ( 1805)  contains  some 
autobiographical  notes.  Hopkins,  who  is  said  to 
be   the   hero   of    Mrs    Beecher   Stowe's  Minister's 


Woointf,  wius  remarkable  for  his  sim))licity,  devout- 
ne.ss,  and  nnsellishness.  Those  who  iutopl  the 
llopkinsian  tlie(dogy  are  not  a  distinct  sect,  but 
are  pretty  niimeroiis  in  America,  in  some  of  the 
Christian  luMlies  of  which  the  tenets  are  generally 
Calvinistic.  They  hold  most  of  the  (alvinistic 
doctrines,  and  even  in  their  most  extreme  form, 
but  they  entirely  reject  the  doctrine  of  im|iutation, 
both  the  imputation  of  Adam's  sin  and  ot  Christ's 
righteousness.  The  divine  etliciency  extends  to 
all  acts  whatsoever,  and  sin  it-self  under  the  guid- 
ance of  divine  providence  is  merely  a  necessary 
means  of  the  greatest  good.  The  fundamental 
doctrine  of  the  llopkinsian  system,  however,  is  that 
all  virtue  and  true  holiness  consist  in  disinterested 
benecolencc  (involving  unconditional  submission), 
.and  that  all  sin  is  scljishncss — the  self-love  which 
le.uls  a  man  to  give  his  lirst  regard  even  to  his  own 
eternal  interests  being  condemned  as  sinful. 

Hoppiier.  .'oiiN.  R..\.  (17.59-1810),  was  bom 
at  NVIiitecliapel  of  (lerman  i)arcnts.  At  first  a 
chorister  in  the  Chapel  Uoyal,  he  entered  the 
scliools  of  the  Boyal  .\cademy  in  1775;  and  under 
the  patronage  of  ihe  Prince  of  'Wales  he  became  a 
fashionable  portraitp.ainter  ami  the  rival  of  Law- 
rence. Elected  A.K..-\.  in  1792  .and  B.A.  in  1795, 
he  has  been  called  'the  plagiarist  of  Keynohls.' 
His  paintings  have  suH'ered  from  his  use  of  bad 
mediums  :  but  his  repute  h.as  risen,  and  in  May 
ISOf)  a  portrait  liy  him  fetched  18W»  guineas. 

IIOI'SU'O.     Ql  INTIS  IIORATIIS  pLACClS,  Latin 

Iioet  and  satirist,  was  born  near  Aenusia  in  southern 
taly,  on  the  8tli  December  05  ll.c.  His  father  was 
a  manuniilleil  slave,  who  as  a  c<dlcctor  of  taxi's  or 
an  auctioneer  hail  saved  enough  money  to  buy  a 
small  estate,  ami  thus  belonged  to  the  same  el.ass 
of  small  Italian  freeholders  as  the  parents  of  Virgil. 
Ajiparently  Horace  was  an  only  child,  ami  as  such 
receivetl  an  eilucation  almost  beyond  his  father's 
means:  who,  instead  of  sending  him  to  school  at 
Venusia,  took  him  to  Home,  provided  him  with 
the  dre.ss  ami  attendance  customary  among  boys  of 
the  upper  cla.s.ses,  and  sent  him  to  the  best  masters. 
At  .seventeen  or  eighteen  he  jiroceeded  to  .\thens, 
then  the  chief  school  of  philosophy,  and  one  of  the 
three  gieat  schools  of  oratory,  to  complete  his 
eclucation  ;  anil  he  w.as  still  there  when  the  iiiur<ler 
of  Julius  Ca'.sar,  I5th  March  44  H.C,  rekimlleil  the 
tl.ames  of  civil  war.  In  the  autumn  of  this  year 
Brutus,  then  propra'tor  of  Mjviedonia,  »isitcd 
Athens  while  levying  troops.  Horace  joined  his 
side ;  ami  such  was  the  scarcity  of  Konian  otlicors 
that,  though  barely  twenty-one  and  totally  with- 
out military  experience,  be  was  .at  once  given  .a 
high  coniiiii.ssion.  He  w.o-s  ]present  at  the  battle 
of  Pliilip|ii,  ami  joined  in  the  general  Might  that 
followeil  the  republican  defeat;  be  found  his  way 
back  to  Italy,  and  a|>parently  was  not  thought 
important  enough  for  proscription  by  the  trium- 
virate. His  luoiierty,  however,  had  been  coiilis- 
cateil,  anil  he  found  employment  in  the  lower 
grade  of  the  civil  .service  to  gain  a  livelihood.  It 
w.as  at  this  period  that  jmverty,  he  s.ays,  drove  Iiini 
to  make  verses.  His  earliest  were  chielly  social 
satires  and  persouivl  lampoons  ;  but  it  wa-s  juobably 
from  some  of  his  lii-st  lyrical  pieces,  in  whieli  be 
showed  a  new  m.astery  of  the  Itomaii  language, 
tliat  lie  became  known  to  A'arius  and  ^'irgil,  «ho 
in  or  about  .38  n.c.  introduced  him  to  Maceiias, 
the  conlidential  minister  of  Octavianus,  and  a 
munilicent  [latron  of  art  and  letters.  The  friend- 
ship thus  formed  wjvs  uninterrui)ted  till  the  death 
of  Ma-cen.os,  to  whose  liberality  Horace  owed 
release  from  business  and  the  gift  of  the  celebr.ated 
farm  among  the  Sabine  hills.  Eioni  this  time 
forward  his  life  w.as  without  marked  incident. 
HLs  springs  and  summers  were  generally  spent  at 


HORACE 


Koine,  wliere  he  enjoyeil  llie  intimacy  of  nearly  all 
the  most  iiioiiiinent  men  of  the  time,  his  autumns 
at  the  Saliine  farm  or  a  small  villa  which  he  pos- 
sesseil  .at  Tihur ;  he  sometimes  passed  the  winter 
in  tlie  mikler  seaside  air  of  Ijai;e.  M;c>cena.s  in- 
troiluceil  him  to  Augustus,  who,  acconlinj;  to 
Suetonius,  olfereil  him  a  place  in  his  own  house- 
hold,  which  the  poet  prudently  declined.  But  as 
the  unrivalled  lyric  poet  of  the  time  Horace  gradu- 
ally acquired  the  position  of  poet-laureate ;  and 
his  ode  written  to  command  for  the  celehration 
of  the  Secular  Games  in  17  n.c.,  with  the  olHcial 
odes  which  followed  it  on  the  victories  of  Tiberius 
and  Drusus,  and  on  the  glories  of  the  Augustan 
ago,  .mark  the  highest  level  which  this  kind  of 
poetry  has  reached.  On  tlie  27th  November  8  B.C. 
lie  died  in  hLs  fifty  seventh  year.  \'irgil  had  died 
eleven  years  before  ;  Tibullus  and  Propertius  soon 
after  Virgil  ;  Ovid,  still  a  young  man,  w;i.s  the 
only  considerable  poet  whom  he  left  beliind  ;  and 
with  his  death  the  great  Augustan  age  of  Latin 
poetry  enils. 

The  following  is  the  list  of  Horace's  works, 
arranged  according  to  the  dates  which  have  been 
most  plausibly  fixed  by  scholars.  Some  of  the 
questions  of  Horatian  chronology,  however,  are 
still  at  issue,  and  to  most  of  the  dates  now  to  be 
given  the  word  'about"  should  be  prefixed. 

The  first  book  of  Satires,  ten  in  number,  his 
earliest  publication,  appeared  35  B.C.  A  second 
volume  of  eight  satires,  showing  more  maturity 
and  finish  than  the  first,  was  published  30  B.C.  ; 
and  about  the  same  time  the  small  collection  of 
lyrics  in  iambic  and  composite  metres  imitated 
from  the  fireek  of  Archilochus,  which  is  known  as 
the  Kpiidcs.  In  19  B.C.,  at  the  age  of  forty-six, 
he  ]iroduced  his  greatest  work,  three  books 
of  OtJcs,  a  small  volume  which  repre.sents  the 
long  labour  of  years,  and  which  |ilaced  him  at  once 
in  the  front  rank  of  poets.  About  the  same  time, 
whether  before  or  after  remains  uncertain,  is  to  be 
placed  his  incomparable  volume  of  Epistles,  which 
in  grace,  ease,  good  sense,  and  wit  mark  as  high  a 
level  a-s  the  Odes  do  in  terseness,  melody,  and 
exquisite  linisli.  •  These  two  works  are  Horace's 
great  achievement.  The  remainder  of  his  writings 
demand  but  brief  notice.  They  are  the  Carmen 
Sccii/are  already  noticed  ;  a  fourth  book  of  Odes, 
with  all  the  j)erfection  in  style  of  the  others,  but 
showing  a  slight  decline  in  freshness ;  and  three 
more  epistles,  one,  that  addressed  to  Klorus,  the 
most  charming  in  its  lively  ami  graceful  e;ise  of  all 
Horace's  familiar  writings;  the  other  two  some- 
what fragmentary  essays  in  literary  criticism.  One 
of  them,  generally  known  as  the  Ars  I'uetica,  was 
pcrhaiis  left  unfinished  at  his  death. 

In  his  youth  Horace  had  been  an  aristocrat,  but 
his  choice  of  sides  was  perhajis  more  the  result  of 
accident  and  association  than  of  conviction,  and  he 
afterw.lrds  acquiesced  without  great  dilliculty  in  the 
imiierial  government.  His  acquiescence  wiis  not 
at  first  untom|icrcd  with  regret ;  and  in  the  0</t'6- 
modern  critics  have  found  touches  of  veiled  sarcasm 
against  the  new  monarchy,  and  even  a  certain 
sympathy  with  the  abortive  conspiracy  of  Murena 
in  22  B.C.  IJut  as  the  empire  grew  stronger  and 
the  advantages  which  it  brought  became  more  evi- 
dent— the  repair  of  the  destruction  caused  by  the 
civil  ware,  the  organisation  of  government,  the 
development  of  agriculture  and  commerce,  the 
establishment  at  home  and  abroad  of  the  peace  of 
Rome— his  tone  passes  into  real  enthusiasin  for  the 
new  order. 

Horace  professed  himself  a  follower  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Lpicurus,  which  he  took  as  a  rea.sonable 
mean  between  the  harshness  of  Stoicism  and  the 
low  morality  of  the  Cyrenaics.  In  his  Odes,  espe- 
cially those  written  on  public  occasions,  he  uses,  as 


all  public  men  did,  the  language  of  the  national 
religion.  But  both  in  religion  and  in  j)liilo.sophy 
he  remains  before  all  things  a  man  of  the  world  ; 
his  satire  is  more  of  manners  and  follies  than  of 
vice  or  impiety  ;  and  his  excellent  sen.se  keeps  him 
always  to  that  'golden  mean'  in  which  he  sums  U[(  ■ 
the  le.sson  of  Epicurus.  As  a  critic  he  shows  the 
same  general  good  sen.se,  but  his  criticisms  do  not 
l)rofess  to  be  original  or  to  go  much  beneath 
the  surface.  In  (Jreek  literature  he  follows  Alex- 
andrian taste  ;  in  Latin  he  represents  the  ten<lency 
of  his  age  to  undervalue  the  earlier  etlorts  of  the 
native  genius,  and  lay  great  stre-ss  on  tlie  technical 
finish  of  his  own  day. 

From  his  own  lifetime  till  now  Horace  ha-s  had  a 
popularity  unexampled  in  literature.  A  hundred 
generations  who  have  learned  him  a.s  schoolboys 
have  remembered  and  returned  to  him  in  mature 
age  a-s  to  a  personal  friend.     He  is  one  of  those  rare 


examples,  like  Julius  C'esar  in  politics,  of  genius 
which  ripens  late,  and  leaves  the  more  enduring 
traces.  Up  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  his  work  is 
still  crude  and  tentative ;  afterwards  it  is  charac- 
terised by  a  jewel-finish,  an  exquisite  .sense  of 
language  which  weighs  every  word  accurately  and 
makes  every  word  inevitable  and  perfect.  He  was 
not  a  profound  thinker ;  his  philosophy  is  that 
rather  of  the  market-place  than  of  the  schools ; 
he  does  not  move  among  high  ideals  or  subtle 
emotions.  The  romantic  note  which  makes  Virgil 
so  magical  and  prophetic  a  figure  at  that  turn- 
ing-point of  the  world's  history  has  no  place  in 
Horace;  to  gain  a  universal  audience  he  offers 
nothing  more  and  nothing  less  than  what  is  uni- 
versal to  mankind.  Of  the  common  range  of 
thought  and  feeling  he  is  perfect  and  ab.solute 
master  ;  and  in  the  graver  passages  of  the  Epistles, 
as  in  the  sad  and  noble  cadence  of  his  most 
famous  Odes,  the  melancholy  temper  which  under- 
lay his  quick  and  bright  humour  touches  the  deepest 
springs  of  human  nature.  Of  his  style  the  most 
perfect  criticism  was  given  in  the  next  generation 
by  a  single  phrase,  Horafii  ciiriosa  felieitas ;  of  no 
poet  can  it  be  more  truly  said,  in  the  phra.se  of 
the  Greek  dramatist  Agathon,  that  'skill  has  an 
alFection  for  luck,  and  luck  for  skill.'  His  poetry 
sujiplies  more  plnases  which  have  become  i)ro- 
verbial  than  the  rest  of  Latin  literature  put  to- 
gether. To  suggest  a  parallel  in  English  literature 
we  must  unite  in  thought  the  excellences  of  Pope 
and  (iray  with  the  etisy  wit  and  cultured  grace  of 
Addison. 

Horace's  historical  position  in  Latin  literature  is 
this  :  oil  the  one  hand  he  carried  on  and  perfected 
the  native  Konian  growth,  satire,  from  the  ruder 
essays  of  Lucilius,  so  a-s  to  make  Itoman  life  from 
day  to  day,  in  city  and  country,  live  anew  under 
his  pen  ;  on  the  other  he  naturalised  the  m<'tres 
and  manner  of  the  great  Greek  lyric  poet.s  from 
.Cleans  and  Sappho  downwards.  Befhre  Horace 
Latin  lyric  poetry  is  represented  almost  wholly  by 
the  brilliant  but  technically  imniiiture  poems  of 
Catullus ;  after  him  it  ceases  to  exist,  r  or  what 
he  made  it  he  claims,  in  a  studied  modesty  of 
])hrase  but  with  a  jnst  sense  of  his  own  merits,  an 
immortality  to  rival  that  of  Rome. 

Editions  :  Horace's  works  are  believed  to  liave  been 
printed  for  the  fir.st  time  in  1470  at  ^Uan.  The  most 
important  commentaries  (with  Latin  notes)  are  those 
of  Denis  Lambin  (1561),  Bentlcy  (1711 ),  and  Orclli  and 
Baiter  (lS50-.i2).  For  ordinary  students,  with  En^dish 
notes,  the  most  useful  editions  are  by  Maclcane  (ls.~i;j), 
Yonge  (1867),  Wickham  (vol.  i.  Odes  and  Eimdcs,  1S74), 
Wilkins  {Epistles,  188.5)  and  PaUner  (*a<i>f.«,  1883). 
Tk.^.nslatioxs  :  Francis,  Conington  ( tlie  wliole ),  Sir 
Theodore  Martin  (Oilis  and  SdHns),  Kutherfurd  Clark 
{(hlis).  Tlie  Life  of  Horace,  by  Dcin  Miliiian,  and  Sir 
T.  llartin's  book  (1870)  in  tlie  '.Vncient  Classics  for 
Englisli  Readers '  may  also  be  read  with  advantage. 


778 


HOUATll 


HOKN 


lloratii.  tin-  tlnco  lnotluMs  sflectod  by  Tiillust 
lli>.-<lilius,  kiii^;  of  Koine,  to  tij;lit  ayiiinst  llie  three 
lirotliei-s  (iiriatii,  tlie  eliaiiipioiis  oi  Alba  Loii^ra, 
wlien  it  wius  a^rieed  to  decide  tlie  quarrel  l)et«ecii 
the  two  cities  l>y  tlie  issue  of  siiifjle  oomliat  liv 
three  warrioi-s  chosen  from  either  side.  'I'lie  U';,'eiid 
<;oes  that  two  of  the  Uoratii  were  siieedily  slain  : 
the  remaining'  brother,  yet  unsoatheil,  by  a  simu- 
lated llij,'ht,  siicceeileil  in  en;ra;,'inj;  each  of  his 
woundeii  o|>|ioiieiits  sin;.'ly,  and  in  ovcrcoiiiinf;  them 
all.  A.s  he  entered  the  ^'ate  of  Home  in  triumph, 
bejirin''  the  tr()|>hies  of  the  slain,  he  was  met  by  his 


tropnies  II 

sister,  whose  beloved  was  one  of  the  dead  champions 
of  All)a.  ."she  cniveil  his  sl.'iyer,  her  victorious 
brotliiT,  and  Wiis  l>y  him  tliereupon  stalibed  to  the 
heart,  lloratius,  condciiined  liy  the  ilniunriri  to  l)e 
scourged  to  death,  Wivs  afterward.s  saved  by  the 
peoi)le,  and  lived  to  destroy  Alba  Loufja  and  cany 
its  inhabitants  to  Konie.  This  story,  altliou^'h  con- 
tainin<.'  a  very  large  admixture  of  mylliical  ele- 
ments, piiint.s  to  the  close  relationship  that  I'.xisted 
between  Itome  and  .Allia  Lonpt.  as  well  as  to  the 
fact  of  ,an  internecine  stru;;gle  having  taken  place 
before  llu;  latter  was  incorporate*!  in  the  political 
orgiinisation  of  the  former. 

It  Wiis  a  ilescenilant  of  the  survivor  of  the  three 
Horatii,  named  lloralius  Cocle.s,  who  in  507  li.c, 
along  with  'I'itus  Hcrminius  and  Spurins  I>artius, 
formed  the  "  ilauntless  tlirec,'  who  •  kept  the 
bridge  so  well  in  the  brave  days  of  oM,'  against 
the  army  of  Lars  I'orsena,  king  of  L.-uinm, 
whilst  their  compatriots  broke  down  the  Sublician 
bridge  behind  them.  Horatius  escaped  by  swim- 
ming the  '  yellow  Tiber,'  wa.s  received  with  juliilant 
shouts  by  his  fellow-citizens,  and  overwhelmed  with 
honours  and  rewards. 

Ilorluir.V.  a  village  of  the  West  Hiding  of 
Yorkshire,  4  miles  S\V.  of  Wakelicld,  manufac- 
tures woollens,  worsteds,  llannels,  \c.      I'op.  .")()oO. 

Horde,  a  town  of  Westphalia.  21  miles  SE.  of 
Dortmiiml,  h.is  large  ironworks  (enmloying  more 
than  40(K)  men)  and  coal-mines,  with  iron,  steel, 
and  /inc  manuf.actories.     I'op.  I(),,i98. 

II«tl'4l('ill.  ii  term  that  hivs  been  applied  to  a 
substance  that  can  be  ex- 
tracted from  liarley  (Lat. 
/lon/finii  ),  which  is  merely 
a  mixture  of  starch,  cellu- 
lose, and  a  somewhat  nitro- 
genous matter. 

Ilurob.     See  SiX.M. 

Ilorelioiiiid     (Mumi- 

bittui ),  a  genus  of 
the  natural  order 
having  a  tubular 
caly.x,  with  .j  or 
equal  teeth,  4  stamen^ 
eluded    in    the   corolla, 


plants  of 
Laliiatu', 
lO-ribbeil 
10   spiny 
-  in- 
the 
upper    lip    of     the     corolla 
erect,  the  lower  lip  .t-cleft. 
The  species  are  mostly  |>er- 
eninat,   herbaceous   |dauts, 
natives    of    the    south    of 
Europe  and  the  East.     One 
species,     the     t'onunon     or 
White  Horehound  (.)/.  viil- 
(fare),     is     a    r.atlier    rare 
native  of    Britain,    and    is 
found  generally  throughout 
Europe,  except  in  the  more 
northern    regions,    growing 
in   waste  places,   waysides, 
&C.       It  is   frequently  cul- 
tivated  in   garilens  .among 
collections   of   herbs.     It  is 
about    1    to    li   feet    high,    bushy,    with   roundish, 
ovate,  creuate,  wrinkled  leaves,  and  almost  globose 


Common  Horehound 
{Marrttbium  rultjare). 


whorls  of  while  llowers.  The  whide  plant  has  a 
whitish  appearance,  from  the  <lown  with  which  its 
leaves  are  coveretl.  It  has  an  aromatic  but  not  very 
agreeable  smell.  It  is  tonic,  stimulant,  and  laxa 
tive,  anil  is  much  used  in  coughs,  being  a  popular 
remedy,  and  a  very  safe  and  elliracinns  one.  It 
wjis  formerly  al.so  employed  in  alliclinns  of  the 
womb  and  of  the  liver.  It  is  administered  in  the 
form  of  an  infusion,  <U'  nuide  into  a  syrup  with 
sugar,  and  sonu-times  the  syrnp  is  candied.  ISIack 
Horehound  is  the  popular  name  of  Jln/h/la  iiii/ni, 
another  native  of  Britain,  and  belonging  to  the 
same  n:iliiral  order.  Eor  Water  Horehound,  see 
(iVl'SVWul!!-. 

Ilorixoil,  the  circular  line  formed  by  the 
api>arcnl  meeting  of  the  earth  and  sky  ;  this,  in 
astronomy,  is  .srnsiUe  horizn}!.  The  nttiouft/  /ivri- 
zo)i  is  the  circle  formed  by  a  plane  ]m.-sing  through 
the  centre  of  the  earth,  parallel  to  the  sensible 
horizon,  and  produced  to  meet  the  heavens.  The 
(irlijiiiiil  huiizmi  is  a  small  trough  containing 
quicksilver,  the  surface  of  which  albiids  a  rellection 
of  the  celesli;il  bodies.  It  may  l>e  used  for  calculat- 
ing the  altitude  of  the  stars  when  the  sea-hoiiznn 
is  obscured  bv  fog  or  otherw  ise  not  available  to  the 
sailor  determining  his  position.  The  (///<  of  thi: 
horizon  is  the  angle  through  which  the  sea  horizon 
appears  depressed  in  consequence  of  the  elevation 
of  the  spect.ator.  The  true  dip  of  the  horizon, 
however,  is  not  exactly  the  same  as  its  apparent 
ile|ire.ssion.  The  apparent  sea-horizon  is  raised 
aliove  its  true  i)lace  by  rrfriirlioii  through  an  angle 
which  varies  according  to  the  slate  ni  the  atmo- 
sphere and  the  relative  temperatures  of  the  air  and 
water,  the  variation  ranging  from  one  third  to  one- 
twenty-third  of  the  amount  of  the  true  dip.  The 
rule  commonly  employed  is  to  diminish  the  true 
dip  by  about  one-fourteenth  of  its  amount  to  lind 
the  ajiparent  dip. 

lioi'lliayr,  dosErii,  Fi:i-:iiieku  von,  historian, 
was  born  at"  Innsbruck,  '20th  .lanuary  17S2.  In  1803 
he  was  ai>pointed  keeper  of  the  state  and  royal 
archives  of  Austria,  and  in  1810  imperial  historio- 
grapher. But,  having  conceived  an  unconi|uer- 
able  hatred  of  Metternich,  who  had  caused  him  to 
be  imprisoned  for  thirteen  months  ujion  suspicion 
of  being  concerned  in  a  new  revolt  in  T^  lol, 
Horniayr  in  1828  entered  the  service  of  Bavaria, 
and,  after  four  years'  activity  in  the  department 
for  foreign  all'airs,  was  nominated  minister  of 
Bavariii  to  Hanover  from  l.s:{'2,  and  to  the  Hanse 
towns  from  18.S7.  From  1840  to  his  death  on  ."ith 
October  1848  he  w.is  head  of  the  Bavarian  archives. 
He  published  several  works  on  the  liLstory  of  Tyrol 
(including  Iin.-i  Ja(ii(1  'J'iiu/,  184.")),  an  'Austrian 
I'lutarch,'  and  a  general  history  of  modern  times. 

Horn,  a  general  term  applied  ( 1 )  to  certain 
structures,  whatever  their  composition,  glowing  on 
the  heads  of  oxen,  sliee]!,  giralles,  rhinoceroses,  \c., 
and  to  similar  stnictures  on  other  animals  such  a-s 
beetles;  ('2)  to  a  substance  of  a  certain  delinite 
chemical  eoinpo.sition  forming  'horns,'  hoofs,  nails, 
claws,  and  other  similar  structures. 

( 1  )  Of  horns  as  they  exist  among  mammals  there 
are  two  distinct  classes:  («)  horns  formed  of  epi- 
dermal tissue  ;  and  (6)  bony  horns  or  antlers,  (a) 
Epidermal  horns  are  of  two  kinds.  The  horn  of 
the  rhinoceros,  which  is  an  example  of  the  firet 
kind,  ciuisists  of  ii  compiu:t,  uniform  agglutination 
of  epidermal  libres  or  l)rislles.  Tin,'  slightly  con- 
cave ba.se  of  the  horn  fits  over  a  slightly  ]irojecting 
roughened  jiorlion  of  the  nasal  bones  iiMilcrneath. 
In  the  growing  horn,  while  the  lllires  at  the  back 
decjiy,  new  libres  are  so  added  at  the  front  and 
sides  that,  relatively  to  the  fore-part  of  the  head, 
the  position  of  the  horn  remains  always  the  .same. 
In  grown  animals  new  material  is  added  only  at 


HORN 


■79 


the  base,  and  the  wliole  outer  surface  is  siiiootli 
and  rounded.  The  liorn  is  median  in  position  and 
syninietriral  in  shape.  In  the  fenuile  it  i.s  usually 
shorter  ami  smaller.  Wlien  a  second  horn  is 
present  it  is  usually  shorter  and  smaller  in  size, 
and  is  situated  behind  the  lirst  one  and  on  the 
frontal  bones.  If  we  imagine  the  rough  jiart  of 
the  bone  underneath  and  tlie  vascular  tissue  im- 
mediately over  it  growing  upwards  into  the  epi- 
dermal liorn  and  hollowing  it  out,  we  have  the 
second  kind  of  e|)idermal  horn — the  hollow  horn 
found  in  the  Cavicoruia  ( Bovida',  Ovida",  Anti- 
lopida>).  In  the  case  of  these  horns  the  bony  pari, 
or  horn  core,  is  developed  as  an  outgrowth  from 
the  frontal  bone  ;  in  the  IJovidie  and  Ovid;e  the 
cores  are  hollow  or  spongy,  and  their  spaces  com- 
municate with  the  air-.spaee.s  in  the  frontal  bones, 
while  in  the  Antilopida>  the  cores  are  .solid  or  only 
slightly  e.xcavaled  at  the  base.  Hollow  horns  are 
nsually  unbranched  and  persistent,  but  in  the 
Prong-horn  Anttdope  (Antiluciipra  amcricana)  the 
horny  sheatlis  are  shed  annually  while  the  bony 
cores  grow  and  their  vascular  coverings  per.sist 
and  give  rise  to  the  new  horns  ;  these  horns  show, 
after  the  lirst  year,  a  small  branch  or  snag  analo- 
gous to  the  brow-antler  of  the  deer.  In  the 
ChicUara  {Aiilihipc  {Tetr(iceros\  quadricoryiis),  an 
Indian  species  (jf  antelope,  two  pairs  of  horn  cores 
are  ileveloped  from  the  frontal  bones.  The  gigantic 
e.xtinct  antelopes  Hramatherium  and  Sivatherium 
had  two  pairs  of  horns  like  the  Ayiti/o/je  (juculii- 
conii.s,  and  the  hin<ler  jiair  possessed  the  branched 
character  now  exhibited  only  by  the  Prong-horn. 
Hollow  horns  are  found  usuallv  in  both  sexes,  but 


Front  View  of  the  .Skull  of  the  Ox,  with  the.  right 
Horny  Sheath  detached  from  tlie  Core. 

in  some  genera  of  antelopes  (Tragelajdius,  C'crvi- 
capra,  Ce|dialopluis,  Ike)  only  in  the  male.  In 
the  Prong-horn  the  horns  of  the  female  are  almost 
hidden  in  the  hair  of  the  head  ;  they  are  small, 
short,  and  unbranched,  as  in  the  yearling  buck. 
(b)  Uony  horns  or  antlers  (see  Antler.S,  and  Dkkk) 
are  of  two  kinds,  e.xemplilied  bv  the  horns  of  the 
deer  and  gir.ilVe  respectively.  In  these  the  horns 
are  tleveloped  from  membrane  bones  which  grow 
np  covered  by  the  skin,  and  nourished  by  vessels 
from  it.  In  the  giralle  they  grow  just  over  the 
junction  of  the  frontal  with  the  parietal  bones, 
and  bcconu;  united  to  them  by  means  of  cartilage. 
The  integument  over  the  antler  is  terminated  by  a 
tuft  of  coarser  hair,  and  is  persistent.  Horns  are 
present  in  both  se.xes,  and  the  young  giralle  is 
the  only  aninuil  born  with  horns.  The  antlers  of 
thi;  deer  dill'er  from  those  of  the  giralle  in  that  the 
membrane  bones  become  lirndy  united  by  bony 
growth  to  the  frontal  bones,  the  integument — or 
vohet — does  not  persist,  and  the  horns  are  shed 
annually. 

(2)  True  horny  tissue  is  a  modified  form  of  epi- 
dermic tissue.  The  term  includes  not  only  true 
horn,  ii-s  noted  above,  but  also  hoofs,  nails,  claws, 
hair,  wool,  beaks  of  animals  generally,  the  carapace 
of  ti>rtoi.ses,  the  scales  of  the  pangolin,  the  spines 
of  the  hedgehog  and  the  quills  of  the   jiorcupine. 


the  feathers  of  birds,  the  'castors'  of  hor.ses  and 
other  animals,  and  other  eiiidermic  thickenings  and 
growths,  whether  occurring  normally  as  the  callosi- 
ties over  the  breastbone  of  camels  and  the  hips  of 
some  monkeys  or  pathologically 
as  the  '  corns '  ami  '  horns  '  of  the 
human  subject.  This  tissue  largelj- 
consists  of  an  albuminoid  sub- 
stance termed  '  keratin,'  which  is 
composed  of  carbon  (from  50 '3  to 
52'5  percent.),  hydrogen  (from  G'4 
to  7  percent.),  oxygen  (from  '20'7 
to  '25  per  cent.),  nitrogen  (from 
lti"2  to  177  l>er  cent.),  and  sulphur 
(from  "7  to  5  per  cent.).  Keratin 
may  be  obtaineil  from  the  struc- 
tures above  enumerated  by  the 
succe.ssive  action  of  boiling  water,  Cellular  Structure 
alcohol,   ether,    and    dilute   acids,  of  Horn, 

and  is  probably  a  compound 
body  that  has  not  yet  been  resolved  into  its  com- 
ponents. Viewed  under  the  microscope,  horny 
tissue  is  seen  to  consist  of  numerous  parallel  bundles 
of  fine  threads.  The.se  threads,  under  the  action 
of  a  eoncentrateil  s<dution  of  caustic  jiotash  or  soda, 
unfold  into  small  jilales  which  gradually  expand 
into  regular  nucleated  epidermic  cells  shown  in  the 
figure. 

Cattle  are  freciuently  dishorned  to  prevent  them 
from  constantly  goring  and  injuring  each  other 
when  conlined  in  open  courts  ;  the  whole  or  part 
only  of  the  horn  and  horn  core  may  be  renu)\  ed,  but 
the  usual  method  is  total  dishorning  by  sawing  off 
the  luuns  close  to  the  head,  at  their  junction  with 
the  skull.  If  the  oiieration  is  skilfully  ])erformed, 
and  if  jiioper  precautions  be  taken  to  ]irevent  in- 
llammation  f(dlowing,  the  operation  is  aHirmed  by 
many  to  be  by  no  nieaiw  a  very  painful  one  (much 
less  so  than  luany  others,  such  as  branding),  the 
skin  being  the  most  sensitive  structure  involved. 
It  should  not  therefore,  it  is  argued,  be  considered 
within  the  category  of  cruelty  to  animals  forbidden 
liy  law.  In  IMS!),  however,  the  Queen's  I3ench 
division  decided  against  this  view,  the  judges 
denouncing  the  practice  as  cruel  and  demoralis- 
ing. The  Scottish  Court  of  Session  in  1890  came  to 
an  o|iposite  conclusion,  which  was  appealed  from. 

HoKN  Maxifactire.s.— The  horns  of  the  ox, 
butt'alo,  sheep,  .goat,  and  antelope  are  hollow,  tough, 
and  capable  of  being  split  into  flexible  slices, 
llhinoceros  horn,  though  solid  througdi  nearly  its 
whole  length,  resembles  that  of  the  ox  in  its  nature. 
From  the  niost  remote  ages  the  horns  of  animals 
ha\e  been  employed  by  man  for  various  purposes. 
Numerous  examjiles  of  jioniards,  hamlles,  pick- 
axes, dart-heads,  'batons  of  authority,' and  imple- 
ments of  unknown  use  made  of  reindeer  and  red- 
deer  horns  have  been  lOund  in  river  gravels  among 
other  ]>rehistoric  remains  of  the  Neolithic  period. 
Hut  the  most  remarkable  of  the  productions  of 
Neolithic  man  which  have  yet  been  found  are 
]iieces  of  reindeer  horn  and  niamnu)th  tusks  with 
carvings  or  etchings  of  animals  njjon  them. 

Horns  of  the  ox,  as  well  as  those  of  the  sheep  and 
goat,  can  be  split  up  into  sheets  or  [dates  after  they 
have  been  soakcil  and  boiled.  ^^  hen  made  very 
thin  such  plates  were  at  one  time  \ised  for  wiu<low- 
panes,  for  the  construction  of  lanterns,  and  fiir 
covering  Hornbooks  ((|.v.).  Two  ineccs  of  horn 
can  also  be  welded  together  at  the  edges  by  steep- 
ing them  in  hot  water  and  applying  pressure. 
Another  valuable  i)ro|>erty  of  Ikuii  is  that  when 
healed  it  can  be  pressed  into  a  die  or  numld.  In 
this  way  it  is  fcuined  into  ormimental  handles 
for  knives,  forks,  umbrellas,  and  walking-canes ; 
also  into  drawer-knobs,  spoons,  boxes,  buttons,  and 
many  other  useful  articles.  The  manufacture  of 
combs  from  horn  is  alreadv  described  under  Comb. 


780 


HORN 


It  may  1)0  stutuil  licre  tlmt  the  lioofs  of  oxen  are 
likewise  inanufactureil  on  a  larj;c  scale  into  conilis, 
and  to  some  extent  into  other  articles  such  as 
buttons. 

In  llieir  natural  form,  but  cleaned  and  polished, 
horns  are  used  ius  drinkingcups  and  snufl'lM)xes,  and 
in  jiast  times  they  were  very  largely  employed  for 
hdliliiig  gunpowder.  They  also  .served  as  wind- 
instruments.  Many  of  the  Scotch  powder  horns  in 
use  during  the  lUth  and  17th  centuries  are  beauti- 
fully and  elaborately  carved.  A  considerable  num- 
ber of  these  are  illustrated  in  Urutiiinond's  Am-kiit 
Sculfis/t  JVciijioiis  {XSSI).  In  India  Imllalo  and  other 
horns  are  used  for  ornauu'nlal  work  of  various 
kinds.  Kliinoceros  horn  again  is  a  f.ivourite  mate 
rial  with  (_'liinese  carvers,  who  form  the  b;isc  of 
it  into  elegant  cups,  and  sometimes  make  .a  very 
elVective  ornament  of  the  entire  horn,  which  admits 
of  being  very  boldly  carved.  The  deer  horn  so  much 
worked  up  at  Sheliield  into  handles  for  carving  and 
jxicket  knives  is  chielly  that  of  the  Axis  deer 
((.'(•;•(•!(.!  til  is)  of  India.  Deer  horns  are  employed 
in  France  ami  (uMuiany  to  decorate  furniture.  In 
Great  ISritain  the  antlei-s  or  horns  of  the  stag,  the 
roe,  and  the  fallow  ileer — generally  with  the  skull 
attached — are  favourite  ornaments  for  the  decora- 
tion of  entrance-halls. 

'I'lie  average  annual  imports  of  bonis  and  hoofs 
into  t Ileal  Hrilain  at  the  close  of  the  llllh 
century  amounted  to  otHK)  tons,  valued  at  more 
than  £150,000.  To  show  the  size  to  which  sonu^ 
horns  attain,  a  jiair  on  a  Cape  ox  measures  9  or 
10  feet  from  tip  to  tip.  The  horns  of  a  large  sizeil 
Indian  butl'alo,  though  curved,  are  about  as  long. 
Tlipy  are  s  or  9  inches  broad  at  the  ba.se,  and  a 
single  Ikuu  may  weigh  11  or  12  11).  Sec  Howland 
A\'ard"s  J/nni  J\fiiisiiiciiiciil/i  of  the  Great  Game  of 
the  Wiirlil  (WH). 

Horn*  C.\PE,  commonly  spoken  of  as  the 
.southernmost  )>oint  of  America,  is  a  .steep,  black, 
bare  mountainheaVlland  of  one  of  the  small  islands 
of  the  Fue'dan  Archipelago,  55'  59'  S.  hit.,  07°  14' 
W.  long.  It  was  named  Hoorn,  anglicised  Horn, 
when  ronndeil  in  1GI6  by  the  Dutch  navigalore, 
l,ciiiaire  and  Schoutcn.  It  was  sighted  liy  Drake 
ill  157S.  Steamers  can  avoid  the  dangcnuis  doub- 
ling of  'the  Horn  '  by  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  See 
Spears,  The  Gulil  Diijijinijs  uf  Cape  Hum  (1S9G). 

Iloriu  CofNT  (1518-68).  See  Egmont,  and 
III  11,1,  \NU  [Hist or !i). 

Horn,  French  (Fr.  cor,  cor  de  chnsse ;  Ital. 
fiiniii,  iiinio  fie  caccia  ;  tier,  honi,  wriM/iorn),  one 
of  the  nuist  important,  as  it  is  the  softest  toned,  of 
brass  instruments  used  in  orchestral  music.  Its 
.soft  and  peculiar  tone  is  due  to  the  length  of  the 
tube,  the  shajic  of  the  bell,  and  the  funnel  like 
bore  of  the  mouthpiece.  'I'liis  latter  iiii|iortant 
])oint  will  be  understood 
B  from  tig.  1,  which  shows  a 
section  of  the  horn  mouth- 
piece {ii)  contrasted  with 
that  of  the  trumpet  (6), 
the  most  brazen  of  brass 
instruTuents.  The  original 
French  horn  was  used  in 
hunting,  and  consisted  of 
a  long  tnl>e  with  two  or 
three  tunis  made  large 
enough  to  go  over  the 
shouldei-s  of  the  hunter. 
It  was  used  frf)m  a  very 
Fig.  1.  early    period,    but    it    was 

Louis  A\'.  who  composed 
the  complete  set  of  sounds  and  fanfares  still  used 
in  the  French  hunting  lield. 

It  was  introduced  into  the  orchestra  in  the  early 
part  of  the  18th  century,  and  it  gradually  acquired 


7 


the  important  position  it  now  holds  from  the 
smooth  softness  of  il.s  tones  a.s  a  fonndatiim  for 
harmony  in  chords,  and  its  tine  contra-st  with  other 
instruments. 

For  orchestral  purposes  the  instrument  wa.s 
improveil  by  the  addition  of  crooks  of  varying 
lengths,  so  as  to  i)itch  it  in  iliderent  keys;  ami 
thus  horn  music  is  always  written  in  ('  with  the 
key  adde<l  to  show  the  crook  t<i  be  uscil.  These 
crooks  are  usually  eight  in  number,  and  extend 
from  Aj  in  alto  to  C  ba.s.so ;  the  lowest  crook 
making  the  total  length  of  the  instrniiient  a  little 
over  10  feet.  There  are  also  tuning  crooks,  rai.sing 
or  lowering  either  of  the  others  a  semitone,  and 
also  a  tuning  slide  for  the  more  accurate  tuning 
with  the  other  instruments.  The  open  notes  of 
the  horn  arc  the  harmonics  of  its  fundamental 
note  (see  Hakmosics),  and  a.s  this,  from  the  length 
of  the  tube,  is  very  low,  the  harmonics  in  the 
middle  scale  are  at  very  short  intervals  with  many 
consecutive  notes.  It  may  be  given  ai>proxiiiiately 
thus  : 


^ 


-• — I  rr- ' 


^r 


The  notes  actually  sounded,  of  coui-se,  depend  on 
the  crooks  useil.  The  method  of  forming  the  inter- 
mediate notes  by  handstopiiiiig  was  discovered  by 
a  pl.ayer  named  HampI  at  Dresden  about  1770. 
The  open  hand,  with  the  lingers  close  together,  is 
introduced  into  the  bell,  lowering  the  jiitch  a  semi- 
tone. These  stoppe<l  notes,  however,  have  a 
mullleil  sound,  and  in  modern  times  the  born  is 
almost  always  made  with  two  or  three  valves  to 
bridge  over  the  intervals.     Fig.  2  shows  the  horn 


with  two  valves  a.s  commonly  used.  On  account  of 
the  freciucnt  changes  of  ]iitch,  and  the  ininilicr  and 
tenilerness  of  its  oiien  notes,  it  is  a  dillicult  instru- 
ment to  play.  'I'lie  horn  is  very  seldom  used 
singly  ;  either  two  or  four  being  the  usual  number 
in  the  orchestra. 

Han<Iel,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Schubert,  AVeber, 
Mendelssohn,  Kossini,  Schumann,  and  .all  com- 
])osers  of  note  li.ave  gnven  the  bonis  a  most  ini- 
jiortant  place  in  their  works.  See  article  'Horn' 
in  droves  Dictionar;/  nf  Mimic. 

I'o.STliniiN,  a  straight  bra.«s  or  copper  instru- 
ment, varying  from  2  to  4  feet  in  length,  and  some- 
what resembling  the  bugle  in  its  taper  bore;  it 
h.xs  a  small  cu]iped  mouthpiece.  It  wa.^  used  as  a 
signal  instrument  by  the  guards  of  mail-coaches, 
but  has  occasionally  been  introduced  into  light 
music.  It  has  the  same  open  notes  as  the  Hiigle 
(q.v.).  The  hunting-horn,  used  in  England,  is  a 
shorter  instrument  of  the  same  kind.  The  Sax- 
horn (q.v.)  is  a  dill'erent  instrument. 


HORNBEAM 


HORNCASTLE 


781 


Hornbeam  (  Carpinus),  a  genus  of  the  natural 
Older  Aiiientacea-,  consisting  of  trees  with  compact, 
tough,  liard  wooil  ;  hark  ahnost  smooth  anil  of  a 
whitisli-gray  colour,  deciduous  leaves,  and  niono:'- 
cious  flowers.  The  male  calkins  are  cylindrical 
and  sessile  ;  tlieir  flowers  consist  merely  of  a  little 
scale-like  bract  and  twelve  to  twenty-four  stamens. 
The  female  catkins  are  slender,  several  inches  long 
when  in  fruit,  and  conspicuous  for  their  long  leaf- 
like bracts,  and  containing  small,  ovoid,  prominently 


Common  Hornbeam  {Curpinuti  bctnliis) : 
a,  male  catkin  ;  &,  female  catkin,  fully  de\eloped  ;  c,  fruit. 

ribbed  nuts.  The  flowers  appear  in  spring  as  the 
leaves  come  out.  Such  are  the  characteristics  of 
the  Common  Hornbeam  (Ci(rjjiiiiis  hctnlii.'i),  which 
is  believed  to  be  indigenous  to  Britain,  but  is  best 
known  as  a  plantation  tree.  It  has  a  wide  range 
of  distribution  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

The  tree  attains  a  height  of  from  30  to  80  feet — 
rarely  the  latter.  The  wood  is  white,  very  com- 
pact, hard,  and  tough,  but  does  not  now  rank  higli 
commercially.  It  is  occasionally  used  by  joiners, 
turners,  and  wheelwrights,  but,  being  capable  of 
receiving  a  fine  polish,  is  more  in  demand  for 
purposes  of  ornament  than  utility.  It  was  for- 
niony  in  Britain,  and  is  yet  in  many  parts  of 
Europe,  preferred  for  making  yokes  for  cattle — 
hence,  .ai'cording  to  some  authorities,  the  name 
hornbeam.  It  is  one  of  the  best  of  firewoods,  and, 
the  leaves,  like  those  of  the  beech,  being  ])ersisteiit  in 
winter,  it  is  employed  ius  a  hedge  plant  for  purposes 
of  shclier.  There  are  a  very  few  other  s])ecies  of 
Carpinus  natives  of  Eurojie,  Asia,  and  North 
America,  dillering  chielly  in  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  fruiting  bracts. 

Ilorilbill.  the  name  of  a  genus  ( Buceros )  and 
of  a  family  ( liucerotida")  of  birds  now  placed  in  the 
division  of  Kissirostral  I'icariaii  birds.  The  species 
are  numerous,  and  are  found  in  Africa,  India,  and 
throughout  the  Malayan  region  as  far  as  Xew 
(luiiica.  They  are  mostly  large  binls.  the  largest 
being  more  than  4  feet  long,  the  sm.-illost  rather 
smaller  than  a  magpie.  They  are  bulky  birds  of 
heavy,  noisy  flight;  tlieir  large  bills  are  surmounted 
by  bony  crests  or  helmets  of  varied  shape  and 
sometimes  of  great  size,  but  rendered  light  by  the 
]>re.seiice  of  numerous  air-cells.  Their  food  is  prin- 
cipally fruits,  but  in  certain  circumstances  they 
become  to  a  great  extent  omnivorous.  The  most 
curious  fact  regarding  these  birds  is  that  during 
the  breeding  season  the  male  impri.sons  the  female 
in  the  nest  in  a  hollow  tree,  plastering  up  the 
entrance,  and  leaving  only  a  small   slit   through 


Hornbill  {Buceros  rhiiiuccrus) 


which  he  supjilies  her  and  her  oli's|)ring  with  food 
until  the  young  ones  are  nearly  full  grown.  In 
captivity  the  male 
bird  has  been  ob- 
served to  disgorge 
at  intervals  the  lin- 
ing of  his  gazzard  in 
the  form  of  a  bag, 
and  it  is  supposed 
that  the  food  sup- 
plied to  the  female 
during  her  term  of 
captivity  in  the 
breeding  .season  is 
enclosed  in  this 
structure. 

Ilorii  blende, 
an  important  rock- 
forming  mineral, 
having  much  the 
same  comjiosition  as 
augite.  It  is  con- 
siilered  to  be  an  iso- 
morphous  nii.\ture  of 
silicate  of  magnesia 
and  lime  and  silicate 
of  iron  and  lime, 
coiiil)ined  with  an 
aluminous  .silicate  of 
lime  and  magnesia. 

It  ciystallises  in  monoclinic  forms  ;  has  a  hardness 
=  5'5  to  6  ;  and  specific  gravity  =  3'1  to  33.  There 
are  two  tolerably  well-marked  varieties — viz.  com- 
mon hornblende  and  basaltic  liornblendc.  Common 
hornblende  is  dark-green  to  raven-black,  and  is 
characteristic  of  maii.v  crystalline  .schists  and 
plutonic  locks.  It  ijenerally  takes  the  form  of 
long  prismatic  crystals,  but  is  sometimes  massive, 
librous,  and  radiating.  Basaltic  hornblende  is  gen- 
erally biownish-blaclc  to  pitch-ljlack,  and  the  crys- 
tals are  usually  short  and  well  formed.  It  occurs 
as  a  primary  constituent  of  many  eru])tive  rocks. 
Smarar/dite  is  a  peculiar  grass-green  lamellar  form 
of  hornblende,  characteristic  of  the  rock  Eclogite. 

Hornbook,  the  ]iiimer  or  apparatus  for  learn- 
ing the  elements  of  reading,  used  in  England 
before  the  da.vs  of  printing,  and  common  down  to 
the  time  of  George  II.  It  consisted  of  a  single 
leaf,  containing  on  one  side  the  alphabet  large  and 
small,  in  black  letter  or  in  Komaii,  with  perhaps 
a  small  regiment  of  monosyllal)les.  Then  followed 
a  form  of  e-\orcism  and  the  Lord's  Prayer,  ami  as 
a  hnale,  the  Uoman  numerals.  The  leaf  was  usually 
set  in  a  frame  of  wood,  with  a  slice  of  transparent 
horn  in  front — hence  the  name  of  /lornAnxik.  There 
was  a  handle  to  hold  it  by,  and  usually  this  handle 
had  a  hole  for  a  string,  whereby  the  apparatus  vmus 
slung  to  the  girdle  of  the  scholar.  Sometimes  the 
leaf  was  simply  ]iasted  against  a  slice  of  horn.  At 
lirst  the  leaf  was  of  vellum,  with  the  characters  in 
writing;  latterly,  of  paper,  and  printed.  The  horn- 
book was  jirefaced  and  otherwise  ornamented  with 
ligures  of  the  cross,  and  hence  came  to  be  often 
called  Christ  (^ross  Kow,  or  Criss  Cross  liow. 
Common  ,is  hornbooks  at  one  time  were,  copies 
of  them  are  now  exceedingly  rare.  See  the  elaborate 
monograph  by  .\.  W.  Tuer,  the  Histori/  of  the 
Horn  Bon/,;  with  illustrations  and  fac-similes  (2 
vols.  189()) ;  and  Ilalliwell's  Fngitive  Tracts  ( 1S49). 
Allnsions  to  the  hornbook  abound  in  the  older 
writers;  thus  Shenstcme,  in  his  Schoolmistress,  tells 
us  of  the  children,  how 

Tlieir  books  cif  sliit\ire  small  they  take  in  hand. 
Which  with  i)ollucid  horn  secured  are, 
To  sjive  from  lint:.rs  wet  the  letters  fair. 
Horiicastle,  an  ancient  market-town  of  Lin- 
colnshire,  at  the   foot  of  the  Wolds,   between  the 
conllucnt  Bain  and  Waring,  21  miles  E.  of  Lincoln, 


78-2 


HORNE 


HORN-WORK 


with  wliirli  it  is  cDnnectiMl  liy  a  liraiicli-liiie  ( 1S55). 
It  liJis  a  liaiiilsoiiie  Pciiienilieiilar  clmrcli  (restoioil 
1801),  a  (.•orn  exclianjie  (isrrti),  a  <;raiiiiiiarscli(>ol 
(Inti'i),  ami  a  great  An^,'iist  lini-sc  fair,  to  wliioli 
I5i)rni\v  ill-votes  eleven  cliaiitors  of  tlie  liniiiriiii/  Ili/f. 
Koiiian  remains  have  lieeii  loiinil  here,  .aiid  in  the 
nei;xhhourho<Ml  are  Serivelshy.  long  tlie  seat  <if  lh(» 
Dyniokes,  ehanijiions  of  Englan<l  ;  Wincehy,  the 
scene  of  a  Uovalist  defeat  (  l(i4:!)  ;  Wooilhiill  S))a, 
with  a  salt  sprinft  iliscovereil  i"  1**'2():  ami  the  site 
of  the  Cistercian  ahliev  of  Uevohv  ( 1142).  I'op. 
(1841)  4i>.'l  :  (1801)  43'74.  See  Weir's  History  of 
HornraMli-  (1820). 

llornt>,  UiciiAitD  Hexhv  •  Hkxgist,' a  bright 
ami  \  igorous  writer,  horn  on  New  year's  Day  180.'}. 
lie  w:i.s  I'dneated  at  Sandluirst.  imt  from  love  of 
adventure  fonnil  his  way  into  the  Mexican  naval 
service,  ami  took  his  share  in  all  the  lighting  that 
wiis  going  .at  Vera  Cruz,  San  Juan  I'lloa,  and  else- 
where. After  passing  through  perils  of  all  kinds, 
from  yellow  fever,  sharks,  liroken  rihs,  .shipwreck, 
mutiny,  and  lire,  he  reached  Kngland  in  safety, 
Jiud  plunged  into  a  busy  life  of  letters,  writing 
jioetry  .and  prose  alternately  and  with  coual  cxcid- 
lenee.      His  famous  e[)ic  (Irion  he  published  at  the 

})rioe  of  one  f.irthing  in  1S4.3,  to  show  his  coiitenipt 
or  .a  public  that  would  not  buy  poetry.  In  18,">2 
he  went  to  Australia  to  dig  for  gold,  ami  quickly 
became  .a  pei-son  of  consennence  in  the  colony 
of  Victoria;  but  he  rclunied  to  ICngland  in  18(iii, 
ilissatislied  with  the  govcrnnieiit's  failure  to  im- 
plement its  obligations.  He  ni.aintaineil  the  same 
incessant  iictivity  almost  up  to  the  close  of  life, 
his  iron  constitution  braced  by  the  swiininiMg  and 
.ithletic  feats  in  which  since  bovhooil  he  had  been 
foremost.  Ho  iliod  1.3th  March  1884.  Among 
his  books  may  be  named  Ex/miilioii  of  the  False 
Mcrliiim  mid  liarrirrs  exvlii(/iiir/  Men  of  Genius 
from  the  Piihlie  (18:«».  A  A'eic'Sinrit  of  the  Age 
{ 1844),  in  which  he  was  helped  by  K.  15.  Browning; 
and  Aii.itrit/ian  Ffirts  (inrl  I'rosprrts  (18.')9);  two 
tragedies,  Cosmo  r/e'  Medici  (18.37)  and  The  Deiith 
nf  Marlowe  ( 1S37) ;  Jiulaa  Iscariot:  n  Miraele  Pfai/ 
(1848);  and  T/ir  Dreamer  anil  the  ir«r/.vr(  18.51  ). 
Mrs  l!ro\\  ning's  letter.s  to  him  were  collected  in  1877. 
He  took  the  name  Heiigist  when  in  Australia. 

Ilorne.  Thum.vs  Hai-.twkll,  biblical  critic, 
born  ()clol)er  '20,  178t),  was  educated  at  Christ's 
Hospital,  .mil  afterwards  became  clerk  to  a  bar- 
rister. His  leisure  hoiii's  wore  devoted  to  the  study 
of  the  Bible,  .and  in  1818  he  published  his  Introilue- 
Hon  to  the  Vritieal  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the 
Holij  Scriptures,  a  work  which  procured  for  liiia 
admission  into  orders  without  the  usn.al  prelimin- 
aries. Subsenuently,  St  .John's  College,  ('am- 
bridge,  gr.anted  him  the  degree  of  IJ.D.,  and  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  that  of  D.I).  In  18.3.3 
he  obtained  .a  rectory  in  London  ;  and  he  wa-s  .also 
made  a  prebendary  of  St  Paul's  Cathedral.  In  the 
course  of  a  long  life  Home  published  a  large  num- 
ber of  theological  work.s,  and  died  27th  .)uno  1860. 
The  Introduction  became  a  \erv  popul.ar  authority 
and  p.a-ssed  through  many  editions  :  an  important 
one  w.as  that  edited  in  isjlj  by  Dr  Samuel  Ihividson 
(q.v. ).  See  the  Reminiscences  of  T.  II.  Ilorne,  by 
his  daughter  (1862). 

Horned  Streamer.    See  ScnE.\MER. 

Ilonictl  Toad,  also  called  Horned  Frog  and 
Horned  Li/.ard  { I'hri/nosoma  cornntiim),  is  really  .a 
lizard  belonging  to  the  Againid.-ie  (n.v.).  It  is  found 
in  .Mexico,  Texas,  Oregon,  and  California. 

Horned  Viper.    See  Cer.s.stk.s. 

Ilornellsville,  a  town  of  Xew  York,  01  miles 
SE.  of  Bullalo  by  rail,  with  railway  workslio|>s, 
and  iiianuf.ictures  of  mowing-maehines,  shoes,  ice. 
Poji.  10,!)66. 


Horner.  I'UANns,  w.o-s  born  at  Kdinburgh. 
21ltli  .\ugust  1778,  a  niereliant's  son  of  inixeil 
Kiiglish  and  Scottish  ancestry.  From  the  High 
School  lie  pa.sseil  at  fourteen  to  the  university,  and, 
after  three  ye.irs  there,  spent  two  mine  with  a 
clergyman  in  Middlesex,  there  to  'unlearn'  his 
broail  native  dialect.  On  his  return  ( 17!I7  )  lie  w:ui 
called  111  the  .Seottish  bar,  from  wliicli  in  1.S02  lie 
lemovcil  to  the  Knglish  ;  and  in  1 806  entered  pai  lia- 
iiieiit  lus  Whig  member  for  St  Ives.  He  had  iiiade 
his  mark  in  the  House  .as  a  political  economist, 
when,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-eight,  lie  died  of 
consumption  at  Pisa,  8th  February  1817.  There  is 
a  statue  of  liim  by  Chaiitrey  in  Weslniinsler  .\bbey  ; 
but  himself  he  left  little  to  preserve  his  name, 
beyond  some  contributions  to  tlu'  ICilinhnrgh  Iliricw 
(H.v.),  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  foiindeix.  Vet, 
in  Lord  Cockburn's  words,  he  wa.s  '  posses.seil  of 
greater  ]iublic  inlluence  than  any  other  pri\ale 
man,  and  admired,  beloved,  trusted,  and  deplored 
by  all  except  the  heartless  or  the  b.ase.'  .\mi1  this, 
he  explains,  wa.s  due,  not  to  rank,  weallli,  ollice, 
talents,  olimucnce.  or  fascination  of  iiiannci',  but 
merely  to  'sense,  iudustrv.  good  princi|iles,  and  a 
good  heart— to  force  of  character.'  See  Horner's 
Memoir  and  Corrcs/iondenee  (2  vols.  1843),  and 
Cockburn's  Memorials  of  his  Time  ( 1856). 

llorn(>t  (  Vesna  rrabro),  the  largest  species  of 
wasji  found  in  Britain.  It  is  not  nnconiiiion  in 
some  parts  of  England,  but  is  not  found  in  Scot- 
land. It  ine.asures 
about  an  inch  in 
Iciiglli,  and  is  pre- 
dominantly brown  or 
biownish-red,  with 
some  yellow  on  head, 
:ibilomeii.  and  wings. 
The  insects  lick  the 
sa]i  of  trees  .and  .are 
very  partial  to  sweet 
tilings,  such  a-s  fruit, 
the  .secretion  of 
aphides,  &c.  At 
times,  however,  they 
are  niaikedly  car- 
nivorous. The  fe- 
males have  for. 
midable  retractile 
stings.  The  nest, 
which  is  built  in  a  hollow  tree,  in  an  outhouse, 
or  in  some  other  sheltered  place,  is  composed  of  a 
coai-se  papery  material  inanuf.ictured  from  bark. 
The  coinnmnity  of  males,  females,  and  workei-s  is 
not  supposed  ever  to  includo  more  than  about  "200 
indiviifiials,  all  of  them  the  otrspiing  of  a  single 
female,  which,  having  survived  the  winter  in  .some 
sheltered  hiiliiig-]daco,  laid  the  foundation  of  her 
nest  in  spring.  The  hornet  is  common  through- 
out ICurope,  and  is  ro]iresented  in  the  riiited 
States  by  the  AVhitefaced  Hornet  (  T.  mucidata), 
also  ,a  large  species.     See  W.\sp. 

Hornin;;,  in  Scots  law.     See  ExT-XUTiny. 

lloril|>i|ie  i.s  the  name  of  .an  English  dance, 
probalily  named  after  an  ob.solete  musical  instru- 
ment. Many  popular  liorn|pipes  are  familiar,  such 
as  the  College  hornpipe,  &c.  Tlio.se  best  known 
are  in  coinmon  liiiic. 

Horn-Silver.    S.-c  Sii.vkr,  Photograi-iiv. 

Ilornstone.  an  impure  variety  of  Hint,  with  a 
very  s|iliiilery  I'laeliiie. 

Horn-work,  in  Fortilication,  is  a  c.aiKieions 
form  of  ailv.-inced  work  foririerly  much  used.  The 
head  is  a  bastioned  front,  and  therefore  .solf-llank- 
ing,  while  the  sides  or  branches  are  Hanked  from 
the  works  in  rear.  If,  instead  of  a  single  b.'ustioned 
fi-ont,  the  work  has  two  b.a.stioneil  fronts,  it  is  called 
a  Crown-work  (q.v. I,  and  if  three,  a.  double  crown- 


Hornet  (  Vcsim  craOro). 


HORODENKA 


HOROLOGY 


783 


tb-orl:  The  position  of  these  works  is  outside  the 
glacis.  There  were  good  examples  in  the  old  I'orti- 
lications  of  Straslmrg.     See  also  FoRTIFlCATlox. 

Iloivtdeilka.  a  town  of  Austria  in  East  Galicia, 
lOU  miles  SE.  of  J>eniberg.     Po]).  10,226. 

Ilorwiogy  (Lat.  Iioro! 0(1  turn,  (ir.  hurologion, 
'  a  snn-dial,'  '  a  water-clock  ;'  (Jr.  hiira,  '  a  season,' 
'an  hour,'  and  ■lorfi<iii,  from  legein,  '  to  tell ;'  com- 
pare Old  Eng.  liorolnije.,  Fr.  horlufjc.  'a  clock"),  the 
science  which  treats  of  the  construction  of  machines 
for  telling  the  time.  Although  it  is  easy  to  look 
back  to  a  period  when  time,  according  to  the 
modern  conception  of  it,  as  me.isured  liv  hours  and 
minutes  ami  seconds,  was  unknown,  yet  we  lind 
progress  early  made  in  the  measurement  of  larger 
periods  of  time,  by  observations  of  the  heaveidy 
bodies.  Thus,  time  was  early  divided  into  years 
according  to  the  apparent  n\(ition  of  the  sun 
among  tlie  constellations;  inlo  months  by  the 
revolution  of  the  moon  round  the  earth  ;  and  into 
days  by  the  alternate  light  ami  darkness  caused 
by  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun.  It  was  long, 
however,  before  .any  accurate  measure  was  found 
for  a  division  of  the  day  itself.  The  earliest  mejts- 
ure  employed  for  this  pur])ose  that  we  can  trace 
is  the  shadow  of  an  upright  olijeet,  which  gave  a 
rough  measure  of  time  by  the  variations  in  its 
length  and  position.  This  suggested  the  invention 
of  sun-dials  (see  Dr.\L).  Another  means  early 
■adopted  for  the  measurement  of  short  periods  of 
time  wa.s  by  noting  the  quantity  of  water  discharged 
through  .a  small  orifice  in  the  containing  vessel. 
Instruments  for  the  measurement  of  time  on  this 
)>rinciple  were  called  Clepsydra*  (q.  v. ).  The  running 
of  line  sand  from  one  vessel  into  another  was  found 
to  all'ord  a  still  more  certain  measure,  and  hence 
the  invention  of  the  Hour-glass  (q.  v.).  King  Alfred 
is  said  to  have  observed  the  lapse  of  time  liy  noting 
the  griidual  shortening  of  a  liglite<l  candle. 

It  is  not  very  e.osy  to  trace  to  its  source  the 
history  of  the  invention  to  which  the  modem 
clock  owes  its  parentage,  as  there  are  many 
vague  .allusions  to  horologes  from  a  very  early 
period ;  l)ut  whether  these  were  some  form  of 
■water-clock  or  wheel-and-weight clock  is  uncertain. 
But  there  seems  little  reason  to  doubt  that  Ger- 
bert,  a  distinguished  Benedictine  monk  (afterwards 
I'ope  Sylvester  II.),  made  a  clock  for  Magdeburg 
in  !t9li,  which  ha<l  a  weight  for  motive  power  ;  and 
that  weight-clocks  began  to  be  used  iu  the  monas- 
teries of  Europe  in  the  11th  century;  though  it 
is  probable  that  these  only  struck  a  bell  at  certain 
intervals  .as  ,a  call  to  prayei's,  and  had  no  dial  to 
.show  the  time.  St  Paul's  Cathedral  bad  a  'clock- 
kocp(>r'  in  1'2SG,  and  presumalily  a  clock;  and 
AVestminstcr  posses.sed  one  about  1290,  and  Canter- 
bury Cathedral  about  1292.  An  entry  in  llie 
patent  rolls  of  the  eleventh  year  of  Edward  II. 
(I.'JIS)  ]iroves  that  Exeter  Cathedral  had  a  clock 
in  that  year,  and  St  .\lbans,  Glastonbury,  Padua, 
Str.asburg,  and  many  other  ])laces  possessed  them 
in  the  lirst  half  of  the  14th  century.  The  St 
Albans  clock  was  ,a  famous  astronomical  one 
made  by  liichard  de  Wallingford,  who  was  son  of 
a  bla(d<smith  of  St  .-Vlbans,  and  afterwards  liecame 
abbot  there  (i:i2ti:W).  The  clock  made  for 
Glastonbury  .\bbcy  by  Peter  l.ightfoot,  a  resilient 
monk  (about  K!25).  was  removed  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI II.  to  Wells  Cathedral,  and  is  now 
preserved  in  South  Kensington  .Museum:  ,as  is 
also  an  old  clock  from  Dover  Castle,  bearing  the 
<late  i:US,  anil  the  initials  W.X,.  in  monogram. 
The  original  great  clock  at  Strasburg  Cathe- 
dral wa.H  made  in  the  yeai-s  l."?.')2-70  (remodelled 
and  reconstructed  in  1.571-74).  A  clock  much 
.superior  to  anything  preceding  it  was  that  ni.ade 
liy    Henry   de    Vick   (or  Wick)   for  the  tower  of 


Charles  V.'s  palace  at  Paris  in  1370-79.  It  was 
said  to  be  on  the  liell  of  this  clock  that  the 
signal  was  given  for  the  massacre  of  St  Bartludo- 
mew,  l.')72.  By  snccessi\e  improvements  clocks 
have  gradually  developeil  into  the  beautiful  pieces 
of  mechanism  of  the  jiresent  ilay.  Many  curious 
and  interesting  si>ecimens,  such  as  that  of  Stras- 
burg (q.v.)  (1594),  Lyons  Cathedral  (1598),  St 
Dunstan's,  London  (1671;  reniove<l  to  a  house  in 
Regent's  Park,  1831  ),  and  many  others,  have  an 
historical  interest.  Many  curiosities  of  mechanism 
are  still  constructed  in  the  name  of  clocks,  but 
generally  eccentricity  is  their  only  feature.  Those 
interested  in  the  subject  will  find  much  inf</rmation 
in  Wood's  Curiosities  of  Cloeks  iinil  Watches  { IStiB). 

The  ilate  when  portable  clocks  were  first  niaile 
cannot  be  determined.  They  ,are  mentioned  in 
the  beginning  of  the  14th  century.  The  motive 
l)Ower  must  have  been  a  mainspring  instead  of  a 
weight.  The  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  England 
possesses  one  with  the  in.scrii)tion  iu  Bohemian  tli.at 
it  was  made  at  Pragtie  by  Jacob  Zech  in  l.-)25.  It 
has  a  spring  as  nu)tive  power  with  fusee,  ami  is 
one  of  the  oldest  portable  clocks  in  a  perfect  state 
in  England. 

Illuminated  clocdc  dials,  to  shine  at  night,  were 
introduced  in  the  lirst  quarter  of  the  19th  century. 

Clocks  are  of  many  and  variinis  kinds — .striking 
and  nim-striking — turret-clocks  big  enough  to 
carry  hands  6  to  10  feet  long  and  lo  ring  a  bell 
to  be  heard  at  20  miles'  distance,  the  gooil  old- 
fashioned  eight-day  clock  Avith  its  long  ca.se,  the 
ornamental  drawing-room  sjiring  clocks.  Dutch 
clocks,  American  clocks,  and  an  infinity  of  othei-s. 
Technically,  those  which  strike  are  called  rlorks, 
and  those  which  do  not  strike,  tii/iepieees,  irrespec- 
tive of  size.  But.  however  much  they  may  vary 
in   size  and  ap]iearance,   they  are  all  founded  on 

the  same  jirinciple,  and  it  will       ^ ^ 

.an.swer  our  present  ]mrpose  to    /r^.        r 
illustrate  that  principle  in  its 
more    ordinary   form    of    the 
honsehold  clock.  -*^ 

I'"ig.  1  represents  a  diagiam 
of  a  non  striking  timepiece. 
A  weight,  by  turning  a  barrel, 
II,  on  which  its  conl  is  wound, 
sets  in  motion  a  train  of  /- 
wheels,  6,  e.  terminating  in  the 
crown-wheel  or  cscajiement- 
wheel,  (/.  These  wheels  are 
set  between  two  plates  which 
are  fixed  together  by  four  pil- 
lars, one  at  each  corner;  the 
pillars  are  riveted  into  the 
back  jilate.  /■,  and  fastened 
with  movable  pins  into  the 
front  ]plate,  /.'.  The  dial, 
removed  in  the  lig. ,  is  also 
pinned  on  to  the  front  plate 
l>y  four  short  jiillars  or  fret. 
The  teeth  in  the  pinions 
and  wheels  are  so  ,arr,anged 
in  number  that,  while  the 
crown-wheel  revolves  in  60 
seconds,  the  centre  wheel,  h, 
takes  ,an  hour  lo  do  so.  To 
regulate  the  speed  ,at  which 
the  clock  shall  move,  an 
arrangement  called  an  escape- 
ment, e  [  to  lie  afterwards 
more  fully  described ),  com- 
municates by  means  of  its 
criite/i  (at  ./ )  with  the  jien- 
dulum,  ;/,  which  is  suspended 
by  a  spring  from  llie  cock 
at  A.  The  arbor  of  the  barrel 
extends  in  a  scpiare  form  to  the  dial  at  i,   wiie.-'e 


Fig.  1. 


784 


HOROLOGY 


it  is  wounil  up  ;  a  ratcliet  ])ievcntinj;  its  iin«iii(liiiK 
without  turning'  the  wheel  with  it.  The  hainls 
have  a  separate  train  of  wheels,  called  the  dial 
or  motion  train,  between  the  front  plate  and  the 
dial.  The  arbor  of  the  centre  wheel,  li,  is  pro- 
duceil  to  the  ilial,  and  on  it  is  put  the  niinntc- 
wlieel,  revolving;  once  an  hour,  with  a  loii','  socket 
on  which  the  niinutehand  is  tixed.  Over  this  is 
])laced  a  larj^er  wheel,  the  hourwlieel,  /,  revolvinj; 
in  twelve  lioui-s,  which  is  .set  in  motion  hy  the 
pinion  of  a  duplicate  minute  wheel,  m  (and  also 
seen  at /(,  11^'.  (i).  The  attachment  of  the  minute- 
wheel  to  the  centre-wheel  arlior  is,  liy  means  of  a 
spring;,  enoufih  to  ensure  the  hands  lieiujr  carrieil 
round  with  the  clock,  l>at  not  enon;;li  to  prevent 
the  hands  hein^  turned,  when  necessary,  hy  hand, 
without  disturliiny  the  interior  works. 

Strikin^i-clooks  have  an  additional  train  of 
wheels  with  .separate  weijjht  (or  s]>rin^')  for  the 
strikin;;  ;  it  will  he  described  further  on. 

Spring;  (locks— i.e.  clocks  having  a  coiled  sprin*^ 
a-s  a  motive  power  instead  of  a  fallin;L,'  wei;rht  — 
have  an  arrangement  of  barrel  and  fnsee  chain 
similar  to  that  of  the  watch,  to  be  afterwards 
described.  The  sjiring  is  used  when  it  is  wisheil  to 
save  space,  as  the  necessary  fall  of  a  weight  re- 
f|uires  a  case  deep  enough  to  hold  it,  sonii-tliing 
about  4  feet  for  an  eight-day  clock.  Their  size  also 
necessitates  a  short  pendulum,  which,  of  course, 
does  not  imlicate  seconds. 

Previous  to  the  invention  of  the  pendulum,  the 
regulating  ai)i)aratus  was  generally  as  shown  in 
tig.  2,  wliich  represents 
]>art  of  De  Nick's  dock 
already  nicnlioncil.  The 
teeth  of  the  escaj)e- 
ment-wheel,  1,  acting 
on  the  two  i>allets,  /),  i, 
attached  to  the  upright 
spindle  or  arbor,  K.M, 
to  which  is  fixed  the 
balance,  Ll>,  gave  to 
the  Latter  an  alternate 
or  vibrating  motion, 
which  wa.s  regulated 
by  two  small  weights, 
m,  m.  The  further 
these  weights  were  moved  from  the  centre,  the 
more  they  retarded  the  movement :  and,  by  means 
of  numerous  notches,  their  position  couKl  be 
shifted  till  the  proper  speed  was  secureil. 

The  great  epoch  in  the  history  of  horology  was 
the  introduction  of  the  Pendulum  (q.v. )  as  a 
regulating  power.  This  has  generally  t)een  attrib- 
uted to  lluygens,  a  Dutch  philosopher,  who  wa.s 
undoubtedly  the  lii-st  to  bring  it  into  ]ir.ictical  use 
(ICoT).  The  fact  of  the  a<tual  invention,  however, 
is  obscure,  and  Sir  K.  Beckett  s.-iys  :  '  The  first 
pendulum  clock  was  made  for  St  Paul's  church,  in 
Covent  Garden,  by  Harris,  a  London  dock-maker, 
in  1G21,  though  the  credit  of  the  invention  w.as 
claimed  also  by  Huygens  himself,  and  by  (lalileo's 
son,  and  .Vvicenna,  and  the  celebrated  \)r  Hooke.' 
In  adapting  the  pendulum  to  the  docks  previously 
existing  Huygens  had  only  to  add  a  new  wlicel 
and  pinion  to  the  movement,  to  enable  him  to 
place  the  crown-wheel  and  spindle  in  a  hori/ontal 
instead  of  a  perpendicular  position,  so  that  the 
balance,  instead  of  being  honzontal  as  in  l)e  Vick's 
clock,  shimld  be  perpendicular  and  extended  down- 
wards, forming  a  pendulum  at  one  end. 

The  principle  of  construction  adopted  by  Huygens, 
from  the  peculiar  action  of  the  levers  and  spindle, 
required  a  light  pendulum  and  great  arcs  of  o.scilla- 
tion  ;  and  it  was  consequently  said  that  '  Huy- 
gens's  clock  governed  the  pendulum,  whereas  the 
>>enduluni  ought  to  govern  the  clock.'  About  ten 
jears  afterwards  the  celebrate<l  I)r  Hooke  invented 


■  ai'iri-w,        •'<..■•'■  i„       t.llV      nv»l.l^»_        »il        111*.        IkOf   lilt        l'VH.IVt> 

ItitiO ;    and    was    practically    introduced    into 
art   of  clock-making   by  Clement,   a   London 


an  escapement  which  enabled  a  less  maintaining 
iiower  to  impel  a  heavier  penilulum.  The  pendu- 
lum, too,  making  smaller  arcs  of  vibration,  was 
less  resislcil  by  the  air,  anil  therefore  performed  its 
iiKition  with  greater  regularity.  Tliis  device  is 
calleil  the  <ini/ior  escai)ement.  It  was  brought 
bv  Hooke  before  the  notice  of  the  Koval  Society 
iii  ItitiO; 
the 

clock-maker,  in  ICSO.  It  is  the  escaiii-menl 
still  most  usually  em))loye<l  in  ordinary  Knglish 
docks.  Fig.  :}  represents  the  more  modern 
form  of  the 
anchor  or  recoil 
escapement  :  A, 
its  axis  ;  liC,  the 
liallets  ;  and  D, 
the  e.scai>einent- 
wlieel  ri'vcdviiig 
in  the  <lirection 
of  the  arrow.  The 
connection  lie- 
tween  the  pendu- 
lum and  escjijie- 
ment  may  be  .seen 
in  (ig.  1.     When  Kig.  :i. 

the    pendulniJi 

swings  to  the  right  AC  rises,  and  a  tooth  escapes 
from  C,  while  another  falls  on  the  outside  of 
B,  and,  owing  to  the  form  of  the  pallet  B,  the 
train  goes  back  iluring  the  remainder  of  the 
swing.  The  same  thing  occui"s  on  the  pendulum's 
return;  the  arm  AIJ  rises,  a  tooth  ex.ipes  from 
1!.  and  another  falls  on  the  inside  of  C  and  backs 
the  whedwork  as  before.  As  each  of  the  thirty 
teeth  of  the  wheel  thus  acts  twice  on  the  pallets, 
at  B  and  again  at  C,  it  follows  that  a  hand  lixed 
on  its  arbor  will  move  forward  ,-,',-,tli  of  a  circle 
with  e:ich  vibration  of  the  pendulum  ami  mark 
seconds  on  the  dial.  At  eacli  contact  the  onward 
pressure  of  the  wheel  gives  an  impulse  to  the 
pendulum,  communicated  through  the  crutch, 
sutlicient  to  counteract  the  retarding  ed'ects  of 
the  resistance  of  the  air  and  friction,  which  would 
otherwise  bring  it  to  a  standstill.  The  length  of  a 
pendulum  oscillating  seconds  is,  for  the  latitude 
of  London,  about  .S914  inches. 

The  defect  of  Hooke's  escapement  is  the  re- 
coil, and  various  modilications  h.-vve  been  devised 
to  obviate  this.  The  lirst  and  most  successful  was 
made  by  George  Graham,  an  English  watch-maker, 
in  the  l>eginning  of 
the  18th  century,  and 
his  imiuoveil  form  is 
called  the  ilradbeat 
escapement  (lig.  4). 
There  the  outer  sur- 
face of  li  and  inner 
surface  of  C  are  arcs  of 
circles  whose  centre  is 
A,  and  a  little  consid- 
eration will  show  that 
there  can  be  no  re- 
coil. This  escapement 
is  a<lopted  in  tinie- 
kee))ers  when  great 
accuracy  is  required. 

Many  other  escapements  for  clocks  have  been 
devisecl ;  but  no  one  seems  to  have  met  with 
general  favour  except  a  certain  form  of  nindnlnirc 
or  (jritvitij  escajiement.  The  form  of  it  shown  in 
lig.  5  is  called  the  doubhi  ilinx-lcyffed  escii>ement, 
and  wa-s  invented  for  the  great  dock  at  West- 
minster, in  1854,  by  E.  B.  Denisim  (afterwards  Sir 
E.  Beckett,  Q.C.).  In  this  clock  the  ])enduliim  is 
13  feet  A  inch  long,  to  vibrate  in  two  seconds, 
and  its  Ijob  weighs  6  cwt.  The  escai)emeiit  con- 
sists of  two  gravity  impulse  pallets,  AB  and  AC, 


HOROLOGY 


moviiifr  on  pivots  at  A.  Tlie  esca|ie-\vheel  consists 
of  two  tlireelej,';j;eil  wheels,  rdjr  ami  ilcf\  squared  on 
one  arlior  a  little  distance  apart,  with  three  lifting 
pins  (or  three-leaved  pinion) 
fixed  hetween  them.  The 
three  pins  are  shown  hv  the 
tliree  dots  in  the  centre  of  the 
tig.  The  legs  of  the  wheels 
are  generally  arranged  alter- 
nately as  in  the  lig.  The 
pallets,  with  their  arms  7  and 
/(,  lie  hetween  the  wheels  ;  at 
C  is  a  block  to  lock  the  legs 
(the,  and  at  B,  on  t!ic  other 
side,  and  of  course  acting 
in  the  reverse  direction,  is 
another  to  lock  the  legs  clef. 
The  leg  a  is,  in  the  tig., 
locked  on  the  lilock  at  C. 
The  pendulum,  part  of  which 
is  removed  to  show  the  escape- 
wheel,  is  snpjiosed  to  he  mov- 
ing in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow,  and  has  received  im- 
pulse from  the  falling  pallet 
AB  at  /  .•  it  is  just  hegiiming 
to  touch  the  other  jjallet  at  /■, 
which  has  been  kept  in  position  clear  of  the 
pendulum  by  one  of  the  centre  ]iins  bearing  on 
tlie  arm  y.  The  pendulum  before  turning  again 
moves  the  pallet  AC  just  enough  to  allow  the  leg 
a  to  escape  from  the  locking-block  at  C ;  the 
wheel  tlies  round,  impelled  l>y  the  clock-weight, 
till  tlie  leg  /  locks  on  the  block  at  B  ;  by  the  same 
movement  the  pin  which  is  seen  near  the  end  of 
the  arm  Ji  pushes  the  pallet  AB  away  from  the 
]ieniUilnm,  which  now  gets  impulse  from  the  fall  of 
the  pallet  AC.  This  goe-s  on  at  each  side  alter- 
nately, the  pallets  being  raised  by  the  clock  train, 
the  |>endulum  only  unlocking  them.  To  make 
the  motion  go  smoothly  and  prevent  jar,  a  Hy  is 
attached  to  the  arbor  of  the  escape-wheel  by  a 
spring  ;  it  is  seen  in  the  hgure.  As  the  height 
to  which  the  pallets  are  lifted  is  the  .same,  how- 
ever unequal  the  force  communicated  by  the  train 
may  be,  the  arc  of  vibration  of  the  peiululum 
remains  constant,  as  the  weight  of  the  arm  and 
the  distance  it  falls  are  always  the  same. 

The  gradual  perfection  of  the  clock  required 
also  improvements  in  the  regul.-iting  juiwer  which 
linally  resulted  in  the  compensation  pendulum  (see 
Penduum). 

The  improvements  in  the  escapement  and  the 
pendiihim  bring  the  mechanical  perfection  of  the 
clock,  as  a  time-keeping  instrument,  to  the  point 
which  it  has  attained  at  the  present  day.  But 
till-  art  of  horology  would  be  incomplete  unless 
there  were  some  standard,  independent  of  indi- 
viilual  mechanical  contrivances,  by  which  the 
errors  of  each  may  be  corrected.  This  standard 
is  siip]ilicd  by  observatories,  and  the  inethoils  by 
which  liTue  is  determined  belong  to  the  details  of 
practical  astronomy.  There  are  in  most  parts  of 
the  I'niteil  Kingdom  now  sutlicii'ut  opportunities 
of  setting  clocks  by  a  communication  more  or  less 
direct  with  tlie.se  establishments.  When  these 
are  not  to  be  hail  the  sun-dial  may  still  be  u.sed 
with  advantage  as  a  means  of  ■aiqiroxiniation  to 
the  correct  time.  The  time  whicli  a  clock  ought 
to  mark  is  mimi  time,  the  deliniticm  of  which  will 
be  found  in  the  articles  D.VY  and  Time.  The  iiiciin 
fiiiir  at  any  pl.ace  dejiends  on  the  longitude.  Sup- 
posing ,a  clocK  to  he  set  to  Creenwich  mean  time,  a 
clock  keeping  mean  time  of  any  jilace  will  be  4 
minutes  f.aster  for  every  degree  of  longitude  ea-st  of 
(ireenwich,  and  4  minutes  slower  for  every  degree 
west.  Since  the  introduction  of  railw.ays,  clocks 
arc  usuallv  set  within  (Jreat  Britain  to  t'lreenwich 
•J.")S 


mean  time.  In  the  United  States,  where  the 
extent  of  country  makes  it  unadvisable  to  use  the 
mean  time  of  one  meridian,  four  standard  meridians 
were  adojited  in  18S.V- viz.  75%  90°,  105',  120"  -nest 
of  Creenwich.  Clocks  showing  '  Kastern,'  'Cen- 
tral,' '  Mountain,' and  'Pacific'  time  are  therefore 
l■especti^•ely  live,  six,  seven,  or  eight  hours  slower 
than  Greenwich  mean  time. 

For  the  more  rea<ly  transmission  of  correct 
time  to  the  public  there  is  at  Greenwich  Obser- 
vatory, a-s  well  as  .some  others,  a  ball  which  is 
dropped  by  means  of  electricity  precisely  at  one 
o'clock.  Several  attempts  have  been  made  to 
keep  the  puljlic  clocks  of  a  town  in  perfect  agree- 
ment with  the  meantime  clock  in  the  observatory-. 
One  means  of  etleeting  this  wa-s  by  an  electric 
connection  and  a  modification  of  Bain's  electric 
pendulum  (1840),  by  Mr  K.  L.  Jones  of  Chester 
(1857),  on  the  suggestion  of  Mr  Hartnup.  the 
astronomer  of  the  Liverpool  (Observatory.  For  a 
desciiption,  see  Electric  Clock.  A  clock  in  the 
castle  of  Edinburgh,  by  whose  mechanism  a  gun  is 
tired  precisely  at  one  o'clock  every  day,  is  con- 
trolled by  the  meantime  clock  in  the  observatory 
on  the  Calton  Hill. 

It  is  not  known  when  the  alarum  or  when  the 
striking-mechanism  of  the  clock  was  first  applied. 
The  first  striking-clock  probably  announced  the 
hour  by  a  single  blow,  as  they  still  do  in  churches 
to  avoid  noise.  During  the  17tli  century  there 
existed  a  gieat  ta.ste  for  striking-clocks,  and  hence 
a  great  variety  of  them.  Several  of  Tompion's 
(died  1713)  clocks  not  only  struck  the  quarters  on 
eight  bells,  but  also  the  hour  after  each  ([uarter. 

"The  striking  part  of  a  clock  (see  fig.  (j,  which 
shows  an  English  striking-clock  by  Ellicott,  taken 


Fig.  6. 

from  the  engraving  in  Moinct's  work)  is  a  peculiar 
and  intricate  piece  of  mechanism.  The  motive 
power  is  a  weight  used  in  a  similar  manner  to 
that  in  the  time-keeping  train  shown  in  fig.  1.  In 
fig.  6,  «,  /),  c,  (/,  e  are  tiie  striking-train  :  c  is  a  fly 
which  acts  as  a  drag  to  prevent  the  striking  being 
too  rapid.  The  striking-train  is  kept  in  a  normal 
condition  of  rest  by  the  tumliler  or  gathering  pallet 


786 


HOROLOGY 


y,  lixeil  til  tlie  iiiolonj;cil  nili<ir  of  tlio  wlieel  c, 
lieiiiK  cmi^lit  liv  tlie  |iiii  at  tlie  oiitl  of  tlic  ruck  ;/. 
A  few  iiiiiiule.-^  iM^foif  tlie  lunir,  a  pin  on  tlie  wlieel, 
A,  of  the  ilini  li'iiin,  raises  the  arm,  i.  of  the  lifter 
I,  /.-,  /,  wliieli  in  turn  lifts  the  lever  in.  «  hieli  has 
l)V  means  of  its  honk  heen  lioMin^  the  rack.  •/.  lixeil. 
The  tail  end,  h,  of  the  laek  is  then  fureeil  liy  the 
s|iriiiij;,  «,  against  the  'snail'/*.  The  snail  isattaelieil 
t^i  the  hoiirwheel  of  the  dial-lrain  (see  li^.  1 1,  ami 
con.Hei|uenlly  revolves  in  twelve  hours,  ami  lia-s  a 
step  for  every  hour.  The  rack,  in  falling;  on  it,  is 
freed  to  the  extent  of  a  tooth  ( i.e.  a  tooth  ;.'et.s  past 
the  hook  at  in  )  for  every  step  of  the  snail.  As  shown 
in  the  lij;.,  one  tooth  would  lie  freed,  and  the  result 
wimlil  he  that  the  clock  would  strike  one  ;  when 
the  last  step  of  the  snail  is  reached,  twelve  would 
be  struck.  The  result  of  this  inoveincMt  is  that 
the  strikinji-train  moves  a  little  till  a  |>in  on 
the  wheel  (/  catches  on  the  end  of  the  lifter  /. 
which  is  turned  down  throujjh  a  hole  in  the 
plate  for  the  purpose.  The  resultin;;  sound  is 
called  '  warninj;. '  I'reiisely  at  the  hour  the  pin  on 
the  wheel  A  slips  past  the  end,  /,  of  the  lifter, 
which  falls,  relievin;,'  the  strikin<;train  ;  the  hours 
are  struck  on  the  hell  /•,  by  the  hammer  «,  acted 
on  by  the  pins  on  the  wheel  /i.  As  the  tumbler 
attached  to  the  wheel  c  revolves  once  for  every 
stroke  of  the  bell,  it  {inlliers  up  a  notch  of  the  rack 
at  each  revolution,  until  it  is  stopjied  l>v  a  return  to 
its  orii^^inal  position  of  rest  at  the  pin  on  the  rack  ;/. 
The  rack,  lever,  ami  liftinfj-piecearenAow  the  front 

Iilate,  and  are  pivoted  on  studs  fixed  into  it.  A 
ever,  t,  moved  by  a  pointer  on  the  dial,  throws 
the  strikiii;^  work  out  of  ;,'ear  when  the  clock  is 
rei|uired  to  be  silent.  In  the  lij;.  it  is  an  extra 
wheel  for  drivini;  a  band  to  show  the  days  of  the 
month. 

Clocks  which  cliiine  the  r|uarters  and  half-hours 
have  jLcenerally  a  third  train  of  wheels  for  the 
cliiniini;. 

In  Kngland  clocks  are  ])rincipallv  made  in 
London  and  llamlsworth  near  ISirmin^'liani,  tlmii^h 
there  are  many  small  local  niakei-s.  Many  of  the 
ornamental  clocks  and  timepieces  are  manufac- 
tured in  France. 

iJiilili  or  ivoih/cii  duels  were  (irst  intrmiiiced 
about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  Tliou^di 
iii.ade  on  the  same  principle  as  ordinary  clocks, 
their  arran;.;enients  are  much  sinipliticd,  and  their 
principal  parts  made  of  wood  and  wire,  only  the 
actual  wheels  bein;;  brass.  They  are  very  cliea]), 
and  oonse(|ueiitly  became  very  common  in  lower- 
class  households  and  kitchens.  They  are  made  in 
the  lilack  Fore.st  in  Oermauy,  and,  considering' 
their  mode  of  manufacture,  are  wonderfully  .accur- 
ate as  timekeepei-s  when  iiroiierly  taken  care  of. 

They    are    now    laiiiiUy    bein-^    superseded    by 
Aiiirricnn  r/ocLs,  whicii,  on  .account  of  their  cheap- 
ness, neatness,  and  pnrtaliility,  have  become  very 
popular.     Their  manufacture  is  a  great 
inilustry  in  the  United  States,  at  Water- 
bury    in    Connecticut,    Brooklyn,    New- 
York,   and    many    other    places.       The 
wheels  and  plates  are  stamped,  and  very 
little  manual   labour  is  spent  on  them, 
every    part     beint,'    interch.angoable     in 
similar-sized  clocks.     Their   appear.ance 
is   t<io    familiar    to  require    a    detailed 
description.      To   many  of  these   cheap 
clocks  alarums  are  litted,  which  can  be 
set  to  sound  at  any  hour.     See  Al.vhm. 

fl'ali/icis. — The  modern  jierfect  watch  and  chron- 
ometer may  lie  said  to  be  the  result  of  a  gradual 
development  from  the  early  clock  rather  than 
that  of  any  jiarticular  invention.  The  tirst  step 
was  obviously  to  lind  some  other  form  of  power 
than  the  weight :  and  this  was  niaile  in  the  end  of 
the    1.5th   century   by   the  invention   of  the   coile<l 


spring  as  n  motive  jMiwer,  but  where,  or  by  whom, 
is  uncertain. 

It  seems  to  be  taken  for  granted  that  I'eter 
Hele,  a  meclianiciaii  of  Nuremberg,  as  early  as 
14!Ht  made  small  |iocket  docks  of  steel  whicli 
showed  and  struck  the  hours,  and  were  driven  by 
a  coiled  spring.  These  from  their  oval  shape  were 
called  Nuremberg  eggs.  The  next  step  was  the 
invention  of  the  fusee,  an  arrangement  to  overcome 
the  weakening  of  the  spring  as  it  became  uncoiled. 
This  also  is  involved  in  obscuiily,  though  it  must 
have  occurred  early  in  the  Uitli  century,  as  the  clock 
mentioned  as  m.ide  by  .lacob  Zi'cli  in  l."i2.">  has  that 
iiiodilication.  .\t  lii-st  a  gut  cord  Wiis  used,  the 
chain  being  a  modern  invention.  The  balance  useil 
was  exactly  like  that  of  L)e  A'ick's  clock  ( (ig.  2), 
exceiit  that  the  weights  on  the  arms  of  it  were 
fixed  instead  of  hanging.  The  next  step  of  any 
consei|uence  was  the  invention  of  the  balance- 
spring  by  I)r  Mookc  in  IC'kS  (id,  whicli  was  the 
founitation  of  all  the  varied  improvements  resulting 
in  the  almost  perfect  chronometer  compensation- 
babince  of  the  ]iresent  day. 

.Mthiiiigli  watches  were  introduced  into  England 
in  Henry  \lll.'s  time,  they  did  not  come  into 
general  use  till  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  then 
their  cost  confined  them  to  the  wealthy.  At  liist 
they  were  very  Large,  on  account  of  their  striking 
|)art  :  and  their  cases,  without  glass,  were  pierced 
with  elaborate  o))en  work  to  let  out  the  sound  of 
the  bell.  When  the  striking  work  was  dispensed 
with,  they  of  course  became  much  smaller,  and  gradu- 
ally drifted  into  being  ornamental  rather  than  use- 
ful. They  were  richly  ornamented  with  pictures 
in  enamel,  .set  in  the  heads  of  walking-sticks,  in 
bracelets,  in  linger  rings,  and  enrichcil  with  the 
most  costly  jewels.  They  were  encased  in  crystal 
and  in  iinitatioii  skulls,  and  in  fact  Ix-caiiie  subject 
to  all  the  vicissitudes  of  fashion,  through  which  it 
would  be  needless  for  us  to  follow  them.  The 
curious  will  lind  much  entertaining  matter  in 
Wood's  work  already  referred  to.  I'levious  to  the 
invention  of  the  balance-spring,  watches  (as  also 
cliK'ks)  had  only  one  hand,  whicli  showed  the  hours  ; 
but  after  that  event  the  greater  |iiiwerof  regulating 
the  motion  led  to  the  introduction  of  extra  wheels 
to  carry  minute,  and  linally  seconds,  hands. 

The  watch  is  e.s.sentially  a  miniature  edition  of 
the  ordinary  spring-clock,  exccjit  in  two  points — 
viz.  that  it  has  a  balance-spring  instead  of  a  short 
pendulum,  and  that,  as  the  e.scapemenl-wlieel  re- 
volves in  ;ibiiul  six  seconds,  an  extra  wheel  re- 
>olving  in  a  minute  is  inlrodueeil  to  carry  the 
.seconils  hand. 

The  train  of  an  ordinary  verge  watch  is  shown  in 
fig.  7:  "  is  the  barrel  enclosing  the  niainspriiig 
and  tuniing,  by  means  of  the  fusee  chain  h,  the 
fusee  ami  great  wheel  c,  and,  thioiigli  the  pinions 
and  wheels  </,  i .  f.  the  escape- wheel  ;/.     The  hands 


Fig.  7. 

or  motion  train  are  ex.actly  as  descrilied  for  clocks, 
and  arc  similarly  carried  by  the  elongated  arbor  of 
the  centre-wheel  (/.  As  will  be  seen  in  the  lig., 
the  fusee  is  of  a  peculiar  shaiie.  The  rea.son  is  as 
follows  :  When  the  chain,  which  is  fixed  .at  the 
broadest  part  of  the  fusee,  is  fully  wound  ii|i,  it  goes 
from  the  narrow  part  to  the  barrel  where  the  other 


HOROLOGY 


787 


end  is  fixed,  and  of  course  the  s|iiiii^'  is  also  fully 
wound.  At  this  point  the  spiinj;  is  stionfrest ;  and, 
pullin;,'  u]ii)n  the  narrow  end  of  the  fusee,  has  the 
least  li'vera^e.  As  it  j,'radiia]ly  unwinds,  and  at 
the  sanu!  time  lieconies  weaker,  the  leveraj^e,  owing 
to  the  shape  of  the  fusee,  becomes  in  exactly  the 
.same  ratio  j;reater,  and  tlius  the  ])ower  on  the 
machinery  is  ei|uali.sed  till  the  whole  chain  is 
unwound.  The  spiing  is  wound  up  liy  the  squared 
arlior,  m,  of  the  (usee  through  an  opening  in  the 
inside  case  ;  the  arhor  of  the  spring-barrel  being  of 
eourse  lixed.  An  ingenious  stop  arrangement  pre- 
vents the  possilrility  of  damage  by  over-winding. 
The  mainspring  is  a  thin  ribbon  of  linely  tenijiered 
steel  ( lig.  S ).  The  inner 
end  is  hooUed  on  to  a 
catch  on  the  arbor  of 
the  barrel  round  which 
it  is  coiled,  and  the  outer 
end  to  a  catch  on  the 
insi<le  of  the  rim  of  the 
barrel.  In  the  Anieri- 
comnion,  the  fusee  is 
great  wheel  is  on  the 
the  motion.      In  recent 


Fig.  8. 
<;an  watches, 
<lispensed   will 


now 
,   and 


barrel  and  directiv 


so 
the 
ives 
years  thi.s  form  is  also  nsed  in  almost  all  keyless 
watches.  The  verge  escapement  shown  in  fig. 
7  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  shown  in  I)e 
Vick's  clock  (fig.  2).  Two  pallets.  A,  /,  moved 
alternately  in  opposite  directions  by  the  teeth 
of  the  escapement-wheel,  canse  a  vibrating  motion 
in  the  balance  /•,  which  is  steadied  and  regu- 
lated by  the  lialance-spring  /.  The  balance  and 
*ipring  are  shown  in  plan  in  fig.  9 :  a  is  the 
balance  and  h  tlie  spring,  which 
is  arranged  spirally.  The  inner 
end  is  lixeil  to  the  stall"  of  the 
balance,  the  outer  to  a  stn<t  r, 
(ixed  to  the  watch-plate.  Its 
beautifully  delicate  motion  may 
be  observed  in  any  watch,  as 
all  watches  have  the  spiral 
s]iring  except  chronometers, 
which  have  a  cylindrically 
coiled  spring  instead.  The 
length  of  the  balance  spring 
in  pro]iortion  to  the  weight  of  the  lialance 
is  an  important  factor  in  regularity  of  motion, 
and  for  minute  adjustment  an  instrument,  e/,  e, 
called  a  rcf/iilator  is  attached  to  it.  Two  cnrb- 
pins  at  (/  enclose  the  outer  coil  of  the  spring,  and, 
in  the  case  of  the  watch  going  I'.Tst.  a  movement 
to  the  left  lengthens  the  spring  and  retards  the 
speeil  in  proportion.  For  too  slow  a  motion  a 
movement  to  the  right  will  shorten  the  spring  and 
•quicken  it. 

The  principle  involved  in  the  dock-pendulum 
and  w.atch-balance  alike  is  that  by  their  regularity 
of  movi'iueut  they  shall  keep  the  mechanism  from 
going  either  too  f.ast  or  too  slow,  and  that  in  return 
the  mechanism  shall  give  repeated  impulses  suffi- 
cient to  keep  them  perpetually  in  motion. 

As  the  vertical 
or  verge  escapement, 
owing  to  the  recoil 
of  the  escape-wheel 
and  other  causes,  is 
not  lobedepende<l  on 
for  ^■ery  great  accur- 
acy, attemjits  were 
immediately  made 
Fig.  10.  after    the    invention 

of  till'  balance-spnng 
to  devise  some  form  of  escapement  which  would 
give  better  results.  Hooke.  Iluygens,  Hantefeuille, 
and  Tompion  introduced  im])rovements,  but  the 
first  to  succeed  was  made  by  (ieorge  (Iraham,  the 
inventor  of   the   dead-beat  escapement  in  clocks. 


This  Is  called  the  horizontal  or  ci/findrr  escapement 
(llg.  10).  It  was  introduced  in  the  beginning  of 
the  18th  centun,-,  and  it  is  still  the  escapement 
nsed  in  many  foreign  watches.  The  imj)iilse  is 
given  to  a  hollow  cut  in  the  cvlindrical  axis  of  the 
balance  by  teeth  of  a  jiecnliar  form  projecting 
from  a  horizontal  crown-wheel. 

Other  forms  of  escapement  in  high  estimation 
are  the  /ever,  the  dii/Je.c,  and  the  ehronomcter 
'  spring-detent '  escapement.  The  lever  escape- 
ment (invented  about  1770  by  Thomas  Mudge) 
is  the  dead-beat  escapement  (see  fig.  4)  aila]iteil 
to  the  altered  conditions  of  a  watch.  Kig. 
11  shows  the  form  used  in  most  modern  English 
watches.  The  pallets,  P,  P,  arc  lixed  to  a 
lever,  A  (pivoted  at  F),  and  there  is  an  impulse 
idn,  B  (usually  a  piece  of  ruby),  set  in  a  small 
disc,  C  (called  the  roller),  on  the  axis  of  the  balance. 


Fig.  11. 

The  ruby  pin  works  into  a  notch  at  the  end  of  the 
lever,  and  the  pin  and  notch  are  so  atljusted  that 
when  a  tooth  of  the  escape-wheel  I)  leaves  the 
pallet  the  pin  slips  out  of  the  notch,  and  the 
lialance  is  detached  _  from  the  lever  during  the 
remainder  of  its  swing  ;  whence  the  name  thtarlied 
lever  escapement,  originally  ajiiilied  to  this  arrange- 
ment. On  the  balance  returning,  the  pin  again 
enters  the  notch,  moving  the  lever  just  enough  to 
allow  the  tooth  next  in  order  to  escape  from  the 
dead  face  of  the  pallet  on  to  the  impulse  face  ;  then 
the  escape- wheel  acts  upon  the  lever  and  balance  ; 
the  tooth  escapes,  and  another  drops  ujion  the  dead 
face  of  the  pallet,  the  pin  at  the  same  time  passing 
out  of  the  notch  in  the  other  direction,  leaving  the 
balance  again  free.  This  arrangement  is  found  to 
give  great  accuracy  and  steadiness  of  jierformance. 
A  safety  pin,  E,  on  the  lever,  prevents  the  wheel 
being  unlocked,  except  when  the  impulse-pin  is  in 
the  notch  of  the  lever.  Two  /itin/,int/-/iins,  CG, 
keep  the  motion  of  the  lever  within  the  desired 
limits. 

In  the  duplex  escapement  (invented  about  1780) 
the  escape-wheel  has  two  sets  of  teeth,  hence  the 
name.  One  set,  something  like  the  lever-wheel 
(tig.  11),  lock  the  wheel  by  pressing  on  the  balance 
stall,  and  the  other,  standing  up  tmni  the  side  of 
the  rim  of  the  wheel,  give  impui.se  to  the  balance. 
It  is  rarely  u>ed  now. 

The  chionometer  spring-detent  escapement  was 
invented  in  principle  by  Le  Roy  about  17C.5,  and 
perfected  by  Earnsbaw  (who  also  invented  the 
cylindrical  balance-spiing)  and  Arnold  abotit  17S0. 
It  is  shown  in  lig.  12;  a  is  the  escape-wheel, 
which  has  fifteen  teeth  ;  b,  the  inipulse-roller, 
fixed  on  the  same  statV  as  the  balance:  c,  the 
impulse-pallet  ;  d,  discharge-pallet  ;  c,  locking- 
pallet— all  the  pallets  are  of  ruby  or  sapphire  ;  /, 
the  blade  of  the  detent  fixed  at  /.■  by  its  spring  </; 
and  A,  the  gold-spring.  In  the  fig.  a  tooth  of  the 
escape-wheel  is  caught  on  the  locking  jiallet  ;  the 
discharge-pallet  (carried  round  by  the  roller  in  the 
direction  of  the  arrow),  by  pressing  on  the  end  of 
the  gold-.spring,  which  in  turn  presses  on  the  horn 
of  the  detent  /,  bends  the  detent  enough  to 
allow  the  tooth  to  escape  from  the  pallet.     The 


788 


HOROLOGY 


escaiiowliccl,  liciii^'  rclcaseil,  oveituki's  the  iiiiimlse- 
pallet  mill  ilrives  il  uii  till  tlieir  luitlis  (livei;,'o  and 
they  Beparate.     The  wheel  is  again  bruiiglit  to  a 


a- 


Fig.  12. 


stand  hy  the  locking-pallet  of  the  delent,  which, 
on  heing  leloa-scd  hy  the  discliai>;ei)allet,  has  s|iniiig 
l>ack  to  its  original  position.  Tlie  roller,  having 
made  its  vibration,  is  linmght  hack  liy  tlie  s]iring. 
In  the  return  the  dischurgeoallet  forces  itself  jiast 
the  enil  of  the  gold-spring,  the  ini]inlsi>  pallet  clears 
the  teeth  of  the  escape-wheel,  and  the  halaiice  goes 
on  till  the  nioinentnni  is  exhausted,  when  the 
spring  induces  another  vihration,  the  wheel  is  again 
unlocked,  and  the  iMi|)ulse-pallet  gets  another 
blow.  I5y  receiving  impulse  in  one  direction  ami 
unlocking  at  every  alternate  vihration  oidv,  the 
chronouieter-halance  is  more  thoroughly  detacheil 
than  any  other.  It  is  very  ilelicale.  hox'vcver.  and, 
though  the  most  perfect  known,  il  cannot  stancl 
rougli  usage,  and  is  not  so  suitahle  fiu-  ordinary 
pocket  watches  a.s  a  good  lever.  At  sea  the 
chronometer  is  Imng  in  (Jimhals  (i|.v. ),  .so  a.s  to 
he  always  hori/ontal  whatever  the  motion  of 
the  vessel. 

In  watches,  even  more  fhan  in  clocks,  varia- 
tions of  temperature,  unless  provided  for,  produce 
variations  in  the  rate  of  going.  A  rise  in  the 
temperature  makes  the  balance  expand,  aii<I  there- 
fore augments  its  moment  of  inertiiu  It  diniiiiishes 
the  ela-sticity  of  the  spring ;  and  the  time  of  vihra- 
tion of  the  balance,  which  depends  upon  the 
moment  of  inertia  directly,  and  njion  the  elastic 
force  of  the  spring  inver.sely,  is  incre.ised— the 
watch,  that  is,  goes  more  slowly.  A  fall  in  the 
temperature  is  attended  by  oii|"iosite  results,  the 
>vateli  going  niore  rapidly  than  before,     fompensa- 


tion  can  obviously  be  made  in  either  of  two  ways 
by  an  expedient  for  shortening  the  etlective  length 
of  the  balance-spring  ivs  the  temperature  rises,  so 
as  to  increase  the  elasti<-  force  of  the  spring  ;  or  by 

an  expedient  fin-  diminishing  the  mi -iil  of  inertia 

of  the  balance  as  the  temperature  rises,  so  as  to 
correspond  to  the  diminution  of  the  force  of  the 
spring.  The  first  method  w;is  that  made  use  of 
by  John   llarri.son  (ij.v.)  in  his  chronometer,  and 


Fig.  13. 

it  depended  im  a  laminated  bar  of  bra-os  and  steel 
fixed  at  one  end,  called  a  <(,iiij>riixt(li<jii  inrh  :  the 
free  end  carries  two  cnrb  oins,  which  embrace  the 
balance-si>ring,  and,  as  the  bar  shrinks  and  expands, 
regul.ate  the  length  of  the  spring.     It  is  never  used 


now.     An  adaptation  of  the  other  method,  invented 

in  1782  by  .lohn  .Arnold,  an<l  improved  by  Th as 

Earnshaw,  is  thai  which  is  always  employed  now. 

Fig.     l;i     shows    the 

form     employed     fin' 

marine  chronometers, 

and    lig.    14    that    foi 

jiocket    I'lironomeli'rs 

and  watches  :   t,  n,  I' 

(lig.  \:V)  is  the  main 

bar   of   the    balance ; 

and  t,  II,  I',  II'  are  two 

compound      bars,     of 

which  the  outer  part 

is  of    brass    and    the 

inner    part    of    steel, 

carrying   weights,    c, 

(■',  whose  nosition  may 

be  shifted  to  or  from 

the   fixed  end,   according  as    the  compensation    is 

found   on   trial   to  be  less  or  more  than  is  desired. 

Iha.ss  expands  more  with  heat  and  contracts  more 

with  cold  than  steel  :  oonsei|uently,  as  the  lempera- 

tuie  ri~es  the  liai'>  with  their  weiglils,  being  fixed  at 

one  end  to  the  main  bar,  bend  inwards  at  the  free 

end,  and  so  the  moment  of  inertia  of  the  balance  is 

diminished  ;  a.s  it  falls  they  bend  outwards,  and  the 

inoincnt  of  inertia  is  increa.sed  ;  and  of  course  the 

diiiiiuulion  or  the  increase  must  be  made  exactly 

to  correspond  to  the  dimiiiution  or  iiicrea.se  in  the 

force  of  the  spring.     The  screws,  </,  </.  lilted  to  the 

lixed  end  of  each  of  the  compound  bars  are  used 

for  bringing  the  chronometer  to  time;  sometinies 

the  smaller  ones  are  disiiensed  with.      In  fig.  14  the 

luinciple  is  the  same  :  a,  a,  ii,  a  are  the  time  screws 

leiiiially   dislril 


lig.  U. 


siributed   in    the   watch-halancc) ;    the 


others  are  for  coni]iensation,  and  their  positions  may 
be  shifted  or  laigiM-  ones  sub-.titiiteil  if  necessary. 

The  modern  marine  chionometer  is  just  a  liirge 
watch  lifted  with  all  the  contrivances  which  ex- 
Iiericnce  lias  shown  to  be  conducive  to  acinrate 
time-keeping— e.g.  the  cylindrical  balance-spring, 
the  detached  spring-detent  eseapeiiienl,  and  the 
comjiensat  ion -balance.  Harrison 's  chronometer, 
mentioned  above,  mils  the  liist,  and  was  comjdeted 
after  many  years  of  study  in  17.'!(i.  I'or  a  de- 
scription, see  llrllisli  llurnlaijirtil  .luiniiiil,  vol.  xx. 
]iage  120.  After  many  trials  and  imiuoMinents, 
and  two  test  voyages  to  America,  undertaken  for 
the  satisfaction  of  the  commissioners,  the  last  of 
which  w.is  completed  on  the  ISth  September  I7(i4, 
the  reward  of  f20,(KX).  which  bad  been  ofleied  by 
government  for  the  best  time-keeper  for  ascertain- 
ing the  longitude  at  sea,  was  linally  awarded  to 
liiiii.  Harrison  made  many  other  inventions  and 
improvements  in  (docks  and  watches,  including 
his  maintaining  spring  to  the  fuso-e,  to  keep  (he 
works  going  while  being  wound  ;  a  form  of  reiiion- 
toire  escaiieinent,  i*i.c. 

Somewhat  later  than  this  several  excellent  chron- 
ometers were  pioiliiced  in  Fiance  by  l.eilljiiiid  and 
Le  Hoy,  to  the  latter  of  whom  was  awaided  the 
prize  by  the  .Acadeniie  Koyale  des  Sciences.  Pro- 
gress was  still  made  in  Knglainl  by  .Mudge,  .Arnold, 
and  F.arnshaw,  to  whom  prizes  were  awarded  by 
tlie  Hoard  of  Longitude.  The  snb.sei|Ueiil  iirogrcss 
of  wati  11  making  has  been  chielly  diiecteil  to  the 
constrnelion  of  pucket-watches  on  the  ]iriiiiiple  of 
marine  chioiiometeis,  and  such  accnracy  Ii;ls  been 
obtained  that  the  average  error  is  reduced  to  one 
second  a  day. 

The  compensation  of  an  ordinary  balance  cliron- 

be   made  i> 

leratuie,    In 
The  explanation  of  this  lies  in  the  fact  lliati  whih 
the  variations  of  elastic  force  in  the  s]iring  go  on 
uniformly  in  proportion  to  the  rise  or  fall  of  the 
temperature,  the  inertia  of  the  balance  varies,  not 


ometer  cannot   be   made  iierfectly  accurate  for  all 
degrees  of  tempeiatuie,   but  only  for  two   points. 


HOROLOGY 


HOROSCOPE 


r89 


inversely  as  tlie  ilistance  of  its  wei^'lits  from  the 
centre,  but  invei-sely  iis  the  square  of  the  distance 
of  the  centre  of  gyration  from  the  centre  of  motion. 

The  particular 
jioints  in  the 
case  of  any 
chronometer 
are  matter  of 
ail  j  ust  ment. 
For  instance, 
one  chrono- 
meter may  he 
made  to  j^o 
accurately  in  a 
temperature  of 
40°,  and  also  in  a  temperature  of  80',  at  other 
temperatures  l)eing  not  so  accurate;  another 
chronometer  to  go  accurately  at  a  temperature 
of  20'  and  60'.  It  is  manifest  that  the  former 
wouhl  he  adapted  to  voyages  in  a  warmer,  the  ! 
latter  to  voyages  in  a  colder  climate.  To  more  ! 
fully  adjust  the  compen.sation  certain  pieces  are  I 
hxed  to  the  balance  to  act  in  heat  or  in  cohl,  and  j 
this  is  called  au.xiliary  compensation,  and  there  are 
at  lea-st  two  or  three  balances  invented  of  recent 
years,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  tig.  15,  which  are 
practically  self-adjusting  for  the  ordinary  range  of 
temperatures  to  which  marine  chrouumeters  are 
subjected.  The  solution  of  the  problem  seems  to 
be  in  setting  the  lamin.-e  tiat  instead  of  vertical, 
and  making  the  bar  also  bimetallic. 

Ajiparatus  for  testing  chronometers  have  been 
long  in  use  in  the  oliservatories  at  CIreenwich  and 
Liverpool.  In  the  latter  there  is  now  an  extensive 
ajiparatus  for  this  purpose,  devised  by  the  ingeni- 
ous astronomer,  Mr  Hartnup.  In  a  room  wliicli 
is  isolated  from  noise  and  changes  of  temperature 
the  chroncuneters  are  arranged  on  a  frame  under  a 
glass  case,  so  contrived  that  they  may  be  subjected 
in  turn  to  any  given  degree  of  temperature.  The 
rate  of  each  under  the  different  temperatures  is 
observed  and  noted,  and  the  chronometers  regis- 
tered accordingly. 

A  large  proportion  of  modem  watches  are  made 
to  wintl  and  to  set  the  hands  from  the  pendant. 
Fig.  16  shows  the  form  of  keyle.ss  work  chiefly 
employed  in  English  non-fusee  watches.  The 
chief  part  is  the  three  wheels  working  in  the 
rockingbar  ah,  cme  of  which  gears  with  the  \vin<l- 
iiig-whcel,  '/,  of  the  barrel  when  the  rocking-bar, 
which  is  capal>le  of  a  little  motion,  is  in  its  normal 
place,  as  in  the  fig.  A  coutrate  wheel  is  fixed  on 
the  end  of  the  winding-button  c,  and  by  its  means, 

when  the  but- 
ton is  turneil, 
the  train  is 
set  in  motiim 
and  the  barrel 
wound.  When 
the  hands  are 
required  to  be 
set,  a  push- 
pieceintheca.se 
bearing  on  the 
end,  /(,  of  the 
rocking-bar 
is  pressed  by 
the  linger,  tak- 
ing the  rock- 
ing-bar wheels 
out  of  gear 
with  the  wind- 
ing, and  put- 
ting them  in 
gear  with  the 
hand-wheels  at 
e.  The  hamls 
nuiy  then  be  turned  by  the  winding  button,  ami,  the 


push-piece  being  let  go,  the  train  returns  to  its 
normal  position.  The  use  of  the  fusee  being  at- 
tended with  some  amount  of  comjilicalion  in  the 
keyless  mechanism,  it  is  usuallv  disi)ensed  with 
on  this  account,  and  one  of  tlie  most  modern 
arrangements  in  an  English  keyless  watch  is 
shown  in  fig.  17.  The  barrel,  ",  is  here  made  to 
occupy  all  the 
height  between 
the  pillar  (or 
lower)  plate  and 
the  top  limit  of 
the  movement, 
and  all  the  space 
between  the  cen- 
tre pinion  and  the 
balance  cock,  in 
order  to  get  a 
long,  thin  main- 
spring ;  the  ad- 
vantage of  which 
is  that  there  is 
an  abundance  of 
power  (much 
more  than  is  re- 
ouired  for  a  day's  going),  and  only  a  portion  of  the 
spring  is  used  for  the  ordinary  winding  for  twenty- 
four  liours.  This  practically  insures  an  adjust- 
ment of  the  motive  power  as  nearly  equal  to  that 
obtained  by  the  use  of  the  fusee  as  it  is  po.ssibIe  to 
arrive  at. 

Repeating  watches  were  fii-st  made  about  1676, 
the  invention  lieing  claime<l  liy  Daniel  Quare, 
Edward  Barlow,  and  Tomjjion.  They  have  a 
striking  arrangement  veiy  much  on  the  princij>le 
of  the  striking-clock,  and  on  compressing  a  spnng 
they  at  any  time  strike  the  hours  and  quarters, 
and  in  some  cases  the  minutes.  They  are  very 
expensive  and  liable  to  go  out  of  repair,  and  repairs 
are  costly.  They  have  nearly  gone  out  of  use. 
For  stop-second  arrangements  to  record  swift 
pa-ssing  events,  see  Chkoxogr.\pii. 

In  England  watches  are  mostly  made  at  Preston, 
Liverpool,  Coventry,  and  at  Clerkenwell,  London, 
where  the  division  of  labour  luiuciple  is  carried 
out  in  an  extreme  degiee — many  small  factories 
making,  for  instance,  only  balances,  othei^s  springs, 
others  ca-ses,  othei-s  hands,  &c.,  only  that  small 
number  who  put  the  works  together  seeing  the 
complete  watch.  At  Kew  Observatory  there  are 
arrangements  for  testing  watches,  and  grant- 
ing certificates  if  satisfactory,  on  payment  of  a 
fee.  In  tlie  United  States"  the  manufacture  of 
watches,  like  tliat  of  clocks,  is  carried  on  in  a 
much  more  wholesale  manner :  the  wheels  and 
plates  being  stamped  by  machinery,  every  similar 
part  being  exactly  alike  and  interchangeable  ;  anil 
on  account  of  the  economy  of  manual  labour, 
they  can  be  turned  out  marvellously  cheap. 
Generally  the  large  clock-factories  also  manufacture 
watches. 

See  Tliiout  I'aini,  Trailt.  dC HorltHjerii  ( 1741 ) ;  Lepaute, 
Traits  tl' Horlo{/{Tie  {1755) ;  F.  Bertlmuii,  Traitc  da Hui- 
Ic/es  M(i  vines  ( 177.3 ),  Histoirc  tie  la  Menu  re  ilu  Temps  pa  r 
If's  norlofirs  (1802);  Tlios.  Keid,  Treatise  <.«  Cloet  and 
Watch  Mahino  ( 1819) :  Jiirgensen,  Principes  <le  la  Mtfiire 
dii  Temps  (1838)  ;  Moinet,  Nmirean  Traitf  gtntral 
d' Horlor/erie  (1848);  AVond.  Curiosities  of  Clocks  and 
Watches  (1866);  lienison  (afterwards  known  as  .Sir 
E.  Becltett  and  then  as  Lord  Griinthorpe ),  Trtalisc 
on  Clocks  and  Watches  and  Bells  {lii'i;  7tli  ed.  18Nt  I ; 
books  by  J.  F.  Kendal  (18a2)  and  F.  J.  Brittin 
(18'.l-i);  Sauuier,  Modern  Horuloijii  ( Eng.  trans,  by 
Tripplin  i  Eigg,  1885);  Konibol,  Enst  ii/ntmcnt  tht'orii/ue 
dc  I'Horloiirrie  (Geneva,  188!));  Britten,  Watch  and 
Clock  Makers'  Handbook  09.m) :  The  British  Horolof/ical 
Journal  (monthly  from  1859) ;  La  Revue Chronometrique 
(monthly  from  1857). 

Iloroscoiie.    See  Astrology. 


790 


HORROCKS 


HORSE 


ll»I*ro('ks.  JKitKiliAll,  an  nslruiiuiiier  uf  ru- 
maiUalile  ;(i-iiiu.s,  jioiicnilly  known  iis  the  lii-»t 
observer  of  tlie  Iriiiisit  of  Venus,  ivn  tu'coiinl  of 
wliieli  iilienonieiion  he  hius  ^iven  in  a  Latin  treatise 
uiilillea  I'finis  in  ,St//t'  I'tati.  He  wa-s  Ijorn  at  Tox- 
teth,  near  Liverpool,  apparently  in  11>I9  ;  he  entered 
Kiniiiantiel  Colh';,"',  Cambridge,  May  18,  1632;  was 
appointed  in  l(i;i'.l  to  IJje  cnr.ii'V  of  lloole,  Lanca- 
shire, in  which  village  he  made  his  famous  ohserv.a- 
tion  (  Novcnilier  "24,  I().'}9,  o.s. ),  while  a  mere  youth. 
He  died  suddenly  on  .lanuarv  3,  1641,  the  day 
before  an  intendeil  journey,  liavin-;  promised  to 
visit  his  chief  friend,  Williani  Crabtree.  ])r  W.illis, 
his  contemporary,  informs  us  that  HiurocUs  jit  the 
time  of  his  death  '  had  not  coMi|ilcted  his  twenty- 
third  year.'  Newlon,  in  the  J'n'iiiijiiii,  bears 
honourable  testimony  to  the  value  of  Ilorrockss 
astronomical  work,  especially  commending'  his 
lunar  theory  as  the  most  injjenious  yet  brou^'ht 
forward,  adding,  '  and,  if  1  mistake  not,  the  most 
accurate  of  all.'  Horrocks  is  frecpiently  mentioned 
by  the  scientilic  men  of  the  ITtli  century  ;  the 
obser\atiou  of  the  transit  being  bv  no  means  re- 
garded as  his  sole  astronomical  achievement,  as  lie 
added  to  our  knowlc<lge  of  the  physical  cause  of 
celestial  motions,  deduced  the  .solar  parallax,  cor- 
rected the  solar  diameter,  and  made  tiilal  observa- 
tions. Hevelius  ]>riiited  the  J'cniia  in  ,Wi'  lixa, 
which  (ii-st  appealed  in  (iermany  ( 1G02) :  a  transla- 
tion of  this  work,  with  memoir  by  Whatton,  ap- 
peared at  London  in  1S.">!I.  In  lliTS  Horrocks  s  frag- 
mentary winks  were  published  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Itoyal  Society,  being  edited  by  l)r  Wallis, 
with  the  title  ,/t'/c/H«Vr  Hunnccii  Upera  Pusthtiimt, 
&c.  The  name  of  Jeremiah  Horrocks,  long  for- 
gotten except  by  astronomers,  is  now,  'after  the 
lapse  of  mcue  than  two  centuries,'  engraven  on 
marldc  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Ilorsc  (Eipius),  an  ungulate  or  hoofeil  mammal 
of  the  order  Peris-sodactyla,  characterised  by  hav- 
ing an  odd  number  of  toes;  the  family  Ivjuida- 
formed  the  grouj)  Soliilnngnla  of  old  writers,  ow  ing 
to  the  presence  of  only  a  single  hoof,  which  marks 
them  od'  quite  sliar^dy  from  all  allied  animals. 
The  Englisli  name  is  loiiiid  in  Anglo-Saxon  as /loiw, 
and  is  cognate  with  the  Icelandic  hrosa,  tierinan 
TOSS ;  it  is  sometimes  referred  to  Sanskrit  root 
/ircs/i,  '  to  neigh,'  but,  according  to  some,  with  more 
probability,  to  a  Teutonic  root  /mr,  '  to  run,'  cog- 
nate with  Latin  ciirrerc.  The  Latin  name  is  no 
doubt  from  the  root  afc,  conveying  the  idea  of 
swiftness;  Sanskrit  arva ;  Or.  hijtjios  or  /li/.kon  : 
Lat.  ((/Him. 

The  existing  species  of  the  genus  Kquns  are 
about  half  a  ilozen  in  number  :  (1 )  The  Horse  (A'. 
cahrilhix)  is  characterised  by  the  tail  being  furnishe<l 
with  long  hairs  ipiite  from  its  lia-se  ;  by  the  long 
and  flowing  mane ;  by  the  possession  of  a  bare 
callosity  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  hind  as  well  as 
of  the  fore  legs  ;  and  l>y  the  head  and  ears  being 
smaller  ami  the  limbs  longer  than  in  the  other 
species.  (2)  The  A.ss  (E.  aniatin)  is  almost  a-s 
widely  distributed  as  the  horse  ;  it  is  probaldy  of 
African  origin,  being  almost  certainly  conspecilic 
with  the  Abyssinian  form,  E.  tautopus.  (3)  The 
A.siatic  Ass  (E.  heinioiiu.i)  dilfers  from  the  coninioii 
ass  in  being  of  a  more  rcdilish  colour,  in  the  absence 
of  the  shoulder  stripe,  and  in  having  smaller  ears. 
By  some  zoologists  it  is  s])lit  nj)  into  three  species 
—the  Syrian  Wild  .\ss  (  E.  hcnii/i/iiix),  the  Onivger 
{E.  oiuiijcr).  and  the  Kiang  or  D/iggetai,  to  which 
the  term  E.  /lemioniis  then  l>ecomes  restricted. 
(4)  The  Quagga  [E.  omiyi/a )  \ia»  dark  stripes  upon 
the  head  and  shoulders  on  a  brow  n  ground  ;  it 
is  said  to  be  now  extinct.  (5)  Burcliell's  Zebra 
{E.  liiiiclaUi)  is  white,  with  stripes  on  the 
i)oily  and  the  upper  jiarls  of  the  limbs;  it 
extends    from     the    Orange    Kivcr    to    Abyssinia. 


(C)  The  MiMiiilain  Zebra  (A".  :cbru)  \n  white, 
with  long  bliu'k  stripes  reaching  down  to  the 
feul.  It  Ls  limitetl  to  the  Cape  Colony,  nnd 
is  ra|^iidly  di.'.a|ipearing.  These  last  three  are 
soiiielime.s  nniti-d  into  a  siiecial  genus,  HippotigriH. 
(7)  The  explorations  of  the  Knsslan  liiiveller 
I'r/hevalski  ( I'rcjevalsky )  in  ISSl  uddi.l  another 
species  to  the  list  of  Asiatic  forms,  which  lia-  been 
called  after  him.  The  long  hairs  of  the  tail  begin 
only  half-way  down  it  ;  the  mane  is  shmt  and 
erect,  and  there  is  no  forelock  ;  the  head  is  large 
and  heavy  ;  the  ears  Kinallcr  than  those  of  u\o 
ass.  It  inhabits  the  dry  sultry  regions  of  the 
DzuMgarian  Desert.  Ii\iiig  in  companies  of  lifteeii 
to  twenty,  each  li-d  by  a  stallion.  (Inly  two  herds- 
were  ob.served,  and  only  one  specimen  Wiu-^  secured. 
The  resemblance  which  this  species  presents  to  the 
horse  of  early  scnlptnn.'s  has  lieen  pointed  out  by 
several  observers. 


Huiiiv,  with  names  uf  parts  : 
1,  crettt ;  'J,  withci-s ;   3,  cmup ;   4,  liRiiistritig ;    5,  lioek  ;   6, 
caiiiiun  ;  7.  ti-t  luck  ;    8,  im^itcrii ;  U,  huur ;    10,  corouct ;   11, 
ann  ;  1*2,  gullet ;  13,  muzzle. 

The  anatomical  structure  of  the  boi-se  has  been 
the  subject  of  many  elaborate  Ireati.ses,  and  only 
a  very  brief  oullinc  of  its  more  salient  features  can 
be  ottered  here.  The  skull  is  remarkable  for  its 
great  length,  especially  as  regards  the  bones  of  the 
face,  which  occupy  .'in  extent  twice  as  great  n« 
thosi-  of  the  cranium.  The  orbit  is  approximately 
circular  and  complete  behind,  a  fact  which  dis- 
tinguishes the  horse  from  the  tapir  and  rhinoceros, 
an  well  !us  from  its  f<i.ssil  allies.  The  co-opeiatiou 
of  the  zygomatic  process  in  the  formation  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  orbit  is  an  nnusual  if  not  a 
unique  feature.  The  great  i-heeks  are  fmined 
mainly  of  the  m.-ixillary  bones,  though  the  lachry- 
mal and  malar  bones  oicupy  a  ciuisiilerable  area  in 
till-  upper  portion.  The  nostrils  are  roomy,  juo- 
vide<l  with  extensive  turbinal  bones,  and  roofed 
in  by  the  nasal  bones,  which  are  broad  behind, 
pointed  in  front.  In  the  nakcil  skull  the  anteiior 
oi)enings  of  the  nostrils  extend  far  back  at  either 
side  between  the  nasal  and  preniaxillaiy  bones. 
The  |ialate,  like  the  floor  of  the  craiiinm,  is  long 
and  narrow,  forming  a  kind  of  valley  between  tin- 
two  rows  of  elevated  imdar  teeth.  Itelow  the 
brain-c;i.se  there  is  a  distinct  canal  through  the 
alisphenoid  bone  for  the  internal  maxillary  artery. 
In  the  region  of  the  ear  the  tymjiaiiic  and  jieriotic 
bones  are  fused  together,  but  arc  loo.se  from  the 
skull,  being  hehl  in  jiositioii  only  by  the  descend- 
ing juocess  of  the  s(|uamo.-.al  bone.  The  liyoid 
Ipoiie  is  well  ileveloped,  especially  its  regards  it.s 
anterior  arch,  and  the  basal  segment  sends  a 
!  process  fmward  into  the  tongue.  The  rhinoceros 
anil  tai>ir  have  a  similar,  but  smaller,  process. 
The  mandible  is  very  laige.  an<l  the  lower  and 
hinder  part  is  exiiamled  into  a  broail  Hat  i>late  for 
the  attaclimeiil  of  the  ma.s.seter  muscle.  The  verte- 
bral cobimii  is  maile  up  of  seven  cervical,  eighteen 


HORSE 


791 


dorsal,  six  luiiiljar,  five  sacral,  and  fifteen  or  nioie 
caudal  vpitel>i"P.  Most  of  the  veiteUric  are  nioie 
or  less  hollowed  behind,  this  character  beinj;  more 
marked  in  the  fore  than  in  the  hinder  (lart  of  the 
spine.  The  dorsal  processes  of  the  vertelira-  in  the 
forepart  of  the  chest  are  very  hi;.di,  and  to  them 
is  attache<l  the  great  elastic  li;,'ament  {/if/n»ifntiii)i 
mir/irr)  which  relieves  the  muscles  of  the  heavy 
wei^dit  of  the  head  and  neck.  The  sternum  con- 
sists of  si.\  segments,  the  anterior  one  being  shaped 
something  like  the  prow  of  a  boat.  There  are  no 
collar-bones,  these  being  in  fact  absent  from  all 
hoofed  mannuals  (Ungulata).  The  siioulder-blade 
is  long  and  narrow,  and  liears  a  ]irominent  rounded 
tubercle,  representing  the  coracoid  bone.  The 
humerus  is  short  anil  stout :  of  the  two  bones  of 
the  forearm  the  ulna  is  well  developed  behiml, 
where  it  forms  the  great  ]iroce.ss  (olecranon),  pro- 
jecting backwards  from  the  elbow-joint,  but  it 
tapers  gradually  away  lielow,  and  is  firmly  fused 
witli  the  radius.  The  Mrist  ('knee'  of  common 
speech )  consists  of  six  bones,  disposed  in  two  rows 
of  three  each  :  in  the  second  row  the  middle  bone 
{OS  /iirif//uii)i )  is  very  large,  and  supports  the  cannon- 
bone,  whilst  the  two  laterals  are  small,  and  each 
supports  a  splint-bone.  The  fore-foot  of  the  horse 
consists  of  only  one  fully-developed  digit,  corre- 
s])onding  to  the  middle  finger  of  the  human  hand. 
The  metacarpal  bone  of  this  finger  is  known  as 
the  '  cannon-none.'  and  ajiproximatcil  to  its  ujiper 
end  are  the  thin  tapering  rudiments  of  the  second 
and  fourth  metacarpals,  connuonly  known  as 
'  splint-bones  ; '  the  cannon-bone  is  succeeded  by 
three  phalanges,  known  respectively  as  the  '  large 
jiastern,'  'small  pastern,'  and  '  coHin-bone.'  Be- 
iiind  the  foot  are  three  small  bones  (sesamoids), 
two  belnnd  the  joint  between  the  cannon-bone  and 
large  pastern  (commonly  called  the  'fetlock'),  and 
a  single  one  placed  transversely  behind  the  joint 
between  the  small  pastern  and  the  cottin-bone, 
commonly  called  the  'navicular.'  In  the  hinder 
limb  the  thighbone  has  a  prominent  flattened 
]irocess  on  its  outer  side,  about  one-third  down  ; 
this  is  known  as  the  '  third  trochanter,'  and  is 
characteristic  of  all  odd-Ioed  ungulates.  \Vhat  is 
really  the  knee  is  known  as  the  'stille  joint.' 
The  fibula  is  rurlimentary.  The  tarsus  consists  of 
seven  bones.  The  os  calcis  has  a  well-marked 
Hatteneil  heel-process,  commonly  known  as  the 
'hock.'  The  lx)ne.s'of  the  hind-foot  resemble  very 
closely  those  of  the  fore-foot,  and  have  the  same 
names.  .\  very  stnmg  ligament  |)asses  down  the 
hinder  suiface  of  the  foot,  and  the  two  smaller 
sesamoid  bones  above  mentioned  are  imbedded  in 
it.  It  is  connuonly  known  a-s  the  ■  suspensory 
ligament  of  the  fetlock ; '  occasionally  nniscular 
fibres  are  foiind  in  its  substance,  and  this  fact, 
taken  in  conjunction  with  its  positiim  .and  attach- 
ments, shows  thai  it  is  the  representative  of  the 
interosseous  nnisdes  of  the  human  hand.  The 
navicular  bone  lies  in  the  tendon  of  the  deep  Hexor 
muscle  of  the  foot. 

The  hoof  is  the  representative  of  the  claws  (n- 
nails  of  other  animals.  The  last  .segment  of  the 
toe  is  wiilened  out  to  form  a  foundation  for  it,  and 
this  is  increa.sed  l)y  cartilaginous  side-]iieces  and 
a  fibrous  and  fatty  sole-piece.  Tlu'  integument  is, 
of  course,  continuous  with  the  skin  of  the  limb, 
but  it  is  extremidy  vascular,  ami  its  surface  is 
developed  into  iiapilhc  or  laminie,  which  .secrete  the 
horny  matter  of  the  hoof  The  chief  share  in  this 
process  is  taken  by  the  'coronary  cushion,'  or 
thickened  ring  round  the  up|ier  part  of  the  fo<it, 
and  by  the  cushion  in  the  sole.  The  result  of  this 
is  that  the  hard  external  tissue  of  the  hoof  is 
renewed  from  within  as  last  as  it  wears  away  on 
the  outside.  The  lower  surface  which  comes  into 
contact  with  the  gronml  is  hcdlow,  and   its  centre 


is  occupied  by  the  'frog,'  a  triangular  eminence 
with  its  apex  directed  forwards,  and  consisting  of 
pavement  eiiithelial  cells  arranged  concentrically. 
Other  horny  structures  are  the  so-called  'chest- 
nuts,' hard  oval  warts  situated  on  the  inner 
surface  of  all  four  legs  in  the  horse  {E.  cabollns), 
an<l  of  both  fore-legs  in  the  other  members  of  the 
genus. 

The  teeth  of  the  horse  when  the  series  is  com- 
plete are  forty-l'our  in  number  :  three  incisors,  one 
canine,  four  premolars,  and  three  molars  on  either 
side  of  each  jaw.  The  incisors  form  a  semicircle  : 
they  have  a  pit  in  the  apex  partially  filleii  up  with 
bony  matter,  and  this  it  is  which  produces  the  well- 
known  a])i)ear,ance  of  concentric  rings  as  the  tooth 
wears  away,  and  their  disa|ipearance  when  the 
wearing  has  carried  the  surface  of  the  tooth  beyond 
the  bottom  of  the  pit.  The  canines  are  either 
rudimentary  or  absent  in  the  females.  Between 
them  and  the  grinding-teeth  is  a  wide  gap  (dia- 
stema) in  which  the  bit  is  placed.  The  first  pre- 
molare  are  either  quite  rudimentary  or  absent ; 
when  present  they  are  usually  lost  before  maturity^ 
so  that  the  giinding-teeth  in  actnal  use  only 
amount  to  six  in  number.  They  have  very  long 
crowns,  which  are  gradually  pusheil  u])  as  the 
surface  wears  away  ;  this  peculiarity  in  stnicture 
is  only  seen  in  the  teeth  of  the  more  recent  horses, 
and  is  probably  to  be  associated  with  the  removal  of 
the  animal  from  swamps  to  drier  i>lains.  .and  hence 
from  soft  moist  vegetation  to  food  more  ditticult  of 
mastication.  The  enamel  of  the  teeth  forms  a 
curved  folded  plate,  the  pattern  being  derivable 
from  that  seen  in  other  I'erissodactyles  ;  and  it  is 
this  which  produces  the  characteristic  pattern  seen 
in  the  surface  of  the  horse  s  molars.  The  temporary 
or  milk  teeth  are  twenty-fom-  in  number — three 
incisors  and  three  milk-molars  on  cither  side  of 
each  jaw.  At  birth  the  first  and  secimd  molare 
are  present ;  at  one  week  old  the  central  incisors 
appear  ;  at  six  weeks  the  two  next  incisors  ;  at 
three  months  these  incisors  are  level,  and  a  third 
molar  has  come  into  view  ;  at  six  months  oblitera- 
tion is  apparent  in  the  central  incisors;  at  eight 
months  the  lateral  incisors  have  erupted,  making 
the  full  number  of  six  in  each  jaw  ;  at  one  year 
the  fourth  niolar  is  visible  ;  at  eighteen  montlis  the 
mark  is  very  faint  in  the  central  incisoi-s  ;  at  two 
years  old  there  are  five  molars  ;  at  three  years  the- 
liermanent  central  incisors  ie|)lace  the  tenjpfuary 
ones  ;  at  three  and  a  half  and  fcmr  and  a  half  yeaiW 
respectively,  the  same  happens  with  the  second  and 
the  lateral  incisoi-s,  anil  at  the  latter  ilati;  the 
canines  appear  in  the  male:  at  five  years  the 
mark  is  nearly,  and  at  six  yeai's  quite  ell'aced  in 
the  central  incisors :  at  seven  years  the  like  has 
happened  to  the  next  ineisoiis ;  and  at  eight 
years  the  mark  has  disajipeared  from  all  the 
teeth,  and  the  canines  have  become  blunted. 
Hence  by  the  presence  of  the  dill'erent  teeth  and 
their  condition  as  regards  wear,  it  is  possible  to 
tell  the  age  of  a  horse  « itli  considerable  accuracy 
up  to  six  or  eight  years  of  age,  but  after  that  no 
reliable  c<mclu.sions  can  be  drawn  from  these 
organs. 

The  lips  are  flexible  :  the  nalate  long  and  narrow, 
and  transversely  ri<lged  :  tlie  soft  palate  has  no 
uvul.i,  and,  excejit  during  the  actual  |>rocess  of 
swallowing,  embraces  the  epiglottis,  so  that  respira- 
ti<m  is  carried  on  entirely  through  the  nostrils. 
Three  pairs  of  .salivary  glands  are  jiresent,  the 
jiarotid  being  by  far  the  largest.  The  stomach  is 
simple  and  a  good  deal  curved  upon  itself:  at  the 
(esophageal  opening  is  a,  kind  of  muscular  valve  to 
which  is  commonly  attributeil  the  dillieulty  which  a 
horse  experiences  in  vomiting.  The  small  intestine 
is  eighty  or  more  feet  in  length,  and  terminates  in 
a  large  ca'cuin  with  sacculated  walls.     The  liver  is 


792 


HOKSK 


nliiiiist  syiiiiiiotiicul,  iiikI  llieie  is  iii>  HJilIliladik'r. 
The  heiiil  is  latlier  liiiixc' ;  tl'C  iiDrlii  ^'ivos  c)ir 
almost  iiiiiiieiliaU'ly  a  bugc  trunk  (tlic  .sociilled 
'autorior  aorta),  wliicli  siiliscqiicntlj  ilivides  into 
the  two  axillaiv  and  two  caioliit  arli'iii's.  'I'lif 
anlriior  api'i  tines  of  iliu  ncistiils  aio  laij;c,  ami  I'an 
lie  (lilaleil  liy  special  niuseles  ;  iniineilialelv  «illiin 
tlie  opeiiin^i  on  tlie  niiper  anil  outer  side  is  a 
blind  |ii)iu'li  ('false  nostril  ')  2  or  '.i  inelies  in  ilejilli 
and  of  unknown  funetion  ;  in  tlie  iuss  it  is  even 
larj;er.  There  are  also  airsacs  in  the  hinder  ami 
up|ier  part  of  the  pharynx  wliich  spring  from  Ihe 
Kustaeldan  tubes.  The  time  of  pairing;  falls  be- 
tween the  end  of  Marrh  and  lie;,'iiiiiiiig  of  .lune. 
The  jieriod  of  },'cstation  is  eleven  nioiilhs,  and  mily 
one  toal  is  burn  at  once.  The  niaru  is  (■ai)al>le  of 
breeding  at  three  years  idd,  but  the  .stallion  is  not 
usually  allowed  to  pair  until  four  years  of  aj;e.  The 
averajte  age  of  a  horse  may  be  put  down  iit  twenty 
years  ;  the  greatest  age  on  reconl  is  believeil  to  be 
.si.vtytwo. 

The  senses  of  the  lioi-se  are  acute,  though  many 
animals  excel  it  in  this  re.spect  ;  but  its  faculties 
of  observation  and  memory  are  both  very  highly 
(leveloi)ed.  A  place  once  \isited  or  a  road  once 
traversed  seems  never  to  be  forgotten,  and  many 
are  the  ca-ses  in  which  men  have  owed  life  and 
safety  to  these  faculties  in  their  beasts  of  burden. 
Kveii  when  untrained  it  is  very  intelligent  :  horses 
left  out  in  winter  w  ill  scrajie  away  the  snow  to  get 
at  the  vegetation  beneath  it,  which  cattle  are  never 
observed  to  do.  I'erhaps  this  may  be  iidierited 
from  their  ancestors  in  the  Siberian  ]ilains ;  but 
curiously  enough  the  very  .same  habit  is  observed 
in  the  horses  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  whose 
ancestors  in  l,a  I'lata  ci)uld  have  had  no  occasion 
to  show  the  same  instinct  for  many  generations 
back. 

With  patience  and  kiml  treatment  the  horee  can 
be  trained  to  go  through  rpiite  complicated  feats  of 
memory  and  perception.  That  it  possesses  also  an 
accurate  sense  of  lime  is  clear  from  the  facility 
with  which  it  can  be  taught  to  walk,  trot,  and 
dancer  to  music,  or  take  part  in  concerted  evolu- 
ti(ms.  Its  knowledge  of  tunes  is  evinced  by  its 
comprehensiim  of  military  signals.  It  is  very 
timid  ami  cautious  and  suspicious  of  every  new- 
sight  or  sound  ;  while  in  res]iect  of  nnnal  (lualities 
it  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that  horses  aje  a.s 
diverse  as  men. 

The  history  of  the  horse  can  be  traced  back, 
though  with  extensive  gaps,  to  the  beginning  of 
the  Tertiary  geological  period,  where  we  hnd  Ihe 
remains  of  a  small  ungulate  no  larger  than  a  fox,  to 
which  the  appro]uiate  name  Kn/ii/i/>ii.s  has  been 
given.  It  wjis  of  very  generalised  structure,  having 
f(U'  example  fimr  complete  toes  and  a  rudimentary 
fifth  on  the  forefeet.  In  Miocene  limes  it  was 
suceceiled  by  Mi'iliipjiiis  and  Aii'/iil/icriiiiii,  which 
in  their  turn  gave  place  to  the  I'lioeene  llin/iniioii 
and  I'liu/iippiis,  each  of  these  showing  an  incre.a.se 
in  size  and  a  closer  approach  in  structure  to  the 
modern  hoi-ses.  The  liistory  of  the  feet  in  par- 
ticular furnishes  one  of  the  best  examples  of  the 
gradual  evolution  of  a  specialised  from  a  more 
generalised  organ  (.see  I'lior).  The  skull  and 
neck  became  coiucidentl.y  more  elongated,  and  the 
teeth  underwent  changes  which  have  been  already 
•alluded  to. 

The  etymological  synopsi.-.  above  given  shows  that 
the  horse  was  known  to  the  Aryan  iieojde  before 
their  dispersal.  Incised  liguies  of  the  horse  upon 
bones  have  been  found  iu  cave-deposits  relerrecl  to 
the  Paheolithie  age,  ami  there  is  evidence  to  show 
that  at  this  jieriod  the  animal  wa.s  an  object  of  the 
chase  and  a  .source  of  food.  It  was  proliably  small 
and  heavy,  with  a  large  head  and  an  upright  or 
hog-mane ;   aud  attention  has  been  already  called 


to  the  resemblance  which  some  of  the  .sculptured 
llgures  of  anliiiiiity  bear  to  the  Kijidis  /i>:/iir<i/.i/.ii 
al»ove  described. 

The  hor.se  reappears  in  Neolithic  remains  in  the 
Swiss  lake  ilwellings  and  el.sewheie,  but  here  appar- 
ently still  a.s  an  object  of  the  chase.  'I'bi'  prici.se 
ilale  iif  ilsilomesticalion  is  uncertain.  On  ICgyplian 
nionunienls  no  trace  of  it  appears  before  the  expul- 
sion of  the  llyk.sos  or  shepherd  kings;  and  it  is 
generally  statnl  that  the  animal  was  previously 
unknown  to  the  Kgyptians,  though  it  can  hardly 
be  con>idered  a.s  proved  that  it  wa.s  introduced  by 
the  llyksos. 

In  Scripture  Ihe  hoi-se  is  only  referred  to  in  cim- 
nection  with  warfare;  witness  the  |ioetie  descrip- 
tion of  the  war  horse  in  tin*  liook  of  .lob.  The 
earliest  mention  of  the  anini;il  in  Holy  \Viil  occurs 
in  connection  with  the  famine  in  Egypt,  when 
Jo.seph  ga>e  the  people  corn  in  exchange  for  their 
horses ;  and  its  use  for  ri<liiig  is  alluded  to  in 
2  Kings,  xviii.  •2',i. 

In  Homeric  times  the  horse  wa.s  not  used  for 
riding;  imieed,  at  the  battle  of  Marathon  (490 
P..C.)  the  Persians,  but  not  the  (Ireeks,  used  cavalry. 
After  450  li.C,  however,  the  art  was  ])ractise<l  in 
Hreece,  ami  a  treatise  njxm  it,  of  somewhat  later 
date,  from  the  oen  of  Xenophon,  still  exists.  The 
war-horses  of  tlie  liritons  and  the  chariots,  their 
wheels  armed  with  scythes,  are  ilescribcd  by 
Ca'.sar.  Alliel>lan  paid  sjieeial  attention  to  the 
breed  of  Knglish  horses,  ami  even  imported  animals 
from  Spain  for  its  improvement.  In  this  he  wa.s 
followed  by  other  monarchs,  as  .lolin  and  Kdward 
III.  In  the  reign  of  this  latter  king  a  law  was 
|iassed  forbidding  the  exportation  of  horses,  and  a 
numberof  Spanish  jennels  were  introduced.  Henry 
^"1II.  made  various  enactments  for  improxing 
the  condition  of  the  Knglish  lior.se,  iiarticul.irly 
relating  to  the  pasturing  of  entire  hor.ses  uiion 
coniinons  and  oiien  lands,  where  a  good  deal  of 
proi.uiscuous  ami  detrimental  breeding  Imd  taken 
phu'C.  in  the  reign  of  Kli/abi'th  it  was  penal  to 
make  over  a  hors(^  '  to  the  use  of  ;iny  Scott-ishman,' 
a  prohibition  natuially  repealed  by  her  successor, 
who  further  signalised  himself  by  bringing  over  to 
England  the  '  M.irkhain  .Arabian,'  believed  to 
have  been  the  lirst  of  that  breed  introduced.  He 
did  not  prove  a  success;  btit  still  the  experiment 
wa.s  repeateil  from  time  to  time,  and  in  William 
III.'s  reign  the  'IJyerly  Turk,'  the  lirst  of  a  cele- 
brated trio,  Wits  brought  over  to  Englaml.  -At  the 
very  beginning  of  the  ISth  cenliiiy  came  the 
'Darley  .Arabian'  (the  sire  of  I-'lying  C'hilders, 
1715),  and  later  the  '(lodolphiu  Arabian,'  or  Itarb 
(1724-5:1).  The  lirst  of  these  was  the  great  great- 
grandfather of  the  celebrated  racer  '  Eclipse'  ( foaled 
I7l>4),  from  whom  so  manv  winners  of  imporlant 
races  have  descemlerl.  Inueed,  it  is  not  loo  much 
to  say  that  fnnii  one  or  other  of  these  horses, 
in  most  cases  fr<ini  all  three,  all  horses  at  lucsent 
on  the  turf  trace  their  descent  in  the  male  line. 
Since  the  commencement  of  the  lOtli  century  an 
accurate  record  has  been  keiil  of  the  descent  of  all 
racehorses,  and  an  attemi>t  lia.s  been  made  to  carry 
the  history  about  a  century  further  back. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  and  speculation 
■■us  to  the  kind  of  animal  from  which  the  domeslic 
lior.se  ha.s  been  derived.  Colonel  llainilton  Smith 
.supposed  that  the  modern  breeds  have  descended 
from  about  live  ])rimitive  diU'erently-colouied 
stocks,  but  this  view  limls  no  supporters  nowailavs  ; 
rather  is  it  maiiilained  that  'the  similarity  in  the 
most  distinct  breeds  in  their  general  range  of 
colour,  in  their  ilajipling,  ami  in  the  occasional 
apjiearance,  especially  in  duns,  of  leg  stripes  and  of 
double  and  trijile  shoulder-stripes,  taken  together, 
indicate  the  ]iii)bability  of  the  descent  of  all  the 
existing  races  from  a  single,  dun-coloured,  more  or 


HORSE 


793 


less  stiiiioil  ]iriiiiilive  stock,  to  wliirli  our  liorses 
still  occasionally  revert.' 

Whether  the  actual  species  thus  alluded  to  is 
slid  living;  in  the  wild  stale  is  extremely  uncertain  ; 
indeed  it  is  held  hy  nuxny  competent  judj;es  that  no 
prinulividy  wild  horses  now  exist,  the  herds  of 
horses  that  roam  over  the  Uussian  step]jes  liein<,' 
siip]Mised  to  he  the  descendants  of  animals  which 
were  once  domesticated,  and  have  relapsed  into  the 
feral  state,  as  is  known  to  be  the  case  with  the 
mnstaiiKs  "f  South  America. 

'I'lie  Tar)ian,  or  wild  horse  of  southern  Russia,  is 
a  small  animal,  with  thin,  hut  stron;;'.  Ions-jointed 
lej;s,  h)njj;ish  thin  neck,  and  comparatively  thick 
heail,  pointed  ears  directed  forwards,  and  small 
vicious  eyes.  The  coat  in  summer  is  close,  short, 
.and  wavy,  especially  behind  ;  in  winter  it  is  thick 
and  long,  forming  a  kind  of  beard  under  the  chin  ; 
the  mane  thick  and  bushy,  the  tail  of  moihjrate 
length ;  the  colour  generally  pale  brown  or  yellowish 
in  summer,  almost  white  in  winter.  It  is  found 
in  southern  Russia,  but  (according  to  Raddc)  is 
al)sent  from  Central  Asia,  even  from  the  north  of 
the  Gobi,  where  the  dziggetai  is  found.  It  lives  in 
large  herds,  often  numbering  several  hundreds, 
sul)ilivided  into  little  groups  or  families,  each  pre- 
sided over  by  a  stallion,  who  protects  his  retinue 
valiantly,  but  permits  no  irregularities  in  their 
behaviour  ;  young  horses  keep  at  a  distance  on  tlie 
outskirts  of  the  herd  until  they  are  able  to  under- 
t.iki!  the  cares  of  a  family  for  themselves.  The 
stallions  are  ever  on  the  alert  with  nose  and  ear  to 
detect  the  appro.ach  of  danger,  of  which  they  give 
notice  by  a  loud  neigh,  upon  hearing  which  the 
whole  herd  takes  to  Hight,  sometimes  disa]i[iearing 
as  if  by  nrigie  from  the  crafty  manner  in  which 
they  take  advantage  of  irregularities  in  the  ground. 
The  story  that  they  protect  themselves  by  forudng 
a  ring  with  heads  directed  inwards  has  no  founda- 
tion in  fact,  although  the  stallions  will  defend  the 
mares  and  foals  from  impending  attack.  The 
stallions  light  vigorously  among  themselves  with 
teeth  and  lioofs,  and  each  as  he  attains  maturity 
must  win  his  position  in  the  herd  by  a  series  of 
duels.  Tliey  present  all  the  appearance  of  truly 
wild  animals,  and  are  regarded  as  such  by  the 
Tartars  and  Cossacks,  who  destroy  them  on  all 
possible  opportunities,  because  they  are  useless  for 
taming  ]iurposes,  and  because  they  inllict  consider- 
able damage  upon  these  horse-rearing  communities 
by  devouring  their  stores  of  hay  and  enticing  away 
their  m.ares. 

Tlie  South  American  wild  horses,  known  as 
'  cimmarones  '  or  '  mustangs,'  are  reporteil  by  Azara 
to  be  the  descendants  of  some  half-dozen  individuals 
which  were  left  to  their  own  resources  Mhen  the 
town  of  liuenos  Ayres  was  abatuloned  about  1535. 
When  iu  l.")80  the  town  was  reinstated,  they  were 
found  to  have  increased  to  a  very  considerable 
nund>er.  They  are  of  the  same  size  as  the  domestic 
horses,  but  with  thicker  heads  and  legs,  and  longer 
necks  and  ears  ;  all  are  brownish  or  blackish  in 
c(dour.  Their  social  system  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  tavjians.  They  proceed  in  Indian  tile,  leaving 
no  gaps  in  the  series,  and  are  avoided  by  travellers 
owing  to  their  attempts  to  entice  lame  horses  into 
their  company,  not  unfrciiuenlly  with  success. 
The  Indians  on  the  p.ampas  e.at  the  nuues  and  foals, 
anil  also  capture  a  certain  number  in  order  to  tame 
tlK'Ui;  but  the  Europeans  make  no  use  of  them, 
except  perhaps  to  kill  <me  when  fuel  is  scarce  in 
order  to  re]ilenish  the  cam]i-lire  with  its  marrow. 
The  accounts  given  by  travellers  of  these  animals 
dill'er  in  many  im]iortant  particulars. 

The  subject  of  the  horse's  jiaces  is  one  which  has 
given  rise  to  much  controversv.  It  has  been  main- 
tained that  horses  in  a  wild  state  use  only  the 
walk  and  gallop,   the  trot  and  others   being   the 


results  of  education.  This  question  can  lianlly  be 
regarded  as  settled  even  now,  for  the  fa<:t  that 
i|uite  young  foals  have  been  observed  to  trot  beside 
their  dams  is  explicalde  as  an  instance  of  heredity. 

Six  wcU-nuirked  ]iaces  m.ay  be  distinguished  in 
the  movements  of  donu'sticated  horses — the  walk, 
the  amble,  the  rack  or  jiace,  the  trot,  the  canter, 
and  the  gallop.  The  study  of  the  precise  move- 
ments of  the  dift'erent  limbs  in  carrying  out  these 
paces  is  very  ditUcult,  especially  in  tlu;  case  of 
those  in  which  the  motion  is  rajiid.  Marey,  the 
I'"reneh  physiologist,  was  the  first  to  attempt  a 
rigorous  analysis  of  these  movements  by  means  of 
ajiparatus.  He  attached  to  the  horses'  hoofs  small 
el.-istic  bags,  connected  by  tulies  with  jiointers, 
which  made  marks  upon  a  revolving  cylinder. 
When  any  one  of  the  feet  touched  the  ground  the 
bag  was  compressed,  and  the  pointer  instantly  made 
a  corresponding  mark  up(m  the  cylinder.  \'erv  valu- 
able results  were  obtained  by  this  method  of  study ; 
but  they  need  not  be  further  detailed  here,  as  they 
have  been  superseded  by  the  beautiful  pliotogra]ihic 
investigations  of  Muybridge.  In  these  experiments 
the  horse  was  made  to  proceed  along  a  track  in 
front  of  a  row  of  twelve  or  twenty-four  cameras,  so 
arranged  that,  as  the  animal  passed  in  succession 
before  each  of  them,  an  instantaneous  photograjih 
of  it  was  obtained.  These  ])ictures  furnish  the 
means  of  analysing  the  various  )iaces,  as  the 
exact  attitude  of  the  horse  is  shown  at  very  short 
intervals  of  time.  In  the  case  of  an  ordinary  walk 
the  horse  has  always  two  and  sometimes  three  feet 
on  the  ground  at  once.  The  order  of  the  succession 
of  the  footfalls  is  as  follows  :  left  hind,  left  fore, 
right  hind,  right  fore  ;  furthermore  the  hor.se  is 
alternately  supported  by  the  two  feet  of  the  .same 
side  (laterals)  and  by  a  hind  and  a  fore  foot  of 
dill'erent  sides  (diagonals) ;  when  the  aninuil  rests 
ui>on  the  laterals,  the  suspended  feet  a]ipear  in  a 
side  view  between  the  supjiorting  feet  ;  when  upon 
the  diagonals,  the  suspended  feet  hang  out  one  in 
front  of  and  the  other  behind  the  supi)cMting  feet. 
These  rules  furnish  the  means  of  testing  the 
accuracy  of  artistic  rejuesentations  of  walking 
horses.  The  amble  is  a  rapid  walk,  the  length  of 
time  the  feet  rest  u]ion  the  ground  being  reduced 
so  that  the  body  is  often  supported  ui)on  only  one 
foot,  and  generally  only  on  two.  In  the  '  rack,'  the 
fore-feet  move  as  in  a  slow  gallop,  the  himl-feet  as 
in  a  trot.  In  the  (American)  'pace,'  the  legs  of 
the  same  side  are  lifted  together  an  action  which 
has  ajitly  been  compared  to  two  men  running 
one  behind  the  other  and  keeping  steji.  The  trot 
has  been  defined  as  a  pace  characterised  by  the 
.synchronous  movement  of  the  diagonal  limbs, 
though  in  practice  the  movement  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
(juite  simultaneous.  It  has  often  been  maintained 
by  exiierienced  horsemen  that  a  horse  in  trotting 
has  always  at  least  one  foot  in  c(uitact  with  the 
ground.  !So  far,  however,  is  this  from  being  the 
case  that  a  fast  trotter  is  quite  unsupported  for 
more  than  half  the  distance  he  traverses  in  each 
stride.  In  the  canter  the  order  of  the  footfalls  is 
the  same  as  in  the  ca.se  of  the  walk,  and  the 
characteristic  ditl'erence  is  due  to  the  peculi;ir 
rhythm  as  well  as  to  the  linal  I'llbit  which  propels 
the  body  at  the  conclusion  of  the  stride  as  the 
fore-leg  leaves  the  ground. 

AVe  may  analyse  the  gallop  by  the  aiil  of  the 
accomjianying  reduced  silhmieltes  cojiied  from 
Muybriilge,  and  then  it  will  be  seen  that  its 
conventional  representation  by  artists  is  qiiile 
unlike  any  of  the  acHial  positions  assumed  by 
the  moving  animal.  Fig.  1,  it  must  be  renuMu. 
bered,  does  not  reiiresent  the  start  of  the  gallop, 
but  nu'rely  a  phase  in  a  continuous  action  ; 
the  body  is  moving  forward  by  impetus  already 
ac(iuired,  and  the  fore-foot  just  leaving  the  ground 


r94 


HORSE 


in  ii(liUn<;  to  it.  Fi;;.  2  is  twenty -seven  inches 
fuitlier  (oiwnril  ;  tlie  lej:  wliioli  was  i>n  tlie  ^'iouikI 
in  the  hist  lit'oanie  so  lushint  thiit  it  >\':i.s  ohli^etl  to 
<|uit  the  j;roiincl,  ami  is  now  thrown  hiu-kwiird :  tlie 
hind  le^'s  arc  pilheiin;;  u))  ami  coniin;;  foiwanls 
iircparatoiy  to  (leseoiulinj;.  Fig.  3  shows  no 
fuillier  jiio|inlsion,  lint  the  liindle"?*  are  still 
niovinj;  forwards.  In  lig.  4  one  hindlef;  hiLs  just 
touched  llie  ground,  the  other  is  at  its  i,'reatesl 
extension  ;  one  forelei;  has  come  forward  ahout 
Inilfway.  In  lig.  :">  both  forelegs  are  lieing  ex- 
tended in  advance  :  one  liind  leg  is  iiushing  upon 
the  ground,  the  other  heing  hrouglit  ilown.  Fig. 
6  shows  lioth  hind  legs  at  woik  iiro|Hlliiig  llieliocly 


forwards  ami  upwards  ;  one  leg  hius  nearly  ilon<'  its 
w<uk,  the  other  just  hegun  :  one  fore-leg  is  at  its 
maximum  forward  range,  the  other  is  heing  pro- 
jected, in  lig.  7  one  hind-leg  has  left  and  the 
other  is  just  leaving  the  ground  :  one  fore- leg  has 
reached  the  ground  and  is  just  hcginning  ilM 
stroke.  Fig.  H  shows  lioth  hind  legs  in  the  air, 
and  tlie  weight  of  the  lioilv  supported  upon  one 
fore-leg.  In  lig.  il  one  fore-leg  is  doing  its  stroke, 
the  other  is  nearly  ready  to  liegin  ;  the  hind-legs 
remain  much  as  in  the  huit  diagram.  In  lig.  10 
one  foreleg  has  left  the  grouinl,  the  other  is  at 
work  upon  it  :  and  the  hind  legs  are  heing  liroupht 
forwards.     This  livings  us  to  II nd  of  llic  series. 


^ 

^ 

-# 

-# 

-# 

7^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

-^ 

w 

The  llursc  iu  uiotiuu  (after  Mujbiidtjc). 


for  lig.  11  is  really  intermediate  hetween  ligs.  1 
ami  2.  One  or  two  facts  ma>  he  seen  from  these 
diagrams,  which,  thinigh  small,  are  accurate.  The 
greatest  jiropulsive  force  resides  in  the  hind-legx  : 
as  the  weight  of  the  hor.se  descends  upon  any  one 
of  its  feet,  the  strain  ujion  the  limbs  is  so  great  i 
that  the  pastern  joint  lies  r|uite  horizimtally  ;  the 
legs  are  lient  when  taken  nn  and  .straightened  iu 
the  ilescent :  the  heels  strike  the  ground  before 
the  toes.  The  length  of  a  stride  iu  the  dill'erent 
jiaces  may  Ije  a|)pr<iximatcly  stated  as  follows ; 
walk,  6  feet;  amble,  10  feet";  rack,  12  feet:  trot, 
H  to  IS  feet ;  canter,  10  feet ;  gallop,  12  to  20  feet. 
In  the  matter  of  speed  .a  hoi-se  may  be  s.iid  to  walk 
4  or  5  miles  an  hour,  trot  under  .saddle  6  to  12 
miles,  or  in  harness  10  to  12  or  even  14  ;  a.s  regards 
a  gallop,  the  fastest  records  seem  to  be  .S  miles  in 
.")  min.  421  sec.  ;  1  mile  in  1  mill.  43  sec.  It  is  stated 
that  some  of  the  old  Cleveland  hoi-ses  could  carry 
71)0  II).  for  (iO  miles  in  twenty-four  hours,  and 
Lawrence  gives  a  story  of  a  IJalloway  which  beat 
the  coach  from  London  to  Kxeter  ( 172  miles)  by  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  notwithstanding  its  frequent 
relays  of  fresh  horses. 

A  few    words  must    lie   devoted   to  the  various 
domestic  breeds  of  horses. 

The  rarer  is  the  one   for  which  Kngland  is  jire- 
eminently  famous,  and   his  origin  from    the   com- 
bination of  oriental    with   native  blood    has   l)een 
above  allude<l  to.     The  age  of  the  racehorse  when- 
ever  fo.aleil  is  reckoned  from  the  next  1st  .lanii.irv, 
and  hence  it  is  advantageous  that  they  should  be  ' 
born  early  in  the  year,  so  iv*  to  gain  .is  much  time 
•OS  |)ossible  for  development.     In   .Inly  or  August  I 
of  the  following  year  the  serious  training  for  the 
two-year  and   three-yeai-old   races   now   in   vogue  j 
Iwgins.     Ver\'  few  horses  now  race  after  four  yeai-s 


old,  but  are  used  for  stiid  purposes,  at  prices  vary- 
ing with  the  success  they  have  attained  on  the 
turf. 

Successful  racehorses  v.ary  much  in  shape,  some 
being  small  and  nejit.  others  tall  and  bony.  In 
height  they  m.ay  be  said  to  r.inge  from  15  to  \6k 
hands  (the  hand  =4  inches),  though  the  most 
usual  dimensions  are  between  1.")^  and  Iti  hamls  ; 
the  head  should  be  light  and  well  set  on  the  neck, 
the  eai-s  small  .and  jiricked,  the  eye  large,  and  the 
noslrils  wide  ami  expansible.  The  neck  must  be 
moderately  long,  and  must  combine  muscnlar 
ilevelopnient  with  lightness ;  the  windpipe  broail 
and  loose  ;  the  withers  may  be  high  and  narrow  ; 
but  il  is  imperative  that  tlii!  shoulder  be  sloping  and 
muscular.  The  boily  should  be  moderately  deep 
and  straight  :  length  should  be  given  to  il  by  the 
shoulders  and  hips  ;  the  loins  must  be  broad  and 
lirm  :  the  hips  long  and  wide.  The  limbs  ought 
to  lie  well  proi>ortione<l  and  cleanly  modelled  ;  the 
fetlock-joints  large  .and  the  pasterns  strong;  the 
feet  of  moilerate  size,  with  no  sign  of  contraction 
either  in  the  heels  or  the  frogs.  The  tail  should 
lie  set  on  high.  Most  iiii]iortaiit  of  all  is  it  that 
the  dillcrent  parts  should  harnioiii.-e  together,  and 
th.at  the  .action  should  Ih;  giMiil.  Colour  is  perhaps 
of  less  consequence  :  still  it  is  worthy  of  remark 
that  for  a  long  time  the  majority  of  winners  have 
been  chestnut.s. 

At  his  f.astest  sjieed  a  racehorse  may  coyer  a 
mile  in  1  min.  43  sec.  :  the  rate  of  a  mile  .a  minute 
currently  attributed  to  Kdipsc  is,  according  to  a 
competent  authority,  'wildly  incredible.' 

In  .America  I  he  favourite  form  of  horserace  is  the 
trotting-niatch,  which  appeal's  to  have  originated 
in  the  prohibilion  of  horseracing  by  the  Puritans. 
The  gradual  evolution  of  the  fast  trotter  is  remark- 


HORSE 


r95 


able.  In  1828  a  l)et  of  $2000  was  iiiailc  and  lost 
that  no  lioise  could  trot  one  mile  in  :{  minutes.  In 
18.52  the  time  refjuired  for  tliiil  distance  was  2  inin. 
26  sec.  ;  in  1866,  2  niin.  IS  .sec.  ;  whil.-t  in  1881  it 
had  lieen  brought  as  low  a.s  2  iiiiu.  10'5  sec.  In 
184.3  there  wa.s  one  lioi-se  that  could  do  the  mile  in 
2A  mill.,  whilst,  in  1871,  233  liorses,  and  in  1882  no 
less  than  1684  could  accomplish  this  feat.  See 
TitOTTIN'ci. 

The  /( iiiitcr  is  sometimes,  hut  not  often  a  thorongh- 
hred.  If  this  be  the  ca.se,  he  is  {generally  a  lioi-se 
that  hiis  failed  to  stand  the  test  of  the  short  rapid 
races,  and  is  thereafter  trained  for  a  hunter.  He 
dili'ei-s  from  the  racer  mainly  in  carryin>;]iower 
and  endurance.  A  deep  girth,  with  broad  hi])s, 
a  back  not  over  long,  and  strong  legs  are  his  mo.st 
e.sseiitial  clKiractei"s.  Jumping  is  a  most  necessary 
acconi]dishment.  A  five-barred  gate  is  the  ordinary 
limit  of  a  leap  ;  but  a  few  horses  have  been  known 
to  clear  lieight.s  between  6  and  7  feet.  Yet  only  a 
few  will  jump  10  or  12  feet  of  water  in  the  hunting- 
Held,  although  hoi-ses  have  been  known  to  leap  a 
distance  of  36  feet. 

Tiie  cliarijcr  ought  to  be  15'3  hands  high.  He 
should  be  a  good  weight-cariier,  and  the  paces 
should  be  eiusy,  owing  to  the  regulation  length  of 
the  military  stirrui>s.  Furthermore,  as  the  soldier 
has  to  devote  his  right  hand  to  the  management 
of  his  weapon,  only  the  kfi  can  be  used  for  guid- 
ing his  steed,  which  has  thus  to  he  accustomed  to 
take  it.s  instructions  from  tlie  pressure  of  the  leg 
or  indications  given  by  the  heel. 

Harness-hoi-ses  are  of  all  decrees  of  value,  and 
of  varieties  of  race  and  breed,  from  the  tall  liigh- 
stepping  bays,  ItU  or  even  17  hands  in  height,  which 
draw  the  four-in-hands  of  the  wealthy,  to  the 
little  i)ony  which  drags  a  basket  phaeton.  A  really 
well-matched  pair  of  carriage-lioi-ses  of  good  action 
will  fetch  a  very  high  ])rice.  For  hiuses  drawing 
light  vehicles,  151  hands  is  an  average  lieight :  those 
preferred  for  coaching  are  taller,  and  the  wheelers 
are  commonly  an  inch  higlier  than  the  leaders. 

Carl-hoi-ses,  like  other  harness-hoi-ses,  are  of  all 
kinds.  The  enormously  heavy  animals  which  have 
been  develo])ed  as  the  result  of  crossing  the  native 
blood  with  Flemish  are  now  to  be  seen  ahnost 
exchhsively  in  the  drays  of  brewei-s ;  for  the 
most  part  they  are  bred  in  Lincolnshire,  and  are 
e.\|)ensive  to  rear,  and  hence  to  purchase.  The 
old  Cleveland  breed  and  the  SuHolk  Fnneh  are 
said  to  be  now  e.xtinct,  and  the  Clydesdale  is 
perhaps  the  favourite  breed  for  this  purpose  at  the 
present  time. 

A  jiony  Ls  defined  as  being  a  lioi-se  under  13 
hands  higii ;  the  Exnmor  ])onies  are  a  valuable 
breed,  with  well-shaped  head,  good  ipiartcrs,  anil 
powerful  hocks.  For  small  dimensions  the  palm 
is,  however,  carried  oil'  by  the  Shetland  breed,  the 
height  of  which  is  often  as  little  as  10  hands,  and 
not  uufreipUMitly  less  even  than  tlii.s. 

In  till"  manner  of  stable  management  it  is  of 
lirst-cla.ss  importance  that  the  stable  itself  should 
be  in  a  healthy  locality,  and  free  from  even  the 
suspicion  of  bad  smell  or  foul  air,  to  both  of  which 
liorses  are  particularly  .sensitive.  The  stalls  should 
be  roomy,  and  the  slope  of  the  Hoor  no  more  than 
is  needful  to  allow  the  drainage  to  run  oH':  indeed 
an  arched  lloor  is  to  be  preferred  to  a  smooth  slope. 
'■"'■    stalls  should  be  ade<|uately  lighted,  hut  the  eyes 


Thi 


should  not  be  strained  by  the  use  of  too  light  paint 
or  whitewash  on  the  walls,  (iood  ventilation  is 
imperative,  and  shouhl  be  achieved  without  ex- 
jiosing  the  animal  to  cold  draughts.  About  55"  F. 
is  the  mean  temperature  to  be  aimed  at,  but  it  is 
very  often  impossible  to  keep  it  down  nearly  so 
low  as  this  ;  in  winter  it  is  easy  to  keep  it  up,  or 
even  if  this  fail,  the  dillerence  can  be  made  up  by 
clothing.      In  all   matters  pertaining  to  the  treat- 


ment of  a  hoi-se,  regularity  and  moderation  are 
the  great  secrets  of  success. 

Tlie  food  varies  much  with  the  nature  of  the 
work  the  horse  is  called  upon  to  perform,  and  the 
means  of  liLs  owner.  A  cavalry  charger  is  allowed 
10  lb.  oats  and  12  lb.  hay  i)er  diem  ;  an  omnibus 
horse  17  lb.  of  nii.\ed  oats  and  maize,  the  propor- 
ti(ms  variing  according  to  the  relative  ]>rices  of 
the  two  giains,  and  10  lb.  hay.  A  hunter  is 
verv  commonly  allowed  12  lb.  oats,  2  lb.  beans,  and 
6-8  lb.  hay.- 

A  certain  moderate  amount  of  e.vercise  every 
day  is  necessary  ;  nothing  is  worse  than  excessive 
fatigue  one  day  and  entire  rest  another.  Two  hours 
walking  will  as  a  rule  suttice,  but  the  needs  and 
capabilities  of  dill'erent  animals  must  be  studied  by 
those  who  have  the  care  of  them  ;  in  all  cases  it 
should  be  enough  to  ]irevent  undue  fidgetiness 
when  the  animal  is  used  by  his  master. 

Horse-breaking,  a  process  through  which  all 
young  horses  have  to  go  before  they  are  lit  for 
work.  The  racehoi-se  is  generally  broken  when 
about  eighteen  mouths  old,  but  carriage  and 
draught  horses  are  not  broken  until  four-year-olds, 
though  many  farmers  break  theii'  horses  for  light 
work  at  an  earlier  age.  The  proce.ss  diflei-s  con- 
siderably in  vaiious  countries,  but  that  in  use  in 
Englanil,  though  the  slowest,  is  the  most  thorough, 
and  the  only  one  litted  to  break  a  really  valuable 
horse  without  risk.  The  chief  requisites  for  a  good 
hoi-se-breaker  are  gentleness  and  unlimited  patience, 
as  a  hast}'  action  nuiy  undo  days  of  work.  Before 
the  commencement  of  the  training,  the  horse  is 
accustomed  to  be  touched  by  a  man,  and  to  the 
feel  of  a  halter.  After  he  is  familiar  with  his 
breaker,  who  should  on  no  account  be  changed,  he 
is  taken  out  with  leading  rein  and  halter  until 
used  to  being  led.  The  breaker  nuiy  then  com- 
mence to  'mouth'  his  charge — i.e.  teach  him  to 
answer  the  pressure  of  the  bit.  This  is  generally 
done  by  ])lacing  a  liit  in  the  hoi"se's  mouth  every 
day  while  in  the  stable,  until  he  is  used  to  the 
metal ;  he  is  then  driven  with  long  reins  attached 
to  his  bit,  by  the  breaker,  who  walks  behind  and 
turns  his  pupil  in  various  directions  until  he 
answens  the  rein  reailily.  After  the  mouthing  has 
been  thoroughly  done,  the  hoi'se  may  be  mounteil 
or  harnessed  and  gr;idually  accustometl  to  his 
proper  work.  As  the  majority  of  horses  do  not 
repay  so  much  trouble,  they  have  to  be  broken 
more  cpiickly,  but  in  the  case  of  a  high-bred  animal 
at  the  risk  of  his  courage  or  his  temper. 

In  1858-60  great  attention  was  called  to  the 
system  of  an  American  called  J.  S.  Karey,  who 
broke  hoi-ses  thor<uighly  in  an  hour.  The  essence 
of  Karey's  metliud  (a  method  published  many  yeare 
previously,  but  lirst  introduced  to  the  ]uiblic  by 
Karey)  was  the  'casting"  or  throwing  down  of  the 
hoi'se,  and  frightening  him  so  thoroughly  that  he 
gave  no  further  resistance.  Twenty  years  later 
much  discussion  was  raised  over  an  Australian 
system,  said  to  diti'er  entirely  from  Itarey's,  but 
which  only  difl'ered  in  the  fact  that  the  hoi'se's 
head  was  tied  to  his  tail  iintil  he  fell,  instead  of 
violently  casting  him.  Both  of  these  systems, 
while  of  great  utility  in  the  case  of  a  vicious 
luuse,  or  where  horses  are  plentiful  and  of  little 
value,  are  much  too  severe  to  be  undergone  by 
a  higli-couraged  but  nervous  colt,  who  only  requires 
patience  and  gentleness  to  master  him. 

From  1784  a  tax  wa-s  impose<l  upon  hoi-ses  and 
hoi'sedealers ;  in  1869  this  was  li.xed  at  10s.  tkl.  on 
each  boi>e  or  mule,  ami  £12,  10s.  was  charge<l  for 
a  ilealer's  license;  the  tax  was  removed  in  1874. 

In  the  year  1S88  no  less  than  11,505  horses  were 
importe<l  into  the  I'liited  Kingdom  from  yarious 
parts  of  the  Avorld.  cliielly  from  Gernuiny  (6667) 
and    Denmark    ( 'J234 1,    the   average    value   of   the 


796 


HORSE 


HORSERACING 


Hiiiiniik  beiiif;  flS,  while  12,880  linnic-briHl  lioi-><;s 
were  ex|n>rteil  lit  an  iivein^-e  of  £65.  In  l.s'll-it.") 
fii>ni  U.(HHt  to  •iS.IHKI  were  luinnally  iniporteil,  (Unl 
from  1-_',IKK)  to  17,<XK)  exporteil. 

Thcri'  aru  wurks  on  the  horse  by  Sidney  (new  e<l.  1IS.S7  i, 
Wnlsli  [■  Stonehcngo  'J  ( new  ed.  1S.S0 1,  Vuuatt  ( new  e'l. 
1882),  Cuycr  and  AHx  (I'aris,  18X0),  Hayes  (1S'J3). 
Sidney  (new  ed.  18il3),  Tegctiueier  (18114).  and 
Tweedie  (18W);  on  liorse-uianageuient,  by  JIayhew 
(18r»4)  and  otliers ;  on  tlie  anatomy  of  the  iiorse,  by 
M'l'adyean  ( 18S4)  and  Flower  (1S!I2);  on  horne-breakinj;, 
by  Morcton  (IN'vJ)  and  Hayes  (18Sltl.  Sec  also  the 
articles  KiDiNG,  Hippophaoy,  Veterixaiiy  Mf.uki.ne, 
t!LANDEH8.  liitoKES  WiNi),  UN.sm!.\nxE.ss,  A;c.  ;  and 
Huth'u  liihlioi/rajihical  Record  of  HipjKjfuf/i/  (1887). 

Horse.  M.v.ster  of  the,  the  third  ^Teat  officer 
of  the  eonrt,  who  hiis  the  snperinteinlenee  of  the 
royal  .-jtaliles,  ami  of  all  horses  ami  hrceils  of  horses 
l>cloii;,'inj;  to  the  (^'iieen.  He  exercises  authority 
over  all  the  ecinerries  and  pages,  grooms,  eoacli- 
men,  sadiUei-s,  anil  farriers,  and  Inis  tlie  appoint- 
ment and  control  of  all  artilicci-s  workiiijj;  tor  the 
royal  stables.  He  is  answerable  for  the  dis- 
Imrsenieiit  of  all  revenues  ai)|iroi>riate<l  to  defray 
the  expenses  of  his  department  ;  but  his  accounts 
are  audited  ami  examined  by  the  ISoard  of  (!reeu 
( iotli.  He  Inus  the  privilej,'e  of  making  use  of  the 
royal  Inu'ses,  pages,  and  servants,  anil  ride.s  next  to 
the  monarch  on  all  stale  occasion.s.  The  ollice  is 
one  of  great  antii|uity,  and  is  considered  a  position 
of  great  honour.  He  is  ajipointed  during  |ilciusure, 
by  iellersjiatent  ;  but  his  tenure  of  ollice  depends 
on  the  existence  of  the  pulitiuil  party  in  power. 
The  salary  is  il'iofX)  a  year. 

ll*»rst>-4-li«>stiiiit.    .See  Chestnut. 

li<»l'S4'-lly.      See  I"OI!EST-FLY. 

IIursft;iiai*«ls.  See  Cl-.MiDS.  The  name  is 
also  applied  to  a  large  public  ollice  in  Whitehall, 
appropriateil  to  the  departments  under  the  general 
comnuindinginchief.  The  word  Hoi-segnards  is 
used  conventionally  to  signify  the  military  author- 
ities at  the  head  of  army  all'aii's,  in  cimtradistinction 
to  the  civil  chief,  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War. 

llors«'-liair.    See  H.me. 

Ilursc-liair  Wuriii.    See  H.\ir  eel. 

Ilur.scli-ss     4'arriuses.      See     Traction- 

E.M  M  .N  i;s,  t ;  AS-K.\(  :l  N  K. 

llorseilS.  a  Danish  seaport  on  the  Horsenslicnd, 
:)■-'  miles  SSW.  of  .Aarliuus.      Pop.  12,654. 

ll«r.se-|IOW«'r.  The  word  jii/ii-cr  is  of  frei|uent 
use  as  a  scienlilic  expression.  Thus  we  speak  of 
steam-power,  water-power,  and  so  on.  When  used 
in  this  sense  it  is  <iuite  obvious  that  reference 
is  merely  nnule  to  the  nature  of  the  store  of  energy 
in  the  particular  nn)tor  umler  eonsiderati<m.  Again, 
when  we  speak  of  the  total  energy  of  a  given 
.system  as  the  total  power  that  it  lijis  of  iloing 
work,  it  wonlil  .seem  to  be  almost  an  insult  to 
the  mental  power  of  our  auditor  to  tell  him  in 
iiildition  that  by  the  latter  plira.se  we  mean  sini]ily 
t<ital  work  mea-sureil  in  terms  of  any  convenient 
unit.  But  it  is  often  necessary  to  know  the 
ipiantity  of  work  which  can  Ite  proilucetl  in  a 
given  time  by  a  given  motor.  It  is  in  this  con- 
nection that  the  term  one  liorsc-pou-er  is  used  to 
denote  the  rate  at  which  on  the  average  a  hoi-se  can 
do  work  per  unit  time,  and  this  rate  is  adopted 
in  Britain  a-s  the  nnit  rate  of  working.  Estimates 
of  its  numerical  value  nece.s.sarily  diller  very  much  : 
and  .so,  in  order  to  get  a  delinite  nnit  available  for 
seientilic  purjHises,  the  convention  is  made  that  the 
original  estimate  of  Bonlt<m  and  Watt  shall  lie 
regarded  as  correct.  The  value  which  they  gave 
was  33,(XX)  foot-piuinds  per  minnte. 

An  ordinary  rule  for  calculating  the  horse-po\ver 
of  a  .steam-engine  is  to  divide  by  .■{3,(XK)  tlie  con- 
tinued product  of  the  area  of  the  piston  in  inches, 


the  ])ressure  in  |iiinn<ls  weight  per  .sijuare  inch,  the 
length  of  the  stroke  in  feet,  and  the  nnniber  of 
strokes  per  minute.  .  Thus,  by  the  horsepower 
of  an  engine  we  merely  mean  the  numerical  rate 
at  which  it  can  do  wink,  expressed  in  terms  of  the 
above  conventional  nnit.  and  thisnuiiibernlivionsly 
coincides  with  the  number  of  horses  to  which  the 
engine  is  eijnivalent  as  regards  work  in  the  same 
time.  Of  coni'se  the  available  horsepower  is  less 
than  the  actual  horse-|iower  lus  got  by  the  above 
rule,  because  ol  the  work  which  ha.s  to  be  done 
against  friction  in  the  engine  itself.  See  Stkam- 
KNciNK.  The  term  niiiii-jniirer  is  similarly  n.sed, 
being  usually  taken  ils  one-eighth  of  a  lioi>e. 

llorscrarillK*  Horses  were  used  for  har- 
ness purposes  before  thev  were  ever  ri<Iden  ;  ,intl 
clianotraces  took  pl.ice  liefore  horses  raced  under 
s.adille.  The  earliest  mention  of  chariot-races  occurs 
in  Homer  (///■(«/,  xxiii.),  who  gives  a  clear  description 
of  those  contests.  The  programme  of  the  (Irecian 
games  included  horseracing  in  the  33il  Olympiad — 
i.e.  the  year  648  n.c.  :  some  .uilliurities"  give  the 
time  !LS  the  23d  Olympiad,  though  this  earlier  date 
was  that  of  idiariot-raeing.  Racing  can  thus  claim 
a  history,  albeit  a  broken  one,  of  nearly  ."iOtX)  years, 
and,  at  the  period  above  mentioned,  it  was  so 
far  reduced  to  a  .system  that  the  horses  had  to  be 
entered  and  sent  to  Klis  at  least  thirty  days  before 
the  contests  began,  the  riders  sjiending  the  nM>ntli 
in  a  course  of  training  and  exercise.  The  71st 
Olympi.ad,  or  496  n.c,  the  tireeks  instituted  a  race 
called  the  '('alpe,'  which  wius  conlined  to  marcs, 
just  lUs  the  One  Thonsaml  (Juineasand  the  Oaks 
are  now  ;  while  according  to  tJrote's  llixtiirij  nf 
(,'rcrre  it  would  ajipciir  tliiit,  in  course  of  time,  a 
certain  number  of  races  were  restricted  to  colts  of 
one  age,  so  that  they  might  not  labour  umler  the 
disadvantage  of  competing  under  eijual  wci^ibts 
against  older  hoi'ses.  In  the  lOtli  century,  Hugo 
Capet  accompanied  his  request  for  the  hand  of 
King  Atlielstan's  sister  by  a  present  of  several 
(ierinan  running  horses.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 
'hackneys  and  charging  steeds'  raced  at  Smith- 
lielil  ;  and  under  Hichard  I.  we  hear  of  a  course  three 
miles  long,  with  .-i  prize  of  'forty  ponnils  of  redy 
golde'  for  the  winner.  To  .lames  1.  the  credit  is 
commonly  a.s.signed  of  having  placed  the  turf  on  a 
|)ermanent  l>a.sis.  His  taste  for  racing  appears  to 
liave  been  fostered  by  an  accidental  circnnistance. 
It  is  said  that  several  Spanish  horses,  thrown  over- 
board from  the  ships  of  the  .Armada,  reached  the 
coiust  of  tialloway,  and  pro\'ed  supciioi'  in  speed  to 
any  of  the  n,itive  horses.  The  suitableness  of 
Newmarket  iis  a  site  for  racing  had  been  perceived 
jirior  to  the  advent  of  James  I.,  who,  however,  lost 
no  time  in  witnessing  the  races  there,  a-s  he  was 
present  in  1605,  proliably  for  the  (irsl  time,  that 
lielng  two  years  after  his  acces>ii)n  to  the  throne. 
It  is  worth  mentioning  that  the  king  was  at  Lincoln 
races  in  1607.  becaii.se,  on  the  occiusion  of  a  race 
taking  jilace  there  cm  the  3d  April,  the  king  appears 
to  have  acted  !is  a  sort  of  clerk  of  the  conise,  for  he 
caused  the  track,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  to  be 
'  raled  and  corded  with  ro|ie  and  hoopes'  (m  both 
sides,  whereby  the  people  were  kept  out,  and  'the 
hoi'scs  that  roniied  were  seen  faire '  (Xicliols' /"/o- 
i/ir/i^-  of  Jtiinex  I.).  Cromwell  Wiis,  to  a  certain 
extent,  an  uiiholder  of  racing,  though  perhaps 
he  did  more  for  breeding  than  for  racing;  but 
Charles  II.  greatly  encouraged  the  tni-f,  and 
caused  races  to  lie  held  near  whatever  place  he 
niijiht  hagipen  to  be  staving.  Queen  .-Vnne,  a.s  Ls 
well  known,  kept  raceliorses,  ran  them  in  her 
own  name,  and  gave  plates  to  be  run  for.  None 
of  the  (irst  three  (leorges  signalLsed  themselves  by- 
extreme  love  for  the  turf ;  Imt  it  was  in  the 
twenty-third  year  of  (Jeorge  III.  that  the  Horse 
Tax,  which  iiitrniliif  imposed  a  duty  of  twoguinea.s 


HORSERACING 


797 


npon  every  horse  entereJ  or  starting;  for  any  plate, 
&c.,  was  passed.  Before  Geor^^e  Ifl.'.s  long  reign 
came  to  an  end  the  Prince  of  Wales  was  a  [ironiinent 
figure  in  the  racing  world,  his  career  as  a  horse- 
owner  dating  from  1784.  In  178(i  the  stuil  was 
sold  in  conseimence  of  the  pecuniary  emharrass- 
ments  of  the  prince  ;  hut,  on  iiarliament  generously 
increasing  his  income,  he  took  to  racing  once  more. 
When  the  prince  next  gave  up  racing  it  was  for 
a  very  diilerent  reason.  His  horse  Escape  was 
entered  to  run  on  the  20th  ami  21st  at  the  New- 
market Octoher  meeting  in  1791.  On  the  fii-st  day 
it  wa.s  heaten  hy  three  others ;  hut  on  the  secoml 
day  it  won  ea-silv,  whereupon  unpleasant  remarks 
were  made,  the  .hockey  C'luli  took  the  matter  up, 
and  Sir  Charles  Bunhury  told  the  prince  that  if  he 
continued  to  allow  Chifney  to  riile  his  horses  no 
gentleman  would  start  against  him.  Rather  than 
sacrilice  his  jockey  ho  retired  from  the  turf,  thougli 
he  made  a  moilitied  reappearance  in  1S0.5  at  the 
request  of  the  Jockey  Club  ;  hut  the  royal  stalile 
was  never  represented  at  Newmarket  after  1808. 
'William  IV.  naturally  had  no  taste  for  lacing,  hut 
as  a  sort  of  duty  he  kept  on  so  that  the  nomina- 
tions should  not  hecimie  void. 

Since  the  accession  of  Q"P6"  Victoria  the  turf 
has  not  received  any  particiilar  encouragement  from 
royalty;  in  fact,  from  a  purely  racing  view  a  retro- 
grade step  has  heen  taken,  as  in  1886  the  Queen's 
Plates  were  discontinued,  and  the  sum  they  repre- 
sented was  increased  to  i'oOOO,  which  has  been 
handed  over  yearly  to  the  Royal  Commission  on 
Horse-breeding,  who  have  expended  this  amount  in 
promoting  the  breeding  of  hunters  and  other  half- 
lired  hoi-ses.  Since  the  time  of  William  IV.  no 
member  of  the  royal  house  owned  racehorses  until 
the  Prince  of  Wales  bought  a  few. 

Of  all  the  meetings  held  at  the  present  time  the 
one  at  Che.ster  is  possibly  the  most  ancient,  as  an 
order  bearing  date  10th  January  loTI  provides  for 
the  Saddlers'  ball,  which  was  of  silk,  being  changeil 
into  a  silver  bell  of  the  value  of  3s.  4d.,  and  tliis 
bell  was  to  be  the  prize  for  the  horse  'which,  with 
speed  of  ninniuge,  then  should  runne  before  all 
others.'  In  l(ilO  tlie  one  silver  bell  was  changed 
into  three  'ciyips,'  and  the  race  was  then  known  as 
'St  George's  Race.'  In  162.3  'one  faire  silver  cu])p," 
worth  about  £H,  was  substituted  for  the  three  cuiis. 
The  Chester  Cup,  as  at  present  constituted,  was 
lirst  run  for  in  1824.  In  Yorkshire,  a  horseracing 
county  par  cxrc/lcnre,  races  took  place,  according 
to  Camden's  Britnnniri,  as  early  as  1590  in  the 
forest  of  Galtres,  on  the  east  of  York,  the  prize 
being  a  small  bell  with  which  the  head  of  the 
winning  horse  was  decorated ;  while  Drake,  in 
his  EliiiracHin,  st.ates  that,  when  the  river  Ouse 
was  frozen  o\er  in  KiOT,  a  horserace  was  run  upon 
it  from  the  tower  at  Marygate  end,  through  the 
great  arch  of  Ouse  Bridge,  to  the  Crane  at  Skeliler- 
gate  Postern.  On  the  Knavesmire  racing  dates 
from  1709,  though  the  lii-st  race  for  the  King's 
Guinejus  did  not  take  place  till  \''M.  The  St  Leger 
lias  done  move  than  anything  else  to  make  Don- 
caster  Town  Moor  fanums  ;  yet,  though  races  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  hehl  there  so  early  as 
at  Chester  or  Newmarket,  so  long  ago  as  1703 
the  Yorkshiremon  pitted  their  horses  one  against 
iinotJier,  and  twelve  years  later  the  corporation 
of  Dcmcaster  contributed  towards  the  stakes.  In 
1771)  a  sweepstakes  was  won  by  the  Marquis  of 
Rockingham  s  Allabulculia,  anil  in  1777  by  Mr 
Sotlieron's  Bourbon.  In  1778  the  race,  the  condi- 
tions for  which  were  identical  with  those  governing 
the  aforesaid  sweepstakes,  first  received  the  name 
of  the  St  Leger,  the  proposal  to  so  designate  it 
emanating  from  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham,  who 
]iresided  at  the  dinner  held  at  the  Ited  Lion  on  the 
entry  day.     A  Colonel  St  Leger,  who  lived   near 


Doncaster,  originated  the  sweepstakes  in  1776, 
and  the  race  received  its  name  in  his  honour. 
Since  its  first  institution  the  conditions  of  the 
race  and  the  weights  carried  by  the  horses  have 
.several  times  undergone  alteration.  Ascot  (q.v.) 
has  heen  a  seat  of  horseracing  since  1711. 

Epsom  (q.v.),  perhaps  the  most  ])opular  race- 
coui-se  in  England,  first  became  famous  in  16.30 
for  its  mineral  waters.  It  is  uncertain  when 
racing  wa.s  tirst  practised,  but  it  certainly  existed 
in  1048,  and  in  1660  Pepys  regrets  his  inability 
to  be  present  at  Banstead  Downs  to  see  a  great 
horse  and  foot  race.  When  racing  at  Epsom 
was  in  its  infancy  the  usual  custom  was  to  decide 
a  race  in  the  forenoon,  after  which  the  whole  com- 
pany went  into  the  town  to  dinner,  and  if  another 
race  was  fixed  for  the  same  day,  it  took  place 
after  dinner.  In  1780  the  Derby  Stakes  were 
tirst  instituted,  and  named  after  one  of  the  turf's 
best  and  most  influential  sup|)orters — the  twelfth 
Earl  of  Derby.  In  point  of  antiquity,  however, 
the  Oaks  can  claim  precedence  over  the  Derby,  the 
'Ladies'  Race'  having  first  taken  place  in  1779. 
On  thirteen  occasions  .since  the  Derby  was  first  run 
the  winner  of  that  race  has  succeeded  in  also  win- 
ning the  St  Leger.  Champion  achieved  the  dual 
victory  in  1800 ;  and  then  ensued  a  period  of  f<irty- 
eight  years  before  the  feat  was  again  accomplished 
by  Surplice  in  1848;  and  then,  strange  to  say,  the 
same  horse  won  both  r.aces  in  two  successive  years. 
Flying  Dutchman  and  A'cdtigeur  winning  in  1849 
and  1850  respectively.  The  other  double  winners 
have  been  ^\  est  Australian  in  18.13;  Blair  Athol, 
1864;  Gladiateur,  1865;  Lord  Lyon,  1S66  ;  Silvio, 
1877;  Iroquois,  1881;  Melton, "  188.5 ;  Ormonde, 
1886 ;  and  Donovan,  1889.  The  St  Leger  has  been 
won  by  the  Oaks  winner  on  six  occasions — viz. 
Formo.sa,  1868;  Hannah,  1871;  Marie  Stuart, 
1873;  Apology,  1874;  .lanette,  1878;  and  Sea- 
breeze, 1888.  The  Two  Thousand  Guineas,  Derby, 
and  St  Leger  have  been  won  by  the  same  hoiNe 
six  times  only.  The  lirst-named  race  w.as  first  run 
in  1809,  but  it  was  not  till  1853  that  Mr  P.owes's 
West  Australian  succeeded  in  carrying  oH'  all  three 
events  ;  the  other  wearers  of  what  has  been  termed 
the  '  triple  crown  '  being  Glailiateur  in  1865,  Lord 
Lyon  in  1866,  Omiomle  in  1886,  Common  in  1891, 
and  Isinglass  in  1S93:  but  in  1S6S  Formosa,  winner 
of  the  Oaks,  had  been  previously  successful  in  the 
Two  Thousand,  .and  subsequently  won  the  St  Leger. 
The  Derby  ( won  by  Lord  Rosebery  in  1894  and  1895 
with  Ladas  and  Sir  Visto,  and  by  the  Prince  of 
Wales  in  1896  with  Pei-simmon)  is  slill  regarded  a-s 
the  great  race  of  the  year,  but  has  hardly  kept  up  its 
character.  In  1867,  when  Hermit  won,  there  were 
thirty  starters,  but  that  number  has  never  been 
reached  since;  and  it  is  only  in  the  years  1869, 
1872,  1874,  1878,  and  1879  tliat  the  starters  have 
numbered  between  twenty  and  thirty.  In  1886 
and  1888  there  were  nine  conn)etitors  only,  and  a 
pro])ortionate  falling  ofV  is  noticeable  in  the  cases 
of  the  other  '  cla.ssic '  races,  as  they  are  termed. 
This  is  doubtless  owing  to  the  competition  of  the 
rich  stakes  od'ered  by  the  executive  of  the  gate- 
money  meetings.  In  1880  the  sum  of  £2000,  at 
that  time  the  largest  amount  ever  given  to  any  one 
race,  was  added  to  the  Manchester  Cup.  Since  that 
time  st;ikes  have  been  increasing  in  value.  The 
Sandown  Park  Eclipse  Stakes,  founded  in  1SS6, 
was  in  1889  worth  £11,160:  the  Royal  Stakes  at 
Keinpton  Park,  first  run  in  1889,  w.as  worth  £9.500; 
the  Portland  Stakes  at  Leicester,  for  two-ye.arohls, 
amounted  to  £5250 ;  and  the  I'rince  of  Wales's 
Stakes,  for  three-year-olds,  at  the  same  meeting, 
to  £11,000.  Whether  these  valuable  prizes  are  for 
the  ultimate  good  of  the  turf  remains  to  be  seen  ; 
but  it  is  indisputable  that  they  have  materially 
interfered  with    the  ohlestablished   race-s ;    so  in 


798 


HORSERACING 


oilier  ti)  keep  i)ace  willi  tlie  times  it  has  been 
arranjreil  that  the  Derliy  shall  never  be  worth  le».s 
than  f.MKX) ;  the  race  of  1890  bein};  the  liret  to  come 
uniler  the  new  onler. 

Dnriii-;  the  llatraoin;;  season  of  I8Sfl  tlie  vatno 
of  tlie  stakes  eonipeted  for  reached  the  uni>rece- 
(lenteil  snni  of  f-JH(l,88!),  I8s.,  of  which  no  less  than 
±■73,808,  10s.  was  won  by  the  Duke  of  Portland, 
a  snm  very  far  in  excess  of  the  winnings  of  any 
other  owner.  Donovan  alone  won  t."!S,t)6G,  15s.  ; 
Ayrshire,  t-2n,(5(>0 :  and  Semolina,  tfliS,'),  8s.  Mr 
H.  Milner  was  credited  with  t"'21,r)4."),  fts.,  and 
Chevalier  (Jinistrelli  with  fll,8t)7,  lis.  For  year- 
ling's of  f.ashionable  pedigree  lar;,'('  prices  are  always 
forthcoming;;  in  IKTii,  4100  jjuini-as  were  paid  for 
Maximilian,  ami  in  1889  Colonel  North  <,'ave  4000 
guineas  for  tJanmne.  lint  till  then  unheard  of 
prices  were  reached  when  at  Doiicaster  in  18!)1 
Common  w.ts  bought  bv  Mr  lilnmlell  Maple, 
M.I'.,  for  f  1.^,000,  and  "an  otler  of  i'-20,00(j  was 
subsequently  refused.  .And  (trmonde,  sold  in  ISOO 
to  a  fjentlein.in  in  liucnos  Ayres  for  flfi.OOO, 
was  bouf;lit  by  Mr  MacDonoujjIi  of  San  Francisco 
for  f:!0,000. 

Flat  r.acing  is  altogether  under  the  direction  of 
the  Jockey  Club,  ami,  by  rule  (>.">,  any  horse  running 
at  a  meeting  not  under  .lockev  Club  rules  is  thence- 
forward dis(|ualilied  for  ever  from  running  at  meet- 
ings at  which  the  rules  are  in  force.  The  .Jockey 
Club  appears  to  have  come  into  existence  during 
the  reign  of  (leorge  II.  :  and  the  first  mention  of 
it  occurs  in  Ilidier's  Unrinr)  Cnlonliir  for  17o8,  in 
connection  with  a  regulation  )>a.ssed  in  the  March  of 
that  year  directing  all  riders  to  pass  the  scales  whi'n 
they  came  in,  luider  pain  of  dismissal.  In  the 
volume  on  I'liriiui  in  tlie  'Badminton'  .series,  the 
writer  on  the  '  llistorv  of  the  .Jor  key  Club'  .says  that 
tradition  .a.s,signs  to  tlie  year  17,">0  the  origin  of  the 
Jockey  Club.  At  anyiatc  a  room  on  the  site  of 
the  present  Jockey  Club  buildings  was  erected  in 
17.">2  on  ground  leased  by  William  Krratt,  a  horse- 
<lealer,  to  the  Duke  of  Ancaster  and  the  Mar((uis 
of  Hastings,  in  trust  for  lifty  years.  The  rules  of 
racing  are  promulgated  by  this  body,  an<l  are 
altered  from  time  to  time  as  circumstances  may 
suggest.  In  1889  the  rules  were  entirely  recast, 
and  came  into  force  with  the  commencement  of  the 
season  of  1890.  The  new  code  confers  increased 
responsibilities  and  power  npon  the  ollicials,  and 
niaKcs  several  changes  in  the  nilcs  which  had  pre- 
viously been  in  force.  The  'apprentice  allowanco' 
has  been  done  aw.iy  with,  ami  the  restriction  which 
formerly  preclnded  foreign  lioi.-.cs  from  being  handi- 
capped in  England  nnless  they  hail  been  six  months 
in  the  country  has  been  abolished.  The  object  of 
the  rule,  which  to  some  iiersons  was  very  obnoxious, 
w.as  to  enable  the  handicapper  to  have  some  know- 
ledge of  the  previous  ]ierfoiiiiaiices  of  the  horses 
to  which  he  had  to  assign  weight.  The  Jocki'V 
Club  is  a  self-constituted  body,  and  m.iny  of  its 
.acts  are  neither  recogiiiseil  nor  governed  by  the 
law  of  Englancl :  yet  with  respect  to  r.acing  it 
discharges  many  important  functions.  No  duty, 
however,  has  been  more  disagreeable  than  the  one 
it  was  called  u]ion  to  perform  in  18S9,  when  the 
stewards,  Mr  .l.imes  Lowther,  Lord  .March,  and 
Prince  SoltykotV,  sat  .as  arbitrators  in  the  c.ise  of 
Sir  (ieorge  Chetwynd  r.  Lord  Durham,  which  was 
an  action  originally  bronght  in  a  court  of  law,  but 
afterwards  referred,  with  the  a.s.sent  of  both  parties, 
to  the  .Jockey  Club.  The  jiroceedings  ar^tse  out  of 
a  speech  maile  by  Lord  Durham  at  the  Cimerack 
dinner  at  "i'ork  in  1887,  in  which  sundry  charges 
were  m.ade  against  ciutain  persons  on  the  turf. 

According  to  Hu/fx  (liiidr.  21IK)  horses  ran  in  the 
year  1889.  (tf  this  number  988  were  two-year  olds  ; 
52.3  were  tliree-year-olds  ;  four-year-ohls  numbered 
277  :  and  there  were  312  horses  of  the  age  of  five 


years  and  upwanls.  In  the  same  publication  the 
names  of  108  trainers  appear;  and  there  are  33 
ollicials  who  have  received  licenses  to  act  in  various 
capacities  ,at  race-meetings.  During  the  season  of 
1890,  10;')  meetings  were  iixed  to  take  place  between 
the  '24111  March  and  the  '22(1  November;  and  the 
names  of  19.">  Jockeys  ajipear  in  the  table  of  win- 
ning mounts  tor  the  year  1.S.89.  The  earnings  of 
a  jockey  in  good  ]iractice  are  very  great.  The 
regnl.ation  fee  is  i'.">  for  a  winning  mount  and  f3 
for  a  losing  one;  but  it  is  comparatively  sehlom 
that  a  jockey's  remuneration  is  conlincd  to  the 
minimum  scale.  liets  are  often  niaile  for  him  ; 
n'taining  fees  run  to  i'lOOO  or  more;  presents  are 
aliiiosi  invariably  given  for  succosfiil  riding  ;  and 
in  some  cases  the  stakes  of  great  races  have  been 
promised  to  jockeys  if  they  win.  It  is  not  in  Kng- 
land  alone  that  lior.seracing  nourishes.  Many 
meetings  are  held  in  France,  the  chief  races  nin 
there  being  the  Derby,  first  run  in  18.3():  the  Oaks, 
in  1843;  and  llie(iranil  Prix.  Import;int  meetings 
are  held  in  lienminy  and  .at  Vienna  ;  while  racing 
is  becoming  pivpuhir  in  Italy.  Some  of  the  great 
Knglisli  races  have  been  w<m  by  French  horses. 
Thus,  the  Coodwooil  Cup  was  won  in  I8.">3, 
18.").-|,  1857,  and  1873  by  .lounence,  Haronciiio, 
Monarque,  and  Flageolet  respectively.  M(utemcr 
W(m  the  Ascot  (iold  Cup  in  1871,  ami  Ili'nry 
in  the  succeeding  year;  while  Boiard  in  IS74 
,and  Vernenil  in  1.878  must  be  addcil  to  the 
list.  In  1870  Chamaiit  and  .loiigliur  between 
them  carried  off  the  .Midille  Park  Plate,  Dew- 
hurst  Plate,  and  Criterion  .Stakes;  Camellia  w<m 
the  One  Thousand  in  187G,  and  Chaniant  the  Two 
Thousand  in  1877;  Knguerrande  and  Camellia 
ran  a  dead-beat  for  the  Oaks  in  187(1,  and  the  St 
Leger  fell  to  liayon  d'Or  in  1879;  and,  in  addition 
to  these  victories  of  Flench  boi.ses,  l'illi>  de  I'Air 
carried  off  the  Oaks  in  I8C4,  and  (Madiateur,  as 
already  mentioned,  won  the  Two  Thousand,  Derby, 
and  St  Leger  in  180.">.  The  long  list  of  successes 
gained  by  the  French  horses  in  187(>,  coupled  with 
the  fact  that  so  few  Flinch  races  were  open  to 
Knglisli  horses,  caused  the  late  Lord  Falmoutli  to 
gi\e  notice  til  the  .loikey  Club  in  that  year  that  he 
would  bring  forward  a  motion  to  the  etlect  that  no 
foreign  hor.ses  should  be  allowed  to  compete  in 
England  until  the  bar  to  the  .admission  of  Eng- 
lish abroad  was  removed.  The  idea,  however, 
did  not  find  favour,  and  the  motion  was  allowed  to 
dro]i.  The  successes  of  American  horses  date  liack 
to  IS."i7,  ill  which  year  Prioress  won  the  Cesaie- 
witch  for  Mr  Ten  IJioeck,  that  gentleman's  Starke 
being  the  winner  of  the  (loodwood  .Stakes  in  1859 
and  of  the  (ioodwood  Cup  in  18(il  ;  Iroiiiiois  was 
the  Derby  winner  of  1881,  and  of  the  Prince  of 
V\'ales's  Stakes  ( Ascot )  and  of  the  St  Leger  as 
well  ;  while  Foxh.ill  took  the  Cesarew  itch  anil 
Cambridgeshire  in  1881,  .mil  the  Ascot  Cup  in 
1 88'2.  In  more  recent  years  Wallenstcin  and  Pa.s.saic 
.achieved  some  successes.  Hungarv  has  been  re- 
presented on  English  racecourses  liy  Kisber,  the 
Derby  winner  of  I87fi,  and  by  Kincsem,  who  won 
the  (ioodwood  Cup  in  1878.  The  entries  for  the 
Derbv  of  1,890  included  two  Australian  colts  sent 
over  1)V  the  lion,  .lames  White.  Although  trotting 
is  the  n.ational  sport  in  America,  the  gallnping 
tliorinighbred  is  somewhat  growing  in  favmir. 
Russia  has  its  races ;  the  turf  exists  .as  an  institu- 
tion in  the  colonies,  at  the  Cai>e,  and  in  Indiji  ; 
and  r.acing,  for  a  few  years  prior  to  18.89,  advanced 
so  quickly  into  piqiular  favtnir  at  Buenos  Ayres 
that  the  export  tiiide  to  that  jilace  was  a  very 
brisk  one,  and  an  English  racing  man  or  two  and 
a  tr.Tiner  were  tempted  to  go  over  to  the  Argentine 
Hepublic.  The  native  trainers,  however,  were 
successful  over  the  Englishmen. 

The  rules  of  racing  in  England  provide  that  in 


HORSERACING 


HORSE-RADISH 


799 


each  ilay's  laciiij;  there  sliall  Ije  two  races  of  1  mile 
or  iipwards,  not  bciii^  selliiij;  races;  and  no  race 
shall  he  run  over  a  le^s  distance  tiian  5  furlongs. 
In  the  opinion  of  those  who  have  the  interests  of 
the  turf  at  heart,  there  are  too  many  of  what 
are  colliiriuially  known  as  '."i-fnrlong  scrambles,' 
which  make  shifty  horses  and  bad  jockeys.  The 
rule  as  to  the  number  of  races  in  a  day  of  I  mile 
or  upwards  is  of  course  strictly  comi)lie<l  with  ;  but 
it  is  at  comparatively  few  meetings  that  a  '2-niile 
race  is  witnessed.  At  Ascot  there  are  several 
events  run  over  '2  miles;  the  (lold  Cup  coui-se 
is  2i  miles  ;  and  that  fm-  the  Alexandra  Plate 
3  miles ;  while  the  Goodwood  ('up  distance  is 
also  2i  miles,  and  the  Cesarewitch  is  run  over  2^ 
miles. 

The  weights  carried  by  racehorses  are  assigned 
in  various  ways.  In  some  races,  like  the  Derby, 
Oaks,  and  St  Leger,  which  are  conllned  to  horses  of 
one  age,  all  cai'ry  the  same  weight ;  but  if,  as  in 
the  Derby,  both  fillies  and  colts  are  eligible  to 
compete,  the  fillies  have  a  sex  allowance  of  3  lb. 
Next  come  the  weight-for-age  races,  open  to  horses 
of  dillerent  ages,  in  which  case  horses  of  the  same 
age  carry  the  same  weight,  the  younger  ones  le.ss 
than  older  ones.  Thirdly  comes  the  handicap, 
which,  owing  to  the  held  it  opens  to  fraud,  is 
said  to  have  been  responsible  for  many  of  the 
malpractices  which  occasionally  take  place  in  con- 
nection with  the  turf :  it  was  brought  into  fashion 
by  the  promoters  of  race-meetings  sometimes  find- 
ing it  difficult  to  provide  sulKcient  sport  for  the 
spectators  and  the  owners  of  horses.  When  racing 
was  in  its  infancy  all  boi-ses,  w  hich  were,  however, 
usually  live  or  six  years  of  age,  canied  the  same 
weights,  so  that  if  a  four-year-old  happened  to  start 
he  met  maturer  horses  on  ilisailvantageous  terms  ; 
and,  when  a  horse  had  made  a  name  for  himself,  no 
other's  were  entered  against  him.  Weight-for-age 
races  (in  which  horses  of  si.x  years  old  and  upwards 
give  weight,  according  to  a  scale  laid  down,  to 
younger  competitors)  and  give-and-take  plates 
were  gradually  intrnduced,  the  give-and-take 
plate  being  one  in  which  a  certain  weight,  say  !) 
stone,  was  assigned  to  horses  of  a  certain  size,  14 
han<ls,  for  example.  •  Horses  above  that  size  carried 
7  lb.  extra  for  each  inch,  while  those  who  fell 
short  of  that  measurement  were  allowed  7  lb. 
for  each  inch  below  14  bands.  Handicaps  were 
kmiwn  in  the  ISlh  century,  but  it  was  not 
till  about  1818  that  they  tigured  often  in  the 
programmes  of  race-meetings.  Since  then  they 
have  increased  in  number. 

The  handicaps  at  the  meetings  of  which  the 
Jockey  Club  stewards  are  also  the  stewards  of 
the  meeting  are  made  by  the  official  liandi- 
cappei',  who  is  a  salaried  olficial  of  the  Jockey 
Club  ;  but  his  services  are  retained  for  nurny 
other  meetings,  for  which  lie  obtains  extra  re- 
muneration from  those  employing  him.  In  racing 
it  is  sought  to  eipialise  the  chances  of  the  ditVer- 
ent  horses  by  apportioning  to  each  the  weight 
which,  in  the  o]>inioii  of  the  haudic.ipper,  will  bring 
them  together,  his  aim  being  to  bring  about  adi'ad- 
heat  l)y  all  the  horses  coni|ieting.  The  conditions 
of  a  handicap  are  duly  publi>li('d,  and  the  date  at 
which  the  entries  close  is  notilieil.  The  handi- 
capper  then  proceeds  to  consider  the  powei-s  of  the 
horses,  and  assigns  to  each  horse  the  weight  he 
thinks  it  ought  to  carry,  and  in  due  course  the 
several  owners  know  the  liauilic:i]iper's  estimation 
of  their  horses  by  the  publication  of  the  weights 
in  the  lltifiiiij  Cit/c/u/iii:  Those  who  think  that  the 
handicapper  has  entertained  an  exaggerated  esti- 
mate of  their  horse's  powers  can  save  further  cost 
in  the  way  of  forfeit  by  <lecliniiig  to  accept ;  and 
then  the  next  piece  of  intelligence  published  in  the 
Sheet  Calendar  is  the   'acceptances,'   as  they  are 


called — in  other  words,  the  names  of  the  horees 
whose  owners  are  jirimn  fai:it  satislieil  w  ith  their 
chances,  though  it  by  no  means  follows  that  all 
those  that  are  'left  in,'  as  the  phrase  runs,  will 
start  for  the  race.  It  frei|uently  ha])pens  that  the 
horse  to  which  is  allotted  the  top  weight  is  among 
the  non-acceptors,  not  always  because  his  owner 
thinks  that  the  lioi'se  cannot  giveaway  the  required 
w^eiglit,  but  because  he  is  occasionally  unwilling 
for  him  to  carry  so  much  for  fear  of  breaking  him 
down,  of  which  there  is  obviously  more  cliance 
under  9  stone  than  umler  6  or  7  stone. 

Moreover,  the  conditions  of  nearly  every  handicap 
provide  that  a  horse  winning  a  race  after  the  pub- 
lication of  the  weights  shall  carry  a  penalty,  which 
must  lie  added  to  the  weight  originally  allotted  by 
the  handicapper  ;  and  the  incnrring  of  this  penalty 
is  often  the  reason  of  horses  not  starting.  When 
the  top  weight  or  weights  do  not  accejit,  the  high- 
est weight  accepting  is  raised  to  that  which  was 
originally  the  maximum  of  the  handicap,  and 
then,  assuming  the  maximum  to  have  been  9  stone, 
a  notice  apjiears  in  the  Caloiiliir  to  the  cH'ect 
that,  the  highest  weight  accepting  being  8  stone 
4  lb.  ( or  w  hatever  the  impost  may  have  lieen ), 
it  has  been  raised  to  !)  stone,  and  the  othei's  in 
proportion.  The  minimum  weight  to  be  canied 
in  a  lianilicap  or  any  other  race  is  fixed  liy  the 
rules  of  racing  at  6  stone,  ami  by  the  27th  rule 
the  top  weight  to  lie  allotted  in  a  handicap  shall 
not  be  less  than  8  stone  12  lb.  For  a  year  or  two 
prior  to  1889  a  rule  w.as  in  force  that  apprentices 
who  bad  not  ridden  three  winners  might  claim  a 
5-11).  allowance  so  long  as  the  weight  to  be  carried 
did  not  fall  short  of  the  minimum  weight  permitted. 
The  oliject  of  the  rale  was  to  encourage  the  em- 
ployment of  lads  not  yet  out  of  their  time  who 
ga\e  promise  of  riding  well ;  but  after  the  regula- 
tion had  lieen  in  force  for  a  short  time  it  was 
urged  that  the  5-lb.  allowance  ujiset  the  work  of 
the  handicapper ;  so,  when  the  rules  of  racing 
were  revised  by  the  Jockey  Club  in  1889,  the 
section  authorising  the  apprentice  allowance  was 
excised. 

To  decide  upon  the  weights  horses  shall  carry  is 
no  easy  task.  The  handicapper  must  be  a  regular 
attendant  at  race-meetings  and  able  to  form  his 
own  judgment  on  what  he  sees  ;  for  the  jiosition 
a  horse  may  occupy  at  the  termination  of  a  race  is 
not  necessarily  any  criterion  of  his  true  form.  He 
may  lie  out  of  condition  ;  or,  when  his  jockey  finds 
he  cannot  win  with  liim,  a  horse  is  almost  invari- 
ably ea.sed  and  finishes  seventh  or  eighth  when  he 
might  lia\  e  been  third  or  fourth  ;  anil  the  handi- 
capjier  must  also  possess  sutficient  perception  to 
see  when  an  attemjit  is  made  to  throw  dust  in  his 
eyes.  Even  so  astute  a  man  as  the  late  Admiral 
Rous  occasionally  made  mistakes ;  and  whoever 
may  for  the  time  being  occupy  that  ditficnlt  |>osi- 
tion  must  aliandon  all  hope  of  pleasing  everybody. 

Pee  J.  C.  'tt'liytc,  Uuitory  of  the  British  Turf  (2  vols. 
1840);  .Imnes  Kice,  Histor;/  of  thr  Turf  (2  vols.  1879); 
W.  Day,  The  Hacehorse  in  Tminiiirt  (1880),  and  The 
Horse  and  how  to  Brecit  Him  (188S);  Hare,  .ffi;*/oi7/  of 
Niwmarket  (1884) ;  Histor;/ of  Baeiiii/aitd  i^tceptechasini/f 
'BaJininton'  series,  Duke  of  Btaufoit,  editor  (1880); 
Touclistoiie,  Pediyrie,  Description,  and  History  of  Cele- 
brated Ewilish  and  French  Racehorses,  1^0^  to  ISy^ ;  an 
anonymous  History  of  Bacinff  { 1S(»2 ) ;  Joseph  Osborne, 
The  Horse-breeder's  Handbook  (1881),  and  Comjwnion 
to  the  Stud-betok  (Epsolu,  1889) ;  The  General  Stud-book, 
published  every  five  years  (vol.  xvi.  1889);  Weatlierleys' 
Portraits  of  Celebrated  Barehorses  (4  vols.  1887); 
Taunton,  Portraits  of  fl'eltktrated  Bace/iorses  (4  vols. 
1889);  Weatlierleys'  yearly  Baeimj  Calendar;  Kuft"s 
Uuidc  to  the  Turf ;  U.  Black,  Horse  Raciixo  in  Enpland 
(1894 ).     See  also  SrEEi-LECHASK,  Thotting,  BETTiXG. 

Ilorsi'-ratlisll  {Cnch/cariet  Aniwrana),  a  per- 
ennial  herbaceous  plant,  belonging  to  the  natural 


800 


HORSE-RADISH    TREE 


HORSESHOEING 


order  Cnicifcr;e  niul  to  the  same  ;;oiins  as  scurvy- 
grass.  U  possesses  tlio  same  aiitiscorliiilic  pro- 
perties  as  tlie  latter,  Imt  is  better  known  jwiiiularly 
on  account  of  its  use  as  a  eomlinient  with  roiist- 
hcef.      It  is  hij,'lily  stimulant,  exciliM;;  the  stonuu-h 

iiMil  pniiiiotin;;  the 
secretions,  iiarlicu- 
larly  tliat  of  urine. 
Its  virtues  depend 
upon  a  V(datile  oil 
siniihir  to  oil  of 
mustard.  The  oil 
contains  ahoul  .'«) 
I>er  cent,  of  sulphur 
to  its  other  elements, 
and  is  reco;;nised  as 
one  of  tlie  most 
powerful  antiscorliu- 
tics  known.  Hor.se- 
radi.sli  is  a  native 
of  south-eastern 
Kurope,  hits  lonj; 
lieen  cultivated  in 
liritish  ■inrileiis,  and 
is  naturalised  in 
some  iiarts  of  En-;- 
land  and  Ireland. 
I'or  its  ]ierfect  eul- 
tivatimi  it  rei|uires 
very  deei)ly-worked 
.soil,  from  which  it  is 
very  dillicult  to  eradi- 
cate, a.s  the  smallest 
bit  of  root  not  re- 
moved will  emit  a 
bud.  Cases  of  fatal 
poisoninj;  have 
several  times  oc- 
curred thronyh  the 
ignorant  mistaking 
the  roots  of  Monk.shood  (q.v. )  for  those  of  horse- 
radish. The  former  are  powerfully  jioisonnus  ;  but 
there  is  no  resemblance  between  the  two  plants  in 
any  respect.  The  roots  of  liorse-radisb  are  lon^', 
tapering,  cylindrical,  with  a  cream  ('(>loure<l  skin. 
Those  of  monkshooil  are  short,  irrcfxular  in  slia|ie, 
blunt  at  both  ends,  and  have  a  nut-brown  skin. 
The  root-leaves  of  horse-radish  are  from  !)  to  IS  inches 
loMj.'  by  from  4  to  (i  inches  broad,  entire,  but  often 
toolbrd  on  the  niar^rins.  Those  of  monkshood  are 
roundish  in  outline,  divided  to  the  base  into  live  to 
seven  deeidy-cut,  linear,  finely  pointed  se;,'ments. 
The  Mowers  of  horse-radish,  which  are  sparin;.dv 
jiroduced  in  liritain  or  Ibe  I'nited  Slates,  are  borne 
on  branchin;;  stems  about  2  feet  lii^jli,  and  com- 
poseil  of  four  pure  white  spre.adin;;  petals.  M(mks- 
liood  bears  its  llowers  freely  in  liand>onie  racenu's, 
at  the  extrenuties  of  usually  simple  or  unbranched 
stems;  the  colour  is  deep  bliu',  and  the  unopened 
flower  stron^ily  resembles  a  helmet  or  hood. 

Ilorsc-radisli  Troc.    See  Hkn  (Oii.  of). 

lloi'sesliooill^.  In  (dden  times  horses  gener- 
ally went  unshod,  as  they  now  do  in  many  eastern 
countries  ;  but  our  macadamised  roads  anil  ]iaved 
streets,  fast  paces  and  heavy  loads,  wouM  speedily 
wear  awav  the  stoutest  hoofs,  and  a  rim  <if  iron 
has  .accordingly  been  long  in  use  a.s  a  jirotection. 
In  style  ami  pattern  the  horse's  shoe  varies  almost 
as  much  .-us  his  master's  boot,  and  like  it,  when 
badly  made  or  unskilfully  fitted,  produces  seriims 
inconvenience,  and  even  leads  to  .accidents  anil 
disciuses.  When  the  feet  are  strong  and  jiroperly 
managed  nothing  is  better  than  a  plain  shoe  of 
tolerably  uniform  bre.adth  and  thickness,  carefully  | 
fashioned  to  the  shape  of  the  foot.  But  many  | 
good  autiiorities  prefer  what  is  called  a  seateil 
shoe,   which    ha-s    a    level    part  for  the  crust  to  I 


Roots  of  ITorse-ra<lish  (a)  and 
Monksliood  (h). 


rest  upon,  and  within  th.at  the  inner  half  of  the 
shoe  towards  the  sole  surface  is  bevelled  oil'.  This 
sealed  shoe  is  thus  wider  than  the  plain  shoe,  and 
hence  ad'ords  greater  pidtection  for  a  weak  or  Hat 
sole.  Kor  faulty  or  diseased  feet  sjiecial  forms  of 
shoes  are  m.ade.  In  all  healtliv  feet  the  shoe 
should  be  fitted  to  the  foot,  anil  not,  as  is  com- 
monly done,  the  foot  cut  to  lit  the  shoe.  Another 
freiiucnt  error  nnist  be  avoided-  keeping  the  shoe 
short  and  spare  at  the  heels.  For  roadsters  the 
toe  of  the  fore-shoes  should  be  slightly  turned  up, 
which  greatly  obviates  tripping.  Thi-  hind  shoes 
are  generally  tliic  kened  and  sometimes  tiirned  down 
at  the  heels.  The  nnniber  of  nails  leiniiri'd  must 
vary  somewhat  with  the  weiglil  of  the  slioc-  and  the 
soundness  of  the  horn  ;  live  is  the  niinimuni,  nine 
the  maxinnim.  It  is  important,  however,  that  the 
shoes  be  lirndy  held  on  by  ;is  few  nails  as  possible. 
In  a  saddle-horse  with  .sound  feet  three  on  the 
luitside  and  two  on  the  inside  should  sutlice  to 
hold  a  well-fitteil  shoe.     Horses  for  heavy  draught 


A  sound  Fore-foot  i)repared  for  the  Shoe  : 
A,  A,  tlif  hi-i'ls  of  tho  crust ;  li,  the  toe  cut  out  to  rrceive  the 
clip:  €,  C,  llie  qnarti-Ts  of  the  crust ;  1>,  I),  tlic  bars  as  tliey 
shonlU  hi-  hft,  with  the  full  flw  bftwpeii  them ;  E,  E,  Uie 
ftnj;l(:s  hctwecti  the  lirels  anil  Iwirs,  wliere  corn.s  npjtvar; 
!■',  F,  thi-  concave  surface  of  the  toe  ;  G,  G,  the  bulbous  heels; 
H,  the  cleft. 


are  generally  shod  in  Scotland  with  tips  and  heels, 
which  allord  increa.-ed  firmness  of  tread  and  greater 
]iower,  esjiecially  when  dragging  heavy  loads.  To 
preserve  the  foot  in  a  sound  state  the  shoes  should 
oe  removed  every  month.  When  the  shoe  is  care- 
fully taken  otV,  the  wall-surface  on  which  it  has 
rested  should  lie  r.asped,  to  remove  any  r.agged 
edges  and  any  portions  of  adhering  nails.  Having 
for  a  month  been  protected  fiom  the  wear  to  which 
the  exposed  portions  of  the  foot  are  subjected,  it 
will  iirobably  have  grown  considerably,  and  in  a 
stout  hoof  will  ref|uire  to  be  cut  down  with  the 
drawing-knife,  esjiecially  towards  the  (oe.  Exce]it 
in  very  strong  feet  and  in  farm  horses  working 
on  soft  land,  the  surface  of  the  sole  uncovered  by 
the  shoe  seldom  requires  to  be  cut.  It  is  the 
natural  [uotection  of  the  intcrn.al  delicate  jiart.s, 
and  must  be  ineferable  to  the  leather  and  ]i.ads 
often  artificially  substituted  for  it.  The  bars  must 
likewise  remain  untouched,  for  they  are  of  gre.at 
service  in  supporting  weight  ;  whilst  the  tough, 
el.astie  frog  must  be  scrujuilously  iircserved  fioni 
the  ilestruitive  attacks  of  the  knife,  and  allowed 
uninjured  to  fulfil  its  functions  .as  an  insensible 
p.ad,  obviating  concussion,  and  snii|iorting  weight. 
\Vhen  the  .shoe  is  put  on  and  the  nails  well  driven 
home,  they  should  be  broken  ofF  about  an  eighth 
or  even  a  .si.\teenth  of  an  inch  from  the  crust,  and 


HORSETAILS 


HORVATH 


801 


hainmereil  well  down  into  it.  This  obviously  jpvcs 
tiie  slioe  a  much  liimer  hold  tluiii  tin; usual  inactice 
of  twistin-,'  ott'  the  projectinji  nail  close  to  the  crust, 
and  afterwards  raspini,'  down  any  asperities  that 
still  remain.  When  the  shoe  is  linnly  clinched 
the  rasi)  may  he  very  lightly  run  round  tlie  lower 
niaigin  of  the  crust  just  where  it  meets  the  shoe, 
to  sniooth  down  any  irregularities  ;  hut  all  further 
use  of  the  rasp  must  be  interdicted.  The  clinched 
nails  if  touched  will  only  have  their  firm  hold 
weakened  ;  nor  must  the  upper  portions  of  the 
crust,   whicli   blacksmiths  are  so  fond  of  turning 


out    rasped    and 
deiiriveil    of    tin 


(lejinveil  ot  those  external  unctuous  secretions 
which  render  the  unrasped  foot  so  tough  and 
sound  anil  so  free  from  sandcracks.  The  hoof 
cannot  bo  too  dry  and  tough.  P'rom  time  to  time 
various  attempts  have  been  made  to  lix  shoes  to 
horses'  feet  without  nails  ;  and  a  shoe  has  been 
invented,  which  is  said  to  have  answered  the  pur- 
pose;  liut  in  the  opinion  of  many  the  system  is 
still  immature,  and  reipiires  to  be  more  extensively 
tested.  An  interesting  exliibition  of  horseslioes, 
ancient  and  modern,  was  held  in  London  in  .March 
IS'JO. 

See  Notes  on  the  Shoring  of  Hones,  by  Lieut.-col .  Fitz- 
wygrani ;  a  paper  on  '  Horseshoeuig,'  by  Miles,  in  the 
Jinirintl-  of  the  Jloyat  Aijri.  Soc.  (reprinted  by  Murray); 
and  Williams'  Veterinary  Surijcry. 

llor.sctilil.S  (Equisdmn).  a  genus  of  herba- 
ceous plants  which  in  itself  constitutes  the  singular 
n.atural  order  Eiiuisctacea".  The  family  is  dis- 
tinguished from  all  others  by  the  leafless,  artic- 
ulated, and  whorled  stems  and  branches,  which 
in  structure  and  character  closely  resemble  some 
of  the  laiger  fossil  plants  now  extinct.  They  are 
sc^iiarated  from  all  other  plants  also  by  their  fruoti- 
lication,  whicli  is  an  ovoid  or  oblong  terminal 
cone-like  spike,  consisting  of  several  whorls  of 
peltate,  shield-shaped,  short-stalked  brown  or  black 
sciiles,  under  each  of  which  are  six  or  seven  cap- 
sules filled  with  minute  spores,  and  opening  on  the 
inner  side.  Under  the  microscope  there  will  be 
seen  attached  to  the  base  of  each  spore  four  thread- 
like nianients,  somewhat  club-sliapc<l  at  the  apex, 
rolled  spirally  round  the  spore  when  moist,  but  un- 
coiling elastically  when  dry. 

The  species  of  horsetail  are  few  in  number, 
although  widely  difl'used  in  the  temperate  and 
colder  regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  Ijecom- 
ing  rare  in  the  tropics.  Nine  sjiecies  occur  in 
lirilain,  usually  in  moist  or  marshy  places,  but 
they  adaiit  themselves  easily  to  a  great  variety  of 
stations,  and  are  almost  ineradicable  whore  they 
obtain  a  footing  in  either  field  or  garden.  Diuretic 
.ami  other  medicinal  properties  have  been  ascribed 
to  them,  but  apparently  on  slight  grounds.  They 
all  I'ontain  a  large  quantity  of  silica  in  the  cuticle 
of  their  stenis,  whicn  has  rendered  thoni  useful  in 
polishing  metals,  marbles,  ivory,  cabinet-work,  \'c. 
E.  liijiinnh;  is  the  most  favimred  species  for  these 
[inrposes,  and  it  is  imported  in  considerable  quan- 
tity from  Holland  under  the  name  Dutch  Rushes. 

IlorsliailU  I'  niarkot-towii  of  Sussex,  near  the 
source  of  the  .\run,  IZO  miles  NNW.  of  I'.righton 
and  35  SSW.  of  London.  The  noble  parish  church. 
Early  English  in  style,  was  restored  in  ItiGii ;  otlu^r 
buildiuL's  are  the  corn  exchange  (ITUli),  grammar 
school  (  l.")4() ;  ndaiilt  1840-57),  ^.'c.  Brewing,  tan- 
ning, iron-founiling,  and  coach-building  are  carried 
on.  Horsham  returned  two  members  of  parliament 
fnun  tli(;  14th  century  till  1S;)2,  and  one  down  till 
1SS.">.  East  of  tlio  town  is  Si  Leonard's  Eorest,  and 
2  miles  NW.  Field  Place,  Shellev's  birlhi)lace. 
Pop.  (1S7I)  1)874;  (1891)  8637.  See  Histories  of 
Horsliam  by  Howard  Dudley  (IS.SG)  and  an  anony- 
mous writer  ( ISCS). 
.     25!) 


Horslev*  Samuel,  an  English  prelate,  was  the 
son  of  a  clergyman,  and  was  bom  at  London  in 
1733.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster  School 
and  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge  ;  and  in  1759  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  rector  of  Newington,  in  Surrey 
— a  living  which  he  held  for  thirty-four  years, 
though  he  also  enjoyed  in  the  interval  many  other 
preferments,  including  the  archdeaconry  of  St 
Albans  (1781).  In  1767  Horsley  was  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Koyal  Society  ;  in  1774  he  published 
his  ReiiKirlcs  on  the,  Ohscrmt/oiis  made  in  the.  laic 
Voi/rir/c  ffjire'rds  the  Nrjrtli  Pole,  fur  (letermininfj 
the  Areelcrettion  rjf  the  reiiiliiltnn  :  an<l  two  years 
afterwards  he  issueil  proposals  for  a  complete 
edition  of  the  works  of  Sir  Isaac  Xewton,  which, 
however,  ilid  not  make  its  appearance  till  1785. 
But  the  grand  event  in  his  career  was  the  contro- 
versy with  Priestley,  in  which  he  displayed  remark- 
able learning  and  acutene.ss,  somewhat  marred 
by  intolerance  and  contemptuous  bitterness.  The 
work  that  excited  the  controversy  was  Dr  Priest- 
ley's llistriry  of  the  Curniptioiis  of  t'hristidiiity, 
among  whicli  corruptions  was  included  the  ortho- 
dox doctrine  of  Christ's  uncreated  divinity. 
Horsley  reviewed  the  work  with  great  severity  in 
his  charge  delivered  to  the  clergy  of  his  arch- 
deaconry, May  22,  1783.  Priestley  rei>lied  the 
same  year ;  and  in  1784  Horsley  retorted  in  seven- 
teen Letters.  These  were,  in  return,  met  by  a  new 
series  from  Priestley.  After  a  silence  of  eighteen 
months  Horsley  again  replied,  and  in  1789  collected 
and  published  the  wliole  that  he  had  written  on 
the  subject.  His  services  were  rewarded  with  the 
bishopric  of  St  Davids  in  1788,  with  that  of 
I'lichester  in  1793,  and  with  that  of  St  A.sapli  in 
1802.  Hedied  at  Urigbton,  Octolier4,  1806.  Other 
works  besides  sermons,  were  on  Hosea,  the  Psalm.', 
bibli^.il  criticism,  and  classical  subjects. 

Horsley,  Victor  Alex.\nder  H.\I)KN, 
F. i;.S. ,  born  at  Kensington,  14th  Ajiril  1857,  is  a 
son  of  John  Callcott  Horsley,  K.A.  (born  1817),  and 
as  a  physiologist  is  distingnished  for  his  work  in 
the  localisation  of  brain  functions  an<l  in  the  treat- 
ment of  Myxedema.  He  studied  at  University 
College,  London,  has  contributed  largely  to  meilieal 
journals,  was  Croonian  lecturer  to  the  Koyal 
Society,  and  Fullerian  professcn-  (1890-93)  at  the 
Koyal  Institution,  and  is  professor  of  Pathology  in 
University  College.  He  is  a  member  of  many 
societies  at  home  and  abroad,  and  was  secretary  to 
the  Koyal  Commission  on  Hydrophobia.  He  is  a 
strenuous  defender  of  necessary  experiments  on 
living  animals. 

llort.  Fenton  John  Anthony,  D.D.  (1828-92), 
born  in  Dublin,  graduated  at  Cambridge  as  third 
classic,  and  was  a  fellow  of  Trinity  (1852-57),  and 
from  1878  Hnlsean  professor  of  Divinity.  With 
Hisliop  SVesteott  he  constructed  a  reviseil  Greek 
text  of  the  New  Testament.  See  his  Life  and 
Letters  (2  vols.  1896). 

llorteuse.    See  Bonaparte,  Vol.  II.  ii.  288. 

IlortCllsillS.  QtlNTls  (114-50  R.C.),  Koman 
orator,  largely  devoted  himself  to  the  defence  of 
aristocratic  otlenders,  such  as  Verres.  His  count- 
less speeches  are  known  to  us  only  by  the  merest 
fragments. 

liorticiiKiire.    See  Gakdexing. 

Ilurtiis  Siccus.    See  Heri!aru:m. 

Horns.     See  EtiVl'T,  Vol.  IV.  p.  234. 

Ilorviltll,  Michael  (1809-78),  Hungarian 
historian,  was  professor  of  Hungarian  in  Vienna. 
Bishop  of  Csanad,  and,  in  the  revolutionary  wai-, 
minister  of  public  instruction.  He  returned  from 
exile  in  1867,  and  is  remembered  for  his  llistonj 
of  Hiiiirfunj  to  1SJ3  (1842-46),  and  its  continua- 
tions,   i'wculij-Jive    Years  of  Huiirjarkm  History, 


802 


HOSANNA 


HOSIERY 


W-'.f-^.V   (2   vols.    lSti:i),   ami    llistmii  of  the    War 
0/ fiiilrpniileiirc  ill  U 11  iit/a ri/  (3  vii\n.  181)5). 

Il«>saiiua«  iiseil  a-s  an  expresHioii  of  praiKe,  is 
iciilly  a  pr.iyor— '  Save,  we  |iiay  '  ( llirouj;!!  Hi: 
/lOxtdiiiii,  fiDiii  llel".  htisliidhiimi). 

1IO.SC3I  (  Hell.  Jl.h/ir'u  ;  LXX.  O.sre  ;  Vul«.  Osee), 
the;  liist  ill  order  of  the  twelve  iiiiiior  iiroiihet.s,  Is 
nowhere  nientioiieil  in  the  Old  Testament  e.\Leei>t 
in  the  book  wliieh  hears  his  name.  Kroni  this 
source  we  learn  that  ho  wa-s  a  citizen  of  the 
kinj;(h)Mi  of  Israel  (see  i.  2,  where  'the  land' 
is  i>lainly  the  northern  kin^'dom,  and  vii.  5,  where 
'onr  kin;^'  is  the  king  of  Samaria),  that  his 
father's  name  was  UeCri,  and  that  he  prophe.sied 
diirin;;,  and  apparently  also  after,  the  rei>^n  of 
Jerohoam  II. — i.e.  from  ab(mt  the  middle  of  the  Stli 
century  n.c.  The  fourteen  chapters  which  preserve 
to  us  all  that  we  know  of  what  must  have  lieen  a 
lonn  period  of  prophetic  activity  m.iy  plausihiy  he 
believed  to  have  been  edited  l)y  hiiirsdt  ami  given 
to  the  world  in  writing  towards  the  close  of  his 
life.  The  lii-st  three  derive  a  si)ecial  interest  from 
their  autobiographical  element.  The  remaining 
eleven  consist  of  a  serie.s  of  prophecies,  mostly  of 
a  threatening  character,  relating  to  the  king 
doni  of  Israel.  The  details  of  these  present  many 
exegetical  dilliculties,  and  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
termine with  any  certainty  what  may  have  been 
the  precise  circumstances  under  which  each  oracle 
was  originally  deliveieil.  Some  relate  to  the  .stil! 
outwardly  prosperous  times  of  Jeroboam  II.,  and 
olhei-s,  most  likely,  to  the  troubled  years  that  im- 
mediately followed.  They  point  generally  to  an 
exceedingly  dissolute  internal  condition  of  society, 
which  ultimately  drove  the  prophet  to  the  verge  of 
despair,  ami  out  of  which  he  saw  no  escape  save  in 
the  destruction  of  the  kingdoiii,  to  l>e  followed  l-y 
a  linal  restoration  bnmglit  alxmt  in  .some  unex- 
plained way  through  the  sovereign  love  and  mercy 
of  .Jehovah.  The  question  of  greatest  interest  to 
interpreters  of  the  Book  of  Ilosea  is  that  connected 
with  the  narrative  of  the  lirst  three  cliaptei-s,  in 
which  the  projdiet  relates  how  the  experiences  of 
his  married  lite  furnished  him  with  his  prophetic 
message.  In  the  ojiening  words  we  reail  of  his 
marriage  to  Gomer  batlilJiblaim,  by  whom  he  had 
three  children  to  whom  he  gave  the  signilicant 
names,  Jezreel  ( '  Jehovah  shall  sow  ' ),  I,o  Kuhamah 
('not  |iitied '),  and  Lo  Amnii  ('not  my  people'). 
Her  prolligate  conduct  after  marri.age  led  to  a 
separation,  but,  in  obedience  to  ,a  divine  call,  he 
took  her  back  ;  and  in  the  ultimate  victory  of 
marital  love  over  a  wife's  inli<lelity  he  saw  the 
token  anil  the  promise  of  the  hnal  triumph  of 
Jehovah's  gr.ioe  over  Israel's  sin.  .-According  to 
the  modern  view,  first  suggested  by  Kwald,  further 
elaborated  by  Wellhansen  (in  4th  ed.  of  I'.leek's 
Ein/citiinrf)  !iui\  Kobertson  Smith,  and  now  ;idopted 
by  most  scholars,  Hosea,  i.  2,  is  to  be  interpreted  in 
the  light  of  such  a  passage  as  Jer.  xxxii.  S,  where 
we  have  a  clear  instiince  of  recognition  of  n  divine 
command  only  after  the  deed  has  been  .accomplished, 
and  there  is  therefore  no  necessity  for  su|iposing 
that  Hosea  was  aware  of  the  iirotligate  character 
of  Gomer  bath-Diblaim  when  he  married  her,  or 
indeed  that  her  prolligacy  had  decdared  itself  at 
that  time.  Earlier  interpreters  either  took  the 
pa-ssage  literally  and  argued  that  a  marriage  which 
otherwise  would  have  been  contrary  to  all  sound 
moral  feeling  was  justilied  by  a  divine  command, 
and  that  the  repulsive  elements  in  it  magiiilied  the 
ol)etlience  of  the  prophet  ;  or  they  treated  it  as  an 
allegory,  without  much  attempt  to  ex)dain  how  a 
proceeding  which  would  be  objectionable  in  fact 
ceases  to  be  so  in  the  realms  of  licti<m. 

For  a  full  discussion  of  Hosea  and  his  prophecies,  see 
■VT.   R.    Smith,   Prophttt   of  Istad   (ItW-'i.      There   arc 


special  coiniiieiitarie»  un  the  hook  hy  Siiiisoii  ( Ilutiihiirg 
and  Gotlia,  l»:>\\,  WUiische  ( I^eip.  18(W),  Nowack 
(Berlin,  1.'<M0I,  and  Cheyne  (new  cd.  Camhridgo,  IS«"J). 
See  also  the  coiiunentarieB  on  the  minor  prophets 
lienerally— liwald  (/'r<)/</i(7<«,  vol.  i. ;  Eiif.  traim.  1871)), 
Hitzife'.  Keil  (Kill,-,  trans.  1«CS),  Iteii.ss  {JIM,;  IW'ti), 
I'usey  (ISliO);  and,  for  hu1niletic.1l  iiurposes,  ScliiiioUer 
in  I.:iii(,'o's  ItiUhrn-k  {]i.\Vi.  trans.  18i4). 

lIo.sliailKabad,  chief  town  of  Hoshangahad 
district  (area,  ■J4:J7  sip  m.  ;  pi>|).  in  1891,  .-)i;'.),!)4.') ), 
in  the  t'ential  I'rovinces  of  India,  stnnd.s  mi  the 
Xerlmdda  Kiver,  -10  miles  SSK.  from  lilmpal. 
It  does  a  lively  business  in  English  piece-goods, 
cotton,  grain,  ^:c.  It  lia-s  been  in  Hritish  handii 
since  ISI7,  and  is  a  military  slatioii.     I'op.  l(),."i()0. 

lloslliai'ltlir.  capital  of  a  district  in  ruiijab, 
near  the  foot  of  the  Siwaiik  Hills,  !)0  miles  E.  front 
Lahore.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  American  I'reshyterian 
.Mission.     I'op.  '1\,m'2. 

Hosiery,  in  its  most  limited  sense,  refers  to 
the  maniif.ictnre  of  stockings  (hose);  but  in  ita 
more  general  appliiation  It  comprises  all  knitted 
goods,  whether  made  by  hand  or  by  machinerv. 
'I'lie  use  of  hose  or  stockings  originated  in  the  cold 
countries  of  the  north,  and  probably  the  lirst  were 
iii.ade  of  skins,  and  suhsei|iiently  of  cloth.  Illu- 
minations in  ancient  MSS.  show  that  these  nether 
garments  were  worn  by  (lie  .\iiglo-.Saxons  and  the 
Norm.'ins.  Tlie  art  of  knitting  was  invented  (it  is 
supposed  in  Scotland)  in  the  l.')lh  century.  Certain 
it  is  that  knitted  stockings  foiind  their  way  to 
France  from  Scothand,  and  led  lo  the  estaidish- 
nient  of  a  guild  of  stocking-knitters,  who  chose 
for  their  p.atron  saint  St  Kiacre  of  Scotland 
(really  an  Irish  monk  of  the  tith  century,  the 
patron  of  gardeners).  In  l."iS'J  William  l.ee,  of 
\Voodborough,  Nottinghamshire,  entirely  altered 
the  hosiery  triule  by  inventing  the  knitting-liame, 
or  stocking-frame  ;  and,  although  he  <liil  not  live  to 
enjoy  much  benefit  himself  from  it,  it  soon  became 
a  very  imiiortaiit  feeder  to  the  commerce  of  Cireut 
Britain. 

The  lirst  improvement  of  m.arked  importance  on 
Lee's  nnudiine  wjis  the  ribbing  apparatus  invented 
by  Jedediah  Striitt  in  17.")8.  This  consisteil  in  add- 
ing a  .second  series  of  needles,  with  an  arningement 
for  working  them,  to  Lee's  machine,  which  could 
only  make  a  plain,  not  a  ribbed,  web.  Sir  .Mare  I. 
Brunei  invented,  in  1816,  a  circular  knitting-frame, 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  tn'iuleiii:  TliLs 
produced  a  tubular  web,  and  was  a  meritorious 
machine,  but  it  did  not  come  much  into  use  till 
it  was  improved,  .about  1844,  by  Claussen  of 
Brussels.  His  further  modification  of  it  in  1847 
caused  it  to  be  widely  adopteil,  and  it  hits  receiveil 
v.arions  improvements  since.  Several  important 
improvements  in  hosiery  machines  are  ihie  to 
Townseml,  chief  among  them  being  a  tumbler  or 
latch  needle,  patented  by  him  in  1838,  which  in 
now  Largely  employed  in  certain  kinds  of  knitting- 
machines,  especially  those  for  fancy  hosiery  .and 
for  domestic  use.     Fig.  1  shows  two  views  of  this 


:Z2Er 


IS^ 


Fig.  I. 

needle.  A  represents  it  with  the  hinged  latch  or 
tongue  folded  back  on  the  stalk  so  that  the  hook 
m,ay  catch  the  thread.  B  shows  the  latch  closed 
on  the  point  of  the  hook  so  that  it  ni.ay  freely  p.as.s 
a  new  loo])  of  thread  through  the  last-formed  loop. 
The  latch  is  moved  by  the  loops  of  threail  or  yarn 
during  the  .action  of  the  machine.     The   modern 


HOSIERY 


803 


form  of  Lee's  needle  is  shown  in  the  other  figures. 
Tlie  most  prominent  name  amon^  the  imiirovers  of 
hosiery  machines  in  oomiiaratively  recent  times  is 
that  of  William  Cotton  of  Lon^'lihoron^'li.  lietween 
IHol  and  1809  he  devised  arrantjements  hoth  for 
narrowin;;  and  widening;  tlie  fahrie,  and  in  con- 
junction with  Attenborongh  ina<le  a  numher  of 
alterations  for  the  better  on  the  {general  arrange- 
ments of  the  jiarts  of  the  kniltin^i-fiame.  Some 
of  the  best  hosiery  macliines  driven  by  steam-power 
now  in  use  are  on  Cotton's  system. 

The  names  of  two  Americans  appear  in  the  list 
of  those  who  have  contributed  to  the  ailvancement 
of  Unittinj;  macliinery.  In  18.58  an  Enylisli  i)atent 
was  taken  out  by  \V.  C.  Gist  for  a  circular  machine, 
which,  by  using  several  feeders  instead  of  one, 
tnabh'd  striped  work  with  as  many  as  si.vteen 
colours  to  be  made  at  once.  Another  English 
patent  w.as  taken  out  in  1877  l>y  Almet  Keid  for  a 
circular  knitting-frame  for  making  aulmnatically 
articles  of  many  ditt'erent  shapes,  in  which  the 
loops  or  stitches  are  .so  locked  together  as  not  to 
unravel  wln^n  cut  or  torn. 

A  knitted  fabric  of  one  colour  consists  of  one 
continuous  thread  instead  of  a  warp  and  a  weft 
thread  as  in  weaving,  and  the  knitting  done  by  a 
luacdiine  is  exactly  of  the  same  natuie  as  tliat  done 
by  hand.  With  the  aid  of  the  accompanying  illus- 
trations a  brief  description  will  sullice  to  explain 
the  jirinciple  on  which  a  knitting-machine  or 
stocking-frame  works.     A  perspective  sketch  of  a 


])art  of  a  division  of  the  machine  is  given  in  fig.  2. 
riie  hooked  needles  (Lee's)  are  shown  at  A,  B,  C, 
1),  E.  The  'sinkers,'  ,1,  K,  L,  JI,  N,  are  thin 
jilates  of  steel,  wdiich  have  a  backward  and  forwanl 
motion,  each  sinker  passing  between  two  needles. 
When  tlie  sinkers  are  moved  to  the  left  of  their 
position  ill  (be  figure  a  space  occurs  between  them 
aiul  the  needles,  along  which  the  thread  or  yarn  is 
laid.  As  the  thread  proceeds  along  the  face  of  the 
needles  the  sinkers  one  by  one  advance  and  tlirust 
the  thread  between  them,  thus  fornang  a  row  of 
looiis,  after  which  the  sinkers  retire. 

AH  the  needles  act  simultanecmsly  and  in  the 
same  way  ;  but  to  m.ake  the  action  of  the  machine 
more  easily  understood,  figs.  3,  4,  and  o  sliow  the 
nu)venients  of  a  single  needle.  Fig.  3  represents, 
in  side  elevation,  the  positiim  of  a  sinker,  a  comb, 
and  a  needle,  at  the  moment  when  the  needle  liixs 
sunk  between  the  sinkers,  till  the  newly-fiMincd 
loop  of  tln-ead,  (),  enters  the  hooked  pm'timi  or  open 
eye.  The  needle,  continuing  its  descent,  is  rocked 
forward  till,  as  shown  in  fig.  4,  the  '  beard '  of  the 
hook  comes  against  the  '  (iresser  h.ar '  P.  which 
presses  for  a  monunit  tlie  point  of  the  beard  into  a 
groove   on    the   stem,  and   so   forms  a  closed   eye 


round  the  loop  O.     The  needle,  in  further  dcsceml- 
ing,  pulls  this  loop  through  tlie  lasl-foinietl  loop 


Kg.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


of  the  knitted  f.abric.  It  is  in  this  closing  of  the 
hook  to  enable  tlie  one  looj)  to  be  drawn  through 
the  other  that  the  great  ingenuity  of  Lee's  inven- 
tion lies.  Fig.  5  shows  the  new  loop  just  pulled 
through,  and  then  the  needle, 
rocking  forward  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  arrow,  ascends, 
while  the  loop  slips  down  its 
stem.  The  next  loop  is  pulled 
through  in  the  same  way. 
The  explanation  just  given  of 
the  motion  of  one  needle  aji- 
plies  to  all  the  needles,  as  they 
are  fixed  in  line  on  a  rigid  bar. 

Fig.  6  shows  an  enlarged 
plan  of  five  rows  of  loops,  in 
which  the  triangular  dots,  Nos. 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  8,  in 
the  last-formed  row  are  the  needles  with  the 
tliread-carrier,  T,  in  the  position  where  it  com- 
mences to  lay  the  thread  in  front  of  them.  The 
knitted  fabric  is  wound  upon  a  roller  ,as  fast  as 
it  is  formed.  It  would  take  up  too 
much  space  to  describe  the  arrange- 
ment for  narrowing  or  widening  the 
fabric,  to  bring  it  to  the  shape  of  a 
stocking  for  example.  This  is  called 
'fashioning.'  The  web,  however,  is 
often  not  shaped  in  the  process  of 
knitting,  hut  cut,  when  finished, 
into  any  form  reciuired,  as  is  done 
with  ordinary  cloth. 

Some  of  the  most  improved  modern 
knitting- frames  work  at  a  great  sjieed. 
One  with  six  divisions  of  480  needles  each  (a  usual 
size)  has  in  all  2880  needles.  Each  of  these  forms 
loops  at  the  rate  of  90  in  a  minute,  so  that  the 
whole  machine  forms  2.'J9,200  loops  in  a  minute. 
An  cx]iert  hand-knitter,  working  with  wires,  can 
hardly  do  more  than  100  loo|is  in  a  minute. 

Numerous  hosiery  or  knitting  machines,  varying 
much  in  their  details,  are  now  made  both  for 
factory  work  and  for  domestic  use.  In  the  volumes 
for  18"S6  and  1889  of  the  Tc.rlile  HftDin/mtiirci; 
published  at  Manchester,  several  of  the  best  of 
these  are  illustrated  and  described.  To  tlie  pages 
of  that  journal  we  are  indebted  for  the  diagrams 
given  in  this  article.  For  the  history  of  the  knit- 
ting frame,  see  Felkin's  Machinc-u-rouijlu  JIusiery 
(Old  Luce  (1867). 

Nottingham  and  Leicester,  especially  tlie  former, 
are  the  chief  centres  of  the  hosiery  manufaoture 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  but  it  extends  into  the 
adjoining  counties.  It  is  also  extensively  carried 
on  in  France,  Germany,  aiul  other  continental 
countries.  In  the  United  St.ates  hosiery  factories 
are  in  active  operation  in  New  York,  and  in  five 
or  six  neighbouring  states.  The  materials  used 
for  hosiery  are  cotton,  wool,  ami  silk  :  and  the 
number  of  dilferent  kinds  of  articles  made,  includ- 
ing stockings,   gloves,   shawls,   hats,   bonnets,  and 


Fig.  C. 


804 


HOSPICE 


HOSPITALLERS 


nil  kinds  of  iindcrclotliiii^',  ninoiints  to  tlinii»nn<1s. 
Tlie  result  of  ii-ci'nt  iiiiproveineiits  in  the  niacliinery 
for  the  inaniifaeture  of  hosiery  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  in  1S.")4  it  cost  fully  six  shillin<;s  to  Unit  a 
dozen  pairs  of  stockinfp*  by  the  hand  knittin;,'-fraine 
then  in  use;  whereivs  the  cost  at  the  present  time 
hy  iiower  knittinj;niaohines  does  not  exceed  one 
shillin;;  an<l  teiipence  per  dozen  pairs. 

llos|>i4'4'.  the  name  j;iven  to  the  pious  estah- 
lisliMuMls  lor  sheltering;  travellei-s,  maintained  hy 
monastic  pei-sons.  usually  in  connection  with  mon- 
asteries. One  of  the  best  known  in  inhospitable 
ref,'ions  is  that  on  the  Alpine  i)ass  of  (ireat  St 
Bernard  (sec  St  Iii:HN.\l!i)),  of  wliiih  niiMition  is 
made  as  early  as  112.5.  Travellers  are  lodjiied  and 
boanled  <;ratuitously,  Init  those  who  can,  deposit  a 
suitable  i>resent  in  the  alms-box.  Similar  estab- 
lishments are  found  on  the  Siuiplon,  the  Little  St 
Bernaril,  and  the  liernina. 

Ilosi>italh'rs.  in  the  Roman  ("atliolic  Church, 
are  ch.iritable  brollierlioods,  founded  for  the  care;  of 
the  )>oor  and  of  the  sick  in  hosiiitals.  Tliev  follow 
for  the  most  part  the  rule  of  St  Aufjustine,  and 
add  to  the  ordinary  vows  of  poverty,  cliii-slity,  and 
obedience,  that  of  self-deilicalion  to  the  particular 
work  of  their  order.  The  Kni^'hts  of  St  .lohn 
of  Jerusalem  (see  below)  and  the  Teutonic  Kni};hts 
(g.v.)  were  both  originally  hosnitallers.  The 
Ivnij;hts  Hospitallers  of  the  Holy  Spirit  were 
founde<l  at  Montiiellier  in  1198  by'tluy  of  Mont- 
pellier,  and  the  hospitallers  of  Our  Lady  of  t'hristi.an 
Charity  at  I'aris  in  the  eiul  of  the  1,'ith  century  by 
(iuy  de  Joinville.  And  numerous  similar  orders 
have  been  established  since  then. 

The  (.)UL)i;i{  ok  the  Knumits  of  St  John 
OF  Jekus.vlem,  otherwise  called  the  Knijrhts  of 
Rhodes,  anil  afterwards  of  Malta,  a  celebrateil  mili- 
tary and  reIi;iious  order  of  the  middle  aj;es,  ori^,'in- 
atcd  about  KttS  in  a  hospital,  dedicated  to  St  John 
the  Itaptist,  which  some  merchants  of  Amalli  built 
at  .Icrusalem  for  the  care  and  cure  of  pil;;rii]is  to 
the  Holy  Sepulchre.  After  the  conf|uest  of  .Icru- 
salem by  the  crusaders  under  Godfrey  of  Rouillon 
in  1099,  the  hospital  servants  were  joined  by  many 
from  the  Christian  army,  who  resolved  to  ilevote 
themselves  to  the  service  of  the  poor  and  sick 
pilgrims.  tJerard,  the  lirst  rector  of  the  hospital, 
formed  them  into  a  regularly-constituted  religious 
body,  Ixmnd  by  the  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and 
obedience,  and  subject  to  the  juris<liction  of  the 
Patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  Pope  Pivscal  II.  gave  his 
sanction  to  their  institution  as  an  oriler  in  1113. 
Raymond  du  Puy,  the  successor  of  Cerard,  extended 
the  activity  of  the  order  by  pledging  its  members 
to  protect  pilgrims  on  the  roads  from  the  sea  to  the 
Holy  City.  Soon  afterwards  the  order  became 
predominantly  military  :  the  Hospitallers  were 
sworn  to  defenil  the  Holy  Sepulchre  to  the  last 
drop  of  their  blood,  and  to  make  war  u)ion  the 
inlidels  wherever  they  should  meet  them.  Having 
become  military  as  well  as  religious,  the  order  was 
recruited  by  persons  of  high  rank  and  inllnence, 
and  wealth  flowed  in  from  all  iiuartei's.  Various 
hospices,  called  conimanderies,  were  established 
in  the  maritime  towns  of  Europe  a.s  resting- 
places  for  pilgrims,  who  were  there  provided  witli 
the  means  of  setting  out  for  Palestine.  These 
branch  establishments  also  collected  the  revenues 
of  the  order,  and  received  candiilates  for  ailmission 
to  its  ranks.  After  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by 
Saladin  the  Hospitallei's  established  themselves  at 
Acre  in  1191.  Soon  afterwards  a  bitter  rivalry 
sprang  up  between  them  and  the  Knights  Tem- 
plars, which  finally  set  them  in  battle  array  one 
against  the  other  in  1'2.')9.  when  victory  inclined 
to  the  former.  The  Hospitallers  clung  with  des-  j 
peration   to   Acre,    the   last    Christian  stronghold  I 


in  Palestine;  but  after  a  terrible  siege  by  the 
ruler  of  Egypt,  they  were  comixdled  to  sail  away 
to  Cym-us  (l'J9l).  where  the  king  of  the  island 
gave  Inem  an  iusylum  for  some  years. 

In  IIH;')  Krederick  liarbarossa  took  the  order  under 
the  protecliim  of  the  empire.  In  the  following  cen- 
tury the  title  of  'miuster'  was  changed  by  Pope 
Clement  1\'.  into  'grand-master.'  The  brethren 
consist<'d  of  three  classes,  knights,  chaplains,  and 
serving  brothers,  these  l;ust  being  lighting  .s(|uires, 
who  followed  the  knights  in  their  expeilitions.  The 
order  was  in  the  I'JtIi  century  divided  into  eight 
'languages' — Provence,  Auvergne,  Trance,  Italy, 
Aragon,  England,  Cermany,  and  Ciustile.  Each 
'language'  end>raced  several  grand-priories,  and 
under  these  again  were  a  nundicr  of  conimanderies. 

In  1,'JIO  the  knights,  umlcr  the  grandmaster 
Fulk  de  Villarel,  in  conjunctiiui  with  a  party  of 
crusaders  from  Italy,  cajjtured  Rhodes  and  .seven 
adjacent  islands  from  the  tJreek  and  .Moslem  pirates, 
and  carried  on  from  thence  for  more  than  two  hun- 
dred years  a  successful  war  against  the  Turks. 
During  this  period  the  Hospitallers  were  the  ownere 
of  nearly  19,(HHI  manors  in  Euro|ie,  and  to  these 
90(10  more  were  addeil  on  the  su])prcssion   of   the 

Knights  Templars  in  l.ll'i.     In  l.")L';!  they  were  c - 

pelled  to  surrender  Rhodes  to  .Sultan  Solyman,  and 
retire<l  to  Candia  (Crete).  In  15,S0  Charles  V. 
assigned  them  the  island  of  Malta,  with  Tripoli 
and  (iozo.  Tripidi  was  sunendered  in  l.'wl  to  the 
corsair  Dragut,  who  in  1;jG5  laid  siege  to  .Malta, 
which  the  Hospitallers  had  strongly  fortified. 
Dragut  wius  beaten  oil'  at  the  end  of  fciur  months 
with  the  loss  of  •.'.'),()00  men.  The  knights  con- 
tinued for  some  time  to  be  a  powerful  bulwark 
against  the  Turks;  but  after  the  Reformation  a 
moral  degeneracy  o\ei-sj>rea<l  the  order,  and  it 
rajudly  declined  in  jiolitical  importance.  In  1798, 
through  the  treachery  of  some  hrcnch  knights  and 
the  Mcakness  of  the  last  grand-master,  lIom])csch, 
Malta  was  surrended  to  the  Erench.  The  lands 
still  remaining  to  the  order  were  about  this  time 
confiscated  in  almost  all  the  European  states;  but, 
though  extinct  as  ,a  sovereign  body,  certain  branches 
of  the  order,  with  more  or  less  just  claims  to  legiti- 
mate succession,  have  continued  during  the  19th 
century  to  drag  on  a  lingering  existence  in  Italy, 
France,  Spain,  England,  and  Cermany.  After 
ISO]  the  ollice  of  grand-nia.ster  was  not  fille<l  np, 
till  in  1S79  the  jiope  appointed  a  grand-nia.ster 
for  the  Italian  and  Uohemian  '  language.s.'  In 
their  military  capacity  the  Hospitallers  wore  red 
surcoats  over  their  armour.  The  badge  worn  by 
.all  the  knights  w.is  a  Maltese  cross,  enamelled 
white  and  edged  with  gold.  The  motto  of  the 
order  w.as  '  Pro  fide,'  with  the  later  addition  of 
'  Pro  utilitate  hominum.' 

There  are  two  moilern  associations  which  ascribe 
their  origin  to  the  original  order — the  liramlenburg 
'  Johannilerordcn '  anil  the  English  order  of  the 
Knights  of  St  John.  The  former,  a  direct  descend- 
ant of  the  (lerm.-ui  'language'  of  the  old  legitimate 
order,  was  reorganised  in  1S.").'>,  ami  did  good  service 
in  the  campaigns  of  18G6  and  1870.  In  Englan<l 
the  property  of  the  old  order  was  coidiscated  in  the 
first  year  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  and  the  order  it.self 
was  dissoIve<l  and  declared  to  be  illegal  by  Henry 
VIII.  in  1541.  Nevertheless  the  'language'  of 
Englanil  was  resuscitated  in  18'27 ;  the  revived 
society  has  its  headquartei's  at  St  John's  (Jate, 
Clerkenwell.  London.  Its  ellorls  are  jinrely  pliilan- 
thro])ic  :  it  distributes  charity  to  omvalescents  who 
have  just  left  hospital,  maintains  cottage  hospitals 
and  convalescent  homes  in  the  country,  and  an 
ophthalmic  hospital  at  Jeru.salcm.  It  has  founded 
tne  street  ambulance  .sjstem,  ami  was  chiefly  con- 
cerned in  the  origination  of  the  Red  Cross  Society. 
.See  Histories  of  tin-  onler  by  Dosio,  Del  I'ozzo,  Vertot 


HOSPITALS 


805 


(Ens.  1728),  Taaffe  (1852),  Porter  (1883),  De  Salles 
(18*));  and  Delaville  de  Roux's  Lea  Archives,  la 
Bihliothequc,  et  la  Trisor  de  I'Ordrc  de  St-Jean  d,  Malte 
(188:i). 

Ilospitnis  are  so  called  from  the  meilieval 
lirispitifi,  or  imiie  iiroperly  tlie  class  of  hospitals 
estahlishcd  very  jrenenilly  for  the  reception  and 
relief  of  lepers,  whose  niaUuly  vas  one  of  the 
scourges  of  Europe.  These  le[)er  hospitals  were 
very  coniinonly  in  England  and  in  Scotland  called 
'  Spitals ; '  hence  the  frequency  of  such  names  of 
places  as  Spital,  Spitallields,  &:c.  The  leper  hos- 
pitals and  other  kinds  of  the  old  hospitia  dis- 
ajipcired  with  the  improvement  of  society,  and 
suli^titMtcs  for  them  on  a  broader  scale  began  to  be 
established  in  tlie  modern  form  of  liospitals.  Of 
public  establishments  under  this  general  desima- 
tion  there  are  now,  as  is  commonly  known,  three 
distinct  classes — hospitals  for  the  reception  and 
treiitnient  of  the  sick  and  JiuTt,  hospitals  fn-  the 
bfiaid  and  e<luci(ioD  of  chil  Ire  i,  an  J  lioq-it  ils  for 
trie  leception  ai.d  permanent  board  ef  pour  old 
persons  of  both  sexes.  As  in  the  present  \vork  the 
more  remarkable  hospitals  receive  some  notice  under 
their  respective  heads,  we  need  here  onlj'  offer  a 
few  general  observations. 

Hospitals  for  the  sick  and  hurt  are  in  some 
parts  of  England  and  Scotland  termed  Infirmaries. 
L  nder  whatever  designation,  institutions  of  this 
kind  are  now  established  in  all  parts  of  the  civilised 
world.  They  are  supported  in  most  cases  on  a 
j)riiiciple  of  charit.y,  but  in  some  special  instances 
trom  the  funds  of  the  state  or  the  civic  munici- 
palities. The  primary  or  more  important  object  of 
all  such  institutions  is  to  mitigate  bodily  .suffering, 
whether  that  arises  from  natural  or  accidental 
ca\ises,  in  which  respect  they  are  indisjiensable  as 
a  refuge  to  all  who  are  unable  to  pay  for  private 
medical  or  surgical  aid,  or  as  a  convenient  means 
of  succour  on  emergencies  to  persons  of  every  rank 
anil  degree  of  opulence.  While  such  is  the  main 
object  of  these  benevolent  institutions,  they  are 
also  serviceable  as  schools  for  medicine  and  surgery; 
as  sucli,  no  university,  at  which  these  and  kindred 
branches  of  learning  are  taught,  can  be  said  to  be 
complete  without  the  adjunct  of  a  well-organised 
hospital,  where  professors  can  practically  educate 
their  pupils  by  pointing  out  varieties  of  disease  and 
injuries,  and  exemplifying  methods  of  treatment. 
Hence  the  best  specimens  of  hospitals  are  found  in 
university  towns — .as  in  London,  Paris,  Edinburgh, 
and  some  other  cities  famed  .as  sidiools  of  medicine 
and  surgery.  The  older  of  the  Ijondon  hospitals 
are  St  Tliom.as's  (loo.'i),  St  Bartholomew's  (1")46), 
and  IJedlam  or  Bethlehem  (1547),  to  which  may  be 
added  the  AVestminster  (1719),  tJuy's  (1725),  the 
Lock  (1740),  St  George's  ( 1733),  the  London  ( 1740), 
the  Middlesex  (1745),  and  University  College 
(1833).  \  considerable  acces.sion  to  the  number 
took  jd.ace  in  the  reign  of  (ieorge  II.,  when  society 
became  alive  to  tlie  value  of  such  institutions.  It 
was  at  this  period  that  the  Koyal  Inlirmary  of 
Edinburgh  was  established  ( 173U).  The  antiquity 
of  lirilish  hospil.als  sinks  into  insignificance  in  com- 
parison with  that  of  some  institutions  of  this  kind 
on  the  Continent.  The  Hotel  Dieu  in  I'aris,  which 
is  alleged  to  be  the  most  ancient  hospital  in  Europe, 
was  founded  in  the  7th  century,  and.  long  known  as 
the  Maison  Dieu,  received  the  benefactions  of  suc- 
cessive sovereigns. 

In  London,  Paris,  and  other  large  seats  of  popula- 
tion, besides  the  general  hospitals,  there  are  now 
lying-in  hospit.als,  ophthalmic  hospitals,  consump- 
tive hospitals,  children's  hospitals,  i*i.c. — each  with 
its  peculiar  accommodation  and  stall'  of  ollici.als. 
Convalescent  Hospitals  (q.v.)  are  a  valuable  ad- 
junct to  ordinary  hospitals  for  the  sick.  In- 
dependently of  these  there  are  hospitals  for  the 


treatment  of  mental  maladies,  of  which  Bethlehem 
and  St  Luke's  in  London,  and  the  establishments 
in  Paris,  known  as  Hospices,  are  examples.  To 
this  class  of  institutions  belong  Lunatic  Asylums 
(q.v.),  also  asylums  for  the  reception  and  treat- 
ment of  naturally  imbecile  children  ;  these  la.st, 
though  in  ojjeration  for  some  time  in  France  and 
Switzerland,  being  but  of  recent  establishment  in 
(ireat  Britain.  To  these  must  be  a<lded  the  isola- 
tion hospitals  for  the  treatment  of  smallpox, 
scarlet- fever,  and  other  forms  of  infectious  diseases, 
which  have  been  established  in  recent  years  by 
every  energetic  sanitary  authority  out  of  the 
rales.  Besides  these  institutions  under  ci\il  ad- 
ministration are  those  hospitals  which  are  main- 
tained by  the  English,  French,  and  other  govern- 
ments for  the  militarj'  and  naval  services.  In  the 
L^nited  States,  where  every  medical  college  ha.s  its 
own  hospital,  or  the  right  to  teach  in  the  wards  of 
public  ini'titutinn.1,  there  are  also  many  hospitals 
or  asylurifi  for  ii  el  liate?  (see  IniBBIATES),  foi 
opium-users,  and  fiiose  addicted  to  the  use  ol 
other  n.arcotics  (see  also  FouSDLING  Ho-SPITALS, 
Ajibulaxce). 

Until  the  middle  of  the  19th  centurj'  the  organ- 
isation and  management  of  hosoitals  and  the 
nursing  of  the  sick  in  Britain  anu  in  most  parts 
of  ICurope  were,  except  in  some  few  instances, 
extremely  defective.  Public  opinion  wa.s  then 
aroused  on  the  question,  and  certain  ]irinciple3 
were  laid  down  on  hos]iital  constniction  and  hos- 
l>ital  nursing  which  have  been  recognised  and 
adopted  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  since  that  time. 
These  principles  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as 
follows  under  the  three  heads:  (1)  Construction, 
(2)  Administration,  (3)  Nursing. 

(1)  Construction. — Tlie  first  object  is  to  obtain 
pure  air  in  and  around  the  building.  The  purity 
of  air  around  will  depend  upon  the  site.  The 
soil  should  be  clean  and  dry  ;  the  position  should 
admit  of  free  circulation  of  air  untainted  by  sur- 
rounding sources  of  impurity  or  damp.  The  num- 
ber of  sick  who  can  be  placed  on  a  given  site  de- 
pends on  the  form  of  the  buildings  in  which  they 
are  to  be  placed.  It  is  now  considered  that  more 
than  100  patients  sliouM  never  be  under  the  same 
roof.  And  less  is  better.  This  has  led  to  the 
pavilion  form  of  building  being  adopted — blocks 
connected  by  corridors.  2'ico  floors  only  of  patients' 
wards  are  admissible,  but  hos]>itals  with  only  one 
floor  for  the  ward  accommodation  are  now  univer- 
sally recognised  as  best.  More  than  three  is  insani- 
tary. Hospital  buildings  consist  ( a )  of  the  wards  for 
the  reception  of  the  sick,  and  their  appurtenances; 
these  necessarily  form  the  basis  of  the  design ; 
subsidiarj'  to  these  are  the  operating  theatre,  \c.; 
and  where  there  is  a  medical  school  instructional 
accessories  have  to  be  provided,  (i)  The  build- 
ings for  administration— i.e.  for  lodging  the  staff, 
the  kitchen,  stores,  and  dispensary,  should  be 
always  subordinate  to  the  <|uestion  of  the  accom- 
modation for  sick.  In  some  hospitals  extra  out- 
patients' departments  are  provided.  The.se  should 
never  be  placed  under  the  same  roof  with  the  wards 
for  the  sick. 

(r()Tlie  first  princi^ile  of  the  ward  unit  is  that 
till'  ward  and  ward  ottices  should  be  self-contained 
within  one  door  commanded  by  the  heailnurse's 
room,  so  that  .at  any  moment  she  may  know  where 
every  patient  is.  The  size  of  the  wards  li.is  to  be 
somewhat  guided  by  economy  of  ailministration, 
.so  as  to  enable  the  largest  number  of  patients  to  be 
nursed  by  a  given  number  of  nui'scs.  The  limit  of 
the  ward  is  practically  the  number  who  can  be 
etiiciently  nursed  unclcr  one  head-nurse.  Each 
ward  may  have  subsidiary  to  it  one  or  two  small 
wanls  for  bad  co-ses. 

The  ward  appurtenances  consist  partly  of  nursing 


806 


HOSPITALS 


n(*roiiimo<lati<iii  niiil   partly  of  oftices  for  iia 
Tlie  nursiiii'  uiriminuHlation   incluiles   a   l>e 


jiaticntx. 
l>c(lr(>oiii 

for  tlie  lieiul  niirsf  ;  a  serving  room  in  wliifli  f<«nl 
can  bo  \varnio<l,  ilriiiks  and  extra  diets  made,  and 
linen  koiit  ami  aired,  hot  water ootaineil,  |)<iiiltices, 
<S:c.  maile  ;  also  a  nnrses'  water-closet  near.  Tlie 
head- nurse's  room  should  lie  so  ]ilaced  a-s  to  enalile 
the  niiine  to  exercise  constant  supervision  over  the 
ward  and  the  |>aticnt-s.  The  ollices  for  patients 
comprise  a  lavatory  for  the  patients,  a  hath-rcMim 
with  a  niovalde  hath,  which  bath-room  and  lava- 
tory should  l>e  large  enough  for  minor  surgical 
operations,  and  water-closets  in  the  proportion  of 
about  3  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  number  of  patient.s 
— the  general  hospital  for  acute  coses,  mostly  in 
bed,  requiring  the  les-ser  number— one  or  more  sloii 
sinks,  a  j)lace  for  keeiiing  ejecta  of  patient.s  for 
medical  lusjiection.  '1  hese  appurtenances  should 
be  cut  ofl'  Irom  the  ward  bv  ventilated  lobliies, 
and  should  be  always  warmed  aud  ventilated  inde- 
pendently of  the  ward. 

The  form  of  the  wanl  should  be  such  an  to  enable 
the  air  to  be  renewe<l  with  the  greatest  facility. 
Experience  in  this  climate  shows  that  the  win- 
dows are  the  best  appliance  for  complete  renov.i- 
tion  of  the  air.  For  this  purpose  they  should  be 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  ward,  and  the  wards  should 
not  exceed  from  20  to  28  feet  in  width.  There 
should  not  be  alMjve  two  rows  of  beils  between  the 
windows.  The  rectangular  fonii  enables  these 
conditions  to  l>e  best  fulfilled  in  the  ca-sc  of  large 
wards.  Where  the  wards  arc  not  intendeil  to  con- 
tain more  than  from  four  to  eight  patient.s  a 
circular  fonn  of  ward  lia.s  been  in  some  cases  found 
unobjectionable :  but  as  it  is  a  principal  object  in 
hosjiital  construction  to  provide  a  large  w.all  spuee 
in  jiroportion  to  the  floor  and  cubic  space  per  bed 
in  the  wards,  and  as  the  rectangular  form  all'ords 
the  largest,  and  the  circular  form  the  smallest  wall 
space  in  iiroportion  to  the  area  of  the  warti,  it  is 
evident  tliat  the  rectangular  form  is  that  best 
adapted  to  sanitary  reijuirements. 

( o )  The  subsidiary  accommodation  should  be  bo 
arranged  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  purity  of  air 
in  or  around  the  wards.  The  fewer  j)laces  in  and 
about  the  ward  the  better.  Not  only  the  best 
arrangements,  but  what  use  will  be  made  of  them, 
has  to  be  considered.  The  sleeping  acconinmdation 
for  nurses  should  lie  so  placed  as  to  ensure  purity 
of  air  in  the  dormitories,  and  complete  quiet  for 
the  night-nurses  to  sleeji  by  <lay. 

(2)  Adtniiiisiiiiliim  is  intendeil  to  enforce  econ- 
omy so  far  as  it  is  consistent  with  the  ])rovisiiin  of 
reipiirements  for  the  sick.  It  is  usually  in  the 
hands  of  a  governing  body,  which  Issues  all  regula- 
tions after  con.sultation  with  profes.sional  advisers; 
it  controls  the  cxpemliture  and  raises  the  funds  to 
support  the  hospital.  The  governing  body  acts 
through  its  treasurer,  secretary,  and  steward 
for  the  general  discipline  and  control  of  expendi- 
ture. The  well-being  and  cure  of  the  jiatients  is 
directed  by  the  pnifessional  stall' of  meflical  oflicei-s, 
which  consists  of  vi.sitin"  physicians  and  surgeons 
and  of  resident  medical  oHicers,  who  control  the 
treatment  of  the  patients  under  tlieir  direction  and 
in  the  alisence  of  the  visiting  medical  officers.  The 
nursing  of  the  sick  is  under  a  trained  matron  or 
lady  superintendent,  who  should  be  the  heail  of  all 
the  women  enijiloyed  in  the  hospital. 

(3)  Nursinr/  the  sick  and  injured  is  performed 
usually  by  women  under scientiKc  heads — physicians 
and  surgeons.  Nursing  is  putting  us  in  the  Ijest 
possible  conditions  fjir  nature  to  restore  or  to  pre- 
serve health — to  prevent  or  to  cure  di.sca.se  or  in- 
jury. The  physician  or  surgeon  prcscrilies  these 
conditions — the  nurse  canies  them  out.  Health  is 
not  only  to  be  well,  but  to  be  able  to  u.s*-  well 
even,-  power  we  have  to  use.     Sickness  or  di.sea.sc 


is  nature's  way  of  getting  rid  of  the  e)l"e<'t«  of  con- 
ditions which  have  interfered  with  health.  It  is 
nature's  attemjit  to  cure — we  have  to  helii  her. 
Partly,  ]ierhaps  mainly,  n|ioii  nursing  must  oepend 
whether  nature  succee<l8  or  fails  in  her  attempt  to 
cure  by  sickness.  Nursing  is  therefore  to  help 
the  patient  to  live.  Nursing  is  an  art,  and  an 
art  r('<|uiring  an  organised  practical  anil  .'^ciiiilide 
trainiiig.  l-'or  nursiii''  is  the  skilled  servant  of 
medicine,  surgery,  and  hygiene. 

Nursing  proper  means,  liesides  giving  the  medi- 
cines and  stimulants  jircscribed,  or  applying  the 
surgical  dressings  and  oilier  remedies  ordered, 
(  1 )  the  luovidiiig  and  the  ]iroper  use  of  fresh 
air,  especially  at  night — i.e.  ventilalion — and  of 
w.armth  or  coolness  ;  (2)  the  securing  the  liealtli  of 
the  sickroom  or  ward,  which  includes  light,  cleanli- 
ness of  lloors  and  walls,  of  bed,  bedding,  and 
utensils;  (3)  pei-sonal  cleanliness  of  patient  and  of 
nurse,  quiet,  variety,  and  cheerfulness;  (4)  the 
ailiuinistering  ami  sometimes  preparation  of  diet; 
t  (.■))  the  aiiplication  of  rcmeilies.     .See  Nllisixc 

Fcrcr  ilos/iitiiU,  distinct  from  those  lor  the  tieat- 
I  iiiciit  of  surgical  and  oidinarv  medical  cases,  are 
essential  for  .securing  the  isolation  of  patientx 
I  in  infectious  diseases;  hospital  ships  or  Moating 
,  ho-^Iiitals  have  been  found  extremely  valuable  for 
j  sr'curing  complete  isolation  in  c.tses  of  virulently 
iiifi'Ctive  ilisorilers  such  as  Small  pox  (q.v.). 

I'imvliiv  Iiifirmnrie-s. — Since  18711  )ioor  law  or 
pa:i>h  inlirmaries  for  the  sick  and  inlinii,  wlin  ii-cd 
to  be  harboured  (not  tieateil)  in  workhouses 
an<l  nursed  by  pnupei-s,  have  been  built,  and 
are  served  by  tmiiied  nnrse.s.  Some  dilleience 
exists  between  the  essentials  for  general  liospiial» 
anil  for  jioor  law  inlirmaries— the  latter  having 
no  medic.'il  schools,  no  visiting  or  resident 
medical  ollicers,  except  the  resident  medical 
superintendent  and  his  a.'«sist,int,  no  accidents 
or  operations.  The  large  majority  of  patients 
in  them  are  chronic,  not  acute,  ea.ses,  and  incur- 
ables. A  smaller  nui-sing  stall'  in  proportion  i» 
I  n(!e<le<l.  Some  few  of  the  Ijest  and  largest  have 
now  trainingschools  for  nui-ses.  Since  ls7.j  Metro- 
polit.an  Hoard  asylums,  supported  also  by  therali-s, 
I  have  been  built  near  London  for  fevci-s,  for  small- 
pox, for  idiots  and  imlteciles,  &c. 

Lying-iu  Huspituls. — The  Ivingin  hospitals  re- 

]  (|uire  special  consideration.     The  continuous  use  of 

I  wards  for  this  purpose  aiipeai"s  to  be  very  danger- 

I  ous  to  the  patients.      Indeed  this  would  seem  to  lie 

]  the  rea.son  why  tlicie  are  fewer  casualliis  from  this 

cause  in  workliouse  inlirmaries  than  in  the  ordiiiiiry 

lying-in  hospital,  and  why  the  lying-in  at  home  is- 

.-afer  than  either. 

In  Paris,  wiiere  this  subject  has  been  much  con- 
sidered, two  forms  have  been  tried  ^^ith  good 
results.  In  one  each  patient  has  a  small  ward  to- 
herself,  with  its  scullery  or  service-room  altacbeil, 
opening  thiough  a  covereil  ]ioicli  into  an  open 
veranda.  Alter  each  conlineiiiciit  the  ward  is 
cleaned  and  limewhited  before  further  occupation. 
In  these  wanls  fatal  results  have  lieen  very  rare. 
.\notlier  form  is  to  have  a  ward  which  can  hold  two 
or  more  lieds,  in  one  of  which  the  patient  is  brought 
for  the  dcliven-,  and  after  a  few  hours  she  is 
wheeled  out  in  the  bed  into  a  large  ward  where 
she  remains  with  other  p.atients  who  have  alsi> 
been  delivered.  With  this  jilan  also,  where  the 
deliveiy  ward  is  cicaneil  and  lime-wliitc<l  at  short 
intervals,  ami  where  two  delivery  wards  are  in  use 
.alternately,  one  always  staniliiig  empty,  fatal 
results  have  been  rare.  Instances  of  both  forms  of 
lying-in  hosjiitals  are  not  unknown  in  the  United 
Kiiigilom.  JJut  it  would  be  well  if  they  were  more 
universal. 

VhildrcH's  Ilnxpitnls  must  1m?  jirovided  \\h\\  estab- 
lishments   for   bathing,   jdaying   indooi-s    and   out, 


HOSPITALS 


HOSTILIUS 


--07 


larj;e  j;'ii'<lengrouinls,  gyiiiiiastic  ■;i()Hiuls  ami  lialls, 
ill  and  out  of  dooi-s  ;  tlie  gyinnastics  should  be  iiiuler 
a  piofesisor,  and  outpatients  should  be  always 
admitted.  A  'sister'  must  superintend  each  of 
all  these  places.  Sin^n;;  in  chorus  is  to  be  taught. 
It  is  a  matter  of  universal  hospital  experience  that 
iiitermiiiglinjj  of  ages  is  essential.  It  you  have  a 
ohililren's  hosi)ital,  let  the  age  of  admission  include 
iifleen  years,  esjjeciallv  on  the  female  side.  In  all 
hospitals  (in  a  child's  liospilal  much  move  than  in 
others)  the  patient  must  not  stay  a  day  longer  than 
is  al)Solutely  nece.«.sary.  Every  chilils  hospital 
ought  to  have  a  convalescent  branch  at  a  distance  ; 
if  i)Ossil)le  by  the  sea.  Sick  children  can  never  be 
left  alone  for  a  moment.  <  Ino  might  almost  .say  a 
nurse  is  recpiired  for  every  child.  This  is  vhy  in  a 
general  hospital  it  is  much  better  for  the  children 
to  be  mixed  with  the  adults  ;  and,  if  they  are  judi- 
ciously distrilMited,  it  does  the  woman  in  the  next 
bed  as  much  good  a-s  it  does  the  cliild,  or  the  man 
as  it  does  the  little  boy.  If  there  »n(«<  be  a  chil- 
dren's ward  in  a  general  hospital,  let  it  be  for  the 
infants. 

Convalescent  Hospitnls  must  be  as  like  a  home 
and  as  unlike  a  liospital  as  pos.sible.  A  string  of 
detached  cottages  is  tlie  best,  admitting  of  exten- 
sion by  the  addition  of  similar  parts.  Convalescent 
wards  in  a  general  hospital  are  not  good  ;  nor  are 
day-rooms.  Healthy  open  i)ositiou  and  climate 
must  be  carefully  selected.  The  convalescents  are 
only  to  sleep  at  niglit  in  their  rooms,  while  in  the 
day  they  are  'out  and  about,'  or  occupying  them- 
selves— the  men  in  the  garden,  the  women  at  house- 
hold work.  But  there  must  be  strict  discipline. 
There  must  be  two  small  wards  for  relap.ses  next 
the  'sister's'  room,  in  the  centre  cottage.  The 
convalescent  beds  may  be  divi<U!d  by  curtains,  to 
be  ])ulled  far  back  in  the  day-time.  A  wash-hand 
stand  to  be  permitted  within — no  lavatory.  Three 
or  four  beds  a  good  numlier  for  each  convalescent 
room.  Men  and  women  should  have  separate 
cottages,  and  only  meet  at  meals.  Every  hospital 
should  have  its  convalescent  branch,  and  every 
county  its  convalescent  home. 

Honpituls  for  /»<»;-f(i/cv  should  admit  all  disea.ses 
certilied  by  competent  medical  judges  to  be  hope- 
lessly incurable — except  mental  diseases,  which 
leijuire  s|)ecial  arrangements.  One  well-known 
hospital  for  incurables  excludes  epilepsy  because 
it  frightens  the  other  patients  ;  avoids,  if  )iossible, 
congenital  and  infantile  disea.se ;  prefers  patients 
of  and  above  middle  age ;  and  excludes  children 
and  all  uiuler  twenty  years.  The  cases  treated  by 
incurable  hospitals  are  principally  cases  of  chronic 
rheumatism,  gout,  paralysis,  and  various  alVections 
which  cripple  the  limbs,  &c.  These  ho.spitals, 
while  treating  cases  within  their  walls,  are  no 
doubt  iiroductive  of  great  benefit  to  the  commun- 
ity ;  but  the  system  of  granting  ]iensions  from  the 
hospital  funds  to  out-patients  is  very  (|uestioiiable. 

A  Samaritan  fund  is  gener.iUy  provided  to  assist 
poor  patients  leaving  hospitals  who  may  be  deficient 
in  clothing  or  other  necessaiies.  In  public  Dis- 
pensaries (q.v. ),  at  stated  hours,  medical  advice 
and  medicines  are  given  gratis  to  applic4ints :  in 
recent  ye.ars  provident  dispensaries  have  l>een 
established,  supported  by  subscrii>tions,  entitling 
the  subscriber  to  advice  and  medicine.  Valuable 
establishments  are  those  called  in  France  Maisims 
(le  Santc — private  hospitals  for  the  reception  and 
treatment  of  patient*  who  are  able  and  ilisjiosed 
to  pay  a  small  sum  for  board  and  medical  or 
surgical  attendance. 

Hosi>iT.\L  Si'ND.W.  On  one  Sunday  in  the  year 
it  is  the  practice  for  churches  of  almost  every 
denomination  in  London  and  throughout  the  pro- 
vinces to  have  special  collectiims  for  the  support 
of  the   hospitals  of  the  country.     In  London  the 


movement  <Higinated  in  1873;  Aberdeen  claims  to 
have  begun  the  practice  in  1764. 

See  Antiseptics,  Disinfectants,  Germ,  Htgiexe, 
Infection,  Medicine.  Nuhsixg,  Py.fiMiA,  Surgery  ; 
Burdett,  Hospitals  aii't  Asi/tums  of  the  World  (4  vols. 
18915);  Uillin^^s  and  Hurd,  Hospitals,  Dispensaries,  and 
Niirsinrj  ( 1895) ;  Mouat  and  fjnell.  Hospital  Construction 
and  Manaijement  ( 18-S4) ;  Clifiord  Smith  on  Administror 
tion  of  Hospitals  (1803);  Douglas  Galtnn,  Construction 
of  Hospitals  (1870),  and  Healthy  Hospitals  (189:i); 
Wylie,  Hospitals  ( New  York,  1877 ) ;  the  present 
writer's  Notes  on  Hospitals  (new  ed.  1863),  and  Lyiny-in 
Institutions  ( 1871 ) ;  and  such  reports  as  those  of  the 
Conuuissions  on  the  S;initary  t'onaition  of  Barracks  and 
Hospitals  ( 1 8(;;5 ),  on  Kcgnlations  aflecting  the  Sanitary 
Condition  of  the  Army  and  Orj;anisation  of  Hospitals 
(18.58),  and  on  Smalljiox  and  Fever  Hospitals  (1882). 

Ilospodar,  a  Slavonic  title  once  commonly 
given  to  the  governors  of  Moldavia  and  AVallachia, 
whereas  the  king  of  Roumania  Ls  now  know  n  under 
the  native  liomanic  title  of  Domnu.  Lithuanian 
princes  and  Polish  kings  also  bore  the  title. 

Ilost  (Lat.  hostia,  'a  victim'),  the  name  given 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  the  consecrated 
bread  of  the  eucharist.  It  is  so  called  in  conformity 
with  the  doctrine  of  that  church  that  the  eucharist 
is  a  'sacrifice,'  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word, 
though,  in  the  common  language  of  Catholics, 
'  host '  is  used  for  the  unconsecrated  altar-bread, 
and  even  so  occurs  in  the  oflertory  of  the  Roman 
missal.  The  host  in  the  Latin  Church  is  a  thin 
circular  wafer  (in  Old  English,  'syngeing  cake') 
of  unleavened  bread,  made  of  the  finest  llour.  and 
bearing  stamped  u|Kin  it  the  figure  of  the  Cnici- 
lixion  or  some  emblematic  device,  as  the  Lamb, 
or  the  letters  IHS.  These  are  the  'points'  and 
'  figures'  forbidden  in  the  first  book  of  Edward  VI. 
In  all  ancient  liturgical  rites  the  consecrated  host 
was  broken  before  being  consumed  by  the  i)riest. 
In  the  Roman  Church  the  celebrant,  who  uses  at 
nia.ss  a  larger  host  than  that  reserved  for  other 
communicants,  lii-st  breaks  it  into  two  halves,  and 
then  from  one  half  detaches  a  fragment  which  he 
drops  into  the  chalice.  In  the  Creek  and  other 
oriental  churches,  as  well  as  in  various  Protes- 
tant communities,  the  eucharist  is  celebrated  in 
leavened  bread  ;  and  one  of  the  grounds  of 
scjiaration  from  the  West  alleged  by  Michael 
Cerularius  was  the  western  practice  of  using  un- 
leavened bread.  The  use  of  unleavened  bread  is 
founded  on  the  belief  that  Christ  can  only  have 
used  such  bread  when  instituting  the  eucliarist  at 
the  Paschal  feast.  Luther  followed  the  Roman 
Church  in  this  point,  but  did  not  break  the  host. 
It  was  dccide<l  l>y  the  Privy-council,  in  the  Purchas 
ca.sc  (1871 ),  that"  the  use  of  the  wafer  is  forbidden 
in  the  Church  of  Englanil.  The  elevation  of  the 
liost  is  the  act  by  which  the  priest  immediately 
after  pronouncing  the  words  of  consecration  raises 
the  host  with  both  hands  above  liis  head,  whilst 
tlie  server  tinkles  his  bell  to  call  attention  to  the 
ceremony,  that  the  congregation  m.ay  adore  Christ 
preseiit. 

liostaso.  a  jiei-son  given  to  an  enemy  as  a 
pledge  f(M-  the  proper  fulfilment  of  treaty  condi- 
tions. Formerly  the  evasiini  of  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  by  one  of  the  contracling  parties  used  to  be 
regarded  as  entitling  the  enemy  to  put  to  death 
the  hostages  that  had  been  given  up  to  them. 
The  shooting  of  Archbishop  D.arboy  (q.v. )  and  his 
fellow  hosta''es  in  1871  was  the  "most  execmble 
crime  of  the  Paris  Communists. 

llOStilillS,  Tl'LLUS,  the  third  of  the  legendary 
kings  of  Rome,  succeeded  Numa  Pompilius  in  670 
li.C.  He  it  was  who  in.ade  the  famous  arrange- 
ment by  which  the  combat  of  the  Ilnratii  with  tlie 
Curiatii  decided  the  question  of  suprcmacv  between 
Rome  and  Alba  in  favour  of  the  former,    lie  fought 


808 


HOTBED 


HOTTENTOTS 


against  Kiilfii:i'  and  Vuii,  and  conciupix'd  llieni:anil 
destroyed  AlUi,  ami  removed  the  inlialiilants  to 
Konie,  },'iving  tlieni  Mount  Cudius  to  dwell  on  ;  and 
carried  on  war  a;,'ain»t  the  Sahines.  At  len^;tli  the 
;,'ods  ;jrew  wrathful  with  him  for  his  love  of  war 
anil  his  iic^jlect  to  worshiii  them,  ami  Jupiter 
Elicius  consumed  him  and  his  house  with  lire 
about  038  li.c.  According  to  Niehulir  and  Arnold, 
there  are  glimpses  of  a  distinct  personality  in 
the  legend  of  Iloslilius,  unlike  those  of  Komulus 
and  Numa,  which  are  merely  |)ersonilicalions  of 
the  two  principal  stages  of  a  nation's  growth. 

Hotbed,  a  hed  of  fermenting  vegetahle  matter, 
usually  surmounted  hy  a  glazeil  frame,  employed 
in  gardening  for  cultivating  melons  anil  cuciim 
hers,  the  rearing  of  tender  annuals,  propagating 
stove  and  greenhouse  plants  by  cuttings,  seeds,  o7- 
grafting,  forcing  llowers,  &c.  It  is  an  inexpensive 
means  for  obtaining  a  high  tem])erature  >n  a  limited 
atmosphere,  aicompanied  with  genii  1  humidity 
charged  wit  I  r.utritious  g.i;.C9,  whi.li  ii  .ery  \)fiii 
licial  to  plants.  Formerly  it  was  an  imlispensahle 
adjunct  to  the  garden,  but  the  almost  nniver.sal 
employment  of  hot  water  as  a  heating  agent  for 
horticultural  purjiose-s  has  latterly  greallv  circum- 
scribed its  use.  The  materials  used  in  making  hot- 
beds are  stable-dung,  leave.s— those  of  the  oak  and 
beech,  being  especially  suitable,  are  freiiuonlly 
mixed  with  the  ilung— tanners'  bark,  sjjcnt  hop.s, 
and  the  wxste  of  jute,  cotton,  hemp,  and  llax, 
all  of  which  must  be  allowed  to  pa.ss  through 
the  first  violent  stages  of  fermentation  in  order  To 
eliminate  the  deleterious  gases  they  contain  before 
being  built  up  into  the  bed.  The  size  of  the  bed 
IS  regulated  by  the  degree  of  heat  recniired  for  the 
purpo.se  in  view.  A  beil  of  stable-dung  with  or 
without  leaves  intermixed,  four  feet  thick,  will  for 
.some  time  after  it  is  built  maintain  a  temperature 
of  from  ':>'  to  90',  which  is  sulhcient  for  most  pur- 
poses. As  the  fermentation  declines  the  bed  cools 
down,  but  heat  is  ag.ain  readily  increased  by  adding 
fresh  material  to  the  sides  of  it.  The  bed  should 
be  made  a  few  inches  wider  and  longer  than  the 
frame  that  is  to  be  placed  upon  it,  and  from  G  to  9 
inches  higher  at  the  back  than  the  front  to  secure 
a  better  angle  for  light.     See  also  Pl.vnt-iioiisk. 

Ilotclipot  ( the  same  word  as  /fulr/i./,(,fr/,  in  the 
culinary  sense),  a  plir.vie  used  in  Knglish  law  to 
denote  that,  where  one  child  has  already  received  an 
advancement  out  of  the  father's  estate,  that  child 
must  bring  such  jiorticm  into  hotchjiot  before  he 
Hill  be  allowed  to  share  with  the  other  children, 
under  the  statute  of  distiibutions,  after  the  father's 
death.  In  other  words,  a  chilil  who  has  got  money 
from  the  father  to  place  him  in  business,  &c.", 
must  treat  th.at  as  a  payment  to  account  of  his 
share  at  the  father's  deatli.  The  eldest  son  is  not 
required  to  bring  into  hotchpot  the  land  which  he 
takes  as  heir.  A  similar,  but  not  identical,  doc- 
trine exists  in  .Scotland  under  the  name  of  colla- 
tion. 

IIot<;ll-potcll.  a  Scottish  dish,  may  be  defined 
as  a  kind  of  mutton-broth  in  wliich"green  peas 
take  the  nlace  of  barley  or  rice.  Jfotr/i-mtr/i  or 
Hodgepodijc  is  a  corruption  of  Old  Knglish  hotch. 
pot:  Pr.  horhepot;  from  Dutch  hiitunot  (hutscii 
being  '  to  shake  in  the  pot'). 

Hot  <'ro.ss  Uiiiis.    See  CROSs-nrN.s. 

Hotol  (I'r.  I,.:i,l,  Old  I'r.  hoK(,l.  Lat.  hospittih), 
a  .Mijicrior  kind  of  inn  (see  INX),  like  the  old  Eng- 
lish hostel.  The  often  palatial  hotels  that  have 
sprung  lip  since  the  introduction  of  railwavs  are 
too  well  known  to  rcfinire  notice.  One  pdint  of 
diirerenco  between  the  European  and  the  Ameri- 
can systems  is  that  under  the  former,  except  in  the 
case  of  a  trtble  (riiote,  the  charge  is  for  each  dish 
ordered,   wliile  under  the  American   plan  a  fixed 


price    is    chaiged   for  every   meal.      The    modern 
I'reiich  word  is  still  used  for  the  house  of  a  rich 
or  distinguished   man,   or  for  a   public   buildin.' 
such  JUS  the  llutd  ,/c  rule  (see  Mimiii'.vl  Aliciu- 
TKcriKK),  as  well  as  for  inn  or  hosttdry. 
HotllOIIS4>.     See  rLANT-IIOISK. 
Hot  Sprili;:s.  a  town  of  Arkans.as,   n&  miles 
\\S\\.  of  Little  Itock,  is  surronnilc<l  by  line  iiioun- 
tain  scenery,  and  is  much  fre(|nciUcil  as  a  siimincr- 
resort.      It  li.as  over  lifty  thermal  .s].rings,  ranging 
in  temperature  from  95°  to  148'  V.     I'op.  SOSG. 
Hotspur,  n.\i!i!V.     See  PKitfv. 
Hottentots,  the  people  who  were  in  iiossession 
of  the  greater  pari  of  w  hat  is  now  t'ai)e  Colony  when 
it  was   fii-st    visited    and    colonised    by   Euiopoans. 
The    Hottentots   were   so    calleil    by"  the    earliest 
Dutch    settlers,    puzzled    at    their  "strange   harsh 
faucal  sounds  and  clicks,  Hottentot  or   llultcMitiit 
signifying;  a  (juack  /u  I'lisiiin  or  I.uw  fJcinian.     It 
is  a  .sinifwlint  iiiii-'ia  li/)g  Danie,  u  il  is  popiil,-rly 
u.seil   lo  include  the  two  distinct    /!ii. lilies  distin 
guishcd  by  their  native  names  :  the  Khoikhoi,  the 
so-calle<l    Hottentot  pro]icr,  an<l   the   San   (S;i)  or 
liushmcn,    between    whom    little   charity    exists. 
Again,    among    the    Khoikhoi   proper,    t)ie   terms 
Hottentots,    Hottentots  ju-ojier,   or  C'ajie  Hotten- 
tots .lie  often  a)i]died  to  the  remnanl.s  of  the  tribes 
who   formerly   livcil  around  Capetown;    while  the 
inh.-ibitants    of    (;ri<|ualaiid    AVest,    of    the    South 
Ivalihari,  and    of   (lieat  Namaciiial.iiid   are  distin- 
guished by  their  tribal  names  as  Giiiiuas,  Nama- 
i|U!is,    Koras  or   Koranas,  as  if  they  were  not  as 
imich  Hottentots  as  the  Khoikhoi  of  Ca])e  Colony. 
The  Ihishmcii  are  hunters;  the  Khoikhoi,  noiiiails 
and    sheep  farmers.       At     the    luesent    time     the 
so-called    Hottentots    luoper    may    number    abuut 
17,000;   and   the   lialf-hrce<ls,  mostly  einiiloved   in 
the  Cape  Colony,   m;iy  number  probably   100,000. 
The  majority  of  the  former  and  almost  all  the  latter 
cla.ss  are  now  semi-civilised,  and  cojjy  the  habits, 
customs,  dress,  and  vices  of  the  European  colonists. 
In  general   they  are  of  medium  height,  not  very 
robust   ill    build,   and   have  sm.ill  hands  and  feet. 
Their  skin  is,i]iale  brown  colour  :  their  hair  woolly, 
growing   in   curly   knots;    their   cheek-bones   veiy 
prominent;  anil   their  chin  nointed.     The  women 
are    sometimes  distinguished    by   certain    organic 
peculiarities,  and  often  have  an  "enormous  de\-elop- 
meiit  of  fat,  especially  in   the   breasts  ami  hinder- 
parts.      Their   jirinciiial   characteristics   in   former 
days    were     indolence     and     hospitality.       'J'hcir 
favourite    amusements     were     feasting,    d.ancing, 
smoking,  and  singing.     The  men  were  herdsmen, 
and  not  fond  of  war,  though  they  liked  to  hunt. 
The   women,   although    held    in  high  esteem,  jier- 
formed   all   the   niannal   labour.     Their  dwellings 
were  huts  of  wood  and  mats,  or  tents,  dispo.scd  in 
circles,  and  easily  transportable.     Their  manner  of 
living   was    entirely   patriarchal  :     each     tribe    or 
division    of    a   tribe   had    its    own    chief.       Tin,;.- 
method  of   |ierpetiiating  family   names   was   tnat 
the  sons  took  their  mother's  family  name,  wliii.-t 
the  (laughters  toidc  their  father's. 

Their  language  embraced  tlirc"  princiiial  dialects 
— the  Naiiia.  sjioken  by  the  yamaqujus  ;  the  Kora, 
spoken  by  the  Koraniis  ;  and  the  Cajie  dialed,  now 
almost,  if  not  entirely,  extinct.  Owing  to  its  use 
of  siitlixes  for  expre.ssing  the  declensions  of  nouns 
and  the  conjugations  of  verbs,  the  Hottentot  lan- 
guage has  lieen  classed  by  Bleek,  Lepsius,  and  other 
.scbol.ai-s  with  the  Hamitic  family  of  sjieecli.  This 
view  is,  however,  controverted  by" Er.  >liiller.  Halm, 
and  Von  Cabelentz,  who  maintain  that  the  Ilotten- 
tots  and  IJushmen  are  allieil  peoples,  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  the  greater  part  of  South  Africa. 
The  a.ssociation  of  the  IJushmen  with  the  Hotten- 
tots rests,   however,   upon   little   more    than    the 


HOTTENTOTS'    BREAD 


HOUGHTON 


809 


common  possession  of  a  few  verbal  roots  and  the 
common  use  of  some  liarsli  faucal  soumls  or 
'  clicks '  in  their  manner  of  speech.  These  '  clicks  ' 
are  foiir  in  number — a  dental  sound,  usually  repre- 
sented by  the  si;,'n  |  ;  a  palatal,  by  J  ;  a  lateral, 
by  II ;  and  a  cerebral,  by  ! .  All  lli'e  Klioikhoi 
idioms  are  dLstinguished  by  monosyllabic  roots 
endin;;  in  a  vowel,  and  the  use  of  i)r()ni)niinal 
elements  as  sullixes  for  the  purpose  of  forming 
derivatives.  They  pos.sess  no  prefi.\e.s.  One  strik- 
ini;  feature  is  a  decimal  system  of  counting. 

They  have  both  sacred  and  profane  poetry,  and 
hj'nms  of  both  kinds  are  sung  acconiiianied  by 
the  .so-called  reed-njusic  or  reed-dances,  performed 
on  reed  or  bark  jiipes.  The  sacred  hymns  are 
generally  prayers,  invocations,  and  songs  of  praise 
in  honour  o{  the  supreme  being  Tsuijgoab,  the 
benelicent  deity  Heitsieibib,  and  the  Moon  ;  while 
tlie  profane  reed-songs  or  dances  deplore  the  fate 
of  some  lead  ehief  o;;  hero,  or  arc  sania.stio  lesson.^ 
to  some  oi«  who  has  dona  sjnietLiiug  UDfOpulai, 
Tney  aie  often  given  liy  way  of  welcome  to  somt- 
guest  worthy  of  honour,  and  in  every  large  kraal 
there  is  a  bandmaster,  whose  business  it  is  to  drill 
tlie  young  boys  and  girls  in  this  music.  l)r  Halm 
coini)ares  its  effect  to  the  harmonium.  The  chief 
divinities  of  the  Klioikhoi,  as  has  been  seen,  are 
the  supreme  being  Tsiiilgoab,  who  lives  in  the 
Red  Sky  ;  another  benehcent  being,  Heitsieibib, 
considered  as  an  ancestral  deity,  who  came  origin- 
ally from  the  East;  and  l.Ciaunab,  an  evil  spirit, 
whose  malignant  influence  has  to  be  averted  by 
prayers  and  charms,  which  furnisli  employment  to 
troops  of  professional  sorcerers.  The  mythology 
is  rich,  but  singularly  confused  and  difficult  of 
interpretation.  It  contains  also  repulsive  features 
enough,  but  not  more  so  than  the  old  Greek.  jNIuch 
more  might  have  been  known  had  well-meaning 
missionaries  been  more  sympathetic  or  intelligent. 
Beyond  tlie  hymns  spoken  of,  the  popular  imagina- 
tion has  originated,  or  at  lea.st  retained,  a  great 
numlier  of  fables,  as  well  as  legends,  proverbs,  and 
rid<lles.  One  persistent  feature  in  these  is  a  strong 
inclination  to  personifications  of  iiii|iersonal  be- 
ings. S])eech  and  reason  are  freely  imputeil  to  the 
lower  animals,  and  human-like  agencies  employed 
freely  as  causes  of  celestial  and  other  natural  pheno- 
mena. The  first  to  give  examples  of  these  was 
Captain  (afterwards  Sir)  James  Alexander  in  his 
E.r]H-(lition  of  Disrovcrij  into  the  hiicriw  of  Africa 
(2  vols.  IS.SS).  More  were  brought  to  light  by 
Kronlein  and  other  scholars,  and  in  1864  L)r  W. 
H.  I.  Bleek  gave  a  good  selection  in  his  Eeijiiard 
the  Fox  ill  South  Africa:  Hottentot  Fables  and 
Tales. 

For  the  language,  see  the  ^anmiars  by  Tindall  (1871), 
Hafiii  (1870),  Fr.  Miiller  {Gntndriss  der  Spruc/iicisscn- 
8chajt,  vol.  ii.  1877),  and  Bleek  (18C.2-G9).  For  the 
people,  see  Dr  Gustav  Fritscli,  Du'  Eiiujchoraun  Siid- 
Africas  (lfi~2);  and  Dr  T.  Ilahn's  I'euniWgoam  :  the 
Supreme  Ikiiiij  of  the  Khiii-Khoi  (1882). 

Ilolteiitot.s'  Itren«l.    See  Dioscoee.\ce^. 

IloHoiiia.    See  W.^teu-violet. 

lloiuliii,  Robert  (1805-71).    See  Coxjurixg. 

Il4»ll<l<»n.  Je.vx-Antoixe,  the  greatest  French 
sciil[]t()r  of  the  IStli  century,  was  born  at  Versailles, 
•20th  March  1741.  He  was  of  humble  origin,  his 
father  holding  oltice  in  a  noblemans  house.  He 
w.as  a  born  sculptor,  and  at  the  age  of  thirteen  had 
already  attracted  notice.  An  untrammelled  eclecti- 
cism was  ever  Hondon's  most  prominent  character- 
istic. In  17B1,  when  he  Wiis  but  twenty,  he  won 
the  pri.r  dc  Home,  and  in  Rome  he  threw  himself 
with  enthusiasm  into  the  study  of  the  antique. 
Herculaneum  and  l'om]ieii  had  not  long  been 
brought  to  light.  All  Winckelmann's  works  were 
published  during  Iloudon's  sojourn  in  Italy.     Ten 


years  he  remained  in  Rome,  and  there  executed  the 
colossal  figure  of  St  Rruno,  the  founder  of  the  order 
of  the  Chartreuse,  of  which  Pope  Clement  XIV. 
said  that  it  wouhl  .speak  did  not  the  rules  of  its 
order  enforce  silence.  On  his  return  to  France  the 
usual  ollicial  honours  were  conferred  upon  him.  In 
1777  he  was  received  into  the  Academy;  in  179G  he 
was  elected  member  of  the  Institute  ;  and  he  was 
apiioiuted  professor  at  the  I^Icole  des  Rcanx-arts  in 
180.5.  Ajiart  from  bis  work  his  life  was  singularly 
uneventful,  though  be  once  visited  America  under 
the  escort  of  Franklin,  to  execute  a  monument  in 
honour  of  AVashington  (178.5).  Nor  did  he  alto- 
gether escape  from  the  troubles  of  the  Revolution. 
An  allegorical  figure  from  his  hand,  entitled  'Sainte 
Scholastique,'  inv<dved  liiin  in  the  heinous  charge 
of  desiring  to  perpetuate  the  worship  of  the  saints. 
But  on  pleading  that  his  statue  only  represented 
Philosophy,  he  was  acquitted.  Towards  the  end  of 
his  life  bin  u-tellect  fr.ile'J  liui,  and  drath  cann  as 
a  relea.se,  16tb  Jaly  1828.  HontJcn  \s  peihaps  the 
most  conspicuous  figure  among  the  artists  of  liis 
time.  His  mastery  over  his  material  was  complete. 
So  great  were  his  technical  skill  and  adroitness  that 
they  sometimes  carried  him  beyond  the  bounds  of 
his  art.  He  had  essayed  all  styles  without  sacri- 
ficing his  personality,  and,  while  much  of  his  work 
has  an  almost  classical  simplicity,  it  was  generally 
his  method  (in  portraiture  at  least)  to  obtain  a 
resemblance  by  an  infinitude  of  details.  It  is  a 
little  strange  that  his  '  Ecorche  '  should  be  the  most 
widely  known  of  his  works.  For  it  was  in  por- 
traiture that  his  greatest  triumphs  were  achieved. 
Turgot,  Rousseau,  Voltaire,  l)iderot,  Franklin, 
'\Vashingt<m,  Lafayette,  Mirabeau,  Napoleon,  and 
Mdlle.  Arnauld  are  a  few  of  the  great  men  and 
women  whose  features  he  has  perpetuated  for  us. 
In  1S90  a  statue  of  him  was  erected  at  Versailles  at 
a  cost  of  10,000  francs. 

HoU^lltOn.  RiCH.VRD  MOXCKTOX  MiLXES, 
LijRD,  was  bcun  of  a  good  old  Yorkshire  family 
at  Fryston  Hall,  Pontefract,  lOtli  June  1S09.  Hi's 
father,  'single-speech  Milnes'  (1784-1858),  of  Fry- 
ston, Bawtry,  and  Great  Houghton,  declined  the 
chancellorship  of  the  exchequer  and  a  peerage  ;  his 
mother  was  a  daughter  of  the  fourth  Lord  Galway. 
Educated  by  pri\ate  tutors  at  home  and  in  Italy, 
he  went  u))  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  giaduated  M.A.  in  1831,  and  where  he  was  a 
leader  in  the  Union  (then  'cavernous,  tavcrnous'), 
and  one  of  the  famous  band  of  'Apostles.'  From 
1H;17  till  ]8()3  he  rciiresonted  Pontefract,  first  as  a 
Conservative,but  latterlyasaninde]iendcnt  Liberal; 
and  then  he  was  called  by  Lord  Palmerston  to  the 
Upper  House,  of  which  for  .a  score  of  yeai-s  he  was 
'the  only  poet.'  In  1851  he  married  a  daughter 
of  the  scciukI  Lord  Crewe.  She  dieil  in  1874  ;  and 
he  himself,  having  three  years  before  had  a  passing 
attack  of  p.aralysis,  dieil  suddenly  at  ^■iclly,  Uth 
August  1885.  A  M:i'ccnas  of  poets  (and  of 
poetasters),  he  got  Lord  Tennyson  the  laureate- 
ship,  soothed  the  dying  hours  of  ])oor  David  Gray, 
ami  was  one  of  the  first  to  recognise  Mr  Swin- 
burnes  genius.  His  own  poetry  is  always  respect- 
able, and  some  of  the  shorter  pieces  weie  in  their 
day  exceeilingly  iioptilar — '  Strangei'S  Yet,'  for 
example,  and  the  ]>retty  lyric  who.so  refrain  is 
'The  lieating  of  my  own  heart  Was  the  only  sound 
I  heard.'  Besides  this.  Lord  Houghton — tlie  '  Mr 
Vava.S(mr'  of  Beaconslield's  rdKciff/ — was  a  trav- 
eller, a  philanthropist,  an  unrivalled  after-dinner 
speaker,  and  Itngei's'  successor  in  the  art  of  break- 
fast-giving. He  went  up  in  a  balloon,  and  down 
in  a  diving-bell  ;  he  w.as  the  fii'st  publishing  Eng- 
lishman who  gained  access  to  the  harems  of  the 
East;  he  championed  oppressed  n.ation.ilities, 
liberty  of  conscience,  fugitive  slaves,  and  the 
rights  of  women  ;  he  carrieii  a  bill  for  establishing 


810        HOUGIITON-LE-SPRING 


HOUSE 


reformatories  (184<));  ami  lie  coiiiited  nnioii';  liis 
frieniis  Ilallaiii,  Tennyson,  Tliiicl^eniy,  DicKcns, 
Carlvle,  Sydney  Sinitli,  l^anclor,  Cardinal  Wiseman, 
Heine,  Tliirlwall,  and  a  liost  of  otliei's. 

Iiord  Houghton's  works  include  MemorUih  of  a  Tour 
in  Oricce  {IH'Xi);  Pocim  nfmani/  Years  {IH'SS);  Afemtirialu 
of  a  UfKidrnce  on  the  Continent  (1838);  Poetrii  for  thr 
/•foyi/e  (1840);  Memori'ih  of  mami  t>cnu:»  ( 184.S) ;  I'tilin 
irrtiM(18M);  LUe, Letters,  anii  Remains  of  Ktata  (2  vols. 
1848);  Good  Xi;'/IU  and  tivxl  Morning  (ISoU);  Mono- 
{frap/tg,  Perttonal  and  Soi'iat  { 1873) ;  and  Colleetrd 
I'oitical  ^^'ol■k.1  (2  vols.  187ii).  See  an  article  by  T.  H. 
S.  Escntt  in  the  Fortniohtln  for  JSeptciuher  lf^85,  and 
tin-  Life  hy  Winiy.ss-i:cid"  (2  vols.  1890). 

llouu;lltOII-lr;S|>rill*;,  a  town  in  tlie  county, 
and  (i^  miles  NK.  of  tlie  city,  of  Dnrliani.  Its 
ra^iid  ^'lowtli  is  mainly  due  to  the  extension  of 
neijjhhourini;  collieries.  The  line  cruciform  parisii 
clinrcli  contains  tlie  cimiuecento  altar  toml)  of 
Bernard  Clilpin  (ij.v. ),  wlio  founded  a  ^'rammar- 
school  here,  an<l  amon^'  whose  succe.ssoi's  were 
I'eler  llevlin  and  .Archbishop  Saucroft.  Pop. 
(lS.jl):)224;  (1801)  G74U. 

Iloillld.  a  name  applied  to  do^'s  used  in  hunt- 
in;,'.  The  true  liouml,  such  as  the  Bloodhound,  the 
Ko.xhound,  and  the  Sta'jhound,  hunt  only  liy  scent. 
In  this  division  may  also  be  included  the  liiusset- 
liound  (a  shorl-lc^'fjed  do;:;  used  in  unearthing  foxes 
an<l  badgers),  the  Beagle,  ami  the  Hairier.  The 
jtreylionnd  ami  the  deerhound  run  by  sight  alone, 
ami  are  not  hounds  in  the  correct  acceptance  of  the 
term.     See  also  Ko.x-iilntiso. 

ll<»lllurs-toilSIIC  (Cunoglnssiim),  a  genus  of 
]ilaiits  of  the  natural  order  Boiaginea',  of  which 
there  are  many  species,  all  of  a  eoai'se  apiiearance, 
with  small  llowers.  The  Common  Hound's-tongiie 
(C.  o/fin'na/r)  is  a  n.ative  of  Europe,  .\sia,  Africa, 
and  Nmtli  -Vmerica:  not  uncommon  in  some  parts 
of  Britain,  especially  near  the  seacoast.  It  has 
soft  downy  leaves,  of  a  dull  green  colour,  purplish- 
red    llowers,   and   a  stem    about    two  feet  liigli. 


I' 


^ 


■-^ 


Hound's-tongue  ( Cj/nogloMum.  officinale). 

Its  odour  is  very  disagreeable.  The  root  was 
formerly  administered  in  scrofula,  dysenten'.  Sec, 
and  is  said  to  lie  anodyne.  It  is  also  one  of  the 
pretended  specifics  for  serpent-bites  and  hydro- 
phobia. 

Iloillislo^v.  a  town  of  JHddlesex,  10  miles  W. 
by  S.  fiiiiii  London  by  ioa<l,  was  formerly  a  ]dace 
of  miuli  importance  in  the  old  coaching  days,  it 
being  the  liist  stage  out  of  London  on  the  liatli  .and 
Sinithampton  ro,ads.  As  many  as  800  horses  were 
then  maintained  here,  500  coaches  pa.ssed  tlnough 


daily,  whilst  a  most  extensive  business  in  posting 

'  was  carried  im.     With  the  oiieniiig  of  the  railways. 

however,  the  placi>  gradually  declined,  iiiid  at  the 

present  time  it  contains  but  little  of  interest.      Its 

three  cliurelies  are  all  modern,  the  oldest,  rebuilt 

in    18,15,    having   been   formerly   the   chapel   of    a 

priory.     West    from    Hounslow,    si  retching   f(n-  5 

miles   along  the   road,    and  in   154(i  containing  an 

area  of  42'j;j  acres,  was  Hcmiislow  Heath,  the  scene 

of   many  military  encanipments,  and  notorious  in 

the  aiimils  of  highway  roiibeiy.      It  is  now  for  the 

most  ]iart  enclosed.     Near  to  the  town  are  exlen- 

j  sive  gunpowder-mills  and  cavalry  and  militia  bar- 

!  racks,  and  at  Kneller's  Hall,  once  the  residence  of 

I  SirC!.  Kneller,  the  painter,  are  the  ()U,'irteis  of  the 

Boval  .Military  School  of  Music.    I'oii.  ( 1851 )  .X'lU; 

'  (18711  0204:  (l.sOl)  12,S7S,  of  which  the  barracks 

contaiiieil  over  1000. 

Hour,  a  measure  of  time  equal  to  ^'jtli  part  of 
an  astronomical  day  or  to  I'^th  part  of  a  natural 
day  (excluding  the  hours  of  night  or  darkness). 
See  D.\Y,  and  Tl.MK  ;  and  for  the  hours  in  Catholic 
usage,  see  BuEVl.Vltv. — Hoiircireles,  in  astronomy, 
are  any  great  circles  which  cut  the  jioles. 

Iloill'-^lass,  an  instrument  for  measuring  in- 
tervals of  lime.  It  is  made  of  glass,  and  consists 
of  two  bulbs  united  by  a  narrow  neck  ;  one  of  the 
bulbs  is  nearly  lillcd  with  dry  sand,  line  enougli  to 
nin  freely  through  the  orilice  in  the  neck,  and 
the  quantity  of  sand  is  just  as  much  as  can  run 
through  liie  orifice  in  an  hour,  if  the  instiiiniciit 
is  to  be  an  hour-glass;  in  a  minute,  if  a  iiiiniite- 
glass,  itc.  The  obvious  defects  of  this  iiisti  uiiient 
arc  the  expansion  or  conlinctioii  of  the  (niliee 
]iioduced  by  heat  or  cold,  and  the  variations  in 
the  dryness  of  the  sand,  all  of  which  ]ii(nliue  <le 
vi.ations  from  the  true  measurement  of  the  time. 
The  hour-glass  was  almost  univei.sallv  employed 
in  churches  during  the  IGtIi  and  ITtli  centuries. 
In  several  of  the  churches  in  England  hour- 
glivss  stands  of  elegant  workmanshiii  are  still  to 
be  seen. 

lloiiri,  the  name  of  the  beautiful  damsels  who, 
according  to  the  Moslem  failli,  await  with  their 
conipanionship  in  Paradise  the  true  believers  alter 
deatli.     See  AloilAMMIiLi.VMs.M. 

Hoiisaton  U*  Kiver  rises  in  Massachusetts, 
flows  through  Connecticut,  and  enters  Long  Island 
Sounil  near  BridgeiMirt.  In  its  course  of  nearly  150 
miles  it  affords  water-jiower  to  many  manufacturing 
villages. 

Iloiisr,  in  point  of  law,  is  an  Englishman's 
castle,  thougli  not  a  Seotrliman's.  In  other  words, 
when  ,1  m.in  shuts  himself  up  in  his  own  house  no 
baililf  can  break  open  the  door  to  arrest  him,  or 
seize  his  goods  for  debt,  in  England,  and  no  court 
can  give  such  power,  except  in  the  case  of  a  writ 
of  attachment  for  contempt  of  court  or  a  writ  of 
hahcrc  fitciiis  pos.icssionrm  (the  writ  by  which  .a 
judgment  for  the  recovery  of  lanil  is  commonly 
enforced).  In  Scotland  leave  can  be  got  from 
the  court,  often  called  on  that  account  the  king's 
or  queen's  keys,  to  enable  the  messenger  to  break 
oiien  the  outer  door  and  arrest.  In  Englaml, 
tliough  it  is  not  competent  for  the  bailill  to  break 
open  the  outer  door  by  force,  yet  every  trie  k  or 
stratagem  is  fair  in  order  to  ell'ect  a  peaceable 
entry,  and  once  in  he  cannot  be  turned  out. 
Where  the  party  is  charged  with  a  criminal  ollence 
a.  constable  armed  with  a  warrant,  or  in  some 
ca.ses  without,  is  entitled  to  break  into  the  house; 
and  arrest  him,  both  in  Knglaml  and  Scotland.  A 
man  is  entitled  also  to  defend  his  house  against 
trespa-ssers  and  thieves,  using  no  greater  force  than 
is  necessary:  and  if  neces.sary  in  that  sense,  he  may 
even  kill  the  intruder,  though  very  strong  circum- 
stances are  required  to  justify  this.     He  may  also 


HOUSE-BOAT 


HOrSE-LEEK 


811 


I  rat  spring-<;iiiis  i)ii  tlio  iiieniises  :  but  by  doing  so 
le  iiuiy  render  iiirnself  liable  to  an  actitin  if  any 
person  lawfully  entering  the  premises  should  be 
injured.  In  Scotland  a  peculiar  name  is  given  to 
the  otl'ence  of  feloniously  assaulting  a  man  in  his 
own  house,  called  Hamesucken  (q.v. ),  a  name  also 
used  in  tlio  ohl  law  of  England  ;  and  all  ofl'ences 
committed  in  another  person's  house  are  generally 
punislicd  more  severely  than  those  not  committed 
in  a  house  at  all.     See  also  Eviction. 

Huiis<'-boat.    See  B.vrge. 

Iloii.sebote.    See  Estover. 

IltMlsebroakins  is  the  breaking  and  enter- 
ing into  a  dwelling  house,  shop,  or  warehouse, 
between  the  hours  of  6  A.M.  and  !)  P.M.,  and  steal- 
ing any  chattel  m  mcmey  to  any  value.  The  draw- 
ing a  latch,  tlie  opening  a  window,  or  the  employ- 
ment of  fraudulent  means  to  efl'ect  an  entry  con- 
stitutes brcalciiid  and  eiitcritig.  The  punishment 
ranges  from  fourteen  years'  penal  servitude  to  two 
years'  im]>risonment.  See  BfRGL.VKY,  \\here  the 
law  in  the  United  States  is  also  noticed. 

Honscbiiriiiiig.  See  Arson. 
House-fly  ( Mnsca  domcsticii ),  perhaps  the  most 
familiar  and  widely  distributee!  dipterous  insect. 
Adults  are  to  be  seen  the  whole  year  round,  though 
naturally  most  numerous  in  summer.  They  feed 
indiscriminatingly  on  what- 
ever they  can  suck  up 
through  their  lleshy  i)ro- 
boscis  or  scrape  oil"  with 
their  other  mouth  parts. 
;  The  females  lay  their  eggs 
in  groups,  about  eight  days 
I  after  pairing,  and  the  Avliole 
development  occupies  about 
a  month.  The  eggs  are 
deposited  in  ilecaying  organic 
matter,  in  dung,  or  in  any 
lilth,  and  the  larvx-  are 
hatched  in  a  day,  or  even 
less  if  the  weather  lie  warm. 
These  larvie  are  smooth, 
naked  maggots,  without  legs 
or  distinct  head,  with  small 
booklets  at  the  mouth,  and 
a  length  of  about  one-third 
of  an  inch.  They  feed  on 
organic  debris,  move  by  contracting  the  al)do- 
men,  and  grow  for  about  a  fortnight.     Then  they 


I-'i;;.  1. 

a,  l;nT.l  of  house-fly,  with 
brt'athin^'  pores  at  tail 
(lower)  eiiil ;  h,  yomiy 
fly  einergiiig  from  pufja 
sheath. 


Fig.  2. 
A,  heail  of  house-fly :  a.  compound  eye  :  !i,  antenna ;  d,  maxil- 
lary ;»lps ;  «.  /  ■  prnbn.i!cis  ; '  (7,  labelhc.  lips  of  '  pnil>oscis  ; ' 
*,  openiii-  into  '  probosi^is  ; '  i,  thorax,  with  hroatliing  pore 
(after  Von  Hayek).  B,  en.l  of  a  fly's  foot  highly  inaj;niliea. 
showing  long  hairs,  two  terminal  claws,  and  two  nienibranous 
adhesive  pads. 

seek  some  dry  resting-place,  undergo  pupation, 
and  finally  in  another  fortnight  become  winged 
insects. 


Many  parts  of  the  house-fly,  such  as  the  sucking 
proboscis,  or  the  hair-covered  discs  of  the  feet  by 
which  the  insects  adhere  to  the  window-pane,  well 
tleserve  the  attention  they  generally  get  from  those 
who  use  the  microscope.  Though  liouse-tlies  do 
not  bite,  they  are  often  extremely  troublesome. 
E.\pedients  for  killing  them  oil'  rer|uire  no  adver- 
tisement. It  is  more  injportant  to  notice  that 
house-llies  are  probalily  sometimes  responsible  for 
ilissemiriating  disease-germs. 

Hoiiscbold,  The  Kinc'-s  or  Qceen'.s,  in  Great 
Britain  oom]irises  the  departments  of  the  Lord 
Steward  (q.v.),  the  Lord  Chamberlain  (q.v.),  with 
the  Lords  of  the  Bedchamber,  a  medical  depart- 
ment, the  Koyal  Almonry,  and  the  de|iartment 
of  the  Mistress  of  the  Robes,  which  com])rises  the 
Ladies  of  the  Itedchamber,  the  Bedchamber  Women, 
and  the  Maids  of  Honotir.  l''or  the  Lords  and 
Ladies  of  the  Bedchamber,  see  Bedch.amiser  (see 
also  Royal  Family).  The  Maifh  of  Honour,  of 
whom  there  are  eight,  are  immediate  atteiulants 
on  the  royal  person,  and  in  rotation  perform  the 
duty  of  accompanying  the  Queen  <m  all  occasion.s. 
They  enjoy  by  courtesy  the  title  'Honourable,' 
when  not  entitled  tt)  it  by  birth,  and  are  then 
designated  the  '  Honourable  Mts  — — '  without  the 
Christian  name. 

Household  Troops  are  those  troops  whose 
especial  duty  it  is  to  attend  the  sovereign  and  to 
guard  the  metropolis.  These  forces  comjuise  three 
regiments  of  cavalry — the  1st  and  2d  Life  Guards 
and  the  Royal  Horse  Guards  ;  and  three  regiments 
of  foot — the  Gren.adiqr  Guards  of  three  battalions, 
and  the  Coldstream  and  Scots  Guards  of  two 
battalions  each.     See  Guards. 

House-leek  (Scmpcrrh-um),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Crassulaceic,  having  a  ealy.x  of 
six  to  twenty  sepals,  the  petals  equal  in  number 
to  the  sepals,  and  in.serted  into  the  base  of  the 
calyx  ;  the  leaves  generally  very  succulent,  and 
foiining  close 
rosettes.  The 
Common  House- 
leek  or  Cyphel 
(.S'.  tcctonim), 
called  Foux  or 
Foiicts  in  Scot- 
land, and  in 
some  countries 
Jiijnter'x  Ilea  id, 
grows  wild  on  the 
rocks  of  the  Alps, 
but  has  long 
been  connnon  in 
almost  every 
part  of  Euroiie, 
planted  on  walls, 
roofs  of  cottages, 
&c.  It  sends  up 
leafy  lloweiing 
stems  of  G  to  1'2 
inches  in  height, 
bearing  branches 
of  pale  red  star- 
like flowers, 
ecpially  ciuious 
and  beautiful. 
The    leaves    cut 

or  bruised  and  apjilieil  to  burns  nil'ord  immediate 
relief,  as  they  do  also  to  stings  by  hecs  or  wasps ; 
and  they  are  benelicial  when  applieil  to  ulcem  and 
inflamed  sore.s.  They  were  formerly  in  high  estcenj 
as  a  remeily  for  fevers  and  other  diseases  ;  and  an 
edict  of  Charlemagne  contributed  greatly  to  the 
extensive  distribution  of  the  plant.  The  edict  is 
in  these  words:  £t  hahciit  ijuisqiie  siinni  domiim 
siiavi  Jovis  Imrbayt  ( '  And  let  everybotly  have  the 


Common  Honse-leek 
{Semperrirmn  teetoriim ). 


812 


HOUSEMAID'S    KNEE 


HOWARD 


Jupiter's  board  on  liis  house'). — Otlicr  species 
possess  siiiiil.'ir  jiropcrties.  S.  soboliferiim,  with 
yellowish;;ri'('n  llowers,  is  very  frequontlv  plnntcJ 
on  walls  in  (Icrniany.  The  lishernion  of  Madeira 
say  that  nets  rnlil)ed  with  the  fresh  loaves  of  .S'. 
gtiilhiiisiim  are  thereby  rendered  as  durable  as  if 
tanned,  provided  they  are  also  steeped  in  some 
alkaline  lliinnr.  Some  of  the  species,  natives  of 
till"  !.(>utli  of  Kiirope,  Canary  Isles,  iSrc,  are  shrubby ; 
olliers  are  common  ^'reenliouse  jdants. 

Housemaid's  Knee  is  the  term  commonly 
applied  to  an  acute  or  chronic  inllanimation  of  the 
bui-sa  or  s,ac  tliat  intervenes  between  the  patella, 
or  knee-pan,  and  the  skin.  Housmnaids  are 
especially  liable  to  it  from  their  kneeling  on  bard 
damp  stones.  In  its  acute  form  it  causes  con- 
siderable p.iin,  swelling',  and  febrile  distnrliance. 
The  only  dise,a.se  for  which  it  can  be  mistaken 
is  inflammation  of  the  synovial  membrane  lining 
the  cavity  of  lli<>.  jflint ;  bet  in  (his  r)isea.so 
(he  j.a<>ella  is  thr  wn  fDrffard."  acd  the  ewe'l- 
iug  IS  at  tlie  sides,  wnile  in  housemaid's  knee  tiie 
swelling  is  very  superlicial,  and  is  in  front  of  the 
patella.  The  treatment  in  the  acute  form  consists 
essentially  in  the  means  usually  emiiloyed  to  combat 
inllanimation — viz.  rest,  leeches,  fomentations,  and 


{nirgatives  ;  if  suppuration  take  place  the  sac  must 
)e  freely  opened  and  the  pns  evivcuated.  The 
chronic  form  may  subside  under  rest,  blisters,  &c., 


or  it  may  require  incision  or  excision  for  its  cure. 

House  of  Lords,  t'ouiuious.  See  Parlia- 
ment. 

House-rents.    See  Landlord  and  Tenant. 

Housins  of  the  Poor.  A  Koyal  Commission 
to  in(|iiiri'  into  the  condition  of  the  working-classes 
.sat  in   1.SS+  and   ISH.").      .Acts  for  facilitating  im- 

f)rovement  in  the  ilwellings  of  the  working-cla-sses 
lave  been  iia.-<.sed  in  IStiS,  187j,  and  1879.  See 
GUIXNE.SS,    Hd-t-,    Peahody;  as  also  Cottage, 

LABOf(!ERS,  LODGING-HOf.SE,  POOIt. 

Iloussa.     See  IIAU.S.SA. 

Houston,  capital  of  Harris  county,  Texas,  on 
the  navigable  IJntl'alo  Bayou,  49  miles  t>y  rail  N\V. 
of  Galveston,  with  which  it  is  connected  also  by 
ste.amboats.  It  is  the  great  raihv.ay  centre  of  the 
state,  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  country,  and 
ships  large  quantitie-s  of  cotton,  grain,  and  cattle, 
besides  the  products  of  the  great  pine-forests,  which 
are  prepared  here.  The  other  manufactures  in- 
clude machinery,  iron -castings,  railway  carriages, 
farming  implements,  fertilisers,  cotton-seed  oil,  &c. 
Pop.  ( 1870)  ini^-i  ;  ( 1880)  18,G40  ;  (1890)  27,557. 

Houston.  Samuel,  president  of  Texas,  was 
born  in  Kockbridge  county,  Virginia,  March  2,  I79.S, 
w.os  brought  up  near  tlie  Cherokee  territory  in 
Tennessee,  and  was  adopted  by  one  of  the  Indians 
there.  In  1813  he  enlisted  as  a  private  soldier,  and 
by  ficrsistent  braverj-  rose  to  the  rank  of  second- 
lieutenant  before  the  end  of  the  war.  He  left  the 
army  in  1818,  studied  law  at  Na.shville,  and  wa.s 
elected  in  182,3  and  1825  a  member  of  congress,  and 
in  1827  governor  of  Tennessee.  In  January  1829 
he  married  the  daughter  of  an  ex-govornor  ;  but  in 
the  following  .\pril,  for  reasons  never  ma<le  public, 
he  abandoned  wife,  countiy,  and  civilisation,  and 
spent  three  ye.ars  among  the  Cherokees,  beyond  the 
Mississippi,  where  his  .adoptive  father  had  settled. 
In  18.32  Houston  went  to  \Va.shington,  and  pro- 
cured the  removal  of  several  United  States  Indian 
agents  on  charges  of  fraud,  but  got  into  ]iersonaI 
ditlicnlties  witli  their  friends.  The  Tex.an  war 
oll'ered  a  new  field  to  bis  ambition.  He  w;is  made 
commander-in-chief.  The  Americans  at  lirst  sus- 
tained  some  severe  losses,  but  on  21st  .April  18.36 
Houston  with  7.50  men  inflicted  a  crushing  defeat 
on  a  force  of  1800  Mexicans  under  Santa-Anna,  on 


the  banks  of  the  San  Jacinto,  and  by  this  one 
decisive  blow  achieved  the  independence  of  Texa.s. 
The  hero  of  San  .Jacinto  was  elected  lirst  |>resident 
of  the  re])ublic,  and  re-elected  in  1811,  and  on  the 
annexation  of  Texas,  in  1845,  wa.s  eli'cted  to  the 
Inited  States  .senate.  Klected  governor  of  Te.xa.s 
in  18.59,  he  op|>oseil  secession,  was  deposed  in 
March  1881,  and  took  no  further  part  in  public 
ad'aiis.     He  died  2(ith  July  I.Stj;i. 

Il<>>as.    See  -Madagascar. 

llovedon.  Uogek  of.  an  old  English  chronicler, 
most  i>roliably  born  at  Howdcn,  in  Yorkshire,  wlio 
was  att.ached  to  the  household  of  Henry  II.,  and 
was  employed  in  missions  to  the  lords  of  Galloway 
and  to  the  beads  of  the  monastic  houses.  In  1189 
be  w;is  ap|iointed  an  itinerant  justice  for  the  forests 
in  the  northern  counties,  and  he  .<eenis  to  havesjient 
his  last  years  in  Yorkshire,  probably  at  llowden. 
It  may  be  supposed  that  he  ilid  not  .survive  1201, 
as  luT  Chyonicle  ends  with  that  jejir.  It  conimeucca 
with  (he  cloee  of  the  Chronicle  of  liede  in  7.32,  oiid 
is  divided  by  Bishop  Stuid)s  into  four  parts  :  the 
Jir.st,  ending  with  1148,  consisting  cbielly  of  the 
Jliston'a  post  Jirf/itm  :  the  srcoml^  ending  with 
1109,  mainly  biised  on  the  Mc/rouc  Chronicle  :  the 
thin/,  ending  with  1192,  mainly  an  .abriilgnient  of 
Benedict's  Chronicle;  and  the  /ohW/i,  ending  with 
1201,  a  record  of  contemporary  events,  not  willnmt 
value.  Tlie  Chronicle  was  lii-st  printed  in  Sir  H. 
Saville's  i>cri/>tores  />ost  Ikdam  in  I59G.  There  is 
an  Knglish  translation  by  H.  I".  IJiley  in  Bolin's 
'  .4nti(iuari,an  Library  '  (2vols.  185.3).  The  original 
forms  4  volumes  (1.808-71)  in  the  Kolls  series, 
under  the  editorship  of  lii.sliop  Stubbs. 

Hovellers.    See  Deal. 

Horen.    See  Hoove. 

Howard.  The  noble  House  of  Howard  lia.s 
stood  for  many  centuries  at  the  head  of  the  Knglish 
nobilitv.  The  Howards  h.ave  enjoyed  the  dukedom 
of  Norfolk  since  the  middle  of  the  15th  centnrj*, 
and  have  contributed  to  the  annals  of  the  nation 
several  persons  of  the  most  distinguished  character 
both  ill  politics  and  in  literature.  Neither  Sir  AV. 
Dugdale  nor  Collins  claims  for  the  Howards  any 
more  ancient  origin  tli.an  Sir  AVilliam  Howard,  a 
learned  Chief-justice  of  the  Common  Ple.-us  under 
E<Iwanl  Land  Edward  II.,  though  Dugdale  inci- 
dentally mentions  a  tradition  that  their  name  is  of 
Saxon  origin,  and  derived  either  from  an  eminent 
otlice  under  the  crown  before  the  Conquest,  or  from 
Hereward,  the  leader  of  those  forces  wliicli  for  a 
time  defended  the  isle  of  Ely  so  valiantly  .against 
'William  the  Conqueror.  The  pedigree  earlier 
than  Sir  AVilliani  Howard  has  been  completely 
demidished  in  an  article  on  'Doubtful  Norfolk 
Peiligrees '  printed  in  the  Gcnenlor/i/it.  Be  this  .as 
it  may,  it  is  certain  that  Sir  John  Howard,  the 
giandson  of  the  above-mentioned  judge,  was  not 
only  .ailmir.al  and  captain  of  the  king's  navy  in  the 
north  of  England,  but  sheriff  of  Norfidk,  in  which 
county  he  held  extensive  property,  which  was  sub- 
sequentiv  increa.sed  by  the  marriage  of  his  grand- 
son. Sir  ^{obert,  with  the  co-heire.^s  of  the  .ancient 
and  nolile  House  of  Mowbr.ay,  Dukes  of  Norfolk. 
The  only  son  of  this  union  was  Sir  John  Howard, 
one  of  tiie  leading  supporters  of  the  House  of  York, 
who,  having  gained  early  distincti<m  in  the  French 
wars  of  Henry  VI.,  w.as  constituted  by  Edward  IV. 
const.able  of  the  important  castle  of  Norwich,  and 
sheritr  of  Norfolk  and  SulFolk.  He  sulisequently 
became  treasurer  of  the  royal  householil.  obtained 
'a  grant  of  the  whole  beneiit  that  should  accrue  to 
the  king  by  coinage  of  money  in  the  City  ami  Tower 
of  London,  and  elsewhere  in  England  ; '  and  further, 
w.as  raised  to  the  peer.age  a-s  Lord  Howanl  and 
Duke  of  Norfolk.  We  find  him  in  1470  made  cap- 
tain-general of  the  king's  forces  at  sea,  and  he  was 


HOWARD 


813 


most  strenuous  in  that  capacity  in  liis  resistance  to 
the  House  of  Lancaster.  Finally  he  was  created 
Earl  Marshal  of  England,  an  honorary  distinction 
still  l)orne  by  his  descendants,  and  in  1484  was 
constituted  Lord  A<lniiral  of  England,  Ireland,  and 
Aquitaine.  He  fell  next  year,  however,  on  Bos- 
worth  Field,  and  after  his  death  his  honours  were 
attainted,  as  also  were  those  of  his  son  Thomas, 
who  had  been  created  Earl  of  Surrey.  The  latter, 
however,  after  sutlering  three  years  of  imprison- 
ment in  the  Tower  of  London,  obtained  a  reversal 
of  his  own  and  his  father's  attainders,  and,  being 
restored  to  his  honours  accordingly,  became  distin- 
guished as  a  general,  and  is  more  particularly 
celebrated  in  history  for  his  defeat  of  the  Scotch 
at  Flodden  in  loi;j.  His  son  Thomas,  third  Duke 
of  Norfolk,  was  attainted  by  Henry  VIIL,  but  was 
afterward.s  restored  in  blood,  and  by  his  marriage 
with  a  daughter  of  King  Edward  iV.  became  the 
father  of  the  ill-fated  and  accomplished  Earl  of 
Surrey  (ij.  v. ),  whose  execution  was  the  last  of  the 
many  acts  of  tyranny  which  disgrace  the  memory 
of  Henry  VHL  The  same  sentence  had  been  |)assed 
on  the  duke,  when  the  death  of  the  royal  tyrant 
saved  him  from  the  block.  His  grandson  Thomas, 
fourth  Duke  of  Norfolk,  in  like  manner  suffered 
attainder,  and  was  executed  on  Tower  Hill  for  high- 
treason,  for  his  communication  with  Mary,  tiueen 
of  Scots.  The  family  honours,  however,  were  again 
restored,  partly  by  James  L  to  his  grandson,  and 
partly  by  Charles  IL  to  his  great-great-grandson, 
Thomas,  who  thus  became  eighth  duke,  and  whose 
cousin  and  successor,  Charles,  ninth  duke,  wa.s  the 
direct  ancestor  of  the  present  Duke  of  Norfolk. 

It  would  be  impossible  here  to  give  a  list  of  all 
the  honours  wliich  from  time  to  time  have  been 
conferred  on  various  branches  of  the  ilucal  House 
of  Howard  ;  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that,  in  one  or 
other  of  their  widespread  branches,  the  Howards 
either  have  enjoyed  within  the  last  three  centuries, 
or  still  enjoy,  the  earldoms  of  Carlisle,  Sullblk, 
Berkshire,  Northaniptcm,  Arun<lel,  Wicklow,  Nor- 
wich, and  Ettingham.  and  the  baronies  of  Bindon, 
Howard  de  Walden,  Howard  of  Castle  Rising,  and 
Howard  of  Etiiiigham. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  remarks  that  the 
ducal  House  of  Norfolk  is  one  whose  fate  it  has 
been,  beyond  all  others  among  the  English  nobility, 
to  find  its  name  interwoven  with  .the  thread  of 
English  history,  and  not  rarely  in  coloui-s  of  lilood. 
The  accomplished  but  unfortunate  Surrey,  and  his 
scarcely  less  unbajipy  father,  Thomas  Howard — 
whose  head  was  only  saved  from  the  block  on  which 
his  sou  so  nobly  sufiered  by  the  death  of  the  eighth 
Henry — are  '  household  words '  in  the  pages  of 
English  history ;  and  roadei"s  of  Shakespeare  will 
have  other  recollections  of  the  same  name  allied 
with  other  historical  events  ;  while  those  who  are 
familiar  with  the  writings  of  Pope  will  not  have 
forgotten  how  tersely  and  i)ointe<lly  he  tyi)ifies  the 
glory  of  ancestral  pedigrees  by  '  All  the  blood  of  all 
the  Howards.'  Other  members  of  the  House  of 
Howard  have  gained  a  place  in  the  pages  of  English 
history.  Sir  Edward  Howard,  K.G.,  brother  of  the 
first  Earl  of  Surrey,  Wius  made  by  Henry  \'III. 
the  king's  standard  bearer  and  admiral  of  the  lleet, 
in  whicli  cajiacity  he  lost  his  life  in  boarding  a 
French  vessel  off  Brest  in  action  in  1.513;  his 
brother.  Sir  Edmund,  acted  a.s  marshal  of  the  lioi-se 
at  Flodden  ;  and  his  half-brother.  Sir  Thoma.s 
Howard,  was  attainted,  and  died  a  prisoner  in  the 
Tower,  for  aspiring  to  the  hand  of  the  Lady 
Margaret  Douglas,  datighter  of  Margaret,  Queen 
of  Scotland,  and  niece  of  Henry  VIIL,  one  of  whose 
ill-fated  consmts  was  the  Lady  Catharine  Howard. 

Howard,  Cath.\rixi:,  lifth  queen  of  Henry 
VIIL.  was  a  grandilanghter  of  the  second  Duke  of 
Norfolk.     The  year  of  her  birth,  not  known  with 


certainty,  was  probably  1521  or  1522.  Catharine 
wa-s  brought  uj)  partly  in  her  father's  house,  partly 
in  that  of  her  grandmother,  the  Duchess  of  Norfolk. 
In  1540  the  king  married  Anne  of  Cleves.  But  it 
was  a  niarri.age  for  which  he  had  no  likin" ;  and 
Gardiner,  the  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
being  just  then  recalled  to  favour,  he  and  his  party 
endeavoured  to  bring  the  king  and  Catharine  to- 
gether. Anne  of  Cleves  was  divorced  on  the  9th 
of  July,  and  Henrj'  married  Catharine  Howard  on 
the  28th  of  the  same  month.  But  in  November 
the  queen  was  accused  to  Henry  of  having  been 
guilty  of  immoral  conduct  with  two  gentlemen 
of  her  grandmother's  hovisehold,  but  previous  to 
her  marriage  with  the  king.  The  evidence  against 
her  was  convincing,  and  on  this  charge  she  was 
beheaded  on  13th  February  1.542. 

Howard,  John,  the  philanthropist  and  prison 
reformer,  was  born  at  Hackney,  in  Middlesex,  on 
2d  September  1726,  though  both  place  and  date 
are  given  difl'erently  by  difierent  authorities.  His 
education  was  mostly  got  through  private  tuition. 
The  inheritance  of  an  ample  fortune,  which  fell  to 
him  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1742,  enabled  him 
to  gratify  his  taste  for  continental  travel.  In  1756, 
after  his  wife's  death,  he  set  sail  for  Lisbon,  which 
had  just  been  devastated  by  the  great  earthquake, 
but  was  captured  on  the  way  by  a  French  privateer, 
and  carried  to  Brest,  where  lie  was  thrown  into 
prison.  There  even  a  short  captivity  sulliceil  to 
leave  upon  his  mind  a  lasting  impression  of  the 
inhuman  treatment  to  which  prisoners  of  war  were 
subjected  in  French  prisons.  After  his  return  home 
Howard  married  a  second  time,  and  settled  at  Car- 
dington,  3  miles  from  Bedford.  That  village  reaped 
the  tirst-fruits  of  those  ])hilanthropie  exertions 
which  afterwards  culminated  in  such  noble  labour, 
the  work  of  prison  reform.  In  1773  How.ud  wa-s 
nominated  high-sheritl'for  the  county  of  Bedford,  and 
his  interest  in  prisons  and  their  inmates  was  now 
first  fairly  roused  to  the  ])itcli  of  ])ractical  eliort. 
He  was  struck  with  the  injustice  under  which  many 
])Oor  prisoner.s  suB'ered,  in  that  they  were  detained 
in  prison  untried,  or  even  after  bciii"  pronounced 
innocent,  until  they  or  their  friemls  had  [laid  cer- 
tain fees  to  the  gaolers  and  other  officials.  Howard 
at  once  began  a  Ion"  series  of  tours  throughout 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  for  the  purpose  of  inves- 
tigating the  condition  of  prisons,  and  inquiring 
into  the  management  and  treatment  of  prisoners. 
Chiefly  as  the  result  of  his  efl'orts,  two  acts  were 
passed  in  1774,  one  making  provision  for  fixed 
salaries  to  be  paid  to  the  gaolers,  and  the  other 
enforcing  greater  cleanliness  in  prisons,  with  a  view- 
to  the  i)revention  of  the  dreaded  gaol-fever.  From 
this  time  onward  Howard  prosecuted  with  un- 
wearied zeal  and  patience  this  the  gieat  work  of  hi.s 
lifetime,  upheld  l)y  an  indomitable  sense  of  duty, 
and  supported  by  a  devout  faith  and  his  own  firm, 
steadfa-st  will.  The  remaining  years  of  his  life  were 
principally  s|ient  in  visiting  the  prisons  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  countries  of  the  Continent.  Amongst 
the  graver  abuses  he  set  himself  to  get  abolished  in 
his  native  land  were  such  things  as  these  :  many 
prisons  were  in  a  deplorably  dilapidated  state,  the 
cells  narrow,  filthy,  and  unhealthy  ;  ilebtors  and 
felons  were  confined  promiscuously  in  the  same 
pris(His ;  sei)arate  apartments  were  not  provided 
for  the  two  sexes,  and  the  gaolei^s  were  allowed 
to  .sell  liquors  to  those  placed  under  their  charge, 
causes  directly  ministering  to  immorality  and 
drunkenness.  Howard's  endcavoure  to  relieve 
human  suffering  in  prisons  easily  turned  his 
thoughts  to  hospitals;  and  he  also  directed  his 
cH'orts  to  the  alleviation  of  suffering  and  the 
removal  of  abuser  in  these  establisliments,  as 
well  as  in  schools  and  all  kinds  of  benevolent 
institutions.     From  1785  he  devoted  liis  attention 


8U 


HOWAKU 


HOWE 


iii>iuin'^  )n^  investigations,  lie  was  himself  stnirk 
plius  fevor  iit  Khei-son,  in   Hnssia,  anil 


more  es|)ecially  to  the  pla^jue,  ami  to  the  con- 
siiloralion  of  "means  for  its  prevention.  With 
this  end  in  view,  he  stmlietl  it  in  the  hos|)ilals 
anil  la/arettos  of  the  chief  Medilerianeaii  towns  in 
■which  it  was  wont  to  show  itself.  Hut  whilst  still 
pui'suin'^  his  investi^ 
<Iowii  1)V  tvphus  feve 

<lieil  on  20lh  .lanuaiy  1790.  He  was  Iniiicil  at 
Pophinovka  (now  Stepanovka),  4  miles  N.  of 
Khei-sim.  'I'he  chief  results  of  his  extensive  ohser- 
vations  were  reeordeil  with  faithful  accuracy  anil 
•treat  minuteness  of  detail,  thou";h  with  little  .sense 
of  generalisation,  in  two  woi-ks — I7ic  Stale  of 
I'rison.i  in  Eiiqlaiiil  tiiirl  Wales,  iiitli  on  Acruunt  iif 
some  Forriffn  i'rixtin.i  ( 1777),  to  which  a  supplement 
was  added  in  17S(),  whilst  the  editions  of  1784  and 
1792  were  each  an  enlargement  <ui  its  predecessor  ; 
and  An  Armiint  u/  the  Principal  Lazarettos  in 
Europe  (1780).  In  conse(|uence  of  his  nohle  self- 
<lenyini;  lal>ours  Howard  has  hecome  the  proverhial 
ideal  of  a  ]iliihinthropist,  the  type  of  the  hest  kind  of 
humanitarian  activity  and  love.  liurke,  in  speak- 
iufi  of  his  lahoiirs  at  lialli  in  17S1,  said,  '  He  has 
visited  all  Kuropc,  not  to  survey  the  siiniptuiiusnc.ss 
of  palaces  or  tlie  stateliness  of  temples;  not  to 
make  accurate  measureiiients  of  the  remains  of 
ancient  -namleur,  nor  to  form  ascaleof  the  curiosity 
of  modern  art ;  nor  to  C(dlect  medals  or  collect 
manuscripts ;  hut  to  dive  in  the  depths  of  dun- 
geons, to  jilunge  into  the  infection  of  hospitals,  to 
survey  the  mansions  of  sorrow  and  ]iain,  to  take  the 
gauge  and  dimensions  of  misery,  depres.sion,  and 
contempt,  to  rememlier  the  forgotten,  to  attend 
to  the  neglected,  to  vi.sit  the  foi-siiken,  and  to  com- 
pare and  collate  the  dLstre.s.ses  of  all  men  in  all 
countries.  .  .  .  It  was  a  voyage  of  discoverv,  a  cir- 
cumnavigation of  charitv.'  See  Lives  l>v  Baldwin 
Krown  (KSIS),  Tavlor  '(183(5),  Hcinvoi'th  Ui.Kon 
(1849),  Field  (1850),  and  Stoughton  (185.3;  new 
od.  1884);  Corrcspnndcnee  of  Hoirard  (1855)  hy 
.1.  l''iel<l ;  and  the  article  Prisons. 

HowaiMli  Onviin  Otis,  an  American  general, 
was  l)orii  at  Leeds,  Maine,  Stli  November  18,30, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1S54,  took  command 
of  a  regiment  of  Maine  volunteers  in  1861,  and  was 
made  hrig.ailier-general  for  gallantry  at  the  first 
hattle  of  liull  Uiin.  He  lost  an  arm  at  Fair  Oaks 
in  1S()2,  but  afterwards  was  iu  several  actions,  an<l 
in  18ti4  coniniaiided  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee  in 
the  invasion  of  (ieorgia.  He  commanded  the  right 
wing  of  .Slierman's  army  in  the  march  to  the  sea 
and  through  the  Carolinas.  He  was  comniissi(mer 
of  the  Freednien's  liureau  from  18(5.5  until  its  aboli- 
tion in  1874,  and  w:is  the  lirst  president  of  Howard 
University  (see  W.\siiiN(iTON,  D,<1'.),  which  was 
named  in  his  honour.  He  conducted  two  Inilian 
camiiaigns,  in  1877  and  1878;  in  I8S0  he  was  pro- 
moled  to  m.ijor-general,  and  received  the  command 
of  the  division  of  the  Pacific  ;  in  1889  he  w;us  trans- 
ferred to  that  of  the  Atlantic.  General  Howard 
is  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  ( 1884).  He 
has  published  several  books,  including  Vhicf  Joseph 
( 1881 ),  an  account  of  liLs  campaign  against  the  Isez 
Perccs. 

Howard   of  Eftiiiuliaiii,  Ch.vrles,  Lord, 

w;us  born  in  1.5.315,  and  in  15,3  succeeded  his  father, 
who  was  the  ninth  simi  of  the  second  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  anil  who  in  15.54  h.ail  lieen  raised  to  the 
peerage  and  been  niaile  Lord  High  Admiral.  In 
1585  that  dignity  was  conferred  on  the  son.  and  as 
.such  in  1588  he  commanded  gloriously  against  the 
Armada  (ri.v. ).  For  his  share  with  Essex  in  the 
Cadiz  expedition  (1.596)  he  was  created  Earl  of 
Nottingham,  and  in  1601  he  put  down  Essex's 
mad  insurrection.  In  1619  he  resigned  his  oflice 
in  f.avour  of  Ituckingham  ;  and  he  died  14th  De- 
cember  1624.     C'ontraiy   to   the   common   o|iinion. 


there  is  no  proof  that  he  was  ever  a  Catholic 
(\otes  and  Queries,  1851,  1888). 

Ilowo,  Elias  ( 1819-07),  inventor  of  the  Sewing- 

inaehine  (i|.v. ). 

Howe,  'loilN,  the  most  philoHophIc  of  the  Puri- 
tan divines,  was  born  17tn  May  16.30,  at  Longli- 
borough,  iu  I.eiiestei-shire,  to  the  living  of  which 
]iaiish  his  father  had  been  presented  by  Ijiud.  He 
studied  botli  at  Oxford  and  C'lmbriilge,  where  he 
made  the  friendship  of  the  most  distinguished  pro- 
fes.soi-s  and  students  of  that  day.  .After  preaching 
for  some  time  at  Winwick,  in  Lanca-stiire,  and 
Great  Torrington,  in  Devonshire,  with  much  ai'cept- 
ance,  he  wjus  .ippointed  domestic  chaplain  to  Gnini- 
well  in  1(556,  a  position  he  occupied  with  great 
reluctance,  but  in  which  he  discharged  his  ililliiult 
duties  with  rare  lirniness  and  courtesy,  not  fearing 
to  .speak  his  mind  before  Cromwell  himself,  and 
winning  praise  even  from  the  enemies  of  his  party. 
Indeed,  ttiroughout  life  he  was  on  the  mort  intimate 
terms  with  persons  so  wide  apart  jis  Haxlcr  and 
other  nonconformist  ilivines,  and  the  mostdistin- 
guisheil  ornainentsof  the  Kstablishment,  as  Slilliug- 
lleet  and  Tillotson.  .\l  the  Restoration  he  returned 
to  Toriingtim,  where  he  remained  for  about  two 
years.  But  the  Act  of  Uniformity  ejected  him 
fnuu  his  parish,  24th  .-\ugiist  16(>2  ;  for  though  one 
of  the  most  liberal-minded  of  the  Puritans,  and  not 
troubled  with  morliid  conscientiousness,  he  was 
also  .a  man  of  strong  principle.  Like  manyolheis 
of  the  nonconformist  ministei's,  he  wandered  abimt 

fueaching  in  secret  till  1671.  In  1668  he  published 
lis  lirst  work.  The  li/esseiincss  of  the  Jii'/hleonx, 
which  was  very  popular.  In  1671  lie  was  invited 
liy  Lord  Ma.ssereeiie,  of  Antrim  Castle,  in  Ireland, 
to  become  his  domestic  chaplain,  where  he  sjieiit 
four  years  of  great  happiness,  preaching  eiery 
Sabbath  at  .Antrim  church,  with  the  sanction  of 
the  bishop.  Here  he  wrote  his  I'nnifi/  of  Man  as 
Mortal,  and  liegau  his  gieatest  work.  The  (looil  Man 
the  I.irin'j  Teiniile  if  (iod  (1676-1702),  which  o<'cu- 

fies  one  of  the  liighest  places  in  Puritan  theoliig;\'. 
n  1675  he  was  called  to  be  ])astor  of  the  dissenting 
congregation  in  Silver  Street,  London,  and  went 
thither  in  the  beginning  of  1676.  In  1677  he  pub- 
lished, at  the  ref|uest  of  Mr  lioyle.  The  lieeonril- 
ableness  of  God's  Prescience  of  the  Sins  of  Men  in't/i 
the  Wisdom  of  His  Counsels,  and  Jixhortiitions :  in 
1681,  Thouf/hifuhiessfor  the  Morrow  ;  in  1682,  Self- 
dedication  .'  ill  1683,  Union  amonij  Protestants ; 
and  in  1684,  The  liedecmer's  Tears  iceat  over  Lost 
Souls.  In  1(!85  he  was  invited  by  Lord  vVharton  to 
travel  with  him  on  the  Continent  :  and  after  visit- 
ing the  princiiial  cities,  he  resolved,  owing  to  the 
st,ate  of  England,  to  settle  for  a  time  at  I'treeht, 
where  he  was  admitted  to  several  interviews  with 
the  Prince  of  Orange.  In  1687  th<!  Declaration  for 
Liberty  of  Conscience  induced  him  to  return  to 
Englanil,  and  at  the  Itevolution  next  year  he  headed 
the  deputation  of  dissenting  clergymen  when  they 
brought  their  iuldress  to  the  throne.  Besides  smaller 
works,  he  publisheil,  in  1693,  Carnality  of  Relifjious 
Contention;  in  1694-95,  several  Ireatise.s  on  the 
Trinitv  ;  in  1699,  The  Redeemer's  iJominiun  over  the 
Inrisihic  1 1 '"//(/.•  and  he  continued  writing  till  1705, 
when  he  publisheil  a  characteristic  work.  Patience 
in  Expectation  of  Future  Blessedness.  He  died  2il 
April  1705. 

Howe  was  a  in.an  of  a  noble  presence,  with  .a  linely- 
balanccd  mind,  a  jirofound  thinker,  yet  gifted  with 
great  practical  sag.icitv.  His  own  convictions  were 
ver>-  (leeided,  yet  he  liad  large  toleration  for  the 
opinions  of  others,  and  of  one  of  liis  persecutors 
writes  '  he  did  not  doubt  after  all  to  irieel  liiui  one 
day  in  tli.at  place  where  Luther  and  Zwinglius  well 
agreed.'  The  value  of  his  writings  is  greatly  marred 
by  a  poor  style  and  innumerable  subdivisions  and 


HOWE 


HOWELL 


815 


digressions,  wliicli  led  .-i  woman  once  to  say  '  lie 
was  so  lont^  layiiifj;  the  cloth  that  she  always 
despaireil  of  the  dinner.'  But  Roljert  Hall  said  of 
him,  '  I  have  dpriveil  more  heneiit  from  tlio  works 
of  Howe  than  from  those  of  all  other  divines  out 
together.'  A  great  admirer  of  Plato,  '  though  with- 
out tlie  slightest  pretension  to  the  i'Ioi|uence  of  the 
renowned  (Irccian,  he  luire  no  mean  resemldance  to 
him  ill  loftiness  of  niin<l,  suhliinity  of  conception, 
and,  above  all,  in  intense  admiration  of  all  moral 
excellence.'  'Of  the  consummate  al>ility  with 
which  he  must  have  conducted  himself  no  other 
proof  is  needed  than  the  statement  of  the  following 
tacts  :  that  lie  was  often  employed  in  tlje  most 
delicate  .atiaiis  by  Cromwell,  yet  without  incurring 
either  hlame  or  suspicion  ;  without  betiayiiig  confi- 
dence or  comproniisiug  princi])le  ;  that,  thougli  ex- 
posed to  scrutinising  eyes,  he  left  not  a  rivet  of  his 
armour  open  to  the  shafts  either  of  malice  or  envy, 
and  that  lie  could  awe  Cromwell  into  silence  and 
nio\c  Tillotson  to  tear.s  ;  that  he  never  made  an 
enemy  and  never  lost  a  friend.'  His  works  were 
puhlished  in  17'24,  2  v(ds.  folio,  with  a  life  by  Dr 
Calaniy  ;  more  than  one  eilition  has  been  ]publisheil 
since.  See  H.  Rogers' /,//«;  of  John  IIowc  (1.836), 
and  the  sliort  monograph  l)y  K.  F.  Horton  (1896). 

Mow«',  IJlCH.\RD  Howi;,  Eaul,  admiral,  son  of 
Viscount  Howe  of  the  Irish  peerage,  was  horn  in 
London,  sth  March  17'2f).  He  left  Eton  at  thirteen, 
and,  entering  the  n.ivy,  served  under  Anson  (q.v.) 
against  the  Spanianls  in  the  I'acilic.  Made  post- 
captain  at  twenty,  he  in  that  same  year  drove  away 
from  the  coast  of  Scotland  two  French  ships  convey- 
ing troops  and  ammunition  to  the  young  Pretender. 
After  serving  off  the  coast  of  Africa,  Howe  took  an 
active  part  in  the  naval  operations  of  the  Hritish 
during  the  Seven  Years'  War,  especially  distinguish- 
ing himself  by  the  capture  of  the  islanil  of  ( 'bau.ssey, 
in  the  attacks  upon  the  isle  of  Aix,  St  Malo,  ami 
Cherbourg,  and  in  engagements  with  the  French 
deet  in  17.")5  ami  17J9.  In  17.j8  he  succeeded  to  the 
Irish  title  of  viscount  on  the  death  of  his  brother, 
George  Augustus  (1724r-58),  the  brigadier-general, 
who  was  killed  before  Ticon<leroga.  Appointed  a 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  1763,  he  was  ]ironioted 
two  years  later  to  the  important  ollice  of  Treasurer 
of  the  Navy.  In  1778  he  defcndeil  the  Ameri- 
can coast  against  a  superior  naval  force  under 
D'Estaing,  whom  he  rejielled  olV  Khode  Island. 
He  was  made  a  viscount  of  Great  Britain  in  1782. 
Being  sent  out  the  same  year  to  relieve  (Jibraltar, 
he  <lisembarked  troops,  ammunition,  and  supplies, 
anil  then  offered  battle  to  the  combined  lleets  of 
France  and  Spain,  Imti  they,  declining  an  engage- 
ment, ilrew  oil'  towards  C.ailiz.  Howe  was  made 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  1783,  and  received 
an  English  earlilom  in  1788.  When  war  with 
Fr<aiice  broke  out  in  1793  he  t<iok  command  of  the 
Channel  licet,  and  next  year  gained  oil'  I'shant  the 
victory  which  is  known  as  that  of  '  the  glorious  lirst 
of  .Iiiiu>.'  The  French  licet  consiste<l  of  twenty-six 
ships  of  the  line,  and  the  Hritish  of  twenty-live.  In 
a  very  short  time  the  latter  captured  seven  of  the 
enemy's  vessels  and  dismasted  ten  more.  Howe's 
la-st  public  service  w;is  to  bring  Ijack  to  their  duty 
the  mutinous  seamen  at  Spilhead  and  Portsmouth 
in  1797.  He  died  August  n,  1799,  leaving  the  repu- 
tation of  being  a  thorough  seaman,  cautious,  cool 
and  intrepid  in  danger,  and  considerate  of  his  men. 
He  greatly  increased  the  efficiency  of  the  navy  by 
the  introduction  of  a  new  system  of  evolutions  and 
naval  tactics.  See  Lives  by  G.  Ma.soii  (1803)  ami 
Sir  .1.  Barrow  (1838).— Another  brother,  WILLIAM 
(1729-18U),  held  a  command  under  Wolfe  at 
Quebec,  succcedeil  (Jeneral  Gage  in  1775  as  com - 
nian<ter-in-chief  of  the  Hritish  forces  in  America, 
commaniled  at  Hunker  Hill,  took  New  York, 
defeating   Washington   at   White    Plains    and   at 


Brandywine,  but  was  superseded  by  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  in  1778,  for  having  lost  the  opportunity  of 
destroying  the  American  force  at  Valley  Forge. 
He  subsequently  held  various  honorary  conimand.s 
in  Britain,  and  succeeded  to  his  brother's  viscounty 
in  1799. 

IIowo.  Samuel  Gridley,  M.D.,  an  American 
)diilantliiopist,  was  born  in  Boston,  November  10, 
1801,  and  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1821, 
and  at  the  Harvard  medical  school  in  1824.  He 
served  as  a  surgeon  during  the  Greek  war  of  inde- 
pendence from  1824  to  1827,  organising  the  medical 
stall'  of  the  Greek  army.  He  then  went  to  America 
to  r.ai.se  contributions,  and,  returning  with  food, 
clothing,  and  supplies,  formed  a  colony  on  the 
isthmus  of  Corinth.  Sw.amp-fever,  however,  drove 
him  from  the  country  in  18.30.  In  1831  he  went  to 
Paris  to  study  the  methods  of  educating  the  blind, 
anil,  h.aving  become  mixed  up  in  the  Polish  insur- 
rection, spent  six  weeks  in  a  Prussian  prison.  On 
his  return  to  Hoston  he  established  a  scliool  for  the 
blind,  his  most  famous  pupil  being  Laura  Bridgm.an 
(q.v. ).  He  also  established  a  school  for  the  train- 
ing of  idiots.  In  1851-53,  assisted  by  his  wife,  he 
edited  the  anti-slaverv-  Common ivca/t/i,  and,  after 
revisiting  Greece  in  1867  with  supplies  for  the 
Cretans,  he  edited  in  Boston  I'/ie  Crtlan.  He  died 
9th  January  1876. — His  wife,  JiLlA  Ward  Howe, 
born  in  New  York  city,  27th  May  1819,  became 
prondnent  in  the  woman-suffrage  inovement  since 
18i;9,  preached  in  American  Unitarian  pulpits,  and 
published,  besides  narratives  of  travel  and  a  Life  of 
Margaret  Fuller,  several  volumes  of  poems.  Passion 
Floicers  (1854),  Wonls  for  the  Hour  (1857),  and 
Lider  Lijrics  ( 1866),  the  last  the  best.  In  1861  she 
wrote  the  '  Battle-hymn  of  the  Republic' 

Ilowell,  James,  whose  Familiar  Letters  is  still 
an  Kiigli.^h  classic,  was  born  in  July  1593,  sim  of  the 
minister  of  Abernant,  in  Carmarthenshire,  studied 
at  Hereford  and  Jesus  College,  Oxford,  and  took 
his  B.A.  in  1613.  He  then  became  steward  to  a 
glass-waremanufactory,  and  travei-sed  in  itsinterests 
Holland,  Flanders,  Sp.ain,  France,  and  Italy.  He 
was  next  emjiloyed  abroad  on  public  business  in 
1626,  became  secretary  to  Lord  Scrope  at  York,  w.-is 
returned  to  parliament  for  Richmond  in  1627.  From 
1632  to  1642  he  was  mainly  employed  as  a  royalist 
spy;  and  in  1642  (when  he  was  .appointed  an  "extra 
clerk  to  the  Privy-council)  he  wa.s  sent  by  the  par- 
liament to  the  F'leet,  where  he  lay  till  1650.  At  the 
Restoration  the  ollice  of  historiographer-royal  was 
created  for  him.  He  died  in  166(1,  and  was  buried 
in  the  Temple  church.  Howell  w.o-s  a  man 
of  considerable  humour,  learning,  and  industry. 
Besides  translations  from  Italian,  French,  and 
Siianish,  he  wrote  no  less  than  forty-one  original 
works  on  history,  politics,  and  philological  mattei's. 
He  had  put  his  travels  to  much  profit.  '  Thank 
God,'  he  says,  '  I  have  this  fruit  of  my  foreign 
travels,  that  I  can  pray  unto  him  every  iLay  of  the 
week  in  a  separate  language,  and  upon  Sunday 
in  seven.'  His  Instrtietions  for  Forreinc  Travell 
( 1642)  is  still  interesting,  and  is  reprinted  in  Pro- 
fessor Arher's  series  ( 1869)  ;  and  his  supplement  to 
Cotgrave's  F'rench  and  English  dictionary  main- 
tiiins  its  interest  for  lexicographers  ;  but  it  is 
by  his  EpistuUi:  Ho-Elianec :  or  Familiar  Letters, 
Domestic  and  Foreign  ( 1645-55;  10th  ed.  1737),  that 
his  name  continues  to  be  ieiiieml)ered.  These  dis- 
pl.ay  not  only  shrewd  sense  and  brilliant  wit,  but 
also  grace  and  form,  and  indeed  are  the  earliest 
letters  in  our  language  that  are  really  literary. 

Dr  Bliss,  the  erudite  editor  ot  Wood's  Athnut  Oxoni- 
eiixe.',  intended  to  edit  Howell's  Letters;  this  was  at 
length  .-idcijuately  done  by  Mr  Joseph  Jacobs  in  1SU2. 

llowoll's  state  Trials,  the  name  given 
to     till-     scries    i.riginatcd    by    Cobbett    in     1809, 


816 


HOWELLS 


HOWLER 


bcwiuse  vols.  xi.  Ui  xxi.  i)f  this  work  were  editeil 
by  Tlins.  liayl.v  Howell  (1708-181')),  nml  vols.  xxii. 
to  xxxiii.  liy  his  son,  Tlios.  Joiie.s  Howell  (died  1858). 

llo>V«'lls.  Wll.l.l.VM  llK.w,  a  i)o|mliir  Aincrieaii 
novelist,  wits  born  iit  Miirtin's  Ferry,  Ohio,  1st 
March  18.37.  Hi.s  father's  family  wa.s  of  Welsh 
C,)iiaker  ori^in,  and  he  himself  wius  lirou^;ht  up  a 
Swf'(lcnlior;;ian.  From  an  early  aj;e  he  w;ts  familiar 
with  i)ress\vork,  ua  his  father  »;i.s  a  Imsy  and  not 
alwa.vs  ]>ro.sperous  printer  and  jmirnalisl ;  hut  his 
earliest  serion.s  work  in  journalism  was  in  the 
Cincinnati  (lazctlc  and  Colnmhus  Slid,-  J<iiiniul.  A 
life  of  Lincoln,  written  in  1800,  inocurcd  him  the 
l)ost  of  consul  at  Venice,  which  he  helil  from  1801  to 
180.3,  njakinj;  himself  master  of  Italian  the  while, 
and  writinj;  jiis  ahle  papers,  collected  in  Viiutidii 
Life  ( I.S(il)).  After  his  return  to  America  he  wrote 
for  tlie  New  York  Ti-ihiinr  and  the  Tiiiifs,  the 
Ndliuii,  and  the  Atluiitic  .Uuiil/i/i/,  and  tilled  tlie 
editor's  chair  of  the  last  from  1872  till  his  retire- 
ment in  1881.  His  later  work  in  periodicals  w.as 
done  for  the  Ctii/nri/  nnd  Ilid-prr's  Miir/ttzine.  He 
had  already  made  his  mark  as  a  lirst  rate  .journalist, 
a  fair  poet,  and  a  clever  critic,  when  in  1871  he 
found  Ins  real  work  as  a  writer  of  liction.  Hi.^ 
clever  .story,  T/icir  WeiUtiiuj  Juminii,  at  once 
hronjjht  him  poimlarity  which  ipiicklv  grew  in 
Knjjland  no  less  than  America,  jus  the  yrowirif; 
merit  of  sncceeding  novels  made  it  more  and 
more  deserved.  Of  these  the  be.st  are  A  Vhaiirc 
Ai-ijutiintinirr.  ( 1873),  A  Foregottc  C'uiir/ii.iioii  ( 1874), 
/]  Coiiiitcifcit  I'lxsciitiitent  (XSll),  The  Lmlii  dftltc 
Aroostook  ( 1878),  The  Undiscovered  Coiiiitrt/(  1880), 
Doctor  Brceii's  Practice  ( 1883),  A  Modern  Instance 
(1883),  A  Woman's  licason  (1884),  The  Rise  of 
iiitas  La/iham  ( 188.")),  ^Ih  Iia/iaii  S n ni nter  (ISSli), 
Annie  Kilhnrn  (1888),  A  Hazard  of  Aew  Fortunes 
(188!)),  and  The  M'orld  of  Chance  (1893). 

These  works  reveal  their  author  to  us  as  an 
artist  of  great  conscientiousness  and  industry,  but 
of  decided  shortcomings  a,s  well  a-s  gifts.  He  is 
humorous,  brilliant,  epigrammatic,  and  acute,  but 
lie  c.vnnot  tell  .a  story,  and  his  ambitious  anal.v.sis 
of  conniionplace  characters  is  overdone  to  the 
extent  of  tcdionsne.ss.  With  all  his  gifts  he  is 
not  a  great  artist  in  fiction,  and  he  lacks  that 
rare  combination  of  .sympathy  and  humour  which 
gave  George  Fliot  and  Mrs  Oiuskell  their  insight 
into  what  w.as  really  generic  and  human  at  the 
heart  of  the  trivialities  of  everyday  life.  Howells 
wastes  his  .strength  on  the  over-elaboration  of 
det,ails,  but  too  often  these  are  not  the  really 
signilicant,  and  thus  the  general  etl'ect  of  the  whole 
portrait  is  feeble,  indistinct,  and  unsatisf.actory. 
His  over-elaborated  rather  tli.an  really  rclined 
r.ostoni.ans,  and  his  .\mericans  exiianding  spirit- 
u.all.v  under  the  new  conditions  of  ,aii  ancient 
civilisation  in  some  Italian  city  are  alwa.vs  care- 
fully painted  and  indeed  striking  portr.aits,  but 
almost  always  they  fall  a  little  short  of  the  one 
thing  needful— that  look  of  the  life  which  is 
creation,  and  which  evidently  demands  the  intuition 
of  genius  to  catch. 

Ilowietoiiii.    See  Piscicilti'uk. 

Ilowitt,  Wii.I.l.XM  and  M.VRV,  wlio.se  writings 
charmeil,  interested,  and  instructed  the  public 
during  the  earli<M-  half  of  the  lOtli  century,  may  best 
be  treated  together.  William  Howitt,  the  son  of  a 
land-surveyor  of  good  ilescent.  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  was  born  at  Heauor.  Derbyshire, 
in  1792,  and  was  educated  at  .-Vckworth  ami  Tani- 
worth.  With  no  intention  of  pursuing  the  busi- 
ness, he  served  a  four  years'  apprenliceshi])  to  a 
builder,  cariienter,  and  cabinet-maker.  Fosse.s.sed 
of  strong  literary  tii.stes,  and  fond  of  countrj' 
life  and  sports,  he  wrote  poems,  and  an  account 
of    a    country    excursion    after    the     manner    of 


Washington  Irving.  On  April  IG,  1821,  William 
Howitt  married  .Mary  Jiotliam,  a  young  laily  of 
kindred  tiLstes  (born  at  Uttoxeti'i",  12th  March 
1799),  ami  they  .settled  at  Hanley,  to  conduct  a 
chemist'.s  business.  After  a  few  months  tlicy 
removed  to  Nottingham  for  twelve  years  of  steady 
and  successful  literary  industry  aiul  mental  im- 
provement. Their  later  pl.accs  of  abode  wimc 
Ksher,  in  Surrey,  London,  HeiilelbeiL',  ami  liome. 
The  record  of  their  after-life  is  a  record  of  the  books 
tliev  wrote,  of  pleasant  travel  for  literary  purpo.ses, 
while  they  were  on  terms  of  ea.sy  intercourse  with 
all  their  notable  conlemi)oraries.  In  1852-54,  at 
the  height  of  the  gold  fever,  William  Ilowitt  was 
ill  Australia.  The  Howilts  were  iiistrumenlal  in 
getting  £1000  for  .Miss  Meteyard's  life  of  Wedg- 
wood,  and  it  was  at  William  llowitt's  suggestion 
that  Mrs  (ia.skell  wrote  her  lirst  novel.  They 
quitted  the  Society  of  l'"riends  in  1847;  William 
Howitt  became  a  believer  in  spiritualLsm,  and  in 

-May   1882  .M;iiy   Howitt  joineil   tiii>  Catholic  i - 

miniion.  .Vl'lcr  a  long  life  of  hhimclcss  liiciaiy 
industry  William  Ilowitt  died  at  Kome,  .Marcli  3, 
1879.  Mary  Ilowitt.  whose  heart  and  mind  'ever 
llowed  with  love  and  interest  for  all  her  surround- 
ings,' composed  .and  wrote  from  her  earliest  years, 
and  most  people  have  seen  or  read  some  of  her 
poems,  ballads,  novels,  or  juvenile  talcs,  of  which 
she  wrote  lu.any.  I!y  means  of  translations  she 
lirst  luiide  the  works  of  F.  Ihcmer  and  Hans 
Andersen  known  to  the  English  public.  She 
wrote  for  the  annuals,  for  the  I'coji/e's  Jonrnal, 
llouitt's    Journal,    Chambers's    Journal,    iVc.       A 

1)ension  was  bestowed  njion  her  in  1879  by  Lord 
■Jeaconslield.  She  died  at  I'lome,  .lanuary  .30,  1888, 
and  her  remains  were  laid  beside  those  of  her  hus- 
band in  the  cemetery  of  .Monte  Testaccio.  One 
critic  Inis  justly  said  that  W.  Howitt  and  his  wife 
are  inseparably  associated  with  all  that  is  enchant- 
ing in  rural  England.  In  their  poems,  their  novels, 
and  the  stories  of  their  country  rambles  they  made 
themselves  the  exi>onents  of  nature,  blending  the 
idealism  of  jioetic  fancies  with  piclnres  that  li.ave 
the  realism  of  photographs.  In  politics  William 
Howitt  was  an  exlnine  Itadical.  .loint  ]iioduc- 
tions of  William  and  .Mary  Howitt  were  the  Forest 
Minstrel  (1827),  JJcsolation  of  Kijam  (1827),  Book 
of  the  Seasons  ( 1831 ),  Literature  and  Jlomances  of 
Northern  Europe  (1852),  Stories  of  Enijlish  Life 
(1853),  and  Rained  AUiei/s  of  Great  Britain.  A\'il- 
liau)  llowitt's  chief  works,  besides  contributions  to 
news]ia]jers  ami  mjigazines,  were  llisliai/  of  I'ricsl- 
craft  ( 1833) ;  J'anlika  ( 1835 ) ;  L'nral  LifcinEnt/land 
( 1837) ;  Visits  to  llemarkahlc  Places  ("l838  ;  second 
.scries,  1841 );  Colonisation  and  Christianiti/ {\mH); 
Bojfs  Country  Book  (1839);  Student  Life  of  Gcr- 
mani/{iSi\ );  Homes  and  Haunts  of  the  Poets  ( 1847); 
lAind,  Lahour,  and  Gold(  1855);  illustrated  llistorii 
of  Entjland  ((i  vols.  1,8.50-61 );  Histonj  of  the  Super- 
«rt/«;y(/ ( 1803);  iJiscorenj  in  Australia,  Tasnuinia, 
and  New  Zealand  (\Si^);  Mad  War  Planet,  and 
other  Poems  ( 1871 ).  See  Marij  llouitt,  an  A  ntobio- 
graphji,  edited  by  her  daughter,  Margaret  Howitt 
(2  vols.  1889). 

Howitzers  ((Jer.  Ilauhitzcn)  are  guns  which 
came  into  use  early  in  the  history  of  field  artillery, 
.as  portable  instrument-  for  discharging  shell  into  a 
hostile  force.  As  for  this  purpose  no  great  range 
w.a-s  neces.s.ar.v,  a  small  charge  of  jiowder  sufliced  ; 
and  the  howitzer  could  he  made,  iu  ]iropor(ion  to 
its  large  bore,  extremely  light.  For  modern  liow- 
itzei>i,  see  C'ANXOS. 

Howler,  Howling  Monkey,  or  Stentor 
{Mi/ccles),  a  genus  of  Central  and  South  .\nieri- 
cau  monkeys,  remarkable  for  the  dilatation  of 
the  hyoid  bone  into  .a  hollow  drum,  which  com- 
municates   with    the    Larynx,    makes  a   conspicu- 


HOWRAH 


HUBERT 


817 


oils  external  swelling  of  the  throat,  and  gives 
prodigious  power  to  the  voice,  enal)ling  these 
animals  to  emit  liideous  sounds,  which  can  l>e 
heard  at  least  two  miles  away,  and  to  wliicli  all 
their  names  refer.  They  live  chietiy  among  the 
branches  of  trees,  and  take  extraordinary  leaifs 
fiom  one  to  another,  taking  hohl  by  the  tail  liKe 
most  of  the  American  Platyrrhine  monkeys,  as 
readily  as  l>y  the  liands,  and  often  swinging  hy  it 
alone.  They  are  gregarious,  and  unite  tlieir  voices 
in  concert,  so  as  to  produce  a  most  deafening  noise  ; 
this  is  what  Humboldt  and  others  say,  but  accord- 
ing to  Wallace  it  Is  only  one  in<lividual  at  a  time 
which  causes  all  the  sound.  The  monkeys  of  this 
genus  have  a  low  intelligence,  and  their  brain 
structure  bears  out  tliis  view.  A  howler  was 
fii-st  brought  alive  to  Europe  and  exhibited  at  the 
Zoological  Gardens,  London,  in  1863.  There  are 
apparently  not  more  than  si.x  species. 

IIo>vrall.  or  H.\UR.\,  a  town  of  India,  with 
growing  manufactures,  on  the  right  or  west  bank 
of  the  Hooghly,  directly  opposite  to  Calcutta,  of 
which  it  is  practically  a  suburb.  It  is  connected 
with  Calcutta  liy  a  lloating  briilge  (1874),  and  is 
the  Bengal  terminus  of  the  East  Indian  Kailwav. 
Pop.  ( 18?2)  97,784  ;  ( 1881 )  105,628 ;  ( 1891 )  129,800. 

Howsoil,  John  S.\rL,  dean  of  Chester,  was 
born  in  1816,  and  in  1837  took  a  double  first-class 
at  Cambridge.  Taking  orders  eight  years  later,  in 
1849  he  became  principal  of  the  Liverpool  College, 
and  in  1867  dean  of  Chester.  The  complete 
restoration  of  the  cathedral  was  in  great  measure 
due  to  his  energy  and  devotion.  He  died  1.5th 
Decendjer  1885.  With  Conybeare  he  wrote  the 
well-known  Life  ami  Epistles  uf  St  Paul  ( 1852). 

Howtll,  a  peninsula  on  the  east  coast  of  Ire- 
land, forming  the  north  side  of  the  Bay  of  Dublin, 
terminates  in  a  lofty  clift',  at  the  foot  of  which 
nestles  the  village  of  Howtli,  the  chief  fishing- 
station  on  that  part  of  the  coast. 

HoxtOU,  a  district  of  London,  Jiartly  in  Hack- 
ney, but  mainly  in  Shoreditch  ;  the  Hoxtim  division 
being  part  of  the  parliamentary  borough  of  Shore- 
ditch. 

Hoy  (Scand.  Hoeij,  'high  island'),  one  of  the 
Orkneys,  \\  mile  SW.  of  Mainland  or  Pomona. 
It  is  l,3i  miles  long,  3  furlongs  to  6J  miles  broad, 
and  53  sq.  m.  in  area.  Unlike  the  rest  of  the  group. 
Hoy  rises  abruptly  from  the  sea,  with  stupendous 
cUffs  that  attain  1140  feet  in  IJracbrough  or  St 
John's  Head,  and  595  in  Bervy  Hill  :  inland  are 
Cnilags  Hill  (1420  feet)  and  tliJWard  Hill  (1564), 
commanding  a  splendid  panoramic  view.  The 
rocks  represent  both  the  L'pper  and  the  Lower  Old 
Red  Sandstone.  Near  the  south  end  is  the  fine 
natural  harbour  of  Long  Hope  (5i  x  IJ  miles). 
The  '  Dwartie  Stime'  is  a  sandstone  block,  28  feet 
long,  14,^  broad,  (iJi  high,  with  a  chamber  hollowed 
out  of  it ;  and  tlie  '  Old  Man  of  Hoy  '  is  an  insulated 
pillar  of  rock.  450  feet  high.  Pop.  (1841)  1486; 
( 1891 )  1320.     See  Tudor's  Orl.iici/s  ( 1883 ). 

Hoy,  a  small  coa.sting  vessel,  ilill'ering  little,  if 
at  all,  from  the  sloop  or  smack,  and  often  used  for 
conveying  goods  from  a  large  vessel  to  the  shore. 

Hoylake,  a  small  watering-place  of  Cheshire, 
at  the  extremity  of  Wirral  peninsula,  8  miles  by 
rail  W.  of  Birkenhead.  It  has  a  celebrated  golf- 
links,  opened  in  1869.     Pop.  of  district,  2519. 

Hoyle,  Eii.Moxi),  the  creator  of  whist,  w;i.s  born 
in  1G72,  and  is  .said  to  have  been  educated  for  the 
bar.  Little  is  known  about  his  life,  exce])t  that 
he  lived  for  some  time  in  London,  writing  on 
games  and  giving  lessons  in  whist,  and  died  there 
on  29tli  August  1769.  In  1742  he  published  his 
Sliiirl  Tietitixc  on  Whist,  containing  the  laws  and 
some  rules,  for  which  he  is  sjvid  to  have  received 
260 


£1000,  and  which  in  1763  reached  a  13th  edition. 
See  Whist,  and  ten  articles  in  Notes  and  Queries 
for  1889. 

Hrabuiiiis.    See  Rabanus  Maurus. 

Hra«lst*liiii.     See  Pragi-e. 

Hlialla'ga,  a  river  of  Peru,  rises  near  the  Cerro 
de  Pasco,  over  14,000  feet  above  the  .sea,  flows 
north  on  the  east  side  of  the  Central  Cordillera, 
breaks  through  the  range  at  the  gorge  of  Cha.suta, 
and  enters  the  Marafion.  Its  total  length  is  about 
650  miles ;  it  is  navigable  as  far  as  \  urimaguits, 
above  which  are  falls  and  rapids. 

Huaiuaiiga.    See  AyAcixuo. 

Hlianaca,  or  Guanaco  (Imum  huanacos ;  see 
LL-\ma),  a  species  of  the  same  genus  with  the 
llama,  vicuna,  and  alpaca,  of  which  some  naturalists 
suppose  it  to  be  the  wild  original.  It  is  found  not 
only  on  the  Andes,  but  throughout  great  part  of 
Patagonia.  It  Is  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  the 
ears  and  hind-legs  gray.  It  generally  lives  in  herds 
of  ten  to  fmty,  and  is  very  quick-sighted  and  warj' ; 
although  such  is  the  strength  of  its  curiosity  that 
hunters  attract  tlie  herils  within  easy  reach  of  their 
rifles  by  lying  down  on  the  ground  and  kicking 
their  feet  in  the  air.  Like  its  congeners,  the 
Huanaca  is  extremely  sure-footed  on  rocky  ground. 

Hlianoaveli'ca,  a  department  of  Peni,  lying 
entirely  within  the  Cordilleras,  with  an  area  of 
8710  sq.  m.  Pop.  104,155.  The  climate  is  cold 
and  raw  on  the  mountains,  where  sheep,  cattle, 
and  llamas  are  herded,  and  hot  in  the  deep  valleys, 
where  sugar  is  "rown.  The  chief  riches  are  in  the 
mines,  esijecially  of  silver  and  quicksilver. — The 
capital,  Huancavelica,  150  miles  SE.  of  Lima,  Ls  a 
dreary  mining  town  in  the  sierras  ;  pop.  4000. 

Huanctaaca,  seat  of  the  chief  .silver  mines  in 
Bolivia  (q.v. ). 

Hliail'lICO,  a  department  of  Peru,  with  an  area 
of  over  13,000  sq.  m.  Mining  and  agiiculture  are 
the  chief  industries.  Pop.  78,856. — The  capital, 
Huanuco,  lies  in  a  lovely  valley  on  the  Huallaga, 
amid  plantations  of  coffee  and  sugar.  It  is  .i 
bishop  s  see.     Pop.  5300. 

Huber,  Francoi.s,  author  of  a  book  on  the 
habits  of  bees,  was  born  at  Geneva,  .luly  2,  1750, 
anil  tiled,  22d  October  1830,  at  Pre^ny  near  his 
birthplace.  At  an  early  age  he  Tost  his  eye- 
sight, but  with  the  assistance  of  his  wife  and  an 
intelligent  domestic  he  conducted  a  number  of 
original  and  important  observations  on  the  habits 
of  bees.  His  book  first  appeared  as  Lettics  t'l  Ch. 
Bonnet  (1792)  ;  it  was  reprinted  in  1796,  and  again 
in  1814,  under  the  title  of  Xonirtles  Observations 
sur  es  Aheilles.  In  his  later  yeare  he  derived 
important  aid  fnjm  his  son,  Jean  Pierre  (1777- 
1S41 ),  who  wrote  a  valuable  treatise  on  the  Habits 
of  Ants  (\^\0). 

Hubert,  St,  Bishop  of  Liege,  was  son  of  Ber- 
traiul,  Duke  of  Guienne,  and  wiis  bom  in  656.  He 
lived  a  luxurious  anil  worldly  life,  first  at  the  i-ourt 
of  the  Prankish  king  Theoderich,  next  under  Pepin 
of  Heristal,  but  after  the  death  of  his  wife  retired 
from  the  world  into  a  monastery,  on  the  advice  of 
Bishop  Lambert.  Afterwards,  when  on  a  pilgrim- 
age to  Home,  he  was  made  by  Pope  Sergius  I. 
Bishop  of  Tongern,  and  in  708  succeeded  his  nuvster, 
Lambert,  in  the  see  of  Maestricht  and  Liege.  He 
died  in  727,  and  was  afterwards  canonised  ;  his 
festival  falls  on  November  3.  He  has  been  patron 
of  ordere  of  knighthood  in  Bavaria  and  Bohemia. 
See  the  books  by  Eetis  ( 1846),  Des  Granges  ( 1872), 
and  Heggen  ( 1S75  ).  In  legend  and  in  art,  since 
the  loth  century,  St  Hubert  appeal's  as  a  mighty 
hunter  who  was  startled  into  repentance  when  hunt- 
ing on  Good  Friday  by  the  sudden  apiiearance  of  a 
st.ag  bearing  between  his  hmns  a  radiant  crucifix. 


818 


HUBERTUSBURG 


HUDSON 


At  once  lie  leiKuinced  litiiitiiii^  iiml  all  worldlv 
pleasures,  ami  l>ecaiiie  after  his  caiioiiisjitiim  the 
patron  saint  of  hunters.  His  aid  is  especially  effi- 
cacious for  |)ei-sons  bitten  by  mad  dogs  and  "those 
possessed  with  devils.  See"  H.  tlaidoz,  Lit  liagc 
ct  St  Iliibeit  (IS87). 

Illlbortlisbliri;,  formerly  a  royal  hunting-seat 
of  Saxony,  i:>  miles  E.  by  S.  from  Leipzig,  built 
in  17'il  by  I'rince  Frederick  Augustus,  afterwards 
King  .\ugustus  III.  of  Poland.  It  was  niucli  in- 
jured during  the  Seven  Yeai-s'  War ;  and  there 
on  Ijth  Keliruaiy  17G.S  was  signeil  the  treaty  by 
which  that  war  was  eniled.  Since  1S40  the  build- 
ings have  served  as  a  prison,  a  hospital,  an  a.sylum 
for  the  insane,  and  a  refuge  for  idiot  children. " 

Hllbli,  a  town  of  Dharwar  in  the  presidency  of 
Bomliav,  stands  on  a  good  road  lea<ling  to  Karwar 
on  the  ^lalabar  C4)ast,  102  miles  to  the  .south-west. 
It  contains  ( IS91 )  o2,.')9.5  inhabitants,  and  is  one  of 
the  principal  cotton-marts  in  that  section  of  India. 

nUbllcr,  KlDOLK  JlLIf.s  Benno,  German 
)>ainter,  wjts  liorn  at  Ocls,  in  Silesia,  27th  .January 
1806.  He  studied  at  Dii.-sseldorf,  to  which  schodl 
of  painting  he  belongs.  In  1841  he  wa.s  aiipointed 
profes.sor  of  Painting  in  the  acailemy  at  l)resden, 
anil  was  director  of  the  picture-gallery  from  1871  to 
1882,  in  which  year  he  died,  7lh  November,  at 
Loschwitz,  near  Dresden.  Among  his  pictures  are 
'Job  and  his  Friends,'  'Charles  V.  in  San  Yuste,' 
'Frederick  the  Great  in  Sansouci,'  'The  Gidden 
Age,'  and  '  The  Dispute  between  Luther  and  Dr 
Eck.'  He  also  designeil  glass  paintings,  including 
some  for  the  crypt  of  tJlasgow  Cathedral. 

Hlir,  Ev.Mtl.sTK  Keci.s,  French  missionary  and 
traveller,  was  born  at  Toulouse,  .August  1,  181. "}. 
Almost  iinmeiliately  after  his  ordination  he  joined 
in  1839  the  mis.sionary  expedition  of  his  order, 
the  Lazarist  Fathei-s,  to  China.  In  1844  Hue,  in 
company  with  Pcre  (iabet  and  a  single  native  con- 
vert, set  out  with  the  intentiim  of  penetrating  to 
the  unknown  land  of  Tibet,  beyond  the  terrible 
desert  of  Gobi.  But  it  was  not  lintil  January  1846 
that  they  succeedeil  in  reaching  Llia.ssa,  the  capital 
of  Tibet,  and  the  residence  of  the  1  >alai  Lama. 
.\nd  scarcely  had  they  settled  in  that  city  and 
started  a  mission,  when  an  order  for  their  immedi- 
ate expulsion  from  the  country  was  obtained  by  the 
Chinese  resident  in  Lhassa.  They  were  conveyed 
back  to  Canton.  Hue's  health  having  completely 
broken  down,  he  returned  to  France  in  18.)2.  His 
Asiatic  e.\i)erience.s  are  recorded  in  Souvenirs  (fun 
Voyage  duns  la  Tartaric,  Ic  Thibet,  ct  la  Chine 
peniUtnt  Ics  Annecx  1SU-4G  (2  V(ds.  Paris,  1850; 
Eng.  trans,  by  W.  Hazlitt,  1851-52),  and  L  Empire 
Chinois  (2  vols.  1854;  Eng.  trans.  1855).  He  also 
wrote  Lc  Christianisnic  en  Chine  (4  vols.  1857-58; 
Eng.  trans.  18.')7-58).  The  strangeness  of  some 
of  the  incidents  recorded  in  the  book  on  Tibet 
provoked  some  degi'ee  of  increilulity  ;  but  the 
testimony  of  later  travellers  in  the  same  regions 
fully  corrolHirates  the  truth  of  Hue's  narrative. 
He  died  at  Paris  in  March  1860. 

lllU'kabsM'k.  a  coai-se  kind  of  linen  cloth, 
(i''ure(l  somewhat  like  damask,  and  usually  em- 
ployed for  talile-clotlis  and  towelling. 

HiH'kh'bi'rry.    See  Wikpimleherry. 

Illld«l<'rsfi4'l«l.  a  ■  clothing  town  '  in  the  West 
Hiding  of  Yorkshire,  a  municipal  and  county 
borough,  26  miles  NE.  of  Manchester,  15  .S.  of 
Bradford,  17  S\V.  of  Leeds,  and  189  NNW.  of 
London.  Well  built  of  stone  and  regular,  it  occu- 
pies a  considerable  extent  of  high  ground,  sloping 
down  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Colne,  which  here 
receives  the  Holme  ;  and  it  owes  its  rapid  extension 
to  its  situation  in  a  rich  coal-district,  to  it.s  abund- 
ant  water-power,   and   to  its  transit   facilities  by 


rail  and  canal.  .Vniong  the  chief  edilices  arc  the 
circular  cloth-hall  (1768  80);  ilie  lailwav  station 
( 1848),  with  a  marble  statue  of  Peel  (1875)  before 
it;  the  cla.ssical  town-hall  (1S80);  the  market- 
hall  (1880);  and  the  inlirmarv  (  I8:il  74).  The 
.Mechanii's'  Hall  ( 1848  )  developed  into  the  Technical 
Schocd  ( 188:} ).  The  rirat  liarish  cbuich  of  Hu.lders. 
hel.l  was  built  U'fore  1110,  rebuilt  in  Tudor 
times,  and  again  (unhappily  before  the  revival 
of  architecture)  in  1835.  St  John's  ( 18.i:< )  was 
designed  by  Butterlield,  and  St  Thcunas'  (18.59)  by 
Sir  t;.  (;.  Scott.  The  Beaumont  Park,  21  .acres  i"n 
area,  w.as  o]>ened  by  the  Duke  of  .Albany  in  188:1, 
anil  there  also  is  Greenheail  Park  of  26  acres. 
Huddcrslield  is  the  chief  .seat  in  the  north  of  Eng- 
land of  what  is  called  the  '  fancy  tratle,'  and  every 
descriiition  of  plain  wo<d!en  goods  is  al.so  manu- 
f.^otured  ;  whilst  other  industries  are  cotton  and 
silk  spinning,  iron  fimnding,  machine-making.  &(•. 
Koinan  remains  have  been  found  here;  but  Hud- 
dei-slield  has  no  history  to  speak  of.  In  17.50  Bishop 
Pococke  described  it  as  'a  little  t<iwii.'  It  was 
enfranchised  by  the  Ueform  Act  of  18.32,  and  made 
a  municipal  iKirough  in  1868,  the  boundary  having 
been  greatly  e.xtended  the  year  liefore.  Pop. 
( 1861 )  ;U,877  ;  ( 1871 )  74,358  ;  ("iSSl )  86,502  ;  ( 1891 ) 
95,422. 

Hudsoil,  a  river  in  New  A'ork,  and  one  of  the 

most  beautiful  and  important  in  .America.  It  rises 
in  the  Adirondack  Mountains,  4326  feet  al)Ove  the 
level  of  the  sea,  its  head-streams  the  outlets  of  many 
mountainlake.s.  At  Glen's  Falls  it  has  a  fall  of  .50 
feet,  and  soon  after,  taking  a. southerly  coni-se,  nms 
nearly  in  a  straight  line  to  its  mouth,  at  New  York 
city.  It  is  tidal  up  to  Troy,  151  miles  from  its 
mouth,  anil  magnihcent  steamlKiats  i)ly  daily  be- 
tween New  Yorli  and  Albany.  Below"  Ne«  burg, 
60  miles  from  New  York,  the  river  entei-s  the  high- 
lands, which  rise  abru])tly  from  the  w.ater  to  the 
height  of  U)(K)  feet.  Here  historical  iissociationa 
add  to  the  interest  of  scenery  of  singular  beauty  and 
grandeur  :  here  was  the  scene  of  Amold's  treason 
and  of  Andre's  fate  ;  and  at  West  Point,  tlie  seat 
of  the  I'nited  St.ates  military  aculemy,  8  miles 
below  Newburg,  are  the  ruins  of  Fort  Putnam, 
built  during  the  war  of  indcpcmlence.  Emcrginjr 
from  the  highlands,  the  river  widens  into  a  broaa 
expanse  calleil  Taiipau  B.iy,  which  is  4.^  miles  w  ide 
and  13  long.  Below,  on  the  right  bank,  a  steep 
wall  of  trap  rock,  called  the  Pali.sades,  rises  from 
the  river's  hrink  to  a  height  of  .3(K)  to  510  feet,  and 
extends  for  nearh  20  miles  to  the  upper  portion  of 
the  city  of  New  York.  The  river  from  here  is 
known  .as  the  North  Kiver,  and  is  from  1  to  2  miles 
wide;  and  after  passing  between  New  York  .md 
Hoboken  and  .lersey  City,  it  falls  into  New  York 
Bay.  Its  whole  length  is  about  .'i.'JO  miles,  and  its 
Iirinci])al  tributaries  are  the  S.acond.aga,  Mohawk, 
.aniMNalkill.  The  Hudson  li.is  v.ilu.ible  shad  and 
sturgeon  llshcries.  The  Hud.son  River  Kailw.ay, 
connecting  New  York  with  .Albany,  runs  along  the 
east  bank.  The  river,  named  from  the  English 
navigator  who  explored  it  in  1609,  is  connected  by 
canals  with  Lakes  Erie  and  Champlain,  .uid  witli 
the  Delaware  Kiver.  In  1894  a  suspension  briilge 
connecting  New  York  and  Jeisey  City  w.os  sanc- 
tioned, and  the  plans  approved  in  1895.  Robert 
Fulton's  lii-st  successful  experiment  in  steamboat 
navigation  wius  made  on  this  river  in  1807.  See 
'Our  River,'  by  John  Burroughs,  in  ScriOncr's 
Monthly  (August  1880);  the  Panorama  of  the 
Hnil.sun  (,Ts  far  as  Albany  ;  New  York,  1888) ;  and 
Wallace  Bruce,  The  Hudson  (1895). 

Hudson,  capital  of  Columbia  county.  New 
York,  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hudson  River, 
and  on  the  Hudson  River  Railroad,  116  miles  N.  of 
New   York  city.     It  extends  along  a  liigh  ridge 


HUDSON 


HUDSON    BAY    COMPANY      819 


en<lin^  in  it,  Iwltl  jjiDiiiontoi y,  at  wlmse  fiKit  are  the 
wliaives ;  its  former  West  Indian  tratle  and  its 
wliale-tislieries  have  been  abandoned,  but  it  has 
still  an  active  river-trade.  Hudson  lias  a  fine 
court-house,  a  city  hall,  several  foundries  and  bla-st- 
furnaces,  and  iiiaiiufacttires  of  tire-engines,  paper, 
leather.  Hour,  &c.     Pop.  9970. 

Hudson.  GEORfiE,  the  '  liailway  King,'  w,is 
born  near  York  in  March  1800.  There  he  subse- 
quentiv  carried  on  business  as  a  linen-draper.  In- 
heriting a  fortune  of  £30,000  in  1828,  Hudson  with- 
drew from  business,  .and  began  to  interest  himself 
in  local  politics  ami  in  railwaj"  speculation.  He 
became  the  iiiling  spirit  of  the  \  ork  and  North 
Midland  Uailway  Company  ;  and  his  ventures  and 
schemes   for   amalgamating  vaiious    railway  coni- 

Sanies  were  attendetl  with  extraordinary  success, 
[udson  was  elevated  to  the  dictatoi-ship  of  rail- 
way speculation.  Everything  he  touched  turned 
to  gold.  He  Ixjuglit  large  estates,  was  three 
times  elected  lord  mayor  of  York,  and  was  sent 
to  parliament  by  the  electors  of  Sunderland  ( 1845). 
But  the  railway  mania  of  1847-48  plunged  him 
into  ruin.  He  was  accused  of  having  '  cooked ' 
the  accounts  of  companies  with  which  he  was  con- 
nected, and  of  ha\ing  paid  dividends  out  of  capital. 
Legal  proceedings  were  instituted  against  him,  antl 
his  su<ldenly-ac(|uired  gains  were  almost  entirely 
swept  away.  The  constituency  of  Sunderland, 
however,  continue<l  to  elect  him  as  their  repre- 
sentative imtil  March  18.59.  He  afterwards  lived 
in  comparatively  narrow  ciieumstances,  and  died 
in  London,  December  14,  1871. 

Hudson,  Hexrv,  a  distinguished  navigator, 
of  whom  we  know  nothing  before  April  1607,  "hen 
we  finil  him  starting,  in  a  small  vessel  with  ten 
sailors,  on  his  tii-st  unfortunate  voyage  for  the 
discovery  of  a  north-east  passage.  In  his  second 
voyage  in  1608  he  reached  Nova  Zembla.  He 
undertook  a  third  voyage  in  1609  from  Amsterdam, 
at  the  e.\pense  of  the  Dutch  Eiist  India  Company. 
Giving  up  all  hope  of  fimling  a  north-ea.st  pa.ssage, 
he  sailed  for  Davis  Strait,  then  steered  southwards 
in  search  of  a  pa.ssage,  discovered  the  mouth  of 
the  river  which  now  bears  his  name,  ami  .sailed 
up  its  waters  for  1.50  miles.  He  sailed  upon  his 
last  voyage  in  April  1610,  in  the  Di-iiocerie  of  70 
tons,  and  reached  Greenland  in  June.  Steering 
westward,  he  discovered  the  strait  now  known  as 
Hudson  Strait,  and  pa-ssed  through  it,  anil  entered 
the  great  bay  which  has  received  the  name  of 
Hudson  Bay.  Although  very  insufficiently  sup- 
plied with  provisions,  he  resolveil  to  winter  in  these 
desolate  regions,  in  order  to  ])rosecute  his  dis- 
coveries further  in  the  following  spring.  The  food 
fell  short,  and  the  men,  dissatisfied  with  Hudson's 
determination  to  continue  the  voyage,  mutinied, 
and  <-ast  him  adrift  in  a  shallop,  with  eight  others, 
on  Midsummer  Day  1611.  The  real  ringleaders  per- 
ished miserably  in  a  scuttle  with  savages,  and  the 
survivors,  after  great  suH'ering,  reached  England. 
See  George  .Asher's  llciiiij  Hiuhon,  the  Navigator 
( Hakhiyt  Society,  1860). 

Hudson  Bay,  a  gulf,  or  rather  inland  sea,  in 
the  north-eiist  of  North  America,  is  completely 
!aiidlo<-ked  except  on  the  north,  where  Southamp- 
t<m  Island  and  Fox  Channel  lie  between  it  and  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  ami  where  Hudson  Strait,  running 
.500  miles  simtheast,  connects  it  with  the  Atlantic. 
Inelmling  its  south-e;istern  extensi<in.  .lamess  Hay 
(i|.v.),  it  measures  about  1000  miles  in  length  anil 
600  in  average  width,  and  has  jin  area  of  some 
500,000  s(].  m.  The  eastern  shore,  called  the  East 
Main,  is  for  the  most  part  rocky,  and  is  fenceil  with 
several  small  Lslands  ;  the  western  shore,  the  West 
Main,  is  generally  flat.  This  sea,  the  gieat  drain- 
age reservoir  of   the   Canadian   North-west  Terri- 


tories, receives  the  precipitation  from  over  an  area 
of  nearly  3,000,000  sq.  m.  ( )f  the  numerous  rivers 
which  bring  down  thus  water  only  two  need  be 
mentioned — tlie  Churchill,  whose  deep  and  nanow 
mouth  forms  the  best  harbotir  on  the  shores  of 
Hudson  Bay,  and  the  Nelson,  of  whose  total 
coui-se  of  400  miles  only  70  or  80  are  navigable. 
Hitherto  the  only  business  that  has  l<een  to  any 
extent  develoiied  in  this  region  has  l>een  the  fur 
trade  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  (q. v.),  though 
fish-oil  has  also  been  exijorted.  Of  late  years, 
however,  a  movement  has  been  on  foot  for  o])ening 
up  a  direct  communication  from  England  with  Mani- 
toba and  the  North-west  of  Canada  by  way  of  Hud- 
son Bay  and  Strait.  The  scheme  provides  for  a 
railway  from  \\'inni|ieg  to  Foit  Nelson  on  the  bay, 
a  distance  of  650  miles,  of  which  40  miles  were  con- 
structed by  the  end  of  1890.  The  chief  objection 
to  the  project  is  that,  although  the  bay  is  (juite  ea.sy 
to  navigate,  and  is  only  coveieil  with  ice  in  w inter 
to  a  distance  of  about  10  miles  fiom  the  shore,  yet 
the  passage  of  Arctic  drift-ice  througli  Fox  Channel 
and  Hu<l.--on  Strait  in  early  summer  rendei's  the  suc- 
ce.ssful  navigation  of  the  latter  waterway  somewhat 
uncertain.  The  strait  can,  however,  be  traversed 
by  vessels  on  an  average  for  about  three  months 
annually.  This  route  would  efi'ect  a  saving  of  775 
miles  as  c<mipared  with  the  route  by  way  of  Mon- 
treal, and  of  1130  as  compared  with  that  by  New 
York.  ^ 

See  Captain  W.  Coats^s  Oeo'jraphy  of  Hitdsott's  Batt, 
17'27-51y  edited  by  J.  Barrow  for  the  Hakluyt  Society 
(1852)  ;  Dr  Robert  Bell  in  Pruc.  Roy.  Geoy.  Sof.  (1881); 
AV.  Shelford  in  National  Rtriew  ( 1886) ;  and  C.  R.  Mark- 
ham  in  Pi-'jc.  Rrjy.  Ge)ii.  Sor.  ( 1888 ). 

Hudson  Bay  Company,  a  corporation  formed 
in  1670  by  Prince  Rupert  and  seventeen  noblemen 
and  gentlemen  for  importing  into  Great  Britain 
furs  and  skins  obtained  by  barter  from  the  Indians 
of  North  America.  The  company  was  invested  with 
the  absolute  proprietorshi])  and  the  exclusive  right 
of  traffic  over  an  undefined  tenitory,  which,  under 
the  name  of  Rupert's  Land,  comprised  all  the 
regions  ilLscovered,  or  to  be  discovered,  within  the 
entrance  of  Hudson  Strait.  This  was  taken  as 
meaning  all  lands  that  drained  into  Hudson  Bay  or 
Hudson  Strait.  For  more  than  a  century,  however, 
the  grantees  confined  themselves  to  the  coast  dis- 
tricts. Down  to  1713  they  had  also  to  contend 
against  the  hostile  acts  of  the  F'rench  of  Canada, 
w-lio  destroyed  their  forts,  ruined  their  goods,  and 
captured  their  ships.  But  after  Canaila  passed  from 
the  French  to  the  British  in  1763  adventurers  from 
the  great  lakes  began  to  penetrate,  in  quest  of 
peltry,  far  up  the  Saskatchewan  towards  the  Rocky 
Jlountains.  Anil  their  enterprises,  coming  to  be 
l>rosecuted  with  nu)re  systematic  energ\%  led  in 
1783  to  the  formati<m  of  the  North-west  "Fur  Com- 
pany of  Montreal.  .After  a  period  of  .stubborn 
competition,  the  Hudson  Bay  Comjiany  coalesced 
with  its  formidable  opponent  in  1821.  The  sphere 
of  their  laboui's  was  now  practically  coincident 
with  all  British  North  .America,  between  the 
Pacific  and  Atlantic,  and  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the 
United  States.  In  18:f8  the  Hudson  Ray  Company 
again  acipiired  the  sole  right  of  trading  for  itself 
for  a  period  of  twenty-one  years  ;  on  the  ex]iirv  of 
this  c(mcession  the  fvir  trade  in  British  North 
America  was  thrown  ojien  to  the  world.  Finally, 
in  1869,  the  company  nunlc  a  formal  cession  to  the 
British  government  of  whatever  territori,il  claims 
remained,  receiving  an  indemnity  of  I'SOO.OOO  from 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  to  which  the  whole 
territories  were  forthwith  .innexed.  It  wjts,  how- 
ever, .stipulated  that  the  comjiany  should  retain  all 
its  forts,  with  oO.fKXI  acres  ami  one-twentieth  of  all 
the  land  lying  within  the  '  fertile  belt '  from  the 
I  Red  River  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.     Besides  still 


8-20 


HUB 


HUGGINS 


CHiTviii;;  on  the  liiisiiiess  of  colk-otinj;  fiiix,  the 
coiii|iaiiy  MOW  derives  a  large  iiicuiiie  from  the  sale 
of  tiiewe  coneeiled  laiuls. 

Soe  I!iitler'»  Grml  Limr  Land  (18721,  H.  M.  Hol.iii- 
sun's  (Irtat  Fur  Land  ( NV'w  York,  IKT'M.  'lie  History 
by  I'li'fissor  OforRe  Ifrycf  ( I'.KX) ).  and  IJeckks  WilLion's 
Tli>  llniil  VoiHimiui  (ItKK)). 

IIik',  the  ('iii)ical  of  Annani,  lU  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Hue  Kiver,  or  TruonKtien.  In  1801 
it  was  stronffly  furtilied  l>y  I'lench  ollioeix.  The 
heart  of  the  city  is  oceupietl  by  the  palace  ;  much 
of  the  rest  of  it  is  composed  of  mud  huts.  Since 
lieforc  Aiinani  tiecame  a  Krencli  protectorate,  there 
hits  Ih'cu  a  Kn'iich  residput  at  Hue  ;  and  since 
the  treaty  of  Hue  in  1.SS4  there  is  a  l''rencli  ;,'arrison 
in  Thuanan.  the  port  of  Hue.  There  is  little 
industry  in  Hue,  wliich  lias  a  po|iiilation  of  .'fO.OOU 
(with  snhurhs,  r)(),(M)0),  including  a  number  of 
Cliinesi'.      See  AnnAM. 

line  and  t'ry,  a  phrase  derived  from  the  old 
process  of  pursuit  with  horn  and  voice,  used  in  old 
Knj,'lisli  law  to  describe  the  pui-siiit  of  felons. 
Whoever  arrested  the  person  jiursued  wjis  pro-  , 
tected  ;  and  it  was  the  iluty  of  all  pei'sons  to  join 
in  a  hue  ami  cry.  The  Hue  and  Ci;/,  a  police 
},'az<'tte  for  advertising  criminals,  was  e8tabli»lie<l 
in  1710. 

IllU'fl'*'!*.  Fk.vNCI.s,  musical  critic  and  Pro- 
vencal scholar,  was  born  at  Miinster,  in  West- 
phalia, in  1845,  studied  at  Berlin,  Leii>zig,  and 
Paris,  and  settled  in  Loudon  in  1809.  He  soon 
became  an  authority  on  music,  Wits  musical  critic 
of  tjie  Titiirs,  anil  was  recoj^nised  as  the  (.'liampion 
in  Britain  of  Wagner  and  Wagnerian  music.  In 
IHliO  he  eilited  the  Provencal  poet  (iuillem  de 
Cabestanh,  and  in  1878  publisheil  T/ic  Tiuuha- 
dottra:  it  Klstury  of  Proi'enral  Life  tfitti  Litcntiitrc 
ill  till-  Midilli-  Ai/i's.  Two  works  on  Wagner  were 
from  his  pen — one  in  1874,  the  other  in  the  'Great 
Musicians'  series,  in  1881.  He  died  January  19, 
ISS!). 

IllirlVit,  a  thriving  town  of  Spain,  situated 
near  the  confluence  of  tlie  Odiel  and  the  Tinto,  68 
miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Seville.  Fishing  and  the 
plaiting  of  esparto  gnuss  are  the  chief  industries. 
Huelva  is  the  port  for  the  important  Kio  Tinto 
copper-mines,  in  British  bauds,  and  a  slii]M>ing 
place  for  wine.  .An  iron  pier  w.us  erecte(l  in 
1889-90.  Sonu>  .->(K),0()0  tons  of  copper  ore,  450,000 
of  iron  ore,  besides  manganese,  ((uicksilver,  wine, 
&c.  are  annnally  exported  ;  the  imports,  esiiccially 
coal  and  coke,  iron  ami  steel,  amount  to  150,000 
tons.  Pop.  19,(XK(. — The /«7jc/»cc  of  Huelva  h.osan 
area  of  ."lOl.'l  scp  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  250,000. 

IlliertiU  \'ii'i;nih  (I.vhci.v  de  l.v,  a  Siianish 

iio(!t  and  critic,  was  Ijorn  in  1730  at  Zafra,  in 
Cstremadura,  but  spent  the  greater  ]iart  of  his  life 
in  Madrid,  where  be  wjis  head  of  the  Koyal  Lilirarv, 
and  where  he  ilied  on  I'ith  March  1787.  His 
trag(!dy  of  AV(y«c/  (1778),  founded  upon  the  story 
of  the  love  of  King  Alfonso  \1I1.  for  the  fair 
Jewess  liachel,  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm, 
and  is  still  esteemed  one  of  the  best  of  modern 
Spanish  trage<lie.s.  Huerta  w:is  a  zealoirs  but  not 
always  consistent  op|>onenl  of  the  prevailing  (ialli- 
cisui  of  his  own  day.  As  a  lyric  and  ilramatic  poet 
lie  shows  -^reat  command  of  language  and  versili- 
cation.  His  poems  were  pulilished  in  two  volumes 
in  1778-79,  and  jigain  in  Bibltotcca  dc  Antores 
E.ynn'iiile.i  (vol.  Ixi.).  Huerta  edit«d  the  'I'catro 
EsjMiiiul  { 17  vols.  178.5-81)),  a  collection  of  the  best 
works  of  the  older  Spanish  dramatists. 

Illiest'iU  a  very  oUl  and  ]iictnre.si|ue  town  of 
Spain,  on  the  Isuela.  .55  miles  by  a  branchlin<>  NK. 
ol  Saragossa.  .\mong  its  chief  buildings  are  the 
cathedral  (  14(M)  1515 ),  a  beautiful  (Jothic  edifice; 
the  Uomanesque  church  of  San  Pedro  ( 115f)-l'241 ) : 


the  university,  foumled  in  I.T)4  by  Pedro  IV.  ;  ami 
a  former  palace  of  the  kings  of  Aragon.  The  Osc« 
of  the  Itonums,  where  Sertorins  was  murdered  ii. 
7'2  li.C,  lluesca  afterwards  became  famous  as  a 
seat  of  learning.  Tanning  and  mainifaetures  of 
linens  are  here  carried  <ui  to  some  e.\tent.  Po]i. 
l.'l,(>t;i. — 'V\\ti  jiruriiiii'  of  Huesca  has  an  area  of  584K 
s(i.  m.,  and  a  pop.  ( 1887)  of  '254,958. 

Illll'srai*.  a  town  of  Spain,   75  miles   N  K.   of 
(iranaila.      Pop.  770(1. 

Illict,  I'ii:iii:k  D.^mki,,  Krench  scholar  and 
iHil\  riialli,  was  born  at  Caen,  Pebrnarv  8,  lli.iO. 
lie  was  eilucated  in  the  Jesuit  school  of  (.'aen, 
aii<I  became  a  zealous  pupil  of  Descartes  and  of 
llochart.  The  latter  he  ac<ompanied  on  a  visit  to 
Stockholm  in  l(i5'2,  wjien  he  discovereil  and  tran- 
scribed tlie  MS.  of  Origen  which  was  the  basis  of 
liis  celebrateil  edition  of  that  father  fifteen  years 
later.  On  his  return  home  he  gave  himself  up 
entirely  to  study.  In  Itilil  he  published  his  essav 
]h:  Iiitfrjtrftotiuui\  In  H)70  he  wiis  appointed  witli 
Bossuet  tutor  of  the  dauphin,  and  in  the  same  yi-ar 
wrote  his  Kasni  siir  I'tfrii/ine  dt'.s  Ilomains.  He 
took  an  active  part  also  in  preparing  the  Delphiii 
edition  of  the  classics.  Having  in  1070  taken  lioly 
oiders,  lie  was  successively  abbot  of  .\uiiav  (  1078), 
Bishop  of  Soissons  (1085)  anil  .\vraijchc.s  (  109'2), 
and  aobot  of  Fontenay  ( 1099).  In  1079  aiipcaied 
one  of  his  most  important  books,  IhuiDii.itnilit/ 
Kmiii/i/iiii.  In  1701  he  witbdiew  to  the  Jesuits' 
house  in  Palis,  where  he  died.  'JOtli  .lanuary  1721. 
During  his  epi.scopal  caieci-  lliiet  published  a  couple 
of  liooUs  on  the  < 'artesian  pliilcisopliy,  aiiollier  on 
rea.son  and  faith,  and  anotlier  on  the  site  of  the 
earthly  jiaiadise.  To  his  latest  years  belong  His- 
tniri:  ail  Coiiiiiici-rc  i:t  i/r  Id  Niirii/iitioii  de.i  Alien iits 
(1716),  and  his  autobiographical  memoirs  (1718). 
His  works  were  iiulilislnd  in  a  collected  form  in 
1712.  and  a  volume  of  Iliiitiiiiiii  apjieared  in  17'2'2. 
In  this  latter  year  Huet's  Tiiiiti-  ih-  hi  Fniblissi-  dt: 
/'Ks/iiil  Niiiiiaiin,  which  e.xcited  much  contro 
versy,  lirst  .saw  the  light.  See  his  Latin  antobio 
graphy  (1713),  the  French  Life  by  llartbolome.s.s 
(18.50),  ,'uid  an  article  in  the  Qiiiiili  il i/,  1855. 

HlllVlaiuU  ClIlEISTol-II  Wll.llKL.M,  Cermaii 
physician,  was  born  on  12th  August  1762,  at 
Langensalza,  in  Thnringia.  After  studying  at 
.lena  and  (liittingen,  he  was  apgiointeil  physician 
to  the  court  of  Weimar,  where  bis  father  and  bis 
grandfather  had  )ireviously  filled  the  .same  ollice. 
In  1793  be  was  appointed  professor  of  Medicine- 
at  Jena,  and  in  1798  went  to  Berlin  to  ]>reside 
over  the  medical  college  there  and  the  Charite 
Hospital.  On  the  foundation  of  the  nniversily 
of  Berlin  in  180!l  he  became  one  of  its  jirofessois. 
He  died  '25111  August  1830.  He  had  a  very  high 
reputation  for  skill  as  a  jiliysician,  was  greatly 
esteemed  for  his  intellectual  abilities  and  his  fine 
character,  and  founded  a  nuiiiber  of  benevolent 
.societies  and  institutions.  Of  his  published  works 
the  most  notable  were  the  famous  M(il:iuhiiilil.\ 
or  the  art  of  prolonging  life  (1790:  8th  ed.  1889), 
which  w;is  translated  into  almost  all  the  languages 
of  Kiirope  ;  a  work  on  the  physical  education  of 
the  voung(1799;  12th  ed.  1875);  a,m\  Enchiridion 
.1/.  (/'«■»/«(  1«.36;   loth  ed.  1857). 

lIlIK*  .'"ll-^NN  Lkiixii.vuI),  Catholic  theologian, 
was  bom  .at  Constance,  June  1.  1705,  entered  into 
priest's  orders  in  17.89,  w;us  appointed  a  ])rofessor  of 
Theology  at  F'reibnrg  in  17iM,  iind  died  there.  11th 
March  1840.  The  most  important  fruit  of  bis 
biblical  rese.arcbes  was  bis  Intnulin-tiuii  iu  the  Xcir 
Te.stiiiiiiiil  (2  vol.s.  1808),  which  was  translated  into 
most  of  the  European  languages  (Eiig.  by  D.  (;. 
W.ait.  18'27). 

IlimtfillS.  Sii!  Wii.i.iAM,  K.C.B.  (  1897), astrono- 
mer,  was   born  in    London  on  7lb    February   1.824. 


HUGH 


HUGHES 


821 


Wliilst  still  a  youth  liis  iiiiml  was  attiacteil  to  the 
stiiily  of  flicinistiy,  mayiiiHism,  and  allied  branches 
of  ]ihysical  science.  In  1852  he  was  elected  a 
niPiiiher  of  the  Micn)scoi>ical  Society,  and  for  some 
years  laboured  at  the  study  of  physioloi,'y,  animal 
and  vegetable,  with  tlie  microscope.  But  having 
in  1855  built  for  his  own  private  use  an  oliservatory 
.at  UpperTul.se  Hill,  near  London,  he  began  what 
))roved  to  be  the  princijial  work  of  liis  lifetime 
— tlie  study  of  the  physical  constitution  of  stars, 
planets,  comets,  ,and  nebuh'p.  By  researches  on 
the  .sun's  spectra  and  the  s))ectra  of  certain  comets, 
he  ascertained  that  tlie  lundnons  properties  of  the 
former  are  not  the  same  as  the  luminous  properties 
of  the  latter.  Since  1875  he  ha.s  been  engaged 
Iihotograjihing  the  ultra-violet  parts  of  the  spectra 
of  the  stars.  He  has  also  determined  the  amount 
of  heat  that  reaches  the  earth  from  some  of  the 
fixed  stars.  Mr  Huggins  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Koyal  Society  in  1865.  He  was  twice  awarded 
the  medal  of  the  same  society  and  twice  the  gold 
me<lal  of  tlie  Koyal  Astronomical  Society.  In 
1S74  he  liccame  corresponding  member  of  the  Paris 
Acaileiny  of  Sciences,  and  tliree  years  later  corre- 
sponding member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Giittin- 
gen.  From  1876  to  1878  he  was  president  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society. 

Hll^ll,  St,  of  Avalon,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  was 
born  of  iiolde  family  at  .\valon  in  Burgundy  about 
Il.')5.  On  his  mother's  death  his  father  entered  a 
jiriory  of  regular  canons  at  ^'illarbenoit,  carrying 
with  him  the  boy,  then  but  eight  years  old.  At 
nineteen  lie  was  ordained  de.acon,  and  was  already 
remarkable  for  his  holiness  of  life  and  ascetic 
austerity.  Ere  long  he  was  attracted  by  the  severer 
discipline  of  the  (Jrande  Chartreuse,  and  thither 
he  repaired,  although  he  had  taken  an  oath  to  his 
superior  not  to  do  so.  Here  he  remained  ten  years, 
received  his  priest's  orders,  and  was  fiU'  his  prac- 
tical ability  appointed  bursar  to  the  monastery. 
His  fame  came  to  the  ears  of  Henry  II.,  who  pre- 
vailed upon  him  to  accept  the  government  of  the 
struggling  Carthusian  monastery  at  Witliam  in 
Somersetshire,  and  summoned  him  hence  in  May 
1186  to  fill  the  bisliopri<'  of  Lincoln.  For  fourteen 
years  he  governed  his  diocese  with  great  wisdom 
and  vigour,  retiring  every  year  a  short  time  to 
Witham  for  his  soul's  health.  His  unworldly 
holiness  gave  him  great  inlluence,  not  only  over 
Henry  11,,  but  also  his  successors  Richard  and 
John.  He  did  not  leave  off'  his  frank  outspoken- 
ness of  speech  .and  his  i|uick  wit  even  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  king.  Withal  his  charity  w,as  so 
reni.arkable  that  even  the  .Jews  of  Lincoln  .are  .said 
to  have  wept  at  his  funeral.  .Ml  his  life  he  had 
been  notable  for  his  love  of  birds,  and  at  his  resi- 
dence at  Stow,  near  Lincoln,  he  h.ad  a  pet  swan 
whose  afl'ection  for  its  master  .appeared  to  lieholders 
to  be  more  than  natural.  The  swan  usu.ally  apjiears 
in  representations  of  the  saint.  Soon  after  his 
accession  to  the  episcopal  throne  he  had  begun  with 
vigour  the  rebuilding  of  his  cathedral,  and  he 
lived  to  see  the  completion  of  the  choir  and  eastern 
transepts.  But  indeeil,  with  the  exception  of  the 
presbytery,  the  entire  church,  as  it  now  dominates 
Lincoln,  was  conceiveil  in  the  mind  of  Hugh's  archi- 
tect, and  gradually  perfected  under  his  successors. 
Hugh  visited  his  native  country  in  I'.'dO.  and  on 
his  return  journey  was  seized  with  illness,  ami  died 
•at  London  Uitli  November  1'2()().  He  was  canonised 
in  1'2'2(),  and  for  long  miracles  were  wrought  at  his 
tiimb,  and  his  cult  was  almost  as  popular  as  that 
of  St  Thomas  in  the  south. 

*•  lioth  the  Mitrieal  Life  i,f  St  Hiirih  of  Anilmi  (ISCO) 
.111.1  tlie  .l/o.7/irt  nta  S.  Hiiijni,ix(\k'A\,i\\e  latter  most 
likely  written  by  his  domestic  cli.tplain,  Adam,  abbot  of 
Evesham,  were  edited  by  tlie  Kev.  .T.  F.  Dimock.  A 
Life  by  Oiraldus  is  printed  in  vol.    v{\.   (1877)  of  the 


works  of  Giraldus  Cambrensis.     See  also  Canon  Perry's 
Life  of  St  Hmjh  of  Avalon  (1879). 

Hugh  of  Lilieolll,  a  boy  supiiosed  to  have 
been  munlered  by  the  Jews  of  Lincoln,  a-s  told 
both  in  English  tnulitional  ballads  and  early 
chronicles.  Professor  Child  (No.  155)  gives  no 
fewer  than  eighteen  versions  of  ballads  on  this 
theme,  which  agree  marvellously  even  in  detail. 
A  group  of  boys  playing  at  foot  or  at  hand  ball  are 
joined  by  the  young  Hugh  or  Sir  Hugh,  who  ilrives 
the  ball  through  a  Jew's  window,  is  enticed  into 
the  house  by  tlie  Jew's  daughter,  cruelly  murdered 
and  tlung  into  a  well,  from  which  bespeaks  miracu- 
lously, whereby  the  murder  is  discovered.  The 
story  of  Hugh  of  Lincoln  is  told  in  the  Aiiiiiils  of 
]l'iircrl('i/,  uniler  the  year  1255,  by  a  contempoiaiy 
writer.  Here  the  boy  is  tortureil  by  the  Jews,  and 
finally  crucified  in  contempt  of  Christ.  His  body 
is  discovere<l  by  miraculous  means,  and  eighteen 
.lews  are  hanged  for  their  share  in  the  crime. 
.Additional  circumstances  are  found  in  Matthew 
Paris.  The  story  occurs  simultaneously  in  several 
Anglo-French  iiallads ;  and  Chaucer's  Prioresses 
Tri/e  is  an  artistic  elaboration  of  the  theme. 

We  find  more  or  less  circumstantial  versions  of 
the  same  story  not  only  at  Lincoln,  but  at  Nor- 

,  wich,  (iloucester,  London,  and  Northampton  ;  at 
Blois,  at  Saragossa,  and  Valladolid  ;  at  Frisingen 

1  and  Zurich  :  at  Prague  and  Cracow,  Pavia  and 
Venice,  and  very  freijiiently  among  the  German 
jieoples,  as  at  Vienna,  Erfurt,  Magdeburg,  Mainz, 
Munich,  Breslau,  and  Ratisbon.  Besides  the  desire 
to  deride  the  Passion,  an  ailditional  motive  was 
invented,  that  the  Jews  sought  to  obtain  blood  for 

!  use  in  the  Paschal  rites — a  charge  ridiculously  at 

I  variance  both   with   Jewish   precept  and   practice. 

I  This  singulfir  notion  has  survived  persistently  for 
over  600  years,  and  has  formeil  a  pretext  for  cruel 
.and  shameful  wrong  down  to  our  own  day.  It  is 
still  a  firmly-held  popular  notion  in  Rus.sia,  Hun- 
gary, at  Smyrna  and  Alexandria;  indeed  it  was 
only  so  late  as  August  1883  that  fifteen  Jews  were 
acquitted  after  over  a  year's  imprisonment  for  the 
alleged  kidnajiping  of  a  young  girl  at  Tisza-Eszhir, 
and  tli.at  the  good  Christians  of  Budapest  plundered 
the  .Icwisli  sho]is  in  their  disapiiointment. 

See  tile  ChaucL-r  Society's  Orif/inah  awt  A  nalof/urs  of 
Cliancer's  Cantcrhiin/  Talcs  for  187.5-76;  Child's  kiiqlish 
and  Scottish  Popular  Ballads  (1888) ;  ami  The  Life' and 
Miracles  of  SI  William  o/iVoncicA,  edited  by  Jessopp  and 
James  (18!)7). 

Hugh  Capet.    See  Capetian  Dynasty. 

Illlgliendon  (locally  Hitchcmloa),  a  parish  of 
Ihickiiigliainshire,  among  the  Cliiltern  Hills,  2  miles 
N.  of  High  Wycombe.  Hughenden  Manor,  a  large 
brick  three-story  mansion,  mostly  modern,  wa.s 
piirch.a.sed  before  1847  by  Benjamin  Disraeli,  Earl 
of  P.eaconsfield.  It  is  rich  in  interesting  jiortiaits  ; 
.■mil  in  its  terraced  gardens  are  trees  planted  by 
'(•ueen  Victoria  in  1877  and  the  Prince  of  Wales  in 
1880.  The  ancient  parish  church,  much  restored  in 
1874,  contains  a  monument  to  the  earl,  erected  by 
the  Queen  :  and  in  its  vault  he  lies  buried  by  the 
side  of  Lady  Beaconsficld. 

IlllSflies,  TiKiMAs,  author  of  Tom  Broini's 
Si/io(i/-(/iii/s,  second  son  of  John  Hughes,  Eso. ,  of 
Donnington  Priory,  near  Newbury,  in  Berkshire, 
was  born  at  I'tlington,  Berks,  October  2.'i,  1823. 
He  \v,as  educated  at  Hugby  uinler  the  celebrated 
I)r  .Arnold  ;  entered  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  in  1841, 
and  took  his  degree  of  B.A.  in  1845  ;  was  called  to 
tlie  bar  at  Lincidn's  Inn  in  1848,  and  became  a 
niembcr  of  the  Chancery  Bar.  In  18.56  he  gave  to 
the  world  Tom  Jiroint's  Sr/ioo/-(/(tifs,  a  vivid  and 
tnilliful  picture  of  life  at  Rugby,  evidently  written 
from  the  author's  own  boyish  impressions.  It  is 
the  highest  praise  to  say  that  it  ailmirably  supple- 


822 


HUGLI 


HUGO 


nients  Stanley's  life  a-s  a  jiicture  of  the  greatest  of 
inciiliTii  teachers.  It  was  followed  in  1H58  by  The 
Sniiiriiitf  uf  the  White  Horse;  in  18(il  hy  Turn 
Broirn  iit  O.r/urd,  in  which  the  mental  history  of 
his  hero  is  continucil,  with  sketches  of  college  life 
;inil  inciilents  ;  anil  in  1869  hy  A//iett  the  Ureal. 
llnghes  [jui-sued  meanwhile  the  practice  of  the  law, 
liecame  (J.C.  in  1869,  ami  a  County  Court  juilge  in 
188'J.  He  asscirialccl  early  with  Maurice  and  Kings- 
ley  in  their  work  of  social  au<l  sanitary  reform  among 
the  London  poor,  and  wliile  he  had  gained  the  con- 
lidence  and  good-will  of  the  working-classes  l>y  his 
endeavours  to  promote  a  better  understanding 
between  mastei-s  and  men,  and  by  teaching  the 
latter  the  value  of  co-ojieration,  he  has  never  failed 
courageously  to  rebuke  the  narrow  prejudices  and 
nuscliicvous  views  held  by  certain  members  of 
trades-unions.  At  the  general  election  for  Lam- 
lK,'th  in  186.">  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
poll.  He  was  returned  for  Fronie  in  1868,  which 
lie  continued  to  represent  till  1874,  and  always 
took  a  ]uominent  part  in  debates  relating  to  trade.s- 
iinions  and  the  like.  In  1880  he  a-ssisted  in  found- 
ing a  settlement  in  the  lnite<l  States,  described 
in  Jiiir/hi),  Tennessee  ( 1881 ).  He  also  wrote  Memoirs 
of  a  Brother  (1873),  Lives  of  Daniel  Macniillan 
(1882)  and  Bishop  I-'raser  (1887),  Viiention  Humbles 
(1895),  and  the  article  Maurick  in  this  work.  He 
died  •-'•-M  March  1896. 

lii'mli.     See  HooGiiLY. 

llll^O,  ViCToii-M.VRiE  (1802-So),  was  the  scm 
of  a  Lorrainer  and  a  Breton,  and  was  born  at 
Bcsancon.  His  father.  General  Hugo,  was  on 
active  service,  so  that  his  earlier  years  were  mostly 
spent  in  the  track  of  the  emperor's  armies.  He 
was  educate<l  partiv  in  Paris  at  the  Feuillantines 
(1809  11,  1813  1.-)),'  partly  in  .Madrid  (1812),  and 
partly  at  the  Kcole  rolytechnicjue,  where  he  read 
mathematics  and  jjractised  poetry.  At  fourteen 
he  produced  a  tragedy;  at  fifteen  he  went  near 
to  winning  a  jirize  at  an  Acailemie  com])etition  ; 
anil  at  twenty,  when  he  ])ublished  his  lirst  set 
of  Odes  et  Ballades  (1822),  he  had  thrice  been 
victor  at  the  Floral  Games  of  Toulouse.  The 
next  year,  being  by  this  time  a  married  man 
and  the  riiftiit  sublime  of  M.  de  Chateaubriand, 
he  published  his  Hans  d'Ishinde  (182.3),  that  wild 
and  whirling  romance  of  an  impossible  Iceland  ; 
and  followed  it  up  with  BuijJarfjol  (1824),  a 
second  set  of  Odes  et  Balliides  (1826),  and  the 
famous  Cromwell  (1827),  thanks  to  which  last— 
a  tragedy  even  then  impossible  to  act  and  now 
almost  as  dillicult  to  read  -he  became  the  most 
conspicuims  ligure  in  a'sthetic  France.  For  Ko- 
manlii-ism — that  jirotest  in  action  against  the  efTete 
and  hidebound  conventions  of  the  age  of  Louis 
Xl\'. — was  now  by  way  of  being  an  accomplished 
fact ;  anil  the  i)reface  to  Cromn-ell  was  greeted 
with  an  enthusiasm  of  approval  on  the  one  hand 
and  of  detcstati<in  on  the  other  in  these  ilays 
not  easy  to  umlerstand.  In  its  way,  indeed,  it 
is  a  document  of  singular  importance  in  literary 
history.  It  is  largely  compacted  of  paradox  anil 
antithesis  no  doubt ;  and  no  iloubt  its  ])remises  are 
mostly  dubious  and  its  conclusions  not  more  than 
fantastic.  But  it  .a.s.serted  the  artist  s  right  to  be  as 
Shakespearian — that  is,  as  lawless — as  he  jdeased, 
and  it  was  so  completely  a  declaration  of  independ- 
ence, and  a  decree  of  emancipation,  that,  whatever 
happens,  the  literature  of  France  can  never  wholly 
recover  from  its  ell'ect. 

The  time  indeed  was  big  with  revolution  and 
with  change,  and  Hugo's  manifesto  was  accepted 
by  the  Romanticists  with  the  solemnity  of  absolute 
conviction,  so  that  he  instantly  took  his  place  by 
right  of  genius  and  authority  at  the  head  of  the 
literary  host.      He  was  fully  equal    to  the  charge 


of  eoui-se ;  for  while  he  was  far  and  away  the 
greatest  artist  in  words  that  modern  Prance 
has  seen,  he  was  also  very  careful  ;ind  curious  in 
the  work  of  '  engineering  a  reputation,'  and 
contrived  to  take  himself  and  his  function  so 
seriously  that  to  his  followers  he  was  not  mni'li 
below  ilivinity  itself.  It  is  saiil  that  he  made 
himself  a  forehead  :  and  it  is  certain  that  while 
.M.  Ilodin's  nuignilicent  bust  of  him  is  far  less 
suggestive  of  Apollo  than  of  Heriiiles,  the  Hugo 
brow — enormous,  radiant,  'prone  with  excess  of 
mind ' — aiijieai's  and  reapjiears  in  contemporary 
caricature  with  all  the  persistency  and  more  than 
the  ell'ect  of  Gillray's  view  of  the  '  Hottoiid(?ss  I'itl.' 
It  is  certain,  too,  that  the  lirst  sketch  of  his  life 
and  work  that  got  into  print  was  written  in  liis 
own  house,  and  was  the  work  of  his  own  wife; 
and  as  Mme.  Hugo  never  wrote  again,  it  is  legiti 
mate  to  argue  tliat  the  hero  may  very  possibly 
have  lent  a  hand  to  the  epic.  But  he  never 
ceased  from  achievement ;  and  his  achievement 
was  inevitably  that  of  a  great  artist  in  si>eecli. 
In  1828  he  published  his  Orientates,  wherein  he 
revealed  himself  for  such  a  master  of  rhythms, 
such  an  inventor  in  style,  such  an  adept  in  the 
mystery  of  the  use  of  words  as  France  had  never 
seen.  The  year  1830  was  the  great  year  of  Her- 
mini — the  lirst  in  fact  and  the  .second  in  time  of 
tlio.se  'live-act  lyrics'  of  which  Hugo's  drama  i.s 
composed.  In  .so  far  as  it  relates  to  drania^ 
material,  structure,  amount,  movement,  the  pre- 
sentation of  emotion  in  action  the  ([uestion  had 
been  settleil  now  and  for  all  time  by  I)iima.s  the 
year  before:  but  Dumas  was  not  a  writer  in  the 
sen.se  that  Hugo  was,  and  the  battle  of  style  was 
still  to  light,  and  the  battlcliehl  was  the  fheatre- 
I'"iaii(,'ais,  and  the  easns  belli  was  Ilernaui.  It  is 
so  brilliantly  written,  the  movement  of  the  verse 
is  so  victorious  and  the  <liction  is  .so  gorgeous, 
that  even  now  it  takes  one  time  and  i)atience 
and  a  ccitain  familiarity  to  see  that,  while  eoii- 
structeil  in  the  formula  of  Henri  Trois  et  sa  four, 
it  is  no  nuue  a  jilay  than  Hamsun  Agonistes. 
In  tho.se  days  men  had  neither  time  nor  patience, 
while  as  for  familiarity  !  ...  It  was  emmgh  that 
to  one  side  the  vei-se  was  incomparable,  ami  that 
to  another  it  was  the  Accursed  Thing.  As  Hugo 
took  care  to  pack  .is  much  of  the  house  as  he  cimld 
get  miule  over  to  him  with  Uomantics,  and  as  on 
the  other  part  the  Classicists  were  to  the  full 
as  eager  for  the  (luarrel,  the  <|Ucstion  of  what  is 
and  what  is  not  style  was  argued  for  many  nights 
on  end  with  a  vehemence — sometimes  attaining  to 
the  insidr.uion  of  a.ssault  and  battery-  which  has 
made  IS.'iO,  as  the  year  of  Jlernani,  a  sacred  date — 
as  who  should  .say  a  species  of  Uegira  in  the 
annals  of  Komanticism. 

In  1831  Hugo  published  Kotrc  Dame  de  Paris, 
a  i>retentious  but  iiicturesr|ue  and  moving  historical 
romance  in  which  he  enters  into  competition  with 
Sir  AValter  and  comes  badly  oil',  and  J.es  Feiiillrs 
d'Aidomne,  a  sheaf  of  lyric  and  contemplative 
verse  in  which  is  included  some  of  his  liest  jioetry  ; 
and  brought  out  his  best  play,  Marion  Delorme, 
at  the  Thci'itre- Francais.  In  18.32  he  produced  I.e 
Hoi  s'amnse,  which  was  interdicteil  after  the  lirst 
night,  and  of  which  the  best  that  can  be  said  is 
that  it  is  suiierbly  written  and  that  it  has  gcme 
the  round  of  the  world  as  llitjoletto.  The  ne.xt 
year  was  that  of  Lneriee  Bori/ia  and  Marie  Tudor, 
the  first  a  good  and  stirring  melodrama,  the 
second  a  farrago  of  unveracities  of  all  kinds — 
moral,  historical,  dramatic,  ami  the  rest  ;  in  18.34 
came  Claude  Giou.r,  which  is  jiurc  humanitarian 
sentimentalism,  and  the  LIttiralurr  it  I'hilosojihie 
Mi'lfcs,  a  collection  of  juvenilia  in  prose,  all  care- 
fully dated  and  all  as  carefully  rewritten  or 
revised.      Followed   in    1835  Au//rl„,  a  third  melo- 


HUGO 


823 


drama  in  prose,  and  the  admirable  lyrisiii  of  Les 
Chants  (III  Criimscule :  in  1836 //«  Esmeralda  (3.n 
opera  for  Mdlle.  Berlin);  in  1837,  Les  Voix  Iii- 
Uricures,  in  wliicli,  as  in  Les  Feuillcs  il'Automnc, 
the  poet's  "genius  of  diction  is  lield  by  some  to 
have  found  its  noblest  expression  ;  iu  1838,  lix;/ 
Bias,  after  Hiriimii  the  most  famous  of  his  stage 
rhapsorlip,s  ;  and  in  1H40,  Les  lini/otis  c.t  les  Omljrcs, 
yet  anotlier  collection  of  brilliant  and  sonorous 
verse ;  after  which  the  prodigious  affluence  of 
creativeness  to  which  all  those  were  due  appears 
to  have  been  momentarily  exhausted.  Certain  it 
is  that  Hugo  publislied  no  more  until  1843,  wlien 
he  again  failed  at  the  I'rancais  with  that  ponderous 
trilogy  of  I^es  Jiiirifrares,  surcharged  with  as  it 
were  an  ^-Eschylean  sentimentalisni.  His  next 
essay  in  pure  art  was  not  put  forth  till  1856,  the 
dozen  or  fifteen  years  between  being  very  largely 
given  over  to  the  puisuit  of  politics  and  the  prac- 
tice of  oratory,  journalism,  and  pamphleteering  in 
prose  and  verse. 

Putting  it  roughly,  Hugo  was  until  1830  a 
Royalist,  and  wors^iipped  Napoleon  ;  and  between 
1830  anil  1848  he  was  a  Xapoleonist  with  a  turn 
for  humanitarianism,  but  more  or  le.ss  resolute  in 
the  cause  of  order  and  law.  In  this  latter  capacity 
it  was  that  he  sat  for  the  city  of  Paris  in  the 
Asseniblee  Constitnante.  There  he  voted  now 
with  the  Right  and  now  with  the  Left,  so  that, 
when  on  his  election  to  the  Assemblee  Legislative 
he  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  democratic  republicans, 
the  reproach  of  apostasy  was  by  no  means  un- 
founded. It  is  not  clear  that  he  would  have  been 
linally  content  with  any  change  in  the  condition  of 
things  at  this  time — always  excepting  such  a  turn 
of  tlie  wheel  as  would  have  brought  himself  to  the 
top  and  kept  him  there  as  a  kind  of  emjieror  by 
the  grace  of  genius  and  the  democracy.  Hut  it  is 
plain  that  he  was  bitterly  dissatisfied  with  things 
as  they  were,  even  as  it  is  plain  that  he  could 
neither  endure  the  eminence  of  Montalembert  nor 
consider  with  patience  and  dignity  the  fact  of  the 
popularity  of  the  prince-president.  In  1852,  after 
the  rail//  d'cfiit,  he  withdrew  to  Jersey,  whence  he 
issued  his  Knjxdeim  Ic  Petit,  perhaps  the  most 
mannered  and  the  least  literary  of  all  his  works, 
and  in  18.')3  Les  ChAfimeiits,  which  is  certainly  the 
greatest  achievement  in  the  fusion  of  pure  poetry 
with  political  and  personal  satire  in  all  literature. 
Three  years  after  appeared  Les  Contemplations,  a 
gathering  of  poems  elegiacal,  reflective,  and  lyrical, 
remarkable  for  beauty  of  expression  and  com|iara- 
tive  simplicity  of  style  ;  and  three  years  after  that 
the  wonderful  and  often  bewildering  Lih/ende  (te 
i>iih:/es  ( 1859).  Still  another  silence  of  three  years 
was  broken  by  the  pul)licatioii  (in  ten  languages) 
of  Les  3Iis(n(bles  [\Sli2),  a  panoramic  romance  of 
modern  life,  mannered  beyond  measure  in  style  and 
abounding  in  absurdities  and  lonrjiieiirs,  but  includ- 
ing also  not  a  little  of  Hugo's  sincerest  and  mo.st 
touching  invention  and  acluevement;  and  this  in 
its  turn  was  followed  by  the  extraordinary  rhapsody 
called  William  Shakespeare  ( 1864),  and  by  I^es  Chan- 
sons des  Hues  et  den  Hois  (1865),  a  book  of  verses 
which  is  at  the  same  time  a  little  gallery  of  achieve- 
inents  in  style  ;  liy  I^es  Tramilliurs  dc  la  Mer,  an 
idyll  of  pa.ssion.  adventure,  and  self-sacrilice  ;  liy 
L'Hoinmc  rjni  Hit,  a  piece  of  fiction  whose  purpose 
and  tenor  are  iiiten<led  to  be  historical,  and  whose 
effect  is  sometimes  to  overwhelm  the  reader,  often 
to  weary  him,  and  still  more  often  to  amuse. 
Returning  to  Paris  after  the  Fourth  of  Se))tem- 
ber,  Hugo  at  <mce  distinguished  himself  by  sum- 
moning the  Germans  to  withdraw  from  Prance 
and  priK-laim  the  (ierman  Republic.  Souie  five 
or  SIX  months  after  he  was  chosen  to  repre-  . 
sent  the  .Seine,  but  soon  resigned  his  seat  on  the 
groiind  that  one  of  his  speeches  was  interrupted  I 


by  the  Right.  He  stayed  on  through  the  rule  of 
the  Commune,  and  defended  the  Vendome  Column 
while  he  could  :  and  then,  departing  for  IJrussels, 
he  protested  publicly  against  tlie  action  of  the  Bel- 
gian government  in  respect  of  the  beaten  Com- 
nninists,  the  ellects  of  which  proceeding  were  that 
the  populace  rose  against  him,  and  that  he  was 
expelled  the  kingdom.  Again  he  stood  for  Paris, 
but  was  beaten  by  a  niajoiity  of  27,0O(J  on  a 
register  of  231,(W0.  In  1872  he 'juiblished  L' An  nee 
Terrible,  a  seiies  of  pictures  of  the  war,  diatribes 
against  Germany,  and  eulogies  of  France,  which 
are  often  eloquent  and  are  sometinie.s  poetry  ;  in 
1874  his  last  romance  in  prose,  the  much-debate<l 
l,hii(tre-Vinfit-Treize  :  in  1875-76  a  complete  collec- 
tion of  his  speeches  and  ii<bhesses.  In  1876  he  was 
made  a  senator,  and  iiulilished  the  .second  part  of 
the  Ligende ;  1877  w.os  the  year  of  the  Uistoire 
d'un  Crime,  which  has  been  fairly  enough  described 
as  '  the  apotheosis  of  the  Special  Correspondent,' 
and  of  L'Art  d'etre  Grand-pire,  wherein,  with  muoli 
channing  verse,  are  good  store  of  conceits  and 
no  small  amount  of  what  some  one  has  called 
'the  peilantry  of  sentimentalism  ; '  1878  and  1879 
eniiched  us  with  Le  Pajie — a  piece  humanitarian, 
anti-clerical,  and  above  all  theatrical,  which  they 
may  praise  who  can — and  La  Pitic  Supn-eme,  the 
effect  of  which  is  nuich  the  same,  and  which — like 
L'Ane  ( 1880),  and  a  great  deal  of  Les  Qiiatre  I'ents 
dc  r Esprit  (1881),  and  Torqiiemada  (1882)— is 
merely  Hugo  in  decay.  His  mastery  of  words 
remains  invarialile,  his  accomiilishment  is  always 
superb;  but  all  too  frequently  he  produces  anti- 
thesis under  the  delusion  that  he  is  expressing 
ideas,  he  parades  all  manner  of  affectations  with 
the  air  of  one  reviewing  a  Tenth  Legion  or  (Jid 
Guard  (so  to  speak)  of  the  sentiments,  he  continu- 
ally mistakes  preposterousness  for  grandeur ;  he 
falls  a  prey  to  any  of  the  eternal  unveracities  he 
may  chance  to  encounter  ;  his  '  philo.sophy  '  is  a 
mere  effect  of  appetite,  and  as  always  his  de- 
pressing lack  of  humour  is  '  not  merely  zero,  l)ut 
even  a  frightful  minus  quantity,'  so  that  he 
abides  in  error  \\\t\\  a  seriousness  ridiculous  inileed. 
But  genius  is  always  genius,  and  temperament 
never  ceases  from  being  temperament ;  and  the 
final  impression  is  one  of  unsurpas.sed  accomplish- 
ment and  abounding  mental  and  emoticmal 
activity.  So  that  Hugo  died  the  foremost  man 
of  letters  of  his  time,  and  they  were  few  indeed 
who  grudged  him  the  public  funeral  with  which  he 
was  dignified,  and  in  which  the  pauiiers  hearse 
that  bore  him  tombwards — (the  invention  was 
wholly  his  own) — was  followed  by  the  best  and  the 
worst  of  living  France. 

Hugo's  work  is  vitiated  as  an  expression  of  life 
bj'  the  presence  of  an  abounding  insinceiity  in 
combination  with  a  quality  of  self-sufficiency  so 
inor<linate  as  scarce  to  be  distinguished  now  and 
then  from  an  immense  stupidity.  In  truth  he  does 
but  seem  to  create  :  his  personages — Ciuu)urd.un, 
Josiane,  Didier,  Ursus,  Ruy  Gomez  de  Silva,  Claude 
Frollo,  Lantenae,  Lucrcce  Borgia,  Javert,  and 
Myriel,  the  very /«t'«c/t  of  Les  TravaHleiirs  de  la 
Mer,  are  all  expressiims  not  of  humanity  but  of  Victor 
Hugo.  You  would  believe  in  them — and  in  him — 
if  you  could  ;  but  you  cannot,  for  he  takes  care  to 
make  belief  impossible.  His  plays  are  sometimes 
well  made,  are  always  heavily  decorated,  are  all 
magnificently  written,  ami  have  all  had  tlieir 
chance  of  immortality.  But  their  author  is  \ictor 
Hugo,  and  the  .situjitions  are  abnormal,  the  pei^^on- 
ages  peculiar,  the  interests  remote  from  experience, 
and  such  motive  a.s  is  developed  is  too  individual 
and  strange  to  be  felt  beyond  the  footlight.s.  Much 
the  same  is  true  of  his  prose  ronumce  ;  but  while 
the  level  of  style  is  nothing  like  so  high  as  in 
the  plays,  it  has  merits— of  invention,  pathos  and 


824 


HUGO 


HUGUENOTS 


tenor,  presentation — alwent  from  these,  and  which 
Miiulo  him  one  of  the  most  popular  writers  of 
liis  epoch.  That  saiil,  it  may  l>e  ailileil  that  to 
talk  of  Hu^o  as  either  a  ilramatist  or  a  master  of 
romantic  liction  is  to  Ih?^  the  ijnestion  of  Hujjo's 
^'realness.  His  pro'se,  as  prose,  lias  never  the  eiisv, 
voluptnons,  natural  eliii|iienre  of  (leorne  Sands, 
nor  the  mordant  felicity  of  Mcrimce's,  nor  the 
sjioiitaiicity  and  vivacity  of  Dnmas's,  nor  the  ter- 
rilile  yet  irresistiliU"  persuasiveness  of  the  opening' 
chaptei's  of  M asset's  Cuiifinsion  i/'iiii  Eiifiiiit  (In 
Sio-le.  His  dramas  are  only  so  many  lyrical  ex- 
pressions of  lln^'olatry,  the  work  of  the  arch-Hugo- 
tater.  His  Iiest  and  truest  title  to  immortality  is 
his  poetry.  In  truth,  the  raujie  and  the  capacity 
of  his  ^'euius  ill  rhythm  and  rhyme  are  iiiiiiaral' 
leled  in  the  literature  of  Krance.  It  was  for  Alusset 
to  utter  the  truest  note,  and  to  make  the  inventicm 
s|ieak  the  very  langna^xe  of  the  heart:  it  has  heen 
f<u'  Leconte  de  Lisle,  for  Kauilelaiie,  for  (i.iutier  to 
produce  iiupeccahlc  work  each  after  his  kind  ;  hut 
assureilly  it  was  for  Hu;:o  to  ,icconii)lish  the  most 
j,'or^'eous  anil  the  most  heroic  achieveuuMil  in  the 
divine  art  of  son;;.  His  M'l-se,  with  its  inliniti^ 
capacity  of  violeiu'e  and  calm,  sunshine  and  thun- 
der, ajiocalyptic  fury  and  );race  iiiclVahle.  lia.s  some- 
thinj;  of  the  ell'ect  of  the  multitudinous  sea,s 
as  he  saw  and  descrihed  them  from  his  eyrie  in 
iniilchannel.  The  eH'ect  of  his  alexandrines,  with 
their  wealth  of  colour  and  li^dit  and  <'nerj;y,  may 
fairly  he  |iarallc'lcil  with  that  of  .Shakespeare's 
iamhics  ;  while  ill  their  purity  of  form,  the  sweetness 
and  distinction  of  their  cadences,  their  richness 
of  rhyme,  their  niajfical  felicity  of  e.xjiression,  his 
lyrical  measures  ]iut  the  Pleiad  and  all  its  works 
to  shame.  There  can  he  no  possihle  doubt  that  in 
many  of  the  ridations  of  lite  Huj;o  was  a  jinsrnr 
of  the  tirst  ma;,'nitiide — that  from  the  lirst  he  hum- 
liULrj,'ed  his  conteuipor.aries  with  a  pertinacity  and 
a  >uccess  that  are  only  eoiialled  hy  his  faculty  of 
takinp  liimself  seriously.  l?ut  there  can  he  as  little 
that  while  essentially  nn-l-'rench— a  combination, 
indeed,  of  Teuton  and  Celt,  and  moreover  ahso- 
Inlely  lackin;;  in  sanity — he  was  a  lyrist  of  the  first 
order,  a  master  of  words  and  cadences,  an  artist  in 
rhythms  and  rhymes. 

8ee  Vielor  Uuijo  raconti'  par  «n  Timoin  de  sa  Vic 
(18(J3)  by  his  wife,  who  died  nt  Brus.sels  in  ISfiS  ;  works 
on  hiin  by  Hivcl  (1S78),  Paul  do  .Saint  '^'ictor  (1S,S.5), 
Harbou  (ISSl),  Asscline(  ]S'*S),  Kri  (three  mainly  hostile 
books,  188.S  !):<),  Dupuv  (two  books,  1887-90),  Mabilleau 
(bS'JS),  Bouaon(4th  ed.  18!I3),  Renouvier  (\m^)■,  .Swin- 
burne, A  Stmtii  of  Victor  Hwio  (ISSCi),  and  Kn^lish  works 
by  IJamett  .Smith  (las.'i),  and  .J.  1".  Nichol  (  18<»-.');  and 
criticisms  by  Gauticr,  Haiiville,  Haudelairc.  and  Saintc 
Ikuve. — His  son  Charles  (182G-71 ),  puljlicisstand  novelist, 
was  tlie  fatlierof  the  'George'  and  '.Icanne'  of  L' AH  de 
d'etre  OrandpHrc  ;  Francois  ( 182S-7:i)  trans.  Shakespeare. 

Ituglieiiots     (from    the    (ienevese    nickname 

liffiiriKit.  (!er.  ridijcnnxaf),  the  name  formerly  ;,nven 
in  France  to  the  adherents  of  the  Reformation, 
which  movement  commenceil  almost  simultaneously 
in  Krance  and  (ierinany.  One  of  the  most  eminent 
names  in  the  early  history  of  French  Protestantism 
is  that  of  F'arel  ( i|.  v. ),  anil  one  of  the  first  supportei's 
of  its  cause  was  Margaret  of  \'alois,  queen  of 
Nav.irre,  the  sister  of  Fr.ancis  I.  Subsequently,  in 
the  time  of  Calvin,  many  of  the  nobles  and  middle 
classes  embr.aced  the  reformed  religion.  Francis  I., 
however,  opposed  it  Avitli  great  severity,  and  caused 
many  to  be  burned  as  heretics.  The  alliance  of 
Henry  H.  with  the  German  Protestants  gave  .at 
tirst  an  im]iulse  to  the  cause  of  the  Heforniation, 
but  the  .aspect  of  things  wjis  again  changed 
when  the  family  of  Guise  obtained  ascendency  at 
court.  I'mler  Fr.ancis  II.  a  chaml)er  (chamhre 
finli-iitc)  was  establishe<l  in  each  ii.arliament  for  the 
punishment  of    Protestants ;  and   executiims,  con- 


fiscations, and  banishments  were  common  in  all 
parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  I'rotestants  took  np 
arms  against  the  goveiTinient,  choosing  I.oiiis  I., 
Prince  of  IJourbon-Conde,  for  their  h'ailer.  tin 
February  1,  l.'itMI.  in  a  meeting  at  Nantes,  they 
resolved  to  petition  the  king  for  freedom  of  ndigioii 
and  for  the  removal  of  the  (Juises;  and  in  the 
event  of  his  refusal,  to  seize  the  king's  ]iersoii,  and 

1iro(daim  Comic  governor-general  of  the  kingdom. 
hit  the  court,  being  apprised  of  the  conspiracy, 
lied  from  lilois  to  Amboise,  and  the  Duke  of  Guise 
wa.s  a|i]>ointe<l  governor-general.  Some  bands  of 
I'rotestants,  aiiproachiiig  Amboise  with  weajions  in 
their  hands,  were  ejusily  defeated  and  taken  ;  |-J(K) 
died  by  tin'  hand  of  the  e.vecntioner.  The  I'Mict  of 
Honior.antin.  in  M,ay  l.')6(l,  took  the  prosecution  of 
heretics  out  of  the  hands  of  the  |iarliaiiient.  and 
gave  it  into  those  of  the  bishops.  \\  liilst  the  Ciiiscs 
iilotted  the  death  of  the  Protestant  leadei-s  Charles 
IX.  a.scended  the  throne,  a  ]irince  not  yet  of  age; 
.and  the  queen-mother,  Catharine  de'  iMedici  (q.v.), 
having  removed  the  Guises  from  the  helm  ot  the 
state,  was  comjielled  to  seek  the  sii]>port  of  the 
Protestants  against  them  ami  their  p.irly.      In  .Inly 

1561  appeareil  an  edict  which  freed  the  Huguenots 
from  the  jienalty  of  death.  I""or  the  complete 
termination  of  strife  the  court  ojiened  a  religious 
conference  at  I'oissy.  The  chief  disputants  were 
the  Carilinal  of  Lorraine  <ui  the  one  side,  and 
Theodore  Heza  (q.v.)  on  the  other.  Thi'  elVi'ct 
of  the  iliscnssion  was  to  unite  and  embolden  the 
Protestants,  with  wlnuii  the  machinations  of  the 
(iuises   forced   Cath.arine   into   closer   alliance.      In 

1562  ajijieared  an  e^lict  giving  noblemen  the  right 
of  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  <m  their  own 
estates. 

In  March  of  the  s.anie  year,  a  eoiiijiany  of  Pro- 
testants met  in  a  barn  at  Va.s.sy  for  religious 
exercises  was  att,acke(l,  and  many  of  them  were 
massacred  by  the  followers  of  the  Kiike  of  (Jiiise. 
On  this  Conde  hasteneil  todrleans.  ami  called  his 
co-religionists  .again  to  his  standard  ;  whilst  the 
(iuises  took  nossession  of  the  persons  of  the  king 
and  his  inotiii'i",  and  proclaimiMl  the  Protestants 
rebels.  In  September  the  royal  troo|is  took  Hoiien, 
.and  in  December  a  b.attle  was  fought  at  Drenx,  in 
which,  .after  a  hard  struggh'.  the  I'rotestants  were 
defeated.  The  Duke  of  (niise  man  IkmI  on  I  Irleans, 
but  w;us  assa.ssin.ited  in  his  cam])  before  that  city, 
Febrn.arv  IS,  l.")(>;f.  Hereujion  the  queen-mother 
h,a.steneii  to  c(m<dude  the  jieiwe  of  Amboise,  liy 
which  the  Protest.ants  were  allowed  the  free  exer- 
cise of  their  religion,  except  in  certain  districts 
and  towns.  Catharine,  however,  forme<l  .a  close 
alliance  with  the  S])ani,aids  fin  the  extirpation  of 
heresy,  retrenched  the  new  liberties  of  the  Pro- 
testants, and  made  attempts  ii]ion  the  life  of  Conde 
and  of  the  .\dniiial  Cidigny  (ipv.).  These  leaders 
of  the  Protestant  p.irty  ailopted  the  resolution  of 
taking  possession  of  the  king's  person.  The  court 
Med  to  Paris,  which  Conde  invested  ;  but  in  Novem- 
ber l.')67  a  b.attle  was  fought  .at  St  Denis  betwi-eii 
Cimde  and  the  Constable  .Mcmtmorencv.  in  con- 
sequence of  which  Cimde  fell  back  into  Lorraine ; 
and  in  March  l.'itiK  Catharine  concluded  peace  at 
Longjumean.  Nevertheless  she  ])ei'seeuted  the 
Protestants,  of  whom  .'ilKKI  were  .ass.assinated 
or  executed.  The  Protest.mts  having,  however, 
received  a.ssist,ance  in  troo]>s  from  lierniany,  and  in 
money  .and  artillery  from  Kngland,  began  the 
third  religions  war.  But  on  Mandi  l.*?.  l.")6it,  they 
were  defeated,  and  Conde  their  leader  slain,  at 
.Tarnac  by  the  royal  troojis  under  the  Duke  of 
Anjoii,  .afterwards  Henry  III.  Jeanne  d'Albret, 
queen  of  Navarre,  en<leavonred  to  reanimate  the 
Protestants,  .and  set  up  her  son,  afterwards 
Henry  IV.,  as  the  head  of  the  Protestant  cause. 
Coligmy    h.aving     received    further     assistance    of 


HUGUENOTS 


825 


troops  from  Germany,  laiil  siege  to  Poitiers,  but 
was  again  tlefeated  by  the  Duke  of  Anjou  at 
Moncontour.  Fresli  reinforcements  from  England, 
Switzerlanil,  and  (iermany  enabled  Coligny  to 
take  Ninies  in  1509,  and  to  relieve  La  Kochelle, 
whilst  Lanoue  obtained  a  victory  over  the  royal 
troops  at  Lueon.  Catharine  and  her  son  now 
sought  for  peace  ;  and  a  treaty,  concluded  at  St 
Germain-en-Laye  in  August  1570,  gave  to  the 
Protestants  an  amnesty,  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religion  everywhere  excej)!  in  Paris,  and  the  posses- 
sion of  a  number  of  places  of  security. 

Catharine,  having  failed  to  overthrow  the  Pro- 
testant cause  in  the  open  lield,  sought  to  accom- 
plish her  object  by  treachery  ;  and  by  a  general 
massacre  of  Protestants  on  St  Bartholomew's  Day 
(q.v. )  lo7"2,  30,000  Huguenots  were  slain  witliin 
two  months  in  Paris  and  in  the  provinces.  Al- 
though deprived  of  their  leaders,  and  weakened 
by  the  slaughter  of  great  nnmljers  of  their  best  and 
bravest,  the  Protestants  Hew  to  arms.  The  Duke 
of  Anjou,  after  having  lost  his  army  before  La 
Kochelle,  took  advantage  of  his  election  to  the 
throne  of  I'oland,  and  in  1573  concluded  a  peace 
by  which  tlie  Protestants  obtaine<l  the  free  exercise 
of  their  religion  in  their  jilaces  of  security,  Mont- 
aubau,  Nimes,  and  La  Kochelle.  A  section  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  nobility,  at  whose  head  was  the 
Duke  of  Alencon,  the  youngest  son  of  Catharine, 
from  purely  political  motives  united  with  the 
Protestants  in  opposition  to  the  queen-mother  and 
the  Guises.  Catharine,  therefore,  incited'  her  third 
son,  now  Henry  III.,  immediately  to  recommence 
hostilities  against  the  Protestants.  But,  contrary 
to  all  expectation,  the  Protestant  cause  was  in 
the    highest   degiee    prosperous    during  tlie    year 

1575.  A  peace  was  concludeil  at  Beaulieu  by 
which  the  Protestants  were  freed  from  all  restric- 
tions in  the  e.xercise  of  their  religion,  and  obtained 
eight  new  places  of  security.  The  Duke  of  Guise 
originated  a  Catholic  association,  called  the  Holy 
League,  at  the  head  of  which  the  king  jnit  him- 
self in   the   As.sembly   of  the   States    at  Blois   in 

1576,  and  the  sixth  religious  war  began.  Peace 
wa.s,  however,  again  concluded  by  the  king  him- 
self at  Bergerac,  in  1577,  on  the  former  conditions  ; 
and  Catliarine,  to  diminish  the  i)ower  of  the  Duke 
of  Guise,  entered  into  a  private  treaty  witli  Henry 
of  Navarre.  The  terms  of  peace  being  \iolated  by 
the  court,  Henry  1.,  Prince  of  Conde,  son  of  Louis 
L,  commenced  the  seventh  religious  war  (calleil 
the  i/iicfre  des  aiii(juieii.e)  in  November  1579;  but 
lie  and  his  colleague  Henry  of  Navarre  being  van- 
<|uished,  peace  was  concluded  at  Fleix,  November 
15H0. 

There  was  now  a  comparatively  long  interval  of 
repose  till  1584,  when,  by  the  death  of  the  Duke 
of  Anjou  (formerly  of  Alencon),  Henry  of  Navarre 
became  heir  to  the  throne  of  Prance.  Hereupon 
Henry,  Duke  of  (iuise,  exerted  himself  lor  the 
revival  of  the  League,  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Spain  and  the  pope  for  the  extirpation  of  heresy, 
declared  the  Cardinal  of  Bourbon  heir  to  the  throne, 
and  began  hostilities  against  the  I'rotestants.  This 
war  is  commonly  known  as  the  '  war  of  the  three 
Henries.'  The  king  soon  made  terms  with  Guise, 
anil  declared  all  the  privileges  of  the  Protestants 
to  be  forfeited.  The  Protest.ants,  having  obtained 
troops  from  (Jermany  and  money  imm  England, 
entered  on  the  eighth  religious  war,  Heniy  of 
Navarre  commanding  the  Protestant  army.  The 
Duke  of  Guise,  in  the  midst  of  these  troubles, 
grasped  the  whole  power  of  the  state.  l!ut  his 
designs  with  regard  to  the  throne  having  beconu' 
very  eviilent,  the  king  caused  him  and  his  brother 
the  cardinal  to  be  assassinated  at  the  -Vssembly  of 
the  States  at  Blois  in  September  1588.  In  less 
than  a  vear  the  king  was  himself  a.ssassinated  bv 


a  monk  named  .lacqnes  Clement,  and  Henrj'  of 
Navarre  succee<leil  to  the  throne,  and  signeil  the 
famous  Edict  of  Nautes  (see  Naktes)  on  13th 
Ai>ril  1598. 

Under  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  the  Protestants 
lived  in  tranijuillity.  Ibit  when,  during  the  minor- 
ity of  Louis  Nil  I.,  Mary  <le'  Medici,  the  (jueen  of 
Henry  W.,  assumed  the  reins  of  government,  the 
marriage  treaties  with  the  Spanish  court  excited 
the  ap])rehensions  of  the  Protestants  to  such  a 
degree  that  in  November  1615  the  Prince  of  Cimde 
set  up  the  stanilard  of  rebellion.  In  spite  of  the 
treaty  of  Loudun  ( 1616),  in  June  1617  a  royal  edict 
comman<led  the  entire  suppression  at  once  of  the 
Protestant  Church  and  of  political  privileges  in 
the  pro\  ince  of  Beam  ;  an  edict  not  carried  into 
full  efiect  till  1620.  Hostilities  again  broke  out 
in  May  1621.  At  the  head  of  the  Protestants  were 
the  two  brothers,  the  Duke  of  Rohan  and  the 
Prince  Soubise.  Their  cause,  however,  was  feebl\ 
maintained  :  and  after  the  cajiitulation  of  Mont- 
pellier,  21st  October  1622,  there  followed  a  general 
])eace,  by  which  the  Edict  of  Nantes  wa-s  con- 
tirmed.  but  the  right  of  prohibiting  the  assem- 
blies of  the  Protestants  was  as.sumed  on  the  part 
of  the  crown.  The  court,  however,  paid  little 
attention  to  the  treaty,  and  the  Protestants  again 
rose  in  arms.  Soubise,  with  a  fleet  furnished  by 
the  town  of  La  Kochelle,  oftener  than  once  defeated 
the  weak  royal  navy  ;  and  Cardinal  Richelieu  (tt-v.) 
resolved  upon  the  caiiture  of  La  Kochelle.  This 
he  accomplishe<l  after  a  heroic  resistance  by  the 
inhabitants.  The  fall  of  La  Kochelle  was  speedily 
followed  by  that  of  Nimes,  Montauban,  Castres, 
and  all  the  other  Protestant  strongholds.  Now 
left  defenceless,  and  bereft  of  all  political  power, 
the  Protestants  were  entirely  dei)endent  on  the 
will  of  the  ciiurt,  which,  however,  nuule  no  attemjit 
to  deprive  them  of  their  liberty  of  conscience.  It 
was  Louis  XI\'.  who,  at  the  instigation  of  Madame 
de  Mainteuon  and  his  confess<u  Lacliaise,  com- 
menced anew  the  persecution  of  the  Protestant^, 
gradually  dejirived  them  of  their  equal  civil  rights, 
and  endeavoured  to  put  down  the  Protestant 
Church  altogether.  Boilies  of  troops,  accomjianied 
liy  monks,  passed  through  the  southeni  provinces, 
com])elling  the  inhabitants  to  renounce  their 
religion,  demolishing  the  places  of  worship,  and 
]>utting  to  death  the  preachers  ( see  Dkagonn.\de.s  ). 
Fenelon  was  conspicuous  for  liis  zeal  in  seeking  the 
conversion  of  Protestants.  Hundreds  of  thousand.-- 
Iled  to  Switzerland,  the  Netherlands,  England,  and 
Germany.  Many  Protestants  also  made  an  insin- 
cere i)rofession  of  Roman  Catholicism.  On  23d 
October  1685  Louis  at  last  revoke<l  the  Edict  of 
Nantes.  Hereupon  began  a  new  (light,  followeil 
by  a  >till  more  fearful  persecution  of  the  Pro- 
testants. Their  marriages  were  declareil  null  ; 
their  children  deprived  of  the  right  of  iuheritanre, 
and  forcibly  shut  u])  in  convents  ;  their  preachers 
indiscriminately  jnit  to  death.  From  the  vicinity 
of  Nimes,  where  they  bad  always  been  very 
numerous,  thousands  "betook  themselves  to  the 
mimntains  of  the  Cevennes,  and  continued  the 
exercise  of  their  religion  in  secret.  Anu)ngst  these 
aiul  the  mountaineei>.  of  the  Cevennes  a  renuirkable 
fanatical  enthusiasm  displayed  it.self,  and,  under 
the  name  of  Camisards  (q.v.),  they  maintaineil 
for  a  uumlier  of  years  a  wonderfully  successful 
o|)position  to  the  forces  of  the  great  monarchy. 
The  War  of  the  Cevennes,  or  CamisarJ  War,  w.%s 
not  terminated  till  1706,  the  suppression  of  the  local 
rebellion  being  attended  with  circumstances  of 
great  cruelty.  France  lost  in  twenty  years  more 
than  half  a  million  of  her  most  iictive.  enteriuising. 
and  inilustrious  citizens:  and,  notwithstanding  all 
the  persecutions,  about  two  millions  continued  to 
adhere  to  the  Piotestant  religion. 


826 


HUGUENOTS 


HULL 


Tlie  partial  repose  which  tlie  I'rotcstant.s  fiij(>.ve<l 
fi>r  more  than  ten  veal's  \va.s  utteiuleil  hy  a  revival 
of  their  worship,  especially  in  I'rovenee  and 
Dauphine.  In  1724,  therefore,  Louis  XV.,  at  the 
instillation  of  the  Jesuits,  issued  a  severe  eJicl 
aj;ainst  them.  The  spirit  of  the  age,  however, 
now  lie'Mn  to  lie  opposed  to  pei'seeution.  An 
eilirt  ot  17.")2  declaii-(l  mariia^'es  and  liaiitisins 
liy  Protestant  niinistei-s  to  lie  null,  and  leijuired 
the  repetition  of  them  liy  the  Unman  Catholic 
clei;;y.  Hut  when,  upon  this,  numy  l)e;,'an  a;;ain 
to  ilee  from  their  country,  the  disgust  of  the 
Homiiii  ('.itholios  themselves  was  so  much  e.\cited 
that  the  court  recalled  the  edict.  Monles(|uieu 
successfully  advocated  the  cause  <if  toleration ; 
Voltaire  diil  much  to  iiromotc  it  liy  his  exposure  of 
the  judicial  murder  ot  .lohn  C'ala.s  (i|.v.).  At  last, 
liy  ;ui  eilict  in  1TH7,  which  indeed  wa.s  not  registered 
liy  the  parliament  till  17S9,  Louis  XVL  declared 
the  Protestant  marriages  and  haptisms  to  lie  valiil, 
and  restored  to  the  Protestant.s  ei|ual  civil  riglit.s, 
except  that  they  might  not  he  advanced  to  puhlic 
ollices  and  dignities.  Even  in  17S9  a  iiroiiosal  f<ir 
the  complete  emancipation  of  the  Protestant."!  wa.s 
rejecteil  hy  the  National  .\ssembly,  which,  how- 
ever, admitted  Protestants,  and  even  Protestant 
preacliei-s,  a.s  memhers  without  ohjection  ;  and  in 
171MI  it  jiiusseil  a  decree  for  the  restitution  of  all 
the  jirojierties  of  non-Catholics  oonliscateil  since 
the  time  of  Louis  \l\'.  The  Cod>:  X/i/n,/iii>i  gave 
I'mtcstants  in  Kiance  e(|ual  civil  and  political 
rights  with  Konian  Catholics.  The  charter  granU'd 
liy  the  Hourhons  acknowleilged  the  freedom  of 
Protestant  worship,  and  the  state  pledged  itself 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  pastoi-s  ;  yet  under  the 
government  of  the  Restoration  the  iirivileges  of 
Protestants  were  in  many  ways  circumscrilied. 
After  the  revolution  of  .liily  l!S:i(J  the  Heformed 
Charter  of  !•" ranee  jiroclaimed  universal  freedom  of 
conscience  and  of  worship,  which  principle  has 
lieen  maintained  in  sulisefjuent  changes.  Pro- 
testants were  no  loni'er  subjected  to  many  excep- 
tional hardships,  and  in  various  imiiortant  in- 
stances were  jirotected  liy  Na]ioleon  111.  from  the 
arbitrary  exerci.se  of  power  attempteil  by  illiberal 
local  magistrates  adveme  to  their  religicui.  l!nt 
the  iccofiiihcd  Protestant  Church — in  which  are 
included  both  Uefornied  and  Lutherans,  and  of 
which  the  jiastors  receive  small  salaries  from  the 
state  (see  l'lt.\NOK) — was  not  till  1872  peniiittetl  to 
hcdd  synods  or  general  a,sseniblies  or  to  proselyti.se. 
-At  a  synod  held  in  that  year  the  conservative 
party  in  the  church,  in  spite  of  some  opposition, 
carried  their  proposal  that  the  church,  which  had 
long  been  without  a  formally  binding  creed, 
slioiilil  adoiit  iin  evangelical  confession.  French 
Protestants  now  number  7(K),tXlO  apjiroximatcly, 
with  1400  ]ilaces  of  woi-shi])  and  9,i0  ministers. 

The  liist  Huguenot  churches  in  England  ilate 
from  the  Kith  century,  as  also  the  introduction  of 
the  HiigueiKit  industries,  such  as  the  woollen, 
worsted,  and  najiery  trades,  silk-weaving,  tapestry, 
dyeing,  gla-ss-inaking,  pottery,  ami  paper-making. 
I  nder  Charles  II.  the  Savoy  in  Lonchin  was  granted 
to  the  Huguenots  as  a  place  of  woi-ship,  a  fa-sliion- 
able  West-end  church,  in  which,  as  a  token  of 
'conformity,'  the  Common  Prayer-lKxik  w;is  read 
in  French.  From  16S."i  onwards  thousands  and 
thousands  of  Huguenots  found  their  way  to  Eng- 
land, and  gave  \Villiam  of  Orange  the  support  of 
their  militaiT  talent,  political  interest,  and  hnancial 
resources.  The  planting  of  Protestantism  in  Ire- 
land W!is  greatly  due  to  the  services  of  the  Hugue- 
nots Schomberg  and  Kuvigny.  Under  t^ueen 
Anne  there  were  thirty  Huguenot  churche,s  in 
Loiuhm  alone.  Towards  the  close  of  the  century 
more  than  half  had  ilisappcared  through  the  rapid 
absorption  of  the  Huguenot  families  in  the  Angli- 


can Church,  and  their  rise  to  the  lirst  ranks  in  the 
gentry  of  EuLdaud.     .Mcniliers  of  the  Saniin  family 

I  sat  among  tlie  bishops,  the  son  of  Peter  .Mlix 
became  ilean  of  Ely,  the  son  of.  t'asauhon  wjis 
rector  of  Ickham,  tlie  families  of  Chenevix  and 
Trench  gave  archbishops  to  Dublin  and  Tuam.  and 
that   of  Itomaine  clergymen  t<i  LoikIoii.     CaMilicr 

■  anil  Ligoiiier  served  under  the  Itritish  Hag,  ItoMiilly 
adorned  English  law,  the  Martineaus  shine  in 
Englisli  lett<'rs  ;  the  IJeauforts,  Hoih'.ms,  Itosaii- 
ijiiets,  liourdillons,  Cazenoves,  l)e  Crespignvs,  De 
Villiers,  Dii  Canes,  Co.ssets,  J.avards,  .Millais  are 
only  a  few  instances  taken  at  raiuloni  out  of  se\  eral 
humlred  family  names  of  Huguenot  origin. 

St-'f  UulliiOrc,  ErliiiyciMt mruts Hiitoriiiutit  :nir tta Ctiiities 
(if  fa  Jttnn'alion  tie  VKttit  thx  Nniitf»  ( 17W*  1 ;  Felice,  Hist, 
dts  l*ynttitttttilii  en  /Vn»irf  ( 1S51 ) ;  Haag,  Ln  J'\<iiict  Pro- 
tt:<tinite  (I^51*;  new  ed.  IHKi);  the  works  of  Capehgue 
(ISW)  and  Aguesse  (IWJ);  Smiles,  The  HiujiienoU  in 
Emihiiul  (ISi;7);  H.  M.  Haird,  Jiite  of  the  HiiiiuenuU 
(1880),  and  a  series  of  three  other  works  on  their  hihtnry 
( 1885-9.')) ;  I!.  K  Poole,  Tlic  HiiijuenoU  uf  Uu  Dinper.-i-iu 
(1880);  Bullet  ill  de  VHijsUiire  dii  Protentautixni*  Fruni^iiit; 
Transactions  and  publications  of  the  Huguenot  Society  of 
London,  cstahlislied  in  1885.  See  also  the  articles  FhaKCE, 
Mahot.  Hk.miv  IV.,  ic 

II Ilia-bird  ( Ilctcniloc/ia  ticutirostris),  a  remark- 
able New  Zealand  starling,  now  restricted  to  a  few 
woiKled  and  iniuintaiiious  regions.  The  jdiimage 
is  black,  except  on  the  white  tijisof  the  tail  leathers; 
there  is  a  wattle  at  the  corner  of  the  iiKiuth  ;  the 
bill  of  the  female  is  strikingly  did'erent  from  that 
of  her  mate,  being  long,  much  curved,  and  pliant, 
insteail  of  .straight  ami  strong  as  in  the  male.  'J'lie 
diirerence  is  so  marked  that  the  two  sexes  were 
formerly  referred  to  distinct  siiecies.  In  cligging 
grubs  out  of  wood  the  two  Kinds  of  bills  slip- 
]ilemeiit  one  another.  The  birds,  which  are  be- 
coming rare,  submit  readily  to  cajitivity. 

Illllk.s.     See  PRISON.S,  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  418. 

Hull,  or  KlNCSTOS-ON-HvLL,  an  important  and 
flourishing  English  river-port,  a  parliamentary  ami 
municipal  boKuigh  and  county  of  itself,  is  situated 
in  the  East  Hidiii''  of  Vorkshire,  in  a  low.  level 
plain  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Hnniber,  here  2 
miles  wide,  and  here  joined  by  the  Hull,  42  miles 
ESE.  of  York  and  \','.i  N.  of  London.  (If  chiiiclies 
the  most  notable  are  Holy  Trinity,  Decorated  and 
Perpendicular  in  style,  with  a  central  tower  140  feet 
high  ;  and  St  Man's  Lowgate  (l.'U.'j),  one-half  of 
which  was  removed  to  make  room  for  the  mansion- 
house  of  Henry  \'III.,  who  stayed  here  in  iri4(). 
Hoth  were  restored  by  Sir  C.  Vi.  Scott.  All  Saints' 
Chundi  (18(i9),  from  designs  of  Street,  is  a  gooil 
example  of  a  brick  church.  The  most  im]iortant 
educational  establishments  are  Hull  and  Exst 
liiding  College:  the  Hull  gianimar-school  (I48ti), 
where  Andrew  Marvell  Wfis  educated  ;  and  Trinity 
House  School  (  171<i).  where  a  large  number  <if  boys 
receive  a  nautical  education  :  to  which  may  be  added 
the  IJterarv  .and  Pliilosophical  So<iety,  the  Hoyal 
Institution,  the  Hull  Church  Institute,  'V'oung 
People's  Christian  Institution,  Literary  Club,  Col- 
lege of  Chemistry,  Mechanics'  Institute,  the  Sclmol 
of  Art.  An  eijuestrian  statue  (1734)  of  William 
III.  stands  in  the  market  place,  and  in  •lunction 
Street  is  a  ccduinn  (I8.'14)  surmounted  by  a  statue 
of  A\'illierfor<'e,  who  was  a  native,  as  also  w;is 
Ma.sou  the  ]ioet.  Among  many  other  benevolent 
establishments,  the  Trinity  House,  instituted  in 
I.S69,  but  rebuilt  in  17.').'J.  for  the  relief  of  decayed 
seamen,  and  the  Charterhouse  (rebuilt  l()4;"i),  an 
enilowed  instituti<in  for  the  poor,  are  the  nio.st 
worthy  of  note.  There  are  three  prettily  laid  out 
]iublic  p.arks.  ,\  town-hall,  Italian  lien.aissance  in 
style,  was  opentHl  in  1866,  as  also  was  a  new 
exchange.  There  are  also  a  spacious  gaol  (1869), 
a  new  post-office  (1877),  the  Theatre  Koyal  (1S7."J), 


HULL 


HUMANE    SOCIETY 


827 


the  dockotHce  (1S71),  public  baths  (1850),  a  new 
Tiiaikethall  (1887),  aim  the  James  Keckitt  Free 
Library  (1889). 

Tlie  docks  and  basins,  comprising  an  area  of 
upwards  of  200  acres,  have  been  constructed  since 
1774.  The  Victoria  Dock  (1850-64)  covers  20 
acres,  e.xclusive  of  two  large  timber  jionds  and 
tidal  basins  which  contain  an  area  of  about  9 
acres ;  it  partly  occupies  the  site  of  an  old 
citadel  with  a  battery  of  twenty-one  guns,  which 
till  1864  commanded  the  entrance  of  Hull  Roads 
and  the  Humher.  The  Albert  Dock  (24A  acres)  was 
opened  in  1869;  and  the  Alexandra  Dock  (40 
acres)  in  1883,  on  the  same  day  as  the  Hull  and 
Barnsley  Railway.  Hull  was  one  of  the  first  ports  in 
England  to  engage  in  the  whale-fishery,  an  enter- 
prise whicli  has  been  abandoned  ;  but  its  fisheries 
for  edible  fish  employ,  in  conjunction  with 
those  of  Griiusby,  large  Heets  of  boats,  attended 
by  steam  auxiliaiies.  Hull  is  a  principal  steam- 
packet  station,  and  ocean-steamers  ply  regularly  to 
many  of  the  principal  ports  of  Belgium,  Holland, 
Denmark,  Russia,  Germany,  and  Scandinavia. 
Its  home  trade  is  also  \ery  e.Ktensive.  It  is  the 
great  outlet  for  the  woollen  and  cotton  goods  of 
the  midland  counties,  with  which  it  has  direct  com- 
munication, by  means  of  railway,  river,  or  canal. 
It  is  the  chief  entrepot  for  German  and  Scandi- 
navian oversea  trade.  There  is  also  regular  steam 
comnmnication  with  New  York  and  Boston  ;  and 
an  Australian  trade  and  a  very  important  trade 
witli  India  have  been  inaugurated.  Hull  ranks 
third  among  British  ports,  the  average  yearly  value 
of  its  imports  exceeding  £20,000,000,  of  its  exports 
£16,000,000.  From  its  geographical  position  it 
is  confidently  believed  that,  even  were  the  interior 
of  the  country  canalised  as  far  as  Leeds,  the  poi-t 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Humber  would  continue  to 
maintain  the  position  of  third  entrepot  of  the 
kingdom.  Shipbuilding  yards  are  in  operation ; 
an<l,  in  aildition  to  iron  ships,  important  iron- 
clads have  been  built  here  for  British  and  several 
foreign  governments.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
those  principally  to  which  a  Hourishinjj  port  gives 
rise,  as  ropes,  canvas,  chain,  chain-cables,  ni.acliin- 
ery,  &c.  Many  mills  of  various  kinds  are  carried 
on,  as  well  as  chemical  factories,  tanneries,  and 
sugar-refineries.  Seed-crushing  for  oil  is  also  an 
important  staple  industry,  in  w-liich  a  large  amount 
of  ca]iital  is  invested.  Constituted  the  free  borough 
of  Kingston-<m-Hull  by  Edward  I.  in  1299,  the 
town  owed  much  to  its  great  merchant-house,  the 
De  la  Poles,  whose  hea<l,  Michael,  in  1385  was 
created  Earl  of  Suttblk.  In  1642  the  refusal  of  its 
governor.  Sir  John  Hntliam,  to  admit  Charles 
within  its  walls  marked  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War,  during  which  Hull  was  twice  besieged  by 
the  rovalists.  It  was  nuide  the  seat  of  a  sufiragan 
bishoi)'  in  1534,  and  again  in  1S9I.  Since  1885 
Hull  has  returned  three  instead  of  two  members  to 
jiarliament.  The  Hymers  Library  was  given  to  the 
town  in  1893,  in  which  year  there  was  a  great 
dockers  strike,  with  riots  and  incendiary  fires  in 
timber  yards.  Poj..  (1851)  84,690;  (1881)  165,690; 
(1891)  i99,991. 

8ie  local  works  by  Gent  (1735;  new ed.  1869),  Frost 
(1827),  Symons  (1862).  Shtahan  (1864),  and  TiiidaU 
■\Viklridge  (1888) ;  also  Freeman's  Enijlish  Tuiais  (1883). 

Hull,  the  chief  town  of  Ottawa  county,  Quebec, 
is  on  the  Ottawa  Uiver,  opposite  Ottawa  (q. v. ),  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  suspension  bridge.  It 
was  almost  whoUv  burnt  down  in  April  1900. 
I'op-  (1881)6890;  (1891)  11,264. 

Hull.  WlLLl.\M,  general,  \\as  born  at  Derby, 
Coiuipclicut,  in  1753,  fought  in  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence, and  governed  Michigan  tenitorv  in 
1805-12.     In  1812  he  wa.s  sent  with   an   ill  found 


army  of  1500  men  to  defeml  Detroit ;  there  he  wa-s 
left  witliout  supplies,  shut  in  by  British  and  Imlians, 
and  ultimately  compelled  to  surrender.  The  gov- 
ernment needed  a  scapegoat,  and  Hull  was  trieil 
by  court-martial  and  sentenced  to  be  shot.  The 
sentence,  however,  was  never  carried  out,  and  he 
died  on  his  farm  at  Newton,  Massachusetts,  in  1825. 

His  nephew,  ISA.\c  Hill,  naval  officer,  was  born 
at  Derliy,  Connecticut,  9th  March  1773,  became  a 
cabin-boy  at  fourteen,  rose  to  the  command  of  a 
ship  in  the  West  Indian  trade,  and  in  1798  entered 
the  newly-established  American  navy  as  a  fourth- 
lieuten.ant.  He  was  appointed  to  the  Cuiistitution 
frigate,  which  he  commanded  as  cai)tain  from  1806. 
Hull  was  an  able  seaman,  and  in  July  1812  his 
skill  in  sailing  his  ship  enabled  him  to  escape  from 
an  English  squadron,  after  a  jiursuit  of  three  days 
and  nights.  On  August  19  of  the  same  year  he 
captured  the  British  frigate  Giicrricrc,  forty-four 
guns,  after  a  close  action  of  thirty  minutes ;  the 
Constitution  losing  fourteen  killed  and  wounded, 
the  Gnerriere  seventy-nine.  The  Gucrriere  wiis  so 
injured  that  she  had  to  be  burned  ;  while  Hull's 
frigate  escaped  with  such  slight  damage  as  to  gain 
for  her  the  name  of  'Old  Ironsi<les.'  Hull  received 
a  medal  from  congress,  swords  of  honour,  and  the 
freedom  of  several  cities.  He  afterwards  com- 
manded sijuadrons  in  the  Mediterranean  and 
Pacific,  retired  in  1841,  and  died  in  Phihuleljihia, 
13th  February  1843.  See  the  Life  by  General 
James  Grant  Wilson  (New  York,  1889). 

Hllllah,  John  Pvke,  the  pioneer  of  music  for 
the  peojile,  was  born  at  Worcester,  27tb  June  1812. 
He  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and 
in  1836  composed  The  Village  Cotjuettcs  to  Charles 
Dickens's  lil)rctto.  In  1840  he  began  popular  singing- 
cla.sses  in  Exeter  Hall,  London,  in  which,  during  a 
course  of  twenty  years'  teaching,  he  trained  thou- 
sands to  use  their  voice  in  sint'ing.  He  was  for 
several  years  professor  of  Vocal  Music  in  King's 
College,  and  taught  at  other  schools  and  colleges  in 
the  metropolis  ;  and  from  1874  to  1882  was  appointed 
inspector  of  training-schools  for  the  United  King- 
dom. Hullah,  who  followed  a  modification  of 
Wilhem's  system,  had  little  sympathy  with  recent 
developments  of  modern  music,  and  opposed  the 
'Tonic  Sol-fa'  method.  He  published  among'st 
other  works  a  Ilintoni  of  Modern  .Music  ( 1862)  and 
The  Third  Period  of  Musieal  History  (1865).  Of 
his  SOUL'S,  '  The  Three  Fishers  '  and  '  The  Storm  ' 
attained  wide  jiopularity.  He  died  in  London, 
21st  Februaiy  1884.  See  the  Life  by  his  wife 
(1886). 

Hlllsean  Lectlircs,  &c.  The  Rev.  John 
Hulse,  born  at  Middlewich,  Cheshire,  in  1708, 
educated  at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and 
died  in  1789,  bei|Ueathed  his  jiroperty  to  the  uni- 
versity, for  the  foimding  of  two  di\inity  scholar- 
ships in  St  John's  College,  the  Hulsean  Prize,  the 
office  of  Christian  Ailvocate  (in  1860  changed  into 
the  Hulsean  Professorship  of  Divinity),  and  that 
of  Hulsean  Lecturer  (U-  Cliristian  Pieacher.  The 
lecturer,  appointed  annually,  must  deliver  at  letust 
four  lectures  before  the  university,  although  the 
number  requireil  was  originally  twenty,  afterwards 
reduced  to  eight,  and  since  1860  to  four.  The 
subjects  are  '  the  Evidence  for  Revealeii  Religion  ; 
the  Truth  and  Excellence  of  Christianity :  Pro- 
])becies  and  Miracles;  Director  Collateral  Proofs 
of  the  Christian  Religion,  especially  the  Collateral 
Aigumcnls:  the  most  difficult  Texts  or  Obscure 
Parts  of  Holy  Scripture."  Among  the  lecturers  have 
been  Trench,  Christopher  Wordsworth,  Ellicott, 
Dean  Howson,  Farrar,  Dr  E.  A.  Abbott,  and 
Bishop  Boyil  Carpenter. 

lliiiiiniie  Sooiety.  The,  wii.s  formed  in  1774 
by  Dr  Hawes  and  Dr  Cogan  and  thirty-two  others. 


828 


HUMANE    SOCIETY 


HUMANITARIANS 


in  Loiiiloii,  for  tlie  imr|)o.se  of  le-suscitHtiiM^  those 
wlio  Imd  l>eeii  iiiiiiieiseil  in  water  anil  were  ai>l>iir- 
ently  drowned.  At  the  jiresent  time  it  dislrilmte.s 
rewards,  consisting;  of  nieihiln,  ola-sps,  testimonials, 
and  sums  of  money,  to  those  who  save  or  attem;ii, 
to  save  life  from  drowning.  Also  'all  cases  of 
e.\ce|itioiial  bravery  in  rescnin;^  or  attempting  to 
rescue  pel-sons  from  asjiliy.xia  in  mines,  wells,  lilitst- 
furnaces,  or  in  sewers  where  foul  jjas  nuiv  endanger 
life,  are  reoofinisalde  liy  the  society.'  It  likewise 
gives  prizes  for  swimming  to  the  pupils  of  puhlic 
svliouls  and  of  training-shii>s.     l{oat.s  and  hoatnien 


Medal  of  the  Koyal  Humane  Society 
(actual  size  I*  iiicli  iliniiieter). 

are  kept  on  the  Serpentine  in  Hyde  I'ark  for  the 
|)urpose  of  watching  over  the  bathers  who  resort 
tliiUier.  And  during  the  skating  season  experi- 
enced icemen  arc  sent  to  the  various  waters  in  and 
around  London  to  help  in  ease  of  acciilents.  The 
society  is  supporteil  liy  lie(iue.st.s  and  private  snh- 
scriplions.  .Since  1.S73  the  Staidioiie  golil  medal 
has  been  awarded  '  to  the  ciuse  exiiiliiting  greatest 
gallantry  during  the  year.'     In  ISH'J  more  than  live 


hiinilred  rewar<ls  were  distrihnted,  one  liumlred 
n;ore  than  ill  any  other  year  since  the  foundation 
of  the  .society.  The  lignre  shows  the  medal  of 
the  society.  Another  reverse  is  used  when  it  is 
pre-sented  to  persons  who  have  risked  their  lives  lo 
save  others,  hut  without  succe.s.s  ;  the  iii.scripliou  is 
"VITA  I'KKICII.U  KXI'().S1T.\  DIlXO  DKIHI'  S()(IKr.\.S 
KKtil.A  Hl'.MASA."  !See  Aiiiiiinl  Ur/Kirt  ii/lln-  Uoijal 
Hiuiiiini-  Suiirti/  (4  Trafalgar  Siinare,  W.C). 

IlllUianists  (Lat.  /ilme  hiiiiinniores,  'polite 
lettei-s ' — whence  the  title  llumnnilij  for  tlii-  pro 
fessoi-ship  of  Latin  in  Scottish  nnivei-sities :  llal. 
innanista),  the  name  iLssnined  at  the  revival  of 
learning  liv  those  who  looked  upon  the  cultivation 
of  claivsical  literature  a-s  the  most  valuable  instru- 
ment of  education,  in  o|>position  to  those  who  clung 
to  the  ancient  methods  of  the  Schola-stics  (i|.v.). 
In  their  modes  of  thought  also  the  tendency  of  the 
hninanists  was  to  exalt  I'ag.uiism  at  tlii^  expense  of 
Christianity.  In  the  ISth  centurv  the  name  became 
a  word  of  reproach  for  those  wlio  showed  a  blind 
zeal  for  the  cfa.ssics  as  the  sole  educational  subject, 
opposing  the  Pliilanthropists,  who  a.s.serted  the  value 
of  mathematics,  science,  modern  languages,  ami 
history.  The  name  is  often  given  to  the  foremost 
representatives  of  cla.ssical  learning  from  the  time 
of  the  Henai.ssance  (q.v. )  onwards,  such  lus  KraKiiiii.s, 
Sir  Thomas  More,  Ulrioli  von  Hutten,  George 
Hnclianau,  &c. 

Illlllianitai'iillis.  a  name  assigneil  to  anti 
Trinitarians,  wlm  regard  f'hrist  a.s  a  mere  man, 
and  refuse  to  ascribe  to  him  any  supernatural 
character,  whether  of  origin  or  of  nature  (see  Ixi- 
T.VRIAXS).  The  name  Ilumanitarian  is  also  somi- 
times  ap|ilicd  to  the  ilisciplcs  of  St  Simon,  .-md  in 
''cneral  to  those  who  look  to  the  pcrfectiliility  of 
human  nature  as  their  great  moral  and  social 
do^imi :  also  to  those  who,  from  over-philanlhicipy, 
object  lo  severe  measures,  such  as  capital  punish- 
ment, &c.  For  the  religion  of  Humanity,  see 
Positivism. 


END  OK   VOL.    y. 


Edinburgh : 
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